Coinage and Administration in the Athenian and Persian Empires: The Ninth Oxford Symposium on Coinage and Monetary History 9781407346168, 9780860544425

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
Preface
The Decadrachm hoard: an introduction
The Decadrachm Hoard: Chronology and Consequences
Lycian coins in the 'Decadrachm hoard'
The coinages of the northern Aegean
The Athenian Coinage Decree
The Athenian Coinage Decree and the assertion of Empire
The 'Regal' Coinage of the Persian Empire
The Administration of the Achaemenid Empire
THE SYMPOSIASTS

Citation preview

Coinage and Administration in the Athenian and Persian Empires The Ninth Oxford Symposium on Coinage and Monetar y History

edited by

Ian Carradice

BAR Inter national Ser ies 343 1987

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR-S343,1987: 'Coinage and Administration in the Athenian and Persian Empires' © The Individual Authors ,1987 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544425 paperback ISBN 9781407346168 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544425 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

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TH E s ub jec to ft h eN in th Oxf o rd S ympo s ium o n Co inage a nd Mone ta ry H i s to ry , wh ich t ook p l ace a tS t H i lda ' s C o l lege i n Ap r i l 1 986 u nde r t h e a u sp ice s o f t h e Hebe rden Co in Room , w a s T h e I mpa c t o f Emp i r e o n F if th C en tu ry C o inag e . S ub t i t led P e r s ia , t h e A th en ian C o inag e D e c r e e a nd o t h e r m a t t e r s , t h e m a in i n ten t ion w a st op rov ide a no cc a s ion f o rd i scu s s ion o fc o inage a nd f i nance si nb o th t h e ma jo r emp i re s i n t h e A egean a r ea a nd , i mpo r tan t ly , t o b r ing i n to t h e d i scu s s ion t h e e xc i t ing n ew e v idence p rov ided b y t h e ` Decad rachm ' h oa rd . T he m ee t ing , o rgan ized b y D r D aphne Na sh a nd t h e E d i to r , w a s d e s igned t o b r ing t oge the r h i s to r ian s a nd a r chaeo log i s t s a sw e l l a sn um i sma t i s t s , t oh e lp b roaden t h e b a s i s f o r d i scu s s ion a nd f o re va lua t ion o ft h en ew e v idence b e ing p re sen ted . F o r t h e p ub l ica t ion t h e n ew t i le , C o inag e a nd A dm in i s t r a t ion i nt h e A th en ian a nd P e r s ian E mp i r e s , h a sb een a dop ted . T he p ape r sa r ep ub l i shed i nt h eo rde rt h ey w e re p re sen ted a t t h e S ympo s ium . A then s a nd h e r a l ie s d om ina te mo s t o f t h e p roceed ing s , a st h ey d id t h e S ympo s ium , w i th at o ta l o fs i x p ape r s , a sa ga in s t t wo o n P e r s ian s ub jec t s . No e xcu se s a r e made f o r t h i s i mba lance ( wh ich i s ,i na ny c a se , r ed re s sed b yt h eg r ea te rl e ng th o ft h et wo P e r s ian p ape r s ) . As amp le o fc o in s f r om t h e D ecad rachm h oa rd w a s o n d i sp lay i nt h e H ebe rden Co in Room a t t h e t ime o f t h e S ympo s ium . T he c o in s w e re p rov ided b y a f ounda t ion i n B o s ton , who se g ene ro s i ty a nd c oope ra t ion i sg ra tef u l ly a cknow l e dged . B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica l Repo r t s a ga in k ind ly a g reed t o a c cep t c ame ra r eady c opy p roduced b y t h e L a se rcomp f a c i l i ty o ft h e Un ive r s i ty C ompu t ing S e rv ice , t he H ebe rden C o in Room p rov id ing t h en ece s sa ry f i nanc ia l s uppo r t . Mr sJ enn if e r B a ine sw a sr e spon s ib le f o rt ype se t t ing t h ev o lume . I AN C ARRAD ICE

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TH E r e co rded p o r t ion o ft h e ` Decad rachm h oa rd ' c on s i s t s a tp re sen t o f mo re t h an 1 , 700 s i lve r c o in s . Mo s t a r e u nc i rcu la ted a nd t h e q ua l i ty o ft h e s i lve r i se xcep t ion a ly g ood : a lmo s t a l t h e p i ece s r equ i r ed n o c l ean ing . C o in s f r om t h e h oa rd f i r s t c ame o n t h e m a rk e t i n 1 984 i n t wo l a rge l o t s , w i th s e ve ra l s ma l le r g roup s a ppea r ing s ub sequen t ly . A lmo s t 1 , 000 o f t h e c o in s a r e L yc i an i sue s a nd t h e r ema inde r a r e f r om A then s , n o r th G reece , t h e A egean , a nd A s ia M ino r . T he f i nd s po ti sp robab ly s om ewhe re i ns ou the rn A na to l ia . T he g eog raph ica ld i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e c o in s b y m in t i ss hown i nT ab le 1 .T h i s p ape r w i l l c on s ide r t h e c o in s f r om a d ozen o r s o o ft h e n o r th a nd c en t r a l G r eek , I s l and , a nd A s ia M ino r m in t s i n t h e f i nd .1 No r th G reece i sw e l l r ep re sen ted w i th a bou t 8p e r c en t . o ft h e t o ta l n umbe r o f c o in s , a c coun t ing f o r s ome 1 5 p e r c en t . o ft h e t o ta l s i lve r c on ten to ft h eh oa rd ( s ee T ab le 2 ;a l p e rcen t age s g iven h e re a r e a pp rox ima te ) . T he 6 8 o c tad rachm s o ft h e B i sa l ta iw e re s t ruck f r om 2 6o bve r se a nd a sm any a s4 5 r eve r se d i e s , mo s to f wh ich w e re p rev iou s ly u nknown . T he r eve r se i sa lway s as imp le f ou r -pa r t i n cu se s qua re . A shmo lean Mu seum , Oxf o rd ' , NC 1 954 , 1 015 . May :J .M . F . May , T h e C o inag e o fA bd e r a , L ondon , 1 966 . S e l tman : C . T . S e l tman , A th en s— I t s H i s to ry a nd C o inag e b e f o r e t h e P e r s ian I nva s ion , C ambr idge , 1 924 . S ou th A na to l ian h oa rd : E .S .G . Rob in son , ' A h oa rd o fa r cha ic G reek s i lve r c o in s f r om Ana to l ia ' , NC 1 954 , 1 0717 . S t a r r : C . G . S t a r r , A th en ian C o inag e4 80449 B .C . , O xf o rd , 1 970 a nd ' New s p ec i men s o fA then ian c o inage , 4 80-449 B . C . ' , NC 1 982 , 1 29-34 . S vo rono s : J .S vo rono s , L 'h e l l in i sm e p r im i t if d e l a Ma c i .d o in e , P a r i s—A then s , 1 9 19 . T r a i t: E . B abe lon , T r a i t i d e s m onna i e s G r e cque s e tR oma in e s , I — IV , P a r i s , 1 90 11933 . Z agaz ig h oa rd : H . D re s se l a nd K . Reg l ing , ' Zwe i ä gyp t i sche F unde a l tgr iech i s che r S i lbe rmünzen ' , Z fN 3 7 ( 1 927 ) , 1 138 , e s pec i a l ly 1 04-38 ( IGCH 1 645 ) . F o r ad i scu s s ion o f t h e L yc ian i sue s a nd f o r f u r the r c o mmen t s o n t h e d a te a nd c on tex t o f t h e h oa rd , s e e t h e a c company ing a r t ic le s b yJ .S p ie r a nd J .H . K agan . T he se t h ree p ape r s r ep re sen t ap re l im i n a ry s t udy o ft h e h oa rd : as e pa r a te c omp le te p ub l i c a t ion i sa l so p l anned .

I wou ld l i ke t o t h ank t h e p a r t ic ipan t s i n t h e N in th Oxf o rd S ympo s ium o n Co inage a nd Mone t a ry H i s to ry f o r t h e i r h e lpf u l c ommen t s when t h i s p aper w a s g iven i n A p r i l 1 986 . I am e s pec ia l ly g ra tef u l t o D r D aphne N a sh f o r p rov id ing t h e o ppor tun i ty t o p re sen t t h e ma te r ia l . Ia l so w i sh t o t hank t he d ea le r s a nd c o l le c to r s who made t h e s t udy o ft he h oa rd p o s s ib le . A bb r ev ia t ion s . A syu t : M .J .P r ice a nd N . Waggone r , A r cha i c G r e ek S i lve r C o ina g e : t h e A syu t H oa rd , L on d on , 1 975 ( IGCH 1 644 ) . B a lce r :J .M . B a lce r , Tepa r e tho s : t h e e a r ly c o inage r e con s ide red ' , SNR 5 6 ( 1 967 ) , 2 5-33 . B a r ron : J . P . B a r ron , T he S i lv e r C o inag eo fS amo s , L ondon , 1 966 . C ahn : H . A . C ahn , ' D ie a r cha i schen S i lbe r s t a te re v on L indo s ' , i n K . S chauenbe rg , e d . , C ha r i t e s . S tud i en z u r A l t e r t um sw i s s en s chaf t , B onn , 1 957 , p p . 1 8-26 . D e sneux :J . D e sneux , ' L e s t e t rad r achme s d 'Akan tho s ' , RBN 9 0 ( 1 949 ) , 1 122 .J o rdan h oa rd : C . M . K raay a nd P . R . S . Moorey , ' Two f i f th c en tu ry h oa rd sf r om t h e Nea r E a s t ' , RN 1%8 , 1 8 1-235 ( IGCH 1 482 ) . K r aay : C . M . K raay , ' G reek c o in s r e cen t ly a cqu i red b y t h e 1

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T he o bve r se i say ou th , s ome t ime si d en t if i ed a sA r e so r Rhe su s ,h o ld ing t wo s pea r s a nd s t and ing b eh ind ah o r se w i th t h e e t hn ic s p e l l ed o u t a round t he i n s ide o ft h e b o rde r . T he e a r l ie s t i n sc r ip t ion i sr e t rog r ade w i th t h e i n i t ia l l e t te r r e semb l ing t h e G reek b e ta . P l . I , 1w a s s t ruck w i th t h e d i e s o fT r a i t é 1 489 . S ub sequen t v a r ia t ion s o n t h e o bve r se i n c lude t h ei n sc r ip t ion n o t r e t rog r ade b u t s t i l l w i th t h ei n i t ia l l e t te r w r i t ten a s ab e ta , a nd b o th r e t rog rade a nd n on r e t rog rade i n sc r ip t ion s w i th t h e i n i t ia l l e t te r w r i t ten j u s t a st h e s i gma ( P l . I ,2 ) . T h i s l e t te r -f o rm r ema in s i nu se o n t h el a te s tc o in sf r om t h i s m in ti nt h eh oa rd . T he t ype r ema in sv e ry much t he s ame o n a l t h e d i e s ; o n ly t h e p o s i t ion o ft h e s p ea r s c hange s , f r om h o r izon ta l t ov e r t ica l . T he t ype w i th t h eu p r igh ts p ea r ss e em s t oh ave b e en u s ed o no n ly af ew d i e si nt h e m idd le o ft h es e r ie s ( P l .I ,3 ) . T he l a te s t c o in s o ft h e B i sa l ta i , s e ven f r om o ne o bve r se d i e , h ave ah e lme t i nt h e r i gh tf i e ld ( P l .I ,4 ) . T he t ype w i th ab ea rded h e ad i nt h er i gh tf i e ld d oe sn o ta ppea r i nt h eD ecad rachm h oa rd b u tt h e re w a s ac o in o ft h i st ype i nt h eJ ordan h oard ( no . 6 ) . A l though t h e r i gh t f i e ld i sn o t p re se rved o n t h a t s p ec imen , i ti ss a id t ob e ad i e d up l ica te o f T r a i t é 1 494 , whe re t h e h ead i sc l ea r ly v i s ib le . T he v a r ie ty w i th t h e h ead s e em st ob et h el a te s tb ef o r et h ec o in sw i th t h ee t hn ic o nt h er eve r se a r es t ruck b y t h e B i sa l ta i . T he o n ly k nown o c tad rachm w i th t h e r eve r se i n sc r ip t ion w a s f ound i nt h el a te -f if th c en tu ry B lack S ea h oa rd ,n o .2 .2 T he t h ree o c tad r achm s o f G e ta s , K ing o f t h e E don i , w e re s t ruck f r om t h ree d if e r en t o bve r se a nd r eve r se d i e s . T he o bve r s e t ype i s ah e rd sman , p e rhap s H e rme s , s t and ing b eh ind t wo o xen . T he i n sc r ip t ion a round t h e f ou r -pa r t i n cu se s qua re o n t h e r eve r se t a ke s t wo f o rm s : FETAL ' BAI IAEQE HADNEYN ( P l . I , 5 )a nd BAZ IAEYI FETAL ' HAONEON . One s p ec imen w i th t h el a t t e rr e ad ing i s f r om t h e s ame d i e s a sS vo rono s , p l . 4 ,2 .T he s e o c t ad rachm s , wh ich a r e t h e o n ly n o r th G reek c o in s w i th r eve r se i n sc r ip t ion i nt h e h oa rd , a r e v e ry c l o se i ns t y le t o t h e e a r ly o c tad rachm s o fA lexande r Io f Macedon , w i th r a the r c rude i n sc r ip t ion , f o r e xamp le , R aymond G roup I . We h ave n o c e r ta in d a te s f o r G e ta s ' r e ign . H i s c o in sw e re n o ti nt h eA syu th oa rd . T he v e ry f r e sh c ond i t ion o ft h e se s p e c imen sa nd t h e p re sence o ft h e r eve r se i n sc r ip t ion p l ace t h em a mong t h e l a te s t c o in s f r om t h i s a r ea i nt h ef i nd . T he o bve r s e o f t h e s i ng le o c tad rachm o f t h e D e r rone s , S t e rnbe rg x v , 1 /12 A p r i l 1 985 , 15 4,h a s a n o x d raw ing a c a r t w i th ab ea rded man , p e rhap s A re s , h o ld ing as t i ck ; a bove a r e ab ranch a nd a ne ag le . T he r e t rog r ade i n sc r ip t ion a round t h e i n s ide o f t h e b o rde r i sa so n t h e B i sa l ta i i sue s . T h i s i sa n e a r ly c o in i n t h e t r i ske le s s e r ie s , at ype wh ich i sn o ti nt h e A syu th oa rd . T he p r e sence o ft h i s c o in i n t h e D ecad rachm h oa rd h e lp s t o c onf i rm P r ice ' s s p ecu la t ion 5 t ha t t h e D e r rone s o c tad rachm s w i th t r i ske le s r eve r se a r e l a te r i n d a te t h an t h e c o in s i n t h e A syu t h oa rd . I ti s wo r th n o t ing a ga in t h a t t h e o the r p rovenanced s pec imen s o f t h e t r i ske le ss e r ie sh ave b een f ound i nh oa rd sf r om Y ugo s lav ia a nd B u lga r i ar a the rt han t h eN ea rE a s t .T he o c tad r achm o ft h eD e r rone si si nt h es ame e xce l len tc ond i t ion a s a lmo s t a l o ft h e o the r n o r th G reek c o in s i n t h e h oa rd , a nd t he s im i l a r i ty o fi t s T h i s c o in w a s a l so p ub l i shed b y C . S te rnbe rg , ` E in umge schn i t tene r Vo rde r se i ten s tempe l e i ne r G ro s smünze d e rD e r ronen ' , SM ,3 7( 1 985 ) , 2f . A syu t ,p .2 9 .

C. M . K raay a nd P .R . S . Moo rey , ' A B lack S ea h oa rd o ft h el a te f i f th c en tu ry BC ' , NC 1 98 1 ,2-3 . D . Raymond , Ma c ed on i an R ega l C o inag e s t o4 13 B .C . , NN M 1 25 , New Yo rk , 1 953 ,p l . I , 1 -3 .

4

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o bve r se i n sc r ip t ion t ot h ee t hn ic o nt h eB i sa l ta ip i ece ss ugge s t st h a tt h i sc o in s hou ld b ec on tempo r a ry w i th t h eo the r sf r om t h i sa r ea . T he re a r e n ine s t a t e r s o fT ha so s w i th t h e c en tau r a bduc t ing an ymph o n t h e o bve r se a nd t h e c ha r ac te r i s t ic f ou r -pa r t i n cu se s qua re o n t h e r eve r se ( P l . I ,6 ) . T he se w e re s t ruck f r om s i x o bve r se a nd e i gh tr eve r se d i e s . T he c o in s a r es im i la rt o t h ep i ece sf r om t h eA syu th oa rd b u tt h e re a r en os h a red d i e s . G iven t h e i rp rox im i ty i ns t y le t ot h eA syu ts p ec imen s , t h eT ha so sp i ece ss hou ld p re -da te t h ei s l and ' sr evo l t f r om A then s i n 4 65 . I t i s p e rhap s i mpo r tan t t h a t t h e n ine c o in s f r om t h e D ecad rachm h oa rd a r e c on s ide rab ly f ewe r t h an t h e 2 9 f ound i nt h e s ma l le r A syu t h oa rd T he 1 9 A bde ra c o in s f r om t h i s h oa rd f a l l i n to May P e r iod I ( d a ted i n t h a t v o lume t o c .5 20 / 15-492 ) a nd P e r iod I I ( c .4 92-473 /2 ) . A l l t h e se p i ece s h ave a g r if f in l e f t w i th s ymbo l s a nd /o r l e t te r s t ot h e l e f t o n t h e o bve r se a nd t h e f ou r -pa r t i n cu se o n t h e r eve r se . T he P e r iod I c o in s a r e f i ve o c tad rachm s a nd o ne t e t ra d r achm . T he e a r l ie s t o c tad rachm , d i e s o f May 4 4 , w i th AB t o t h e l e f t w a s p robab ly s t ruck w i th t h e s ame d i e s a sS ou th Ana to l ian h oa rd n umbe r 3 ,a nd t h e t e t rad rachm w i th E P o n t h e o bve r se s h a re s i t sd i e s w i th A syu t 1 43 , t h el a te s t c o in f r om Abde ra i nt h a t h oa rd . T he o the r o c tad rachm s h ave t ol e f t , ABA H o n o ne , EKA T ( May 4 5 ) o n a no the r , an eg ro h ead o n t h e t h i rd , a nd o n t h e f ou r th , A 1 0A a nd a n eg ro h ead ( P l . I , 7 ) ; t h i s l a s t i sn o t r e co rded i n May . T he t e t rad rachm o f P e r iod I i so ne o f t h e mo s t wo rn c o in s i n t h i s h oa rd b u t t h e o c tad rachm sa r ei nr em a rkab ly g ood c ond i t ion . T he 1 3 t e t rad rachm s o fP e r iod I r ep re sen t f ou r m ag i s t ra te s , o ne o f whom i s i nd ica ted b y as c a l lop s h e l l a l one a b ov e t h e g r if f in . Mag i s t ra te s k nown t o u s e t h i s s ymbo l , ANT I , HERO, a nd H IKES - a r e among t h e f i r s t i nt h i s p e r iod . HEGE( HTH w i th p e l le t , May 7 2 ) a nd ZEN ( IHN : P l . I ,8 ) , a r e e a ch p re sen t i n t h ree e xamp le s ; t h el a t te ri sl i s ted b y May o n ly a s ad rachm , n umbe r8 1 . TELE - ( TEAE w i th ap a lme t te , May 8 3 : P l . I ,9 ;a nd TEAE -a l one , May 8 4 ) i sr ep re sen ted b ys i x c o in s w i th f ou r o bve r se d i e s . T he se t h ree mag i s t ra te s a r e p l aced e a r ly i nP e r iod I b y May . 6 Wh i le t h ep r e sence o fo n ly t h e se f ou r mag i s t ra te st e nd st oc onf i rm May ' s a r r angemen t o ft h e c o in s , t h e d a te s h e g ive s f o r t h i s p e r iod mu s tb e t oo e a r ly . T he P e r iod I It e t rad rachm ss how n os i gn so fc i rcu la t ion . T he Decad rachm h oa rd a l so i n c lude s3 7 t e t rad rachm so fA can thu sw i th t h e l i on o r l i one s s a t tack ing ab u l l o n t h e o bve r se a nd t h e u sua l f ou r -pa r t i n cu se o n t h e r eve r se . T he re a r e v i r tu a l ly n o s h a red d i e s among t h e se c o in s a nd a lmo s t a l w e re s t ruck w i th p rev iou s ly u nknown d i e s , p rov id ing mo re e v idence t h a t t h i s t e t ra d rachm i sue w a s e x t reme ly l a rge . T he e a r l ie s t a r e a sD e sneux 1 6 , w i th t h e f a c ing l i one s s a nd f l o ra l s ymbo l i n t h e e xe rgue ( P l . I , 1 0 ) . Wh i le t h e re a r e n ine e a r ly s p ec imen s w i th t h e l i on / l ione s s a nd b u l l i n v a ry ing p o s i t ion s , mo s t o f t h e t e t rad rachm s a r ep a r to fD e sneux ' se x ten s ive r o se t te o r t h e ta s e r ie s wh ich h ave t h i s s ymbo l i nt h e u ppe r l e f t f i e ld ( P l . I , 1 ) . One p i ece s h a re s d i e s w i th D e sneux 5 2 , a no the r w i th D e sneux 7 1 . T he l a t te r b ea r s at i ny d e l ta o r t r iang le n ex t t o t h e r o se t te . On s e ve ra l o ft h e d i e s t h e r o se t te i sr ep laced b y ap e l le t , a nd i n o ne c a se t h e re i sal a rge b o s si nt h ee xe rgue ( P l . I , 1 2 ) . T he l a te s tf ou rc o in s a r ea sD e sneux 6

May , p .8 4 . 3

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9 0 ( one s t ruck f r om t h e se d i e s ) w i th a na l pha a bove t h et ype o nt h e o bve r se ( P l . I , 1 3 ) . Ne i the r t h e r o se t te n o r a l pha v a r ie t ie s w e re p r e sen t i n t h e A syu t h oa rd a nd t h e se l a te r i sue s s hou ld p re sumab ly b e d a ted a f te r 4 75 , a s s ugge s ted i n t h e p ub l ica t ion o ft h a tf i nd .7 T e rone i sr ep re sen ted b y o n ly t wo t e t rad rachm sb u tb o th a r en ew v a r ie t ie s . T he o bve r se h a s a n ampho ra w i th i n sc r ip t ion : T IP t o t h e l e f t o n o ne ( P l . I , 1 4 ) a nd HO ( o r 0 ) f l ank ing t h e v a se o n t h e o the r ( P l . I , 1 5 ) . I nf a b r ic , s t y le , a nd w e igh t t h e se c o in s a r e v e ry c l o se t oK raay n umbe r 1 7 ( B MC T e rone 3 )a nd A syu t 2 28-9 , wh ich h ave t h e l e t te r s HE f l ank ing t h e ampho r a . T he t wo c o in s i n t h i s h oa rd s hou ld j o in t ho se p i ece s i nK raay ' s G roup C . H i s s ugge s t ion ,8f o l lowed i nA syu t , t h a tt h e HE i sa na bb rev ia t ion f o rt h ee t hn ic H e ra c le ia , p a ra l le lt o TE s t and ing f o r T e rone , i su n l ike ly n ow t h a t t h e se o the r t wo i n sc r ibed c o in s h ave c ome t o l i gh t . T he t h ree d if e ren t i n sc r ip t ion s a r e p e rhap s m ag i s t r a te ' s n ame s , a s i st h e c a se a t Abde ra . T he re a r e a l so t wo t e t rad rachm s o fP epa r e thu s f r om t h i s f i nd . The e a r l i e r h a s d i e s o fB a lce r 3a nd A syu t2 32 , a nd t h e o the r ( Bank L eu 3 8 , 1 3 May 1 986 , 7 8 ) w a s s t ruck f r om t h e s ame d i e s a sB a lce r 4 .T h i s t ype , w i th t h e b unch o fg r ape s o n t h e o bve r se a nd h e lme t o n t h e r eve r se , w a s n o t p re sen t i nt h e A syu t h oa rd . A l though t h e d i e s w e re q u i te wo rn when t h i s s p ec imen w a ss t ruck , i ti sv e ry f r e sh a nd c ou ld n o th ave b een i sued much b ef o re i t sb u r ia l . T he 1 87 A then ian c o in s a r e a mong t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t i n t he h oa rd . T hey c omp r i se a pp rox ima te ly 1 p e r c en t . o ft h et o ta ln umbe ro fc o in s , a nd 1 6p e r c en t . o ft h e s i lve r . T he re a r e 1 2 p re -Pe r s ian t e t rad r achm s , t wo e a ch o fA syu t G roup I V ( S e l tman G roup G ) a nd A syu tG roup V a( S e l tman G roup C ) . T he o the r sa r eA syu t G roup V I ( S e l tman G roup E ) . T he re a r e n o s h a r ed d i e s a nd many o ft h e c o in s a r e worn . T he r ende r ing o ft h ee a ra s at h ick s i ng le l i ne , t h ec rude s t y le o ft h eo bve r se , a nd t h e h eavy p endan t l e ave s w i th l a rge , s t r a igh t e p s i lon o n t h e r eve r se a r e c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h i sl a s tg roup o f` w rea th le s s 't e t r ad rachm s ( P l .I , 1 6 ) . Among t h e e i gh t t e t r ad rachm s a t t r ibu tab le t oS t a r rG roup I ,t he re i so ne wh i ch s hou ld b e among t h e e a r l ie s t w rea thed c o in s ( P l . I , 1 7 ) . T he o bve r se —po s s ib ly t h e s ame d i e a sS t a r rn umbe r 1—ha s t h e ' r i ck r a ck ' c r e s t a t tachmen t , f ou r u p r igh t o l ive l e ave s , a nd h a i r r ende red a s ama s s o fd o t s , a nd t h e r eve r se h a s t h e a lmo s t v e r t ica l ow l w i th o l ive l e ave s h ang ing s t ra igh t d own a l ong i t sb ack . T he se a r e t h e n o rma l f e a tu re s o ft h i s g roup . T he p o s i t ion ing o f wha t a ppea r s t o b e ac r e scen t w i th ad o t ,h oweve r , t ot h er i gh to ft h e ow lr a th e rt h an t ot h el e f ts hou ld b e long t o a n e a r ly e xpe r imen ta l p e r iod when t h e c r e scen t w a s f i r s t a dded . T he o the r c o in s h ave t h e moon whe re i ta lway si sh e reaf te r , n ame ly b e tween t he ow la nd t h e o l ive b ranch ( P l .I , 1 8 ) . T he r e a r e t e n t e t rad rachm s o fG roup I ( a l l b u t t h ree f r om IC ) a nd t hey h ave t h ef o l low ing f e a tu re s wh ich d i s t ingu i sh t h em f r om t h ee a r l ie rc o in s ( P l . I , 1 9a nd I I , 2 0 ) : o n t h eo bve r se , t h eh a i ri sd r awn a l ong t h ef o rehe ad i np a ra l le lw avy l i ne s , t h es p i ra lo nt h eh e lme tb reak si n to ap a lme t te , t h ec r e s ti sa t tached t ot h eh e lme tb y ar ow o fd o t sa nd t h e r ea r eo n ly t h ree g radua ted o l ive l e ave s . T he o l ive t w ig o nt h e r eve r se b ranche sa ta na pp rox ima te ly 9 0 -deg re ea ng le a nd t h el e f tl e af i sa t tached t o 7

A syu t ,p .4 2 .

8

4

K raay ,p .1 5 .

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t he s t em b e low t h e r i gh t . A l so , t h e ow l ' s l e g s a r e s l igh t ly p a r ted a nd t h e l e t te r s c urve a l ong t h e b ody o ft h e b i rd w i th t h e e p s i lon s omewha t l a rge r t h an t h e t h e ta . On ly t wo G roup I t e t rad rachm ss h a re a no bve r se d i e . The 1 4 d ecad rachm s o fG roup IC s h a re t e n o bve r se a nd 1 r eve r se d i e s . T he re a r e a tl e a s tf i ve n ew o bve r se a nd s i xn ew r eve r se d i e s , b r ing ing t h et o ta ln umbe ro f o bve r se d i e s t o 1 6 . T he o bve r se s o ft e n s p ec imen s ( P l . I I , 2 1 ) a r e c l o se i ns t y le t o t h e t e t rad rachm s i l u s t ra ted a bove , b u t t h e e a r r ing i sp endan t a nd t h e p a lme t te i s more e l abo ra te . T h e f u l l f r on ta l ow l w i th o u t s t re tched w ing s s u r rounded b y t h e A 0E a nd o l ive b r anch , a nd n o moon , i s ac o mp le te ly n ew t ype a nd i su s ed o n ly f o r t he d ecad rachm s . T he o bve r se s o ft h e o the r f ou r c o in s ( P l . I I , 2 2 ) h ave o ne n o tewo r thy d if e r en ce : t h e r i gh t o l ive l e af c l ea r ly b reak s i n to t h e c r e s t . T h i si so ne o ft he m a in c r i te r ia u s ed t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween G roup I a nd I I t e t rad rachm s .9 T he ` og iva l ' e ye i sa l so mo re c o mmon i nG roup I . T he ' l a te r ' f e a tu re so ns ome o f t h e d ecad rachm s s ugge s t t h a t t h e se c o in s s hou ld h ave b een m in ted v e ry c l o se i n t ime t o t h e G roup I I a s w e l l a s t h e G roup I t e t rad rachm s . T h i s s t y l i s t ic d eve lopmen t w i th in t h e d ecad rachm s e r ie s a s w e l l a s t h e n umbe r o f d i e s u s ed i nd ica te s t h a t t h e i sue w a s s ub s tan t ia l a nd u n l ike ly t o h ave b een i n tended a s a o net ime c o mmemo r a t ive m in t ing . The re a r e a lmo s t t h ree t ime s a sm any S t a r r G roup I a sG roup I t e t rad rachm s . T he 2 8c o in ss h a re 1 8o bve r se a nd 2 5r eve r se d i e s ,m any n o ti nS t a r r ( P l .I I ,2 3a nd 2 4 ) . A s men t ioned a bove , o ne o ft h es a l ien tf e a tu re so ft h i sg roup i st h ei n te r rup t ion o ft he c r e s tb yt h er i gh to l ive l e af . O the rc hange sf r om G roup I o nt h eo bve r se a r e t h e mo re f r equen t a ppea rance o ft h e ` o g ivar e ye a nd t h e m a rked ly c u rv ing s p i r a l w i th t h ep a lme t te b r e ak ing o u tf u r the rd own a l ong t h el e f tl e af . On t h er eve r se , t h e ow l ' s w ing n ow a lway s t ouche s t h e l e f t e dge o f t h e i n cu se a nd t h e l e t te r s a r e a l igned a l ong t h e r i gh t e dge ; t h e e p s i lon i ss t i l l s l igh t ly l a rge r t h an t h e o the r t wo l e t te r s . T he l e g s o ft h e ow l a r e f u r the r a pa r t a nd t h e t a i l f e a the r s b end c l o se t ot h e c l aw . T he s o le A then i an d id rachm f ound i nt h eh oa rd s h a re si t sd i e sw i th S t a r r 1 06 . T he l a rge l e ave s , a lmo s ts qua re f r ame , a nd l a rge e p s i lon o ft h er eve r se a r et yp ica lo f G roup I d id rachm s . The l a rge s t n umbe r o ft e t rad rachm s , 8 2 , f a l l i n to S t a r r G roup I V . A ga in , m any o ft he o bve r se a nd r e ve r se d i e sa r en ew ( P l .I I , 2 5 ,2 6a nd 2 7 ) . On t h eo bve r se , t h e p a lme t te e x tend s f u r the r d own a l ong t h e l e f t l e af a nd s ome t ime s t ouche s t h e e a r . T he w ave s o n t h e f o rehead a r e l e s s p ronounced a nd t h e l i p s a r e f u l l . T he o l ive l e ave so nt h er eve r se b ranch a lmo s ta tt h es ame s po ta nd b o th l e ave st ouch t h e ow l . T he b i rd ' sl e f tl e gs l an t sb ack s l igh t ly . T he re a r em any mo re s h a red d i e sw i th in t h i s g roup . The l a s t3 2 t e t rad ra chm s , a l i ne xcep t iona l ly g ood c ond i t ion , b e long w i th S t a r r G roup VA , S e r ie s ( 1 ) .T he re a r e 1 3o bve r se d i e sa nd p robab ly 2 5 r eve r se d i e s , n one o f wh ich a r e r e co rded b y S t a r r ( P l . I I , 2 8 ) . On t h e o bve r se , t h e h a i r o n t h e f o rehead i sr ende red b y p a ra l le l c u rve s , a l t h ew ave h av ing d i sappea red . T he f r on t o ft he h e lme ti sa lmo s ts t ra igh ta nd e x tend st ot h ee a r . T he l i p sa r el ong a nd d r awn i n to as l igh t s m i le . On t h e r eve r se , t h e ow l ' s l e g s a r e l onge r a nd t h e t a i l d oe s n o t t ouch t h ec l aw e ven t hough i th ang sa lmo s tv e r t ica l ly i n mo s tc a se s . T he b i rd ' sl e g s 9

S tarr , p .4 4 . 5

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o n mo s t o f t h e se p i ece s h ave n o t y e t b ecome t h e ' p a ra l le l s t i l t s ' wh i ch a r e c ha rac te r i s t ic o f many l a te rG roup V i sue s . 1°T he s im i la r i ty o ft h eo ve r a l lr e ve r se a ppea rance t ot h e G roup I V t e t rad rachm s p l ace s t h e se G roup VA , s e r ie s ( 1 ) p i ece s v e ry e a r ly i nt h e i rp e r iod . T h ree G roup V c o in s f r om o ne o bve r se d i e ( P l . I I , 2 9 ) a r e v e ry c l o se t o a t e t rad r achm f r om t h eJ o rdan h oa rd ,n o . 4 4 . I ti sn o tt h el a te s tA then ian c o in i nt ha t h oa rd , b u t t h e se a r e t h e l a te s t i n t h e D ecad rachm h oa rd . S t a r r h a s p l ac ed t he s t a r t ing d a te o fG roup V a round 4 55 ." T he p re sence o f t h e e i gh t S e l tman G roup E , ' c rude , b a rba rou s ' p r e -Pe r s ian t e t rad r achm s i n t h e h oa rd w i th t h e many w rea th ed t e t rad rachm s h e lp s c onf i rm K raay ' s a r rangemen t o ft h e ` w rea th le s s ' A then ian t e t rad rachm s , wh ich p l a ced t h e S e l tman G roup E c o in s a s t h e l a s t m in ted a t A then s .' 2 T he d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c ond i t ion o ft h e w rea thed t e t rad rachm s f ound i nt h e h oa rd s uppor t t h e a r r ange men t p u t f o rwa rd b y S t a r r . T he v e ry l a rge n umbe r o f n ew d i e s , h oweve r , e s pec ia l ly i nG roup s I , I V a nd VA , i nd ica te s t h a t t h e se i sue s w e re mu ch more e x ten s ive t h an p rev iou s ly t hough t . T h ree o ft h eA eg ine tan s t a te r sa r ee a r ly a nd wo rn . T he o the rt wo a r eq u i te f r e sh a nd a r e among t h e l a te s t c o in s i nt h i s h oa rd . T he T -back t u r t l e w i th t r ef o i l c o l la r o n t h e o bve r se i sp a i red w i th a' l a rge s k ew ' r eve r se , aB rown C la s s 5t ype . Co in s f r om t h i sc l a s sa r ed a ted f r om t h ee a r ly 4 70 st o4 57 .1 3 O ne o ft h e se l a te s tA eg ine tan s t a te r si sS t e rnbe rg x v , 1 / 12 A p r i l1 985 , 1 24 . T he i s l and s o f t h e C yc lade s a r e r ep re sen ted b y t wo s t a te r s ( P l . I V , 3 0 ) a nd S t e rnbe rg x v , 1 / 12 A p r i l 1 985 , 1 28 ) a nd o ne d r achm o f Me lo s , 3 9 d r a chm s o f P a ro s , a nd p e rhap s ag roup o fu nce r ta in c o in s w i th ab oa r ' s h ead o n t h e o bve r se . A l l t h e P a r ian c o in s h ave t h e g oa t o n t h e o bve r se a nd f ou r -pa r t i n cu s e o n t h e r eve r se . T he e a r l ie s tg roup i nt h eD ecad rachm h oa rd , t h eh eavy g oa tk ne e l ing o na g round l ine , c on s i s t so f1 4c o in sf r om n ine o bve r se d i e s . T hey a r es im i la rt ot h el a te r c o in s f r om t h eP a ro s h oa rd ( P l . I V , 3 1 ) . Two o ft h e se d rachm s s ha re o bve r se d i e s w i th c o in sf r om t h eP a ro sh oa rd , SNG P a r i s( D e l ep i e r r e ) 2 453-5 . Two c o in so ft h e s ame t ype i nt h e D ecad rachm h oa rd a l so s h a re a n o bve r se d i e w i th Z aga z ig h oa rd 2 34 . T he r e a r e t h ree d i e s w i th g oa t s o f much d if e r en t s t y le . On t h e t wo e a r l ie r ( P l . I V , 3 2 ) , t h e a n ima li ss t i l lk nee l ing , b u t t h eb ody i smo re s l ende r , t he g round l ine i s a b sen t a nd t h e re i s av e ry f a in t ia bove t h e g oa t . On t h e t h i rd d i e ( P l . I V , 3 3 ) , wh ich mu s tb e t h el a t e s ti nt h eh oa rd , t h e g oa ti sn ow s t and ing a nd h a s ad i s t inc t ly e qu ine b ody . A bove t h e a n ima l i st h e Z 1 . ' 4 Wh i l e t h i s l a s t d i e w a s wo rn when s t r ik ing mo s to ft h es p ec imen sf r om t h i sh oa rd ,t h ec o in st h em se lve sa r en o t . Mo s t o ft h e d rachm s o fE phe su s , 3 4 s t ruck f r om 1 2 o bve r se d i e s , a r ef r om Head G roup 1 . '5 T hey h ave ab ee w i th c u rved w ing s a nd v o lu te s i n t he l e f t a nd r i gh t f i e ld s o n t h e o bve r se ( P l . I V , 3 4 ) . T he se a r e n o t i n sc r ibed e xcep t f o r t wo c o in s wh ich h ave a0 o nt h er i gh tw ing ( P l . I V , 3 5 ) . T he l e f tw ing i so f ft h ef l an i nb o th A no the r d rachm s t ruck f r om t h e se d i e s i s SNG P a r i s ( D e l ep i e r r e ) 2 456 , wh ich i ss p ec if i ca l ly l a be l led a sn o tf r om t h eP a ro sh oa rd . B . V . H ead , H i s t o ry o ft h e C o inag e o fE phe su s , L ondon , 1 880 .

1°

i b id . ,p .5 4 . i b id . ,p .6 3 . C. M . K raay , ' The a r cha ic ow l s o f A then s : c l a s s if i ca t ion a nd c h rono logy ' , NC 1 956 ,43-68 . A syu t ,p p .7 3-76 .

1 4

" 1 2

1 5

1 3

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c a se s b u t i t wou ld u ndoub ted ly h ave h ad t h e E . T h i s i s an ew v a r ie ty wh ich a n t ic ipa te s t h e b e t te r -known c o in s o f H ead G roup I wh ich h ave t h e Ea nd f l ank ing t h e b ee . T he r e a r e f ou r f r ac t ion s w i th t h i s i n sc r ip t ion f r om t h e h oa rd , t h ree s h a r ing t h e s ame d i e s . T he f ou r th i sn o tewo r thy i nt h a t t h e a n tennae b reak i n to t he b o rde ro fd o t s ( P l .I V ,3 6 ) . A l l b u t f i ve o ft h e 4 1 S am ian s t a te r s b e long t o B a r ron C la s s I I . S ome o ft h e e a r ly c o in s ( P l . I V , 3 7 , d i e so fB a r ron 1 )a r e wo rn a nd o ne , wh ich i sn o t wo rn , h a s ac h i se lc u t . T he re a r ec o in sf r om B a r ron C la s s I( i )t h rough ( v i i i ) e xcep t ( v i i ) , a nd g roup s ( i ) , ( i i ) , a nd ( i v ) a r e d i e l inked . Wh i le t h e h oa rd i n c lude s s e ve ra l n ew S am ian d i e s , t h e r e a r e n o u nknown t ype s a nd t h e c o in s f a l l w e l l w i th in t h e a r rangemen t p ropo s ed b y B a r ron . P l . I V , 3 8 i sf r om I I( i i ) , d i e s o fB a r ron 2 1 ( A 13—P2 1 ) a nd P l .I V ,3 9i sp a r to fI ( v ) ,d i e so fB a r ron 2 9 ( A 15—P29 ) . T he l a t e s t S am i an s t a te r ( P l . I V , 4 0 ) , d i e so fB a r ron 3 6 ( A20—P36 ) , h a st h eo l ive b ranch a st h es ymbo lo nt h er eve r se . T h i sv a r ie ty i sp l aced i n as ubg roup w i th t h ree o the ri sue s :1 6 t h e a n cho r ( v i ) , t h e p row ( v i i ) , a nd t h e ampho ra ( i x ) . B ecau se c o in s w i th t he p row a r e n o t p re sen t among t h e k nown s p ec imen s f r om t h i s h oa rd a nd t h e o l ive b ranch i s ,i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e l a t te r m ay i n f a c t p recede t h e f o rme r . C o in sw i th t h eo l ive b ranch a r ed a ted b yB a r ron t o4 68 /67 .1 7 T he w e igh t s o ft h e se S am ian c o in sa r eh igh c o mpa red t ot h es amp le a va i lab le t o B a r ron , d e sp i te t h e f a c t t h a t s ome o ft h em a r e wo rn . T hey a ve rage 1 3 -18 g ,w i th o n ly f ou r c o in s w e igh ing l e s s t h an 1 3 -05 g . T h i s i s s u rp r i s ing s i nce 1 3 -05 g i s t h e w e igh t a t wh ich B a r ron p l aced h i s l i gh t S am ian s t anda rd , t h eo re t ica l ly i n u s e f r om 5 13 t o 4 39 B c .1 8 A t 1 3 -05 g . t h e S am i an s t a te r i s e qua l t o t h ree -qua r t e r s o f t h e E uboe ic t e t r ad rachm ( 1 7 -40 g ) a nd wou ld p a s s a sa nA t t i ct r id rachm . Now , h oweve r , i tmu s ts e em t h a t S a mo sd id n o ta bandon i t s h eavy S am ian s t anda rd o f 1 3 -40 g when i tb egan s t r ik ing t e t rad rachm s . T he t h ree h eav ie s t s t a te r s i n t h e h oa rd w e igh 1 3 -38 g a nd a bove . A t t h e h eav ie r w e igh tt h eS am ian c o in sd id n o te a s i ly e xchange w i th t h eA t t ic a nd t h es h if tt ot h a t s t anda rd l a te r i n t h e c en tu ry c an p e rhap s b e g iven mo re o f a n e conom ic e xp lana t ion . I tf o l low st h a tt h eE phe s ian d rachm sd i scu s sed a bove , w e igh ing a bou t 3 35 g ,w e re s t ruck o nt h es ame s t anda rd a st h eS am ian c o in s . C o in s f r om C a r ia a nd t h e C a r ian I s l and s a c coun t f o r 1 8 p e r c en t , o ft h e c o in s a nd a bou t 1 8 p e r c en t . o ft h e s i lve r . T he 2 89 c o in s f r om C am i ru s o n Rhode s , t h e l a rge s t n umbe r o fc o in s f r om as i ng le m in t o u t s ide L yc ia , f o rm t h e b u lk o ft h i s g roup . T he 2 86 s t a te r sw e r es t ruck f r om 1 6o bve r se a nd 1 5 r eve r se d i e s ." T he t ype i sa lway s t h e f i g l e af o n t h e o bve r se a nd t h e t wo -pa r t r e c tangu la r i n cu se o n t h e r eve r se . T he l a te r r e ve r se t ype w i th i n sc r ip t ion s w a s n o t r ep re sen ted . T he e a r l ie s t c o in s h ave ' f ru i t ' f l ank ing t h e s t em o ft h e o bve r se l e af ( P l . V , 4 1 ) . T he re a r e s i x o bve r se d i e s w i th ' f i g s ' u s ed t os t r ike 3 1 c o in s . One i st h e s ame a sA syu t6 94 . F ou r c o in s w i thou t f i g s w e re s t ruck w i th t h e d i e s o fA syu t 7 0 1 . Mo s t o ft h e c o in s w e re s t ruck f r om s e ven d i e s . One d i e s e em s t oh ave b een r e cu t a l ong t h e v e in s a f te r i t h ad worn o u t . I nt h eh oa rd , t h e re a r e 1 7 c o in s s t ruck b ef o re t h e r e cu t t ing a nd f ou r

1 8 1 7

1 8

F ou r c o in s a r e n o t i n c luded i n t h e se n umbe r s b ecau se e i the r t he d i e s o r t h e p i ece s a r e t oo wo rn t o a t t r ibu te t h em w i th r e a sonab le c e r ta in ty .

B ar ron ,p .5 3 . i b id . ,p .4 8 . i b id . ,p p .9 10 .

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a f te ri t( P l .V ,4 2a nd 4 3 ) ; t h e se 2 1 c o in sa l h ave t h es ame r eve r se d i e . One o bve r se ( P l . V , 4 4 ) e x i s t s i n 2 0 s p ec imen s wh ich s h a r e t h e s ame r eve r se w i th 1 0 1 o the r c o in s , a l h av ing t h e s ame o bve r se d i e . T hey a r ep robab ly t h el a te s t c o in s f r om t h i s m in ti nt h e h oa rd . T he t h ree d r achm sa r ed i e -dup l i ca te s ( P l . V , 4 5 ) . T he t ype s a r e i d en t ica lt ot h es t a te re xcep tt h a tt h ei n cu se so ft h er e ve r se a r es t ipp led . T he l a rge n umbe r o f d i e -dup l ica te s a nd d i e l ink s a nd t h e m in t c ond i t ion o f t h e se c o in s ( o the r t h an t h e e a r l ie s t o ne s w i th t h e ' f ru i t ' ) i nd ica te s t ha t t h e C am i ru s i sue sc ame t ot h eh oa rd a s ag roup wh ich h ad n o tb een d i s tu rbed p r io rt ob u r ia l . T he s i x s t a te r s o f L indo s a l h ave t h e l i on h ead o n t h e o bve r se . Un l ike C am i ru s , o ne o f t h em d oe s h ave a n i n sc r ip t ion o n t h e b a r b e tween t h e r eve r s e i n cu se s , MN IA ( P l . V , 4 6 ) . T he c o in i s ad i e d up l ica te o fC ahn 6 3 , wh ich i st h e l a te s t e xamp le w i th i n cu se s f r om t h i s m in t ; t h e r e ve r se t ype o fC ahn H 1 h a s a n i n sc r ip t ion a round a d o lph in s w imm ing r i gh t . T h i s l a s t L indo s s t a te r i n t h e D ecad rachm h oa rd mu s t p o s t -da te A syu t 7 0711 , wh ich h ave n o r eve r se i n s c r ip t ion . A f te rl ook ing a tt h e c ond i t ion , d i s t r ibu t ion , a nd d i e l inkage w i th in t h ed if e r en t i sue s , i ti sc l ea r t h a t t h i s i sn e i the r a' c omme rce ' n o r s a v ing s h oa rd . 2°Wh i le t h e r e a r e c e r ta in ly af ew s t ray s i n t h e D ecad rachm h oa rd , mo s t m in t s f r om t h e a r ea s c on s ide red a bove a r e r ep re sen ted b y g roup s o fc o in s wh ich c a me t oge the r ; o ne s hou ld n o te h e re a ga in t h e l a rge n umbe r o f d i e l inked G roup I V A then ian t e t rad r achm s , f o l lowed b y t h e l i nked G roup VA s e r ie s ( 1 ) c o in s ; t h e m in t c ond i t ion o ft h el a te s ts e ven B i sa l ta io c tad r achm s ( a l lf r om o ne o bve r se d i e ) ; t h e 1 2 d rachm s w i th t h e d e l ta f r om P a ro s s t ruck w i th t h e s ame o bve r se d i e ; a nd t h e 1 2 1 s t a te r s o f C am i ru s f r om t h e s ame r eve r se d i e . Mo reove r , t h e a lmo s t c omp le te a b sence o f mu t i la ted o rf r agmen ta ry p i ece s , o n ly s i x c o in sw i th c h i se l c u t sa nd o ne p i ece o f ap re -Pe r s ian A then ian t e t rad rachm , s e t s t h i s f i nd a pa r t f r om t h e o the r d epo s i t sr e co rded f r om t h es ame p e r iod , t h eA syu ta nd J o rdan h oa rd s . Un l ike t h e se f i nd s , t h e D ecad rachm h oa rd a ppa ren t ly c on ta in ed n o b u l l ion . T he se d if e rence s make t h eh oa rd u n ique f o rl a te a r cha ic a nd e a r ly c l a s s ica lt ime s . 2°

F o r ad i scu s s ion o fd if e ren t t ype s o fh oa rd s , s e e P .G r ie r son , Num i sma t i c s , Oxf o rd , 1 975 ,p p . 1 30-6 .

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KEY TO P LATES I -V 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2 4 3 4 4 4 5 4 6

B i sa l ta i , o c tad rachm ,2 8 .92 g .D ie s o fT r a i t i 1 489 . B i sa l ta i , o c tad rachm ,2 8 .39 g . B i sa l ta i , o c tad rachm , 2 8 .56 g . B i sa l ta i , o c tad rachm ,2 8 .68 g . E don i , K ing G e ta s , o c tad rachm ,2 8 .57 g . T ha so s , s t a te r ,9 . 58 g . Abde ra , o c tad rachm , 2 9 .80 g . Abde ra , t e t rad rachm , 1 4 .89 g . Abde ra , t e t rad rachm , 1 5 .25 g .D ie so f May 8 3 . A can thu s , t e t radrachm , 1 7 .22 g . A can thu s , t e t rad rachm , 1 7 .02 g . A can thu s ,t e t rad rachm , 1 718 g . A can thu s , t e t rad rachm , 1 7 .44 g . T e rone , s t a te r , 1 7 .20 g . T e rone , s t a te r , 1 7 .32 g . A then s , t e t rad rachm , 1 7 .90 g .3 :00 . A then s , t e t rad rachm ( c a s t ) . A then s , t e t rad rachm , 1 719 g .7 :0 0 . A then s , t e t rad rachm , 1 718 g . 5: 0 0 . A then s , t e t rad rachm , 1 7 .22 g .8 :00 A then s , d ecad rachm , 4 3 .05 g .1 :00 . A then s , d ecad rachm , 4 3 .05 g .5 :00 A then s , t e t rad rachm , 1 7 .2 1 g .5 :00 . A then s , t e t rad rachm , 1 719 g .5 :00 . A then s , t e t radrachm , 1 719 g .1 0 :00 . A then s , t e t rad rachm , 1 719 g .4 :0 0 . A then s , t e t rad rachm , 1 718 g .3 :00 . D ie s o fS t a r r 1 36 . A then s , t e t rad rachm , 1 7 .21 g .3 :0 0 . A then s , t e t rad rachm , 1 719 g .7 :00 . Me lo s , s t a te r , 1 4 .46 g . P a ro s , d rachm ,6 . 02 g . P a ro s , d rachm , 5 . 95 g . P a ro s , d rachm , 6 . 09 g . E phe su s , d rachm , 3 . 36 g . E phe su s , d rachm , 3 . 37 g . E phe su s , d rachm ,3 . 35 g . S amo s , s t a te r , 1 3 .27 g .1 2 :00 . D ie so fB a r ron 1 . S amo s , s t a te r , 1 3 .04 g .2 :00 . D ie so fB a r ron 2 1 . S a mo s , s t a te r , 1 3 .26 g .7 :00 . D ie so fB a r ron 2 9 . S a mo s , s t a te r , 1 315 g .6 :0 0 . D ie so fB a r ron 3 6 . C am i ru s , s t a te r , 1 2 .23 g . C am i ru s , s t a te r , 1 2 .02 g .D ie so fn umbe r4 3 b e low . C am i ru s , s t a te r , 1 .95 g . Obv . r e cu t . C am i ru s , s t a te r , 1 210g . C am i ru s , d rachm , 6 . 05 g . L indo s , s t a te r , 1 3 .45 g .

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T he D ecad rachm Hoa rd : Ch rono logy a nd Con sequence s

JO NATHA N H . KAGA N

DA T ING a r cha ic a nd e a r ly c l a s s ica l G reek h oa rd s i sr a re ly w i thou t s ome c on t ro v e r sy a nd u nce r ta in ty . T he d ecad rachm h oa rd w i l l p robab ly n o t b e a n e xcep t ion . B ef ore w e c an a r r ive a t ad a te , o ne i mpo r tan t a s sump t ion h a s t ob e made : t h a t a t l e a s t t h e l a rge g roup s o f Macedon ian , T h rac ian , A then ian , a nd maybe A egean i s l and e l emen t s a r e c on tempo ra ry . ' I ta l so s e em s l i ke ly t h a t t h e se c o inage s a r r ived a tt he p l ace o fb u r ia l a s as i ng le g roup , h av ing b een p u t t oge the r a si nd iv idua l b lock s f r om e a ch c i ty . T he c a se f o r t h i s c an b e made a sf o l low s : 1 )t h e c o in s f r om t h e se r eg ion ss how r ema rkab ly l i t t le w ea r ; t h i si st r ue n o to f ju s tt h el a te s ts t r ik ing s , b u t o f a lmo s t a l t h e c o in s ; 2 ) t h e l a te s t c o in d i e s f r om t h e m in t s a r e t h e mo s t f r equen t . I ti st h e ref o re p o s s ib le t h a tt h ec o in so ft h e se g roup sc ame o u to ft r ea su r ie s o r as i ng le t r ea su ry r a the r t h an g ene ra l c i rcu la t ion . I ft h e c o in s h ad c o me d i rec t ly f r om t h e m in t s t h em se lve s , w e wou ld n o t e xpec t t h e v a r ie ty o fd i e s . Mo re w ea r wou ld b e e xpec ted i ft h e c o in s c ame o u t o fc o mme rce , e s pec ia l ly o n t h e e a r l ie r p i ece s . T he Macedon ian a nd T h rac ian e l emen t s a r e a l a ta pp rox ima te ly t h e s ame p o in t i nt h e s t y l i s t ic d eve lopmen t o ft h e i r r eve r se t ype s . T h i s f u r the r s uppo r t s t h e n o t ion t h a tt h ec o in sa r ec on tempo ra ry a nd p robab ly c ame a s as i ng le l o t . I ft h i s h ypo the s i s c an b e a c cep ted , w e c an s e e q u ick ly t h a t p rob lem s w i th t h e c onven t iona l d a t ing o fc e r t a in c o inage s i nt h e h oa rd a r e c r e a ted . S t a r r wou ld d a te t h eb eg inn ing so fh i sA then s G roup V t oa pp rox ima te ly 4 54 B c . 2 May wou ld d a te t h e G roup I A bde r a t e t r ad rachm s t on o l a te r t h an 4 73 /470 .3 K raay wou ld p l ace t h eA can thu sa ta bou t4 70 /465 . 4T he l a te s tS am ian t e t rad rachm i sp l aced b yB a r ron i n4 68 . 5T he S a mo sc o in ss e em al i t t le l e s sf r e sh t h an t h eo the rl a rge g roup sb u tt h ey s hou ld n o t b e a pp rec iab ly e a r l ie r . A l l t h e se d a te s a r e r e a sonab ly c l o se , b u t t h ey c anno t a l b e r i gh t . I ti si mpo r tan t i ft h e d ecad rachm h oa rd i sg o ing t o p rove a u s ef u lt oo lt oh i s to r ian so ft h eP en tacon tae t ia t h a tg rea te rp rec i s ion b ea ch ieved . I t may b e wo r thwh i le t oc on s ide r wha t f i rm c h rono log ica l a ncho r s r e a l ly e x i s t f o r t he m in t s u nde r q ue s t ion f o r t h i s p e r iod . T he e i gh t S e l tman G roup E a r cha ic A then ian t e t r ad rachm s p re sen t i n t h i s h oa rd s hou ld p u t t o a n e nd a ny l i nge r ing 1 F or f u r the r c o mmen t s o n s ome o f t he c o in s f r om t he se a r ea s , s e e t h e a ccompany ing a r t ic le b y S . F r ied ;h e reaf te rc i ted a sF r ied . 2 C . G . S t a r r , A then ian C o inag e 4 80449 B .C . , Oxf o rd 1 970 ,p .6 3 ;h e reaf te rc i ted a sS t a r r . J . M . F . May , T h e C o inag e o fA bd e r a , 1 966 , p p . 8 2f .

C. M . K raay , A r cha i c a nd C l a s s i ca l G r e ek C o in s , 1 976 , p . 1 35 ; h e reaf te r c i ted a s ACGC a nd ' The A syu t h oa rd : s o me c ommen t s o n c h rono logy ' , NC 1 977 ,192 ;h e reaf te rc i ted a sK raay . 5 J .P . B a r ron , T h e S i lv e r C o inag e o fS amo s , 1 966 , p .4 8 . 4

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c on t rove r sy a bou t t h e o rde r o f a r cha ic A then i an ow l s ; K raay ' s s e qu ence i s c onf i rmed .6 T he G roup E c o in s a r e t h e l a te s t u nw rea thed ow l s . Th i s h oa rd a l so h e lp s c onf i rm t h ed a t ing o ft h eA c ropo l i sh oa rd , wh ich c on ta in s G roup E c o in s , t o t h e P e r s ian d e s t ruc t ion . T he c on tex t t h a t c ou ld b e s t e xp la in t h e l a rge s t r ik ing s o f c rude a r cha ic ow l s , t h eb u r ia lo fG roup E c o in so nt h eA c ropo l i s , t he c hange t ot h e w rea thed s t y le a nd t h e r e la t ive r a r i ty o ft h e e a r ly w rea thed c o in s c ompa r ed t ot h e l a te s t a r cha ic i sue s i st h e P e r s ian i nva s ion a nd d e s t ruc t ion o ft h e A c ropo l i s .7 I ti s mo re t h an c o inc idence t h a t t h e d ecad rachm h oa rd h a s a sm any G roup E c o in s a s w rea thed c o in s o fS t a r r ' s f i r s t p e r iod . S t a r r ' s G roup Ic an s a f e ly b e a s s igned t ot h e e a r ly 4 70 s . T he d a te sf o r S t a r rG roup s It oVa nd t h em a s s ive s t r ik ing so fc onven t iona l ized c o in sa r en o ta sc l ea r . S t a r r ' sa rgumen t s f o rh i s c h rono log ica la r rangemen t sd epend l a rge ly o n h i s to r ica l c on s ide ra t ion s : t h e d a te o fE u rymedon , t h e t r an sf e r o f t h e D e l ian t r ea su ry a nd t h eC o inage D ec ree . T he m a jo rn um i sma t ic a rgumen ti sb a sed o n t h eJ o rdan h oa rd , wh ich c on ta in s s ome o ft h e l a s t A then i an i sue s b ef o re t h e r egu la r ized m a s s ive s t r ik ing s .8K raay ' sd a te o fc .4 45 f o rt h eJ ordan h oa rd i sl a rge ly d e r ived f r om h i s v i ew , w i thou t t h e b enef i t o fS t a r r ' s d i e s t udy , o ft h e d a te o ft h e A then ian s p ec imen s . T he re i sc i rcu la r i ty h e re .9 I ns umma ry , w e c an b e r e a sonab ly c e r ta in a bou t t h e d a te o f S t a r r ' s G roup I ,b u t n o t a bou t t h e d a te o f t h e l a te s t A then ian s p ec imen si nt h ed ecad rachm h oa rd . T he c onf i rma t ion p rov ided h e re f o r K raay ' s d a t ing o ft h e a r cha ic ow l s s hou ld m ake u s e ven mo re c o mf o r tab le w i th a4 75 BC c l o s ing d a te f o r t h e b u lk o ft h e A syu th oa rd . T he a u tho r s 'a rgumen t sf o rt h i sd on o tn eed t ob er epea ted h e re . 1° T he d a t ing o ft h e Macedon ian a nd T h rac ian i sue s a f te r A syu t i sf a i r ly f l u id . May ' s i mp l ic i t a c cep tance o f t h e wo rk ing s o f t h e A then ian c o inage d ec ree a t Abde ra i n4 49 i s ,t oa n i mpo r tan t d eg ree , am a jo r a s sump t ion i nh i s d a t ing o ft h e s e r ie s w i th m ag i s t ra te n ame s . A syu t h a s a l ready s hown t h a t h i s s t a r t ing d a te s f o r t h a tm in ta r et oo e a r ly ." Wh i le A syu t p re sen t s ap re t ty c l ea r p i c tu re o ft h en o r th G reek m in t s a tt h e e nd o f t h e a r cha ic p e r iod , i th a s l e d , b ecau se o f o ne t r oub le so me c o in , t o s ome d i sag reemen t s c once rn ing t h e d a t ing o ft h e c o inage o fA lexande r Io f Mac edon .' 2 B ecau se h e i so ne o ft h e f ew h i s to r ica l p e r sonage s w i th r e a sonab ly c e r ta in d a te s m in t ing i n t h i s p e r iod , h i s c o in s a r e c ruc i a l . T he k ey t o d a t ing a s a rgued b y Raymond ' a nd mo re r e cen t ly K raay 1 i st h ed eve lopmen to ft he r eve r se t ype .T he t r end i sf r om n o r eve r se i n sc r ip t ion , t o ac rude ly i n sc r ibed r eve r se , t o an ea t ly i n sc r ibed r eve r se .1 5 Wh i le n o c o in s o fA lexande r w e re p r e sen t i nt h e d ecad rachm h oa rd , c o mpa r i son sc an b e made . A can thu sa nd t h eB i sa l ta iw en tt h rough as im i la r 3

4

S i lv e rC o inag e : t h eA syu t Hoa rd , L ondon , 1 975 ,1172 5 ;h e reaf te rc i ted a sA syu t . " A syu t ,p p .3 6-7 . A syu t , p p . 3 8-9 ; K raay , p p . 1 90-3 ; a nd H . A . C ahn , ` A s iu t : k r i t i sche B eme rkungen z u e i ne r S cha tzf undpub l ika t ion ' , SNR 5 6( 1 977 ) ,2 84 . D . Raymond , Ma c ed on ian R eg a l C o inag e t o4 13 B .C . , NN M 1 25 , ( New Yo rk , 1 953 ) ,p p . 1 00 i f . K raay ,p p . 1 90-3 . K raay ,p .1 92 .

C. M . K raay , ' The a r cha ic ow l s o f A then s : c l a s s if i ca t ion a nd c h rono logy ' , NC 1 956 ,43-63 . S t a r r , p p . 3 -6 ; f o r a n a l te rna t ive v i ew , s e e M . V icke r s , ' E a r ly G reek c o inage , ar e a s se s smen t ' , NC 1 985 ,1-44 . S t a r r ,p .6 3 . C. M . K raay a nd P . R . S . Moo rey , ' T wo f i f th -cen tu ry h oa rd s f r om t h e Nea r E a s t ' , RN 1 968 , 1 8 1-235 ( p . 2 10 ) ; a nd R . T . Wi l l iam s , r ev iew o f S t a r ri nP ho en ix 2 6( 1 972 )4 11-2 . 1° M . J . P r ice a nd N . Waggone r , A r cha i c G r e ek 6

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t r an s i t ion e xcep t t h a t t h e t r end i sf r om a n o bve r se i n sc r ip t ion t o an ea t ly i n sc r ibed r eve r se .1 6 T he t h r ee G e ta s o c tad rachm s i nt h e h oa rd h ave af u l ly i n sc r ibed r eve r se i n ar a the r c rude s t y le s im i la rt ot h a to f Raymond G roup IA lexande ro f Macedon o c tad r achm s .1 7 We h ave t h e n ex t to la s t v a r ie ty o f A can thu s a nd t h e B i sa l ta i b ef o re t h e a dop t ion o fr eve r se i n sc r ip t ion s .1 8 A d a te b e tween 4 70 a nd 4 60 f o r t h e A can thu s a nd B i sa l ta i s e em s a s su red f o r t h el a te s t o fo u r c o in s . A syu t c l o sed c .4 75 , b ef o re t h e i n t rodu c t ion o f t h e r o se t te s ymbo l a tA can thu s , a nd h ad n o B i sa l ta i o c tad rachm s . I ti sh a rd s e e ing a l t h e A can th ian d i e s ( t he re a r e2 0n ew o bve r se d i e s a l one i nt h eh oa rd ) o ft h a tt ype b e ing s queezed i n to l e s st h an 7 10 y ea r s . T h i sp o in t c an b e made d e sp i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s h oa rd c l ea r ly s how s h ow d ange rou s i ti st o make c h rono log ica l a rgumen t s b a sed o n d i e T he s ame c an b e s a id a bou t t h e B i sa l ta i . On t h e o the r h and , ad a te a f te r 4 60 i s u n l ike ly . T he t r an s i t iona l r eve r se in sc r ibed A can th ian t e t rad rachm s ,1 9 w h ich w e r e s t ruck j u s t a f te r t h e l a te s t A can th ian c o in si nt h e d ecad rachm h oa rd , h ave as omewha ta s ymme t r ica l r eve r se . T hey mu s t h ave b een m in ted b ef o r e t h e d i e cu t te r b ecame a wa re o ft h e G roup I o c tad rachm s o fA lex ande r o f Macedon w i th s ymme t r ica l r eve r se s . 2°I tw a s s u ch a G roup I o c tad rachm t h a tw a s f ound i nA syu t . S hou ld t h eG roup I c o in sb e much a f te r 4 60 , t h e re wou ld b e n o t ime f o r t h e d eve lopmen t o fA lexande r ' s G roup I c o in s ,o f amuch f i ne rs t y le ,b ef o re h i sr e ign c ame t oa ne nd i nt h el a te 4 50 s . T he d ecad rachm h oa rd of e r s c onf i rma t ion t h a t t h e A syu t A lexande r i si ndeed l i ke ly t ob e s ub s tan t i a l ly l a te r t h an t h e b u lk o ft h a t h oa rd . K raay ' s a rgumen t t h a t t h e A can th ian s t y l i s t ic d eve lopmen t c ou ld n o t l a g s o f a r b eh ind i se ven mo re c onv inc ing g iven t h e n umbe r o fn ew d i e s f ound t h a t a r e l a te r t h an A syu t b u t s t i l l u n in sc r ibed o n t h e r e ve r se . A l so , t h e a b sence o f a ny r eve r se i n sc r ibed B i sa l ta i d e sp i te t h e l ong s e quence i sg ood e v idence f o r a rgu ing t h a t A lexande r ' s n ea t ly i n sc r ibed r eve r se d i d n o t c o me i n u n t i l 4 65/ 4 60 , wh ich i s whe re Raymond o r ig ina l ly d a ted i t .2 1 Al a te d a te w i th in t h i sr ange may b ep ref e rab le . T he s ma l lT ha so s g roup i sc l o se i ns t y le , b u tn o tl i nked , t oA syu t . T he c o in s a r e n o t c i rcu la ted , b u t a r e p e rhap s l e s s f r e sh t h an t h e A then ian a nd A can th ian c o in s . T he i rl a te a r cha ic s t y l ea nd p rox im i ty t oA syu tm ake ad a te b ef o re t h e4 65/3 r evo l t p robab le . B a r ron ' s 4 68 d a t e f o r t h e l a te s t S a mo s c o in s i n t h e h oa rd m ay w e l l b e a pp rox ima te ly c o r r ec t . F o r S amo s w e h ave s ome r e a son t o a c cep t d a te s w i thou t r e ly ing o n h oa rd e v idence ; t h e c hang ing s e quence o f s ymbo l s a nd l e t te r s s e em i ndeed t oi nd ica t e a nnua l p e r iod s . Ap l au s ib le a r rangemen t t h a t wou ld a low f o r a d if e ren t d a te i st h a t p ropo sed b y K raay .2 H e wou ld , i n a n e f o r t t o p re se rve S a mo s ' c o mp l iance w i th t h e Co inage D ec r ee , d ownda te t h e c o in s b y a bou t t e n y ea r s , p u t t ing ab reak a tt h ee nd o fC la s sI . I nt h a tt h e S am ian c o in sd on o ta ppea r t ob e among t h el a te s ti nt h eh oa rd o nt h eb a s i so fc ond i t ion , i ts e em sb e s t t or e ta in B a r ron ' so r ig ina ld a t ing . T he S am ian c o in s ' a ppea rance m ay p a r t ly b ee xp la ined b y t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h ey w e re r e s t ruck o n o lde r c o in s . T he f l an s a r e i r regu la r . T he l a te rs pec imen si nt h es e r ie sd on o ts how e ven w ea ra nd a r eh igh i nw e igh t . 1 6

1 7 1 8 1 9

K raay ,p p . 1 90-3 . F r ied ,p .2 . F r ied ,p p .2 -4 . J . De sneux , ' L e s

RBN 9 0( 1 949 ) ,8 3-4 . K raay ,p .1 92 . K raay ,p .1 92 . ACGC , ' Append ix ' ,p p .3 32-3 .

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Wha to the r c o in s a r eh e lpf u l ? T he a n swe ri sn o t many . We k now t ha tw eh ave many i sue st h a ta r el a te rt h an A syu t , b u ti ti sh a rd t oj udge h ow much l a te r . P l ace s s u ch a sP a ro s , C am i ru s , a nd L indo s m ay h ave b een i n f r equen t m in te r s wh ich u s ed s i ng le d i e sf o rl ong p e r iod s . No te s hou ld b et a ken o ft h et wo l a te s tA eg ine tan c o in s i nt h e h oa rd . T hey a r e n o t wo rn a nd a r e o f as t y le n o t f ound i nA syu t ; t h ey h ave b een d a ted b eween 4 70 a nd 4 57 .2 3 I n c onc lu s ion , t h en , ac l o s ing d a te o f 4 65/462 s e em s r e a sonab le f o r t h e n on -Lyc ian e l emen t s .T he L yc ian i sue sm ay p e rhap se x tend t o ay ea ro rt wo l a te ri f w ea low an a tu ra lt ime l a g , b u t t h e se c o in su nf o r tuna te ly p rov ide n o f i rm a ncho r s f o rd a t ing .2 4 T he a b sence f r om t h eh oa rd o fa ny c o in sf r om P ha se l i si sn o tewo r thy ; i tmay b ee xp la ined b y t h ef a c tt h a t t h ec i ty w a s g eog r aph ica l ly r emoved f r om t h e r e s t o f L yc ia a nd l ooked t o t h e e a s t ( no te t h e P e r s ian s t anda rd ) f o r i t s t r ade . Neve r the le s s , t h i s i ss u rp r i s ing i ft h e h oa rd i st ob e d a ted a f te r E u rymedon , g i ven t h a tt h ec i ty w a sb rough ti n to t h eD e l i an L eague a nd p a id a1 0t a len ti ndemn i ty .2 5 I f , o n t h e o the rh and , o ne f o l low s P lu ta r ch a nd Me igg s2 6 i na c cep t ing t ha t C a r ia a nd L yc ia w e re b rough t i n to t h e L eague p r ior t oE u rymedon , a nd i fo ne a l so a c c ep t s a l a te r d a te f o r t h e b a t t le , t h en a p l au s ib le h i s to r ica l c on tex t f o r ah oa rd o f t h i s magn i tude m ay e x i s t .B u tt h i ss hou ld n o tb ea rgued t oo s t renuou s ly . S ome o f t h e r am if i c a t ion s o f a4 65/2 c l o s ing d a te f o r t h e n on -A s i a M ino r e l emen t sa r ea sf o l low s . F o rA then s ,w ec an n ol onge rh o ld w i th S t a r r , t h a tt h ec i ty w a s ac ompa ra t ive ly p oo r p l ace i nt h e4 70 s a nd 4 60 s c o mpa red t ot he 4 80 s o r4 50 s a nd 4 40 s .2 7 S t a r r ' s d iv i s ion i n to g roup s s t i l l e s sen t ia l ly h o ld s , b u t b y i n c rea s ing s o d rama t ica l ly t h e n umbe r s o f k nown d i e s a nd s h r ink ing t h e t ime f r ame , h i s h i s to r ica lc onc lu s ion sa r ew eakened . I ts hou ld b en o ted t h a tK r aay wa su ncomf o r t a b le w i th S t a r r ' sv i ew s , a l though n o th i sd a t ing a nd a r r angemen t s , w e l lb ef o r e t h i s h oa rd .2 8 T he l a ck o f d i e d up l ica te s i nd ica ted t h a t S t a r r w a s n o t d ea l ing w i th a c omp le te p i c tu re . T he v e ry s u cce s s o f t h e A th en i an Emp i r e h a s l e d t o o u r i n adequa te h oa rd r e co rd ; s t ab i l i ty i sn o t c onduc ive t o h oa rd ing . I ts hou ld b e n o s u rp r i se t h a to u rf i r s t s i gn if i can tr e co rded h oa rd f r om t h eA then ian Emp i re d u r ing t h eP en tacon tae t ia s hou ld c o me f r om i t sv e ry f r inge s .2 9 T he l a rge B i sa l ta i e l emen t i nt h e h oa rd , wh i le n o t t o ta l ly u nexpec ted , r e qu i re s s ome r e th ink ing a bou t t h e h i s to ry o f t h e Macedon ian r eg ion . T he p re s ence o f B i sa l ta i c o in s i nt h eJ o rdan a nd B l ack S ea h oa rd a nd t h e i r a b sence f r om A syu t l e d P r ice a nd K r aay t ot h eb e l ief t h a t t h e c o inage w a sp o s t -475 , b u to ne h ad n o r e a son t ot h ink o fi ta sm a s s ive . 3°T he d ecad rachm h oa rd h a s2 9s e pa ra te o bve r se d i e s ; t h i s c o mpa re st oo n ly 2 2r e co rded o c tad r achm d i e sf o rA lexande r Io f Macedon .3 1 T he B i sa l ta i a r e k nown t oh ave l i ved a l ong t h e w e s t b ank s o ft h e S t rymon a nd i th a s c u s toma r i ly b een t hough t t h a t t h e i r c on t ro l o ve r t h e L ake P ra s ia s m ine s p a s sed t o One i n te re s t ing n o te , a n A then ian t e t rad rachm t h a t , u s ing S t a r r ' s c h rono logy , wou ld h ave b een d a ted t o t h e 4 30 s h a s r e cen t ly b een f ound i n a m id -cen tury c on tex t a tt h e Agora e xc ava t ion s . Iam i ndeb ted t oP rof e s so rK ro l lf o rt h i so b se rva t ion . A syu t , p . 1 20 ; C . M . K raay a nd P . R . S . Moorey , ' A B lack S ea h oa rd o ft he l a te f i f th c en tu ry BC ' , NC 1 98 1 ,2 -3 . ACGC ,p .1 43 .

F r ied , p .6 . S ee t h e a c company ing a r t ic le b yJ .S p ie r f o r a d i scu s s ion o ft h eL yc ian i sue sf ound w i th t h i sh oa rd . P lu ta rch , C imon 1 2 .3-4 . R . Me igg s , T h eA th en ian E mp i r e , Oxf o rd , 1 972 , p .7 4 . S t a r r ,p p .2 7f . C. M . K raay , r ev iew o f A th en ian C o inag e 4 80-449 B .C . ,i n NC 1 972 ,3 1317 .

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A lexande ri mmed i a te ly a f te rt h eP e r s ian r e t rea t .3 2 T h i sn eed st ob e r e though t . We k now f r om H e rodo tu st h a tA lexande rw a s m in ing at a len t ad ay f r om t h e m ine a t s ome l a te r d a te .3 I ts e em s p robab le t h a t t h e B i sa l ta iw e re t h ei n i t ia lb enef i c ia ry o f t he P e r s ian w i thd r aw a l —we k now a ga in f r om H e rodo tu s t h a t t h e i r k ing r e s i s ted X e rxe sa nd b l inded h i ss on s who s i ded w i th t h eP e r s ian s .3 4 T he B i sa l ta i mu s th ave c on t ro l led s ub s tan t i a l s i lve r s ou rce s u n t i l s o me t ime s ho r t ly a f te r t h e b u r ia l o ft h e h oa rd .T he h oa rd l a ck so n ly t h el a s tt wo k nown o c tad rachm d i e so ft h es e r ie s . I n te re s t ing ly ,t h eB i sa l ta io c tad rachm ss e em t oc o me t oa ne nd j u s ta tt h et ime o f A then s ' i nvo lvemen t i nt h e a r ea . T he c o lony a tE nnea Hodo i a nd t h e c ampa ign a ga in s t t h e T h rac i an s e nd ing i nt h e d i sa s te r a tD rabe scu s i n4 65/4 m ay h ave h ad s ome e f ec t o n t h e f o r tune s o ft h e B i sa l ta i . I f , f o r amomen t , w e a s sume t h a t t he B i sa l ta i w e re o n g ood e conom ic t e rm s w i th t h e A then ian s t h en i tb ecome s i n te re s t ing t h a t C imon , a c co rd ing t oP lu ta rch , w a sp ro secu ted a f te r t h i sp e r iod f o r h i s f a i lu re t oa t tack Macedon .3 5 O ne p o s s ib le c on sequence o ft h eA then ian d i sa s te r may h ave b een t h a t A lexande r u s ed t h e o ppor tun i ty t od i s lodge t h e B i sa l t a i f r om t he i r s i lve r s ou rce . I ti swo r th men t ion ing a ga in t h a t w e h ave c o in s o fK ing G e ta s o f t h e E don i b u t n o t o f A lexande r . S uch a s c ena r io h a s i n te re s t ing h i s to r ica l i mp l ica t ion s f o r A lex ande r . On ly i nt h e l a s t d ecade o r s oo fh i s r e ign d id h e h ave a c ce s st ot r u ly g rea tw ea l th . A bde r a a nd A can thu s , i ft h e h oa rd d a te o f 4 65 /462 i sc o r rec t , a r e n o t f a r d i sp laced f r om c u r ren t ly a c cep ted d a te s . B u t t he d ownda t ing t h a t w e a r e p ropo s i ng c r ea te ss e r iou sd if icu l t ie sf o r a4 49 BC c o inage d ec ree i nn o r the rn G reece . T he re wou ld b en o r oom f o r ab reak a t Abde ra u n t i l t h e e nd o ft h e 4 40 s o r e a r ly 4 30 s , i f o ne w i she s t o ma in ta in a nnua l mag i s t rac ie s ; f o rA can thu s i ti sh a rd t os e et h eA t t ic w e igh t s e r ie s e nd ing i n 4 49 . K raay c ou ld a rgue t h i s b ecau se h e a c cep ted t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e r e ve r se i n sc r ip t ion i n 4 70 .3 6 C hang ing t h i s t o a f te r 4 65 a nd a c coun t ing f o rt h en umbe ro fn ew d i e s make t h ec a se much h a rde rt oa rgue . Mov ing t h e A bde r a d a te s f o r G roup I I d own b y 1 0 t o 2 0 y ea r s h a s as im i la r e f ec t o n A enu s , wh i ch i sd a ted b y a n o ve r s t r ike o n a n A bde ra G roup I c o in .3 7 T he s i ng le Mende t e t r ad rachm i nt h e h oa rd , o ft h e d onkey -on ly t ype , l e ad s t on o n ew c onc lu s ion s . T h e m id -cen tu ry G e la o ve r s t r ike o n aD iony su s t ype m ake s i t i mpo s s ib le t op l ac e ab re ak i nt h a t m in t f o r a4 49 B C c o inage d ec ree b e tween t h e t wo t ype s .3 8 O the r m in t s n o t r ep re sen ted i n t h e h oa rd m ay h ave t h e i r d a t e s s im i la r ly a f ec ted o nt h eb a s i so fs t y l i s t ic c o mpa r i son .3 9 Wh i le t h ed ecad r a chm h oa rd d oe sn o ts uppo r tt h eC o inage D ec ree ' sa pp l ic a t ion i nt h en or th A egean , i tp rov ide s s ome i n te re s t ing e v idence f o r Rhode s . T he m in t s o fC am i ru sa nd L indo s a r en ow c l ea r ly s e en t ob e a c t ive a f te rt h ea r cha ic p e r iod . 4° T he re a r e l a te r i sue s o fs t a te r s w i th r eve r se i n sc r ip t ion s t h a t a r e n o t i nt h i s h oa rd . T he se a r e c l o se ly r e l a ted t ot h e c o in s f ound i nt h e d ecad rachm h oa rd a nd mu s tb e o n ly af ew y ea r s l a te r . T he re e x i s t s , h oweve r , e l ec t rum c o inage a tC am i ru s4 1 a nd ACGC ,p .1 37 . S ee t h ea ccompany ing p ape rb yM .J .P r ice . F o rt h ec onven t iona lv i ew ,s e e ACGC ,p .2 45 . N . Waggone r , E a r ly G r e ek C o in s f r om t h e C o l l e c t ion o fJ ona than P . R o s en , ACNAC 5 ( New Yo rk , 1 983 ) ,n o .6 44 .

N . G . L . H ammond a nd G . T . G r if f i th , A H i s to ry o f Ma c ed on ia ,v o l .2 , Oxf o rd , 1 979 ,p .8 4 . H e rodo tu s5 . 17 . H e rodo tu s8 . 116 . P lu ta rch , C imon 1 2 .3-4 . ACGC ,p .1 36 . May ( op . c i t . ,n .3 ) ,p p .9 01 .

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I a ly su s .4 2 T he C am i ru s e l ec t rum w i th KA i n sc r ip t ion s s hou ld b e l a te r t h an t h i s h oa rd ( t he r ea r ea l so r e la ted s i lve rf r ac t ion s4 3 ) .T he a ppea rance o fi s o la ted e l ec t rum i sue s s u ch a st h e se , as ma l l s e r ie s f r om L amp sacu s a nd t h e o ne k nown i sue f r om C h io s4 h ave a so ne p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion t h e e x i s tence o f ar e s t r ic t ion o n s i lve r c o inage . Rega rd le s s o ft h e D ec ree , i ti sn o t s u rp r i s ing , l ook ing a tt h e h oa rd , t h a t t h e w e igh ts t anda rd c onf u s ion mu s th ave b een s e r iou s . A then ian c o inage a nd t h eA t t ic w e igh ts t anda rd ( no te t he L yc ian c hange ss ho r t ly a f t e rt h i sh oa rd 4 5 ) w e re b ound t o f o rce o u t e x i s t ing c o inage s o n l o ca l s t anda rd s . I t wou ld h ave b een f a r mo r e c onven ien t f o r A then s t oh ave r e ce ived , a sd oe sn o t a lway s s e em t oh ave b een t h e c a se ,4 6 t h et r ibu te i nA t t ic -we igh tc o in ,i fn o ta c tu a l ow l s . I t i s i n te re s t ing t o o b se rve t h a t s e ve ra l o f t h e m in t s r ep re sen ted i n t h e d ecad rachm h oa rd a r e c l o se t ot h e e nd o ft h e i r p e r iod s o fo pe r a t ion . T he re a r e n o o the r k nown d i e s f o r P a ro s d rachm s i n t h i s p e r iod . S eve ra l o ft h e o the r A egean i s l and m in t sa c t ive a f te rt h ea r cha ic p e r iod , wh ich a r en o tr ep re sen ted i nt h eh oa rd , a l so s e em t oc l o se i nt h i s p e r iod .4 7 M e lo s d id n o tc l o se , b u t i s as p ec ia l c a se i nt h a t t h ei s l and d id n o tj o in t h eL eague .4 8 T he c l o s ing o fs e ve ra l m in t s i nt h e l a te 4 60 s a nd e a r ly 4 50 s d oe s n o tn eed t ob e e xp la ined b y t h e e x i s tence o f a n e a r l ie r d ec ree . A u s ef u l p a ra l le l c an b e d r awn b e tween t h em embe r so ft h eA then ian Emp i r ei nt h i sp e r iod a nd t h eT he s sa l ian c i t ie s u nde r Macedon ian i nf luence i nt h e l a te 4 th c en tu ry . Ma r t in , i n ar e cen t s t udy , h a s s hown t h a t t h e c l o s ing o ft h eT he s sa l ian m in t s w a s n o t d ue t oa ny o ve r t a c to n t h e p a r t o fP h i l ip .4 9 I ndependen t c o inage g radua l ly c ame t o a n e nd . Hoa rd e v idence d emon s t ra te s t h a t A t t ic -we igh t t e t rad rachm s , b o th A then ian a nd Macedon ian , i n c rea s ing ly b ecame t h e c o inage o fc ho ice , i nt ime m ak ing t h e l o ca l i sue s o n t h e A eg ine tan s t anda rd c umbe r some . 5° One m igh t s p ecu la te i n b o th t h e c a se o f T he s sa ly a nd t h e A then ian Emp i r e i n t h e l a te 4 60 s a nd e a r ly 4 50 s t h a t o nce ( f o r p o l i t ica l o r e conom ic r e a son s ) c i t ie s c ou ld n o t p r even t t h e d ome s t ic c i rcu la t ion o f A t t ic w e igh t c o in s a l ong s ide l o ca l i sue s , then t h e p rof i t i n ma in ta in ing a m in t d i sappea red . L oca li sue sc ou ld n o th ave c o mmanded as uf ic ien tp rem ium t oc ove r e xpen se s . T h i s p rob lem wou ld h ave b een mo re a cu te f o r m in t s , l i ke P a ro s , wh ich d id n o t h ave e a sy a c ce s s t o s i lve r t h an f o r m in t s i n t h e n o r th A egean . S uch a n e xp lana t ion f o rt h ed ec l ine i nm in t ing d u r ing t h ep e r iod i mmed ia te ly f o l low ing t h e d ecad rachm h oa rd wou ld t i ei nw e l lw i th a ne conom ic e xp lana t ion f o rt h eC o inage D ec ree , wheneve ri t sd a te .5 1 I na no the r d i rec t ion , a n e xe rc i se c an b e u nde r taken b y l ook ing n o t o n ly a tt h e c o inage st h a ta r ep re sen ti nt h ed ecad rachm h oa rd ,b u ta l so a tt ho se t h a ta r e a b sen t . When t h e p a t te rn i sc ompa red t o t h e A syu t , Z agaz ig , a nd J o rdan h oa rd s , a n i n te re s t ing p henomenon eme rge s .5 2 B ef o re g o ing f u r the r , i ti sn ece s sa ry t o p o in t a t t i schen S eebunde s ' , A r ch iv f ü r P apy ru sf o r s chung 2 0 ( 1 970 ) ,7 2 C. M . K raay , ' The Me lo s Hoa rd o f 1 907 r e exam ined ' , NC 1 964 ,1 -25 . Ma r t in ,p p . 1 62 i f . M artin , p p .4 8f . S ee Ma r t in , p p . 1 96-207 f o r a c onv inc ing r e s ta temen to ft h ee conom ic a rgumen t . K ra ay ,p p . 1 92-3 .

B abe lon , T r a i t i 1 05 ; H . A . C ahn , K n id o s ( Be r l in 1 970 ) ,1 90 ,n .5 84 . Waggone r ( op . c i t . , n 4 1 ) , n o .5 99 ; BMCCa r ia , p .2 25 ,n o . 1 4 . ACGC ,p p .2 43-5 . S p ie r( op .c i t . ,n .2 4 ) ,P . 3 7 . T . R . Ma r t in , S ov r e ign ty a nd C o inag ei nC l a s s i ca l G r e e c e , P r ince ton , 1 985 , p . 2 0 1 ; h e reaf te r c i ted a s Ma r t in . E . E rx leben , ' Da s Münzge se tz d e s d e l i sch 42

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o u t t ha t t h e re a r e al o to fp i tf a l l si nt h i s s o r to fa na ly s i s . Wi th t h e se f ou rh oa rd s w e a r e d ea l ing w i th ah aphaza rd s amp le . A syu t , Z agaz ig , a nd J o rdan a r e a l e a s te rn c o m me rce h oa rd s . B u l l ion w a s f ound w i th a l t h ree . C o in s a r e l i ke ly t o h ave e n te red t h eh oa rd sa td if e r en tt ime s . A l so , t h eZ agaz ig a nd J o rdan h oa rd s ,w i th l e s s t h an 9 0 i d en t if i ab le c o in s i ne a ch , a r e p e rhap s t oo s ma l l t o g ive a n a dequa te c ro s s s e c t ion o f wha tc o inage s w e re a va i lab le . T he d ecad rachm h oa rd o n t h e o the rh and may h ave c ome t oge th e ra to ne t ime f o r as p ec ia lp u rpo se . I t ,e ven mo re t h an t h ey , may g ive am i s lead ing p i c tu re o fc o in a c cumu la t ion s . Hav ing s a id a l t h i s , t he p a t te rn t h a t eme rge sl ook s mo re t h an c o inc iden ta l . I ti s r ema rkab le h ow f ew c o in s t h e re a r e i nt h e d ecad r achm h oa rd f r om c i t ie s o u t s ide t he s phe r e o fA then i an i nf luence . T he re i sn o t as i ng le c o in f r om w e s te rn G reece ; n o th ing f r om C o r in th ; af ew s t ray A eg ine tan t u r t le s , o the rw i se n o th ing f r om n o r thwe s t o r c en t r a l G r eece e xcep t A then s a nd o ne E re t r ian p i ece . No c o in s o f A lexande ra ppea r . T h e re a r e o n ly f ou rc o in s f r om Me lo s . D e sp i te t h el a rge L yc ian r un , t h e re i sn o th ing f r om P ha se l i s , n o P e r s i an s i g lo i wha t soeve r a nd n o th ing f r om P hoen ic ia ,C yp ru s ,o rC y rene . T h i s p a t te rn c an o n ly p a r t ly b e e xp l a ined b y w e igh t s t anda rd s . T he re a r e f ew c o in s o f P e r s ian w e igh t i n t h e h oa rd ( on ly C o s a nd c e r t a in C a r ian s t a te r s o f My la san a t t r ibu t ion t h a t m ay b ee a r l ie r ) . T h i s m ay e xp la in t h ea b sence o fP ha se l i s , P e r s ian s i g lo i , a nd C yp ru s . B u t t h e w e igh t a rgumen t i sn o t i ni t se lf s uf ic ien t ; t h e h oa rd a l ready c on ta in s an umbe ro fd if e ren ts t anda rd s . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fm in t s i nt h e h oa rd mu s t , t o ac e r ta in e x ten t , r ep re sen t t h e p o l i t ica l r e a l i t ie s o ft h e s i tua t ion . T he c r ea t ion o f t h e A then ian Emp i re a nd t h e h o s t i l i t ie s w i th P e r s ia a f ec ted c o in c i r cu la t ion . Non league c o inage f r om c en t ra l G reece a nd t h e w e s t d id n o t f i nd i t s w ay , u n le s s r e s t ruck , i n to t h e c of f e r s o ft h e De l i an L eague a nd d id n o tf l ow f r ee ly b e tween t h eL eague a nd t h eP e r s ian Emp i r e . The a b sence o fe ven as t r ay s i g lo s i sr ema rkab le . T he s omewha t o f ic ia l a s pec t o f t he d ecad rachm h oa rd a nd a l so t h en a tu ra l p re sump t ion t h a tb u l l ion t r ave l led e a s t , whe r e t h e d emand f o r i tw a s g rea te r , m igh t m i t iga te a ga in s t t h i s t h eo ry o f r e s t r ic ted c i r cu l a t ion w e re i tn o t f o r s ome s u rp r i s ing c o r re la t ion p rov ided b y c on tempo ra ry f i nd sf r om w i th in t h eP e r s ian Emp i r e . A syu t c on t a in s , w i th t h e A lexande r Io c tad rachm , a tl e a s t o ne c o in wh ich i s c on tempo ra ry w i th , i fn o t l a te r t h an , t h e b u r ia l o fo u rh oa rd . A s ide f r om t h e t wo s o -ca l led A egae t e t rad rachm s w i th r o se t te s , wha t e l se m igh t b e l a te r ? No th ing f o r c e r ta in ,b u tt h eb e s tc and ida te sa r ea l f r om t h eE a s t .5 3 T he P e r s ian s i g lo ic ou ld b ea f ew y ea r s l a te r , a l though a c ruc ia l d i e l i nk r e co rded i n A syu t o n wh ich K raay f o cu sed may b e q ue s t ionab le ,5 4 a nd a l so s ome o ft h e Cyp r io t a nd C y renean i sue s may b el a te r . S ome o ft h eL yc ian c o in sm igh tn o tb eb ef o re 4 70 . I ft h eA lexande ri s n o t amode r ni n t ru s ion ,t h en A syu tp re sen t sa ni n te re s t ing s i tua t ion .T he a u tho r sa r e c l ea r ly r i gh ti ne nd ing t h eb u lk o ft h eA egean a nd w e s te rn i sue sb ef o re 4 75 ,b u tt h e h oa rd i t s e lf r em a ined o pen f o r s ome 1 0 t o 1 5 y ea r s . I ti st emp t ing t o e xp la in t h e a b sence o fa ny p o s t -479 A then ian c o in s a sw e l l a sc o in s o fo the r A egean m in t s b y r e f e rence t ot h ef a c tt h a tt h eA then ian /Pe r s ian h o s t i l i t ie sp reven ted t h ef r ee f l ow o f c o inage t h a th ad e x i s ted i nt h ea r cha ic p e r iod . 53

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a r t ic le b yI .C ar rad ice .

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Z agaz ig , wh ich u nf o r tuna te ly i s ad if i cu l t h oa rd t ou s e b ecau se o ft h e l a ck o f s ome k ey i lu s t ra t ion s , l e nd s s uppo r t t o t h i s v i ew . 5 Wi th t h e e xc ep t ion o f t h e A then ian e l emen t , t h e Z agaz ig c o in s a r e a l v e ry c l o se i nd a te t o t he A syu t p i ece s . T he re a r e 1 6a r cha ic A then ian t e t rad r achm s , o ne w rea thed c o in o ft h ep e r iod o ft h e d ecad rachm h oa rd a nd 1 7 c o in s wh ich , b a sed o n t h e v e rba l d e sc r ip t ion s , mu s t b e l a te r . K raay c onf i rmed t h i s a f te r e xam in ing a c tua l s p ec imen s i n B e r l in .5 6 I ft h e A then ian e l emen t i ndeed b e long s t o t h e h oa rd , w e h ave a no the r c a se o f a n E gyp t ian h oa rd b a s ica l ly c l o s ing t oG reek c o inage c .4 75 b u tn o tb e ing b u r ied u n t i l l a te r . A then ian c o in s a l one r e -en te r t h eh oa rd a t ad a te c l o se r t om id -c en tu ry , w e l l a f te rt h ed ecad rachm h oa rd . F ina l ly , t h eJ o rdan h oa rd p re sen t s as im i la r p henomenon . E xc lud ing C yp ru s , t h e re a r e 4 6 c o in s o u t o f6 6 t h a t a r e c l ea r ly a r ch a ic a nd m in ted b ef o re 4 75 . Of t h e 2 9 A then ian c o in s , 2 4 a r e a r cha ic . T he re a r e s om e 1 6 c o in s t h a t c ou ld h ave b een m in ted b e tween 4 75 a nd 4 65/460 , t h ed a te o fb u r i a lo ft h ed ecad rachm h oa rd . B u t t h en t h e re a r e t wo A then ian c o in s , w e l l p re se rved , o f S t a r r ' s G roup V , t h a t a r e i ndeed l a te rt h an t h ed ecad rachm h oa rd .5 7 Aga in , i ti sh a rd t od raw c onc lu s ion s f r om s u ch as ma l l h oa rd b u t i ts e em s t h a t t h e f r ee f l ow o fA then ian a nd o the r G reek c o in s , a pa r t f r om a r ea s c on t ro l led b y P e r s ia , d ec l ined t o ame re t r ick le i nt h ed ecade s i mmed ia te ly a f te r t he f a i lu re o ft h e P e r s ian c onque s t . T he d ecad r achm h oa rd w a s p robab ly n o t ab u l l ion h oa rd o n i t s w ay t ot h ee a s t . T he f i ne ly p re se rved A then sG roup V c o in sf r om t he J o rdan h oa rd , when t a ken t oge the r w i th t h e Z agaz ig e v idenc e , s how s t h a t t h i s f l ow o fc o inage ( s eem ing ly l im i ted n ow e s sen t ia l ly t oA then s a l one ) s t a r ted u p a ga in a f t e r4 60 a nd o n ly w i th r e a lp u rpo se i nt h es e cond h a lf o ft h ec en tu ry . As im i la r p henomenon t a ke s p l ace i nS i c i ly . When t h e G e la h oa rd w a sb u r ied , a round 4 80 , A then ian c o in s w e re p l en t if u l . S om e 1 0 t o 2 0 y e a r s l a te r , w h en t he Mon t e B ubbon ia h oa rd w a s b u r ied , a r cha ic A then ian c o in s a r e s t i l l f ound , b u t t h e re a r en on ew s p ec imen so ft h ew rea thed v a r ie ty . I nt h i sc a se i ti sn o tt h eP e r s ian Emp i re b u t s t rong t y rann ie s a nd a c l o sed c o in age wh ich m ay a ccoun t f o r t he c hange . 58 Once t h e d ecad rachm h oa rd i ss ub jec ted t o mo re d e ta i led a na ly s i s , g r ea te r p rec i s ion o n s ome o f t h e se q ue s t ion s m ay b e o b t a ined . On t h e p o s i t iv e s i de , h oweve r , w e s hou ld n o t u nde re s t ima te h ow much w e n ow k now a bou t t h e c h rono logy o fa r cha ic a nd e a r ly c l a s s ica l G reek c o in age . I ti se xac t ly t h i r ty y ea r s s i nce C o l in K raay w ro te h i s s em ina l a r t ic le o n t h e s e quence o fa r cha ic A then ian ow l s .5 9 T h rough h i s wo rk a nd t h a t o f o the r s , t a ken t oge the r w i th t h e J o rdan , A syu t , a nd n ow t h e d ecad rachm h oa rd s a nd t h e m any n ew d i e s t ud ie s , w e m ay h ope i nt h en o tt oo d i s tan tf u tu re t oa ch ieve g ene ra la g reemen to nt h ed a te so f mo s t o ft h e ma jo rs e r ie s .

a nd t h eL au r i on i nA r cha i ca nd C l a s s i ca l T im e s . M i s c e l l a nea G r a e c a I( Ghen t , 1 975 ) , 1 45-60 ( p . 1 47 f . ) . K r aay a nd Moo rey ( op .c i t . ,n .9 ) ,p .1 85 . K r aay ( o p .c i t . ,n .2 8 ) , p .3 16 . K raay ( o p .c i t . ,n .6 ) .

H . D re s se l a nd K . Reg l ing , ' Z we i ä gyp t i sche F unde a l tg r iech i sche r S i lbe rmünzen ' , Zf l \ T 3 7 ( 1 927 ) , 1 138 ; a nd K raay a nd Moo rey ( op . c i t . , n .9 ) , 2 08 . C. M . K r aay , ' A rcha ic ow l s o f A then s : n ew e v idence f o r c h rono logy ' , i n H . Mu s sche , T ho r iko s 55

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TH El a rge s t c omponen to ft h e ` Decad rachm h oa rd ' , a nd i nf a c t t h e m a jo r i ty o ft h e c o in si nt h eh oa rd ,a r eL yc ian . T he re a r ea lmo s t at hou sand p i ece so f many d if e r en t v a r ie t ie s ,i n sc r ibed a nd n o t , a nd o ns e ve r a ld if e ren tw e igh ts t anda rd s ,b u tn ea r ly a l a r e l i nked i n s ome w ay —by d i e , i n sc r ip t ion , o r s t y le and mu s t b e c l o se ly c on tempor a ry .T he r ei sc on s ide rab l ed i e l ink ing a nd t h e re a r e many d i e -dup l ica te s . Th i ss i tua t ion , a l ong w i th t h ee xce l len t c ond i t ion o ft h e c o in s , wh ich a r et o al a rge d eg ree b o th u nc i rcu la ted a nd c o r ro s ion -f ree , p re sen t s ar a re o ppo r tun i ty f o rs t udy . The o r ig ina l c ond i t ion o ft h e c o in s c an b e c l ea r ly s e en , a nd t h ep rog re s s ive s t a te o f t he d i e s , a l ong w i th t h e i r r e eng r av ing o r r ep lacemen t , c an b e f o l lowed . I ti so f g rea ti mpo r tance t h a t e nough d up l ica te s e x i s t t oa low ac a ref u l s t a t i s t i ca l s t udy o f t he c o mp l ica ted w e igh ts y s tem su s ed i nL yc ia . T h i sw i l lh ave w ide ri mp l ica t ion s .A n umbe r o f k nown t ype s a r e r epr e sen ted , i n c lud ing i n sc r ibed i sue s o f d yna s t s , n o tab ly t h e b e s t k nown d yna s t o ft h i s p e r iod , Kup r l l i . Howeve r , t h e re i sa n e ven g rea te r n umbe r o fe n t i re ly n ew t ype s , n ew i n sc r ip t ion s , a nd e ven n ew d yna s t s ' n ame s . I t may b e o f v a lue h e re t o s umma r ize b r ief ly t h e s t a te o f o u r k now ledge o f L yc ian c o inage —wh ich i s meag re i ndeed .' I n 1 855 S i r Cha r le s F e l low s , b e s t k nown f o r h i s w r i t ing s o n t r ave l s i nA s ia M ino r a nd e s pec ia l ly f o r b r ing ing t h e X an tho s ma rb le st oL ondon , c o mp i led as ub s tan t ia ll i s to fL yc ian c o in si nh i s C o in s o fA n c i en t L y c i a b e f o r e t h e R e ign o fA l exand e r . A s h e p o in t s o u t , t h e se c o in s h ad p rev iou s ly b een g rouped a s ' u nce r ta in C i l ic ia ' , b u t F e l low s , f am i l ia r w i th t h e t opog raphy , monumen t s , a nd i n sc r ip t ion so fL yc ia , w a sa b le t ol a yt h ef ounda t ion s f o r mode rn s t udy . O the r e a r ly p ionee r s w e re J . -P . S ix w r i t ing i n t h e R evu e Num i sma t iqu ef o r 1 886 a nd 1 887 a nd G . F .H i l l , w r i t ing i nt h eN um i sma t i cC h r on i c l e f o r 1 895 i n a n t ic ipa t ion o f h i s v o lume o f t h e B r i t i sh Mu s eum C a t a l ogu e wh ich a ppea red i n 1 897 . A round t h e s ame t ime ( 1 893 ) , t h e re a ppea red E . B abe lon ' s L e s P e r s e s a cWm i .n id e s , wh ich p ub l i shed t h e L yc ian c o in s i nP a r i s . As ho r t t ime l a te r , h i s T r a i t é d ea l t mo re c o mpr ehen s ive ly w i th L yc ian c o inage . I tw a s a tt h i s t ime , a l so , t h a t t h e i n sc r ip t ion s f r om L yc ian t omb s w e re b e ing c o l lec ted , n o tab ly i n C f . t he s umma r ie s i n 0 . Mo rkho lm , ` The c l a s s if ica t ion o fL yc ian c o in s b ef o re A lexande r t h e G rea t ' , JNG 1 4 ( 1 964 ) , 6 6f .a nd 0 . Morkho lm a nd

J . Z ah le , ` The c o inage o f Kup r l l i ' , A c t a A r ch . 4 3 ( 1 972 ) ,5 8 .

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T i tu l i A s ia e M ino r i s , v o lume 1 ,b y E rn s t K a l inka , wh ich a ppea r ed i n 1 90 1 a nd c on ta ined a bou t1 50 i n sc r ip t ion s , an ea r -co rpu se ven n ow . T he h i s to r i c a lr e f e renc e s w e re c o l lec ted i n1 887 b yO sca rT reubne ri nG e s ch i ch t ed e rL yk i e r . Mode rn n um i sma t ic s c ho la r sh ip d id n o t p i ck u p a ga in u n t i l t h e l a te 1 950 s , s pu r red e s pec ia l ly b y s e ve ra l n ew h oa rd s a nd t h e a ppea rance o f t h e S y l l og e N ummo rum G r a e c o rum v o lume s o ft h e B e r ry a nd v on Au lock c o l le c t ion s , wh ich i n c luded many n ew c o in s . T he f i r s t n ew L yc i an c o in h oa rd , t o wh i ch w e w i l l r e tu rn ,w a sp ub l i shed b yS ydney Noe i nt h e ANS C en t enn ia lP ub l i ca t i on i n1 958 . 2G . K .J enk in se xam ined p o s s ib le m in t si nt h eN um i sma t i cC h r on i c l ef o r1 959 . 3A r e exam i n a t ion o ft h eo ld m a te r ia la nd n ew h oa rd sw a sb e ing made b ys eve r a ls c ho la r s , b u t mo s tn o tab ly b yt h el a te O t to Mo rkho lm i nC openhagen .T od a te ,t he mo s ti mpo r t a n t wo rk so nL yc ian c o in sa r eh i s ,i n c lud ing t h ev on A u lock s y l loge v o lum ef o rL yc i a ( 1 964 ) , ' The c l a s s if i ca t ion o fL yc i an c o in s b ef o r e A lexande r t h e G re a t ' i nJNG 1 4 ( 1 964 ) , a nd , w i th J an Z ah le , ' The c o inage o f Kup r l l i ' , A c t a A r cha eo l og i c a 4 3 ( 1 972 ) a nd ' The c o inage s o ft h e L yc ian d yna s t s Khe r iga , K he re i , a nd E rbb in a ' , i b id . 4 7 ( 1 976 ) . A l so o fg rea t i mpo r tance a r e t h ej o in t p ub l ica t ion b y Morkho lm a nd t h e l i ngu i s t Gün te r N eumann , D i e l y k i s ch en Münz l eg end en ( 1 978 ) , wh ich e x am ine s t h e i n sc r ip t ion s o n c o in s i n l i gh t o f n ew l i ngu i s t i c wo rk a nd r e cen t f i nd s , a nd Neumann ' s N euf und e l y k i s ch e r I n s ch r if t en s e i t 1 90 1 ( 1 97 1 ) , wh ich , d e sp i te i t s e ncou r ag ing t i le , a dd s o n ly 2 6 n ew i n sc r ip t ion s , mo s t ly f r agmen ta ry , b u t a l so i n c lude s t h e h igh ly i mpo r tan t t r i l ingua l i n sc r ip t ion ( Lyc ian , A rama ic , a nd G reek ) f ound b yt h eF rench e xcava to r sa tX an tho s . A l though e xcava t ion s a nd a r chaeo log ica l wo rk p rog re s s , t h e f i nd s r em a in f ew t h a ts h ed l i gh t o nt h eh i s to ry , p o l i t ic s , a nd p e r sona l i t ie s o fL yc ia , w i th l e a s tk nown a bou t t h e f i r s th a lf o ft h e 5 th c en tu ry , t h e p e r iod h e re u nde rc on s ide ra t ion . I tmu s t t h en b e k ep t i nm ind t h a t o u r k now ledge o fL yc i an h i s to ry a nd l a nguag e i sv e ry p oo r , a nd t h a t wha t w e k now o ft h e c o inage m ay a l so h ave m any g ap s , h av ing b een d ependen t o n c hance f i nd s t h a t s o f a r h ave n o t p rov ided much d up l i c a t ion . E ve ry c o in h oa rd m ay b r ing e n t i re ly n ew m a te r ia l , a st h i s h oa rd h a s , b u t w e a r e f o r tuna te t oh ave ah oa rd o fs u ch s i ze a nd q ua l i ty . Mo rkho lm o n s e ve r a l o cca s ion s c a l led f o r t h e s t udy o f t h e e x ten s ive L yc ian c o inage , w i th c a ref u l a t ten t ion t o b e g iven t o t h e d i e l ink s , we igh t s , a nd i n sc r ip t ion s , a n a dd i t iona l i n cen t ive b e ing t h a t t h e s t udy wou ld s h ed l i gh t o n t h e a s soc ia ted G reek c o inage . 4 Ou rh oa rd a low s much p rog re s st ob e made . A t t en t ion h e re w i l l b e g iven t o t h e b a s ic t ype s w i th p a r t icu la r a t ten t ion p a id t o t h e i n sc r ip t ion s , w e igh t s t anda rd s , d i e l ink s , af ew o ve r s t r ike s , a nd r e la t ion s t oo the r h oa rd s . T he d i e l ink s a r e p a r t icu la r ly r evea l ing , a nd w e a r e a i ded b y t h e L yc ian p rac t ice o fd i s rega rd ing t h e s t a te o ft h e d i e s , u s ing t h em u n t i l t h ey w e re wo rn o u t , a nd t h en s umma r i ly r e -eng rav ing t h em i na ne a s i ly d e tec tab le m anne r . T he w e igh t s t anda rd s w i l l f i r s t b e c on s ide red . S i x h ad a l ready n o ted t h a t t h e L yc ian s emp loyed s e ve ra l s t anda rd s ,5b u t Mo rkho lm , t h rough ac a ref u l s t a t i s t ic a l s t udy wh ich u nf o r tuna te ly d epended o n i n adequa te m a te r ia l , t h eo r ized t h a t t h e S . P . Noe , ' A L yc ian h oa rd ' , ANS C en t enn ia l P ub l i c a t ion , New York , 1 958 ,5 43-5 1 . G . K . J enk in s , ' Recen t a cqu i s i t ion s o f G reek

c o in sb yt h eB r i t i sh Mu seum ' , NC 1 959 ,3 2-4 1 ,4 5 . Mo rkho lm a nd Z ah le ,o p .c i t .i nn .1 ,5 81 . J . -P . S ix , ` Monna ie sl y c ienne s ' , RN 1 886 , 1 06 .

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d if e ren ts t anda rd sr ef l ec ted g eog raph ica ld iv i s ion s , ah eavy L yc ian s t anda rd o fj u s t u nde r 1 0 g ramme s b e ing u s ed i n e a s te r n L yc i a , a nd a l i gh t s t anda rd o f a bou t 8 . 5g i n t h e We s t .6 I n a dd i t ion , af ew c o in s w e re s t ruck o n t h e P e r s ian s t andard o fa bou t 1 g( doub le s i g lo i ) . H ea l so d e tec ted a ni n te rmed ia te s t anda rd o f a r ound 9g ,u s ed f o rs ome c o in so f Kup r l l ia sw e l la sf o ru n in sc r ibed c on tempo ra ry i sue s . The n ew h oa rd s how s t h a t h i s i n te rp re ta t ion mu s t b e r ev i sed a nd t h a t t h e s i tua t ion w a s s omewha t mo re c omp l ica ted . T he h eav ie s ts t anda rd , a t1 g ,w a st h e P e r s ian , k nown o n ly f r om af ew e xamp le s o ft h e d yna s t Kupr l l i , i n c lud ing f ou r f r om t h e A syu t h oa rd . T he re a r e n o e xamp le s i nt h i s h oa rd . T he n ex t s t anda rd , g ene ra l ly c a l led t h e h eavy L yc ian , i sj u s t u nde r 1 0g ( a bou t 9 . 8g ) , s l igh t ly h eav ie r t h an Mo rkho lm s uppo sed , a nd i sk nown f r om b oa r p ro tome o bve r se / i n cu se r eve r se t ype s o f t h e e a r ly 5 th c en tu ry ( o r e a r l ie r ) a nd t h roughou t t h e d yna s t ic c o inage u n t i l i t se nd i nt h e 4 th c en tu ry , w i th o n ly m ino r v a r ia t ion s f r om i sue t o i sue .8T he m idd le s t anda rd i ss omewha t e l u s ive . T he re a r e i nf a c t s e ve ra l m idd le s t anda rd s , b u t i ti sn o t c l ea r whe the r t h ey e x i s ted a t t h e s ame t ime , o r whe the r t h e re w a s ag radua l r educ t ion . I na ny e ven t , t h e re i sc l ea r ly as t anda rd o f a bou t 9 . 4g ( no t e xceed ing 9 . 5g ) . T h i s i s d emon s t rab le o n ly f o r t h e e a r ly i sue si nt h eh oa rd , wh ich a r er e la ted t ot h e Noe h oa rd a nd t os ome e xamp le s i n A syu t . T he se c o in s a r e l i nked t o ( a nd i n s ome c a se s s u cceeded b y ) as l igh t ly l i gh te r s t anda rd a t a round 9 . 2g , wh ich a ppea r s t o c o inc ide w i th t h e i n t roduc ion o f t h e t r i ske le s r eve r se ( a l though t h e se c an a l so b e o n t h e h eavy , 9 8gs t anda rd ) .9 T he s t anda rd i sf u r the r r educed t o j u s t u nde r 9 g f o r s e ve r a l s e r ie s i sued b y Kup r l l i a nd o the r s r e la ted t o t h em . C o in s o f t h i s s t anda rd h ad p rev iou s ly n o t b een w e l l a t te s ted , a l though Mo rkho lm p e rcep t ive ly r e cogn ized t h a t af ew s u ch c o in so f Kup r l l id id e x i s t . The m idd le s t anda rd i na l i t s v a r ie t ie s d i sappea r s a round t h e m idd le o ft h e 5 th c en tu ry , r ep laced b y t h e l i gh t L yc ian s t anda rd o f a bou t 8 5g , n o d oub t mean t t oc o r re spond t ot h e A t t ic d id r achm . T h i s l i gh t s t anda rd , wh ich c on t inue s t h roughou t t h e 5 th c en tu ry a nd i n to t h e 4 th , i st hu s t h e f u r the r r educ t ion o ft h e m idd le s t anda rd , a l though t h i s w a s n o t s e en b y Mo rkho lm . T he t o ta l a b sence o f l i gh t -we igh t c o in s f r om t h e h oa rd c onf i rm s t h a t t h e w e igh t c hange d id n o t o ccu r u n t i l a r ound t h e m idd le o f t h e c en tu ry . T h i s p rov ide s a n e x t reme ly i mpo r t an t c h rono log ica l p o in t , a l though a r e la t ive o ne , a nd a low s t h e d iv i s ion o f L yc ian c o in s , mo s t n o t ab ly t h e e x ten s ive c o inage o f Kup r l l i , b y t h e i n t roduc t ion o ft h e r educed w e igh t ,s oon a f te rt h ec l o se o ft h eh oa rd . One o the r r e su l t o f o u r a na ly s i s o f t h e w e igh t s m ay b e b r ief ly c on s ide r ed . Morkho lm b e l ieved t h a t c o in s o fd if e ren t w e igh t s c ou ld n o t h ave b een s t ruck a t t he s am e m in t a nd c ou ld f i nd o n ly o ne d i e l ink b e tween c o in s o f d if e r en t w e igh t s ." T h i sh e lped s uppo r th i st h eo ry o fc i t ie ss t r ik ing c o in sa c co rd ing t ot h e i r 7

c o in s w i th l i on ' s h ead o n t he o bve r se ( a s SNG ( von A u l o ck ) 4 04 1-2 ) a l so a ppea r s t o b e o n t h e 9 . 2g s t anda rd . " 0 . Morkho lm a nd J . Z ah le , ' The c o inage s o f t h e L yc ian d yna s t s Kher iga , Khe re i , a nd E rbb ina ' , A c ta A r ch . 4 7 ( 1 976 ) , 5 4 , al i nk b e tween t h e d yna s t s Kup r l l ia nd Khe r iga .

Mo rkho lm , o p . c i t . i n n . 1 , 6 9f . , a nd Morkho lm a nd Z ah le ,o p .c i t .i nn .1 ,7 2f . Mo rkho lm , o p . c i t . i n n . 1 , 7 0 n . 1 6 , a nd Merkho lm a nd Z ah le ,o p .c i t .i nn .1 ,7 2 . N . Okay a nd 0 . Mo rkho lm , ' The P oda l ia h oard ' , NC 1 97 1 ,2 2f . Av e ry e a r ly , i fn o t t h e e a r l ie s t , s e r ie s o fL yc ian 6

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own r eg iona l w e igh t s t anda rd . Howeve r , t h e h oa rd n ow p rov ide s an umbe r o f e xamp le s o f d i e l inked s e r ie s o f d if e ren t s t anda rd s , mo s t l i ke ly f r om t he s ame m in t , wh ich c a l l s Mo rkho lm ' s i d ea i n to q ue s t ion . T he r e a son s f o r t h e d if e ren t s t anda rd s mu s tr ema in o b scu re . T he h oa rd c on ta in s f ew e xamp le s o fe a r ly L yc ian c o in s , a nd c e r ta in ly n one o f t h e e a r l ie s t . Among t h e e a r l ie s t L yc ian c o in s i n i ta r e t ho se w i th b oa r s ( u sua l ly p ro tome s ) o n t h e o bve r se a nd i n cu se p unche s o n t h e r eve r se . An umbe r o fe a r ly L yc ian h oa rd sh ave a ppea red ,i n c lud ing s e ve ra li nt h e 1 970 s , t h a tc on t a in ed c o in so f t h i s t ype , b u t t h ey a r e c e r ta in ly o fe a r l ie r d a te t h an t h i sh oa rd . The r e la t ive ly e a r ly D amanhu r h oa rd" c on ta ined s e ve ra l e xamp le s , a sw e l l a ss ome e a r ly t wo s ided t ype s a l so a b sen t f r om o u rh oa rd . Ou rh oa rd c on t a ined o n ly t h ree e x amp le s o ft h e b oa r / incu se t ype , a nd t h e se a ppea rt ob eo ft h el a te s tv a r ie t ie so ft h i ss e r i e s . T he n ex t s e r ie s o fL yc ian c o in s h ave d ev ice s , u sua l ly a n ima l s , o n b o th s i de s a nd a r e u sua l ly u n in sc r ibed . B oa r s r ema in p opu la r a s o bve r se t ype s , a sd o w inged h o r se s . T he r eve r se s m ay r ep re sen t v a r iou s a n ima l s , o r t h e i r h ead s o r p ro tome s . B o th A syu ta nd t h eh oa rd p ub l i shed b y Noe a r et yp ica lo ft h i sp er iod . T he c o in si n Noe ' s h oa rd , wh ich w a s p robab ly f ound i nL y c ia i t s e lf , a l s e em t ob e f r om o ne m in t . T hey a l h ave aw inged h o r se o n t h e o bve r se , a nd t h e r eve r se s a r ee i the rb u l l p ro tome s , l i on a nd b u l l p ro tome s , o r t h e p ecu l i a r h a tched b o rde r w i th n o d ev ice w i th in . T hey a r e o n t h e e a r ly m idd le s t anda rd o f a bou t 9 . 4g . T he r e i ss ome o ve r lap h e re w i th A syu t , wh ich c on ta in ss e ve ra lo ft h es ame t ype .1 2 O u rh oa rd h a s d i e -dup l ica te s a nd f u r the r d i e l ink s f o r t h i s s e r ie s , a l though o n ly a bou t 2 0 c o in s b e long h e re , av e ry s ma l lp e rcen tage o ft h et o ta la nd o fc l ea r ly e a r l ie rd a t et h an t h e b u lk . A syu th a s mo re v a r ie ty t h an t h e Noe h oa rd , b u t mu s tb eo fa bou tt h es ame d a te . S eve ra lo the rc o in sw i th b oa ro bve r se a nd v a r iou sr eve r se d ev ice sa r ep r e s en t , s ome o f wh ich l i nk t o t h e e a r ly m a te r ia l i no u r h oa rd . I n a dd i t ion , t he re a r e t wo b oa r t ype s w i th r eve r se t r i ske le s , p robab ly among t h e e a r l ie s t e xamp le s o ft h i s s e r ie s ," b o th o f wh ich f i nd d up l ica te s i n t h e n ew h oa rd . T he se t ype s c on t inue u n t i l t h e c l o s ing d a te o fo u rh oa rd , a nd a r ew e l lr ep re sen t ed . T hey a r ee ven tua l ly d i e l inked t o an ew i n sc r ibed c o in o f Kup r l l i . O the rd yna s t s , n o tab ly K upr l l i ' s c on t empo ra ry E kuwEm i , a l so u s e t h e b oa r /t r i ske le s t ype . T hey emp loy b o th t h e h eavy a nd m idd le s t anda rd s , a nd a l though n o d i e l ink b e tween s t anda rd s h a s y e t b e en f ound h e re , t h e c o in s o fd if e ren t w e igh t o f ten l ook i d en t ica l . T he Kupr l l i c o in s o n t h e P e r s ian s t anda rd f ound i nt h eA syu th oa rd h ave a l ready b een m en t ioned . An e xamp le o ft h e d i e l ink ing t h a t o u rh oa rd h a s p rov ided r evea l s c onnec t ion s b e tween b oa r t ype s w i th a nd w i thou t i n sc r ip t ion s a nd o n d if e r en t w e igh t s t anda rd s .I tb eg in s( P l .V I ,1 )w i th as t a te ro nt h eh eavy s t anda rd t ha th a sa na l ready v e ry wo rn o bve r se d i e o f ab oa r w a lk ing l e f t c oup led w i th ar eve r se s how ing a g r if f in p ro tome r i gh tw i th s ma l lt r i ske le si nt h ef i e ld .T he r ea r et wo s p ec im en si nt h e h oa rd , d i e -dup l ica te s t h a t i n t u rn m a tch o ne n ow i n B e r l in f r om t h e Z agaz ig h oa rd , " wh ich u nf o r tuna te ly c an n o l onge r p rov ide au s ef u l c h rono log i ca l p o in t ' I GCH 1 637 . H . D re s se l a nd K . Reg l ing , ` Zwe i ä gyp t i sche F unde a l tg r iech i sche r S i lbe rmünzen ' , Z fN 3 7 ( 1 927 ) ,6 9-72 ,n o s . 17-24 . M. J . P r ice a nd N . Waggone r , A r cha i c G r e ek

S i lv e rC o inag e . T h eA syu tH oa rd , 1 975 ,n o s .7 55-8 . i b id . ,n o s .7 65-6 . I GCH 1 645 . D re s se l a nd Reg l ing , o p . c i t . i nn . 1 ,132 ,n o .2 47 . 1 3

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f o r o u r s t udy s i nce i t sb u r ia l d a te n ow s e em s t ob e c .4 50 o r l a te r , r a the r t h an t h e p rev iou s ly s uppo sed c .4 70 .1 5 T he o bve r se d i e t h en l i nk s t o ad if e r en t t ype o f r e ve r se d i e , a n u nu sua lt ype s how ing as o r t o ft e t ra ske le s w i th at r i ske le s e ng raved i ni t s c en t r e , a l w i th in ad o t ted b orde r ( P l . V I , 2 ) . T he re a r ef i ve e xamp le si no u r h oa rd , o n t h e m idd le s t anda rd o f a bou t 9 . 2g . T he r eve r se d i e s e em s t o h ave b een t aken f r om as e r i e s w i th o bve r se b oa r p ro tome l e f t o n t h e h eavy s t anda rd k nown f r om au n ique e xamp le i nP a r i s" a nd n o t f ound i no u r h oa rd . Nex t ( P l . V I , 3 ) t h e o bve r se d i ei sr e eng raved , me re ly w i th t h e a dd i t ion o f at r i ske le s o ve r t h e n ow b a re ly d i s t ingu i shab le b oa r . T he n ew r eve r se d i e i s at r i ske le s w i th t h e l e t te r s k u f o r Kup r l l i . T he re a r e 1 3 e xamp le s i n t h e h oa rd , u s ing t wo d if e ren t r eve r se d i e s , a l o n t h e m idd le s t anda rd . Ano the r s e r ie s r ep r e sen ted i nt h e h oa rd ( no t i lu s t ra ted h e re ) s im i la r ly d emon s t ra te s t h e se l i nk s b e tween i n sc r ibed a nd u n in sc r ibed c o in s a nd b e tween c o in s o fd if e ren t w e igh t s t anda rd s , a ga in e nd ing w i th t he i n sc r ibed c o in so f Kup r l l i . Kup r l l i i sf a i r ly w e l l r ep re sen ted i nt h e h oa rd w i th o ve r 1 00 c o in s o fa tl e a s t 1 6 d if eren tt ype s ,h a lf o ft h em n ew . ' T h i ss hou ld n o tb et oo s u rp r i s ing i nv i ew o ft h e l a rge n umbe r o ft ype s c o l lec ted b y Mo rkho lm i nh i s s t udy a nd t h e l ong r e ign o f t he d yna s t , o ne o ft h e f ew r u le r s k nown f r om t h e monumen ta l d yna s t ic i n sc r ip t i on s f ound i n L yc ia ." I n f a c t , w e h ave i n t h e h oa rd o n ly t h e b eg inn ing s o fh i s c o inage , wh ich c on t inue sa tl e a s ti n to t h e4 40 s , a sc an b es e en b yt h ea dvanced s t y le 7

o ft he l a te rc o in t ype sa nd t h e i rr educed w e igh t ,a s men t ioned b ef o re . Kup r l l i ' s l e s s w e l l k nown c on tempo ra ry E kuw d -m i i sa l so r ep re sen ted . T he re a r e 1 6 o fh i s c o in s , a l b u t o ne o n t h e m idd le ( 9g )s t anda rd a nd w i th c on s ide rab le d i el ink ing . One c o in ( P l . V I ,4 )i so fs p ec ia li n te re s ts i nce t h es ame o bve r se i su s ed w i th b o th a nu n in sc r ibed r eve r se a nd ar eve r se w i th t h en ame o f Kup r l l i . T he l a t te r i sn o tr ep re sen ted i nt h eh oa rd , b u ti sn o ted b y Mo rkho lm ." T ha tt h et wo d yna s t s s hared d i e sw a sa l re ady k nown f r om f r ac t ion s ,b u tt h i sn ew e xamp le i sw e lcome , a s i st he a dd i t iona ll i nk t oa nu n in sc r ibed i sue . S ome o the r d yna s t s a r e r ep re sen ted i no n ly s ma l l n umbe r s o r s i ng le e xamp le s . Ue le h a s 1 2 e x amp le s ; T h ibo 2 ; Z agaba ( p rev iou s ly u nknown e xcep t a s a 4 th-cen tu ry d yna s t ) 1 " ; Z a ... ( Zagaba ? ) 8 ;a nd t h e re a r e af ew o the r s t h a t c anno t p re sen t ly b e d ec iph e red o r a r e u n in sc r ibed . T he re i sa tl e a s t o ne f u r the r d i e l ink t o u n in sc r ibed i sue s . Ano the r s e r ie s , a l though n o t e s pec ia l ly w e l l r ep re sen ted i nt h e h oa rd w i th o n ly s even e xamp le s , p r e sen t s i mpo r tan t e v idence f o r r e la t ive c h rono logy . I ti sa n u n in sc r ibed s e r i e s w i th b oa r s o n t h e o bve r se a nd t u r t le s , s im i la r t o t ho se o n A eg ine tan c o inage , o n t h e r eve r se . Mo rkho lm n o ted t h a tn ea r ly a l a r e o ve r s t ruck o n o the r c o in s , 2'w h ich i sn o t u nu sua l f o r L yc ian i sue s , b u t s e ve ra l i mpo r tan t o ve r s t r ike s h ave b een f ound . One e xamp le , i n t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum , i st w ice 15

C f . C.

t op rev iou s ly k nown u n in scr ibed i sue s . E . K a l inka , T i tu l i A s ia e M ino r i s , v o l . 1 ,V ienna , 1 90 1 ,n o .4 4 . Me rkho lm a nd Z ah le , o p . c i t . i n n . 1 ,n o . 3 5 ( Kup r l l i )a nd p l . I ,D( un in scr ibed ) . C f . P . F re i , ' Beme rkungen z u l yk i schen Münz legenden ' , SM 1 7 ,6 7( 1 967 ) ,8 6f . Mo rkho lm ,o p .c i t .i nn .1 ,6 8f .a nd n .1 0 .

M . K raay , M i s c . G ra e ca 1 , Ghen t , 1 975 ,

1 47 .

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B abe lon , T r a i t i I ,n o . 8 35 , p l . 2 2 , 1 7 =L e s P e r s e sa c h i .mgn id e s ,n o .4 62 ,p l . 1 2 ,2 . P rev iou s ly k nown t ype s o f Kup r l l i i nt h e h oa rd i nc lude t h e f o l low ing : Mo rkho lm a nd Z ah le , o p . c i t . i n n . 1 ,n o s . 5 ,1 7 , 2 , 2 4 , 3 0 , a nd 4 0 , a sw e l l a s s t a te r s o f t h e t ype s n o s . 1 73 a nd 1 78 , p rev iou s ly k nown o n ly a sf r ac t ion s . T he re a r e a dd i t iona l l i nk s 16

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o ve r s t ruck , o n a no the r L yc ian c o in wh ich h ad i nt u rn b een s t ruck o n ac u t -down t e t rad rachm o fA can thu s ,2 u nf o r tuna te ly n o t v e ry u s ef u l i nd e te rm in ing c h ron o logy . Many o the r sa r eo ve r s t ruck o ne a r ly L y c ian c o in s , b u to n t wo e x amp le st h e u nde r type s c an b e s e en t o b e i n sc r ibed L yc i an c o in s , o ne o f t h e se c l ea r ly o f Kup r l l i .2 3 Mo rkho lm n o te s t h i s a nd p o in t s o u tt h a t t h e s e r ie s mu s t t h e r ef o re b e o f l a te r d a te t h an w a s p rev iou s ly t hough t , p e rhap s c on t inu ing u n t i l a f te r 4 50 , a l though h i s d a te may b e al i t t le t oo l a te . An ew c o in f r om t h e h oa rd ( P l . V I , 5 ) s how sa nu n in sc r ibed b oa r /t r i ske le st ype c l ea r ly o ve r s t ruck o n ab oa r /t u r t le s t a te r o ft h e s o r t t h a t w a s o ve r s t ruck o n aKup r l l i s t a t e r . A l though t h e o ve r s t r ike s mu s t , o fc ou r se , b e l a te r t h an t h e u nde r type s , t h e t im e d if e rence i nt h i s c a se c anno t b e g rea t , e s pec ia l ly i nv i ew o ft h e e x ten s ive o ve r s t r ik ing o n o the r c l o se ly c on temp o r a ry L yc ian c o in s . F o rr e a son sn o d oub t s i gn if i can tb u t u nc lea r a tp r e s en t , L yc i an c o in s o ft h i s p e r iod a r e mo re o f ten t h an n o t o v e r s t ruck o n e a r l ie r , u sua l ly L yc ian , c o in s . We t u rn n ow t o t h e b u lk o ft h e L yc ian c o in s . A l l t ho se p rev iou s ly m en t ioned , wh ich i n c lude n ume rou s v a r ie t ie s a nd d i e s , u n in s c r ibed a nd i n scr ibed o fv a r iou s d yna s t s , r ep re sen t o n ly a bou t 4 0 p e r c en t . o ft h eL yc i an c on t en t o ft h eh oa rd . T he o the r6 0p e rc en t . i sc o mpo sed o fs e ve ra li sue s t h a ta r e c l o se ly d i e l ink ed a nd w i th m any d i e -dup l ica te s . Mo s t o f t h e se c o in s w e r e n o t p rev iou s ly k nown , o r w e r e k nown i n o n ly af ew e xamp le s . Two m a in s e r i e s a r e i nvo lved , o ne w i th al ong s t r ing o fd i e l ink sc onnec t ing d if e ren tt ype sa nd d yna s t s . T he o the r s e r ie s i s mo s t u nu sua l f o r t h e c oup l ing o f as i ng le o bve r se d i e r e -eng r aved s e ve ra l t ime s w i th as i ng le r eve r se d i e . A l l t h e c o in s a r e o n t h e h eavy s t anda rd , a bou t 9 . 8g , a nd t h e re a r e a bou t 1 20 e xamp le s i n t o ta l . T he f i r s t e xamp le ( P l . V I ,6 )s how s ag oa tw i th at r i ske le ss ymbo la bove . The r e ve r se s how s t h e t r i ske le s a nd a n i n sc r ip t ion o f ten r e ad a sz i t , b u t wh ich , a s Mo rkho lm a nd Neumann p o in t o u t , m ay b e b e t te r r e ad a sz ë w i th a n a c company ing s ymbo l .2 4 Wh i le t h e s ame r eve r se d i e i su s ed , t h e o bve r se d i e , n ow s omewha t mo r e wo rn , i s r e -eng raved ( P l . V I , 7 ) . T he t r i ske le s i se r a s ed , a nd a l e t te r o r s ymbo l oi s s ub s t i tu ted .2 5 T race so ft h e t r i ske le sa r es t i l l v i s ib l e . N ex t ( P l . V I , 8 )t h i ss ymbo li s e r a sed a nd an ew o ne p u ti n : t h e s ame s ymbo l , r e semb l ing aT , t ha t a ppe a r so n t h e r eve r se .2 6 Mo s t o ft h e c o in s i n t h i s s e r ie s , n ea r ly ah und red , a r e o ft h i s v a r ie ty . F ina l ly ( P l . V I , 9 ) , at r i ske le s i sa dded b e low t h e g oa t . T he c oup l ing o fs e ve ra l o bve r se sw i th o ne r eve r se i sc on t ra ry t on o rma l m in t ing p r ac t ice , i n wh i ch r eve r se d i e sn eed r e p lac ing mo re o f ten , a nd e ven i nL yc ia t h i si st h eu sua lc a se . F o rt h i si sue w e may i n te rp re t t h e r e eng rav ing o fd if e ren t s ymbo l s a ss ome s o r t o fc on t ro l s y s tem .T he m in ta t t r ibu t ion w i l lb ed i scu s sed b e low . T he mo s t r evea l ing s e r ie s , wh ich e ven tua l ly a c coun t s f o r mo re t han 4 50 o ft h e c o in s i nt h eh oa rd , l i nk s r e la t ive ly e a r ly u n in sc r ib ed c o in s w i th s eve ra l d yn a s t s a nd s e ve ra lw e igh t s t anda rd s . A l l t h e c o in s a r e d i e l inked o rl i nked b y i n sc r ip t ion s , a nd No . 1 . I f al e t te r , i t wou ld b e t he L yc ian u . A d i e d up l ica te i sSNG ( v on A u l o ck )4 117 . A f r ac t ion o ft he s e r ie s w i th t he s ame o bve r se s ymbo l i si n P a r i s , B abe lon , T ra i t e I , n o . 2 46 b i s ( 1 .27 g ) .

BMC L y c i a ,4 ,n o . 1 8 ,p l . 1 ,1 5 . Mo rkho lm a nd Z ah le , o p . c i t . i n n . 1 ,7 6 , n o s . 1 518 . One e xamp le o ft h i s t ype i si n t h e h oa rd a s w e l l . 0 . Mo rkho lm a nd G . Neumann , D i e l y k i s ch en Münz l eg end en , Gö t t ingen , 1 978 , M19 . C f . Mo rk h o lm a nd Z ah le , o p . c i t . i n n .10 , 6 3 , s ymbo l 22

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a l a r e p robab ly f r om t h e s ame m in t . T hey h ave i n c o mmon aw inged h o r se o r w inged h o r se p ro tom e a sa n o bve r se t ype . T he f i r s t c o in s s how aw inged h o r se o bve r se a nd l i on h ead l e f tr eve r se ( P l . V I I , 1 0 ) . T he w e igh ti st h eh eav ie r ' m idd le ' s t andard o f a bou t 9 . 4g , a nd t h e c o in s a r e s t y l i s t ica l ly r e la ted t o t h e Noe h oa rd , whe re t h ec o in sa l h ave w inged h o r se o bve r se sa nd a r eo nt h i ss ame w e igh t s t anda rd . T he re a r e n o a c tua l d i e l ink s t o t h a t h oa rd , h oweve r . F ive r eve r se d i e s w i th l i on h ead a r e u s ed , b u t t h e o bve r se d i e , e xcep t i no ne e xamp le , i sa lway s t h e s ame . Howeve r , i ti sq u ick ly wo rn o u t a nd u nde rgoe s s e ve ra l r e eng rav ing s . F i r s t , aT i sa dded t ot h eh i ndqua r te r s o ft h ew inged h o r se , t h e s ame l e t te ra ss e en o nt h e w inged h o r se si nt h e Noe h oa rd , a nd wh ich a l so a ppea r so nt h en eck o ft h el i on o n t h e r eve r se . T he o bve r se d i e i sr e cu t f ou r t ime s , e nd ing i n an ea r ly u n in te l l ig ib le s t a te . T hen , u nch anged , i ti sc oup led w i th a n ew r eve r se , at r i ske le s w i th a n i n scr ip t ion t h a t Ir e ad a se s b eh i , c e r ta in ly an ame o fa n u nknown d yna s t ( P l . V I I , 1 ) . An e xamp le f r om t h e s ame d i e s h a s b een i n P a r i s f o r s ome t ime a nd i s i lu s t ra ted i nB abe lon ' s T r a i t, 2 7 b u t t h e i n sc r ip t ion i si n comp le te a nd w a s m i s read b y Morho lm a nd N eumann , who c onf u sed i tw i th as im i la r n ame , wh ich w i l l b e c on s ide red s ho r t ly . T he d yna s t e s b eh i i su nknown , b u t t h e n ame d oe s a ppea ro nce o n ab r ief t omb i n sc r ip t ion f r om L imy ra .2 8 T he se c o in sa r eo n t h es l igh t ly r educed s t anda rd o fa bou t9 . 2g . The d i e l ink s a r e l o s t a tt h i s p o in t , b u t t h e n ew o bve r se a nd r eve r se d i e s o n t h e n ex t e xamp le a r e v e ry s im i la r a nd t h e n ame i st h e s ame ( P l . V I I , 1 2 ) , a si st he w e igh t s t anda rd . Now t h e re i sa n i mpo r tan t d i e l ink . T he s ame i n sc r ibed r eve r se d i ei sl i nked w i th an ew o bve r se t h a ts how s aw inged h o r se p ro tome w i th t r i ske le s e ngraved o n i ta nd t wo l e t te r s ( k J o r k g r e t rog r ade ? ) o fu nc lea r mean ing b e low ( P l . V I I , 1 3 ) . T h en ew o bve r se d i ei su s ed a l so f o rt h en ex tt h ree r eve r se s , a nd i na l c a se s c o in s w i th t h i s o bve r se a r e o n t h e h eavy s t anda rd o f a bou t 9 . 8g . T he n ex t r eve r se ( P l . V I I , 1 4 ) n ame s an ew d yna s t , p rev iou s ly u nknown a nd w i th a n a me d if icu l t t od ec iphe r . I ti sn o t c l ea r a tt h e momen t i n wh ich o rde r t h e n ex t t wo d i e sc o me ,b u tp e rhap sn ex ti sas ho r ti sue w i th n on ame , me re ly as ymbo lo fa t ype p a ra l le led o n o the r L yc ian c o in s , i n c lud ing c o in s o ft h e d yna s t S l a j l i ke t h e o ne s t h a t f o l low ,2 9 b u t w i th n o c l ea r m ean ing ( P l . V I I , 1 5 ) . F ina l ly c ome s al a rge i sue , w i th n ea r ly 3 00 e xamp le s i nt h e h oa rd , o ft h e d yna s t t i a j ( a s Mo rkho lm a nd Neumann r e ad i t ;3° p rev iou s ly c a l led J r ia b y Mo rkho lm ) ( P l . V I I , 1 6 ) . T he d yna s t i sk nown t h rough c o in s o fs im i la r t ype , a l though n o t d i e -dup l ica te s , s ome o f wh ich w e re p r e sen t i n t h e K a e( An t iphe l lu s ) h oa rd o f 1 96 1 ( IGCH 1 251 ) , u nf or tuna te ly n o t w e l l r e co rded b u t m en t ioned s e ve ra l t ime s b y Mo rkho lm ,3 1 wh ich mu s t b e a tl e a s t ad ecade o r s o l a te r i n d a te t h an o u r h oa rd a nd wh ich a l so a ppea r s o n a n u npub l i shed t ype i n t he h oa rd w i th b oa r o bve r se /t r i ske le s r eve r se . C f . Morkho lm a nd Z ah le , o p . c i t . i nn .10 , 6 4 , s y mbo l No . 1 8 , a nd s im i la r s y mbo l s a ppear ing o n o the r c o in s a nd g em s o ft h i s p e r iod ,J .B oa rdman , ' Py ram ida l s t amp s e a l s i nt h eP e r s ian Emp i re ' , I r an 8( 1 970 ) ,2 2f . Mo rkho lm a nd Neumann , o p . c i t . i n n . 2 4 , M103 . Morkho lm , o p . c i t . i nn . 1 ,6 9 , a nd Merkho lm a nd Z ah le ,o p .c i t . i nn .1 ,7 5 .

B abe lon , T ra i t iI ,n o . 1 6 1 ,p l .9 2 ,2 2 . K a l inka , o p . c i t . i nn . 1 8 , 1 28 , 1 ;c f . L . Z gu s ta , K l e ina s ia t i s ch e P e r s on enn am en , P rague , 1 964 , 1 76 n o . 3 65 ,n .9 0 . B abe lon , T r a i t é I ,n o . 2 17 , p l . 9 4 , 2 5 a nd SNG ( von A u l o ck ) 4 103 ( s ame d i e s ) f o r Na j ; a nd B abe lon , T ra i t é I , n o . 2 18 , p l . 9 4 , 2 6 f o r z az th i , w i th a n o bver se d i e -dup l ica te a l so i nt h i sh oa rd . Un in sc r ibed i sue s w i th w inged h o r se o n s h ie ld a nd t r i ske le s r eve r se , a ppa ren t ly f r om t h e K a § h oa rd , a l so h ave t h i s s ymbo l , SNG ( v on A u l o ck ) 4 087-8 . T he s y mbo l 27 28

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i n c luded an umbe r o fd yna s t s o ft h e n ex t g ene ra t ion , a sw e l l a ss ome p o s t -S ta r r g roup A then s t e t rad rachm s . T he c o in s o ft h e d yn a s t R a j , t h e mo s t n ume rou s t ype o ft h e h oa rd , a r e a l so p robab ly t h e l a te s t c o in s i nt h e h oa rd a nd m igh t a l so g ive a c l ue i ni d en t if y ing t h e h oa rd ' s owne r , i f mo re w e r e k nown a bou t t he h i s tory a nd p e r sona l i t ie so fL yc ia a tt h i st ime . An i sue t h a th a s e l emen t si nc o mmon w i th t h el a s t o ne mu s t a l so b ec on s ide red h e re . Ano the rb ad ly wo rn w inged h o r se o bve r se , w i th T o nt h eh indqua r t e r s ,h a sa r eve r se i n sc r ip t ion v e ry s im i la rt ot h ef i r s te s b eh ii n s c r ip t ion ( P l .V I I , 1 7 ) ,s os im i la r t h a t t h e c o in s mu s t b e l ooked a tv e ry c a ref u l ly t od i s t ingu i sh t h e t wo , a nd i nf a c t Mo rkho lm a nd Neumann c onf u sed t h et wo i nt h e i rp ub l ica t ion .3 2 T he w e igh t sa r e t h e s ame , a bou t 9 . 2g . Mo rkho lm a nd Neumann r e ad t h e i n s c r ip t ion a s i r i e s e , a l though r e ad t h e o the r w ay i tm ay b e e s e r r i i o r e s eh i , v e ry c l o s e t o t h e e s b eh i i n sc r ip t ion , a l though t h e bi sc l ea r ly a b sen t . I ti sp o s s ib le , h oweve r , t h a t t h e n ame s a r e mean t t o b e i d en t i ca l . Two e xamp le s o ft h i s o the rw i se u nknown t ype a r e i n Oxf o rd ; o ne , o n ly f r agmen ta ry , h av ing b een c u t i nh a lf , i sf r om t h eJ o rd an h oa rd ,3 p rov id ing a no the r l i nk t o t h a t i mpo r tan t h oa rd . A no the r u npub l i shed e xamp le w a sr e cen t ly a cqu i red b yt h e Ame r ican Num i sma t ic S oc ie ty . T he n ex t d i e l ink i sq u i te e x t rao rd ina ry . T he s ame o bve r se i sc oup led w i th a n ew r eve r se ( P l . V I I , 1 8 ) t h a t h a s n o t r i ske le s , m e r e ly ad o t ted s qua r e w i th a n i n sc r ip t ion i nG reek , n o t L yc ian . I tc l ea r ly r e ad s r h od ion , p re sumab ly f o r n om i sma r h od ion , a` Rhod ian c o in ' . T he se c o in s a r e o n t h es ame L yc ian w e igh ts t and a rd a nd w e re p re sumab ly s t ruck f o r o r b y Rhod ian s i n L yc ia , p e rhap s a s p aymen t s f o r me rcena r ie s . Rhod ian a c t iv i ty i sw e l la t te s ted i nL yc ia s i nce t h e7 th c en tu ry o re ven b ef o re . P ha se l i s , o n t h e e a s te rn b o rde r o fL yc ia , w a s aRhod ian c o lony , a nd t h e L yc ian c i ty o f Rhod iapo l i s p e rhap s b ea r s w i tne s s t o aRhod ian p re sence a ts ome t ime . T he c o in s , h oweve r , a r e as u rp r i s ing a nd i nd eed u n ique d ocu men t a t te s t ing Rhod ian a c t iv i ty i nL yc ia i nt h e4 60 s . F ina l ly , t h e s ub jec t o fm in t s mu s t b e a dd re s sed . Two m in t s a r e n am ed o n t h e c o inage o f Kup r l l i , X an tho s a nd L imy ra ( z Jmu r e i nL yc ian ) .3 4 P he l lo s ( w eh r i t ez i ) i sk nown f r om c o in s o f s l igh t ly l a te r d a te . Ou r h oa rd i n c lude s ap r ev iou s ly u nknown t ype ( P l . V I I , 1 9 ) , o nt h eh eavy s t anda rd ,w i th ad o lph in o nt h eo bve r se a nd a c l ea r , n ea t ly w r i t ten i n sc r ip t ion o n t h e r eve r se r e ad ing a p r l l azi , wh ich , a c co rd ing t o Neumann 3 5 s hou ld b es ome f o rm o ft h ec i ty n ame A pe r la i . H oweve r , n oo the rc o in sw i th t h i si n sc r ip t ion a r ei nt h eh oa rd . T he re a r e s e ve r a l c o in s o f Kup r l l ii n sc r ibed w i th t h en ame z imu r e , o rL imy r a .3 6 D ie l inked e xamp le s h ave r eve r se s w i th e i the r n o i n sc r ip t ion ( P l . V I I , 2 0 ) , o r me re ly t h e s i ng le l e t te r z , p robab ly f o r z Jmu r e . N eumann s ugge s ted t h a t t h e i n sc r ip t ion z J t o n t h e g oa t s t a te r s d i scu s sed a bove m ay b e b e t te r r e ad a sz ia nd a s ymbo l , t h e z Jp e rhap s s t and ing f o r t h e p l ace -name z imu r e . T h i s t heo ry b ecome s mo re l i ke ly i nt h el i gh to ft h en ew ma te r ia ln ow a va i lab l e . T he t h i rd s i gn i sc l ea r ly

Morkho lm a nd Z ah le ,o p .c i t . i nn . 1 ,7 5 . Mo rkho lm a nd Neumann , o p . c i t . i n n . 2 4 , M108 , M111 . A s Mo rkho lm a nd Z ah le , o p . c i t . i n n . 1 ,n o . 2 2 .

Mo rkho lm a nd Neumann , o p . c i t . i n n . 2 4 , M22 . I GCH 1 482 . C . M . K raay a nd P .R . S . Moo rey , ' Two f i f th c en tu ry h oa rd s f r om t h e Nea r E a s t ' , RN 1 968 , 1 88 ,n o .6 4 ,p l .2 1 .

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as ymbo l r a the r t h an a l e t te r , a s i ti su s ed o n t h e o bve r se o f o ne d i e .3 7 T he a t t r ibu t ion o ft h e e n t i r e g roup t oL imy ra i sa ppea l ing , a nd i ti sa l so t emp t ing t o a t t r ibu te t h ee x ten s ive r un o fw inged h o r se c o in so ft h ev a r iou sd yna s t st ot h i sc i ty o ra no the rc l o se b y ,a st h en ame e s b eh ia ppea r so n at omb t h e re . T he re a r e b o th c h rono log ica l a nd e conom ic c onc lu s ion s o f r e levance t o t h i s s ympo s ium t h a t c an b ed rawn f r om t h e e v idence o ft h i sh oa rd , b u t u nf o r tuna te ly n o t a sp rec i se ly a sw e w ou ld l i ke . T he d a te o ft h eh oa rd ,j udg ing f r om e a r l ie ra nd l a te rL yc i an c o in h oa rd s , s hou ld b el a te rt h an c .4 70 a nd b ef o re c .4 50 , b u tt h i si sl e s s p r ec i se t h an t h e e v id ence g i ven b y t h e n on -Lyc ian c o in s i n t h e h oa rd . T he e conom ic i mp l ica t ion s a r e mo re f a r reach ing . L yc ian c o in s d o n o t s e em o f ten t o h ave b een s t ruck o nt h eP e r s ian s t anda rd , a nd t h e re a r en one i nt h i sh oa rd . On t h e o the r h and , w e s e e as w i tch t o t h e A t t ic s t anda rd ( a long s ide t h e l o ca l L yc ian s t anda rd ) v e ry s oon a f te r t h e c l o su r e o f t h i s h oa rd , c e r ta in ly b y 4 50 , a t at ime when an umbe r o fn e a rby G r eek m in t s a ppea r t ob e c l o s ing , a tl e a s t t empo ra r i ly . D e sp i te t h e l a ck o f ag ood f i xed c h rono log ica l p o in t , t h e i n f o rma t ion t h a t t h e h oa rd a dd s t o o u r k now ledge o fL yc ian c o inage — i t s w e igh t s t anda rd s , o rde r o f i sue s a nd r e la t ive c h rono logy , i n sc r ip t ion s , a nd s o o n— i s v e ry g rea t , a nd t h e f o r thcom ing p ub l ica t ion o ft h e h oa rd i ni t s e n t i re ty w i l l d i scu s s t h e se a s pec t s i n mo re d e t a i l . 3 7 Cf . t he s ame s y mbo l o n aL yd ian-Achaemen id g em i n L ondon , B oa rdman , o p . c i t . i n n . 2 9 , 2 3 ,

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T he c o inage so ft h en o r the rn A egean

M. JE SS OP PR ICE

[ P LATES V I I I— IX ]

ON Eo ft h ee xc i temen t so f wo rk ing w i th c o in si st h a t t h e re i sac on s tan ts t ream o f d i scove r ie s wh ich a low s c on t inuou s r e app ra i sa l o f t r ad i t iona l b e l ief s a nd mo re r e cen t t h eo r ie s . T he n ew L yc ian h oa rd p rov ide s aw ea l th o f e v idence f o r t h e c h rono logy o fc o inage s i nt h e t h i rd q ua r te r o ft h e f i f th c en tu ry , a nd Ia m i ndeed g r a tef u l t ot ho se r e spon s ib le f o r t h e p ub l ica t ion f o r t h i s o ppo r tun i ty t od e lve i n to t h eh oa rd ' sc on sequenc e s . ' B ef ore p l ung ing i n to t h ed e t a i l so ft h ec o inage so fn o r the rn G reece , Iwou ld l i ke t o make o ne o r t wo g ene ra l p o in t s wh ich m ay h ave s ome r e levance t o t h e d i scu s s ion s . I n d ea l ing w i th c o inage i nt h e e a r ly f i f th c en tu ry i ti si mpor tan t t o r emembe rt h a ts i l ve rc o inage w a s ar e la t ive ly n ew p henomenon .T he c o inage st h a t c an b e p l aced i nt h es i x th c en tu ry a r e r e la t ive ly m eag re , a nd t h e re a ppea r st oh ave b een a ne xp lo s ion o fc o inage i nt h ee a r ly y ea r so ft h ef i f th c en tu ry . S eve ra lc o inage s e x i s t f r om t h e l a te s i x th a nd e a r ly f i f th c en tu ry w i th aw e l l d eve loped s y s tem o f s ma l l d enom ina t ion s , b u t t h e v a s t m a jo r i ty o ft h e p i ece s t oh ave s u rv ived w e re o f s t a te rs i ze o rl a rge r ,a nd i ti su n l ike ly t h a tt h e se w e re d e s igned f o ru s ei nt h em a rke t p l ace . S i lve ro b jec t ss u rv iv ing f r om t h ea nc ien t wo r ld b ef o re t h el a te s i x th c en tu ry B C a r e e x t r eme ly r a re . I tm ay w e l l b e t h a t i mp rovemen t s i n t h e t e chno logy o f p roce s s ing s i l ve r f r om l e ad o re s , l i nked w i th i n c rea s ing c on tac t sb e tween E a s t a nd We s t ,l e dd i rec t ly t oi n c rea sed m in ing a nd e xp lo ra t ion a tL au r ion a nd o the rs ou rce s o f s i lve r -be a r ing l e ad o re s , a nd t h a t i tw a s t h i s t h a t r e su l ted i n t h e c o in age e xp lo s ion . I fs i lve r w a s a sr a re , o r r a re r , t h an g o ld i nt h e s e ven th c en tu ry , t h e re s e em s l i t t le d oub t t h a ti t sa c tua l v a lue mu s th ave b een s im i la r t ot h a t o fg o ld . T he s i l ve r p roduced i n t h e l a te s i x th a nd e a r ly f i f th c en tu ry i n G reece f ound r e ady m a rke t s i nt h e P e r s ian e mp i re a nd Magna G r aec ia , whe re c l ea r ly t h e v a lue mu s t h ave b een g r ea t ly i ne x ce s so ft h ef a l l ing v a lue i nt h eA egean b a s in . B yt u rn ing t h e s i l ve r i n to c o in s , t h e i sue r w a s p robab ly m ak ing a f a i r p rof i t , a nd , e ven a f te r a b so rb ing t h a t p rof i t , t h e t r ade r s w e re h app i ly t r an spo r t ing t h e se l i t t le s t amped i n go t st oa r ea s whe r et h ep r ice w a ss t i l lc on s ide rab ly h ighe r . T he i d ea t h a tt r ibu t eo rt a xe sw e re t h e m a in r e a son s f o rt h e movemen to fs i lve r L yc ian f i nd , a nd s im i la r ly Ia m mo s tg ra tef u lt oM i s s S .F r ied , Mr . J .K agan , a nd Mr . J .S p ie r f o r g ene r ou s ly m ak ing m a te r ia la va i lab le .

1 Iwou ld p a r t icu la r ly l i ke t oe xp re s s my g r a t i tude t oD r . Corne l iu s V e rmeu le f o r h i s c on t inued g ene r o s i ty i n s h a r ing w i th m e t h e d e ta i l s o f t h e n ew

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c o inage 2 s e em s a n u nnece s sa ry s imp l if ic a t ion . A ny p rof i t t h a t may h ave a cc rued f r om t u rn ing r aw s i lve r i n to c o in s mu s t h ave a to nce b een l o s t i ns u ch p ay men t s , a nd s i nce s u ch s um s wou ld n o t h ave b een p a id a st a xe s b y Macedon i an s t o t h e s a t rap ie s o f C i l ic ia , A ba rnaha ra , o r E gyp t o th e r r e a son s mu s t h ave c au sed t h e movemen t o f G reek c o inage t o ap l ace s u ch a s A syu t -Lykopo l i s . Howeve r u nf a sh ionab le s u ch a n i d ea m ay b e t oday , Ia m c onv inced t h a t movemen to fs i lve r f r om s u ch a r ea s a sn o r th G reece t o t h e e a s te rn Med i te r r anean mu s t h ave b een c onduc ted a s af o rm o ft r ade ,a nd i ti sn os u rp r i se t h a t ah oa rd s u ch a st h a td e sc r ibed i nt h i s v o lume , w i th c on ten t s o f at ype mo re n o rma l ly a s soc ia ted w i th E gyp t a nd P a le s t ine ,s hou ld h ave b een f ound a to ne o ft h es t ag ing p o s t so nt he s i lve rr ou te . T he o the r s ub jec t o ft h i s d eba te i st h e e f ec t o ft h e A then ian c u r r ency d ec ree . T he s t a ted p u rpo se w a s t ob r ing a ne nd t ol o ca l s t r ik ing o fc o inage a nd t oi n s t i tu te t h e u s e o fA then ian c o in s , w e igh t s a nd m ea su r e s t h roughou t t he c onf ede racy . I wou ld l i ke t o u nde r l ine t h a t v e ry f ew i n sc r ip t ion s h ave s u rv ived wh ich d i rec t ly r e la te t o t h e s t r ik ing o fc o inage . T he re a r e h ow eve r s i gn s o fc onf ede ra t e c o inage a g reemen t s wh ich s u rv ive i nt h ec o in st h em se lve s .T he B oeo t ian L eague i sue sa r ea c l ea r i nd ica t ion t h a t c onf ede rac ie s t hough t i n t e rm s o f u n if orm i ty i n c o inage w i thou t n ece s sa r i ly e nc roach ing u pon t h e s ove re ign a u tonomy o f membe r s t a te s . One may i mag ine t h a t f o r t h i s c o inage , a nd f o r t h e c o inage o f Co r in th a nd h e r c o lon ie s , a nd f o r t h e w e l l k nown s ymmach ia c o inage o fc .4 00 BC, t he r e mu s t h ave e x i s ted i n sc r ip t ion s s e t u p i n t h e m embe r c i t ie s s t ipu la t ing t h e p a r t icu la r w e igh t s y s tem sa nd d e s ign st ob eu s ed . T he r e a son why Macedon ia p l ay s s u ch a p rom inen t p a r t i n t h e h i s to ry o f c o inage i nt h e l a te s i x th a nd e a r ly f i f th c en tu ry i st h a t t h e a r e a wa s r i ch i ns i lve r m ine s . We h ave a l r eady s e en s ome o ft h e d rama t i c c o inage s f r om t he Ma cedon ian r eg ion f ound i n t h e L yc ian h oa rd . Of p a r t icu la r i n te re s t i st h e l a rge n umbe r o f o c tad rachm s i nt h e n ame o ft h e B i sa l t i . S ome o ft h e l a te s t e xamp le s d i sp lay a sa s ymbo l i n t h e f i e ld a h e lme t ( P l . V I I I , 1 ) , wh ich m ay b e l i nked w i th t h e a ppea rance o ft h i s s ame d ev ice e i the ra sr eve r se d e s ign o r a ss ymbo l o n c o inage s o f A lexande r I ,t h e O re sc i i , D e r rone s , L e te , a nd L a i a i .3 A lexande r ' s own c o inage i s n o tab ly a b sen t f r om t h i s n ew h oa rd , af a c t wh ich p rov ide s o n ly f u r the r c o mp l i c a t ion t o t h e d eba te o ve r t h e p re sence o f o ne o fh i s o c tad r ach m s i n t h e A syu t h oa rd .4 T he n ew e v idence c onf i rm s t h e s t a temen t m ad e i nt h e A syu t p ub l ic a t ion 5 t ha t t h ec o inage o ft h eB i sa l t i mu s td a te a f te r4 80 ; a nd s im i la r ly t h ei sue so fG e t a s , k ing o ft h e E don i ( P l . V I I I , 2 ) , b e long t o t h e s ame p e r iod . T h i s c o inage i si n t e re s t ing b ecau se i tc on s i s t s o ft wo v a r ie t ie s . One h a s t h e i n sc r ip t ion o n t he o bve r se , a si s n o rma l o n t h e i sue s o f t h e B i sa l t i a nd o the r ' t r iba l ' Macedon ian c o inage s . T he o the r p l ace s t h e i n sc r ip t ion o n t h e f ou r s i de s o f as h a l low , l i nea r , q uad r ipa r t i te s qua re , a nd i ti st h i s a r r angemen t o f t h e r eve r se a nd i t s i n sc r ip t ion t h a t w a s t o b ecome t h e f a sh ion o f m any Macedon ian c o inage s i n t h e m idd le o f t h e f i f th A s f o r e xamp le i n s u ch s t a temen t s a s M . V icke r s , ' E a r ly G reek c o inage , ar e a s se s smen t ' NC 1 985 ,1-44 ,p .2 1 . J . S vo rono s , L 'h e l l in i sme p r im i t if d e l a Mad . d o ine ,A then s , 1 9 19 ,p l a te s1 -3 . If e l t i n t h e e a r ly 1 970 s t h a t t h e A syu t h oa rd

s hou ld b ea lowed t od a te t h eA lexande rc o in ( A syu t , 3 9 ) a nd p r ef e r red n o t t o s e e i ta s a n i t em a dded t wen ty y e a r s l a te r t o t h e ma in d epo s i t . T h i s v iew won l i t t le f a vou ra nd s hou ld b er ev i sed . A syu t ,p .3 9 .

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c en tury . T he b eg inn ing o f t h i s f a sh ion , wh ich i sc l ea r ly u nde r w ay d u r ing t h e s t r ik ing o ft h e i sue s o fG e ta s a nd t h e B i sa l t i c an b e d a ted t h rough t h e e v idence o f t h en ew L yc ian a nd A syu th oa rd st oa round 4 60 . I tp rov ide ss ome c onf i rma t ion f o r t h e d a t ing o ft h e o c tad rachm s o fA lexande r Iwh ich i nt h i s p a r t icu la rf e a tu re s t and o u tf r om t h eo the r Macedon ian c o inage si nt h eA syu th oa rd , a nd , a sD r . K raay h a s s hown , w e mu s t a c cep t t h a t t h e s i ng le p i ece o fA lexande r i n t h a t h oa rd w a s a n a dd i t ion t o t h e o r ig in a l d epo s i t .6 T he e v idence o ft h e n ew L yc ian h oa rd wou ld s ugge s t t h a t t h i s i su e i sp robab ly t o b e p l aced i n t h e l a te 4 60 s o r 4 50 s , w i th a t e rm inu sa n t eq u em o fA lexande r ' sd ea th i n4 5 1 ( P l .V I I I ,3 ) . A lexande r ' s c o inage i sn o t v a s t , a nd c e r ta in ly d oe s n o t r ef l ec t t h e s t o ry r epo r ted b y He rodo tu s t h a t h e p o s se s sed am ine p roduc ing at a len t o fs i lve r p e r d ay .7 T he o c tadrachm s r ep re sen tb u t o ne o ft h e s e r i e s o fh eavy i ngo t /co in s p roduced b y t h e Macedon ian m in ing a r ea si nt h ef i r s th a lf o ft h ef i f th c en tu ry . I n c on t r a s t t o t h e A syu t h oa rd , t h e n ew L yc ian h oa rd c on ta in s , a pa r t f r om t h e i sue s o ft h e B i sa l t i , r e la t ive ly f ew o ft h e h eavy Macedon ian i sue s , c onf i rm ing , p e rhap s , t h a t mo s t mu s t d a te b ef o re t h e d epo s i to ft h eA syu th oa rd . Howeve r , i ti s i mpor tan tt on o te t h a tt h eo ne c o in o ft h eD e r rone sp re sen ti nt h en ew h oa rd i so fa v a r ie ty w i th r eve r s e d e s ign ,8 u n l ike t h e i sue s i n A syu t , a nd t h i s p i ece , w i th i t s p ro m inen t r eve r se s qua re , i sc l ea r ly t h e f i r s t o f an ew p e r iod o fc o in ing f o r t h e D e r rone s w i th r eve r s e t ype s t r i ske le s o r h ead o fA thena ( P l . V I I I , 4 ) . T h i s p e r iod o f c o inage mu s t c o inc ide w i th t h a t o f A lexande r ' s o c tad rachm s , a nd o n t h e e v idence o ft h en ew h oa rd may b ep l aced i nt h el a te 4 60 so r4 50 s . Co mpa r i son o ft h e c on ten t s o ft h e A syu t h oa rd a nd o ft h e n ew L yc ian h oa rd w i l lb ep a r t icu la r ly u s ef u lf o rt h ec h rono logy o ft h ei sue so ft h eG reek c i t ie s o ft h e n o r the rn A egean . T he n ine c o in s o f T ha so s p re sen t i n t h e l a te r h oa rd d o n o t a pparen t ly d i sp lay t h e f e a tu re s o ft h e s e cond p ha se — the c l a s s ica l mode l l ing a nd s p layed f i nge r s 9—and i t may n ow b e c on s ide red s omewha t u nce r ta in t h a t t h i s s e cond g roup s hou ld b ep l aced b ef o r et h er evo l tf r om t h eD e l ian L eague i n4 65 . Ac l ea rp a t te rn o fd eve lopmen t i sv i s ib le a tA bde r a . May ' s p e r iod I , wh ich h ad b een d a ted 5 20 /5 15-492 , w a s t h e l a te s t c o inage o ft h e c i ty i nt h e A syu t h oa rd ." T he n ew L yc ian h oa rd c on ta in sm a in ly t h ei sue so fp e r iod I , t h el a te s tb e ing May n o s .8 3-5 . T he t e t r ad rachm s o fp e r iod I V , wh ich f o l lowed p e r iod I I w i thou t a b reak , s how t h e i n t roduc t ion o ft h e f a sh ion o fp l ac ing t h e i n sc r ip t ion a round t h e r ever se s qua re ( P l . I X , 5 ) ." T he se w e re n o tr ep re sen ted among t h en ine teen c o in s o f Abde r a i n t h e n ew h oa rd . I ti sc l ea r t h e ref o re t h a t t h e n ew L yc ian h oa rd c onf i rm s t h e e v idence o f t h e A syu t h oa rd a nd s how s t h a t p e r iod I a t A bde ra c on t inued u n t i l 4 80 o rl a te r , a nd p e r iod I u n t i l a f te r4 60 . P e r iod I V , w i th t wen ty s e pa ra te i sue s , mu s th ave c on t inued u n in te r rup ted i n to t h e4 30 ' so re ven l a te r . The c o inage o fA ino s d oe s n o t f e a tu re i nt h e n ew L yc ian h oa rd , b u t o ne o ft h e 8 S ee C . S t e rnbe rg , SM 1 37 , F eb . 1 985 , 5 . 2 ( f rom t h en ew L yc ian h oa rd ) . 9 G . L e R ide r , ' L e s monna ie s ' , i nG u id e d e T ha so s , 1 968 , 1 86-7 . 1° A syu t ,p p .3 6-7 ; c f .J .M . F . May , T h eC o inag eo f A bd e r a , 1 966 , p p .6 7-8 1 . " P er iod I V i sd a ted b y May , i b id p p . 15-42 , c . 473 /70 4 19 /8 .

6 C. M . K raay , ' The A syu t h oa rd : s ome c omm e n t so nc h rono logy ' , NC 1 977 , 1 89-98 ,p p . 1 90-3 . 7 He rodo tu s5 . 17 .2 , n ea rL ake P ra s ia s . T he e xce l l e n t a ccoun t o f t he t r iba l c o inage s b y N . G . L . H a m mond a nd G . T . G r if f i th , Ah i s t o ry o f Ma c ed on ia I , Oxf o rd , 1 979 , p p . 6 99 1 l i nk s t he e x i s t ing m ine work ing s w i th s o me o ft h e c o inage s . L ake P ra s ia s i s i d en t if i ed w i th L ake B u tkova ,i b id I ,p .1 94 .

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f i r s td i e s o ft h e g oa tr eve r se '2w a su s ed t oo ve r s t r ike ac o in o f Abde r ao fp e r iod I b e long ing t o a n i sue s oon a f te r t h e l a te s t i n t h e L yc ian h oa rd ( P 1 I X , 1 ) . I t t h e ref o re s e em sv e ry u n l ike ly ,o np re sen te v iden c e ,t h a tt h ec o inage o f AMo sb egan b ef o re t h e l a te r 4 60 s . I t mu s t h ave c on t inued w e l l i n to t h e t h i rd q u a r te r o f t h e c en tu ry . T h i sp a t te rn i sr epea ted a tA can thu s . T he 3 8c o in so ft h i s c i ty i nt h eA syu th oa rd b e longed t o t h e e a r l ie r p ha se o ft h e f i r s t g roup . T he 3 7 p i ece s i n t h e n ew L yc ian h oa rd c on t inue t ot h ee nd o fp e r iod I ,wh ich D e sneux h ad p l aced c .4 80 .1 3 Mo s to f t h e i sue s b ea r t h e r o se t te s ymbo l , b u t af ew e xamp le s b ea r ing t he l e t te r Ao n t h e o bve r se w e re a l so p re sen t ( P l . I , 1 3 ) . P e r iod I , wh ich i n t roduce s t h e f a sh ion o f p l ac ing t h e i n sc r ip t ion a round t h e l i nea r s qua re o n t h e r eve r se ( P l . I X , 6 ) , w a s who l ly a b sen t . S i nce t h e re i sn ob reak i nt h er e la t ive s e quence ,i ti sc l e a rt h a tp e r iod Ia tA can thu s , a sp e r iod I V a tA bde r a , c on t inued w e l l b eyond t he m idd le o ft h e c en tu ry . A t Mende w e o nce a ga in f i nd t h e f a sh ion o fp l ac ing t h e i n sc r ip t ion a r ound t h e r eve r se o n i sue s l a te r t h an t ho se p re sen t i nt h e n ew L yc ian h oa rd . T he d rama t ic c hange o fc o inage , f r om t h e a s s a nd i n cu se r eve r se p unch t oD iony su s r e c l in ing o n t h e a s s a nd r eve r se v ine ( P l . I X , 7 ) , t ook p l ace w e l l a f te r t h e d epo s i t o ft h e A syu t h oa rd a nd mo s t p robab ly n o t b ef o re c .4 60 . At e rm inu s a n t e q u em f o r t h i s c hange i s p rov ided b y a n o ve r s t r ike o n t h e l a te r t ype a tt h e m in t o fG e la" c .4 50-440 . T he K a l iand ra h oa rd s how s t h a t t h e n ew c o inage c on t inued u n in ter rup t ed ,1 5 m o s t p robab ly t ot h et ime o ft h es i ege a nd c ap tu re o ft h ec i ty i n4 23 . A c i ty t h a t l a y o n t h e o the r s i de o f t h e p en in su la f r om Mende p rov ide s p a r t icu la r i n te re s t f o r t h e c o mpa r i son o ft h e c h rono logy o ft h e c o inage s w i th t h e A then ian c u r rency d ec ree . A phy t i s w a s o ne o ft h e s i t e s a t wh ich a c opy o f t h e d ec ree h a s b een f ound , a nd i t ss i lve r c o inage ,1 6 t wo i sue s o fs ma l l d enom ina t ion s ( P l . I X , 9 ) , b o th c on t a in ing t h e v ine d e s ign o n t h e r eve r se , c l ea r ly d a te s a f te r t h e i n t roduc t ion o ft h eD iony su st ype a t Mende . One i sue may b e long t ot h e4 50 s ,b u t t h e o the r mu s t b e l a te r , w e l li n to t h e t h i rd q ua r te ro ft h e c en tu ry , a nd i na ppa r en t c on t raven t ion o ft h ed ec ree . S im i la r ly , Ma ronea i nT h race i n t roduce s f i r s t a n i n sc r ip t ion a round s qua re , a nd t h en t h e v ine a s ar eve r se d e s ign" i n am anne r a ppa r en t ly a dop ted f r om Mende ( P l . I X , 8 ,c f . 7 ) , a nd t hu s p rov ide s a n i mpo r tan t c o inage f o r t h e t h i rd q ua r te r o f t h e c en tu ry . A t A ene ia ac o inage o fs ma l l d enom ina t ion s w i th i n sc r ip t ion a round t h e s h a l low l i ne a r s qua re ( P l . I X , 1 0 ) f o l low s t h e f a sh ion i n t roduced t owa rd s t h e m idd le o ft h ec en tu ry , a nd i sp re sumab ly i t s e lf ac o inage o ft h et h i rd q ua r t e ro ft h e c en tu ry . T he c u r rency d ec ree s t ipu l a te sn o to n ly t h a tl o ca lc o inage ss hou ld c e a se ,b u ta l so t h a t A then ian c o inage s hou ld b e u s ed . I ti sh oweve r an o tab l e p henomenon t h a t 2 7 , New Y o rk , 1 926 , p p . 5 2-3 . H .G aeb le r , A MNG 1 .2 ,4 4 . A . B . We s t , F if th a ndf ou r th c e n tu ry g o ld c o in sf r om t h e T h ra c i an C oa s t , NN M 4 0 , New Y o rk , 1 929 , p p .5 5-77 = J .M .F . May ,' The c o inage o f Ma rone ia ' , NC 1 965 , 2 7-56 , p p . 4 8-9 , whe re as ho r t g ap c . 449 mu s tb er ev i s ed i nt h el i gh to fn ew e v idence .

J . M . F . May , A ino s , Oxf o rd , 1 950 , n o . 9 ,d a ted 4 7 1/ 04 .69 /8 , o ve r s t ruck o n ap e r iod I t e t rad rachm o f Abde ra , w i th s y mbo l c ock , May , A bd e r a g roup XL I I . A syu t ,p p .4 0-2 . G . K .J enk in s , T h eC o inag eo fG e l a ,B e r l in , 1 970 , p p .6 5-6 . S .P . Noe , T h e Mend e ( K a l iand r a ) H oa rd , NN M 1 2

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t h e re a r e p r ac t ica l ly n oh oa rd s o fA then ian c o inage i nt h en o r th A egean a r ea ,1 8 i n s t a rk c on t r a s tt oa r ea so ft h ee a s te rn Med i te r ranean u nde rP e r s ian d om ina t ion . T h i s i sh a rd ly s u rp r i s ing . A c u r rency d ec ree , h ad i te x i s ted , m igh t h ave h ad s ome i nf luence o n t h e c i rcu l a t ion o ft h e ow l s , b u t t h e re c an h ave b een n o c omme r ica l i n cen t ive f o r t h e c o in age o fA then s t oh ave t r ave l led t ot h e n o r th , a n a r ea r i ch i n s i l ve r t ha t h ad l i t t le n eed o f mo re . T he re a r e t wo p i ece s o fi nf luence o n d e s ign wh ich may b e r em a rk ed : t h e c r e scen t moon b eh ind t h e f i gu r e o f' Rhe su s ' o n t h e o c tad rachm s o f A lex ande r" i st oo c l o se t o t h a t o n t h e ow l s o f A then s t o b e c o inc idence . T h i s i s ,p e rhap s , af u r the r r e a son t op l ace t h e o c tad r achm s s ome t ime a f te r4 80 .T he h ead o fA thena o nt h ec o inage o ft h eT h rac i an C he r sone se a t t r ibu ted t oM i l t iade s 2°s e em s a l so t oi lu s t ra te A then ian i nf luence , b u t b e long s t o ap e r iod l ong b ef o r ea ny c u r rency d ec ree . F ro m t h i s b r ief r e sume o f s ome o f t h e c o inage s o f Macedon ia a nd T h race i t s hou ld b e c l ea r t h a t If i nd a b so lu te ly n o r e a son t o b e l ieve t h a t a n i mpe r ia l i s t c u r rency d ec ree h ad a ny e f ec t o n t h e c o inage s o ft h e n o r th A egean . I fs u ch al aw h ad b een p a s sed b y t h e 4 40 s , i te i the r h ad n o e f ec t o r al o t o f p eop le w e re c on s tan t ly b e ing i mpeached f o r t r an sg re s s ing i t . T he re i s , h oweve r , o ne d ef in i te c hange i n t h e m id -f if th c en tu ry . T he t r iba l i sue s , a nd p a r t i cu la r ly t h e l a rge d eno m ina t ion i ngo t /co in s wh ich may b e a s soc ia ted w i th t h em , d i sappea r e n t i re ly . T hey a r es u rv ived b yt e t rad r achm c o inage s a nd i sue so fs ma l ld enom ina t ion f r om t h e t r ibu t a ry s t a te s o ft h e D e l ian C onf ede r acy , s u ch a sA can thu s , A bde ra , Mende , a nd Tha so s , a l o f w h ich h ad s t ruck a lmo s t c on t inuou s ly f r om t h e e a r ly f i f th c en tury , a nd A ino s , wh ich m ake si t sa ppea r ance a s am in tn o tl ong b ef o re t h et ime when t h ec u r rency d e c ree wou ld h ave p rec luded i t . Ana ly s i s o ft h e l e ad i s o tope r a t io s i n t h e me ta l s o ft h e se c o inage s m igh t s how whe the r t h e s ou r ce o fs i lve r b ef o re a nd a f te r 4 60 w a s t h e s ame . T he v e ry m eag re c o inage f r om A ega e a f te r A lexande r ' s o c tad rachm s p rove s w i th af a i r d eg ree o f c e r ta in ty t h a t , a l though A lexande r may h ave p o s se s sed a n e x t reme ly r i ch m ine a t o ne p o in t —po s s ib ly o ne o ft h e m ine s t h a th ad p roduced o ne o ft h e t r iba l c o inage s p rev iou s ly — th i s s ou r ce o fs i lve r w a s n o t a va i lab le a f te r t h e m idd le o ft h e c en tu ry . S uch am ine may h ave f a i led a l t oo e a r ly . V e in s o fs i lve r -bea r ing o re s a r e n o t a w idow ' sc ru se . A va i lab i l i ty o fs i lve rw a s ap re requ i s i te f o rc o inage , a nd i t sa b sence i so ne v e ry c ogen t r e a son why ac o inage m igh t c e a se . T he re i se ve ry r e a son t o b e l ieve t h a t t h e s ou rce s o f s i lve r , wh ich h ad g iven r i se t o t h e d rama t ic ' t r iba l ' c o inage so ft h ee a r ly f i f th c en tu ry , h ad i nt h ed ecade 4 60450 r un d ry . T h i s , r a the r t h an A then ian i mp e r ia l i sm , w a s p robab ly t h e c au se f o r t h e c hange i n c o inage p a t te rn si nf i f th cen tu ry Macedon ia a nd T h race . I lu s t r a t i on s Apar t f r om P l . V I I I , 1( F6 :1 ) , a l p ho tog raph s a r e s i ze 2 :1 . No . 1c ome s f r om t h e n ew L yc ian h oa rd .A l lo the r sa r ef r om t h eB r i t i sh Mu seum .

On ly t h e A tho s h oa rd ( IGCH 3 62 ) , am ix tu re o fP e r s ian a nd A then i an c o in s , wh ich i st ho rough ly u n typ ica lo fc i rcu la t ion i nt h ea r ea ,i st h ee xcep t ion . D . Raymond , Ma c ed on ian R ega l C o inag e t o4 13

BC , NN M 1 26 , New Yo rk , 1 953 ,p l a te V I I ,5 5a . 2° C . T . S e l tman , A th en s , C ambr idge , 1 924 , p p . 1 4 1 -4 .

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PLATE VI I I

8 1 0

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PLATE IX

T he A then ian Co inage D ec ree

D . M . L EW IS

TH E o rgan ize r s h ave m a rked t h e i mpo r tance o ft h e A then ian C o inage D ec ree f o r o u rs ub jec tb y c a l l ing f o rt wo p ape r so ni t . Id e tec t as ugge s t ion t h a tt h ey h ope f o r s ome d eg ree o fc onf ron ta t ion a nd t h a t L ew i s i n1 986 i se xpec ted t oh o ld t h e s ame v i ew sa s Me igg sa nd L ew i si n1 969 . Is h a l ls a ya to nce t h a t Ih ave n oc onf idence t h a t Ik now t he t r u th a bou t t h e p rob lem s a nd a m me re ly t r y ing t ol ook a tt ho se f a c t s w i th wh ich It h ink Ih ave s ome c o mpe tence a ss t ra igh tf o rwa rd ly a s Ic an . Ii n t end , i fIc an ,t op r e tend t h a t Ik now n o th ing a bou tt h ec o in s . I nt h e B i rd s o fA r i s tophane s , p roduced i ns p r ing 4 14 , aD ec ree -Se l le r o f e r s t h e i nhab i tan t so fC loud -Cuckoo land ac l au se p rov id ing t h a tt h ey s hou ld u s et h es ame m ea su re s , w e igh t s , a nd d ec ree s a st h e O lophyx io i . Wha t t h e i r r e levance i sn o o ne k now s , b u t t he l i t e ra l -m inded , s t a r t ing w i th B e rgk i , h ad l ong h anke red a f te r c hang ing t h ed ec r ee s (Or k t 'a i . taa t) i n to c o in s( v o i L i c i l Laa t) . Amend ing wha tm ay b e aj oke i sn eve r s a f e p rocedu r e , b u t t h e j oke h a s t o h ave s ome f ounda t ion , a nd Wi lamow i tz i n 1 877 2 s ugge s ted t h a t t h e re m igh t h ave b een a n A then ian l aw e nf o rc ing u n if o rm i ty o fc o inage , w e igh t s a nd mea su r e s i nt h e e mp i re . H e t e l l s u s t h a t h e w a s l a ughed a t f o r t h e i d ea , b u t , t o ta l ly u n recogn ized b y a nybody , a s ub s tan t ia l f r agmen t o fs u ch al aw w a s a l r eady k nown , c op ied a t Smy rna i n1 855 ; n oo ne h a ss e en i ts i nce ,a nd d oub t le s si tp e r i shed i nt h eb urn ing o f Smy rna i n1 922 . I tw a s n o t u n t i l 1 894 , when as e cond f r agmen t t u rned u p o n S i phno s , t h a t Ado lf Wi lhe lm c onf i rmed Wi lamow i tz ' s ugge s t ion , a nd e ven t h en n o f u l l p ub l ica t ion f o l lowed u n t i l1 903 . I tw a so nt h eg round o ft h i sp ub l ica t ion t h a td i scu s s ion b egan a nd t h a tR . We i l3 a nd P e rcy G a rdne r4 s t a r ted t oc on temp la te t h e n um i sma t ic r e co rd i nt h e l i gh t o f t h ee p ig raph ic t e x t . T hey w e re f a i r ly c l ea rt h a ta tl e a s tt wo d ec ree sw e re i nvo lved , s i nce t he t e x t a ppea r ed t o r e f e r t o ' t he p rev iou s d ec ree o f K lea rcho s ' ( 7 6 r p67 E ]pov 0 74 ta i . ta i K Agapx [o s E t I T E V ) . T hey a g reed t h a t t h e se d ec ree s w e re l a te a nd t h a t o ne o ft h em a tl e a s t w a s n ew s a tt h e t ime o ft h e B i rd s , t hough t h e i rg ene ra li mp re s s ion o ft h ec o inage w a s t h a tA then sh ad i nf a c tt r ied t oi mpo se u n if orm i ty s i nce t h e m idd le o ft h e c en tu ry . T he e p ig raph i s t s w e re n o t a l toge the r 1 I nh i sT eubne re d i t ion o f1 857 ,b u t Iam n o ts u re t h a t h e mean t t h a t t h e t ex t w a s f au l ty ; B layde s a nd V an L eeuwen made t he emend a t ion . 2 U . v on Wi lamow i tz - Moelendorf , A u s K y d a th en , B e rl in , 1 880 , p . 3 0 , R ed en u nd V o r t r äg e 3, B e rl in , 1 9 13 ,p .5 2 .

5 3

3 R . We i l , ` Da s Münzmonopo l A then s i m e r s ten a t t i schen S eebund ' Z fN 2 5 ( 1 906 ) , 5 2-62 , ` Da s Münz rech t d e r E l iw taxo t i m e r s ten a t t i schen S ee b und ' ,i b id .2 8( 1 9 10 ) ,3 51-64 . 4 P . G a rdne r , ' Co inage o ft h e A then ian Emp i re ' , JHS 3 3( 1 9 13 ) , 1 47-88 .

D . M . L E W IS

h appy w i th al a te d a te f o rt h ed ec ree , a nd w an ted t o move i tb ack a tl e a s t al i t t le t o a c commoda te t h e mo re a r cha ic f o rm o ft h ed a t ive f em in ine p lu ra l , wh ich a ppea red i nt h e t e x t a nd w a s h e ld t od i sappea r a round 4 20 ; t h e e p ig raph ic c on sen su s t e nded t owa rd s p u t t ing t h e f i r s t d ec ree e a r ly i nt h e P e loponne s ian Wa r a nd t h e s u rv iv ing t e x t s a round 4 22 . Re la t ive ly l i t t le w a s a dded t ot h e a rgumen t , a si ts t ood t hen , b y t h er e cogn i t ion i n1 924 o ft wo f r agmen t sf r om S yme f i r s tp ub l i shed i n1 922 . No q ue s t ion o fe p ig raph ic l e t te r ing h ad s o f a r e n te red t h e a rgumen t . A l l t h e c op ie sw e re i nt h eI on ic a l phabe t , a nd d id n o ts e em t ob ea ta l c l o se ly d a t ab le . T he s i tua t ion c hanged i n t h e l a te 1 930 s . A l a rge f r agmen t f r om A phy t i s , i n a c ompe ten t , t hough r a the ra nonymou s , I on ic h and , w a sp ub l i shed i n1 935 ,b u tv e ry l i t t le p rog re s s h ad b een m ade i na s se s s ing i t s c on t r ibu t ion t ot he t e x t when i tw a s o ve r taken b y amuch mo re s e n sa t iona l d i scove ry , al a rge f r agmen t f r om Co s , f i r s t p ub l i shed i n1 938 . Un l ike a l t h eo the rc op ie s ,i tw a si nA t t ic s c r ip t , a nd S egre , who p ub l i shed i t ,5 t hough ti tw a s o nP en te l i c m a rb le . S eg re p o in ted o u t t h a tt he d ec r ee o rde red e ach a ly t o p ub l i sh i to n s t one a nd a ppea red t o s a y t h a t t h e A then ian s wou ld d o i ti ft h ey d idn ' t . T he C o s f r agmen t w a s , h e t hough t , i mpo r ted f r om A then s a nd c ou ld b ej udged s t y l i s t ica l ly a sa n A t t ic t e x t . I tw a s t h e r ef o re o ft h e u tmo s t s i gn if i cance t h a t i tu s ed t h e t h r ee -ba r s i gma , o f wh ich t h e re i sn o d a ted A then ian e xamp le a f te r 4 46 . B y f a i r ly g ene ra l c on sen su s , t h e who le d ecr ee w a s t h en moved t ot h e e a r ly 4 40 s a nd s e en a s am an if e s ta t ion o fA then ian i mpe r ia l i sm i nt h e p e r iod i mmed ia te ly a f te r t h e P eace o fK a l l ia s . S t an ley Rob in son ,6 a tl e a s t , s aw v e ry l i t t le d if i cu l ty i nt h i s f r om t h en um i sm a t ic p o in t o fv i ew . S i nce w e h ave a l ready s e en We i l a nd G a rdne r o pe r a t ing i nt h e s ame d i rec t ion , i t wou ld n o t b e f a i r , e ven i fw e w e re t a lk ing o f s omeone o f l e s se r s t a tu re , t o s a y t h a t t h e n um i sma t i s tw a sf a l l ing i n to l i ne w i th t h ee p ig raph ic o r thodoxy . T he C o s f r agmen t h a s n o t ma rked t h e e nd o f n ew a cqu i s i t ion s . I n 1 933 t h e Ode s sa A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum a cqu i red at i ny f r agmen t wh ich i tu n loaded o n t o Ode s sa Un ive r s i ty . No o ne s e em s t oh ave t hough t much o fi t , a nd , a l though i t s t e x t w a s p ub l i shed i n 1 959 a nd i tw a s r e cogn ized a s af r agmen t o ft h e Co inage D ec ree i n1 960 , t h eu n ive r s i ty s e em st oh ave l o s ti t .T he re c an b en oc e r ta in ty a bou t i t sp rovenance . T he o n ly p o s i t ive e v idence i sf o r O lb ia , b u tt h i sh a sb een d i spu ted , a nd , i fIr e ad t h e d e sc r ip t ion o ft h es t one , i n Uk ra in ian , a ccu ra te ly , i tw a so nf i ne ly g ranu la ted b lu i sh m a rb le , wh i ch d oe sn ' ts e em n o rma lf o rO lb ia . I n 1 96 1 , H a ro ld Ma t t ing ly o pened h i s c oun te r -a t tack ,7 a nd s o w e a r e c e leb ra t ing , n o t me re ly t h e n ew h oa rd , b u t a l so t h e s i lve rj ub i lee o ft h e f i r s t o fa l ong s e r ie s o fi ngen iou s a r t ic le s . Of c ou r se , a l though t h a t f i r s t a r t ic le w a s c a l led ' The A then ian C o inage D ec r ee ' , s t udy o ft h i s d e c r ee i so n ly o ne f a ce t o f amuch b roade r a pp roach t o t h e A then ian e mp i re o n t wo l e ve l s . T he re i st h e t e chn ica l l e ve l , i n wh ich c ha l lenge t ot h e d ogma a bou t t h ed a te o ft h ree -ba r s i gma h a s b een s t reng thened b y c a ref u l i nve s t iga t ion s o fe p ig r aph ic l a nguage a nd f o rm s , a nd t h e h i s to r ica ll e ve l , wh ich , r ough ly s p eak ing , t e nd s t ot h e d emon s t ra t ion t h a t much o f wha t w e t h ink o f a sA then ian i mpe r ia l i sm w a s ac r ea t ion o f t h e p e r iod o f t h e M . S eg re , ' L a l e ge a t en ie se s u l l ' u n if icaz ione d e l la mone ta ' , C la r aR hod o s 9( 1 938 ) , 1 5 1-78 . 6 E . S . G . Rob in son , ' The A then ian c u r rency d ec ree a nd t he c o inage s o f t h e a l ie s ' , H e sp e r ia

S upp l . 8( 1 949 ) ,3 24-40 . 7 H . B . Ma t t ing ly , ' The A then ian d ec ree ' ,H i s t o r ia 1 0( 1 96 1 ) , 1 48-88 .

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c o inage

THE ATHE N IA N CO I NAGE DEC REE

P e loponne s ian Wa ra nd n o to fa ne a r l ie rp e r iod . Ia mn o ts u re t h a tt h ea r gumen t s , o nt h i sl e ve l ,h ave c umu la t ive f o rce , a nd It h ink Ic ou ld f i nd my se lf a c cep t ing al a te d a te f o r ,s a y ,t h eC o inage D ec ree w i thou tc hang ing my m ind v e ry much a bou tt h e i mpe r ia l i sm Is e ei nt h el a t e4 50 sa nd e a r ly 4 40 s . L e t me r em ind y ou b r ief ly o f wha t w e h ave ,8 o n t h e a s sump t ion t h a t o u r f r agmen t s a l g o t oge the r t o m ake ac on t inuou s t e x t . No th ing u s ef u l s u rv ive s o f c l au se 1 ) . C lau se 2 ) , v e ry f r agmen ta ry , s e em st op rov ide t h a tt h eh e l l eno t am i a is h a l l w r i te u pn ame so fc i t ie s ;i ft h ey d on ' td o t h i sc o r rec t ly , t h ey w i l lb ep ro secu ted . 3 ) p rov ide st h a ti fa ny o ft h em ag i s t ra te si nt h ec i t ie s ,c i t izen o rf o re igne r , d oe sn o ta c t a c cord ing t o wha th a sb een v o ted , h es h a l l s uf e rh eavy p ena l t ie s . 4 )p rov ide s t h a t , i ft he re a r e n o r e s iden t A then ian m ag i s t ra te s , t h e l o ca l m ag i s t r a te s s h a l l a c t . 5 ) wou ld b e c r uc ia l , b u t i si n t h e wo r s t c ond i t ion . I ti sg ene ra l ly a s sumed t h a t i t d e sc r ibe s wha t i st o h appen i n t h e m in t ; r e f e rence s t o ' n o t l e s s t h an h a l f ' , ` x d r achmae i nt h e m ina ' , a nd t o ' c hang ing ' a r e a l t h a t i sp r e se rved , t hough s ome q u i te e l egan tG reek h a sb een f i l led i ni nt h eg ap s . T he re h ave b een r e cen tc hange s9 i nt he i n te rp re ta t ion o f wha t Iwou ld n ow c a l l6 ) , c ove r ing wha th a sr e cen t ly b een 6 ) , 7 )a nd 8 ) . T o my m ind , wha ti sb e ing s a id i st h a t t h e s u rp lu sf r om t h e m in t ing o pe ra t ion s i st o g o i n to as p ec ia l f und , wh ich m ay h ave s ome th ing t o d o w i th H epha i s to s , a nd t h a t a ny a t temp t o rp ropo sa l t ou s ei tf o ra ny th ing e l se m ake s t h e of ende r l i ab le t o t h e d ea th p ena l ty . Ia m s u re t h a t t h e t r ad i t iona l i n te rp re ta t ion , wh ich m ake sp ropo s a l s f o r t h eu s eo ff o re ign money l i ab le t ot h e d ea th p ena l ty , i s w rong . 7 )( o ld 9 )p rov ide s f o r t h e a ppo in tmen t o ff ou rh e r a ld s t oa nnounce wha t h a s b een v o ted . One i st o g o t o t h e I s l and s , o ne t o t h e H e l le spon t , o ne t o t h e Thracewa rd a r ea ; p r e sumab ly t h ef ou r th i st og ot oI on ia . Mo re w a ss a id a bou tt h e me thod o f t h e i r d e spa tch , b u t w e h ave l o s t ag ood d ea l . 8 ) ( o ld 1 0 ) i st h e p ub l ica t ion c l au se w e h ave a l ready r e f e r red t o . 9 ) ( o ld 1 ) s e em s t o b e a n a f te r though ta bou tw ha tt h eh e ra ld sa r et os a y . 1 0 ) ( o ld 1 2 ) i sf o r tuna te ly v e ry w e l l p re se rved . T he s e c r e ta ry o ft h e A then ian c ounc i l i st o a dd t h e f o l low ing t o t h e b ou leu t ic o a th : ' I fa nyone m in t s s i lve r c o in i nt h e c i t ie s a nd d oe sn o tu s e A then ian c o in s o r w e igh t s o r m ea su re s b u t [ f o re ign c o in s ] , w e igh t s a nd m ea su re s , [ Is h a l l p un i sh h im a nd f i ne h im a c co rd ing t o t h e p rev iou s ] d ec ree wh ich K lea rcho s [ p ropo sed ] . ' 1 ) ( o ld 1 3 ) i sq u i te h ope le s s , a nd a bou t 1 2 ) w ec an r e a l ly o n ly s a yt h a t t he e p i s t a t a io ft h em in ta r et op ub l i sh l i s t so fs ome th ing , f o ra nyone who w i she st o l ook a tt h em . How f a rt h et e x te x tended o ne i the rs i de o fa lt h i si sa nybody ' sg ue s s ; t h e s ma l l f r agmen t f r om S yme c ou ld t a ke u si n to g round o the rw i se n o t c ove red , a nd Ma t t ing ly h a s c on s ide red a dd ing al a rge f r agmen t o fr e la ted s ub jec t -ma t te r f r om A then si t s e lf ( /G 1 39 0 ) . How d o t h ee p ig raph ic a nd h i s to r ica l a r gumen t sa bou t t h ed a te s t and ?F i r s t , t h e f i nd spo t s . Smy rna w a s n eve r at r ibu te -pay ing m embe r o ft h ee mp i re , a nd i ti si n a ny c a se c l ea rt h a tt h ef r agmen tf o rmed p a r to f ac o l lec t ion a s semb led f r om v a r iou s D ec ree s ' , i n D . W. B radeen a nd M . F . McG rego r ( e dd . ) , O dpo s : T r i bu t e t o B en jam in D ean Me r i t t , L ocu s t V aley , 1 974 , 8 3-5 ; H . B . Ma t t ing ly , ' The p ro tec ted f und i n t h e A then ian Co inage D ec ree ' , A JP 9 5 ( 1 974 ) , 2 80-5 ; c f . R . S .S t roud , ' Th ree A t t ic D ec ree s ' ,C a l .S tud .C la s s .An t . 7( 1 974 ) ,2 80-2 .

F o r t h e t ex t a nd i t sh i s to ry , s e e A th en ian T r ibu t e L i s t s Ip p . 6 1-8 D 1 4 , ML 4 5 , E . E rx leben , ` Da s Münzge se tz d e s d e l i sch -a t t i schen S eebunde s ' , A r ch iv f ü r P apy ru sf o r s chung 1 9 ( 1 969 ) , 9 1139 , 2 12 ( w i th c ommen ta ry o nt h ec o in s a nd t h ed a t ing , i b id . 2 0( 1 970 ) ,6 6132 ,2 1 ( 1 97 1 ) , 1 45-62 ) . D . M . L ew i s , ' En t renchmen t c l au se s i n A t t ic 8

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p l ace s . Ode s sa i sa l so ap l ace t o wh ich w and e r ing s t one sh ave c o me , a nd t he r a the r c onf u sed e v idence t h a t i t s f r agmen t may h ave c o me f r om O lb ia i sm a tched n o t o n ly b y my d oub t sa bou tt h e ma rb le b u tb yt h ea b sence o fa ny o the re v idence t h a t O lb ia w a se ve r s ub jec t t oA then s ; i tw i l l h a rd ly d o much t op rove t h a tt h e Dec re e p o s tda te s 4 25 , t h e f i r s t y ea r i n wh ich w e k now t h a t A then s c l a i med t r ibu te f r om t h eB lack S ea a r ea . Aphy t i s , p ay ing t r ibu te f r om a tl e a s t4 5 1 , p re sen t sn o p rob lem . S i phno s s t a r t s a ppea r ing i n t h e t r ibu te l i s t s f r om 4 49 ; i t i s t o my m ind o ve rwhe lm ing ly p robab le t h a tt h i si sh e rf i r s ta ppea rance , whe the rb ec au se s he h ad b een c on t r ibu t ing s h ip s u p t ot h i s p o in t o r b ec au se s h e h ad b een t h rough ap e r iod o fd i saf f ec t ion . A s f a r a st h e C o s f r agmen t i sc once rned , t h e re i sa n i n i t i a l d oub t , s i n ce i tw a s f ound i n t h e mode rn c i ty , wh ich , o n a l r e a sonab le e v idence , wa s n o t t h e s t a te c en t re o f C o s u n t i l 3 66 . S eg re c ha l lenged t h a t d a te , b u t t h e re a r e p r ef e rab le s o lu t ion s . C ook a nd B ean" ' c ame d own f o r t h e h ypo the s i s t ha t t h e r e w a s a n A then ian n ava l b a se , a t wh ich t h i s A t t ic c opy w a s s e t u p , b u t a lowed t he p o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h es t one h ad c o me f r om s omewh e re e l se . I ft h a ti ss o , t he s t one may n o t h ave b een o r ig ina l ly s e t u p i nC o s a ta l . C o s f i r s t a ppea r s i nt he t r ibu t e l i s t s i n 4 50 . A ga in ,i ti su n l ike ly t h a ts h eh ad p a id t r ibu te e a r l ie r . H e rt r ibu te r e co rd f o rt he n ex tf ou ry ea r si sc hao t ic ,w i th m any p a r t ia lp aymen t s ,a nd f o r4 45 t o4 43 s h ei sn o t a t te s ted a t a l . T h i s p rov ide s a n a dm i rab le c on tex t f o r u s t o s e t ac i ty s o u ncoope ra t ive t h a ts h eh ad t oh ave ac opy o ft h ed e c ree s e tu pf o rh e r , b u to fc ou r se t h i s i sn o mo re t h an s ugge s t ive ; s h e h a s a n u nexp la ined s ho r t p ay men t i n4 3 1 a s w e l l . F ina l ly , Ic o me t o S yme . I td oe s n o t a ppea r i nt h e t r ibu te l i s t s u n t i l 4 33 , a nd , when i td oe s , i ta ppea r s i n aw ay wh ich mo re o r l e s s p rove s i ti s an ew a r r iva l , u nde r t h e h ead ing o f c i t ie s i n sc r ibed t o p ay b y i nd iv idua l s , t h a t i s , o n t h e b e s t v i ew ," b y ap a r ty i nS yme who w e re p repa red t op ay 1 800 d r . ay ear t oe s t ab l i sh s ome c l a im t o A then ian p ro tec t ion . I to n ly g radu a l ly a cqu i re s al e s s a nom a lou s s t a tu s i nt h e e a r ly y ea r s o ft h e P e loponne s ian Wa r . Doe s t h i s p rove t ha t 4 33 i st h e e a r l ie s tp o s s ib le d a te f o rt h e C o inage D ec ree ?1 2 O ne c ou ld w eaken t h e f o rce o ft h e t e rm inu sp o s tq u em b y s a y ing t h a t S yme m igh th ave u p t ot h a t t ime p a id t h rough a l a rge r g roup , a nd t h a t s h e w a s i nt h e emp i re e nough t of e e l s h e h ad t oe xh ib i t t h e D ec ree . T he a l te rna t ive e s cape r ou te i st os uppo se t h a t an ew membe ro ft he e mp i re w a sr equ i red o ni t sa c ce s s ion t oe xh ib i t ac opy o ft h ep re ex i s t ing D ec ree . The se a r e p o s s ib i l i t ie s , b u t c l ea r ly t h e a rgumen t t h a t t h e S yme f r agmen t s p rove ad a te a f t e r 4 33 i sv e ry s t rong a nd d e se rve s amo re p rom inen t p l ace i nt h e a rgumen t t h an i t g ene ra l ly g e t s ; Ma t t ing ly d id n o t p roduce i tu n t i l 1 966 1 3 ;i ti sn o t men t ioned i n Me igg sa nd L ew i s ,E rx leben , Me igg s '4o rS chu l le r ' . 5

g raph o ft h eu n ique c o in o fO i syme i nP ar i s , a nd t h e f u l ln ame i sc l ea rt h e re . H . B . Ma t t ing ly , Te r ic lean i mpe r ia l i sm ' , i n A n c i en t S o c i e ty a nd I n s t i tu t ion s. .E h r enbe rg , Oxf o rd , 1 966 ,195-6 . R . Me igg s , T h eA th en ian E mp i r e , Oxf ord , 1 972 , p p . 1 67-7 1 . W. S chu l le r , D i eH e r r s chaf td e rA th ene r i m E r s t en A t t i s ch en S e ebund ,B e r l in , 1 974 ,2 11-7 .

1° G . E . B ean a nd J .M . Cook , ' The C a r ian Coa s t I ' ,B SA 5 2( 1 957 ) , 1 24-5 . " W. S chu l le r , ' Obe r d i e / AL QTA/ rubr ik i nd en a t t i schen T r ibu t l i s ten ' , ZPE 4 2( 1 98 1 ) , 1 4 1-5 1 . In ow w i thd raw my e a r ly s ugge s t ion ( T owa rd s ah i s t o r ian ' s t e x t o f T hu cyd id e s , d i s s . P r ince ton 1 952 , p p . 4 4-6 ) t h a t t he se E v i la im , w e re n o t f r om o u r S yme a ta l , b u t r ep re sen ted t he f i f th c en tu ry n ame , a ppea r ing i n D iodo ru s , o f t he T h rac ian c i ty o f O i syme ; Ma r t in P r ice h a s o b ta ined f o r me ap ho to -

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N ex t , t he l e t te r f o rm s . A l l t h ef r agmen t se xcep tf o rC o s a r ei nI on ic . Imu s ts a y , a s ap rel im ina ry , t h a t e p ig raph i s t s a r e e x t rao rd ina r i ly b ad a td a t ing c l a s s ica l I on ic t e x t sa nd t h a t t h ew i lde s td if e r ence s o fo p in ion a r ec u r ren t . T h i s may g ob ack t oa t ime when e ve rybody ' sv i ew sw e re c o lou red b y t h eb e l ief t h a tt h e re w e re n o I on ic i n sc r ip t ion sa tA then sb ef o re 4 03 /2 , a nd t h e re c an s t i l lb ec on s ide rab le d i sag reemen t a nd mudd le e ven a st o whe the r at e x t i sf i f th o r f ou r th c en tu ry . T h i s c an h appen e ven a t A then s , whe re t h e re i sp l en t if u l d a ted ma te r ia l . T he re h a sj u s t b een t h e e x t rao rd ina r i ly emba r r a s s ing c a se o f t h e T ho r iko s C a lenda r i n Ma l ibu , wh ich G eo rge s D aux h a s d a ted t o 3 85-370 , o ve r look ing , Imay s a y , o ne o ft ho se e a r ly f em in ine d a t ive p lu ra l s .A bou tt h i s , Iam o n ly p repa red t or epea t wha t Ih ave s a id i n p r in t ,1 6 t h a t , h ad i tn o t b een f o r t h e a u tho r i ty o f t h e e d i to r , Iwou ld h ave u nhe s i ta t ing ly a s c r ibed i tt ot h ed ecade 4 40-430 .A nd ,o nce o ne g e t so u t s ide A then s , p rec i se ly d a ted ma te r ia lh a rd ly e x i s t s a nywhe re , c e r ta in ly n o t a t Aphy t i s , S i phno s , o r S yme . I nt h e c i rcum s tance s , i ti sf o l ly , t hough i th a s b een d one , t o wo r ry a ta l a bou t t h ef a c t t h a t t h r e e Ru s s ian s , i n expe r ienced a se p ig raph i s t s , t wo o f whom d o n o t a ppea r e ven t oh ave s e en t h e s t one , t hough t t h a t t h e Ode s sa f r agmen t l ooked f ou r th -cen tu ry . No r e a l a rgumen t , o ve r t h e p e r iod 4 50-4 13 , i sg o ing t oc o me o u t o fl ook ing a tt h e I on i c f r agmen t s , t wo o f wh ich a r e l o s t a nd t wo o n ly a va i lab le i n t e r r ib le p ho tog raph s . Smy rna w a ss a id t oh ave s hown t h e' b eau t if u ls imp le t r a i t so f t h eA t t ic p e r iod ' , S i phno sw a sc e r ta in ly af a i r ly s l oppy j ob , S yme n o t much b e t te r . Aphy t i sa l one e xh ib i t s ad ecen t ly p rof e s s iona l ,t hough r a the ra nonymou s ,h and ;i fi t h ad b een a nA then ian t e x t ,o n ly s ome t e ndency t oa ngu la r i ty i nt h er ho s wou ld c a s t d oub to nt h ed a t ing 4 304 10 ,a nd ,t og oo u t s ide A then s ,i tl ook s as h ade l a te rt h an a Mi le s i an t e x t wh ich p robab ly b e long s t o 4 35 . I ft h e re w e re a ny j u s t if i ca t ion f o r ma tch ing t h et e x t sa ga in s te a ch o the r ,i ti st h eS yme t e x t wh ich o ne m igh th ave s a id l ooked e a r l ie r t h an S i phno s o r A phy t i s . A l l t h i s i si mp re s s ion i s t ic ; w e c anno t s a y t ha tI on ic l e t te r ing moved a tt h es ame p ace e ve rywhe re . In ow t u rn t o t h e C o s f r agmen t . L e t me s a y a to nce t h a t , a f te r t h e wo rk o f Me igg s" a nd Wa lbank 1 8 s t imu la ted b y Ma t t ing ly ' s a s sau l t , Ir ema in mo r e t h an e ve rc onv inced o ft h ee s sen t ia lc o r r ec tne s so fc onven t iona lA t t ic e p ig raph ic d a t ing . Ih aven ' t y e t d i scu s sed i tw i th h im , b u t o ne o fh i s b e t te r c a se sh a sj u s t t a ken ah a rd k nock .J u s t a f te rt h eb e s t d emon s t ra t ion h eh a s y e t g iven" t h a t t h e f i r s td ec re e f o r t he p r ie s te s s o fA thena N ike (ML 4 4 ) s hou ld b e long t ot h e 4 20 s a nd n o t t h e e a r ly 4 40 s , i th a s b e en s hown 2° t h a t i t s s t onecu t te r w a s t h e s ame m an who c u t t h e a ccoun t s f o r P he id ia s ' s t a tue o fA thena P romacho s . Id on ' t k now whe the r h e w i l l a rgue t h a tt h eP romacho si sl a te rt h an w eh ad s uppo sed o rt h a tt h ea c coun t sa r ef o r s ome th ing e l se o r t h a t af i f th c en tu ry A then ian s t onecu t te r m igh t b e r e cogn izab le o ve r at wen ty -f ive y ea r p e r iod . Ir ema in c onv inced t h a t , f o r p ub l ic i n s c r ip t ion s , a ny a t temp t t o d a te a w e l l -a t te s ted l e t te r f o rm l i ke t h ree -ba r s i gma o u t s ide i t s a t te s ted r ange s t a r t sw i th as e r iou sh and icap . B . C . ,T o ron to , 1 978 ,3 1-5 1 ) . H . B . Ma t t ing ly , ' The A then ian N ike t emp le r e con s ide red ' ,A JA 8 6( 1 982 ) ,3 8 1-5 . 2° S .V . T racy , ' Hand s i n f i f th -cen tu ry B .C . A t t ic i n sc r ip t ion s ' , i n S tud i e s P r e s en t ed t o S t e r l ing D ow ( G reek , Roman a nd B yzan t ine Monog raph 1 0 ) , Durham N . C . , 1 984 ,28 1-2 .

D . M . L ew i s , ' An ew A then ian D ec ree ' , ZPE 6 0 ( 1 985 ) , 1 08 n .3 . R . Me igg s , ' The d a t ing o f f i f th -cen tu ry A t t ic i n sc r ip t ion s ' , JHS 8 6( 1 966 ) ,8 6-98 . M . B . Wa lbank , ' Cr i te r ia f o r t he d a t ing o ft h e f i f th -cen tu ry A t t ic i n sc r ip t ion s ' , i nO dpos ( s ee n .9 ) , 1 6 1-9 (= i d . , A th en i an P r ox en i e s o ft h e F if th C en tu ry 1 6

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A l l t h i s c ou ld o fc ou r se b e d e sc r ibed a s am a l ic iou s d ig re s s ion , o n ly t a ngen t i a l ly r e levan t t o t h e C o s f r agmen t . S eg re ' s o r ig ina l o b se rva t ion , t ha t t h e ma rb le w a s P en te l ic a nd t h e s t one w a s t h e ref o re i mpo r t ed a l ready c a rved f r om A then s , c anno t s u rv ive t h e p e t rog raph ic a na ly s i s g iven b y G eo rg iad i s .2 1 T he m a rb le wa s n o t P en te l ic , a l though i n spec t ion o fG eo rg iad i s ' d a ta b yJ ack Z u s sman , P rof e s so r o f G eo logy a t Manche s te r , c onf i rm s my s u sp ic ion t h a t h e h a s n o t s hown t ha t i tw a s P a r ian , me re ly t h a t i tw a s mo re l i ke P a r i an t h an a ny o f t he o the r s amp l e s s c ru t in ized i n t h a t p a r t icu la r a r t ic le . P a r ian m a rb le w a s o f c ou r se a va i lab le a t A then s , b u t i ti sn o t l i ke ly t h a t i t wou ld b e t hough t e conom ica l t o u s e i t . I ft h e s t one w a sn o tc a rved a tA then s , i tc an b ea nd h a sb een ma in ta ined 2 t h a tt h es c r ip t , A t t ic t hough i ti s ,n eed n o t b ej udged i nt h e s ame w ay a so ne wou ld j udge at e x t f r om A then s . On t h i s , Me igg s a nd L ew i s c o mmen ted : ' Bu t why s hou ld ama son , whe the r C oan o r A then ian , wo rk ing i n C o s u s e a n A t t ic s i gma t h a t h ad b een o b so le te f o r mo re t h an t wen ty y ea r s , when n one o fh i so the rl e t ter ss ugge s t st ha th e w a s o ld -f a sh ioned ? T he e p ig raph ic a rgumen t m ay b e al i t t le weakened , b u t i t r ema in ss t rong . ' Ic an t h ink o fv a r iou sp o s s ib le a n swe r st oo u rq ue s t ion , n o tab ly o ne a r i s ing f r om t h e f a c t t h a t A then s h ad , f o r ac on s ide rab le t ime , b een v i r tua l ly u n iqu e i n t he A t t ic Ion ian wo r ld i nu s ing t h ree -ba rs i gma ; e ven C o s , n o tt e chn ica l ly p a r to ft ha t wo r ld , h ad t h e f ou r th b a r . E ven s ome t ime a f te r A then s h ad a bandoned i t , a f o re igne r m igh t t h ink t h a t h e w a s g iv ing t h e p rope r f l avou r b y u s ing i t ; t he S pa r tan t e x t f r om D e lo s o f4 02-400 ( Tod GH I I9 9 ) i sv e ry u n l ike a ny th ing we k now o ff r om c on tempo ra ry L acon ia . Ic an o n ly s a y t h a t o u r t e x t d oe s n o t s t r ike me a st h e wo rk o f an on -A then ian o r e ven a n a ma t eu r . T o p u t t he ma t t e r i n i t s c on t ex t , i ti s wo r th l ook ing a ts ome o the r A then ian p ub l ic o r s em i -pub l ic t ex t s c a rved o re xh ib i ted a b road i nt h e f i f th c en tu ry . T h e re a r e t wo o the r d ec re e s , b o th i nI on ic . Ih ave n o t s e en t h e D e lo s t e x t ( ZPE 6 0 ( 1 985 ) 1 08 ) ; p re sumab ly i t ss c r ip t w a s l i ke t h e f i f th c en tu ry a c coun t s f r om D e lo s , wh ich a r e s t ra igh tf o rwa rd ly I on ic a nd w e re s u re ly c a rved t h e re . S queeze s o f al o s t d e c ree f r om K a rpa tho s ( Tod GH I 1 10 ) , l ong t hough t t ob e f ou r th c en tu ry , h ave n ow t ur n ed u p i nB e r l in ; i tt u rn s o u t , I on ic t hough i ti s , t o b e c a rved b y ar e spe c tab le A then ian p rof e s s iona l , p robab ly i n t h e 4 30 s ; t a k ing t h e s c r ip t t oge the r w i th t h e f a c t t h a t a n e p ig r aph i s t w i th f a rb roade re xpe r ience t h an S eg re t hough tt h es t one P en te l ic s ugge s t st h a tw e h ave o ne c a se h e re o fa n A then ian t e x tb e ing s h ipped av e ry l ong w ay . Of t h et wo i nven to r ie s d rawn u p b y A then ian c l e ruch s o n A eg ina , o ne ( /G I V 1 588 ) i sa n ama teu r i sh me s s i nm ixed s c r ip t a nd t h e o the r ( IG I V 3 9 ) f a i r ly s t ra igh tf o rwa rd ly I on ic . T he r e a r e p ub l ic d ed ica t ion s f r om D e lph i ( F ou i l l e sd eD e lph e s I 4 ,1 90 ) a nd Dodona ( S /G 3 7 3 ) wh ich u s e f ou r -ba r s i gma u nexpe c t ed ly e a r ly . On ly ag roup o f r a the r my s te r iou s l e g e s s a c r a e f r om m id -cen tu ry D e lph i ( Soko low sk i , L o i s s a c re s d e s c i te sg r e cque s , S uppMm en t 4 0 ) a r e a ny th ing l i ke p u r e A t t ic o ft h e i r p e r iod . A l l t h i ss ugge s t st o me t h a t ,i fwhoeve rw a sr e spon s ib le f o rp u t t ing u pt h e Co st e x th ad t og e t i td one l o ca l ly , h e w a s u nu sua l i ns t ipu la t ing f o r a nA t t ic t e x t a nd f o r tuna te t o f i nd s omeone who w a s c apab le o f t u rn ing o u t s o g ood a n i m i ta t ion o f a n A . G eo rg iad i s , ' The Koan f r agmen t o f t h e mone ta ry d ec ree ' , BCH 8 9( 1 965 ) ,4 00-422 .

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A then ian t ex t . I tc anno to fc ou r se b ed e te rm ined whe the rt h i sc u t te rw a ss t i l li nt h e ma in s t ream . Is ha l l s ay l i t t le a bou t t h e o the r d a t ing p o in t s wh ich h ave b een a dduced . T he a rgumen t a bou t t h e l ong p lu r a l d a t ive s s t i l l h o ld s u p mo re o r l e s s . I t may b e i n te re s t ing t oo b se rve t h a t t h e re a r e t wo i nt e x t s wh ich a lmo s t c e r ta in ly b e long t o t h eA then ian r e cod if i ca t ion o ft h e l aw s i n4 10-404 ( IG 1 32 36 .37 , 2 37 b i s .4 ) ; Ih ave a t t r ibu ted t h a t t ot h e i ra ppe a rance i nt h eo r ig ina l s wh ich w e re b e ing r e cop ied . On t h ee x t reme ly c op iou s l i t e r a tu re o n t h e h e ra ld s 'j ou rney s , Ip ropo se t os a y n ex t t o n o th ing . T he a rgumen t w a s o r ig ina l ly t i ed u p w i th P e r ic le s ' C ong r e s s D ec r ee , wh ich i sn o l onge r ar e spec tab le t e x t ; Ih ave n eve r s e en a ny n ece s sa ry c onnec t ion b e twe en t h ej ou rney sa nd t h ew ay t h a tt r ibu te l i s t sa nd a s se s smen t sa r eo rgan ized ; I a mp erf ec t ly p repa red t oc on temp la te t h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h eA then ian sv a r ied t h e i r p rocedu re s a nd wo rd -o rd e r w i thou t t h e re b e ing a ny p a r t icu la r s i gn if i cance t ot h e v a r ia t ion s . B efo re Ic ome o n t o mo re g ene ra l m a t te r s , t h e re i so ne t i re some p o in t t o m en t ion , t h e ' p rev iou s ' d ec ree o f K lea rcho s . T he r e s to ra t ion d epend s o n ly o n B aume i s te r ' s c opy o f t h e Smyrna f r agmen t ; h e r e ad p ov . r pör E ]pov g oe s b ack t o Wi lhe lm ; 8 E t ir E lpo v a nd Z aT E ]pov , s ugge s ted b y S eg re , wou ld n o t a l te r t h e i mp l ica t ion t h a tK le a rcho s p ropo sed t wo d ec ree s . T he a u tho r s o f ATL d en ied t h a t i mp l ica t ion , s a y ing ,2 3 n o t v e ry c onv inc ing ly : ' The re w a s , w e h o ld , n o o the r s u ch d ec ree , f o r t h e p rov i s ion s a nd p ena l t ie s wh ich e a ch c ounc i l lo r s wo re t o e nf o r ce mu s t h ave b een t ho s e o f t h e p r e sen t t e x t . I ti sj u s t p o s s ib le t h a t K lea rcho s , i n p h ra s ing t h e o a th , c a l led h i s own d ec ree r pör epov , b ecau se f o r t h e f u tu re s wea re r t he d ec r ee wou ld b e " ea r l ie r" t h an h i s o a th ' . T hey d id n o t r e a l ly l i ke t h a t t hem se lve s , p e rhap s w rong ly , a s w e s h a l l s e e , a nd c on t inued ' b u t w e n o te t h e p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t t h e l e t te r r e ad b y B aume i s te r a sH w a s r e a l ly N ; t h i s wou ld a low t he r e s to r a t ion [ y E vö € ]vov ' ; t h e a dvan tage o f t h a t r e s to ra t ion wou ld s e em t o b et ha ti tmean sn o th ing . Iwou ld a l so r e jec tt h eo the ra t temp tt ob reak a way f r om t he t wo d ec ree s . E rx leben s ugge s t s i7 E ]pov , ' ou r ' , b u t Id oub t whe the r t h e A then ian C ounc i l wou ld d e sc r ibe a d ec ree o f t h e A then ian A s semb ly a s ' ou r d ec ree ' . Iw i l l l e ave i tt o Ma t t ing ly t oe xpound h i s i d ea s a bou t / G 1 39 0 , wh ich m ay o r may n o tb er e levan t , b u t , o fc ou r se , i fK lea rcho s moved t wo d ec ree sa bou tc o inage a nd r e la ted ma t te r s , mo s t o fo u r e f o r t i nt r y ing t od a te o u r f r agmen t s h a s b een a wa s te o ft ime . I t wou ld r ema in p e rf ec t ly p o s s ib le t oh ypo the s ize a ne a r l ie ra t temp t t o e nac t t h e se o r s im i la r p rov i s ion s a nd d a te t h i s wheneve r y ou r v i ew o ft h e c o in s s ugge s t s . Emp i re s , a s as ho r tl ook a tt h e Roman D ig e s tw i l l s how , s ome t ime s h ave t o r epea t t h em se lve s when mea su re s d o n o t wo rk , a nd t h e A then i an s , who c e r ta in ly made mo re t h an o ne a t temp t t o r egu la r ize t h e d e l ive ry o ft r ibu te , c an h ave made mo r e t h an o ne t o t i dy u p t h i s q ue s t ion . Ih ave i nt h e p a s t c on s ide red d i s t r ibu t ing o u rf r agmen t sb e tween t wo d ec ree s . I ft h e s e cond d ec ree i n co rpo ra ted l a rge p a r t s o ft h e f i r s t , i t wou ld , It h ink , b ej u s t p o s s ib le t ok eep C o s i nt h e e a r ly 4 40 s , t ok eep u so r thodox e p ig raph i s t sh appy , a nd make e ve ry th ing e l se l a te r , b u tI am n o tr e commend ing t h i sl i ne v e ry s t rong ly . 23

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T he re i sa l so t h e o the r p o s s ib i l i ty , s ugge s ted b y T od ,2 4 t h a t ` K lea rcho s ' e a r l i e r d ec ree ' w a s n o t a bou t t h e se m a t te r s a t a l , b u t a bou t l e ga l p rocedu re s t o b e f o l lowed i ni mpe r i a l o f ence s . I fy ou a r e u s ed t ol ook ing a tc omb ined t ex t s , y ou m ay t h ink t h a t t h a t wou ld b e ar a the r c ryp t i c r e f e rence , b u t t he re p robab ly w a s r oom o n t h e Smy rna f r agmen t t oa dd awo rd o r t wo t od ef ine t he c on ten t o ft h e d ec ree , a nd t h a t wou ld c e r ta in ly m ake t h ing s e a s ie r . C ompa re t he c l o s e s t p a ra l le l , I G1 31 07 .6-8 : K a ir t e i /Ua a [ t Ho i v ba t .K ara [ r ( 3n pör Epov 0 74 ][ t c rp ,a

...t r ]ros E [ I ]T r €r Ep iT aw € 7 3 €py [ Eri v ' yT ö8 1 5µ ,o

[ e in, 7 TpÖTEp01,] EeE k r i AVOÖTCOV EK Te t : 11, 7 TC

PECOV .

I ti s madden ing t h a t T r pör epov i se ven mo re r e s to r ed h e re t h an i ti si n o u r t ex t , s i nce i tl ook s a si fi t wou ld p rov ide amuch n eeded p a ra l le l f o r ATL ' s s ugge s t ion t h a ti tn eed mean n o mo re t h an ' p rev iou st ot h ep r e sen tt ime ' .P e rhap st h ee v idence f o rt h e r eh av ing b een t wo C o inage D ec ree si sn o ta lt h a ts t rong . I ti smo re t h an t ime t oa s se s st h eg ene ra l mo t iva t ion o ft h eD ec ree . Wi l amow i tz , who s t a r ted i ta l , w a s g iv ing a c e remon ia l l e c tu re o n t h e A then ian Emp i re t o c e leb ra te t h e K a i se r ' s b i r thday i n 1 877 , a nd s aw t h e A then ian emp i re a s a n e n l igh tened f o re runne ro ft h en ew G e rman Emp i r e . I nm ak ing t h es ugge s t ion t ha t t h e re w a s aC o inage D ec ree , h e s aw A then s a s s t imu la t ing g ene ra l e cono m ic p rog re s s , a s w e l l a s p rof i t ing h e r se lf f r om t h e g a in i nvo lved i n r em in t ing a mu l t i tude o fs t range c u r renc ie s i n to h e r own . T he t wo s t rand s o ft h i s h ave h ad n ume rou s s u cce s so r s . On t h e o ne s i de , s ome h ave a lmo s t t hough t o ft he D ec ree a s p a r t o fA then s ' a t temp t t oc r ea te as o r t o ff r ee t r ade a r ea . On t h e o the r , t h e re h a s a lway s b een as c hoo l o ft hough t w i th ak een e ye o n t h e p rof i t s t o b e m ade b y r em in t ing a nd i no the r w ay s ; t h e re h a s b een av e ry r e cen t a r t ic le 2 5 a rgu ing t h a t h a rdheaded c a lcu la t ion s a bou t e conom ic a dvan tage a lway sp l ayed a n e s sen t ia lr o le i n G reek c o inage . B o th s t r and s , o f c ou r se , t i e i n t o t h e m a jo r d iv i s ion a mong mode rn s c ho la r s a bou t a nc ien t e conom ic s , t h a t b e tween mode rn i s t s a nd p r im i t i v i s t s . T ho se who h o ld t h a t t h e a nc ien t s d id n o t n ec e s s a r i ly t h ink a bou t e conom ic ma t te r s i n mode rn c ap i ta l i s t w ay s h ave p ou r ed s c o rn o n t h e i d ea t h a t t h e m a in mo t ive t ot h e C o inage D ec ree c an h ave b een a ny th ing wh ich w e wou ld c a l le i the r m ac ro - o r m ic ro -econom ic . Mo se s F in ley , o fc ou r se , h a s b een t h e m a in e xponen t o ft h i sv i ew ,a nd w ec an c on s ide ro ne o fh i ss t a temen t so fi ti nf u l l :2 6 E qua l ly p o l i t ica lw a st h ef i f th -cen tu ry B .C . A then ian d ec ree wh ich l a id d own t h er u le t h a tA then ian c o in sa l one w e re t ob ec u r ren tf o ra lp u rpo se sw i th in t h eA then ian emp i re . . T he p o l i t ica l e l emen t i su nm i s takab le : t h e u np receden ted v o lume o f A then ian m i l i ta ry a nd a dm in i s t ra t ive p aymen t s , a t at ime when f o re ign t r ibu te w a s t he l a rge s t s ou rce o fp ub l ic r e venue , w a s much f a c i l i ta ted b y au n if o rm c o inage , a nd A then s w a s n ow a b le a nd w i l l ing t od emon s t ra te who w a sm a s te rw i th in t h e emp i re b yd eny ing t h e s ub jec ts ta te st h et r ad i t iona ls ymbo lo fa u tonomy , t h e i r own c o in s . T he A then ian s m ay GH II ,p .1 66 . H . E nge lmann , 'Wege g r iech i sche r G e ld p o l i t ik ' , ZPE 6 0( 1 985 ) , 1 65-76 . M. I .F in ley , T h e A n c i en t E conomy , 1 973 , p p .

1 68-9 ;s e ea l so 2 nd I n t e rna t iona lC onf e r en c eo fE c onom i c H i s t o ry , A ix en -P r ov en c e 1 962 , P a r i s a nd t he H ague , 1 965 ,I ,p p .2 2-5 .

24 25

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a l so h ave a im ed a tm in tp r of i t s , b u tw es h a l ln o tk now u n t i lt h e m i s s ing b i to ft h e t e x t s t a t ing t h em in tc h a rg ef o rr e co in ing i sf o und . I ti sa l so h e ld t h a t t h e r e w a s ac omm e r c i a l m o t iv e , ad e s i r e t o g i v e A th en i an m e r chan t s t h e a dv an t ag e o v e r o t h e r s .2 7 T h e l o g i c e s c ap e s m e . E v e ryon e h ad b e en e qu a l ly t h ev i c t im o f ap r of u s ion o fm in t s ;h ad t h eA th en i an sb e en a b l et oe nf o r c et h e i r d e c r e e f o r as uf i c i en t n umb e r o f y e a r s , e v e ryon e w i th in t h e e mp i r e w ou ld h av e b en ef i t ed s l i gh t ly b u te qu a l ly ,t h eA th en i an sn om o r et h an t h eo t h e r s , q u e s t ion so fp r id e a nd p a t r io t i sm a p a r t . O n ly t h e mon ey ch ang e r sw ou ld h av eb e en t h el o s e r s , a nd n oo n e h a sy e ts ugg e s t ed t h a ts u ch ap ow e rf u ld e c r e ew a sp a s s ed j u s tt oh u r tt h em . Id o n o t t h ink t h a t a nyone s e r iou s ly h o ld s n ow , i ft h ey e ve r d id , t h a t t h e A then ian sw e re t r y ing t ob enef i tt h e i r me rchan t s2 8 , b u t t h e t i de c e r ta in ly s e em s t o b e t u rn ing a ga in s t t h i s f a i r ly p u re p o l i t ica l e xp lana t ion . T he p o l i t ica l e xp lana t ion , o fc ou r se , d oe s n o t e xp la in t h e a ppa ren t e xc lu s ion o fe l ec t rum ; o ne c ou ld o n ly s ugge s t t h a tt h ev a lue o fe l ec t rum c o inage s t oA then si nt h eB lack S ea t r ade f o r ced t h e i r e xc lu s ion . Wh a t i sf a r mo re s e r iou s i st h a t t h e p o l i t ica l e xp lana t ion , h oweve r i tm igh t wo rk f o r c o in s ( a nd Rob in son t oo 2 9 s p eak s o f t h e m a s s o fA eg ine tan money s t i l l c i rcu la t ing b e ing ac on t inua l r em inde r o fA eg ina ' s f o rme r g r ea tne s s a nd ac on t inua l i r r i ta t ion t oA then s ) , b ecome s p rog re s s ive ly w eake r when a pp l ied t ot he w e igh t sa nd m e a su re s , wh ich a r ea f te ra l i nt h ed ec ree , t hough t h ey m ay n o t i n te re s tn um i sma t i s t sv e ry much . The re i ss u re ly much i n wha t F in ley h im se lf s a y s a bou t t h e u np receden ted v o lume o f m i l i ta ry a nd a dm in i s t r a t ive p aymen t s b e ing much f a c i l i ta ted b y a u n if o rm c o inage . T h ep o in tw a st a ken u pb y S t a r r 3° , who f ound r e a son t os uppo se t ha t A then s r e co ined t h e t r ea su ry o ft h e D e l ian L eague when i ta r r ived i nA then s , b y Wi l l3 1 a nd b y S chu l le r3 2 . T he g rea t a dvan tage o ft h i s l i ne o ft h ink ing , i ts e em s t o me , i st h a t i tw i l l r e ad i ly a c commoda te t h e w e igh t s a nd m ea su re s a sw e l l . Ih ad w r i t ten as ho r tp i ec ea l ong t h e se l i ne s f o r CA H V , b u t Ih ave n ow b een o ve r taken b y Thoma s R . Ma r t in . 3 Ma r t in ' s m a in c once rn , o fc ou r se , i st od ebunk t h e l i nk b e tween c o inage a nd s ove re ign ty , b u t h e h a s ag ood t r ea tmen t o ft h i s p o in t t oo . I am n o t s ugge s t ing t h a t a nyone r e spon s ib le f o r A then i an l e g i s la t ion k new o r c a red wha t l e ng th o ff oo t t h e b u i lde r s u s ed o n S a mo s , t o t a ke o u r w e l l -known l o ca l e xamp le . Ma r t in c oncen t ra te s o n t h e r evenue a s pec t o ft h e mea su re s , t h e n eed t o h ave a n a g reed s t anda rd f o r t a x ing t h e i mpo r t s o f , s a y , T ha s ian w ine . Ia m mo re c onc e rned w i th t h e n eed s o fA then s ' a dm in i s t ra t ive a nd m i l i ta ry m ach ine . Tw ice i n t h e e a r ly y ea r s o ft h e P e loponne s ian Wa r ( IG 1 3 6 1 .344 1 , 6 2 .1-5 ) , s t a te s a r e g iven t h e p r iv i lege o f d raw ing x t hou sand m ed imno i o f c o rn d i r ec t ly f r om Byzan t ium . T he t ype o fm ed imno i d oe s n o t n eed t o b e s t a ted ( c on t r a s t T od GH I 1 40 .80 f . , whe re t h e D e lph ic n aopo i o i h ave t o c onve r t f r om P he idone ian t o D e lph ic m ed imn o ib ef o re p u t t ing ac a sh v a lue o n ag i f t o fb a r ley ) ; s ome th ing mu s t h ave b een d one t om ake s u re t h a te ve ryone k new t h a tt h ey w e re t a lk ing a bou tt h e Oxf o rd , 1 970 ,p p .6 9f . 3 1 E . Wi l l , L e m ond e g r e c e tl ' o r i en t , I( 1 972 ) , p p . 2 07 f . ,2 09 f . 3 2 o p . c i t . ( n . 1 5 )2 16 . 3 3 T . R . Ma r t in , S ove r e ign ty a nd C o inag e i n C la s s i c a lG r e e c e ,P r ince ton , 1 985 ,p p .2 034 .

It h ink t h e a lu s ion may b e t o C . H . V . S u the r land , ' Corn a nd c o in ' , A JP 6 4 ( 1 943 ) , 1 45 w i th n .3 , wh ich d oe sn o t men t ion t he D ec ree a ta l . 2 8 Me igg s , o p . c i t . ( n . 1 4 ) 1 72 , r a the r v ague ly , c ome sc l o se t oi t . 29 o p .c i t . ( n .6 )3 25 . 3 ° C. G . S t ar r , A th en ian C o inag e 4 80-449 B . C. , 27

6 1

D . M . L EW IS

s ame m ea su re . And wha t a bou t t h e n eed s o ft h e A then ian f l ee t , b y f a r t h e g r ea t e s t e conom ic c o mp lex o fa nc ien t G reece ? Qu i te a pa r t f r om t h e i mpo r t s f o r o r ig ina l c on s t ruc t ion , i t mu s t c on s tan t ly h ave b een b uy ing s upp l ie s o f a l k ind s o f c o mmod i t ie s , f r om n a i l st op a in t , a l o ve rt h ep l ace . Wou ld i tn o tm ake l i f e ag re a t d ea l e a s ie r i fs ome k ind o fs t anda rd s c ou ld b e a r r ived a t , s ot h a th agg l ing c ou ld b e d one a bou t mu tua l ly u nde r s tood q uan t i t ie s ? T ha t i t wou ld make l i f e ag rea t d ea l e a s ie r a l r ound i fc o inage w a s u n if o rm a nd o fc l ea r v a lue i so fc ou r s e c o mmon g round ,t hough s u re ly o u r empha s i ss hou ld b eo ns t a te ,n o tp r iva te , t r an s ac t ion s . I f w e c on t inue t o t h ink a l ong t h e se l i ne s , t h e re a r e p e rhap s af ew mo r e c h rono log ica lp o in te r st ob eg l eaned b yl ook ing a r ound . We h ave a l re ady s e en t h a t m ed imno i o fc o rn n eeded n o d ef in i t ion b y 4 26 . We igh t s o fb ronze , c e r t a in ly , a nd p e rhap st i nw e re q ua l if i ed i ns ome w ay i nt h e4 50 s ( /G 1 34 35 .69-71 , 1 0 15 ) , n o ti n t h e y ea r s a f te r 4 2 1 ( IG 1 3 4 72 .139 f . ) . T ha t d oe s n o t g e t u s f a r . L e t u s r e tu rn t o c o inage . I ti sw e l l k nown t h a t e l ec t rum w a s , a ta ny r a t e o r ig ina l ly , a n a ccep t ab l e w ay o f p ay ing A then ian t r ibu te . T he f i r s t A then ian l i s t , o f4 53 , h ad ap o s t sc r ip t wh ich d iv ided A thena ' s s i x t ie th i n to s i lve r a nd C yz icene s t a te r s ( /G 1 3 2 59 . p o s t sc r ip t 6 13 ) , t hough t h et o ta lt r ibu te p a id i n Cyz icene sc anno th ave b een e ven a s much a s 1 0 p e r c en t . o f t h e who le a nd w a s p robab ly ag ood d ea l l e s s . T he l i s t s c on ta in v a r iou s o dd a moun t s o ft r ibu te . S ome o ft h em a ppea r t ob e of i c ia l , t h a t i st os ay , w i th t r ibu te s a c tua l ly a s se s sed i nt e rm s o fe l ec t rum a nd s how ing af a i r a moun t o f c on s i s tency . O the r s d o n o t . F o r m any y ea r s Ik ep t n o te s o n t h e se , wonde r ing whe the r t h e o dd s um s r e co rded m igh t r ep re sen t s i tua t ion s whe re t he a l ied s t a te w a s t e nde r ing c o inage i nt h e b e l ief t h a ti th ad ap a r t icu la r v a lue , b u t t he A then ian h e l l eno t am i a i w e re o n ly p repa red t o t a r if ft h em a t al owe r v a lu e . Imade p e r iod ic a t temp t s t o w r i te t h em u p , b u t r epea ted ly c am e t o t h e c onc lu s ion t h a t my a r i thme t ic w a s g e t t ing f a nc ie r a nd f a nc ie r , t h a t Ic ou ld n o t my se lf d raw t h e l i ne b e tween p l au s ib le a nd i mp lau s ib le c a se s , a nd t h a to th e rp eop le w e re l i ke ly t od r aw t h e l i ne f a rl e s s c ha r i tab ly . B u t a n a r t ic le w a s n eeded a nd w a se ven tua l ly p roduced b yE ddy i n1 973 .3 4 I ti sc e r ta in ly v u lne rab le i ns ome o ft h ew ay s wh ich If e a r ed ,b u t i ti sn eve r the le s s i n te re s t ing r e ad ing . T he mo s t s o l id r e su l t s e em s t o b e t h a t t h e i r regu la r a moun t s mo re o r l e s s d i sappea r b e tween 46 a nd 4 30 , o n ly s t a r t ing u p a ga in d u r ing t h e P e loponne s ian Wa r . E ddy s ugge s t s t h a t t h i s w a s t h ep er iod when A then s r e a l ly w a s i n s i s t ing o n u n if o rm i ty o f c o inage , b rough t i ti n to l i ne w i th Rob in son ' s c h rono logy f o r a l ied c o inage s , a nd a r r ived a t ad a te f o r t he C o in age D ec ree . ' I fw e a pp ly t h e e v idence i nt h e q uo ta l i s t s s t r ic t ly , a nd i fw e c an b e l i eve t h a tt h eA then ian b an o nm in t ing s i lve rc o in sd i scou rag ed t h eu s eo fe l ec t rum , t h en w em igh td a te t h ed ec ree e xac t ly t o4 46 B .C . ' A s s t a ted , t h i s i sn o t l i ke ly t o c onv ince a ny o ne , If e a r . T he D ec ree d oe s n o t m en t ion e l ec t rum . My s u sp ic ion , h oweve r , i st h a t E ddy m ay s t i l l b e o n t he r i gh t t r ack , b u t i sp ay ing t h e p ena l ty f o r e xp la in ing t oo m any o f h i s a no ma lou s p aymen t s i ne l ec t rum . S ome o f my f a nc ie r u npub l i shed a r i thme t ic i nvo lve s s i l ve r c o inage si n s tead . A nd t h e re i st h i s t ob e s a id . I ti sn o t o n ly t h e se u nce r ta in s um s i n t h e q uo ta l i s t s wh i ch s ugge s t t h a t A then s w en t t h rough al ong p e r iod o fa vo id ing S .K .E ddy ,' Some i r regu la r amoun t so fA then ian t r ibu te ' ,A JP 9 4( 1 973 ) ,4 7-70 . 34

6 2

THE ATHE N IA N CO I NAGE DEC REE

t h e of i c ia l u se o fe l ec t rum . I ti s aw e l l -known f a c t t h a t i n4 47 s omeone s u cceeded i n u n load ing o n t h e P a r thenon c omm i s s ione r s 7 4 L amp sacene s t a te r s a nd 2 7 C yz icene s ( p lu s ah ek t e ) a nd t h a tt h i se l ec t rum r ema ined u n spen tf o rt h en ex tf i f teen y ea r s . I f we l e ave o u t s ome o dd b i t s o ff o re ign money owned b y v a r iou s g od s i n 4 29 /8 ( IG 1 33 83 p a s s im ) , i ti sn o tu n t i l4 18 /7 t h a tw ef i nd e l ec t rum p l ay ing a ny p a r t i n of i c ia l A then ian a c coun t s .3 5 O fc ou r se , i tc an v e ry s imp ly b es a id t h a tt h ey w i l l u s e A t t ic c o in f o r c onven i ence a sl ong a s t h ey h ave i ta nd o n ly d raw o n o the r c o inage s when t h ey d o n o t . E ddy ' s l i ne o f t hough t , b y wh ich i ti st h e p e r iod 46-430 i n wh ich u n if o rm i ty i sa imed a t , c ou ld , Is uppo se , b e ma tched b y a s uppor te r o f al a te d a t ing f o r t h e D ec ree . I tc ou ld b e ma in ta ined t h a t ap u rpo se o f t h e Dec ree w a s t o r e s to r e t h e c i rcu la t ion o fA t t ic ow l s a nd t ob r ing b ack i n to t h e s y s te m s upp l ie s wh ich h ad b een d ra in ing f r om i t . Ic onc lude b y c on s ide r ing t h e p r inc ip le s o n wh ich t h e e p ig raph ic a nd n um i s ma t i c e v idence s hou ld b e b rough t t oge the r . A s ar e su l t o ft h e c onf e r ence , I a c cep t t ha t t h e re c ou ld b e n um i sma t ic e v idence wh ich m igh t d a te t h e D ec r ee , t hough t h ea ppa ren tc on t inu i ty o fn o r the rn c o inage sp o in t si n ad if e ren t d i r ec t ion f r om t he u nexpec t ed a ppea rance o f e l ec t rum a t Ch io s . Wha t Ir ema in v e ry d oub tf u l a bou t i s whe the r a n i ndependen t d a t ing o ft h e D ec ree wou ld o r s hou ld m ake a ny s e r iou s d if e rence t o c o r rec t n um i sma t ic o pe ra t ion s . You w i l l h ave g a the red t h a t If i nd i th e lpf u ls ome t ime st og ob ack t ot h eh i s to ry o f aq ue s t ion ,a nd i nt h i s c a se Id id l ook t os e eh ow t h eg rea th i s to r ian s o ft h e f i r s tp a r to ft h e c en tu ry h ad r e ac ted t ot h e d i s cove ry t h a t Wi lamow i tz ' s ugge s t ion h ad b een c o r rec t . Ih ave n o t y e t d i scove red t h a t t h e g rea te s t o ft h em a l , E dua rd Meye r , t ook a ny n o te o f t he ma t te r a ta l , b u t i ti s , It h ink , w e l l wo r th l ook ing a tt h e 1 908 t r ea tmen t b y C ava ignac ,3 6 l a rge ly i ndependen t o f We i l . F o r C ava ignac , i tw a s m e r e ly t h e p o s i t ion o f A then s a nd i t s a dm in i s t ra to r s i n t h e D e l ian L eague a f te r 4 78 wh ich i n ev i tab ly r educed t h e n eed , a sw e l l a st h e u t i l i ty , o fc o inage f o r t h e a l ied s t a te s . The r educ t ion a nd d i sappea rance o f t h e i r c o inage s wh ich h e s aw r e s ted , h e t hough t , o n t h e f a c t s o ft h e s i tua t ion . T ha t t h e A then ian s e ven tua l ly a t temp ted t o r egu la te t h e ma t te r b y d ec ree w a s as i gn o f w eakne s s , n o t o f s t reng th , a sr i va l c o inage s , s t a r t ing f r om t h e s u cce s sf u l r evo l t o ft h e Cha lc id ian c onf ede racy , b egan t o c ha l lenge t h e p r imacy o fA then ian c o inage . I ti sn o t t o ta l ly c l ea r t o m e wha t C ava ignac , who h ad l a id p rope r empha s i so n a dm in i s t ra t ive c on s ide ra t ion s , m ean t b y s a y ing t h a t A then s w an ted t o p re se rve h e rp r iv i l eg e m on e t a i r e , b u t It h ink Id o wan t t o k now h ow an um i sma t i s t s t udy ing ap a r t icu la r c o inage i st o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween ac e s sa t ion o fc o inage i mpo sed f r om o u t s ide a nd as imp le s t op b ecau se t he re i sn o n eed t o c o in . T ha t , i n c iden ta l ly , i s wha t Ma r t in ' s b ook i sa bou t , i n r e la t ion t o f ou r th cen tu ry T he s sa ly . T he c i t ie s , h e t h ink s , s t opped , n o t b ecau se P h i l ip d e s t royed t h e i ra u tonomy ,b u tb ecau se t h ey c ou ld n o ta f o rd t oc o in a nd h ad n o n eed t o . T he d if e rence i n o u r c a se i st h a t w e d o h ave e v idence f o r e x te rna l a c t ion , b u t Ia m n o t s u re h ow , i n t h e c i rcum s tance s , w e r e a l ly e xpec t t h a t t h e D ec ree c an d oa ny th ing t od a te a ny c o inage .

35 36

I G1 33 70 .13 ;s e v e ra li n s tance st he reaf te r . E . C ava ignac , H i s to i r e f i nan c i& e d 'A tün e s a u

V e s i è c l e , 1 908 , 1 77-87 ; J . B e loch , G e s ch i ch t e2 I 1 ,9 2i sd ependen to nt h i s . 6 3

G r i e ch i s ch e

T he A then ian Co inage Dec ree a nd t h ea s se r t ion o f Emp i re

HAROLD B . MATT INGLY

IW AS t emp ted , when p l ann ing my c on t r ibu t ion , t oi ndu lge i ns ome s u ch d e lu s ive m a thema t ic s a s D av id L ew i s f e e l ing ly d e sc r ibed — to f o l low E ddy i n e x t rac t ing f r om a noma lou s p a r t -paymen t s o ft r ibu te r e ckoned i nA t t ic d rachm s e v idence f o r r ound p aymen t s i n n on-A t t ic s i lve r . B u t , t hough Ia l so a g ree t h a t n on -A t t ic p ay men t s d o o ccu r , Is h a re t h e f e a r o f e xpo s ing n um i sma t ic o r ma thema t ic a l i n co mpe tence . A l lt h a t Iwou ld s t re s sh e re i st h a t s u ch o dd p aymen t so ccu re ven i n t he l a te 4 30 s ( Be rge ; K o s ) a nd n o tj u s t b ef o re 4 46 a nd a f te r 4 3 1 .1P e rhap s s ome n um i sma t i s t , n ow t h a t w e h ave b o th a i red t h e q ue s t ion , w i l l i nve s t iga te a l t h e e v idence s y s tema t ica l ly . M ixed p aymen t s i n e l ec t rum a nd n on -A t t ic s i lve r , i n n on-A t t ic a nd A t t ic s i l ve r , o r i no ne o r mo re s i lve r c o inage s a nd d a r ic s s hou ld n o t b e r u led o u t . Ih ope t oo t h a te xpe r t so n t h e ampho ra s e r ie sn ow s e cu re ly i d en t if i ed w i l l c ome u p w i th aw ide rs p read o ff i f th cen tu ry c apac i ty -mea su remen t st h an a r e a s y e t a va i lab le . I ts hou ld t h en b e p o s s ib le t o a s ce r ta in when T ha so s , Mende , S amo s , a nd L e sbo s moved o ve r t o t h e A t t ic s t anda rd a sr equ i red b y t h e C o inage Dec ree , wh ich , a sD av id r i gh t ly empha s i zed , w a s c once rned j u s t a s much w i th i mpo s ing A t t ic m e a su re s a nd w e igh t s .2 T h i s e v idence h a s t h e a dvan tage o ve r c o inage i n t h a t c hange f r om l o ca l t o A t t ic s t anda rd s mu s t s u re ly i mp ly t h e b an , whe rea s b reak s i n c o inage — even p ro longed b reak s a t ma jo r m in t s —may h ave o the rc au se sa nd w e re n o tn ece s sa r i ly d i c ta ted b yA then s . If ound my se lf v e ry much i na g reemen tw i th D av id ' sp e r sua s ive p re sen ta t ion o f t he C o inage D ec r e e a s ap o l i t ica l a nd i mpe r ia l man if e s to , ac l ea r d ec la r a t ion o f i n ten tb yA then s . H ea cu te ly s howed a l so t h a t , wh i le t h e ma te r ia lg a in so f au n if i ed c o inage wou ld b es h a red e qua l ly b yA then sa nd a l ie s ,u n if y ing mea su re sa nd w e igh t s wou ld p rove c onven ien t t o t h e A then ian s t a te i n my r iad w ay s— some o f t h em s e em ing ly t r iv i a l , b u t i nb u lk c u mu la t ive . H e re A then s w a s a s se r t ing i t sw i l l , w i th n op re tence o fc on su l ta t ion ,o nt h ei nne rmo s tt e r r i to ry o fp o l l sa u tonomy .3 a tp p . 9 0-2 . F o r B e rge s e e I G P2 77 , c o l .V I .30 ; 2 79 , c o l .1 .5 1 ;2 80 ,c o l .1 .43 . F o r Ko ss e e2 80 ,c o l .1 . 36 . 2 I n ' Co in s a nd Ampho r a s —Ch io s , S a mo s a nd Tha so s i n t h e f i f th c en tury BC ' , JHS 1 0 1 ( 1 98 1 ) , 7 8-86 Ia pp l ied t h el im i ted e v idence k nown t o me i n t h i sc onnec t ion . 3 S ee L ew i s , a bove , p p . 6 0f . a nd c ompa r e t h e s t and t a ken b y M . I .F in ley i n T h e A n c i en t E c onomy , 1 973 , 1 68 f .

1 S ee D . M . L ew i s , a bove , p p . 5 3f . Imu s t t h ank h im h e re f o rk ind ly l e t t ing me s e e af a i r ly f i na l d raf t o f h i s p ape r i n a dvance o f t he S ympo s ium . Iw a s r e l ieved t o f i nd t h a t w e h ad i ndependen t ly d ec ided o n n ea t d ove ta i l ing o f o u r c on t r ibu t ion s . F o r t h e t r ibu te p a r t-paymen t s s e e S . K . E ddy , ' Some i r re g u la r amoun t so fA th en ian t r ibu te ' ,A JPh . 9 4 ( 1 973 ) , 4 7-50 . Ic ommen ted o n h i s v i ew s i n ' The S econd A then ian Co inage D ec ree ' , K l io 5 9 ( 1 977 ) , 8 3100 ,

6 5

HA R OLD B . M ATT I NGLY

T he l a nguage o ft h eC o inage D ec ree a nd o ft h et r ibu te r egu la t ion sp ropo sed b y K le in ia s i so ve r t ly i mpe r ia l a nd t h e c l o se s t p a ra l le l s c ome f r om t he 4 20 s a nd t h e n ex t d ecade , t hough t h a t a l one c anno t o bv iou s ly e xc lude t he m f r om t he e a r ly 4 40 s .4 T ha t t h ey a r e c on tempo ra ry w i th e ach o the r i sn o t a x io ma t i c a nd t h ey s hou ld b ee xam ined s e pa ra te ly a nd s t r ic t ly o n t h e i r me r i t s . When Me r i t tp ub l i shed t h et r ibu te d ec ree i n1 937 , t h et e x tw a sv e ry g appy a nd d ef ec t ive . He p u ti ts ho r t ly b ef o re K leonymo s ' d ec ree o f4 26 /5 , wh ich e s t ab l i shed b oa rd s o ft r ibu t e co l lec to r s i nt h ec i t ie s . T he a rgumen t sf o rt h i sp r io r i ty w e r en ece s sa r i ly d ef ec t ive a l so . 5A n ew f r agmen t f ound i n 1 938 r evea led t h e p ropo se r ' s n ame , r evo lu t ion ized r e con s t ruc t i on — l ine s 1 5 t o7 7 h ad 4 0 l e t te r s o n ly , n o t 5 7— and t h rew u nexpec ted n ew l i gh t o n t h e D ec r ee ' s c on ten t a nd s c ope .6 I n t h e s ame y ea r S eg r e p ub l i sh ed t h e Ko s f r agmen t o ft h e Co inage D ec ree w i th i t s A t t i c t e x t a nd t h ree -ba r s i gm a s . I t wa s k nown , o fc ou r se , t o Me r i t t a nd h i s c o l labo ra to r s s ome t ime b e f o r e 1 938 a nd i n ATL I( 1 939 ) t h e c ompo s i te t e x t o ft h e d ec ree a sg iven b y S egre wa s p ub l i shed u nde rt h ed a t ing 4 49 .7K le in ia s ' d ec ree a ppea red i n ATL Ii ni t so ld d ef ec t ive f o rm , n umbe red D 7— a s i gn , a s Wade -Ge ry a dm i t ted y ea r sl a te r , t h a tt h ey t hen t hough t i tn o tl ong b ef o re K leonymo s ( D8 ) . T he re w a sj u s t t ime t oa cknow ledg e t h e n ew f r agmen t ' s e x i s tence a s ATL I w en t t o p re s s , b y an o te a ppended t o t he I n t roduc t ion .8 F ina l ly t h e K le in ia s D ec ree w a s r e pub l i shed b y H i l l a nd Me r i t t i n 1 944 a nd d ef in i t ive ly d a ted 4 48 /7 . I t s p ropo se r wou ld b e A lk ib iade s ' f a th e r , who d i ed a tK o rone i a . T h i s w a s t h el og ica l c on sequence i nt h e i r m ind s o f mov ing b ack t h e C o inage D ec ree f r om t h e4 20 s . No -one h a s r e a l ly b een a b le t oc l a im t h a tt h e re i s ap owe rf u l , i ndependen t e p ig raph ic a r gumen t f o r t h e s h if t . T he t ex t o f D7 h a s f ou r -ba r s i gma a nd ma in ly d eve loped A t t ic l e t t e r ing , t hough t he re a r e s ome o dd i t ie sa nd t h es p ac ing i sc r amped 9 I tmay b ei n s t ruc t ive , a sw e l la s amu s ing , t os p ecu la t e . T he n ew f r ag men to fD7 c ou ld e a s i ly h ave b een f ound b e f o r e i tw a s k nown t h a t S eg re h ad f ound h i s A t t ic c opy o ft h e C o inage D ec ree a t Ko s . I tw a s a f te r a l p ho tog raphed i ns i tu i n1 936 , l y ing f a ce -down a nd s e rv ing a sp a r t o f ar ep lacemen t i nt h e s ou the rn j a mb o ft h e P a r thenon ' s e a s t d oo rway . T he o the r t op f r agmen t o f D7 , wh ich a lmo s tj o in s i t , h ad b een f ound s im i la r ly i n 1 926 —bu i l t i n to r epa i r m a son ry i n t h e P a r th enon ' s w e s t d oo rway . Wi th t h i s k now ledge f r ee ly a va i lab l e s omeone m igh t h ave n o ted t h e s t one s oone r , t hough i t so r ig ina l t h ickne s sh ad b e en c u t d own t of i tt he a r e ao f f i caz ione d e l l a mone ta ' , C l a r a R hod o s 9 ( 1 938 ) , 1 5 1-78 : ATL I ,1 939 ,p .5 79 , T6 9 . S ee ATL I ,p . x l : H . T . Wade-Ge ry , ' The q ue s t ion o ft r ibu te i n4 49/8 a c ' , H e sp e r ia 1 4 ( 1 945 ) , 2 16 n .1 0 . S ee H i l la nd Me r i t t , o p . c i t . n .6 .A se a r ly a s1 938 ( JHS 5 8 , 1 08 ) A . M . Woodwa rd , r ev iew ing Me r i t t , a rgued t h a t o n e p ig raph ic g round s D7s hou ld b e d a ted c on s ide r ab ly e a r l ie r t h an D 8 ; b u t i t i s u nce r ta in whe th e r h e w a s u nawa re o f t he n ew f r agmen t a nd i t si mpor t . H i sj udgemen t wa s a tl e a s t p robab ly s wayed b y k now ing o ft h e Ko s f r agmen t o ft h e Co inage D ec ree . B o th f a c to r s u nder lay A . E . R aub i t schek ' s d e t e rm ined e f or t s t o f i nd e p ig r aph ic r e a son f o rp u t t ing b ack D 7t ot h ee a r ly 4 40 s CA n ew f r agmen to f ATL D 8 ' ,A JPh .6 1 ( 1 940 ) ,4 75-9 ) .

F or t h et e x t ss e e ATL I ,D1 4 (ML 4 5 ) a nd / G 1 3 3 4 ( ATL I , D7 : ML 4 6 ) . F or t h e 4 20 s a nd l a te r s e e I G 1 3 6 1 .4 1-7 (ML 6 5 : Me thone ) ; 7 8 .30-6 (ML 7 3 : E leu s i s f i r s t -f ru i t s ) ; T huc . 5 ,1 8 .7 f .( Peace o fN ik ia s ) a nd 6 , 8 4 .2 f . a nd 8 5 .2 ( s peech o f E uphemo s o f A then s )w i th 7 ,5 7 .4-7 . S ee B . D . Me r i t t , D o cum en t s o fA th en ian T r ibu t e ( DAT ) , ( Cambr idge , Ma s s . , 1 937 ) , 4 3-60 . F o rK leo n ymo ss e e ATL I , D 8a nd t h eb e t te rt ex ti nI G1 36 8 (ML 6 8 ) ,i n co rpo ra t ing an ew f r agmen t . S ee G . P . S t even s , ' The S e t t ing o ft h e P e r ic lean P a r thenon ' , H e sp e r ia S upp l . 3( 1 940 ) , 7 8 : B . H i l l a nd B . D . Me r i t t , ' An e a r ly A then ian d ec ree c oncern ing t r ibu te ' , H e sp e r ia 1 3 ( 1 944 ) , 1 15 . Compa re ATL I , D 7w i th I , D7 ! S ee M . S eg re , ' L a l e gge A ten ie se s u l l 'un i 4

8

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THE ASSE RT I O N OF EMP I RE

r e p lace men t . Am i s s ing s l ab o fa round t h e s ame s i ze i nt h e n o r the rn j amb o ft h e e a s td oorway c ou ld w e l lh ave c o me — so Me r i t ts h rewd ly g ue s sed —f rom t h el owe r l e f tp a r t o ft h eK le in ia ss t e l e . " How m igh tt h ee v idence o ft h en ew f r agmen th ave b e en e va lua t ed i n 1 934-6 ? Wi th t h e Co inage D ec ree s t i l l s a f e ly i n t h e 4 20 s , t h e c l o se r e semb lance o f mood a nd l a nguage n ow r evea led i n D 7m igh th ave a ncho red i tt oo f i rm ly i nt h e s ame d ecade . C e r ta in ly n o K le in ia s f r om S cambon ida i c an b e f ound t hen , b u t , t hough t h e n ame i sr a re i nA then s , i ti sf ound i nf am i l ie s o the r t h an A lk ib iade s ' . K le in ia ss on o fP ed ieu s , ah and some y ou th o ft h e4 50 s ,c ou ld h ave b een aCounc i l lo r ag ene ra t ion l a te r . K le in ia s , f a the r o ft h e g ene ra l K leopompo s ( 4 31 / 0 ) ,i sa no the rp o s s ib le c and ida te . H e wou ld h ave b een i nh i ss i x t ie st h en ,b u ta s Rhode s r i gh t ly n o ted , t h e re w a s n o of i c ia l r e t i r ing a ge a tA then s . S ok r a te s w a s C ounc i l lo r i n4 06 /5 a tt h e a ge o fs i x ty th ree . 1 Me r i t t ' s o r ig ina l o rde r o fK le in ia s a nd K leonymo sm igh th ave p e rhap sb een c ha l lenged ,e ven r eve r sed .1 2 I st h i ss h ee rs p ecu la t ion ? We c anno tr e cove rt h ei nnocen te ye ,h oweve rh a rd w et r y . B u tp o s s ib ly s ome o fo u rs t uden t sh ave n eve rl o s ti t .F ou ry ea r sa go ay oung f i na l i s t f r om C an te rbu ry w ro t e t o me o u t o ft h e b lue . I na n A then ian Emp i re s em ina r i t s udden ly o ccu r red t o h e r t h a t t h e K le in ia s c l au se o n t h e ' c ow a nd t h e p anop ly ' p re suppo sed t h e e x i s t ence o ft h e s e cond d ec ree o fT houd ippo s o f4 25/4 . K le in ia s l a id d own t h a t " i fa nyone c o mm i t a n o f ence c once rn ing t h e o f e r ing o ft h e c ow a nd t h e p anop ly , h e s h a l l b e p ro secu ted a nd p un i shed e xac t ly a s f o r o f ence s c once rn ing t r ibu te" . T houd ippo s o rda ined t h a t " t ho se c i t ie s f o r wh ich t r ibu te h a s b een a s se s sed u nde rt h eC ounc i l who se f i r s ts e c re ta ry w a sP l e i s t ia si nt h ea r chon sh ip o f S t ra tok le s s h a l l a l w i thou t e xcep t ion o f e r ac ow a nd ap anop ly a tt h e G rea t P ana thena ia" . My c o r re sponden t n o ted ' t h e o f e r ing ' , ' t h e c ow ' , ' t h e p anop ly ' i n K le in ia sa nd t h e om i s s ion o ft h ea r t ic le b yT houd ippo s . I fh ew a ss imp ly e x tend ing o r r e af f i rm ing al ong s tand ing o b l iga t ion , why d id h e n o t u s e t h e a r t ic le h im se l f ? Now h e re w a s s omeone who h ad r e ad n on eo ft h el e a rned a rgumen t s d ep loyed o n t h i st op ic — lea s to fa l my own , t o wh ich Ih ad t od i rec th e r— someone u nbu rdened b y a l t h e i ngenu i ty a nd s oph i s t ica t ion wh ich b e se t u s . S he h ad me re ly h ad ah a rd l ook a tt h ee v idenc e , a t wha ts t and so nt h es t one sa nd a t wha tp e rhap si to ugh tt ob e a l lowed t o mean .1 3 Is a id e a r l ie rt h a t t h e C o inage D ec ree a nd t h a t o fK le in ia s a r en o t s e lf ev iden t ly c on tempo ra ry . S o p e rhap s s ome m igh t b e p repa red t o c oncede a4 20 s d a t ing f o r K le in ia s , wh i l s t r e ta in ing t h e C o inage D ec ree i n 4 49 b ecau se o f t h e t h ree -ba r s i gma s i n t h e K o s c opy . T ha t c opy , Ia g ree , s hou ld b e t r ea ted e xac t ly a s a ny 1° S e e H i l l a nd Me r i t t , o p . c i t n .6 , 1 -3 a nd f i g s .1 -3 ; Me r i t t , o p . c i t . n .5 , 4 3-60 ; Woodwa rd , l o c .c i t .n .9 . 1 S ee PA 8 50212 ; B eaz ley , A t t i c R ed -F igu r e V a s e P a in t e r sv o l . 2 ,P . 1 549 f . ;T huc . 2 ,2 6 .1 a nd 5 8 .1 . On ' r e t i remen t a ge ' s e e P . J . Rhode s , T h e A then ian B ou l e , 1 972 , p . 1f .a nd J . H . O l ive r , T h e A th en ian E xpound e r s o ft h e s a c r ed a nd a n c e s t r a l l aw ( Ba l t imo re , 1 950 ) , p . 5 5f .( a s se r t ing t h e o ppo s i te w i thou t a rgu men t ) . 1 2 Among r ev iewe r s o f DA T o n ly H . Ne s se lhauf ( D eu t s ch e L i t e r . Z e i t . 6 9 [ 1 938 ] , 1 033f . ) e v iden t ly s ugge s ted t h a t D 7s hou ld b e p u t a f t e r D8 ; Raub i t -

s c hek , o p . c i t . n .9 ,p . 4 77 , n .9 ,d i sm i s sed h i s v i ew t oo c ava l ie r ly , i mp ly ing t h a t i tr e s ted o n an ow s upe r seded t e x to fD7 . 1 3 S ee / G P3 4 .4 1-3 , [ . .. ][ . .. K a i 2 ] c i v r t s r Ep i r i v d i ra [yoy] /v T c ß oö s ; [ r i s i r avha r rA ta ]s c i S tKi t , T ä s y pa c ke t [s K ar i ai r re ) K [a i T E V E 1 . t i c t v K ]ari t . T a t ' r r c i ; / G 1 3 7 1 .55-7 , h orö c r [eu t r ö ]A Ec t c / n Spo s • [ i r c ix ]0 [ E . 4 r i [ f i c iAi s h i t ME Lc m L ]a s r pöros [ yp c t ] i .w c i i E v E E rp aro i cI [ Aog ] C i pxovros ß ö [v c ai r a vhor ]A [ ta v c i v c iy E v 2 s Ha vaO ]i va ta r I 1 . 4y c iA c t ] h ardaa s . F o r my f i r s t t r ea tmen t o ft h i s p o in t s e e ' The A then ian Co inage D ec ree ' ,H i s t . 1 0( 1 96 1 ) , 1 44-84 ( p . 1 53 ) .

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d ocumen tf r om A then so rA t t ica a nd n o tb em ade as p ec i a lc a se .' A sL ew i sn o ted ,I h ave a lway sa rgued o n aw ide f r on ta nd n o tm ade t h eK o sc opy a ni s o l a t ed s u rv ivo r i n to t h e 4 20 s . O the r t h ree -ba r s i gma d ocumen t s s hou ld j o in i t . S ome ma son s a rguab ly c on t inued t ou s et h ree -ba rs i gma a nd o the re a r l ie rA t t ic l e t te r f o rm sf o ra n a pp rec iab le p e r iod a f te r4 45 .T he e p ig raph ic c r i te r ion s hou ld n ever h av eb een made s o a b so lu te . I n 1 96 1 Ia rgued t h a t t h e re w a s as t rong c a se f o r d own -da t ing o n h i s to r ica l g round s f i ve o the r d ocumen t s w i th t h ree -ba r s i gma s .1 5 S t ephen T racy s e em sn ow t oh ave d emo l i shed my f i r s te xamp le b y d emon s t ra t ing t h a tt h e ma son who c u t t h e f i r s t A thena N ike d ec ree a l so c u t t h e a c coun t s f or t h e A thena P romacho s ,s u re ly n o tl ong a f te r4 50 .T h i si sa nu nexpec ted b low a nd Ic anno ts e ea n e a sy e s cape . Imay s imp ly h ave b een w rong a bou tA thena N ike . ' F or tuna te ly i tw a s n eve rc ruc ia lt o my ma in c a se ,s i nce i ti si nn ow ay a no ve r t ly i mpe r ia l i s t ic m e a su re . B u t wha t c an w e s a y i ft h e re r e a l ly i sn o d a t ed e xamp le o ft h ree-ba rs i gma a f te r 4 46 ? Ic an o b jec ti mmed ia te ly t h a t o ne p o s s ib le e xamp le w a s d e a l t w i th d r a s t ica l ly l ong a go b y K i rchof f . F ind ing t h e a r chon E u thyno s i n t h e t e x t o f t h e M i le to s D ec ree h e w a s n o t c on ten t t o d a te i t4 26 /5 w i th i t s f i r s t e d i to r . B ecau se o f i t s t h ree -ba r s i gma s a nd c u rved u p s i lon s h e p ropo sed emend ing ' Eu thydemo s ' i n D iodo ro s 1 2 .3 ( 4 50 /49 ) t o ' Eu thyno s ' a nd t h e M i le to s D ec ree w a s t hu s p u t b ack t wen ty -f ive y ea r sw i thou ta ny s uppo r tf r om MSS v a r ian t si nD iodoro s ." S uppo r t i ng e v idence f o r ar evo l t b y M i le to s i n t h e l a te 4 50 s h a s s i nce b een s ough t a nd f ound i n t h e e a r ly Quo ta L i s t s . B u t i tn o l onge r l ook s s o g ood a so nce . An ew f r agmen t o fL i s t 1s e em s t os how t h a t M i le s ian s f r om t h e c i ty p a id i n s p r ing 4 53 , t oge the rw i th M i le s ian sf r om L e ro sa nd T e ich iou s s a . ' M i le to sc e r ta in ly p a id i n4 51 4

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a nd 4 49 , i n c l o se g eog raph ica l a s soc ia t ion w i th L a tmo s a nd Myou s . " We m ay p e rhap s d i sce rn a no the r p a t te rn o fa s soc ia t ion f o r M i le to s i n 4 53 a nd 4 52 , w i th M i le to s a ppea r ing i n t h e s ame g ene ra l c on tex t a sS a mo th race a nd A s typa la i a . 2° On ly f o r4 50 d o w el a ck a ny e v idence f o rM i le to s , b u t— a s E a rp l ong a go p o in ted o u t— the a b sence may b e p u re ly f o r tu i tou s a nd d ue t ot h e g appy s t a te o ft h e l i s t . T he re i sp l en ty o fr oom ,w i th s ome 4 5m i s s ing e n t r ie s , a nd , i fK ame i ro si sf o l lowed b yL a tmo si nc o l .1 . 16 , M i le to sc ou ld w e l lh ave f o l lowed i nt h ee n su ing g ap b ef o re t h ef ou rT h rac ian n ame sl e db y S i ngo s ( l i ne 2 6 ) . I on ic -Ca r ic n ame sp redo m ina te i n c o l .1 . 29-33 a nd t h e s u rv iv ing t wo th i rd s o f c o l .1 .2 1 T he re i st hu s i n f a c t n o

p rem ie re l i s te d e t r ibu t s ' , ZPE 1 5 [ 1 974 ] , 1 63-7 ) , wh ich a r e r e co rded i nt h e l emma : NE0 HO [ l e ITAI : ..1 M ITE [E IOI : ..1 AKP [ . .. 6 .1 I : H HH . F o r L e ro sa nd T e ich iou s sa t h i sy ea rs e ec o l .V I , 1 9-22 a nd D . W. B radeen a nd M . F . McG regor , S tud i e s i n F if th -C en tu ry A t t i c E p ig r aphy ( Ok laho ma , 1 973 ) , p . 6 8f . ( awa re o f n ew f r agmen t ) ; R . Me igg s , T h e A th en ian Emp i r e( Oxf o rd ,1 972 ) ,p . 12 . S ee I G 1 32 6 1 ( L i s t3 ) , c o l .1 .28-30 a nd 2 63 ( L i s t 5 ) ,c o l .V .18-20 . I n I G I2 59 ( L i s t 1 )M i le to s i nc o l .1 1 .19 wou ld f o l low t h e o the r t wo i n l i ne s 1 3f . : i n 2 60 , c o l s .V , 9 12 w e c ou ld r e ad [ M ILE27 ]0I 1 [ ... 5 . .1E 4 [ A1TYHA ] l /AIEL 7[ EA MO011AIKEE . S ee T . J .E a rp , ' A then s a nd M i le to s c .4 50 B C ' , P hoen ix 8 ( 1 954 ) , 1 42-7 , a t p . 1 43 n .4 . A s t h e p ho tog raph i n ATL Is how s ( f ig . 2 2 : s e e p p . 2 0 a nd 1 72 ) ,t h es t one u n luck i ly a low sn oc hance o fd ec id -

F o r t h e ' s pec ia l c a se ' s e e W. K . P r i tche t t , ' The Koan f r agmen t o f t h e mone ta ry d ec ree ' , BCH 8 9 ( 1 965 ) , 4 25 a nd f o r a n e f ec t ive r ebu t ta l s e e ML p . 15 ( no .4 5 )a nd D .M .L ew i s ,a bove ,p p .5 7f E o p .c i t .n .1 3 . S ee S . V . T racy , ' Hand s i n f i f th -cen tu ry BC A t t ic i n sc r ip t ion s ' i n K . J . R ig sby ( e d . ) S t ud i e s p r e s en t ed t o S t e r l ing D ow ( Du rham , N . C a ro l ina , 1 984 ) ,2 77-82 ,a nd L ew i s ,o p .c i t .n . 1a bove . S ee / G1 3 S upp l . ( 1 89 1 ) ,2 2a ,p .7 .K i rchhof ft h e re a rgued t h a t t h e D iodoran MSS g ave Tu thydemo s ' f o r t h e c or rec t ' Eu thyno s ' i n 4 26 /5 ( 1 2 , 5 8 .1 ) ; b u t t h e re i sn of o rce i nt h i sa rgumen tf o r4 50 /9 . S ee B . D . Me r i t t , ' The t r ibu te q uo ta l i s t o f 4 54 /3 B C ' , H e sp e r ia 4 1 ( 1 972 ) , 4 0317 : I G 1 3 2 59 , c o l .I , 1 8-20 . I G 1 3 g ive s Me r i t t ' s i ngen iou s s upp l emen t si nt h et e x t , wh ich d i spo se o fM i le to s . If o l low e s sen t ia l ly M . P i e ra r t ' s a l terna t ive s ( 'M i le t d an s l a 1 4

1 5

1 6

1 9

1 7

20

1 8

2 1

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THE ASSE RT I O N OF EMP I RE

e v idence f r om t h ee a r ly Quo ta L i s t so f ar evo l ta nd r e cove ry o fM i le to sc .4 50 . T he Mi le to sD ec ree i t s e lf i ss op oo r ly p r e se rved t h a tn o t much c on secu t ive s e n se c an b e won a nd t h e re i sl i t t le c hance o ff i nd ing f i rm i n te rna l d a t ing e v idence . We r e a l ly d o n o t k now wha t c i rcum s tance s l a y b eh ind i t .2 Mo s t t a n ta l i s ing a r e t h e m i l i t ary p rov i s ion s i nl i ne s 1 015 . We f i nd h in t s o f' t r i reme s ' , ' t roop t r an spo r t s ' , ` h op l i te s a nd s e rvan t s ' , ' f ou r o bo l s p ay ' . Do t h el i ne s p rov ide f o rM i le s ian h op l i te s s uppor t ing A then s i nG re ece ? O r f o r t h e A then ian g a r r i son ( l i ne s 7 5 a nd 8 2 ) t h a t w a st ob ack t h ef i ve A then ian a r chon t e se s t ab l i shed b yt h i sd ec ree ? O l ive r , t h e ATL e d i tor s , a nd Me igg s o p ted f o r t h e f i r s t a l te rna t ive . L ew i s u rged t h e s e cond a se a r ly a s1 954 . Mo re r e cen t ly h ew a s f o l lowed b y B radeen a nd McG rego ra nd b y Me r i t t a nd McG rego r i n I G 1 3 2 1 .2 3 T he p a s sage i sc rue l ly b roken , b u t [ . . ?' AO4 v ]a ,0 T a gc r Tp [a ]T tö [ i Ea t ] " t oA then s ?t o[ o r' f oe ] t h es o ld ie r s" — i sv e ry t emp t ing i nl i ne 1 5 a nd i t wou ld b e a n e xac t p endan t t o ' AO4 v4 E T o i s 2 n u t taedia t td — " to A then st o[ o r' f oe ] t h ee p im e l e t a i— in l i ne 4 0 . T he re t h ed ec r ee h a sc l ea r ly moved t o A then s a nd t h e e p im e l e t a i who f unc t ion t h e re . S o t h e d i rec t ion o ft r oop s i nl i ne 1 5 —on t h i s f o rma l g round —wou ld s e em t o b e c on t ra ry t o t h a t r equ i red b y L ew i s ' st h eo ry .2 4 B u ti ti ss t i l la lu ncomf o r tab ly c on jec tu ra l . It urn b r ief ly t oa no the r d ec r ee w i th t h ree -ba r s i gma , whe re t h ei n te rna l d a t ing e v idence s e em s s t i l l c l e a r t o me a nd mo s t d amag ing t o t h e a c cep ted h igh d a t ing . T h i s may a dvance t h e p rob lem o ft h e a r chon i nI G 1 32 1 . I G 1 33 2 , 7 13 p rov ide s t h a t e p i s t a t a i s h a l l b e a ppo in ted a nnua l ly f o r t h e E l eu s in ian f und s o n t h e mode l o f t h e A c ropo l i s b u i ld ing b oa rd s : " and t h ey s h a l l s upe r in tend t h e f und s o f t h e Godde s se s a st ho se i nc ha rge o ft h eA c ropo l i s wo rk s s upe r in tended t h e t emp le a nd t he c u l t image ." 2 5 We n eed t h e i nnocen t e ye a ga in . T he i mpe rf ec t t e n se o f h r ea r c irov v s hou ld f i r s t b e a lowed i t s n a tu r a l f o rce . T hen t h e i nnocen t m igh t c onc lude t h a t t h e d ec ree w a s p a s sed a f t e r t h e b oa rd s f o r t h e P a r theno s a nd t h e P a r thenon h ad g one o u to f of i ce . T he e a r l ie s tp o s s ib le d a te wou ld b e4 32 .2 6 T he re w a s a no the r g rea t s t a tue o fA thena o n t h e A c ropo l i s— the P romacho s d ed ica ted c .4 50 —bu tn oo the rt emp le s u re ly w a s ' b u i l t ' t h e re i nP e r ik le s ' t ime t h an wha tw e c a l l t h e P a r thenon a nd t h e E teoca rpa th ian s i nt h e l a te 4 30 s t e rmed ' t he t emp le o f A thena Queen o fA then s ' .2 7 N o o b jec t ion t ot h i s d a t ing c an b e d e r ived f r om t h e d ec ree ' s f a i lu re t o m en t ion t h e P ropy la ia b oa rd . Wi th i t s f i ve a nnua l ly e l e c ted e p i s t a t a i , i ti ss upe rf i c ia l ly t h e mo s t l i ke t h e E leu s in ian b oa rd —bu t i ti st h e l e a s t i ng b e tween 1 /( La tmo s ) a nd /( I o s : t h e o ne a l te rna t i ve h e re ) . 22 T h i sr ema in st r ue e ven a f te rt h eh e ro ic e f or t so f B radeen a nd McG rego r( op .c i t .n .1 8 ,p p .2 4-70 ) . 23 S ee J .H . O l ive r , ' The A then ian d ec ree c once r n ing M i le to si n4 50 /49 B C ' , TAPA 6 6( 1 935 ) ,1 77-98 , a t 1 90 1 . ; ATL I I ( 1 953 ) , p . 2 56 ; Me igg s , o p . c i t . n .1 8 , p p . 1 39 , 1 79 , 2 22 . F o r ag a r r i son s e e D . M . L ew i s , ' No te s o n A t t ic i n sc r ip t ion s ' , B SA 4 9 ( 1 954 ) , 1 7-50 , a t2 4 n .1 9 ; B r adeen a nd McG rego r , o p . c i t . n .1 8 , p p . 4 0 a nd 6 2 ; H . B eng t son , S t aa t sv e r t r äg e I , 1 96 1 ,p p .6 0-4 ,n o . 1 5 1 ;I G P2 1 ( p .2 9 ) . 24 F o r l i ne 4 0 s e e t h e p e rcep t ive c ommen ta ry o f B radeen a nd McG rego r ,o p .c i t .n .1 8 ,p .4 0 . 25 Iq uo te j u s t l i ne s 1 013 : r o t ' y ro / [s ] b r ta [r i lva t Ho t s x pip .aa t Ho t s r o t v d e lo i v K aO c i r r ep h o t b r i

r o t s 4 i t r d [A ]e t g py [o lds h r ear [a ]ro [v ] r o t v E ö t K a ir ö te t [y ]a i taT t . 2 6 Me r i t t a nd Wade -Ge ry i ngen iou s ly a rgued f o r a n i d ioma t ic u s e o ft h e i mpe rf ec t h e re , ' The d a t ing o fd ocumen t s t o t h e m id -f if th c en tu ry I ' , JHS 8 3 ( 1 963 ) , 1 0017 , a t 11-4 —"a s t h ey w e re t o s upe r v i se" —bu t t h ey s e em t o h ave won l i t t le s uppo r t . T he l a s t a c coun t s o ft h eb oa rd sa r e o f4 38 a nd 4 33/2 r e spec t ive ly ( IG 1 34 60 a nd 4 50 ) . 2 7 F o r t h e P romacho s a c coun t s s e e I G 1 34 35 . F o r t h er e f e rence o fI G1 33 2 .1013 t ot h eP romacho sa nd as uppo sed r e s to ra t ion o f t h e P o l ia s t emp le s e e C . P ica rd , CRAI , 1 933 , 1 014 : R . V a l lo i s , REA 3 5 ( 1 933 ) , 1 96 1 . : Raub i t schek , o p . c i t . n .9 , 4 78 n .11 . F o rt h eE teoca rpa th ian d ec ree s e eT od I ,n o . 10 a nd L ew i s ,a bove ,p .5 8 . 6 9

HA R OLD B . M ATT I NGLY

r e levan t . T he A thena b oa rd s f o rmed t h e p rope r mode l— ep i s t a t a i c oope r a t ing c l o se ly w i th t h e t r ad i t iona l c u s tod i an s o ft h e s a c red f und s , A thena ' s t r ea sure r s . A t E l eu s i s t h e e p i s t a t a i wou ld h ave t o wo rk i n t h e s ame c l o se h a rmony w i th t h e G odde s se s 'h i e r opo i o i .2 8 We may n ow r e tu rn t oM i le to s . T he o ne c e r ta in a r chon E u thyno sh e ld of ice i n 4 26 /5 a nd i n s umme r 4 25 T hucyd ide s r e co rd s M i le s ian h op l i te s s e rv ing u nde r A then ian c o mmand i nG reece , a s/ G 1 32 1 .1015 m ay h ave a r r anged .2 9 I st h i s p u r e c o inc idence ? O r c ou ld K i rchhof f h ave b een w rong i n s ugge s t ing emend ing D iodo ro s 1 2 .3 ? E u thyno s i sa n e x t reme ly r a re A t t ic n ame a nd Iwou ld r e ckon t h e c hance so fi t st w ice c om ing u pb yl o tf o rt h ea r chon sh ip a tA then sr a the rs ma 1 1 . 3°I t i st r ue t h a t T hucyd ide s d oe s n o t e ven h in t a t ar e vo l t o fM i le to s i n4 26 /5 a nd t h i s mu s tg ive o ne p au se . B u th e om i t ted t h es t a s i si nK o lophon a nd t he l o s so ft h e c i ty t oP e r s ia i n4 30 . H e r e co rded i to n ly i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e s t o ry o fh ow P ache s r e scued No t ion f r om a s im i la r f a te t h ree y ea r s l a te r . 3'Mo reove r A r i s tophane s m ake s t wo s l igh t ly om inou s a lu s ion s t o M i le to s i n s p r ing 4 24 ( Kn igh t s 3 6 1 a nd 9 27-34 ) . T he re i st h rea t i nt h e a i r . M i le to s m ay f a ce f u r the r t r oub le f r om A then s , u n le s s K leon i sk ep t h appy w i th at a len t ' s b r ibe f o r p u sh ing ad ec ree i nM i le to s ' f a vou rt h rough t h ea s semb ly . M igh tt h i sb es ome r e v i s ion o ft h er egu la t ion sp a s sed i nt h ep rev iou sa r chon sh ip ?3 2 I tn ow s e em st h a t t h e re a r e s t rong g round sf o r p u t t ing b o th t h e Mi le to sD ec ree a nd t h a tf o rt h eE l eu s in ian e p i s t a t a i much l a te rt h an t h ea c cep ted d a te s , d e sp i te t h e i r t h ree -ba r s i gma s . T he re i sr e a l ly n o c o mmand ing e p ig raph ic r e a son why t he C o inage D ec ree s hou ld s t i l l b e d a ted 4 49 , when h i s to r ica l a nd n um i sma t ic a rgumen t s s uppo r t ac o mpa r ab le d own -da t ing .3 P roxeny d ec ree s w i th t he l a ngu age o f Emp i re — ` the c i t ie s wh ich t h e A then ian s r u le ' [ o r ` d om ina te ' ] —may e qua l ly b e p u t d own t o t h e 4 20 s .3 4 W i thou t t h em t h e re i sn o t r e a l ly a ny c l ear e v idence f o rt h el a nguage o rt h ee x i s tence o f Emp i re i nt h ee a r ly 4 40 s .3 5 Wha t f i na l ly s h a l l w e m ake o f/ G 1 3 9 0 , t h e ' s e cond ' C o inage D ec re e f r om A then s ? Is t i l lt h ink t h a tt h i sw a sc u to n t h el owe rp a r to ft h el a rge s t e le o u t s id et h e M in t , wh ich c a r r ied t h e A then ian t e x t o ft h e C o inage D ec ree i t s e lf . I t s p o s i t ion wou ld c l o s e ly p a ra l le l t h a t o ft h e H a l iky a iT rea ty c u tb e low t h e E ge s ta a l ianc e o r t h es e cond N eapo l i sd ec ree c u tb e low t h ef i r s to f4 10 /09 .3 6 / G1 39 0t h en s hou ld b e s e en a s as upp lemen tt ot h em a jo rD ec ree i mpo s ing A th en ian c o inage , w e igh t s , a nd mea su re s , a nd i n te re s t ing ly i ts e em s t oc ove rg o ld /e lec t rum a sw e l l a ss i lve ra nd t o

H i s to r i c a l C omm en t a ry o n T hu cyd id e s [ Oxf o rd , 1 945-6 ] I , p .4 89 ) , b u t f a i led t ou s e t he f u l le r , l a te r p a s sage o r t o s e e a ny l i nk w i th t h e p re sence o f M i le s ian h op l i te si nG reece . T hey s e rved a ga in i nt h e y ea r4 24 /3 ( Thuc .4 ,5 41 . ) . 3 3 S ee M .J .P r i ce , a bove , p .4 7 , f o r t he d amag ing e v idence f r om t h en o r th A egaean m in t s . 3 4 S ee I G1 31 9 .711 ( Ache lo ion )a nd 2 7 .1317 . 3 5 F ew , If a ncy , wou ld w an t t o p u t much t r u s t i n P lu ta rch ' s P e r i c l e s o r i n D iodo ro s ' u n suppo r ted n a r ra t ive . 3 6 S ee my e a r l ie r t r ea tmen t i n Ma t t ing ly , o p . c i t . n .1 ,8 3-9 . F o r H a l ikya i a nd E ge s ta s e e / G 13 1 a nd 1 2 :f o r Neapo l i sI G1 31 0 1 a nd ML n o .8 9 , p p .2 7 1-3 .

F o r t h e P ropy la ia b oa rd s e e I G 1 34 62-6 . I th ad n o c l o se a s soc ia t ion w i th a ny o ne t r ea su ry , b u td rew f und sf r om aw ide a r ea . 2 9 T huc .4 ,4 2 .1 . T h i si st h ef i r s ta l ied h e lp o nl a nd r e co rded i nt h e w a r , t hough 2 ,9 . 5 h a sb een t a ken t o m ean t h a t i t c ou ld b e c oun ted o n f r om t h e s t a r t —pe rhap sw rong ly . 3 0 T h i s p o in t q u i te e s caped K i rchhof f a nd l a te r s c ho la r s . I ts t ruck me f i r s t o n ly i nt h e l a te 1 970 s . S ee ' The A then ian d ec ree f o rM i le to s : ap o s t sc r ip t ' , H i s t . 3 0 ( 1 98 1 ) , 1317 a nd A JPh . 1 05 ( 1 984 ) , 3 47 f . ( Rev iew D i scu s s ion o fI G1 3[ 1 98 1 ] ) . 3 1 S ee Thuc .3 ,3 4 . 3 2 A . W. Gomme n o ted t h e f i r s t r e f e rence ( A 2 8

7 0

THE ASSE RT I O N OF EMP I RE

d e a lw i th c l ay s t o rage c on t a ine r s ( k e r am e ia ) .3 7 T he ma son who c u ti th a sa ne l egan t , d i s t inc t ive h and . A sM ichae l Wa lbank h a ss hown ,h ea l so c u tt h eA then ian c opy o f t h e E leu s in ian f i r s t -f ru i t s d ec ree a nd s ome d a ted d ec r ee s o f4 2 1/0 .3 8 T he re i sn o p rob le m t h en . T he C o inage D ec ree i t se lf c an g o i n4 25 /4 w i th K le in ia s , p robab ly a l so a f te r T houd ippo s . Wi th in a y ea r o r t wo , s i nce f u r the r r egu la t ion s p roved d e s i rab le , t h ey w e re e mbod ied i n an ew D ec ree . A l l t h e f r agmen t s f ound i na l ied t e r r i to ry c ome f r om t h e m a in , s ub s tan t ive mea su re . T he c on s ide rab le r ema in s o f t h e Dec r ee f r om A then sh ave n o p o in t o fc on tac t a tt h e i r s t a r tw i th t h e e nd o ft h e c o mpo s i te a l ied d ocumen ta nd t h a tc l ea r ly m ake sc on secu t ive s e n se t h roughou t .3 9 I n t he E l eu s i s f i r s t -f ru i t s d ec ree o ft h e l a te 4 20 s t h e a l ie s a r e o rde red t o s e nd o f e r ing sa nnua l ly t oE l eu s i s , b u to the rG r eek s ' c oope ra t ion i si nv i ted ; t h ec ho ice o f v e rb s i si n s t ruc t ive . " The C ounc i l s h a l l a l so a pp roach a l t h e o the r G reek s t a te s" , t h e t ex t r un s , " i n wha t eve r w ay i tj udge s p o s s ib le , i n f o rm ing t h em o fh ow t h e A then ian s a nd t h e i r a l ie s a r e of e r ing f i r s t -f ru i t s-no t o rde r ing t h em , b u t e ncou rag ing t h em t om ake s u ch o f e r ing s i ft h ey w i sh . . " . When i tw a s n eeded , t h e A then ian s c ou ld s t i l l s how s ome f i ne s s se a nd t a c t , t hough t h e a l i e s ' s ubord ina t ion i sn o tg l o s sed o ve r . 4°T he s ame i n sen s i t iv i ty o nt h i sp o in ti ss hown i n t he Co inage a nd K le in ia s D ec ree s . I tw a s h a rd ly t a c tf u l t o b an t h e a l ie s f r om s t r ik ing o r u s ing n on -A t t ic s i lve r , wh i l s t a r rang ing s e a l s w i th t h em f o r i d en t if i c a t ion f o r t h e t r ibu te reco rd s s e n t t oA then s . T ho se s e a l s wou ld mo s t n a tu ra l ly i n mo s t c a se s c a r ry t h e v e ry c o in type s wh ich A then s h ad j u s t p roh ib i ted . I t wou ld a ppea r aq u i te u nnec e s sa ry a f ron t , h oweve r u s ef u l a dm in i s t ra t ive ly a s ac heck o n p rovenance . '" S ee I GI 39 0 .10 a nd 2 1f . I n S t ud i e s p r e s en t ed t oB .D . Me r i t t ( 1 974 ) , n .2 1 o np .1 69 . C ompar i son o ft h et e x to f ATL I D 1 4 (ML 4 5 ) w i th / G P9 0w i l lm ake t h i sa bundan t ly c l ea r . S ee / G P 7 8 .30-3 (ML 7 3 : c .4 22? ) : n o te

4 K4 [vo t / s 1 S i 1 2 , 27TirciTTOVTag, Ka e t iovra s X Eoea t ,i vß öÄov ra t . S ee I G P 3 4 .11-3 : X o t i i hßoXa 8 r [oa c ra ]c tOa t r lpös T i t s r öÄ e s , h ö [ro s 4 x c r fi t c l 8 tKi v r o i s e i [ 7 r c iyo ]a tr ill .e k löpov .

37 38

4 1

39

4°

7 1

The ' Rega l ' Co inage o ft h eP e r s ian Emp i re

I A N CA R RAD ICE

[ P LATE SX —XV ]

TH E c o in s u sua l ly i d en t if i ed a st h e ' r ega l ' i sue s o ft h e A chaemen id P e r s i an K ing s a r e t he p i ece sw i th ` r oy a l -a rche r ' o bve r se t ype s a nd i n cu se r e ve r se , c onven t iona l ly t e rmed g o ld d a r i c s o r s i l ve r s i g / o i , a nd a l so t h e g o ld a nd s i l ve r l i on -and -bu l l t ype c o in s ,c onven t iona l ly r e f e r red t oa sc r o e s e id s ,t hough n ow a t t r ibu ted ,a tl e a s ti np a r t , t o t he P e r s ian c onque ro r s o fL yd ia . T he p u rpo se o ft h i s p ape r i st ol o ok a ga in a t t h e se w e l l k nown , t hough l i t t le u nde r s tood , c o inage s , a nd i n p a r t icu la r t o i nve s t ig a te t h e i r c h rono logy a nd c i rcu la t ion p a t te rn i nt h e l i gh t o ft h e e v idence p rov ided b yc o in h oa rd s . ' T HE C ROE SE ID S The K po t 'a e co s c ra .T . 4p i sm en t ioned i na nc ien tl i t e ra tu re a s as i gn if i can tg o ld c o in .2 On t h ea s sump t ion t h a t ag o ld c o in c ame t ob ek nown i na nc ien tt ime sa s ac r oe se id b ecau se i tw a s b e l i eved t oh ave b een i sued , a nd p re sumab ly i n augu r a ted , i nt h e r e ign o fK ing C roe su s o fL yd ia ( c .5 6 1-547 ) , t h e g o ld c o in s t h a t a r e r e cogn ized t o b e t h e e a r l ie s t , a nd i ndeed p robab ly t h e o n ly g o ld c o in s t h a t c an b e g i ven as i x th c en tu ry d a te ,h ave b een i d en t if i ed w i th t h et e rm K po lu E to sa rar r jp :3 O bv . R ev .

C onf ron t ing f o repa r t so fl i on ,f a c ing r i gh t ,a nd b u l l ,f a c ing l e f t . Two a pp rox ima te ly s qua re i n cu se p un ch e s .

T he se t ype sa l so a ppea ro np a ra l le ls i l ve ri sue s , a nd as im i la ro bve r se b u tw i th l i on a nd b u l l f o repa r t s d ep ic ted b ack to -back c an a l so b e s e en o n v e ry r a re e l ec t rum

' Iw i sh t o e xp r e s s my g ra t i tude t o Ma r t in P r ice a nd t o o the r c o l le ague s a nd f r iend s who h ave c on t r ibu ted h e lpf u l i d ea s , c ommen t s o r c r i t ic i sm s . S o le r e spon s ib i l i ty i s , h oweve r , a c cep ted f o r a l o p in ion s e xpr e s sed . T he f o l low ing a bb rev ia t ion sh ave b een u sed : A syu t =M . J . P r ic e a nd N . Waggone r , A r cha i c G r e ek C o inag e :t h eA syu tH oa rd , 1 975 . ACGC = C . M . K r aay , A r cha i c a nd C l a s s i c a l G r e ek C o in s , 1 976 . L e s P e r s e s = ,E .Bab e lon , L e s P e r s e s A chh nen id e s , 1 893 .

H i l l =G . F . H i l l , C a t a logu e o f t h e G r e ek C o in s o f A r ab ia , Me sopo t am ia a nd P e r s ia ( B r i t i sh Mu s eum C a t a l o gu ev o l .2 8 ) , 1 922 = BMC . N o e =S . P . Noe , Two H oa rd s o f P e r s ian S ig l o i , ANSNN M 1 36 , New Yo rk 1 956 . 2 P o l lux , Onoma s t i c on i .8 7 , i x .8 4 ; f o r o the r l i t e ra ry r e f e rence s s e e P . Na s te r , ' Rema rque s c ha rac t e ro scop ique s e tt e chno log ique s a u s u je t d e s C re se i d e s ' , i n A t t i C ong r e s so I n t e rnaz iona l e d i Num i sma t i c a R oma 1 96 1 , Rome , 1 965 ,25-36 ( p .2 6 ,n .2 ) . 3 " the re i sn o o the r p l au s ib le c and ida te t han t h e L yd ian g o ld . ." ( K raay , ACGC ,3 0 ) . 7 3

I A N CA R RAD ICE

p i ece s .4 A l l t h e se i sue s d e r ive f r om w e s t e rn A s ia M inor a nd t h ey c an w i th c onf idence b e a t t r ibu ted t o t h e L yd ian r eg ion . Howeve r , o p in ion h a s i n mode rn t ime s d iv ided o n t h e q ue s t ion o ft h e i r d a te a nd s p ec if i ca l ly o n h ow much o ft h e c roe se id c o inage c ou ld a c tua l ly b e a t t r ibu ted t ot h e t ime o fC roe su s h im se lf . T he mo s t p opu la r e a r ly v i ew w a s t h a t a l t h e i sue s o f c r oe se id type c o in s w e r e p roduced i nt h e r e ign o fC roe su s .5 B u t t h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o inage s e r ie s wh ich w a s a cknow ledged t o h ave s u cceeded t h e c roe se id s , n ame ly t h e P e r s ian d a r ic s a nd s i g lo i , c ou ld n o tb e g iven as t a r t ing d a te e a r l ie rt h an t h er e ign o f Da r iu s ( 5 21-486 ) , c au sed d if i cu l t ie s f o r t h i s v i ew b ecau se i tr equ i red t he b e l ief t ha t t h e re wa s a s i gn if i can t g ap i n p roduc t ion o f ' r ega l ' c o inage u nde r C y ru s a nd C amby se s .6 C on sequen t ly , t h e i d ea t h a t p roduc t ion o fc roe se id s p robab ly c on t inued i nt o t h e P e r s ian p e r iod f o l low ing t h e o ve r th row o fC roe su s g radua l ly g a ined g round , a nd i sp robab ly n ow t h e o r thodox v i ew . 7 Mo re r e c en t ly , i th a s b een s ugge s ted t ha t a l c roe se id sw e re i sued u nde rt h eP e r s ian s .5 No m a jo r d e ta i led s t udy o f t h e c roe se id s h a s y e t b een p ub l i shed , wh ich i s s u rp r i s ing i nv i ew o ft h e i r p rom inence a mong t h e e a r ly i sue s o fG reek c o inage . Howeve r , i ts e em s t h a t a l though t h e c roe se id s a s a who le f o rm a s i ng l e s e r ie s , p robab ly a l f r om t h e s ame m in t ( wh ich i sp re sum ed t ob e S a rde s , whe the r u nde r L yd ian o r P e r s ian c on t ro l ) , t h e r e a r e c l ea r d if e rence s i nw e igh t , s t y le , a nd u se o f d enom ina t ion s , wh ich e nab le s ome p i ece s t o b e d e sc r ibed a s' e a r ly ' a nd o the r s a s ' l a te ' T he ' e a r ly 'c roe se id si n c lude t wo g roup s . 9 One g roup h a s ag o ld s t a te rw e igh ing a bou t 1 0 .9 g ( h eavy s t anda rd ) , a s i lve r s t a te r o f t h e s ame we igh t , a nd n ume rou sf r ac t iona ld enom ina t ion si nb o th g o ld a nd s i l ve r . T he s e cond e a r ly g roup h a s al i gh te r g o ld s t a te r , w e igh ing a bou t 8 . 2g . On t h e se ' e a r ly ' c roe se id s t he s t y le i n wh i ch t h ed e s ign o ft h et ype si se xecu ted c an b eq u i te v a r ied . T he s i ze o ft h e l i on a nd b u l l f o repa r t s r ange s f r om v e ry l a rge , o n t h e h eavy g o ld s t a te r s a nd a s soc ia ted s i lve r ,t os ma l la nd ' n e rvou s 'o nt h el i gh t -w e igh tg o ld ,t hough a lway st he f i gu re sa r ec u ti n aq u i te f i ne ,n a tu ra l i s t ic m anne r .T he ' l a t e r ' c roe se id s , o nt he o the r h and , f o rm as i ng le g roup . T hey e x i s t o n ly i nt wo d enom ina t ion s : a' l igh t ' g o ld s t a te r , w e igh ing a bou t 8 . 2 ga nd a s i lve r h a lf s t a te r ( a l so c a l led ah a lf sheke l o r s i g lo s ) o f a bou t 5 . 4g . T hey a l so h ave o n ly o ne s t y l e f o r t he d ep ic t ion o f t h e l i on a nd b u l l , wh ich c an b ed e sc r ibed a sc rude a nd s t y l ized . L . We idaue r , P r ob l em e d e r f r üh en E l ek t r on p rägung ( = T ypo s , v o l . 1 ) ( F r ibou rg , 1 975 ) , P . 3 0 , n o . 1 33 . As i lve r p i ece w i th l i on a nd b u l l f o repa r t s b ack t ob ack , t hough o f as t y le q u i te d if e ren t f r om t he e l ec t rum , h a s r e cen t ly b een p ub l i shed b y M . J . P r ice , ` C roe su so rP seudo -C roe su s ? Hoa rd o r Hoax ? ' i n S tud i e s i n H onou r o f L eo M i ld enb e r g , We t te ren , 1 984 , 2 11-2 1 ( p . 2 15 ) . T h i s c o in w a s i nt h e c on t ro v e r s ia l Odem i s h oa rd wh ich s ome b e l ieve t o b e a h oa rd o f mode rn f a ke s . 5 e . g . H . P . B o r re l l , NC 1 840 , 2 16-23 ; B abe lon , L e sP e r s e s ,p . i— ii ;B .V .H ead , HN 2,P . 6 47 . B abe lon , L e s P e r s e s , p .i ; c f . P r ice , o p . c i t . n .4 , p .2 12 . T h i s w a s t h e e a r l ie r v i ew o f B . V . H ead ( T h e C o inag e o fL yd ia a nd P e r s ia , 1 877 , p . 2 3 )— cf . n . 5 a bove . Na s te r , o p . c i t . n . 2 , P . 3 2-4 , d iv ided t h e

c o inage b e tween C roe su s a nd t h e P er s ian s o n t h e b a s i so fs t y l i s t ic d if e rence s a nd , mo s t s i gn if ican t ly , a c hange i nw e igh t . H i sv i ew s we re a c cep ted b yK ra ay ( ACGC 3 01 ) . M . V icke r s , ' E a r ly G reek c o inage , a r e a s se smen t ' , NC 1 986 , 1 -44 ( p . 8 -9 ) , who b e l ieve s t h e ` c roe se id ' c o inage w a s i n t roduced b y Dar iu s . P r ice , o p . c i t . n . 4 ,p . 21 , h ad e a r l ie r s ugge s ted t ha t ' t he g o ld a nd s i lve r c o inage o f t h i s t ype wa s mo r e p robab ly s t ruck a f te r t h e f a l l o f t h e L yd ian r oya l h ou se t h an i nt h el i f e t ime o fC roe su s ' . F o r a mo re d e t a i led d e sc r ip t ion a nd d i scu s s ion o f t h e s e pa ra te g roup s o f c roe se id s s e e Na s ter , o p . c i t .n .2 , 3 0-32 . Na s te r c onc luded t h a t t he ' e a r ly ' c roe se id s w e re L yd i an , a nd t he ' l a te r ' c roe se id s we re P e r s ian ; c f . J .H . J ongkee s , ` Kro i se io s e n Da re iko s ' , V oo r az ia t -E gyp t .g e s e l s chap .; J aa r be r 9( 1 944 ) ,1 63 i f .

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T he t wo g roup so f' e a r ly ' c roe se id ss e em t oh ave c i rcu la ted t oge the r ," a nd d i e s a r e s hared b e tween e xamp le s w i th d if e ren t s t y le s a nd w e igh t s , a nd b e tween g o ld a nd s i lve r p i ece s . T he se c o in s a r e a l o bv iou s ly c l o se ly c onnec ted . B y c on t ra s t , t h e ' l a te r ' c roe se id s a r e n eve r f ound m ixed t oge the r i nh oa rd s w i th ' e a r ly ' c roe se id s ; t h ey a re c l ea r ly as e pa r a t ei sue o fc o inage , a nd t h ey a r en o to n ly s e pa ra te , b u t a l so t h ey mu s tb el a te r , b e cau s ei ti st h e s i lve rh a lf s ta te r so ft h i sg roup a l one wh ich a r e f ound , f r equen t ly ,i nh oa rd st oge the rw i th P e r s ian s i g lo i . THE DAR ICS AND S IGLO I

T he t e rm d a r i cw a s u s ed f r om t h e f i f th c en tu ry b y G r eek s a s ad e sc r ip t ive t e rm f o r P e r s ian c o in s , e s pec i a l ly i n g o ld ." I t s e a r l ie s t a ppea r ance i n l i t e ra tu re i s i n H e rodo tu s7 ,2 8 , whe re w er e ad t h es t o ry o ft h em ee t ing b e tween K ing X e rxe sa nd t h e wea l thy L yd i an , P y th iu s , who c l a imed t o p o s se s s n ea r ly f ou r m i l l ion a rarl ip c ov d ap E cKdo ( xpv cd ov) . I ti sn ow g ene ra l ly a c cep ted t h a t t h e wo rd d a r i c d e r ive s f r om t h e n ame o f D a r iu s I ,a s P o l lux e xp l ic i t ly s t a te s .1 2 D a r ic s a r e men t ioned f r equen t ly o n s u rv iv ing G reek i n sc r ip t ion s , b u t t h e e a r l ie s t r e f e rence s d a te o n ly f r om 4 29 /8 .1 3 I ti sa l so wo r th n o t ing t h a t t h e t e rm ` c roe se id s t a te r s ' a ppea r s o n a n i n sc r ip t ion f r om A then s d a ted 4 39 /8 . '4 I fw e a c cep t t h a t t h e t e rm s c r oe s e id a nd d a r i cw e re u s ed b y G reek s i nt h e f i f th c en tu ry t or e f e r t ot wo d if e ren t v a r ie t ie so f' o r ien ta l 'g o ld c o in , ' w e mu s tb ec a ref u lt oc on s ide re xac t ly wha tt h e se o b jec t s c ou ld h ave b e en . I ti sn o rma l ly a s sumed t h a t t h e t e rm c r o e s e id a lway s r e f e r s t o l i on -and -bu l l t yp e c o in s a nd t h a t d a r i c i d en t if i e s t h e r oya l -a rche r t ype c o in s wh ich s u cceeded t h el i on -and -bu l l i sue s . L a te r l i t e ra ry r e f e r ence s , wh ich m en t ion b o th t e rm s t oge the r , c e r ta in ly i mp ly a d i s t inc t ion o f t h i s s o r t , b u t wha t o f t h e f i f th-cen tu ry r e f e r en ce s ? T he re i sn o r e a l d if i cu l ty i na c cep t ing t h a t l i on -and -bu l l c o in sc ou ld h ave s u rv ived i nc i rcu la t ion t i l lt h e4 30 s , e ven i ft h ey h ad b een r ep laced i nt he r e ign o fD a r iu sb yt h er oya l a r che rc o in s . Wha ti sp e rhap s mo re s u rp r i s ing i s t ha t t h e re a r e n o r e f e rence s t o t h e t e rm d a r i c e a r l i e r t h an t h e 4 30 s ( He rodo tu s ) o r e a r ly 4 20 s ( i n sc r ip t ion ) . T he a b sence o fs u rv iv ing d ocumen ta ry e v idence f r om t h e f i r s th a lf o ft h ef i f th c en tu ry may b e a ne xp lana t ion , o rp e rhap s t h et e rm d a r i co n ly g radua l ly c ame i n to g ene ra l u s e t od e sc r ibe t h e se c o in s . Af u r the r c o mp l ica t ion t o 5

t he a rgumen t i st h e s ugge s t ion , r e cen t ly m ade , t h a t t h e t e rm d a r i c c ou ld r e f e r t o l i on and -bu l l t ype c o in s .' 6 T h i s i sp o s s ib le , p a r t icu la r ly i na n e a r ly -f if th c en tu ry c on tex t , b u t i ft h e t e rm d a r i c w a s s t i l l b e ing u s ed i n t h e 4 30 s t o d e sc r ibe l i on and -bu l l c o in s , wha t c o in s w e re u nde r s tood b y t h e t e rm c r o e s e id i n t h e ( 1 938 ) , p .4 16 , f o r t h e t h eory t h a t d a r i c d e r ive s f r om a nO ld P e r s ian wo rd mean ing ' go ld ' . I G 13 3 83 , 1 718 , 4 3 ' 1 4 , 10111 ( Z Iap E t i ce ) X pv cd o o rarip e s ) . Iam g r a tef u l t o D av id L ew i s f o r h e lpf u l c ommen t s a nd a dv ice o n i n sc r ip t iona l e v i d ence f o rd a r ic sa nd c roe se id s . I G P4 58 , 2 9 . T h i s c once rn s t he a cqu i s i t ion o f g o ld f o rP he id ia s 's t a tue o fA thena P a r theno s . T he G reek so ft h i sp e r iod d id n o ta lway sd raw a c l ea r d i s t inc t ion b e tween g o ld a nd e l ec t rum , s o e l ec t rum i sue ss hou ld n o tb ei gno red . V icke r s , o p . c i t . n .8 , p . 8 . T he s ugge s t ion i s m ade i nt h e c on tex t o f ad i scu s s ion o ft h e P e r sepo l i s f i nd sf r om t h ep e r iod o fD a r iu s /X e rxe s .

1° A m ix tu re o f s t y l e s c an b e s e en i n t he S . W. Turkey h oa rd ( No . 1i nT ab le A ) ; c f . a l so t he l oo se f i nd s o fc roe se id s i lve r p i ece s i nt he P e r sepo l i s e xca v a t ion s ( E . F . S chm id t , P e r s epo l i s I , C on t en t s o ft h e T r ea su ry a nd o t h e r d i s c ov e r i e s , Ch icago , 1 957 , p . 11 , n o s .3 -9 ) . 1 F o r s i lve r d a r i c s s e e P lu ta rch , C imon 1 0 . I n t he n ine teen th c en tu ry t h e t e rm d a r i c w a s u sed f o r A chaemen id P e r s i an c o in s i ng ene ra l , whe the r g o ld ( go ld d a r ic )o rs i lve r( s i lve rd a r ic ) . Onoma s t i c on I , 8 7 . A l terna t ive e xp lana t ion s h ave b een p u tf o rwa rd ; s e eE .E . He rzf e ld , ' No te so n t h e A chaemen id c o inage a nd s o me S a san ian m in t n ame s ' , T r an s . I n t . N um i sma t i cC ong r e s s , L ond on 1 936

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A then ian i n sc r ip t ion o f4 39/8 ? E a r ly L yd ian e l ec t rum c o in s wou ld b e t h e o n ly o bv iou s c and ida te s , t hough s u re ly n o t many o f t h e se wou ld s t i l l h ave b een i n c i rcu la t ion t h a t l a te . I ti sc l ea r t h a t t h e c h rono log ie s o f t h e l i on and -bu l l a nd r oya l -a rche r c o in s e r ie s c anno t b e f i xed b y d ocumen ta ry e v idence a l one ; t h a t i s why t h ee v idence p rov ided b yt h ec o in st h em se lve s mu s tb el o oked a ti nd e ta i l . P e rhap sa l ' P e r s ian ' g o ld c o in s , whe the ro fl i on -and -bu l l o rr oya l -a rche rt ype s , c ou ld a to ne t ime h ave b een c ove red , i ns ome a r ea sa tl e a s t , b yt he t e rm d a r i c .1 7 B y t h e e a r ly f ou r th c en tu ry , h oweve r , t h e c onnec t ion b e tween P e r s ian g o ld a nd t he r oya l -a rche r c o in t ype w a s u namb iguou s . Wh en A ge s i lau s w i thd rew f r om t h e T road i n3 94 , c l a im ing t h a t h e h ad b een d r iven f r om A s ia b y t he K ing ' s t h i r ty t hou sand a r che r s , h ew a s r e f e r r ing n o t t oP e r s ian t r oop sb u t t ot he g o ld c o in su sed b yA r taxe rxe st or a i se r evo l ta ga in s tS pa r ta i nG re ece .1 8 T he G reek wo rd c r i yAo s ( o r a f . KAos ) i st h e s ame a s t h e H ebrew s h ek e l . T he wo rd s h ek e lw a si nu s el ong b ef o re t h ei nven t ion o fc o inage , r e f e r r ing t o aw e ighed a moun t o fs i lve r . I tl a te r c ame t o b e u s ed f o r ad enom ina t ion o fs i lve r c o in . T he t e rm a t yAo s f i r s t a ppe a r s o n i n sc r ip t ion s d a t ing f r om t h e l a s t y ea r s o f t h e f i f th c en tu ry , "9 t hough t h e t ype o f c o in t h e re r e f e r r ed t o , a s sum ing t ha t i ti st h e r oya l -a rche r , c an b e s hown t oh ave b een i nc i rcu l a t ion l ong b ef o re t ha t d a te . T he l ow v a lue o ft h e i nd iv idua l s i g lo s p i ece i sp robab ly o ne o ft h e r e a son s why i ti s s e ldom m en t ioned i n G reek l i t e ra tu re ; s i lve r i su sua l ly r e f e r red t o i n v e ry l a rge amoun t st h a tc an o n ly b ee xp re s sed i nw e igh t s( m in a eo rt a len t s ) . I n4 00 t he s i g lo si s s a id t oh ave b een v a lued a t7 . 2A t t ic o bo l s . 2° T hough o the rc o in sw i th P e r s ic ' w e igh ta nd o r i en t a l t ype sn o d oub t c ame i n to t h ep o s se s s ion o fG reek s , i tw a st h e c o inage w i th t h er oya la r che rd e s ign a l luded t o b yA ge s i lau st h a tb ecame i nG reek m ind st h ed ef in i t ive ' P e r s ian ' g o ld o rs i lve r .T he r oya l a r che r o bve r se t ype 2 a ppea r s i nf ou r m a jo r v a r ie t ie s . T h re e o ft he se c an b e s e en i n p a r a l le l i sue s o f g o ld d a r ic s a nd s i lve r s i g lo i . Wi th s o f ew t ypo log i ca l c hange s a nd n o i n sc r ip t ion s t h e r oya l a r che r c o in s a r e n o to r iou s ly d i ff icu l t t od a te w i th a ny p rec i s ion . T he c h rono log ica l s e quence n ow a c cep ted f o r t h e i sue o ft h e s e pa ra te o bve r se t ype s r e su l t s f r om t h e wo rk o f S . P . Noe 2 a nd E . S . G . Rob in son 2 3 i nt h e1 940 sa nd 1 950 s . U s ing t h ee v idenc eo fn ew ly d i scove red h oa rd s t h ey w e re a b le t oo ve r tu rn t h e c h rono log ie se a r l ie rp ropo sed b y o the r s , n o tab ly E . B abe lon a nd G . F . H i l l .2 4 T he f ou r ma jo r v a r ie t i e s n umbe r ed a ccord ing t o Rob in son ' sp ropo sed s e quence ,2 5 a r ea sf o l low s : O bv .

I

H a lf -f igu re , b ea rded , f a c ing r i gh t a nd w ea r ing c r own , h o ld ing t wo a r row s a nd ab ow . S i g lo s( 5 .4 g ) . C rowned f i gu re , b ea rded , k nee l ing/runn ing r i gh t , w i th q u ive r a t s hou lde r , d raw ing b ow .D a r ic ( 8 .35 g ) ;s i g lo s( 5 .4 g ) ;g o ld a nd s i l ve rf r ac t ion s . 5 2-6 ; P . Na s te r , ' L e s s ide s p e r s ique s ä l a d em i -f igu re ' ,B SFN 1 7 , 6( 1 962 ) , 1 701 . S ee n .1 . ' A h oa rd o f P e r s ian s i g lo i ' , NC 1 947 , 1 73-4 , ' The b eg inn ing s o fA chaemen id c o inage ' , NC 1 958 , 1 87-93 ,' Two G reek c o in h oa rd s ' , NC 1 960 ,3 1-6 . S ee n .1 . NC 1 958 , 1 88 ( s ee n .2 3 ) .

S ee J . R . Me lv i l le J one s , ' Da rk s a t D e lph i ' , RB N 1 25 ( 1 979 ) , 2 5-36 , f o rt h eu s eo ft h e t e rm d a r ic i nt h el a te rf ou r th c en tu ry f o rg o ld c o in so fP h i l ip I . P lu ta rch ,A r t ax e rx e s2 0 . / G 12,1 384 . X enophon ,A naba s i sI ,5 ,6 . F o r ad i scu s s ion o f t h i s t ype a nd i t s i n te rp re t a t ion s e eH . S ey r ig ,` L er o id eP e r se ' ,S y r ia 3 6( 1 959 ) , 1 7

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C rowned f i gu re , b ea rded , r unn ing r i gh t , w i th q u ive r a t s hou lde r , h o ld ing t r an sve r se s p ea ra nd b ow .D a r ic ( 8 .35 g ) ;s i g lo s( 5 .4-5 .6 g ) . C rowned f i gu re , b e a rded , r unn ing r i gh t , w i th q u ive r a t s hou lde r , h o ld ing s hor t s wo rd /d agge r a nd b ow . D a r ic ( 8 .35 g ) ; s i g lo s ( 5 .6 g ) ; g o ld a nd s i lve rf r ac t ion s .

I V

R ev . As i ng le o b long i n cu se w i th i r regu la rg round ( a l li sue s ) . B abe lon h ad a s s igned t h e s ep r inc ipa lt ype st ot h eA chaemen id r e ign sa sf o l low s : I (va r iou ss t y l e s )

: D a r iu s I( 5 2 1-486 ) ,X e rxe s( 4 86-465 ) ,A r taxe rxe s I( 4 65-425 ) ,

D a r iu s I( 4 24-405 ) ,C y ru s( 4 0 1 ) . Ia nd I :A r taxe rxe s I( 4 05-359 ) Ia nd I : A r taxe rxe sI I ( 3 59-338 ) ( Baby lon ian i sue su nde rA lexande r )a nd I V :D a r iu sI( 3 37-330 )

H i l la dop ted t h ef o l low ing a r rangemen t( i nc lud ing h i s own s t y l i s t ic s ubd iv i s ion s ) : I S ty le s A—E S ty le F S ty le G S ty le s H—K

:c .5 2 1-400 :C y ru s :c .4 00-333

I V S ty le s A—D S ty le E

:t oa bou t4 00 :4 t hc en tu ry

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I

: 4 th c en tu ry

Two o ft h e i mpo r t an t ' f ixed p o in t s ' i nb o th t h e se e a r l ie r c h rono log ie s w e re , i t s e em s , f a l se c l ue s . F i r s t ly , t h e i n f amou s A tho s h oa rd ( IGCH 3 62 ) o ft ype I I g o ld d a r ic s a nd s i lve rA th en ian t e t rad rachm s , wh ich w a s made t h eb a s i s f o rp u t t ing t h e t ype si no rde r , w a sd a ted f a rt oo e a r ly . T he e a r ly d a te w a sb a sed o n am i s in te rp re t a t ion o ft h e d e sc r ip t ion o ft h e A then i an c o in s , wh ich c au sed t h em t ob e d a ted a s a r cha ic i n s tead o ff ou r th cen tu ry ,2 6 a nd o n t h e c u r iou s a s sump t ion t h a t t h e b u r ia l o ft he h oa rd i nt h eb ed o fX e rxe s ' c ana la tA tho sd a te si tt ot h ep e r iod o ft h ec ana l ' s c on s t ruc t ion .2 7 T he s e cond f a l se c l ue w a st h ei d en t if i ca t ion o ft h eb ea rd le s sk ing o n a t ype I d a r ic ( B MC 6 1 -H i l l g roup F ) a s C y ru s t h e Y ounge r . T h i s i den t if i ca t ion w a s a lway s q ue s t ionab le , a nd c e r ta in ly n eed s s uppo r t f r om o the r e v idence . Ac omp a r i son w i th o the r d a r ic s s ugge s t s t o m e t h a t t h e t ype m ay h ave b een r e cu t f r om ar egu la r , b ea rded t ype I r oya l a rche r . Whe the r t h i s a l te ra t ion t ook p l ace t ot h ed i eo rt ot h ec o in c ou ld o n ly b ee s tab l i shed b y ac l o se i n spec t ion o f a l lt h es u rv iv ing e x amp le so ft h i se xceed ing ly r a re c o in t ype . I na ny e ven t , t h ec o in s hou ld n o t b e u s ed a s ad a ted f i xed p o in t f o r t r ac ing t h e s t y l i s t ic d eve lopmen t o f t ype I . B abe lon a nd H i l lb o th r e cogn ized t h a tt ype I w a su nde rp roduc t ion f o r av e ry l ong t ime , a nd t h ey w e re b o th a b le t o d i s t ingu i sh c o r rec t ly b e tween s ome o ft h e F o r ac omp rehen s ive d emo l i t ion o f t h e ' t r a d i t iona l ' d a te f o r t h i s h oa rd s e e C . M . K raay , G r e ek C o in sa nd H i s t o ry , ( 1 969 ) ,p p .4 9-5 1 .

Ip ref e r t o r ega rd t he d e scr ip t ion s a s u nu sab le a nd t h e i d en t if i ca t ion s a s u n re l iab le ; t h e h oa rd c anno tt h e ref o re b ed a ted b yi t sA then ian c o in s .

2 7

26

7 7

I A N CA R RAD ICE

e a r ly a nd l a te r v a r ie t ie s w i th in t h i s t ype . Howeve r , many o ft he s ub -g roup s t h ey d ev i sed a r e n o t r e levan t i n t e rm s o f c h rono log ica l c l a s s if ica t ion a nd s o me a r e p robab ly i lu so ry .2 8 P e rhap s t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t s ubd iv i s ion o f t ype I I w a s r e cogn ized mo re r e cen t ly b y C . M . K raay , who o b se rved t h a t af ew e xamp le s c an b ed i s t ingu i shed f r om t h er e s tb yt h ei n c lu s ion o ft wo p e l le t sb e s ide t h eb ea rd o ft h e c r owned f i gu re .2 9 A l l s i g lo i w i th t h e se p e l le t s ( P l . X I , 1 415 ) a ppea r t ob e o ft h e s ame , l owe r , w e igh t a ss i g lo i o ft ype s Ia nd I ( a nd t h e C roe se id s i lve r h a lf s ta te r ) , a nd t h ey t e nd t ob ef ound i nt h ee a r l ie s th oa rd st h a tc on ta in t ype I Is i g lo i . I ti sc l ea r t h a ti nt h en ow accep ted s e quence o fi sue st h e s ef o rm a ne a r ly v a r ie ty o fI , wh ich c an c onven ien t ly b e r e f e r red t o a s Ia . T he r ema in ing v a r ie t ie s o ft ype I I c an t h e ref o re b el a be l led I b .

T ype I

T ype Ib ( e a r ly )

T ype I

T ype I lb ( l a te )

T ype I na

T ype I V( e a r ly )

Type I V( l a te )

CHRONOLOGY : THE EV IDENCE OF HOARDS

I nh i s a t temp t t ot a ck le t h e c h rono logy o ft h e d a r ic s a nd s i g lo i H i l l r e cogn i zed t h e i mpo r t ance o fe v idence f r om h oa rd s : ' I t wou ld s e em t h a t t h e o n ly d i rec t ion i n wh ich as o lu t ion i st ob e e xpec ted i st h e r e co rd ing o ff i nd s o fd a r ic s o r s i g lo i w i th o the r c o in s s u scep t ib le o fb e ing d a ted . ' 3°When H i l l w ro te t h i s h e c ou ld make u s e o fo n ly al im i ted n umbe r o fh oa rd s . Many mo r e h ave s i nce b een r e corded a nd , o f c ou r se , t h e o rde r o fi sue o ft h e m a jo r d a r i c /s ig lo s t ype s h a s b een r eo rgan ized a sa d i rec t c on sequence . T he p u rpo se o ft h e p re sen t s t udy o fh oa rd s i st ol ook a ga in a t t h e e v idence p rov ided f o r b o th t h e c r oe se id a nd t h e d a r ic /s ig lo s s e r ie s , b r ing ing t oge the rm any mo re h oa rd st h an h ave h i the r to b een c on s ide red .

1 8 ) s e em s t o h ave t h e s ame r eve r se d i e a s s eve ra l i n g roup C b i s ( p l .x xv ,2 -6 ) . ACGC 3 3 ; NC 1 977 ( f u l l r e f . n .3 8 b e low ) , 1 93-4 . H i l l ,p .c xxx i .

H i l l h im se lf n o ted t h e d if icu l t ie s i nd i s t ingu i sh i ng b e tween h i s g roup s A a nd B o ft ype I a nd I wou ld a l so a dd h i ss t y le D t ot h i sg roup . A l so w i th in t ype I ag o ld d a r ic i ng roup C ( B MC p l . x x iv , n o . 2 5 ) h a s t h es ame r eve r se d i e a st he d a r ic i lu s t ra ted a s s t y le F( p l . x xv , 1 4 ) ,a nd as i g lo so fg roup B ( p l .x x iv , 28

29

30

7 8

CO INAGE OF THE P ERS IAN EMP IRE

TABLE A Hoa rd si n c lud ing c roe se id s ,d a r ic s , s i g lo i A. = 0 N = - • C r : A=e a r ly ; B=l a te -( )= n umbe ro fe xamp le sr e co rded ( i nh oa rd s8 ,1 , 1 2a nd 1 3n umbe rg ive st o t a lo ft ype sl Ia a nd I l Ib t oge the r )

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2

I GCH o r CH r ef e rence

a pp rox . d a te

— 162 1 632 1 637 1 639 166 1 789 175 178 177 1 644 CH V I ,4 183 CH I ,1 4 197 CH I ,2 6 1 247 1 483 CH I ,1 5 1 255 ; CH I ,2 1 1 230 CH I ,3 6 1 79 1 — CH I ,3 4 1 224 CH I ,3 5 CH I ,3 2 CH I ,3 8 CH I V , 2 4 1 20 1 1 747 1 259 1 278 1 830

5 20

SW T u rkey , 1 982 S a rde s , T u rkey , 1 922 E gyp t , 1 900 D amanhu r , E gyp t , 1 900 S akha , E gyp t , 1 897 B a i r ak l i , T u rkey , 1 95 1 P e r sepo l i s , P e r s ia , 1 933 W A s ia M ino r , 1 96 1 c a ld ag ,T u rkey , 1 945 ST u rkey , 1 96 1 A syu t ,E gyp t , 1%8 An t i lebanon , S y r ia , 1 978 Co lophon ,T u rkey , 1 962 N S y r ia , 1 974 Smy rna ,T u rkey , 1 948 A s ia M ino r , 1 975 Gord ium , 1 957 Ma s s ayaf , S y r ia , 1 96 1 B lack S ea , 1 970 C i l ic ia , 1 957 M i le topo l i s ? , T u rkey , 1 9 19 A s ia M ino r , 1 973 P e r s ia , 1 895 L ebanon , 1 983 A s ia M inor , 1 965 I on ia , T u rkey , 1 9 15 A s ia M ino r , 1 960 A s ia M ino r , 1 9751 s ame A s ia M ino r , 1 9745 h oa rd ? A s ia M ino r , 1 977 Du ra sa la r , T u rkey , 1 956 B aby lon ia , 1 900 C i l ic i a ,T u rkey , 1 9 14 V oun i , Cypru s , 1 928 T chamani H azour i , A f ghan i s tan , 1 933 CH I ,26 ;V ,19 I s pa r ta , T u rkey , 1 960 2 122 A vo la , I t a ly , 1 9 14 2 124 Avo la , I t a ly , 1 888 1 748 Wa rka , B aby lon ia , 1 923 CH I ,3 8 B aby lon ia , 1 973 1 792 S u s a , P e r s ia , 1 932 1 83 1 B h i r Mound , P ak i s tan , 1 924

5 00 5 00 5 00 4 90 ?4 80 4 80 4 75 4 75 4 55 ?4 50

CR

I

OA ( 7 7 ) •A ( 3 0 ) • ( 5 ) OA ( 1 ) 0 ( 1 ) 0B ( 2 ) 0 ( 1 ) •B ( 8 ) 0B ( 6 ) 0B ( 4 75 )0 ( 9 8 )

I

I la

I Ib

0 ( 3 ) 0 ( 1 ) 0 ( 5 37 ) 0 0 0 0

( 1 ) ( 1 ) ( 1 ) ( 1 )

0 ( 3 8 ) 0 ( 3 10 ) 0 ( 1 ) 0 ( 1 7 ) ?( 3 ) ?( 1 )

0 ? 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

( 2 7 1 ) ( 3 50 ) ( 1 10 ) ( 1 ) ( 1 3 ) ( 1 ) ( 8 ) ( 1 6 ) ( 5 ) ( 5 7 ) ( 1 60 ) ( 1 4 ) ( 4 ) ( 9 ) ( 3 9 )

3 90 3 85 3 80 3 80

0 0 0 •

( 7 2 ) ( 6 ) ( 2 8 ) ( 4 )

3 80 3 75 3 70 3 60 3 30 3 20 3 15 3 00

0 0 • •

( 8 ) ( 1 ) ( 4 3 ) ( 4 )

4 25 4 25 4 00

7 9

I V

0 ( 7 ) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

( 4 ) ( 8 ) ( 5 ) 9 3 ) ( 4 1 ) ( 3 8 ) ( 1 1 ) ( 5 8 ) ( 1 1 ) ( 1 9 ) ( 2 8 ) ( 1 ) ( 1 0 )

0 ( 2 4 )

0 0 0 0

( 1 ) ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 1 )

I A N CA R RAD ICE

T he a pp rox ima te d a te s o fb u r ia l l i s ted f o r t h e a bove h oa rd s a r e u sua l ly n o mo re t h an t h e a pp rox ima te d a te s o fi sue o ft h e l a t e s t c o in s ( e xc lud ing t h e d a r ic s/ s i g lo i ) i n e a ch h oa rd , wh ich m ay n o t a lway s b e r e l iab le . A l so , t h e d a te s o ft he P e r s i an c o in s may n o t n ece s sa r i ly b e v e ry c l o se t o t h e a pp rox ima te b u r i a l d a te s o f t h e h oa rd s . I ti swo r th n o t ing t h a t t h e s i g lo ii nm any h oa rd sa r e o f ten n o t i ceab ly mo re wo rn t h an m any o ft h e o the r c o in s t h ey w e r e b u r ied w i th . Howeve r , h oa rd s d o p rov ide t e rm in i a n t e q u em f o r t h e i n t roduc t ion o ft h e v a r iou s t ype s a nd c l a s se s o f d a r ic s /s ig lo i , a nd e ven i fw e mu s ta c cep tt h a tt h ec on ten t so f ah oa rd c an o n ly g ive ag ene ra l , r a the rt h an ap rec i se , d a te f o rg roup so fc o in s , as u rvey o ft h ec on ten t so f m ixed h oa rd s wh ich i n c lude s i g lo i c an b e e xpec ted t op rov ide a n o v e r a l l v i ew o f t h e d eve lopmen t o ft h el a t te r . A mo re d e ta i led p i c tu re o ft h ec o mpo s i t ion o f mo s t o ft h e e a r ly s i lve r h oa rd s c an b e f ound i n t h e p ub l ica t ion o ft he A syu t h oa rd .3 1 H e re Ii n tend o n ly t os umma r ize t h ep a t te rn o fa s soc ia t ion o ft h eP e r s ian i sue sw i th c e r ta in ' k ey ' c o inage s , b u t m any mo re h oa rd s w i l l b e b rough t i n to c on s ide ra t ion a nd Is h a l l a l so b e l ook ing i n to s t y le — and i n to d i e l ink s b e tween g roup s o fd a r ic s a nd s i g lo if r om d if e ren th oa rd s . C r o e s e id sa nd e a r ly d a r i c sa nd s i g l o i( h oa rd s1 12 ) T he e a r ly h oa rd s p rov ide c onf i rma t ion o ft h e n ow g ene ra l ly a c cep ted s e quence o f t ypo log ica ld eve lopmen tf r om l i on -and -bu l lc roe s e id t or oya l -a rche rt ype s Ia nd I , t h en t ype s Ia a nd Ib . T he se a r et h e' P e r s ian 'c o in t ype so ft h ea r cha ic p e r iod . C roe se id s i lve r c o in s f i r s t a ppea r i n ah oa rd f r om A s ia M ino r ( 1 ) ( P l . X , 2 -5 ) a l ong s ide t h e e a r l ie s t k nown s i lve r i sue s o fC a r ia , wh ich h ave o bve r se t ype w i th l i on f o repa r t ( P l . X , A—B ) .3 2 A f ew c o in s o f o the r c i t ie s f r om A s i a M inor , i n c lud ing M i le tu s , h ave a l so b een c onnec ted w i th t h i s , a sy e t u npub l i shed , r e cen t f i nd , t hough s ome o f t h e se c o in s a r e s u spec ted o f b e ing i n t ru s ive . T he h oa rd c on ta in s s im i la r q uan t i t ie s o f c roe se id a nd C a r i an c o in s , a nd many f r ac t iona l d enom ina t ion s o fb o th s e r ie s a r e i n c luded . A l l o ft h e c roe se id s a r e o f' e a r ly ' s t y le , a nd s ome p i ece s s how d ef in i te s i gn s o f w ea r . On t h e C a r ian c o in s w e a r f r om c i rcu la t ion i sl e s s e v iden t , t hough m any o ft h e se p i ece s h ave b een w eak ly s t ruck a nd t h e ref o re h ave a' wo rn 'a ppe a r ance . T he h oa rd i so bv iou s ly v e ry i mpo r t an tf o r t h e d a te o f t h e ' e a r ly ' c roe se id s . T hough t h e o lde s t c o in s i n t h e h oard , o n t he e v idence o fw ea r , s e em t ob es ome o ft h ec roe se id st h e re i sn oo bv iou sd if e r enc ei n c ond i t ion b e tween t h e m a jo r i ty o fc roe se id a nd C a r ian c o in s . T he t wo c o in age s mu s t b e r ega rded a sr ough ly c on tempo ra ry , a nd t h e r ef o r e , a ss im i la r C a r ian c o in s h ave b een f ound i nl a te rc on tex t s ,3 t h i sh oa rd s uppo r t s ad own -da t ing o ft h ee a r ly c roe se id s e r ie s . Of t h e h oa rd s c on ta in ing g o ld c roe se id s , n e i the r ( 2 ) , f r om S a rde s , w h i ch c on t a ined o n ly ' e a r ly ' i sue s , n o r ( 3 ) , f r om E gyp t , wh ich i si n adequa te ly r e co rded , c an b e d a ted . T he much d i scu s sed h oa rd s ( 7 ) d i scove r ed i nt h e e xcava t ion s o ft h e A padana a tP e r sepo l i s c on ta ined u nwo rn ' l a te ' c roe se id g o ld s t a te r s t oge the r w i th l a te s ix th c en tu ry c o in s o fA eg ina a nd Abde ra ( no r th ea s t d epo s i t ) a nd c o in s o f

A syu tf i g . 1 ,p p . 1 416 . U sua l ly a t t r ibu ted t o My la sa ; s e e E . S . G . Rob in son , ' A h oa rd o f A rcha ic G reek c o in s f r om

A na to l ia ' , NC 1 96 1 ,114-5 . Hoa rd s( 1 0 )a nd ( 1 1 )i nT ab le A .

3 1

3 2

3 3

8 0

CO I NAGE OF THE P E RS IA N EMP I RE

C ypru s t e n ta t ive ly d a ted t oa bou t 5 00 a nd t ot h e 4 80 s ( s ou thea s t d epo s i t ) .3 4 T he c r oe se id s i ne a ch o ft h e se t wo d epo s i t s a r e i d en t ica l i nb o th s t y le a nd c ond i t ion . I f t h eg roup f ound w i th t h e Cyp r io t c o in s w a sl a id d own n o te a r l ie r t h an a bou t4 90 , t h en t he o the r g roup c an h a rd ly h ave b een b u r ied much e a r l ie r . T he ref o re , e ven a low ing f o r i mp rec i s ion i nt h e d a t ing o ft h e C yp r io t c o in s i ts e em s i mpo s s ib le t o s uppor t t h e e a r ly d a te , o fa bou t 5 15 , wh ich h a s s ome t ime s b een s ugge s ted f o r t h e d epo s i t ion o ft h e se h oa rd s . Ad a te e a r ly i nt h e f i f th c en tu ry b ecome s much mo r e l i ke ly .3 5 A t ten t ion h a s a lway s b een f o cu sed o n t h e e i gh t g o ld c roe se id s f r om t h e se t wo ' f ounda t ion d epo s i t s ' b u t t h e l oo se f i nd s o f c r oe se id s f r om t h e P e r sepo l i s e xca v a t ion s a r e a l so i n te re s t ing . At o ta l o fs e ven p i ece s w a s r e corded : o ne ' l a te ' g o ld s t a te rb e long ing t ot h es ame s e r ie sa st h e ' f ounda t ion d epo s i t ' p i ece s , a nd s i x ' e a r ly ' s i lve r c roe se id s ( 3s t a te r s a nd 3h a lve s ) . On ly o ne h a lf s ta te r w a s r e co rded i nc l o se a s soc ia t ion w i th o the r c o in s ( one L yd ian e l ec t rum t h i rd , o ne M i le s ian d iobo l a nd o ne a r cha ic s i lve rp i ec ea t t r ibu ted t oE phe su s ) . T he s i gn if i cance o ft h e se f i nd si sn o t e spec ia l ly t h a tt h ey s how ' e a r ly ' c roe se id si na na r chaeo log ica lc on tex tt h a td a te st o t he p e r iod D a r iu s /X e rxe s . T ha t i s ap o in t wo r th n o t ing , b u t i tc anno t b e p roved t ha t t h e c o in s w e re o f r e cen t m anuf ac tu re when d epo s i ted . I ti sp e rhap s mo re s i gn if i can t t h a t n o ' l a te ' c roe se id s i lve r n o r a ny d a r ic s o r s i g lo i w e re f ound o n t h e s i te . I nt h ee a r l ie s t m ixed h oa rd s f r om E gyp t ( 4 , 5 )s i lve r c roe se id s a ppea r a l ong s ide v e ry e a r ly A eg ine t an a nd C o r in th ian i sue s , A then ian Wappenmünzen ' , t h e e a r l ie s t Macedon ian a nd T h rac ian c o inage s ,a nd e a r ly i sue so fv a r iou sI on ian c i t ie s . E ach o ft h e se h oa rd s c on ta ined o n ly o ne c r oe se id , b u t i ti sp e rhap s wo r th n o t ing t ha tt h eo n ly w e l lr e co rded e xamp le ( i nt h eD amanhu r( 4 )h oa rd )i si n' e a r ly 's t y le . T he n ex tt h ree s i l ve rh oa rd s ( 6 , 8 -9 ) c on t a in am ix tu re o fc roe se id s , a l o f wh ich a r ei nva r iab ly o ft h e ' l a te ' s t y le , a nd e a r ly s i g lo st ype s . T he se h oa rd sw e re a l f ound i nA s ia M ino r . T he h uge c a lh oa rd ( 9 ) i sc ruc ia l f o rt h ei n te rna lc h rono logy o ft h e e a r ly s i g lo si sue s ,b u ti tc on ta ined n on on 'Pe r s ian ' c o in s . T he B a i rak l i ( 6 ) a nd A s ia M ino r( 8 ) h oa rd s , o nt h eo the rh and , c on ta ined , i na dd i t ion t ot h e i r' P e r s ian ' i sue s , c o in s f r om M i le tu s a nd Cyz icu s ( 8 o n ly ) , a nd ' u nce r ta in I on ia ' ( Smy rna o r P hoc aea ? ) ( 6a nd 8 ) .3 6 T he n ex t g roup o fh oa rd s c o mp r i se s t h e g rea t A syu t f i nd f r om E gyp t ( 1 1 ) a nd t h e An t i lebanon h oa rd ( 1 2 ) , wh ich b o th c on ta ined am ix tu re o fs i g lo si sue s d own t ot ype Ib b u tn o c roe se id s , t oge the rw i th t h e s ou th Ana to l i an h oa rd ( 1 0 ) , wh ich c on ta ined o ne s i g lo s o ft ype Ia . T he se h oa rd s a l so i n c luded t h e f o l low ing s o r t s o f c o in s : S am ian s a tZ anc le ' , ` unw rea thed ' A then i an ow l s , e a r ly a nd ' s kew ' A eg in e t an i sue sa nd ' A thena h ead ' C o r in th i an s ,a sw e l la sm any o the r' a rcha ic 'c o inage s . I fw e c on s ide r a l t h e e a r ly s i lve rh oa rd s t oge the r ( No s . 1 ,4 -6 , 8 12 ) , i ti sc l ea r A cco rd ing t o t h e f i l e p ho tog raph s o ft h i s h oa rd i t c on ta ined 1f r ac t ion o f Cyz icu s a nd 1 3 f r ac t ion s o f ` unce r ta in I on ia ' w i th f ema le h ead o bve r se t ype ( a s i nt h e B a i rak l i h oa rd ) . Howeve r , i ts hou ld b e n o ted h e re t h a t t he re i ss ome d oub t t h a t a l t he v ar iou s i sue sr e co rded w i th t h i sh oa rd a c tua l ly d e r ived f r om t h es ame f i nd . F o r a no the r men t ion o ft h i sh oa rd s e e M .J .P r ice ,o p .c i t .n .4 ,P . 2 15 ,n .1 3 .

E . F . S chm id t , o p . c i t . , n .10 , P . 134 . F o r d i scu s s ion o fd a te s e e E . E . H e rzf e ld , l o c . c i t . n .12 , 4 13 a nd M . V icke r s ,l o c .c i t .n .8 ,p .4 -9 . S ee D . S t ronach , ' The Apadana : as i gna tu re o f t h el i ne o fD a r iu sI ' ,i nD el ' Ind u sa ux B a lkan s , R e cue i l J e an D e shay e s( 1 985 ) ,4 33-45 ( e sp .4 434 ) . Hoa rd ( 8 ) i sw rong ly d e sc r ibed i n I GCH ( no . 175 ) a s c on ta in ing 1 4 s i lve r f r ac t ion s o f Cyz icu s . 34

35

36

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t h a tt h ey p rov ide s ome i n te re s t ing c l ue sf o rt h ec h rono logy o ft he c r oe se id sa nd f o r t h et r an s i t ion f r om c roe se id t os i g lo s c o inage . A si tc an b ea s sumed t h a t t h e e a r l i e s t h oa rd sc on ta in ing c roe se id s t h a tw e a r ee ve rl i ke ly t om ee tw i l lb eh oa rd sf ound i n t h e i r a r ea o fo r ig in ( A s ia M ino r ) , r a the r t h an a r ea s t o wh ich t hey w e re e xpo r t ed ( e .g . E gyp t ) , i mpo r tan t n ew e v idence f o r t h e d eve lopmen t o ft h i s c o inage c an b e e xpec ted t o eme rge when h oa rd ( 1 ) i sp ub l i sh ed i nd e ta i l . I ti swor th e mpha s iz ing t h a tt h et wo g roup so fc r oe se id s , ' e a r ly ' ( A ) ( e .g . P l . X , 1 -7 ) a nd ' l a te ' ( B ) ( P l . X I , 8 -9 ) a r e n eve r f ound h oa rded t oge the r , e ven t hough t h ey h ad t he s ame t ype s a nd i n c luded d enom ina t ion s o fe xac t ly t h e s ame w e igh t . T h i s s t rong ly s ugge s t s t h a t t h ey w e re s e pa r a ted b y as i gn if i can tg ap i nt ime ;' e a r ly ' a nd ' l a te ' c roe se id sa r eb o th f ound i nt h e s ame a r ea s s ot h ey w e re o bv iou s ly n o t s e pa r a ted g eograph i ca l ly . Bu t d a t ing t h i s g ap i sn o te a sy . I fw e a c cep t t h e ' A syu t ' d a te sf o rv a r iou s a r ch a i c G reek c o inage s wh ich , a c co rd ing t o h oa rd e v idenc e , m ay b e c on te mpo r a ry w i th c roe se id s , t h en t h e g ap b e tween t h em wou ld s e em t ol i e i nt h e l a te s i x th c en tury , p e rhap s a bou t 5 20-505 . T he se w e re t h e f i r s t f i f t een y ea r s o ft h e r e ign o fD a r iu s I a nd d a t ing ag ap i n' r ega l ' c o inage t os u ch ap e r iod m ay b et hough t o b jec t ionab le , b u t o n t h e o the r h and a tt h i s t ime t h e re w a s s c a rce ly an ece s sa ry l i nk b e tween c u r rency c hange s i nw e s te rn A s ia M ino r a nd d yn a s t i c , p o l i t ica l , o r e ven e cono m ic d eve lopmen t si nt h eA chaem en id Emp i r ea s awho l e . T he e a r l ie s tE gyp t ian s i lve rh oa rd ss ugge s tt h a ta tf i r s tc roe se id sf ound t h e i r way t o t h a t c oun t ry a l ong s ide o the r , p re sumab ly c on tempo ra ry , s i lve r c o in s f r om t he G reek wo r ld , s u ch a sA then i an 'Wappenmünzen ' a nd e a r ly A eg ine tan ' t u r t le s ' , b u t b y t h e t ime t h e A syu t h oa rd w a s b u r ied i t wou ld a ppe a r t h a t c roe s e id s h ad l a rge ly d i sappea red f r om c i r cu la t ion i nE gyp t . On t h eo the rh and ,n o P e r s i an s i g lo i a ppea r i n t h e e a r l ie s t E gyp t ian h oa rd s ,3 7 b u t b y t h e t ime o f A syu t c o in s f r om s e ve ra l p ha se s o ft h e s i g lo s s e quence h ad n o t o n ly b een p roduced , b u t h ad b een c i rcu la t ing l ong e nough t os how , i ns ome i n s tance s , s i gn s o fw ea r . S o me , a l so , h ad b een mu t i la ted , t hough i tw a s n o d oub t p o s s ib le f o r ac o in t oa cqu i re ac hop m a rk q u i te s oon a f te r i t s d a te o fi sue i fi tw a s q u ick ly e xpo r ted t o a n a r ea i n wh i ch a l s i lve rc o inage w a st r ea ted s imp ly a sb u l l ion . T he o ve ra l l c o mpo s i t ion o ft h e e a r l ie r E gyp t ian s i l ve r h oa rd s ( 4 , 5 ) i sc l ea r ly v e ry d if e ren t f r om t h a t o f A syu t a nd i ti so bv iou s t h a t t h e d if e rence i n d a te b e tween t h e se h oa rd si sc ruc ia lf o rt h ec h rono logy o ft h ee a r ly s i g lo i ( a nd d a r i c s ) . I f w e a c cep tt h e s ugge s ted a pp rox ima te d a te s o f5 00 f o r t h eb u r ia l o fD amanhu ra nd S akha , a nd 4 75 f o rA syu tw eh ave ar oya l -a rche rc o inage r e p lac ing t h ec roe se id si n E gyp te a r ly i nt h ef i f th c en tu ry . B u tc an w ea c cep tt h e s ed a te s ?3 8 T hey a r eb a s ed o n t h e p a t te rn o f a r cha ic h oa rd f i nd s a sd i scu s sed i n t h e A syu t p ub l ica t ion . Doe s a c l o se r e xam ina t ion o f t h e ` c roe s id s ' a nd d a r ic s s i g lo i i n t h e e a r ly h oa rd s f r om p o in ted o u t p rob lem s i n a c cep t ing ab ur ia l d a te o f 4 75 . L a rge ly b ecau se o ft he p re sence i nt he h oa rd o fa c e r ta in c o in o f A lexande r Io f Macedon t hey p r opo sed al owe rd a te .S ee a l so M .V icke r s ,o p .c i t .n .8 , p . 3 9-4 1 . A t t h e Oxf ord s ympo s ium Mar t in P r ic e a g reed t h a tt h e A lexande r Ic o in w a sa noma lou s ,b u t t h a tt h i sd id n o tn e ce s sa r i ly a f ec tt h ec h rono log ie sa s a rgued f o r many o the r c o inage s i nt h e A syu t p ub l i c a t ion .

I nt h e M i t Rah ineh h oa rd ( IGCH 1 636 ) , wh ich h a s as im i la r o ve r a l l c o mpo s i t ion t o D amanhu r a nd S akha , s ome t ype I s i g lo i w e re r e co rded a sb e ing c onnec ted w i th t h e f i nd , b u t t h e se c o in s mu s t b e i n t rude r s . C. M . K r aay , ' The A syu t h oa rd : s ome c o mmen t s o n c h rono logy ' , NC 1 977 , 1 89-98 , a nd H . A . C ahn , ` A s iu t : K r i t i sche B eme rkungen z ue i ne r S cha tzf undpub l ika t ion ' , SNR 5 6( 1 977 ) ,2 8 1-2 ,b o th 37

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e l sewhe re s uppo r t t h e s e d a te s ? T he B a i rak l i h oa rd w a s , a c co rd ing t o t h e e xca v a tor s , ' f ound i n as t ra t if i ed d epo s i t b e long ing t o t h e e a r ly y ea r s o f t h e f i f th c en tury ' .3 9 T he f i r s t r oy a l a r che r t ype s a ppe a r i n t h i s h oa rd m ixed w i th ' l a te ' c r oe se id s . T h i s i sn o t i n con s i s ten t w i th t h e e v idence o ft h e E gyp t ian h oa rd s . T he a b sence o f r oya l a r che r d a r ic s o r s i g lo i f r om t h e P e r s epo l i s d epo s i t s c on ta in ing c roe se id s a l so f i t s t h i s p a t te rn i f ad a te n o t much l a te r t h an 5 00 i sa c cep ted f o r t h e r e levan ta r ea so ft h ee xc ava t ion s . The p re sence i nt h eA syu th oa rd o fs i g lo if r om t ype Ib w a sr ega rded b yK r aay a s ap rob lem . 4° C e r ta in v a r ie t ie s i n A syu t s e emed f r om t h e e v idence o f o the r h oard s t ob e long t ot h e s e cond h a lf o ft h e f i f th c en tu ry , t hough t h i s ' d a t ing ' w a s i nf luenced b ya na leged , b u t Ib e l ieve e r roneou s ,r eve r se d i e l ink b e tween ac o in i n A syu t ( no 7 3 1 ) a nd t h el a te s tg roup ( F )i nt h e Smy rna h oa rd ( 1 5 —wh ich Noe d a ted t o a bou t 4 00 ) . 4' Howeve r , t h e l ow w e igh t s ( a bou t 5 . 30-5 .39 g ) o f t h e A syu tt ype N ib c o in ss ugge s ted t oK raay t h a tt h ey m igh th ave b e longed t ot h ef i r s t i sue s o ft h i s v a r ie ty , m in ted b ef o re t h e a dop t ion o ft h e h ighe r w e igh t s t anda rd more u sua l ly a s soc ia ted w i th Ib ( a bou t 5 . 55-5 .60 g ) . H e p o s tu la ted t ha t t wo m in t s m ay h ave b een i no pe ra t ion a tt h e s ame t ime , o ne p roduc ing c o in s w i th p e l le t s ( I Ia ) a nd a no the r c o in s w i thou t p e l le t s ( I Ib ) , u n t i l t h e f o rme r m in t c l o sed a nd t h e l a t te r , wh ich t h en c on t inued i n p roduc t ion , i n c rea sed i t s w e igh t s t anda rd . T h i s t h eo ry c anno t y e t b e p roved . S ome o ft h e t ype Ib c o in s i nA syu t s e em wo rn , s oi tm ay b e d ange rou s t op l ace t oo much r e l iance o n t h e e v idence o f we igh t s when d ea l ing w i th l im i ted n umbe r s o f c o in s a nd s ma l l d if e rence s i n a ppa r en t w e igh t s t anda rd s . I n a ny c a se , t h e re i ss t i l l t h e p rob lem o f t h e e a r ly i n t roduc t ion o f Ib s i g lo is ugge s ted b yA syu t . I ft h eA syu th oa rd w a sb u r ied a bou t 4 75 t ype I Ib s i g lo i mu s th ave b een i np roduc t ion a tl e a s ta se a r ly a s4 80 , t a k ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion t h e c ond i t ion o ft h ec o in s . E ven i f ,a sm any h ave n ow s ugge s ted , t h e b u r ia l o f A syu t s hou ld b e d own -da ted b y af ew y ea r s ,4 2 t h e se s i g lo i a r e s t i l l a ppea r ing e a r l ie r t h an wou ld f o rme r ly h ave b een e xpec ted . B u t i st h i s r e a l ly a p rob lem ? I fw e a c cep t t h a t D a r iu s Ii n t roduced t h e d a r ic s i g lo s c o inage v e ry e a r ly i nt h ef i f th c en tu ry , a nd i fw ea l so a c cep t t h a tt ype s Ia nd I c an b ed a ted v e ry c l o se t oge the r , o r e ven t h a t t h ey m igh t h ave b egun a tt h e s ame t ime b u t a td if e ren t m in t s ,4 3 t h en i ti sn o td if i cu l tt oi mag ine ar a p id d eve lopmen tt h rough t ot ype s Ia a nd Ib . Reve r s ed i e l ink sa r ev e ry c o mmon w i th in , t hough n eve rb e tween , t ype s I ,I ,a nd Ia . I ts e em s t h a tn o t many d i e sw e r eu s ed s oi ti si ndeed l i ke ly t h a t t h e se c o inage sw e re n o ti np roduc t ion f o rm any y ea r s . T he A s ia M ino r 1 96 1 h oa rd ( 8i n T ab le A ) wou ld s e em t o p rov ide f u r the r c onf i rma t ion o ft h er a p id s u cce s s ion o fe a r ly s i g lo st ype s , t hough i tmu s tb et r ea ted w i th g rea t c au t ion b ecau se o fi t s s omewha t u n l ike ly c ompo s i t ion .4 T he S ou th A na to l i a ( 1 0 ) a nd A n t i lebanon ( 1 2 ) h oa rd s c on ta in t oo f ew s i g lo i t om ake ar e a l ly n .1 5( s ee n .3 8 ) . S ee n .3 6 a bove . T he ' hoa rd ' a l so i n c luded L yd ian e l ec t rum a sw e l l a st h e s i lve r i sue s a l ready m en t ioned . T hough r e co rded i n I GCH ( 1 175 ) a sa s i ng le e n t i ty , K r aay c ho se t oi gno re t h e h oa rd when h e d i scu s sed t h e c h rono logy o ft h e e a r ly s i g lo i ( op . c i t . n .3 8 , 1 93 ) , e ven t hough h e mu s t h ave b een w e l l a wa re o fi t .

NC 1 960 ,3 1 ( s e en .2 3 ) . NC 1 977 , 1 934( s ee n .3 8 ) . A syu t c o in 7 3 1 s how s , Ib e l ieve , t h e s ame r eve r se d i e a sn o s . 1 2 a nd 1 3 i n t h e Smyrna h oa rd ( 1 5 ) . The se c o in sw e re r ega rded b y Noe a sb e long ing t oa ne a r l ie rg roup t h an t h ec o in so fh i sg roup F . S ee n .3 8a bov e . C. M . K r aay , ACGC p .3 2-3 , NC 1 977 p . 1 94 39

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s i gn if i can t c on t r ibu t ion t o t h e d i scu s s ion , b u t t h ey p re sen t n o o b s tac le s t o t h e t h eo ry t h a t t ype Ib f i r s t eme rged a se a r ly a st h e 4 80 s ; i ndeed , t he A n t i lebanon h oa rd p rov ide s r a the r i mp re s s ive c onf i rma t ion o f t h e A syu t p a t te rn . A s t h e An t i lebanon h oa rd i sd a ted o n t h eb a s i so fA syu tt h e re i so bv iou s c i rcu la r i ty i nt h i s a rgumen t , b u t a tl e a s t t h e An t i lebanon h oa rd d id n o t c on t a in a ny a noma l ie s a s d if i cu l ta st h eA syu tA lexande r Ic o in .4 5 T yp eI I bs i g l o sd om inan t( s i lv e rh oa rd s1 319 ) I n t h e p e r iod f o l low ing t h e ' t ime o f A syu t ' t h e re a r e f u r the r d if i cu l t ie s i n t h e d a r ic /s ig lo s c h rono logy , c au sed p r inc ipa l ly b y t h e s ho r tage o f m ixed d a tab le h oa rd s . I t wou ld , o fc ou r se , h ave b een h e lpf u l i ft h e n ew ` d ecad rachm h oa rd ' o f s i lve rh ad c on ta ined s i g lo i , b u t , r a the ri n te r e s t ing ly , i td id n o t . I nT ab le A t h e t wo h oa rd s t e n ta t ive ly d a ted t ot h e 4 50 s ( 1 3 , 1 4 ) c on ta ined t oge the r o n ly t h r ee s i g lo i . Two t ype I s i g lo i s u rv ive a ppa ren t ly w e l l i n to t h e t ype Ib p er iod b u t t he se f i gu re sa r eh a rd ly wo r th dwe l l ing o n . T he n ex t m ixed h oa rd s wh ich i n c lude s i g lo i a r e t ho se f r om Ma s sayaf i nS yr ia ( 1 8 ) , wh ich h ad a s i ng le p i ece f r om t ype Ib , a nd S am sun i n c en tra l n o r the rn T u rkey ( 1 9 ) , wh ich c on ta ined e xamp le s o f t ype s I lb a nd I V . Among t he n on -Pe r s ian c o inage s f r om t h e se h oa rd s a r e ' w r ea thed ' A then ian t e tr ad r achm s , A eg ine tan ' t o r to i se s ' a nd t h ee a r l ie s ti sue s f r om t h eP hoen ic ian c i t ie s o fS i don a nd T y re .T he se c o inage sc l ea r ly b e long t o al a te rp e r iod t h an t h ei sue s wh ich a ppea red a l ong s ide s i g lo i i nt h e e a r l ie r c o mpa rab le h oa rd s , a nd i ndeed n e i the r h oa rd c ou ld h ave b een b u r ied b ef o re a bou t4 25 ,p e rhap ss ome f i f ty y ea r sa f te rA syu t . I td oe sn o tf o l low ,h oweve r , t h a ta l t h es i g lo ii nt h e se h oa rd sh ave t od a t ef r om t h e s e cond h a lf o ft h e f i f th c en tu ry . I n f a c t t h e c ond i t ion o fm any o f t h e s i g lo i s ugge s t s t h a t t h ey m ay h ave b een i nc i rcu la t ion f o r m any y ea r s b ef ore t he h oa rd s w e re b u r ied . T he s i ng le p i ece i n t h e Ma s sayaf h oa rd i sc u t a nd a ppa ren t ly q u i te wo rn . I tm ay d a te , l i ke m any c o in s i nt h i s h oa rd , f r om t h e l a te a r cha ic p e r iod . I n t h e S am sun h oa rd n o t o n ly a r e m any o ft h e t ype I lb p i ece s wo rn , b u t a l so , a nd p e rhap s mo re s i gn if i can t ly , t h e t ype I V p i ece s s how , i n m any c a se s , s i gn s o f c on s ide rab le w ea r . T h i ss ugge s t st h a tt ype I Vs i g lo iw e re p robab ly i nc i rcu la t ion a s e a r ly a s t h e m idd le o f t h e f i f th c en tu ry .4 6 T he se e a r l i e s t t ype I V s i g lo i h ave a d i s t inc t ive ' s t i f f ' o bve r se f i gu re w i th as h ape le s s b ody c o mp le te ly l a ck ing aw a i s t , a nd t h er eve r se i n cu se o f ten c on ta in s as ymbo l ( e .g . P l .X I I I ,3 3-5 ) .4 7 A t t h i s p o in t w e s hou ld c on s ide r a l so t h e ` s i g lo s -on ly ' h oa rd s . T h r ee h oard s , a l f r om A s ia M ino r ( 1 517 ) , wh ich c on ta in o n ly c o in so ft ype Ib , a nd wh ich a r e , o n t h eb a s i so fs h a red d i e sa nd s t y le ,c l o se ly r e la ted t oe a ch o the r , c an a l so b ed i el inked t ot h eS am sun h oa rd a nd t oh oa rd sf r om t h ee a r l ie rp e r iod ( 8 , 1 ,a nd 1 2 ) . Toge th e r t h e se t h ree u n -m ixed h oa rd s c on ta ined o ve r 7 00 s i g lo i . T he a b senc e o fa ny t ype s e a r l ie r t h an Ib s ugge s t s t h a t t h ey s hou ld b e long t o al a t e r p e r iod t h an t h e ' A syu t ' g roup , b u t t h e se h oa rd s a l so l a cked a ny t ype I V c o in s . E i the r t h ey w e re b u r ied b ef o re t ype I V c ame i n to w ide c i rcu la t ion , l e t u s s a y a r ound 4 50 , o r t h ey w e r e a s semb led a nd b u r ied , p e rhap sl a te r , i na n a r ea whe re t yp eI V c o in sw e r en o t a tt h e S ee n .3 8a bove . C . M .K raay a nd P .R . S . Moorey , ' A B lack S ea h oa rd o ft h e l a te f i f th c en tury BC ' , NC 1 98 1 , 1 19

( 1 39) S ee H i l lp .c xxv i i , c xxx i i i .

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t ime a va i lab le . T he l a t te r e xp lana t ion wou ld b e mo re p l au s ib le i ft h e se t wo t ype s w e r e p roduced a ts e pa r a te m in t s , a nd t h i s i s ad i s t inc t p o s s ib i l i ty . A l though t h ey w e r e m in ted t o t h e s ame w e igh t s t anda rd t h e ' d agge r ' t ype i so f ten s t ruck o n i regu lar ly s h aped f l an s ,4 8 o r a c ro s s t h e a x i s o fo vo id s h aped f l an s , whe rea s Ib c o in sa r e a lmo s ti nva r iab ly o vo id w i th t h eo bve r se d e s ign s t ruck u p r igh ta l ong t h e a x i s . I t c an b e s hown t h a t t h e c h rono log ie s o f t h e se t wo t ype s i nvo lve a c on s ide rab le p e r iod o f o ve r lap , s o e i the r as i ng le m in t w a s s w i tch ing b e tween p roduc t ion o f t h e t wo t ype s o r t h e re w e re s e pa ra te m in t s . On ly o ne r eve r s e d i e l ink h a se ve rb een o b s e rved b e tween o bve r se t ype sI Ib a nd I V .4 9 T he l i nk m ay , i nf a c t , n o te x i s t ; b u te ven i fi td oe s Ib e l ieve i tb e long st ot h ev e ry e a r l ie s tp ha se o f t y pe I V , i n wh ich c a se i tm igh t p r e -d a te as e pa ra t ion o fm in t s . T he t h eo ry o ft wo ( o r more ? ) m in t s c ou ld o n ly b e c onf i rmed b y ad e ta i led s t udy o ft h e c i rcu l a t ion p a t te rn , a sw e l l a st h e c h rono logy , o ft h e se c o inage s , a nd as ho r tage o fr e l iab ly p rovenanced f i nd sr ende r st h i s ad if i cu l to b jec t ive a tp r e sen t . T yp eI I ba nd I Vt o g e th e r( s i lv e rh oa rd s2 0-33 ,35-6 ) T he n ex tg roup o fs i lv e rh oa rd si nT ab le A i n c lude sf ew t h a t c an b ed a ted , b e cau s e mo s t o ft h eh oa rd s c on ta in o n ly s i g lo i . T he m a in f e a tu r e o ft h e se h oa rd si ng ene r a l i st he i n c re a s ing o ccu r r ence o ft ype I Vs i g lo i . The f i r s tm ixed h o a rd , f r om C i l ic ia ( 2 0 ) , c on ta ined o n ly o ne r e co rded s i g lo s , o f t ype Ib . One i s o la ted p i ece i ns u ch al a rge h oa rd c an p rov ide l i t t le i n f o rma t ion . Much mo re u sef u li st h e Du ra sa la rh oa rd ( 3 1 ) . I tc on ta ined am ix tu re o fs i g lo if r om b o th t ype s Ib a nd I V . T hey s how c on s ide rab le v a r ia t ion s i n d eg ree s o f w ea r , s ugge s t ing t h a ts ome w e re i nc i r cu la t ion much l onge rt h an o the r sb ef o re t h eh oa rd wa s b u r ied . T he h oa rd a l so i n c luded s ome q u i te c l o se ly d a ted G reek i sue s f r om A s ia M ino r , n o tab ly S a mo s , b u t a l so Cyz icu s , E phe su s , a nd Rhode s . T he p r e sence o ft h e se c o in s , s ome o f wh ich a ppea rv i r tua l ly u nc i rcu la ted , a low s t h eh oa rd t ob e d a ted w i th s ome c onf idence . Many o ft h e r eve r se d i e s o n t h e Du ra sa la r s i g lo i o f b o th t ype sc an b eo b se rved o n s i g lo if r om o the rh oa rd s , b o th m ixed a nd u nm ixed . I ti s mo re d if i cu l t t o r e cogn ize o bve r se d i e l i nk s , b u t c hange s i n o bve r se s t y le , o f ten a s soc ia ted w i th t h e a ppea rance o f n ew r eve r se d i e s , c an b e d e tec ted i n Du r a sa la r a nd p a r a l le led i n t h e l a rge u nm ixed h oa rd s . Du ra sa la r t hu s b ecome s a k ey h oa rd f o r s i g lo s c h rono logy . I tp rov ide s , f o r i n s tance , at e rm inu s a n t e q u em f o r t he a ppea rance o fp e rhap s t h e mo s t s i gn if i can t d eve lopmen t i nt h e d e s ign o ft ype I Ib . T h i s i st h e c h ange i nt h e r ende r ing o ft h e d rape ry o ft h e r oya l a r che r f i gu re , f r om s how ing t h e k andy s f o lded o ve r t h e a dvanced l e f t k nee ( t he re a r e many v a r ia t ion s i nd e ta i l b u t i ng ene r a l t h i s g ive s amo re n a tu ra l i s t ic i mp re s s ion o ft h e r unn ing f i gu re ) t os how ing t h el owe rd rape ry a s ab road s em i -c i rcu la rs weep f r om t h el e f tk nee b a ck t ot h er i gh th ee l ( e .g . P l . X IV , 3 7-8 ) . T he l a t te rs t y le i sc e r ta in ly al a te d eve lopm en t ; i tc on t inued i n to t h e p e r iod o f t h e d oub le -da r ic s u nde r A lex ande r a nd i ti s af e a tu re wh ich c an s e rve t od i s t ingu i sh ' l a te ' I lb f r om ' e a r ly ' Ib . Ma r t in P r ice h a s p o in ted o u t t o me t h a t t h e o n ly o the r m in t wh ich f r equen t ly u sed s u ch m i s shapen f l an s a s t ype I V s i g lo i i st h e m in t f o r

Cyz icene e l ec t rum . Wa s t h e re t h en a' d agge r ' m in t i nN . W. A s ia M ino r ? E .S .G . Rob in son , NC 1 958 ,192-3 ( s ee n .2 3 ) .

48

49

8 5

I A N CA R RAD ICE

T he h oa rd sf r om B aby lon ia ( 3 2 ) , C i l ic ia ( 3 3 ) , a nd T chamani H azou r i ( 3 5 ) a l so i n c luded n on -Pe r s ian c o in s , t hu se nab l ing t h e i rd a te so fd epo s i tt ob ee s t ima ted , b u t mo s t o ft h e s i g lo i i nt h e se h oa rd s a r e v e ry wo rn a nd o f ten mu t i la t ed w i th c u t s o r c oun te r s tamp s , s ugge s t ing t h a t t h ey c ou ld h ave b een c i rcu l a t ing f o r ac on s ide rab l e t ime b ef o re b u r ia l . T he I s pa r ta h oa rd ( 3 6 ) c on t a in ed o n ly o ne t ype I lb s i g lo s , w i th t wen ty -f ou r t ype I V s i g lo i . T h i s h oa rd c an b e d a ted a pp rox ima te ly a c co rd ing t o t h e i sue s o f t h e o the r a u tho r i ty r ep r e sen ted i n t h e f i nd , t h e c i ty o f A spendu s . Aga in , m any o ft h e s i g lo i i nt h i s h oa rd a ppea r wo rn a nd h eav i ly c oun t e rma rked , b u to the r s , n o tab ly ag roup o fn ine t ype I V p i e ce s a l s t ruck f r om t he s ame r eve r se d i e ( P l . X IV ,4 5 ) , s e em much f r e she ra nd t h e ref o r ew e re n od oub tp rodu ced mo re r e cen t ly . T he many s i g lo s -on ly h oa rd s i nt h i s p a r t o fT ab le A ( 2 1-30 ) c an b e c onnec ted w i th t h e m ixed h oa rd s t h rough s im i la r i t ie s i no bve r se s t y le , o r r eve r s e d i e l ink s . T hey h ave b een p l aced t oge the r i n ab lock i nT ab le A b ef o re h oa rd s 3 15 b ecau se t h ey c anno ty e tb ed a ted w i th a ny p rec i s ion . A l though mo s tc on ta in i sue so fs i g lo i t h a t a r e , o n t h e b a s i s o fc o mpa r i son s w i th Du ra s a la r a nd o the r h oa rd c o in s , l a te r t h an a ny o ft h e worn s i g lo i c on ta ined i nt h e B aby lon ia a nd T chaman i H azou r i h oa rd s , t h i s d oe s n o t p rove t h a t t h ey w e re b u r ied l a te r . I t s e em s t h a t t he d i s t r ibu t ion b e tween t ype s Ib a nd I Vg i ve s ar ough g u ide t oc h rono logy . H oa rd s i n wh ich t ype I V a r e d om inan t o ve r t ype Ib s e em g ene ra l ly t o b e l a t e r t h an h oa rd s i n wh ich t ype I Ib a r e c o mmone r . T he d a tab le n on -Pe r s ian i su e s i nt he m ixed h oa rd s s ugge s t t h a t t h e p e r iod o fb u r ia l o f a l t h e se h oa rd s wa s t h e f i r s t q ua r te r o ft h e f ou r th c en tu ry , t hough t h e s i g lo i c on ta ined w i th in t hem i n c lude i sue s wh ich c ou ld h ave b een p roduced a ny th ing u pt o1 00 y ea r se a r l ie r . F ou r th c en tu ry d a r i c s( h oa rd s3 4 , 3 7a nd 3 8 ) T he re a r e v e ry f ew h oa rd s o fP e r s ian g o ld c o in s i n c luded i nT ab le A . A f t e r t h e t h ree h oa rd sc on ta in ing g o ld c roe se id s ( 2 ,3 ,7 )t h e re i sal ong g ap . D a r ic so ft y p e sI a nd l i la e x i s t , b u tn one h ave s of a rb een r e co rded i nh oa rd s . On ly ah andf u lo fd i e s h ave s o f a r b een r e co rded f o r d a r ic s o ft ype I , a nd t ype Ia d a r ic s a r e a l so v e ry r a re . T he se a r et h ei sue so fd a r ic st h a ts hou ld h ave b e en i nc i rcu la t ion a tt he t im eo f P y th iu s ( He rodo tu s 7 ,2 8 ) b u t i ti sd if i cu l t t o c onn ec t t h e se a ppa ren t ly m eag re i sue sw i th t h er i che sr epo r ted i nt h a ts t o ry . A n umbe r o f h oa rd s o f t ype Ib d a r ic s a r e k nown , t hough o n ly t h re e a r e i n c luded i nT ab le A ( 3 4 , 3 7 , a nd 3 8 ) b ecau se t h e o the r s a r e a l e i the r i n suf f i c i en t ly w e l l reco rded o r a r e d a r ic -on ly h oa rd s . T he f o l low ing t a b le l i s t s t h e se o the r d a r i c h oa rd s , a l e xc lu s ive ly o ft ype Ib , t os how h ow t h ey c an b e l i nked t ot he V oun i h oa rd a nd t h e Avo la h oa rd sf r om T ab le A .

8 6

CO I NAGE OF THE P E RS IA N EMP I RE

TABLE B Hoa rd sc on ta in ing d a r ic s ( a l lI b ) D a te

I GCH o r CH

D a r ic s r e co rded

3 62 1 278 CH V I I ,2 7 CH V I , 1 2

A tho s , Macedon ia , 1 839 Voun i , Cyp ru s , 1 928 I s thm i a , Co r in th Unce r ta in

194 2 122 2 124 CH V I , 1 3 3 2 3 2 ? 4 3

Vou r la , A s ia M ino r , 1 875 Avo la , I t a ly , 1 9 14 A vo la , I t a ly , 1 888 K i t i , C yp ru s A then s , 1 929 A then s ? ( V ie rord tc o l l . ) E l i s 1 9 18 I r an 1 982

6 3 1 654

E re t r ia 1 855 D amanhu r 1 896

3 40 3 30

1 656

G a rb ieh 1 896

3 30

1 822 1 222 1 24 1

Oxu s 1 887 — d a r ic si n c luded i nm ixed h oa rd ( s ) P i r l ib ey 1 870 — ?1 , 000 d a r ic sr epo r ted ,n o ti d en t if i ed Mudanya 1 969 — ?2 , 000 d a r ic sr epor ted ,n o ti d en t if i ed

3 80

3 70 3 60

3 00 4 3 3 0 4 3 4 6

l i nked t oge the rb y s ha red r eve r se d i e so r s t y l i s t ic s im i lar i t ie s

d i e l ink so rs im i la r i t ie s i ns t y le

1 2 7 d e ta i l sn o ta va i lab le

T he a b sence o fa ny h oa rd s c on ta in ing d a r ic s f r om t h e f i f th c en tu ry i so bv iou s ly a s eve re h and icap t o as t udy o fc h rono logy f r om h oa rd e v idence . A l l T ab le B c an s how i st h a t a t l e a s t t wo s e pa r a te g roup s o f t ype I lb d a r ic s c an b e i d en t if i ed . S ub-g roup s w i th in t h e se m a jo r d iv i s ion s c ou ld c e r ta in ly b e i d en t if i ed f r om a d e ta i led s t udy o fo bve r se s t y le s a nd r eve r se d i e s , b u tf o r t h ep re sen t , b ecau se o ft h e l a ck o fd a tab le f i xed p o in t s , i ti si n tended o n ly t oh igh l igh t t h e d if e r ence s wh ich e nab le t h e se t wo m a jo r g roup s t o b e d i s t ingu i shed . T he e a r l ie r g roup , wh ich i s r epre sen ted i nt h eV oun ih oa rd , b u tn o ti ne i the rA vo la h oa rd ,i sc ha rac te r ized b ya n ea t ly d rawn o bve r se f i gu re ( P l . X I I I , 2 7-31 ) . T he r eve r se i s ar ough p a t te rn , s im i la r t o t h a t o n t h e ma jo r i ty o ft ype Ib s i g lo i . One n o tab le membe r o ft h i s g roup i st h e r eve r s e d i e ( P l . X I I I , 2 8-9 ) f ound w i th t h e ' b ea rd le s s k ing ' o bve r se , t r ad i t iona l ly a t t r ibu ted t o C y ru s t h e y ounge r . T hough n o d a r ic s o f t h i s ma jo r g roup h ave y e tb een r e co rded i n ac on tex tt h a tc an b ed a ted e a r l ie rt h an a bou t3 80 , s t y l i s t ic c o mpa r i son s w i th s i g lo i s ugge s t t h a t t h e g roup a s a who le i sp robab ly f i f th cen tu ry . One o bve r se s t y le ( P l . X I I I , 2 7-8 ) , a ga in l i nked b y ar eve r se d i e t o t he ' b ea rd le s s k ing ' , c an b e c ompa red c l o se ly w i th s i g lo i t h a t h ave a ppea red i n h oa rd sf r om a se a r ly a st h e4 70 s( c f . P l .X I I , 1 819 ) . T he s e cond g roup , wh ich c an s a f e ly b e t e rmed f ou r th -cen tu ry , h a s a n o bve r se f i gu re wh ich i sb road ly s im i la r t ot h a t o n ' l a te r ' t ype I lb s i g lo i . T he r e a r e s t y l i s t ic v a r ia t ion sw i th in t h i s g roup ( P l . X IV , 3 9-42 ) b u t at yp ica l o bve r se s how s al a rge , f o rma l , r oya l a r che r f i gu re , n ea t ly d rawn , b u t s omewha t s t y l ized ( P l . X IV , 4 0 ) . The s em i c i rcu la rc u rve o fd rape ry i sp a r t icu la r ly n o t iceab le . T he r eve r se d e s ign o f t h i s ' p e r iod ' i st h e u sua l r ough ly cu t p a t te rn w i th in a n o b long i n cu se . Ano the r g roup o fd a r ic s , n o t i d en t if i ed a sy e t i na ny h oa rd , t hough w i th t h e s ame ' f o rma l ' o bve r se f i gu re a sh a sj u s tb een men t ioned , h a s ar eve r se d e s ign ( P l . XV , 5 01 ) t h a t 8 7

I A N CAR . RAD ICE

i sd eve lop ing t owa rd s t h e ' h o r izon ta l -band s ' p a t te rn c ha r ac te r i s t ic o ft h e B aby l on ian ` d oub le -da r ic ' c o inage o fA lexande r ( P l . XV , 5 3 ) . I ti sl og ic a l t o a s sume t h a t d a r ic s w i th t h e se r eve r se s s u cceeded t h e ' Avo la ' g roup i n ac h rono log ica l d eve lopmen t wh ich c u lm ina ted i nt h e ' d oub le d a r i c s ' . T h i s d oe sn o t m e an t ha t w e s hou ld s e ek aB aby lon ian m in t f o r m id -f ou r th c en tu ry d a r ic s ( t hough t h i s i sn o t e n t i re ly o u t o ft h e q ue s t ion ) . T he A lexande r d oub le -da r ic s o bv iou s ly c opy e a r l ie r d a r ic p ro to type s , b u t t h e i r f a b r ic , wh ich i sc hunky a nd s t ra igh t -edged , i sc l ea r ly d if e ren tf r om a ny o ft h ef ou r th cen tu ry d a r ic s . T h el a s ts i g l o i( h oa rd s3 9-42 ) T he f ou r r ema in ing f i nd s l i s ted i nT ab le A p rov ide t h e l a te s t c on tex t s f o rs i g lo i i n h oa rd s . T he Wa rka h oa rd ( 3 9 ) c on ta ined o ne t ype I V s i g lo s t oge the r w i th t h ree s i lve r s t a te r s o ft h e s a t rap s P ha rnabuzu s a nd Maz aeu s . T he c o in s o f Ma z a eu s d a te t h e h oa rd t ot h e p e r iod j u s t b ef o re A lexande r t h e G rea t ' s c onque s t o ft h e P e r s ian Emp i re . T he s i g lo s i sn o t p a r t icu la r ly wo rn a nd i th a s ar a the r we l l d r awn r oya l a r che r f i gu re , q u i te d if e ren t f r om t h e c rude f i gu r e s wh ich a ppea r s oo f t en o n t ype I V s i g lo i i n e a r l ie r h oa rd s . I ti sa l so c ha rac te r iz ed b y as em i -c i rcu la r s weep o f d rape ry b e tween t h ef i gu re ' sl e g s ,s im i la rt ot h a to n' l a te ' t ype Ib s i g lo ia nd d a r ic s . T he h oa rd sf r om B aby lon ia , S u sa , a nd t h eB h i r Mound ( 4 0-2 ) i n c lud ed c o in so f A lexande r a nd o fP h i l ip I ( Bh i r Mound o n ly ) , a nd t h e i r f ew s i g lo i a r ea lo ft ype I V . 5°T he s i ng le s i g lo s i n t h e B aby lon ia h oa rd ( 4 0 ) i ss o mu t i la ted b y c u t s a nd c oun te rma rk s t h a t i ti sa lmo s t u n recogn izab le . T h e t wo s i g lo i i n t he S u s a h oa rd s e em q u i te wo rn ; i ns t y le t h ey l ook c ompa rab le t ot ype I V s i g lo i e ncoun t e red i n e a r l ie rh oa rd s . T he s i ng le s i g lo si nt h eB h i r Mound h oa rd ( 4 2 ) l ook s f r e she r ,a nd i t s s t y le i sc o mpa rab le t o t h e Wa rka s i g lo s . T he re a r e , o fc ou r se , l im i t s t o w h a t o ne m igh t d educe f r om s u ch as ma l l n umbe r o fc o in s , b u t , s u ch a st h ey a r e , t h e se f ew s i g lo i f r om d a tab le l a te c on tex t s t e l l ac on s i s ten t s t o ry . T hey s ugge s t t h a t a tl e a s t o ne v a r ie ty o ft ype I V s i g lo s , wh i ch c an b e d i s t ingu i shed f r om o the r s o n s t y l i s t ic g round s ,c an b ed a ted p robab ly t oa sl a te a st h es e cond h a lf o ft h ef ou r th c en tu ry . A h oa rd wh ich s hou ld h ave c on ta ined a g ood s amp le o f l a te s i g lo i w a s t he C a lymna ( 1 823 ) h oa rd ( IGCH 1 2 16 ) . T h i s h oa rd i ss a id t o h ave c on t a ined t hou sand s o fs i g lo i , a sw e l la s an umbe r o ff ou r th -cen tu ry c o in sf r om t he r e g ion o f C a r ia .T he p re sence o fc o in so fP ixoda ru so fC a r ia ( 3 40-334 ) d a te si t sd epo s i tt ot h e p e r iod i mmed ia te ly p r io r t ot h e a r r iva l i nt h e a r ea o fA lexande r , s i nce n o c o in s o f A lexande rw e re r e co rded i nt h ef i nd . B o r re l l , who p ub l i shed an o te o nt he h oa rd i n t h e Num i sma t i c C h r on i c l e ," r epo r ted t h a t , ' u nf o r tuna t e ly , n ea r ly n ine ten th so ft he who le w e re c on s igned t ot h ec ruc ib le , n o t f r om i gno r ance , b u to na c coun to ft h e i r d eg raded p re se rva t ion . T hey w e re u s e le s s f o r a ny s c i en t if i c p u rpo se ' . We mu s t a s sume t h a tt h e g rea t ma jo r i ty o ft h ec o in st h a tw e re m e l ted d own w e re s i g lo i ,a nd t h a t t h e ref o re t h e se ' t hou sand s ' o f s i g lo i w e re mo s t ly v e ry wo rn . I n f a c t t h ey p robab ly l ooked q u i te s im i la r t o mo s t o ft h e s i g lo i t h a t h ave t u rned u p i nh o a rd s s i nce t h a td a te , t h a ti s , wo rn , c u t , a nd p o s s ib ly c oun te rma rked a sw e l l . Wou ld t h ey 5° O n t h e S u sa h oa rd , G . l eR ide r , S u s e s o u s l e s S e l eu c id e s e tl e s P a r th e s , 1 950 , p p . 2 22 , 2 43 , s a y s t h a t o ne o ft h e t wo s i g lo i ( no . 6 09 , 1 )b e long s t ot ype I , b u t f r om t he i lu s t r a t ion o n p l . x i t h e c o in a ppea r s

mo re l i ke ly t ob e at ype I Vp i ece . 5 1 H . P . B o r re l l , ' Uned i ted G reek Co in s ' , NC 1 847 , 1 43172 ,a t1 65-6 .

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CO I NAGE OF THE P E RSIA N EMP I RE

t h en h ave b een f ou r th cen tu ry s i g lo i ? I t mu s t b e d oub ted whe the r many c ou ld h ave b een . T o h ave b ecome s o ' d eg raded ' t h e v a s t ma jo r i ty w e re p robab ly f i f th-cen tu ry i sue ss im i l a rt ot h ep i ece si n mo s to ft h ek nown l a rge h oa rd so fs i g lo i c on s ide red e a r l ie r( e .g .h oa rd s1 5-33 ) . C IRCULAT ION PATTERN

O ft he 3 6h oa rd sc on ta in ing s i lve rc roe se id s /s ig lo ii nT ab le A ,2 2h oa rd sa r em ixed , wh i le 1 4c on t a ined o n ly c roe se id sa nd /o rs i g lo i . T he 2 2m ixed h oa rd sw e re d i scove red i nt h ef o l low ing r eg ion s : C roe se id s C r . ,s i g l .I ,I ,I I S i g l .I ,I I S i g l . I I ,I V S i g l . I V

:A s ia M ino r1 * ,E gyp t2 :A s ia M ino r2 * :A s i aM ino r3 ,E gyp t1 ,S yr ia 3 :A s ia M ino r4 * ,P e r s ia/Baby lon ia 1 * ,B ac t r ia 1 :P e r s ia /Baby lon ia 3 ,B ac t r ia 1

I nt he e i gh th oa rd sm a rked w i th a na s te r i sk t h ec roe se id s /s ig lo ic on s t i tu ted ama jo r e l emen t . T he 1 4u nm ixed h oa rd so r ig ina ted a sf o l low s : C roe se id s ,s i g l .I ,I ,I I S i g l . I I S i g l . I I ,I V S i g l . I V

:A s ia :A s ia :A s ia :A s ia

M ino r1 M ino r3 M ino r7 ,S y r ia 1 ,P e r s ia/Baby lon ia 1 M ino r1

I fw e a dd t oge the r t h e 1 4 u n -m ixed h oa rd s a nd t h e e i gh t m ixed h oa rd s i n wh ich c r oe se id s / s ig lo i made u p am a jo r e l emen t w e a r r ive a t t h e f o l low ing r eg iona l d i s t r ibu t ion : A s ia M ino r 1 9 ; S yr ia 1( L ebanon ? ) ;P e r s ia /Baby lon ia 2 .T h i s p a t te rn m ay b ed i s to r ted s l igh t ly b y t h ef a c tt h a tA s ia M ino ri st h ee xpec ted a r ea o fo r ig in , s o a ny c omp le te ly u np rovenanced f i nd s o f s i g lo i a r e l i ab le t o b e l a be l led ' A s ia M ino r ' . On t h e o the r h and , A s i a M ino r wou ld s t i l l b e t h e d om inan t s ou rce o f s i g lo sh oa rd se ven i fa lt h ei mp rec i se ly l o ca ted h oa rd sw e re e xc luded . F or t h e2 1 h oa rd s f r om T ab le A a nd B wh ich i n c luded g o ld c roe se id s o rd a r ic s , t h ef o l low ing f i nd a rea sh ave b een r e co rded : C roe se id s D ar ic sI Ib

:A s ia M ino r1 ,E gyp t1 ,P e r s ia 1 : A s i aM ino r3 ,C yp ru s2 ,E gyp t2 ,P e r s ia 1 ,B ac t r ia 1 ,G reece / Macedon ia 6 ,I t a ly 2 , Unce r t a in 1 .

The se r e su l t s c onf i rm t h e o b se rva t ion s m ade b y S ch lumbe rge r ,5 2 w hen h e i nve s t iga ted t h e c i rcu la t ion p a t te rn o f P e r s ian c o inage a s r evea led b y a much s ma l ler n umbe r o fh oa rd s i n1 953 . H e c onc luded t h a t , whe rea s t h e g o ld d a r ic w a s a n ' Impe r ia l ' c o in c u r r en t t h roughou t , a nd i ndeed i nu s e f a r b eyond , t h e P e r s ian Emp ire , t h es i g lo sw a s al o ca lc o in o fA s ia M ino r ,t h a tt r ave l led t oo the rp a r t so ft h e P e r s ian Emp i re , s u ch a s E gyp t o r S y r ia , o n ly i n t h e s ame w ay a s o the r s i lve r c o inage s , s u ch a st h e G reek i sue s o ft h e A egean a r ea . I ti sp e rhap s wo r th n o t ing t h a t l a te r s i g lo s t ype s a ppea r mo re f r equen t ly i n P e r s ia /Baby lon ia t h an e a r l ie r 5 2 D . S ch lumbe rge r , Va rgen tg rec d an s L 'Emp i re A che men ide ' , i n R . Cu r ie l a nd D . S ch lumbe rge r ,

T r e s o r sm on i t a i r e sd 'Af ghan i s tan , 1 953 ,3-62 .

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t ype s . Ib e l ieve t h a t a l though t h e v a s t ma jo r i ty o f f i f th cen tu ry s i g lo i w e r e p roduced i n , a nd p robab ly r ema ined i n , w e s t e rn A s ia M inor , i ti sn eve r the le s s p o s s ib le t h a t c e r ta in l a te r g roup s w e re p roduced i ne a s te rn A s ia Mino r , o r i ndeed f u r the r E a s t . When A lexande r i n augu ra ted t h e d oub le -da r ic c o inage t os e rve a sa l o ca lc u r rency i nB aby lon ia h ep re sumab ly f e l tt h a tt h ee a r l ie rr oya l -a r ch e rc o inage o n wh ich i tw a sb a sed h ad al o ca lr e levance . CONCLUS IONS

T he f o l low ing c a ta logue s e t s o u t t h e s e quence o fi sue s o fc roe se id s , d a r ic s , a nd s i g lo i a sr evea led b y t h e s t udy o ft h e h oa rd s . I ti si n tended t o b e o n ly a n o u t l ine c a ta logue , i lu s t ra t ing m a jo r s t y l i s t ic d eve lopmen t s a nd d i e s wh ich t yp if y t h e v a r iou s g roup s i n to wh ich t h e c o inage s c an b e d iv ided . T he d a te s a r e o n ly a pp rox ima te , a nd a r e r e l ian t o n t h e d a t ing o fc on tempo ra ry G reek i sue s . T he f i ne d e ta i l so ft h e c o inage i sue s w i th in t h i sb a s ic f r amewo rk w i l l o n ly b e r eve a led b y a d i e s t udy o fa l t h e i sue s . T he re i s ap r e s s ing n eed f o r ad i e s tudy o ft h e c r oe se id s , a nd as im i la rs t udy o ft h ee a r ly d a r ic /s ig lo io ft ype sI — I I I awou ld b eb o th w e lcome a nd r e la t ive ly s t ra igh tf o rwa rd . Ad i es t udy o ft h es i g lo io ft ype sI I ba nd I V wou ld b e ad aun t ing t a sk b ecau se o ft h e m a s s ive a moun t o fa va i lab le ma te r i a l a nd t h e a wf u l c ond i t ion o fs om any o ft h ec o in s . Howeve r , i ti sn o td if i cu l t t of i nd r eve r se d i e l ink s w i th in t h e se t ype s , s ot h a t p ro jec t i sb y n o m ean sb eyond p o s s ib i l i ty . I ti s wo r th n o t ing t h a t r eve r se d i e s f o r d a r ic s /s ig lo i o f t en s e em t oh ave b een u s ed f o r a c on s ide rab le t ime , s o t h a t f e a tu re s c hange u n t i l t h ey o f ten b ecome a lmo s t u n recogn izab le ,5 3 b u t a s l ong a s t h e d i e c an s t i l l b e i d en t if ied t h i s a s pec t o f p roduc t ion c an b e u s ed t o o u r a dvan tage . A wo rn s i g lo s d i e c an p rov ide a n i mpo r tan t c h rono log ica l l i nk b e twe en d if e ren t o bve r se s a nd b e tween s e pa ra te h oa rd s . Ano the r t e chn ica l p o in t wo r th n o t ing i st h a t t h e d i e -ax i s o f d a r ic s a nd s i g lo i s e em s a lway s t o b e r egu la r ,5 4 w h ich g rea t ly f a c i l i ta te s t h e r e cogn i t ion o f r eve r se d i e s . Rega rd ing t h e h oa rd s t udy i t i s c l ea r t h a t s u ch a s t udy c an o n ly y i e ld wo r thwh i le r e su l t si fp l en ty o fw e l l reco rded h oa rd sa r ea va i lab le . I nt he c a s eo ft h e s i g lo i t h e re i sn o s ho r tage o fh oa rd s a s awho le b u t f o r c e r t a in p e r iod s t h e re i sa s ho r tage o fd a tab le h oa rd sm ix ing P e r s ian a nd n on -Pe r s ian m a te r ia l . F o rd a r ic s t h e s i tua t ion i s much wo r se . T he t o ta l n umbe r o f h oa rd s i su n impre s s ive ; mo re s i gn if i can t ly , f ew h oa rd s c an b e d a ted , a nd n one a ta l c an b e d a ted t o t h e f i f th c en tu ry . T he re a l so s e em s t ob e ac on t r ad ic t ion b e tween t h e e v idence o ft h e d a r ic a nd s i g lo s h oa rd s . Ib d a r ic t ype s wh ich c an b e l i nked s t y l i s t ica l ly w i th f i f th -cen tu ry s i g lo i d o n o t a ppea r i n a ny d a tab le h oa rd s b ef o re a bou t 3 80 . I fw e u s ed t h e s ame b road p r inc ip le s o fd a t ing f o r t h e g o ld a st h e s i lve r c o in s w e wou ld h ave a ppa ren t ly p a ra l le l i sue s o fd a r i c s a nd s i g lo i b e ing p roduced 5 0 t o 7 5 y ea r s a pa r t . C an e i the r t h e s i lve rh oa rd s o r t h e g o ld h oa rd s b er e l ied u pon ? Ib e l i eve t h a t t h e e v idence o ft h e s i lve r h oa rd s i sr e l i ab le , o r a tl e a s t i s mo re r e l iab le t h an t h a t o f t h e g o ld c o in s i nh oa rd s . I nt h e f i f th c en tu ry g o ld c o in s w e re ag rea t r a r i ty . T hey w e re n o t a s ar u le p roduced b y a ny G r eek c i t ie s , a nd t h ey s hou ld t he ref o r en o t b e e xpec ted t ob ehave l i ke ' n o rma l ' c o in si nc i rcu la t ion .E ven i nt h eH e l len i s t i cp e r iod 33

E .S .G . Rob in son , NC 1 958 ,19 1-2 ( s ee n .2 3 ) .

34

9 0

N o e1 5 .

CO I NAGE OF THE P E RS IA N EMP I RE

when g o ld c o inage w a s much mo re f am i l ia r o ne c an f i nd r e la t ive ly u nwo rn g o ld c o in s i nh oa rd s who se b u r ia l d a te mu s t b e a tl e a s t 1 00 y ea r s l a te r t h an t h e d a te o f i sue o ft h e c o in s . 5 It h e ref o re b e l ieve t h a t d a r ic s c an b e d a ted mo re a c cu ra te ly b y c o mpa r i son w i th r e l a ted s i g lo s i sue s t h an b y t h e e v idence o ft h e i r a ppea rance i n h oard s . T he worn c ond i t ion o fm any s i g lo i h a s f r equen t ly b een men t ioned . I ti s , o f c ou r se , e s sen t ia l t o t a ke t h i s i n to c on s ide ra t ion when a t temp t ing t o a t tach d a te s t og roup s o fs i g lo i a ppea r ing i nh oa rd s . T he r oya l a r che r c o in s w e r e u n l ike mo s t c on tempo ra ry s e r ie s o fc o inage i n t h a t t h ey w e re i sued u nde r t h e a u tho r i ty o f a n Emp i re , a nd e a ch s u cce s s ive i sue w a s s t ruck w i th v i r tua l ly t h e s ame d e s ign s a nd t o t h e s ame w e igh t s t anda rd . I n s u ch ac o inage s y s tem i sue s d o n o t b e come o b so le te w i th a ge a s wou ld , f o r i n s tance , t h e i sue s p roduced b y G reek c i t ie s w i th f r equen t ly c hang ing p o l i t ica l o r e conom ic c i rcum s tance s . T he s i lve r c o in a ge o f A then s , w i th i t s u nchang ing A thena h ead /ow l d e s ign s , a nd t h e v e ry c o m mon a r cha ic c o in age o f A eg ina b o th c i rcu la ted l ong e nough t o b ecome a s wo rn a ss i g lo i , b u t i ti sg ene ra l ly t r ue t h a t s u rv iv ing e xamp le s o fa nc ien t G reek c o inage s a r e o f ten r e l a t ive ly u nwo rn c o mpa red w i th m any o ft h e s i g lo i t h a t a r e f ound t oday . T h i s mu s t b e b ecau se t h e G r eek i sue s w e re much mo re f r equen t ly d e -mone t ized , m e l ted d own , a nd r e s t ruck , whe rea s s i g lo i c a r r ied o n c i rcu la t ing y e a r a f te r y ea r , g e t t ing s t ead i ly mo re wo rn . T he r e a r e c e r ta in s im i la r i t ie s b e tween t h e c u r rency s y s tem s a nd p o l i t ica l c i rcum s tance s o ft h e P e r s ian Emp i re o f t h e f i f th a nd f ou r th c en tu r ie s B C a nd t h e Roman Emp i re o f t h e f i r s t a nd s e cond c en tu r ie s AD, a nd i ti s wo r th n o t ing t h a t i n s i lve r d ena r iu s h oa rd s f i rm ly d a ted t o a bou t AD 2 00 t h e r e i sn o s ho r tage o f wo rn c o in s mo re t h an 1 00 y e a r s o l d . T he n ume rou s c oun te rma rk s wh ich a r e e ncoun te red s o f r equen t ly o n s i g lo i , e s pec ia l ly o nt ype s I ba nd I V , a l so p rov ide e v idence o fc i rcu la t ion a nd n o tj u s to f t h ep e r iod ,b u ta l so t h ea r ea o fc i r cu la t ion .5 6 I ti sr e a sonab le t oe xpec tt h a t ad e ta i led s t udy o f t h e c oun te rma rk s o n s i g lo i a nd o the r c on tempo ra ry c o inage s wou ld p roduce e v idence f o r r ef in ing t h e c h rono logy a nd c i rcu la t ion p a t te rn o f m any i sue s . R ega rd ing t h ec h rono logy o ft h ec roe se id s , d a r ic sa nd s i g lo i , a sr evea led b yt h i s s t udy ,t he f o l low ing m a in p o in t sc an b es i ng led o u t : 1T he ' e a r ly ' c roe se id s i n c lude i sue s t h a tw e r e p robab ly c on tempo r a ry w i th e a r ly G r eek c o in age s s u ch a sA then ian 'Wappenmünzen ' a nd t h e f i r s t A eg ine tan i sue s a nd a l so t h e e a r l ie s t c o inage o f C a r ia . T he h oa rd s t udy p rov ide s n o c onc lu s ive e v idence f o r d a t ing t h e i n t roduc t ion o ft h e se c r oe se id s , t hough n one o ft h e f i nd s c on s ide red h e re p o in t st o ad a te a se a r ly a st h er e ign o fC roe su s . I ft h el i on a nd b u l l c o in s r e a l ly a r e wha t f i f th c en tu ry G reek s k new a s` c roe se id s ' t h en t h e u s e o ft h e t e rm i st he b e s t ,i fn o tt h eo n ly , e v idence s uppo r t ing t h ee a r ly d a te . I ti st ob eh oped t h a t ac o mp le te d i e s tudy o ft h e c roe se id s wou ld h e lp , i n t h a t i tm igh t p rov ide e . g . I GC H 8 66 ( Anado l , Uk ra ine ) , g o ld c o in s o fP h i l ip I i nh oa rd o fc .2 20 ; I GCH 9 58 ( Ma ra se s t i , Roman ia ) P h i l ip I a nd A lexande r g o ld c o in s i n h oa rd o f e a r ly f i r s t c en tu ry BC ; I GCH 1 404

( Go rd ium ) ,P h i l ip I g o ld i nh oa rd o fc .2 23 . On c oun te rma rk so ns i g lo is e e ,e . g . ,J .G . Mi lne , ' A h oa rd o fP e r s ian s i g lo i ' , NC 1 9 16 , 1 12 , H i l l p . c xxxv iI f ,K raay , ACGC 2 86 .

55

5 6

9 1

I A N CAR . RAD ICE

i n f o rma t ion f o ra ne s t ima te o ft h et ime s p an f o rt h i ss e r ie s . 2T he ' l a te r ' c r oe se id s a r e c l o se i nd a te t o t h e e a r l ie s t s i g lo i ( t ype s I ,I ,a nd I Ia ) . T oge the r t h e se c o inage s , wh ich w e re p robab ly a l i n t roduced u nde r D a r iu s I , b e long t ot h ep e r iod o ft h ea r cha ic A then ian ' ow l s ' . 3S i g lo io ft ype I bb egan t oa ppea ri na bou tt h e4 80 s . 4S i g lo st ype I Vw a si n t roduced b ya bou t4 50 . 5T he v a s t ma jo r i ty o fs u rv iv ing s i g lo i s e em t od a t e f r om t h e f i f th c en tu ry , e ven t hough many o f t h e e xamp le s n ow f ound i n h oa rd s m ay h ave s t i l l b een i n c i rcu la t ion i nt h ef ou r th c en tu ry . 6T he re a r e n o h oa rd s o f g o ld d a r ic s wh ich c an b e d a ted t o t h e f i f th c en tu ry . D a r ic s o ft ype s I , Ia ,a nd f i f th cen tu ry i sue s o f I bd o e x i s t , b u t n o t i n l a rge n umbe r s . D ie s t ud ie s wou ld p robab ly r evea lt h a td a r ic i sue se a r l ie rt h an t h ee nd o f t h ef i f th c en tu ry w e re p robab ly v e ry l im i ted . 7I nc on t r a s t , t h e re a r e f ew i sue so fs i g lo it h a tc an b e g iven af ou r th cen tu ry d a t e , a nd t ho se t h a t c an a r e s t y l i s t ica l ly q u i te s e pa ra t e f r om t h e t yp ica l f i f th-cen tu ry i sue s . 8I ti sl i ke ly t h a t s i g lo s t ype s I ba nd I V w e re p roduced b y d if e ren t m in t s i nt h e f i f th c en tu ry , a nd s t i l l mo r e m in t s m ay h ave b een p roduc ing t he f ou r th -cen tu ry i sue s . I ti sl e f t o n ly t oc on s ide r whe the r t h i s o u t l ine o ft h e A chaemen id c o inage c an b e r e la t ed t o wha tw ek now o ft h eh i s to ry o ft h ep e r iod . Ou rP e r s ian h i s to ry i sl a rge ly d ependan t o n G reek s ou rce s a nd i st h e ref o r e G r eek -o r ien ta ted , b u t t h i s b i a s i sn o t s o much o f ap rob lem b ec au se t h e A chaemen id c o inage w a s i na ny c a se c onf ined mo s t ly t o t h e w e s te rnmo s t , G reek inf luenced a r ea s o f t h e Emp i r e . I tc ou ld b e a rgued t h a t t h e P e r s ian s n eeded c o inage , a so ppo sed t o b u l l ion s i lve r , o n ly when t h ey w e re i n c on tac t w i th c o in -u s ing p eop le s ( mo s t ly G reek s ) . T he E u rope an c ampa ign s o fD a r iu s a nd X e rxe s a r e o bv iou s o cca s ion s t ol ook f o r l a rge i sue s o f P e r s ian c o inage , n o t f o r t h e p aymen t o f P e r s ian t r oop s , b u t f o r l o g i s t ica l a nd d i p loma t ic e xpen se sa nd t h eh i re o fm e rcena r ie s .T hu st h ee a r l ie s ts i g lo s/ d a r ic t ype s I — I I I am ay h ave c o inc ided w i th t h e s upp re s s ion o ft h e I on i an Revo l t a nd D a r iu s ' i nva s ion o fG reece . I ft ype I bw a si n t roduced i nt h e4 80 s t h en m any o ft he i sue s o ft h i sl a rge c o inage m igh th ave b een s t ruck i np repa ra t ion f o rX e rxe s ' i nva s ion o f G reece a nd i n t h e p e r iod wh i le h o s t i l i t ie s c on t inued i n t h e 4 70 s , 4 60 s , a nd 4 50 s . P e r s ian i n te rven t ion i nt h el a te rs t age so ft h eP e loponne s ian Wa r , t h ee xped i t ion o f C y ru s , a nd v a r iou s c ampa ign s i n t h e e a r ly f ou r th c en tu ry , when m any G r eek m e rcena ry a rm ie s f ough t i nt h e p ay o fP e r s i an g ene ra l s , p rov ide f u r the r o bv iou s o cca s ion s f o r c o inage p roduc t ion . I ts e em s c e r ta in t h a t m any o f t h e g o ld d a r ic s mu s t h ave b een i sued w i th in t h i s p e r iod ,5 7 a nd a l so t h e ' l a te r ' t ype I I bs i g lo i . T he re w e re a l so n ume rou s o cca s ion s i n t h e m id -f ou r th c en tu ry when c o in age No te t h ec ommen to fAge s i lau s men t ioned e a r l ie r ( p .7 6a nd n .1 8 ) . 5 7

9 2

CO I N AGE OF THE P E RS IA N EMP I RE

m igh th ave b een r e qu i red b yt h ek ing so rs a t rap s ( now mo s t ly f i gh t ing e a ch o the r r a the rt h an t h eG r e ek s ) ,b u ta l though t h e re i sn os ho r tage o fd a r ic i sue st h a tc ou ld b ed a ted t ot h i sp e r iod t h e r ea r en o ts om any s i g lo it h a tc an c o mf o r t ab ly b ep l aced h e re . Why i st h i s ? T he o bv iou s a n swe r i st h a t p aymen t s c ou ld b e m ade i no the r s i lve r c o inage s , a nd i ti sc e r ta in ly n o t iceab le t h a t i n c rea sed p roduc t ion o f' l oca l ' s i lve r c o inage w i th in t h e P e r s ian Emp i re a f te r a bou t 4 00 ( e .g . s a t rapa l i sue s f r om C i l ic ia a nd c o inage si nP hoen ic ia )c o inc ide sw i th t h ea ppa ren tf a l li nt h ep roduc t ion o fs i g lo i .T h i sr a the rs weep ing o b se rva t ion a nd t h es ugge s ted r e la t ion sh ip sb e tween c o inage i sue s a nd h i s to r ica l e ven t s i sn o mo re t h an s p ecu la t ion . I tm ay b e a r gued t h a t t h e s e a rch f o r l i nk s b e tween A chaemen id c o inage o u tpu t a nd G reek w a r s i s b o th f u t i le a nd m i sgu ided . One m igh t a t temp t ac o mmen ta ry b a sed mo re o n a dm in i s t ra t ive /econom ic c on s ide ra t ion s , o r i tm igh t b e w i se r f o r t h e p re sen t t o r e s i s t e n t i r e ly t h e t emp t a t ion t os p ecu la te o n o cca s ion s o fi sue . C e r t a in ly t h e re i s s t i l l much mo re w o rk t ob ed one o nA chaemen id ' r ega l ' ( c roe se id ,d a r i ca nd s i g lo s ) c o inage s a nd o n t h e m any ' l oca l ' ( s a t r apa l a nd c i ty ) i sue s p roduced w i th in t h e Emp i re .

9 3

I AN CA RRAD ICE

CATALOGUE : I LLUSTRAT IONS , P L . X-XV A l lt h ec o in sa r es hown e n la rged t ot w ice t h e i rn a tu ra ls i ze .

1 4 : ( =o

p l . X , A p l . X , B

N = •

C a r ia 0 s t a te r 1 0 .83g ( hoa rd 1 ) C a r ia 0 s i x th 1 . 79g ( hoa rd 1 )

E a r ly c r oe s e id s( hoa rd s 1 -4 ;c . 550 ( ? )-520 ) P l . X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

• 0 . 0 0 . 0 . • •

s t a te r 1 0 .7 1g A r sC la s s ica s a le 1 7 , G eneva 1 934 , 5 8 1 s t a te r 1 0 .69g ( hoa rd 1 ) h a lf 5 . 30g ( hoa rd 1 ) t h i rd 3 . 54g ( hoa rd 1 ) t wen ty -f ou r th 0 .44g ( hoa rd 1 ) s t a te r8 . 03g BMC 3 3 t h i rd 2 . 70g BMC 3 6

L a t ec r o e s e id s( hoa rd s6 -9 ) ; c . 505-500 P l . X I 8 9

• s t a te r8 . 06g BMC 3 4 0 h a lf 5 . 38g BM 1 904 -8-3 -23

D a r i c sI s i g l o it y p e sI -l i la ( hoa rd s6 ,8 11 ; c . 500-485 ) P l . X I 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5

0 . S ig lo sI ,5 . 36g • D a r ic I ,8 . 30g 0 S ig lo sI ,5 . 32g " " I ,5 . 37g " Ia ,5 . 36g " " I la , 5 . 38g

BM 1 948 -7 12 15 ( hoa rd 9 ) BM 1 976 11-2 1 BMC 1 90 BM 1 948 -712 18 ( hoa rd 9 ) BMC 6 9 BMC 6 7

S i g lo iI l Ib g r oup A ( d ie so rs t y le si nh oa rd s8 12 ;c .4 85-470 ) P l . X I I 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9

0 S ig lo s , „ " H "

5 . 23g ( ?l ow w e igh t , r ev , d i ei nA syu t ) BMC 5 6 5 . 43g BM 1 929 10 13 -536 5 . 58g BMC 2 3b i s 5 . 49g BMC 4 4

S i g l o iI Ib g r oup B ( hoard s 1 519 ) ;c . 475-420 ) P l . X I I 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6

0 . S ig lo s5 . 52g " 5 . 47g 5 . 55g 5 . 70g N H 5 . 44g I « 5 . 49g « 5 . 5 1g N

N

BMC 4 6t e r BMC 3 6b i s BMC 2 4 BM 1 976 -2 11 ( hoa rd 1 6 ) BMC 1 BM 1 920 -9 -7 -63 BMC 3 1

D a r i c sI Ib ,g r oup s A-B ( f if th c en tu ry ) P l . X I I I 2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1

• D a r ic 8 . 28g H 8 . 30g H H H U H

8 . 33g 836g 8 . 36g

BMC 4 3 ( obv . s t y le , c f . 1 9 ,2 0a bove ) BMC 4 2 ( obv . s t y le , c f . 1 9 ,2 0a bove ) BM 1 927-4 -2 1 ( obv . s t y le ,c f . 2 1-26 a bove ) BMC 1( obv . s t y le , c f . 2 1-26 a bove ) BMC 2 0

D a r i c sI s i g l o it y p eI Vg r oup A ( hoa rd 1 9 ;C .4 55-420 ) P l . X I I I 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5

• D a r ic 8 . 28g 0 . S ig lo s5 . 4 1g " " 5 . 48g 5 .55g

BMC 1 09 BM 1 9311241 BMC 1 24 BMC 11

9 4

CO INAGE OF THE P ERS IAN EMP IRE

D a r i c sI s i g l o il lb g r oup C ( hoa rd s2 4-36 ;c . 420-375 ) P l . X IV 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1 4 2

0 S i g lo s5 . 52g " " 5 . 54g « " 4 . 78g , " 5 . 59g « " 5 . 58g , " 5 . 48g • D a r ic 8 . 32g

BMC 6 2 BMC 8 8 BMC 9 0 ( hoa rd 2 4 ) ( hoa rd 2 4 ) ( hoa rd 2 4 ) BMC 5 8

S i g l o iI Vg r oup B ( hoa rd s2 4-36 ;c . 420-375 ) P l . X IV 4 3 4 4 4 5

0S i g lo s5 . 53g 5 . 49g " " 5 . 53g N

S

BMC 1 46 BMC 1 59 BMC 1 58

S i g lo iI Vg r oup C ( ?l a te ,c . 375-340 ) P l . XV 4 6 4 7 4 8 4 9

0 S i g lo s " " N , I I S e

5 . 36g 5 . 39g 5 . 39g 5 . 34g

BMC 1 76 ( hoa rd 3 9 ) BMC 1 75 BMC 1 77

L a t eD a r i c s' l ib a nd I V( ?m id -f ou r th c en tu ry ) P l . XV 5 0 5 1 5 2

• D a r ic I b8 . 37 g " " l Ib 8 . 33g " " I V 8 . 3 1

BMC 7 8 BMC 8 4 BMC 1 7 1

D oub l eD a r i c s( p er iod o fA l exande ra nd l a te r ) P l . XV 5 3 5 4

• 1 6 .68g • 1 6 .47g

BMC A lexand r ine Emp i re 4 BMC A lexand r ine Emp i re 1

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The Adm in i s t ra t ion o ft h eA chaemen id Emp i re

CH R IST OPHE R TUPL IN

I NT R OD UCT ION I M PER IAL a dm in i s t r a t ion c once rn sa bove a l t wo t h ing s : t h ee x t rac t ion o fp rof i tf o r t h e r u l ing p owe r a nd t h e m a in tenance o fc on t ro l ( a nd h ence o ft h e p o s s ib i l i ty o f e xp lo i ta t ion ) . T he f o rme r p re suppo se s s t ruc tu re s f o r c o l lec t ing t r ibu te o r e xp lo i t . i n gr e sou r ce s mo re d i r e c t ly ( e .g . b yr e a l loca t ion o f owne r sh ip ) ; t h el a t te ri sp a r t ly a m a t te r o fe r ad ica t ing o r( b e t te r ) m an ipu la t ing h igh s t a tu s l o ca l i n te r e s t g roup s a nd t a k ing a dvan tage o fl ow s t a tu s g roup s ' i nd if f e rence t o t h e i d en t i ty o ft h e r u l ing p owe r ( a dm in i s t ra t ive ly s p eak ing b o th f a vou rm ax imum u s eo fe x i s t ing s t ruc tu re s ) a nd p a r t ly am a t te r o ff o rce — the t h rea t o fl a rge s c a le r ep r i sa l f o r r evo l t a nd t h e p e rmanen t p re senc e o fg a r r i son s —of wh ich t h e s e cond a ta ny r a te i s as t anda rd a dm in i s t ra t ive f e a tu r e . T he p u rpo se o f t h e p re sen t p ape r i sn o t t o r eve a l a ny p a r t icu la r ly n ew i n te rp re ta t ion o fi t s s ub jec t b u t t o p rov ide a( d oub t le s s f a r f r om c o mp le te ) c on spec tu s o fr e levan t m a te r ia l , s ome o fi tn o t p e rhap s v e ry f am i l ia r t o G r eek h i s to r ian s a nd n um i sma t i s t s who h ave n o t m ade s p ec ia l s t udy o f t h e A chaemen id emp i r e . T o f i nd ac onven ien t a r rangemen t o ft h e m a te r ia l i sn o t e a sy a nd Ih ave c ho sen t o u s e t wo a pp roache s : d e l inea t ion o f s ome g eog raph i ca l ly d ef ined a dm in i s t ra t iv eu n i t so ft h e emp i re a nd d e sc r ip t ion o ft h et r ibu te s y s tem . Ib eg in w i th t h r e e p re l im ina ry p o in t s . B u reauc ra t ic t e ndenc ie s w e re h igh ly d eve loped i n t h e P e r s ian e mp i re . T h i s i sr ef l ec ted e ven i n l i t e ra ry s ou rce s . E z r a s p eak s o fa r ch ive s w he re r oya l e d ic t s m igh t b e c on su l ted . ' T he p a r t icu la r c a se i n q ue s t ion i ss omewha tc on t rove r s ia l ( Cy ru s 'd ec ree a bou tt h eJ e ru sa lem t emp le ) . No c opy c ou ld b e f ound a tB aby lon ( t he e xpec ted l o c a t ion ) b u t o ne d id t u rn u p a t E cba tana . ( The p o s s ib i l i ty o f aP e r sepo l i tan c opy i sn o t e ven c on s ide red ) . T ak ing • t h ing s a t f a ce v a lue t h i s s ugge s t s t h a t s t o rage w a s r a the r h aphaza rd a nd t h e b u reauc r acy f a r f r om p e rf ec t . A l te rna t ive ly o ne c ou ld wonde r whe the r t h e d ec ree ( o r a t l e a s t t h e c opy ) w a s n o t a f te r a l s pu r iou s . B u t e ven s o t h e i mpo s tu re p re suppo se s t h e e x i s t ence o f ad ocumen t -o r ien ted b u reauc r acy o fs ome s o r t . T he s ame p e rhap s g oe s f o r t h e b e l ief o f C te s i a s ( 6 88F 1 =D iod . 2 . 22 .5 , F 5 =D iod . 2 . 32 .4 ) a nd t h e a u tho r s o fE z r a a nd E s th e ri nv a r iou s P e r s ian ' h i s to r ica l ' c h ron ic le s ( t hough t h e s t a tu s a nd s ub jec t m a t te r o ft h e se i sd eba tab le ) .2 A nd t h e s t a temen t i n 1 E z r a 5 . 17 , 6 . 1-2 ( c f . IE sad r . 6 . 2 1 f . ,J o seph . A J 1 .94 , 9 8 ) . A cco rd ing t o E z r a 6 . 1 t h e B aby lon ian a r ch ive w a si n at r ea su ry . No te : f o r Abb rev ia t ion sa nd B ib l iog raphy s e ee nd o f a r t ic le . E z r a 4 . 15 , 1 9 ( IE sd r . 2 . 2 1 f . ,J o seph . A J 1 .24 f . )

r e f e r s t o t h e ' a nna l s o f y ou r ( i . e . A r taxe rxe s I ) p redece s so r s ' wh ich t e l l o f t h e h i s to ry o f J ew i sh r ebe l l iou sne s s : t h e se a r e c e r ta in ly mean t t o i n c lude n eo -Baby lon ian r e co rd s a nd t h a t may b e a l t h a t i s i nvo lved . C te s ia s c on su l ted b a s i l ika i d i ph th e ra i ' i n wh ich t h e P e r s ian s , i na c co rdance w i th al aw , h ad a

2

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CH R IST OPHE R TUPL IN

E s th e r ( 1 .22 , 3 . 12 , 8 . 9 ) t h a tr oya le d ic t sw e re s e n t' t oe a ch p rov ince i ni t s own s c r ip t a nd e a ch p eop le i ni t s own l a nguage ' , t hough d oub t l e s sh ype rbo l ic ( e spe c ia l ly s i nc e t h ea u tho r t a ke st h e re t ob e 1 27 p rov ince s ) , d oe sr e f l ec t amu l t i l ingua le mp i re w i th wh ich c en t ra l a u tho r i ty c ommun ica ted i nw r i t ing a nd n o t e xc lu s ive ly i nP e r s ian . H e l lan icu s ' o b se rva t ion ( 6 87A F 7 ) t h a t Queen A to s sa ' i nven ted ' t he t r an sm i s s ion o f r oya l d ec i s ion s t h rough e p i s t o l a i a nd b i b l o i b e long s i n t h e s ame c a t ego ry : p eop le k new t h a t t h e emp i re w a s al i t e r a te s y s tem , a nd G reek s l oved t o h ave ap rö to s h eu r e t i ' s . ( The c l ea re s t e xamp le o f ar oya l t e x t c o mmun ic a t ed t o a l p a r t s o f t h e emp i r e i nv a r iou s t ongue s i sD a r iu s ' B eh i s tun n a r ra t ive : h i s own s t a t emen t ' Th i s i n sc r ip t ion Is e n t o fe ve rywhe re a mong t h e l a nd s /peop le s ( d ahyäva ) ' ( DB 7 0 ) i s c onf i rmed b ya nA rama ic f r agmen tf r om E gyp t ( G re enf ie ld & P o r ten 1 982 ) a nd a n Akkad ian o ne f r om B aby lon ( Vo ig t lande r1 978 : 6 3 ) . ) B u t i ti st h e e v idence r evea led b y a r chaeo logy t h a t m ake s t he p o in t a bou t b u reauc r acy mo s te mpha t ica l ly : t h e c a che so fA cha emen id b u l l a e wh ich a r ea l t h a t r ema in o fs u ch a dm in i s t ra t ive c en t re s a sD a scy le ium ( Ba lkan 1 959 ) o r Memph i s ( P e t r ie 1 9 10 : x xxv , x xxv i , B re sc ian i 1 958 :182 )3 a nd t h e E l am i t e t ab le t s f r om t h e P e r sepo l i s a dm in i s t ra t ion , 4 wh ich r evea l , f o r e xamp le , t h e b u reauc ra t ic a s pec t o f t h e Roya l Road . 5 Wha t G reek s ou rce s h ave t os a y s hou ld a l ready h av e s ugge s ted t h a t ac on s ide rab le o rgan iza t ion w a s n eeded t ok e ep 11 s t a thmo i b e twe en S ard i s a nd S u sa i n c o mm i s s ion f o r r oya l d e spa tch r i de r s .6 B u t t h e i r t e ndency t o c oncen t ra te o n t h e l a t te r d i s t r ac ted a t ten t ion f r om t h e g ene r a l i ty o f t r ave l le r s ( e xcep t f o r af ew s t o r ie s s ugge s t ing t h a t s u ch p eop le c ou ld e xpe c t p o l ice s u rve i l lance ) . 7 We n ow s e et h a tt h e re w a s as y s tem o ft r ave la u tho r iza t ion sb yk ing , s a t rap , o r o the r h igh of i c ia l , wh ich e n t i t led t h e t r ave l le r t o d raw p rov i s ion s a t d a i ly s t opp ing p l ace s a nd w e c an u nde r s tand wha t l i e s b eh ind A lc ib iad e s ' n eed t o m a ic t e x t so np e r i shab le ma te r ia l ( Ha l lock 1 973 ) , a nd t h a t t h e t o t a l a b sence o f t a b le t s a f te r 4 58 i nd ica te s t h a t t h e a dm in i s t ra t ion w en t o ve r t o t a l ly t o s uch A rama ic r e co rd s . S tud ie s : H a l lock 1 960 , 1 977 , 1 985 ; H inz 1 97 1 ; K och 1 980 , 1 98 1 , 1 983 ; L ew i s 1 977 :4 f . , 1 984 :592 f . S ee e s pe c ia l ly H a l lock 1 985 , L ew i s 1 977 :4 1 . , 1 984 :596 1 H a l lock 1 978 :114 d i scern s o f f i c i a l s c onc e rned w i th m a in tenance a nd mea suremen to fr oad s i n t h e d a t t ima r a a nd ' s pea r -bea re r s ' f ound i n s o me t e x t s . T he b a s ic s ou rce i sHd t . 5 . 52 ; c f . a l so i d .3 . 126 .2 , 8 . 98 , X en . C y r . 8 . 6 .17 , E s th e r 3 . 13 f . , 8 . 9 ( a l l o n d e spa tch r i de r s ) . S ub s tan t ia l ' r oya l s t a thm o i ' a r e m en t ioned i n P lu t . A r tox . 2 5 ( Med ian iCadu s ian b ord e r ) , Hd t . 6 . 119 .2 ( C i s s ia ) ; a nd c f . A e l . VH 1 . 32 , NA 1 5 .26 . T h e Roya l Road ( S a rd i s -Su s a ) i sn o t t he o n ly ' r oya l r o ad ' : c f . P s . A r . O e c . 1 348a25 ( Lyc ia ) , B P 3 . 8 , 1 0 , 4 . 10 , 1 2 .19 ( E lephan t ine ) , P . L ouv re E . 2 430 ( Thebe s ) , V S 3 . 153 , 1 56 , 1 58 , 1 60 , 1 65 , 5 . 110 ( D i lba t ) , F P 1 8 , 3 0 , 4 4 , 6 3 , B a l l 1 892 :167 ( Baby lon ) , V S4 . 98 ( Bor s ippa ) , YOS 7 . 136 ( Uruk ) , TCL 1 3 .203 ( N ippu r ) , D a r . 1 40 . Hd t . 5 . 35 , 7 . 239 ( s ec re t m e s sage s ) , X en . A n . 1 . 9 .13 ( r oad s i nC y ru s ' p rov ince s ' k ep t s a f e ' ) , D iod . 1 .56 .6 , P lu t . T hem . 2 6 ( t rave l i n p urd ah t o a vo id s u rve i l lance ) .

c o mp i la t ion o f a nc ien t e ven t s ' ( F5 ) : t h e c l a im a ppea r s a t t h e s t a r t o f t h e Med ian h i s to ry , a nd t h e b a s i l ika i a nag r apha i o f F1c once rn Memnon ' s a c t ion s i n t he A s sy r ian p e r iod . B y c on t ra s t i n E s th e r 2 . 23 , 6 . 1 f .( c f .J o seph . A J 1 .208 ) ac on tempo ra ry e ven t i s r e co rded i n r oya l c h ron ic le s : c f . t he b enef ac to r s l i s t i nT huc . 1 . 129 , Hd t . 8 . 85 , Wi e sehöf e r1 980 : 1 0 . T he se c a se s a r e o n ly s p ec ia l b ecau se o f l a rge c oncen t ra t ion s a t o ne s i t e : A chaemen id s e a l s a r e f ound i n s ma l l n umbe r s a l o ve r t h e emp i re , a sa r e n on -Achaemen id s e a l s a nd s e a l s d i sp lay ing v a ry ing d eg ree s o f i nf luence f r om p u re A chaemen id s t y le . T he l a rge c a che s a r e g ene ra l ly a s soc ia ted w i th f i nd s i nt h e se l a t te r c a tego r ie s , s oa l s o r t s o fd e s ign m igh t e v iden t ly b e f ound i n a ny g iven a dm in i s t r a t ive c en t re a nd w e may e . g . l e g i t ima te ly r ega rd t h e p rovenance s o f t h e p y ram ida l s e a l s i n B oa rdman 1 970 a s r ef l ec t ing S a rd i s ' r o le a s a dm in i s t ra t ive c en t re . T ex t s : C ame ron 1 948 , 1 958 , 1 965 ; H a l lock 1 969 , 1 978 . Many E l am i te t e x t sr ema in u npub l i shed . The T rea su ry a r ch ive c on ta in s o ne Akkad ian t a b le t ( PT 8 5 ) . T he F o r t if i ca t ion a r ch ive c on ta in s 7 00 u npub l i shed A r ama ic t a b le t s , o ne Akkad ian t a b le t ( S to lpe r 1 984 ) , o ne G reek t e x t ( Ha l lock 1 969 : 2 )a nd o ne P h ryg ian t e x t . I ti sa s sumed t h a t wha ts u rv ive si s a n u nba lanced c ro s s sec t ion o ft h e a r ch ive s ' o r ig ina l c on ten t s b ecau se o ft h e t o ta l d i sappea rance o fA ra -

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AC HAE ME N ID AD M IN IST RAT ION

h ave P harnabazu s' a r range ' ap ro jec ted t r ip t ot h ek ing . 8 No rw a st h i st h eo n ly w ay t ot r ave l . T he E gyp t ian s a t rap A r same s i sued a n A rama ic p a s spor t t oh i s p e r sona l e s ta te- manage r a low ing h im t o g e t p rov i s ion s f r om c oun te rpa r t s i n B aby lon ia , A s syr ia , a nd S y r ia ( AD 6 ) . B u t A r same s ' e s ta te s d id n o t r un c on t inuou s ly f r om S u sa t o Memph i s , s o t h e manage r p re sumab ly c a r r ied o the r p rov i s ion a u thor iz a t ion sa sw e l 1 .9 S econd ly , t h e P e r s ian a pproach t o a dm in i s t ra t ion d id n o t i nvo lve a bo l i sh ing e x i s t ing s t ruc tu re s a nd r ep lac ing t h em w i th au n if i ed P e r s ian o ne . T he re c ou ld b e i n terf e rence , o fc ou r se : t h e b ow-f i ef s y s tem i nB aby lon ia ( b e low , p p . 1 53 f . )w a s a P e r s ian i nnova t ion a nd mu s th ave i nvo lved c on s ide rab le d i s loca t ion o ft h ep rev iou s s t a tu s q uo , a nd t h i s wou ld n o d oub t b e g ene ra l ly t r ue o fl a ndho ld ing t h roughou t t h e emp i re . S u rve i l lance o ft h e a ppo in tmen t o fl e son i s p r ie s t s i nE gyp t b e long s i n t h e s ame c a tegory , s i nce t h ey w e re t emp le p re s iden t s c once rned w i th f i nanc ia l a dm in i s t r a t ion ' °— though e ven i nn a t ive p rac t ice t h ey wou ld t h eore t ica l ly b e ( a nd p e rhap s w e re a c tua l ly ) r oya l a ppo in tee s ( L loyd 1 983 :303 ) . B u t e qua l ly t yp ica l i s t h e c on t inued f unc t ion ing o ft h eE lde r sa nd t h e ' p opu la r ' a s semb l ie so fB aby lon ian t emp le/c i ty c ommun i t ie s wh ich h ad j u r i sd ic t ion i n v a r iou s s o r t s o f p rope r ty d i spu te ( Dandamayev 1 976 :473 f . ,1 977 :590 f . ,1 982 :38 f . )o r t h eJ ew i sh c o mmuni t y a s semb ly a tE l ephan t ine ( AP 1 5 .22 , 2 6 , BP 2 . 7 , 7 . 2 : a l so aj ud ic ia l b ody ) o r s im i lar f o re ign c ommun i ty i n s t i tu t ion s i n B aby lon ia ( Eph 'a l 1 978 :76 , D andamayev 1 982 :4 1 , 1 984a :339 ) a nd maybe e ven P e r s i s ( S to lpe r 1 984 :309 ) o r ( o f c our se ) t h e P hoen ic ian o r Cyp r io t o r Ana to l ian G reek c i ty s ta te ." T he P e r s ian s m igh t i n te rf e re i n t h e p o l i t ica l ma t te r o f wh ich i nd iv idua l o r c l a s s c on t ro l led a p ar t icu la r c i tys ta te ; t h ey m igh t v i s i t e n s lavemen t , d epo r ta t ion , a nd d e s t ruc t ion u pon t h e p opu la t ion a nd b u i ld ing s o f ar ebe lp o l i s , b u t t h ey d id n o t e r ad ica te t h e i n s t i tu t ion ( e ven i nt h el a t te rc a se s ) » a nd d id n o tn ece s sa r i ly o b jec tt ot h eu n ion o f s evera l c i t ie s i nl e ague s o r t h e l i ke ." I ti sa l so t yp ica l t h a t A chaemen id r u le r s w e re e age rt oa dop tt h et i le sa nd s t a tu so fs ome o ft h e mona rch s whom t h ey d i sp laced" a nd t h a t v i ew ing p r e - a nd p o s t -Pe r s ian c onque s t n a t ive d ocumen ta ry e v idence P e r s ian p e r iod . " T he c on t inued e x i s tence o f c i ty s ta te s h a rd ly r equ i re s p roof ; t h e re a r e i n sc r ip t ion s r e co rd ing p ub l ic a c t s a nd c o inage t o s upp lemen t t h e l i t e ra ry e v idence . e . g . M i le tu s ( Hd t . 6 . 18 .1 , 2 0 .1 , 2 5 .2 ) , o the r I on ian r ebe l s ( i d . 6 . 9 .4 1 . ,3 2 ) , E re t r ia ( i d . 6 . 10 1 , 19 , S t rab . 7 47 ) , B a rca ( Hd t . 4 . 204 ) . F o r c on t inued e x i s t e nce o fI on ian c i t ie sa f te r4 94 c f . Hd t .6 . 42 ,4 3 .3 . P hoen ic ia : D iod . 1 6 .4 1 .1 ( T r ipo l i s , aP hoen ic ian s y nh ed r ion ) . I on ia : T od 13 ( S t rou tha s d e lega te s i n i t ia l a rb i t ra t ion o f b o rde r -d i spu te t o I on ian l e ague ) . B ryce 1 983 :33 , 3 5 , 4 1 s ugge s t s t h e P e r s ian s a c tua l ly p romo ted a L yc ian f e de ra t ion u nde r X ant hu s ,b u tt h i si sd ec ided ly s pecu la t ive . c f . C amby se s ( Po sene r 1 936 :no . I )a nd D a r iu s (W in lock 1 94 1 :7 ) i n E gyp t , a nd a l K ing s u p t o A r taxe rxe s Ii n B aby lon ia ( Came ron 1 94 1 : w i th a dd i t iona l , l a te r i n f o rma t ion i n Kuh r t & S he rw in Wh i te n .d . ) . A ck royd n .d . a rgue s t h a t A chaemen id k ing s a l so s aw t h em se lve s a sK ing s o fJ udah , s u cce s s o r st ot h eD av id ic l i ne .

D iod . 1 4 .11 .2 f . , P lu t . A l c . 3 7 ( Pha rnabazu s wou ld a u tho r ize s a f e p a s sage a nd p rov ide ah od eg o s ) — Naveh 1 975 s ugge s t s t h a t s ome A rad o s t raca r evea l t h e p l ace t o h ave b een a w ay s t a t ion . F o r A chaemen id r oad sa nd a s so c ia ted w ay s t a t ion si nt h e P e r sepo l i s/ P a sa rgadae r eg ion a nd o n t h e r oad t o S u sa c f . S t ronach 1 978 :166 1 . , K le i s s 1 98 1 , S umne r 1 984 : 1 7 . B r ian t 1 982a :3 11 , n .d . (a ) t h ink s t h e t e x t mo re s t r ic t ly c o mpa rab le t o P e r sepo l i s t r ave l d ocumen t s , i d en t if y ing t h e o ff i c ia l s a s' i n tendan t s q u i g e ren t l e s Maga s in s r oyaux ' , n o t p r iva te e s ta te -manage r s ; b u t t ha t A r same s s p eak s o f h i s b y t ' ( hou se ) n o t b g ( do ma in ) i so f l i t t le s i gn if icance ( t he t e rm s b e ing u sed i n te rchangeab ly o f p e r sona l e s ta te s ) a nd t h e u neven d i s t r ibu t ion o f t h e manage r s o ve r t h e a r ea t hrough wh ich t h e p a s spor t -ho lde r w a s t r ave l l ing f avour st h et r ad i t iona li n t e rp re t a t ion . 1° P . Ry l . 9 . 2 /8 , P . B e r l in 1 359-40 ( Sp iege lbe rg ( 1928 ) ) , 1 3572 , 2 3584 ( Zauz ich 1 978 ) . On l e son i s p r ie s t s c f . J e l inkovä -Reymond 1 955 :55 , L loyd 1 983 :306 . P . C a i ro 5 0060 ( J e l inkovä -Reymond 1 955 :33 f . ) e xemp l if i e s t h e i r f unc t ion s i n t h e e a r ly 8

1 2

9

1 3

1 4

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CH R IST OP HE R TUPL IN

f r om B aby lon ia o r E gyp t a s awho le o ne i sc on sc iou s o fc on s iderab l e c on t inu i ty , e s pec ia l ly i n t h e f a i r ly i mmed ia te v i c in i ty o ft h e P er s ian s ' a r r iva l . ( I n B aby lon ia more t h an ag ene ra t ion p a s se s b ef ore c hange s i n l e ga l p rac t ice a nd t e rm ino logy b eg in t o man if e s t t h em se lve s : Meu leau 1 969 :381 , D andamayev 1 984 :332 , Kuh r t n .d . ) . I ns ho r t ,i tw a st h eP e r s ian w ay t ou s ee x i s t ing i n s t i tu t ion sa nd s e ek t oh arne s s t h ee ne rg ie sa nd i n te re s t so fn a t ive d om inan tc l a s se st ot h e i r own e nd s .H ence j u s ta s A s ia t ic G reek c i t ie s a lway s c on ta ined t ho se who l ooked t o P er s ia ( a nd m igh t f l ee ' t o t h e Mede ' i ft h ing s w en t w rong ) , s o i n E gyp t w e e ncoun te r n o o n ly t h e n o tor iou s Ud jaho r re sne t ( Po sene r 1 936 :no . 1 ,L loyd 1 982 ) a nd S om tu tefnekhe t ( T re s son 1 931 ) b u t a l so Khnem ib re ( c h ief o f wo rk s a nd m i l i ta ry c ommander ) a nd Ahmo se ( a no the r m i l i ta ry c ommande r ) ( Po sene r 1 936 :no s . 6 -7 a nd 1-23 ) . The i r t i t le s may i nt h e l a s t a na ly s i s h ave b een emp ty ( Br ian t n .d . (b ) ) b u t t he i r s t a tu s w a s ma in ta ined a nd t h ey a r e t h e s o r t o fp eop le who m ake u p ' t he E gyp t ian s who d id n o tj o in t h e r ebe l l ion ' ( Thuc . 1 .1 04 ) i nc .4 60 ; a nd i nt h e r i gh t c on tex t s ( e .g . t h e p rov ince s o f B eyond t h e R ive r : b e low p . 1 22 ) n a t ive d ign i tar ie s n eed n o t h ave l a cked f o rs ome e n joymen to f ar e a ls e n se L ack o f i mpe r ia l u n if orm i ty c an p henomena wh ich a r e o cca s iona l ly a nd p re sence . E l sewhe re i n t h i s v o lume D r .

o fp owe r . b e h igh l igh ted b y c on s ide r ing s o me m i s lead ing ly a dduced t o d emon s t ra te i t s C a r rad ice d e sc r ibe s as t anda rd i zed r oya l

c o inage wh ich w a s n o t , h oweve r , t h e c o inage o ft h e emp i re . AB aby lon ian w e igh t s y s tem ( ' the s t one s o ft h eK ing ' ) w a si mpor ted i n to E gyp t ( a nd h a s b een p r e su med i nP a le s t ine ) , b u ti tw a so n ly B aby lon ian i nn ame ( t he s h eke lb e ing 8 . 76 gn o t8 . 4g ) , a nd i tc oex i s ted w i th as e pa ra te , n a t ive s t anda rd ( ' the s t one s o fP tah ' ) wh i ch i st he n o rma l p o in t o f r e f e rence i n d emo t ic t e x t s ." Mo reove r , c e r ta in f o rmu lae i n A rama ic t e x t si mp ly t h a t t h e B aby lon ian k ad ( t en 8 . 4 gs h eke l s ) wa s af am i l ia ru n i t i nt he s ame r eg ion .' A tl e a s tt h r e ew e igh ts t andard s , t h e ref o re : n ou n if o rm i ty h e re . I nB aby lon ia i t se lf t h ere i so cca s iona lr e f e rence t od i sbu r semen to fc o mmod i t ie sb y ' r oya l mea sure ' ( Da r . 1 58 , TCL 1 3 .128 , 1 59 , VS 3 . 131-2 , T uM 2 /3 1 37 ) b u tt emp le 6

mea su re s a r e a l so e ncoun te red , a nd t h e c o mmone s t mea su re i nd eb t-paymen t s i s t h a t o ft he c r ed i tor ( S an N ico lö/ Ungnad 1 935 :233 ) . T hen t h e re i st he q ue s t ion o f l aw . D a r iu s s p eak so ft h ep eop le so ft h e emp i re p un i sh t ho se who d i s rega rded t h e K ing ' s L aw d a t a i s men t ioned i n B aby lon ian d ocumen t s s l ave sa le s , t o l l s , a nd c a sh d epo s i t s ( Da r . 5 3 , VS

o bey ing h i s1 aw ; ' E zra w a st o ld t o ( Ez r a 7 . 25 , IE sd r . 8 . 23 ) ; a nd r oya l a f te r 5 19 B C i n c onnec t ion w i th 3 . 159 , UET 4 . 10 1 ; c f . a l so V S6 . 99 , 7

u s ing t h e Akkad ian word f o r ' l aw ' , a nd VS 6 . 128 m en t ion ing aman ' s e t o ve r t he d a ta ' ) . B u tt h el e ga lc od if i ca t ion o rde red i nE gyp tb yD a r iu sw a so fE gyp t i an l aw a s i ts t ood i n5 25 ( a nd t h e l aw o ft h e d emo t ic p apy r i i sl a rge ly u nchanged f r om S a i te t ime s ) ," E z ra w a s a l so t o ld t oe nf o rce t h e ' l aw o fy ou r God ' , a nd t he E lephan t ine J ew s h ad t he i r own l e ga l c ode ( w i th B aby lon ian a nd E gyp t ian e l emen t s ) ,1 9 a sd id B aby lon ian s a nd G reek s w i th in t h e i rc i t ie s . A l l D ar iu s ' b oa s tn eed mean i st h a t , i fa 1 8 S tone s o ft he K ing : AP 5 ,6 ,8 10 , 1 415 , 2 0 , 2 5 , 2 8 , 4 3 , 4 6 , BP 3 -5 , 5 ,7 10 , 1 2 . S tone s o fP tah : AP 1 , P .B er l in 3 078 , 3 110 , P .L oeb 4 4 ,4 5 ,4 8 ,4 9 , 6 8 , P . L ouvre E 9 292 , P . Tur in 2 28 . P a le s t ine : S t e rn 1 982 :2 15 f .( bu t t he re w i l l h ave b een l o ca l s t andard s t oo , i b id . ) . 1 6 P or ten 1 968 :305-7 ; a nd i b id . 6 2-72 o n t he

who le me tro log ica l t op ic . 1 7 DB8 , DNa 3 , DSe 4 , XPh 3 ( and c f . A e sch . P e r s . 5 94 f . ) . 1 8 D iod . 1 . 94 , P . B ib l . Na t . 2 15 v e r so c 6 16 ( Sp iege lbe rg 1 9 15 :30 ) , S e id l 1 956 :70 . 1 9 Y a ron 1 96 1 , P or ten 1 968 :19 1 , B re sc ian i 1 958 :159f . , 1 969 :344 .

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p l ace wa s w i th in t h e e mp i re , t h e r e wou ld b e s ome m a t te r s i n wh ich P e r s ian i mpo sed l e ga l r egu la t ion s m igh t a pp ly — and t h e k ing c ou ld i np r inc ip le mu l t ip ly t h e se e nd le s s ly i f h e w i shed ( wh ich h e o f ten d id n o t ) . A l te rna t ive ly ( o r a dd i t iona l ly ) w em ay a c c ep tt h ea rgumen to fF re i 1 984 , t h a t t h e re w a s ap rocedu re f o r r oya l a u tho r iza t ion o ft h e l aw s o fl o ca l c o mmun i t ie s . E i the r w ay i t wou ld b e m i s lead ing t os p eak o ft h e emp i r eb e ing b ound t oge the rb y au n if o rm l e ga lc ode . T h ird ly , ' i ti sn o to r iou s ly d if i cu l t t o s e pa ra te m i l i t a ry a nd c ou r t r ank s i n t h e A chaemen id e mp i re a nd m ay i ndeed b e ap o in t le s s e xe rc i se ' ( Sm i th & Kuh r t 1 982 :207 ) . T h i s i st r ue , a nd o ne p o s s ib le i mp l ica t ion i st h a t e ven p e r son s who a r e a t te s ted i n p u r e ly m i l i t a ry c apac i t ie s a nd w i thou t at i le o r o the r i nd ica t ion t o ' p lace ' t h em i n t h e s t ru c tu re o f p e rmanen t g a r r i son s o r c i v i l f unc t iona r ie s m ay n one the le s s d e se rve c on s ide ra t ion i n t h e p re sen t c on tex t . Ih ave n o t , h oweve r , s u ccu mbed t o t h i s l i ne o f t hough t a nd a t temp ted t o c a ta logue s u ch p e r son s e xhau s t ive ly i no rde rt og ue s sa tt h e i rp o s s ib le a dm in i s t ra t ive s i gn if i cance : t h e re a r e e nough u nce r ta in t ie s a si ti s . No r , i ndeed , s h a l l Is a y a s much a bou t t h e g a r r i son s t ruc tu re a st h ep re sen ts ub jec t wou ld p e rhap sw a r r an t : s ome a mend s may b em ade f o rt h i sb yt h ed i scu s s ion i nT up l in n .d . (b ) . IGEOGRAPH ICAL D IV IS IONS I S ATRAP IES AND THE P ERSEPOL IS D ISTR ICT

L e t u s t u rn n ow t ot h e c on s t i tuen t p a r t s o ft h e A chaemen id e mp i re . I ns e ek ing t o d e l inea te t h e se , w e d i spo se o f v a r iou s s o r t s o f s y s tema t ic d e sc r ip t ion o r ( mo re c r ude ly ) l i s t s . Many P e r s ian r oya l i n sc r ip t ion s p rov ide l i s t s o f t h e l a nd s /peop le s ( d ahyäva ) o f t h e e mp i re . T h i r ty -one d if e r en t p eop le s a ppea r a t o ne t ime o r a no the r ( c oun t ing v a r iou s t ype s o fI on ian a nd S cy th ian a so ne , t hough mo re t h an o ne c an a ppea ra to nce ) , t hough n ol i s th a s mo re t h an 2 6 . 2°A l though t h e se l i s t sa r e s ome t ime s a c compan i ed b y f o rmu lae s t re s s ing t h e K ing ' s p o s se s s ion o ft h e p eop le i nq ue s t ion , t h e i r f e a r o fa nd o bed ience t oh im a nd h i s l aw , a nd t h e i r p rov i s ion o f t r ibu te ( DB 8 , DPe 2 , DNa 3 , DSe 2 , DSv , XPh 3 ) , t h e re i sn o e xp l ic i t i nd ica t ion ( nor a ny r e a son t oi n f e r ) t h a tt h ey a r ea dm in i s t ra t ive u n i t s . T hey s imp ly e xp re s st h e emp i re ' se x ten t i nt e rm s o fe t hn ic g roup ing s ( Came ron 1 973 ) . S im i la r ly u nhe lpf u l a r e t he e t hn i7i nH e rodo tu s ' a nd o the r s ou rce s ' e x ten s ive l i s t ing s o ft h e c on s t i tuen t s o fr oya l a rm ie s .2 1 O f mo re u s e i sH e rodo tu s ' l i s t o f2 0 t r ibu te -pay ing n omo i = a r kha i =s a t rap ie s , mo s t ly c o mp r i s ing s e ve r a l e t hnJ ( 3 .89 f . ) . I t s s t a tu s a s ' d ocu men t ' i sd ec ided ly c on t rove r s ia l ( i t s g eog r aph ica l o rde r c e r ta in ly t e l l s a ga in s t a n i m med i a te P e r s ian of i c ia l o r ig in ) b u t i td oe s b ea r s ome r e la t ion t op a r t s o f at h i rd l i s t , t h e o ne wh ich w e c an c o mp i le f o r o u r se lve s f r om t h e who le r ange o fw r i t ten e v idence o ft h er e g ion s a nd p l ace sn amed i nt i le so fa t te s ted i mpe r ia l of i c ia l s . T h i s r oya l t omb s a nd a tv a r iou s p o in t s i n t h e P e r sepo l i s p a lace ( c f . Roaf 1 974 ) . 2 1 Hd t . 7 . 6 1-99 ( Xe rxe s ) ; A r r . A n . 3 . 8 .3f . , 1 .3 , Cu r t . 4 . 12 .6f . , D iod . 1 7 .59 ( Gaugame la ) ; Cu r t . 3 . 2 .1 f .( a rmy r ev iew p r io r t o I su s ) . T he o n ly o the r mode ra te ly e x ten s ive l i s t ing ( o f an on roya la rmy ) i s Nep . D a t . 8( a rmy o fA u toph rada te s ) .

2° DB6 , DPe 2 , DNa 3 , DN I —XXX , DSe 2 , DSm 2 , DSv , XPh 3 , A ?P , S uez c ana l s t e la i ( Po sene r 1 936 :no s . 8 10 ) , S u sa s t a tue b a se ( Roaf 1 974 ) . T he s ource s o f ma te r ia l s f o r t h e S u sa p a lace i n DSf a nd DSz amoun t t o al i s t o fp eop le s , a nd i n t h e s ho r te r DSaa t h ey a r e a c tua l ly p re sen ted i n t h a t f o rm ( c f . He r ren schm id t 1 983 ) . I n a dd i t ion t h e re a r e u n l a be l led r ep re sen ta t ive s o fi mpe r ia l p eop le s o n f our

13

CH R IST OPHE R TUPL IN

i smuch t h e mo s tv o lum inou se v idence ( t hough i ts uf e r sf r om v a r ia t ion so fd a te a nd i n con s i s tenc ie so ft e rm ino logy ) . Once i ti sc o mp i led w ec an ,a s af i r s ts t ep , a s semb le al i s t o fr e la t ive ly l a rge r eg ion s a t te s ted ( w i th , a dm i t ted ly , o cca s iona l c hange s o f b ounda ry a nd c o mb ina t ion ) a st h e r e spon s ib i l i ty o fo f ic ia l s whom G reek s ou rce s r egu la r ly c a l l s a t rap s ( at e rm a l so u s ed e . g . i n t h e OP t e x t o f DB ) . We c an f o r c onven ience c a l l t h e se r eg ion ss a t rap ie s ( t he t e rm i sa c tua l ly n o t s pec ia l ly c ommon i na nc ien ts ou rce s ) , a nd t h en r e cogn ize f u r the rs a t r ap si ni nd iv idua l sa s soc ia ted w i th t h e a pp rop r ia te a r ea s b u t g iven a l a rge v a r i e ty o f o the r t i le s o r p e r iph ra s t i c d e sc r ip t ion s .2 S a t rap s a r e n o t t h e h ighe s t l e ve l of i ce r s e ve r a t te s ted i np rov inc ia l c on tex t s . I n t h e e a r ly y ea r s o f P e r s ian r u l e B aby lon ia wa s g ove rned b y Nabuahhebu l l i tt h e! a k in m a t i ( gove rno ro ft h el a nd ) , a n of i ce a l ready e s t ab i shed i n p re -Achaemen id t ime s ( a nd i ndeed h e ld b y N abuahhebu l l i t h im se lf s i nce a tl e a s t 5 48 /7 ) wh ich w a sa bo l i shed i nf a vou ro fa nI r an i an s a t rap o fB aby lon i aa nd B eyond t h e R ive r a tt h e e nd o fC y ru s ' f ou r th y ea r ( S an N ico lö 1 94 1 :6 1 f . , Oppenhe im 1 985 :544 ) ; a nd t h e c i rcum s tance s o fw a r w i th G reek p owe r s o ve r p o s s e s s ion o f w e s te rn Ana to l ia l e d i n te rm i t ten t ly t o t h e c r e a t ion o fs upe r io r of i c ia l s o fv a r iou s s o r t s .2 3 N o rd ot h es a t rap ie se xhau s t ive ly f i l lt h ei mpe r ia la r ea : s ome l a rg i sh r eg ion s wh ich w e re u nde r s a t rap s i n t h e f ou r th c en tu ry w e re e a r l ie r r u led b y l o ca l d yna s t s —Ca r ia , L yc ia a nd C i l ic i aa r ec l ea ri n s tance s2 4 —a nd n oA chaem en id s a t rap i se ve rr e co rded f o re . g .C yp ru so r( f o ra lt h e i rr egu la ra ppea rance i nl i s t so fp eop le s ) S ogd iana ,t h eA rab s ,o rt h eS cy th ian s .2 5 Mo reove r ,t h e re w e re a lway ss ome p eop le s i n s ide t h e emp i r e who p a id s c a r ce ly a ny a t ten t ion a ta l t o t h e K ing ' s r u l e2 6 a nd

A n . 1 . 20 .2 1 , 2 . 1 .1 , D iod . 1 7 .23 .6 , 2 9 .1 ) , P ha r n abazu s( Cu r t .3 . 13 .14 ) .T he re a r e many u nce r ta in t ie s h e re , t o wh ich c an b e a dded i nd iv idua l s who a r e g ene ra l s o r ' r u le r s ' o r s a t rap s o f( c oa s ta l ) A s ia o r t he c oa s t : A r tabazu s ( e p i s t . T h em . 1 6 ) , O ron te s ( D iod . 1 5 .90 ) , H a rpagu s ( D iod . 9 . 35 .1 ) , O tane s ( Hd t . 5 . 25 ) , A r taphe rne s( i d .5 . 30 .5 ) , Hyda rne s( i d .7 . 135 .1 ) . C a r i a : Ho rnb lowe r 1 982 :1-34 . L yc i a : ' n eve r s ubdued b y P e r s ia ' ( I soc . 4 . 16 1 ) ; n o s a t r ap o fL yc ia a t te s ted u n t i l TL 4 4b 2 6 ( p rec i se i mpo r t o b scure ) o r t h e reaf te r u n t i l EX V I p p . 3 2f .= S EG 2 7 .942 ( a s a t rap o fC a r ia a nd L yc ia ) . C o inage e s tab l i she s t he e x i s tence o fm any d yna s t s . C i l ic ia : l o ca l r u le r c a l led S yenne s i s ( Hd t . 5 . 118 , 7 . 98 , X en . An . 1 . 2 . 12 f . , 4 .4 , D iod . 1 4 .20 .1 ) . Non sa t rapa la c co rd ing t oX en . Cy r . 7 . 4 .2 , 8 . 6 .7 , I r an ian s a t rap s a ppea r i n t h e l a s t g ene r a t ion o f t h e emp i re , w i th C i l ic ia s o me t ime s c omb ined w i th B eyond t h eR ive r . Cyp ru s : n on sa t rapa l i n Xen . C y r . 8 . 6 .7 . L i te ra ry/num i sma t ic e v idence r evea l s o n ly c i tyk ing s /d yna s t se t c . ( The c a se o fP hoen ic ia f o r mo s to f t h e i mpe r ia l p e r iod i sp e rhap s o n ly d if e ren t i nt ha t , n o tb e ing a ni s l and who l ly s e pa ra te f r om t h eL evan t , i ti s mo re e a s i ly a s sumed t o b e p ar t o fB eyond t he R ive r . ) . A s a t rap o f P aph lagon ia ( a nonymou s ) a ppea r s i n D iod . 1 4 .11 .3 , b u t t h e r e ma ind e r o ft he e v idence i sc on s i s ten t w i th X enophon ' s v i ew ( Cy r . 8 . 6 .7 )t h a ti tw a sn onsa t rapa l . e . g . moun ta inou s h in te r land o f My s i a ( Xen . H e l l . 3 . 1 .13 , A n . 3 . 2 .23 , Mem . 3 . 5 .26 , He l l . Oxy . 2 1 ; c on t ra s t Hd t . 3 . 90 .1 , 7 . 74 .1 1 , 9 . 32 .1 ) ; P i s id ia/ L yc aon ia ( a b s en t i n Hd t . 3 . 90 ; a nd c f . D iod . 1 .6 1 , E pho r . 7 0 F 9 1 .94 f . , X en . Mem . l o c . c i t . , H e l l . l o c .

An i n exhau s t ive l i s t o f e xamp le s /ref e rence s : h ypa rch ( Hd t . 3 . 70 , 1 26 , 6 . 33 , A r r . A n . 1 . 12 .8 , Rober t 1 975 ) , p ra ef e c tu s ( Nep . D a t . 2 . 5 , Cu r t . 4 . 6 .2 , P l in . N . H . 6 . 120 ) , p r a e e s s e ( Cu r t . 3 . 4 .3 , Nep . C on . 5 . 3 ) , p r a epon e r e ( J u s t . 1 . 6 .16 , 5 . 5 .1 ) , e pa rch ( J o seph . A J 1 .89 ) , C i px e cv ( Xen . A n . 3 . 15 .7 , T heop . 15 F 389 , Hd t . 3 . 120 .2 ) , h yo l jp , Evo s ( D iod . 1 7 .2 1 ) , hi l rponos /b roph r e tv ( Hd t . 1 . 153 , 7 . 7 ) , 4 i n . a r c iO t kö s ( I soc . 4 . 162 ) , c omb ina t ion s o fl i px e tvr ix E tv , v o i lös o r GN ( Thuc . 1 . 115 .4 , Hd t . 1 . 192 , 3 . 127 a nd —pace Cook 1 983 :178 -5 .102 ) ,p r ov in c iam h ab en s ( Nep . D a t . 1 . 1 ) , K pardo ( Po lyaen . 7 . 28 .2 ) , ' t o whom E gyp t i se n t ru s ted ' ( P . B e r l in 1 3539-40 ) , p h t , p i ha t o r LU. N A M ( Camb . 3 44 , Oe l sne r 1 976 :3 16 , BE 1 0 .10 1 , 18 ) , r l( Cooke 1 903 :149A6 ) . T he r e a sonab ly c l ea r s a t rap ie s a r e : L yd ia , H e l le s p on t ine P h ryg ia , G rea t P h ryg ia , C appadoc ia ( l a t t e r ly d iv ided i n t wo ) , C a r ia ( + L yc ia ) ( c f . n .2 4 ) , A rmen ia , C i l ic ia ( c f . n .2 4 ) , B eyond t h e R ive r ( ' Syr ia ' ) , E gyp t , B aby lon ia , Med ia , S u sa , ( ? )P e r s i s ( c f . p . 15 ) , Hy rcan ia /Pa r th ia , A racho s ia / D rang iana , A re ia , C a rman ia , B ac t r ia . B u t t h i s l i s t i s p robab ly i n comp le te ( i n p a r t icu la r t h e re i s t h e q ue s t ion o f ap o s s ib le I nd ian s a t rapy a ts ome d a te s ) . S ome a r e a l so s a t rap s , e . g . T i s saphe rne s ( Thuc . 8 . 5 .4 , D iod . 1 3 .36 .5 , X en . H e l l . 3 . 2 .13 , 4 . 1 .37 ; t h e i mpo r to fl b . 3 . 1 .3 , D iod . 1 4 .26 .4 i sa rguab le ) , C yru s ( Xen . H e l l . 1 . 4 .3 , A n . 1 . 1 .2 , 9 . 7 , ( ? )P lu t . A r t ox . 2 , D iod . 1 4 .12 .5 , 1 9 .2 ) , ( ? )T i r ibazu s ( Xen . H e l l . 4 . 8 .12 , D iod . 1 4 .85 .4 ) , ( ? )S t ru tha s ( Xen . H e l l . 4 . 8 .17 , D iod . 1 4 .99 ) . O the r s a r e n o t , e . g . T i th rau s te s ( D iod . 1 4 .80 .7 ) , ( ? )A r iaeu s a nd P a s iphe rne s ( He l l . Oxy . 1 9 .4 ) , Men tor ( D iod . 1 6 .50 .8 , 5 2 .2 ) , Memnon ( Ar r . 22

24

2 5

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26

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AC HAE ME N I D AD M I NIST RAT ION

o the r s ( no tab ly t h e ` a g ro -pa s to r a l i s t s ' o f t h e Z ag ro s ) who se r e la t ion w i th h im c on s i s ted r a the r i nr e ce iv ing r egu la r ' g if t s ' t h an i np ay ing t r ibu te , t hough t h ey d id f u rn i sh manpowe r f o r r oya l a rm ie s ( B r ian t 1 982b : 5 7112 ) . T he f o rme r w e re c e r ta in ly n o t e f ec t ive ly w i th in s a t rap ie s a nd t h e l a t te r p robab ly s c a rce ly mo r e s o , e x cep t i n sof a r a s t h ey m igh t b e c o mmanded b y t h e a pp rop r ia te s a t rap i n t h e c on tex t o fm i l i ta ry s e rv i ce . B u t , d e sp i te t h e se i mpor tan tq ua l if i ca t ion s , s a t rap ie sd o c on s t i tu te ab a s ic l a rge sca le a dm in i s t ra t ive f r amewo rk o ft h e emp i re ; a nd mo re d e ta i led d i scu s s ion o fA chaemen id a dm in i s t ra t ion i sg ene ra l ly c once rned w i th t h e s t ruc tu re sa nd p rocedu r e so ne m igh tf i nd w i th in as a t rapy . T here i s , h oweve r , o ne v o lum inou s ly i mpo r tan t e xcep t ion . T he P e r sepo l i s F o r t if i ca t ion t a b le t s , t hough emana t ing f r om a n i mpe r ia l c ap i ta l , d o n o t r e la te t o t h e who le e mp i re . B u t n e i the r d o t h ey r e la te t o t h e s a t rapy o fP e r s i s . T he re m ay i n deed h ave b een n o s u ch s a t rapy a tt h e t ime ( t he f i r s t a t te s ted s a t rap o fP e r s i s a ppea r si n3 3 1/ 0a nd e ven h ei so n ly s od e s igna ted b yo ne s ou rce ( A r r . A n . 3 . 18 .2 ) ) , b u t i n a ny c a se o ne o ft h e f ou r s ub reg ion s c ove red b y t h e a r ch ive i sb eyond t h e P e r s ian G a te s a nd a r guab ly n o t i nP e r s i s ( Ha l lock 1 977 ) a nd s ome o ft h e t a b le t s r e la te t oo pe r a t ion s a tS u sa ( PF 8 8-92 , 1 36 , 3 18 , 3 37 , 1 752-3 ) . We c an s e e v a r iou s a dm in i s t ra t ive e l emen t si nt h i se xcep t iona lr eg ion ( c f . s t ud ie sc i ted i nn .4 ) . T he re i s ac h ief a dm in i s t ra to r , n o tab ly P ha rnace s , t h e K ing ' s u nc le , w i th a n a t tendan t c hance l le ry . T he re i s t h e P e r sepo l i s t r ea su re r , p re sumab ly a l so t h e u l t ima te c on t ro l le r o fo the r t r e a su ry s i t e s ( b e low p p . 1 30 f . ) . T he re a r e t wo t ype s o fp e r son a s soc ia ted w i th t h e wo rke r -g roup s who se s u s tenance i ss o p rom inen t as ub jec t i n t h ea r ch ive : ( i )t ho se ( no tn ume rou s ) who ' a s s ign ' t h em t h et h ree c o mmone s ta r e ' c h ief s o f wo rke r s ' , t h e i r s e a l s h e lp t od ef ine t h e s ub reg ion s a nd H inz 1 97 1 r ega rd s t h em a s t h e c h ief s o f t h e who le s y s tem o f f ood s to re s , i t s e lf d iv ided i n to f i ve c o mmod i ty d epa r tmen t s ( g ra in , w ine /bee r , f r u i t , a n ima l s , a nd f ow l s ) ; a nd ( i ) t ho se who ' a ppo r t ion ' t h em , i . e . p roduc e l i s t s o f wo rke r s a nd i nd ica t ion s o fs i ze o f r a t ion s . T hen t h e re a r e t h e s upp ly of i ce r s a tp a r t icu la r l o ca t ion s ( t hough s ome t ime s r e spon s ib le f o r s e ve ra l ) who p rov ide t h e c o mmod i t ie s f o r wo rke r s ' r a t ion s a nd i n t h e o the r c on tex t s wh ich t h e a r ch ive c ove r s . T he re a r e a l so a c oup le o f t a n ta l iz ing ly u n inf o rma t ive r e f e rence s t o wha t may b e ad ahyupa t i . f ( H inz 1 975 : 9 2 ) , i . e . am an i n c ha rge o f ad ahyu , t h e wo rd u s ed f o r e n t i t ie s i n r oya l l i s t s o f l a nd s /peop le s . On ad if e ren t t a ck , S umne rh a s r e cen t ly p u r sued t h e p r inc ip le s l a id d own b y H a l lock f o r a na ly s ing t h e g eog raphy o ft h e a r ea c ove red b y t h e a r ch ive a nd , b y c ha r t ing t h e a s soc ia t ion s o fi nd iv idua l p l ace s i nt h e t r an sf e r o fp roduce o r i sue o fr a t ion s , h a s p roduced a n a na ly s i s i n wh ich H a l lock ' s s ub reg ion s Ia nd I ( Pe r sepo l i s /S h i ra z/ N a rezza g [ s ea l s 1 ,3 2 ] a nd K amf i ruz [ s ea l s 3 ,3 0 ] r e spec t ive ly : Ha l lock 1 977 :109 )b r eak d own i n to ' ar eg iona l mode lc en t red o nP e r sepo l i s . . .w i th t h ree u rban r eg ion s [ v iz . Ma tezz i ' g , ap l ace i mmed ia te ly a d jacen t t o P e r sepo l i s , K aup i r r i g , a nd S h i r az ] a nd a d ozen r u r a l d i s t r ic t s c ompo sed o f l a rge o r s ma l le r t own s a nd a s soc ia t ed v i l lage s ' ( Sumne r 1 986 :18 f . ,e s p . 2 1-22 ) . T he mode l i sb a sed o n o n ly a f r ac t ion o f t h e p o s s ib ly r e levan t m a te r ia l ( f o r a mo re s y s tema t ic t r ea tmen t w e a r e s t i l l a wa i t ing t h e d i s se r ta t ion o fA . M . A rf aee a nd , i ts e em s , a r e l i ke ly t ob e d o ing s of o r s ome t ime t oc ome ) . Mo reove r S umne r p re sen t s o n ly h i s c i t . , An . 1 . 2 .19 , 3 . 2 .23 , Nep . Da t . 4 .4 , 6 . 1 , P o lyaen . 7 .27 .1 ) . 15

CH R IST OPHE R TUPL IN

r e su l t s , n o t t h e d e ta i led wo rk ing t h a t l e d t ot h em , s oi ti sd if i cu l t t oe va lua te t h em w i thou ti mmen se l a bou r . B u ta ny e ven c a sua lr e ade ro ft h et e x t sw i l lb ea wa re t h a t t h e o pe ra t ion i si n p r inc ip le f e a s ib le ( a nd d e s i rab le ) , a nd S u mne r ' s p re l im in a ry r epo r t may r ep re sen t t h e s t a r t o f a n a na ly s i s wh ich w i l l e ven tua l ly r evea l t h e med ium s ize a dm in i s t ra t ive d i s t r ic t s o fA chaemen id F a r s . I fs o , h oweve r , o ne w i l l e xpec t h i s v e ry l a rge S h i r az ' u rban r eg ion ' t o d i s so lve i n to u n i t s c l o s e r i ns c a le t o t h e Ma tezz i g a nd K aup i r r i g o ne s ; a nd t h e p re requ i s i te o fa ny p rec i se r e su l t s i nt h i s d i rec t ion mu s t r ema in p rope r a na ly se s o f t h e i n te r lock ing wo rk ing s o f a t te s t ed ' of i c ia l s ' . F rom t h a t g oa l w e a r e s t i l l v e ry d i s tan t , a nd t h e a l ready e v id en tf a c t t h a t p a r t icu la r i nd iv idua l s c an c o mb ine s e ve ra l f unc t ion s i sn o t g o ing t o m ake t h ing s e a s ie r . A l l t h e s ame , t h e g en e r a l p i c tu re o f i nd iv idua l s upp ly p o in t s ( wh ich c an i n c lude p r iva te e s ta te s ) , s t o r ehou se s , g rana r ie s , t r ea su r ie s , a nd v a r iou s r e g ion s i s c l ea r e nough , e ven i ft h e p r ec i se i n te r re la t ion sh ip s o ft h e v a r iou s s t age s a r e n o t . A l so c l ea r i st h e v e ry g rea t c o mp lex i ty . I ti s am a jo r q ue s t ion whe the r w e c an a s sume q u i te t h i s s o r t o fc o mp lex i ty e ve rywhe r e , e s pec ia l ly i na r ea s whe re t he r e w e re n o t s u ch h uge n umbe r s o f q ua s i se rv i le wo rke r s ( 1 5 ,376 p e r son s a t 1 08 l o ca t ion s o ve r t h e p e r iod 5 09-494 a c co rd ing t o f i gu r e s i n D andamay ev 1 975 ) .2 7 T he se k u r t al , who a r e o ve rwhe lm ing ly n on I r an ian , c l ea r ly i n c lud e d epo r ted p r i sone r s o fw a r , l i t e r a ry e v idence a bou t whom a lmo s t a lway s i nvo lv e s d epo r t a t ion t o t h e c en t ra l a nd e a s te rn p a r t s o ft h e emp i re .2 8 I ft h e P e r sepo l i s t a b le t s a r e a r ch ive s o f t h e r oya l ' p a lace e conomy ' , t h e i r b ea r ing o n p l ace s f a r f r om r oya l p a lace sm igh tb et hough td eba tab le . And y e tt h ed if e rence sm ay b el a rge ly o ne so f s c a le . Mo reoeve r , n o t a l d epo r tee s e nded u p g eog raph ica l ly c l o se t o t h e r oya l c ap i ta l s a nd t h e re w e re c e r ta in ly e qu iva len t s o fk u r t a l n o t o n ly i n B aby lon ia b u t a l so i n E gyp t .2 9 I n f a c t t h e s i gn if i cance o f t h e r oya l c ap i t a l s s hou ld n o t b e o ve r s t re s sed : a f te ra l , t h e re w a sr oya ll a nd a nd l a nd i nt h eh and so f membe r so ft h e r oya lf am i ly a l o ve rt h e emp i re . F ew of i c ia l s , a pa r t f r om t h e s a t rap , h ave t i le s s ugge s t ing a n of i ce a pp ly ing t o t h e who le o f as a t rapy . T he ' t rea su re r so fB eyond t h eR ive r ' i nE z r a7 . 2 1 w ou ld b e a n e xamp le , i ft h e t e x t r e f e r s t o of i c ia l s o f ac en t r a l s a t r apa l t r ea su ry r a the r t h an s ome mea su re d ue t o d epo r ta t ion s b y A s sy r ian a nd n eo -Baby lon ian k ing s . B aby lon ia : ( i ) g a rdu : V S 3 . 138/9 , F P 3 2 , BE 9 . 15 , 1 0 1 , 1 0 .95 , 18 , 1 27 , PBS 2 /1 2 , 2 04 , CBS 1 2985 , w i th C a rda sc ia 1 95 1: 7 9 , D and amayev 1 963 :148 , 1 984 c :568 f . , S to lpe r 1 974 :100 1 I n Mur a g u t e x t s t h e g a rdu a r e o rgan ized i n f i ef co l lec t ive s ( c f . p . 1 53 ) , s e em e xc lu s ive ly a s soc ia ted w i th r oya l p o s se s s ion s a nd i n c lude n on-Baby lon ian s . ( i ) . 4 l a nn e : c ommon i n Mur a gu t e x t s , s e e a l so ( e ar l ie r ) V S6 . 276 , TCL 1 3 .147 , YOS 7 . 106 , 11 , 14 ,C y r . 1 58 . S ee S to lpe r 1 974 :120f . , D andamayev 1 984 c :626f . E gyp t : AD 7 , 9 , 1 2 ( g rd ' , who a r e b r anded , a pp rop r ia ted t o e s ta te s , r e ce ive p rov i s ion s a nd c an h ave p rope r ty ; a n e s ta te -manage r i s e xpec t ed t o s e cu re e x t r a o ne s d u r ing l o ca l d i s tu rbance s , p r e suma b ly a sp r i sone r s ) , S aqqa ra 1 9 .6 1 ( g rd ' o n whom t ax i sp a id ) . A r same s ' b randed s l ave s ( r bd ) ' a ppo in ted i n my d oma in ' ( AD 5 ) may b er e levan t . P rmnk ry 'i n AP 2 6 .4 f .c ou ld b e f o remen o f g a rdu l i ke t h e * f ram a naka ra i n PT 4 4 ,7 8 .

A sL ew i s 1 984 :5 94 r ema rk st h e se f i gu r e sa r en o t e n t i re ly a ccu ra te ( t he n umbe r o f l o ca t ion s , f o r e xamp le , i sa c tua l ly 12 ) , b u t mu s t b e o ft h e r i gh t o rde r . Me sopo tam ia : D iod . 1 7 .110 .4 , 1 9 .19 .2 ( Boe o t ian s ) . Uppe rT ig r i s :S t rabo 7 47 ( E r e t r ian s ) .M idd le T ig r i s : A r r . A n . 3 . 8 .5 , 1 .5 , D iod . 1 7 .110 , 1 9 .12 .1 ( Car ian s ) . B aby lon : G ray son 1 975 :n o . 9( S idon ian s ) . C i s s ia : Hd t . 6 . 119 ( E re t r ian s ) , C te s . 6 88 F 13 ( 1 0 ) , ( ? )1 4 ( 3 81 ) ( Egyp t ian s ) . T ig r i s mou th : Hd t . 6 . 20 ( M i le s ian s ) . P e r s i s : Cu r t . 5 . 5 .5 , D iod . 1 7 .69 , J u s t . 1 .14 ( G reek s ) , D iod . 1 7 .68 .5 , Cu r t . 5 . 4 .4 , P lu t . A l ex . 3 7 ( Lyc ian s ) . ' Red S ea ' i s l and s : Hd t . 3 . 93 .2 , 7 . 80 . Hy rcan ia : E u seb . 12 , J e rome 13 , O ro s . 3 . 7 , S ynce l l . 4 86 .10 , J o seph . A p . 2 . 134 ( J ew s )— a d i s p u ted c a se , c f . S t ern 1 982 :255 . B ac t r ia : Hd t . 4 . 204 ( Ba rcaean s ) , i d . 6 . 9 .4 ( I on ian g i r l s : b u t c f . 6 . 32 ) , C ur t . 7 . 5 .28 f . ,S t rab . 5 17 , 6 34 ( D idyma p r ie s t s ) . An e xcep t ion i st h e P aeon ian d epo r ta t ion t o P hryg ia ( Hd t . 5 . 12 f . ,9 8 ) . T he v e ry m ixed r a c ia l c on s t i tuen t s o f t h e p opu la t ion o f B aby lon ia ( Dandamayev 1 984a :339 ) may b e r e levan t h e re , t hough i ti si n 27

29

28

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ACHAE ME N I D AD M IN IST RAT ION

c o l le c t ive ly t ot h e of i c ia l s o fa l t h e s a t rapy ' s t r ea su r ie s , wh ich i sa n o pen q ue s t ion . ( As im i la rp rob lem a r i se sw i th t h e' i n spec to r so ft h ep rov ince B eyond t h eR ive r ' i n i b id . 5 . 6 , 6 . 6 . ) On t h e who le , of i c ia l s o pe r a t ing w i th in as a t rapy a r e e i the r n o t ' p l aced ' a t a l ( b e ing o n r e co rd w i thou t i n f o rma t ive t i le o r o the r i nd ica t ion o f h i e ra rch ica l p o s i t ion 3° )o r a r e p re sen ted e i the r a s s ubo rd ina te s /a s soc ia te s o f t h e s a t rap h im s e lf3 1 o r a s o f ice r s o f s ome a r ea s ma l le r t h an t h e c o mp le te s a t rapy . X enophon ' sE lde rC y ru st e l l sh i ss a t rap st oc r ea te c ou r t s mode l led o nt h er oya lo ne ( Cy r . 8 . 6 .10 f . ) . Wi thou t p u r su ing a l t h e i mp l ica t ion s o ft h i s ( v i a e v idence a bou t t h e r oya l c ou r t ) , o ne c an ( a s a n e xamp le w i th o the r s a t rapa l a nd r oya l p a ra l le l s ) r e g i s te r t h e e v idence a bou t t h e y ounge r C y ru s ' p h i l o i , h omo t r ap ezo i a nd s k ip t o u kho i ( who , i n t e r a l i a , w e re c on s t i tuen t s o ft h e 6 00 c ava l ry who f ough t a l ong s ide h im a t Cunaxa )3 2 o r t h e c o mmande r s o fP ha rnabazu s ' c ava l ry ( Xen . H e l l . 3 . 4 .13 , A n . 6 . 4 .24 f . )o r , a t as ub sa t rapa ll e ve l , t h e ' k in smen ' a nd ' men u nde rt h eg ove rno r ' who a ppea r i n N eh em iah , a wo rk wh ich a l so s p eak s o f t h e g ove rno r ' s t a b le .3 C y ru s ' e n tou r age i n c luded p eop le a c tua l ly r e la ted t oo ne a no the r ,3 4 a nd t h en o t ion o fk in sh ip r e cu r s w i th t h e 4 0 s y ng en e i s a c company ing S p i th r ida te s a tt h e G ran icu s ( D iod . 1 7 .20 .2 , 2 1 .1 ) . T he i r s t a tu s i s , h oweve r , d eba tab le ( t hey m ay s imp ly b e h i gh rank ing p e r son s who w e r e membe r so ft h er o ya ls y ng en e ia ) , a nd w es h a l lh ave t o r e ly r a the r u pon t h e N eh em iah p a s sage j u s t m en t ioned ( r ef e r r ing s t r ic t ly t o a s ub sa t rapa l l e ve l ) a nd u pon s p ecu la t ion a bou t t h e s a t rapa l c ou r t c ava l ry o f X enophon C y r opa ed i a8 . 6 .10 i fw e w i sh t ob e l ieve t h a t as a t rap ' s a p ing o ft h eK ing a c tua l ly i n c luded t h em a in tenance o fa no rde ro fS a t rapa l Re la t ive s .3 5 T he a b sence o fa ny c o r re spond ing e v idence i nc onnec t ion w i th t h ey ounge rC y ru ss t r ike s m ea s ap owe rf u l r e a son f o r c au t ion o n t h i s i sue . ( The re s e em s , i n c iden ta l ly , t o b e n o e v idence f o r as a t r apa lo rde ro fB enef ac to r st om a tch t h er oya lo ne .3 6 ) When p a s s ing t h rough D ana ( i . e . T yana ) C y ru s h ad o cca s ion t o e xecu te t wo e . g . H ie r amene s ( Xen . H e l l . 2 . 1 .8 , T huc . 8 . 58 , TL 4 4c .12 ) , M i th ravahg t ( AP 7 0 : a dd re s sed w i th a q ua s i -pha raon ic f o rmu la ) , B agama razd iya ( n amed o n a s e a l f r om Uppe r E gyp t : A ime -G i ron 1 939 :45 ) , A rman t ida ta , S pen tada ta ( P . A ram . B e r l in 2 3000 = G re lo t 1 972 :no . 1 09 ) , S y t r ly o r My t r ly , t h ea rmy c h ief ( Sm i th & K uh r t 1 982 ) , A saph , k eepe r o f ar oya l p a r ad e i s o s ( N eh . 2 . 8 ) . S uch a l i s t c ou ld e a s i ly b eg rea t ly e x tended . e . g . d a s s i ja ( ? = OP * da g i /da gya , ' e xpe r t ' : Z adok 1 976b : 5f . ) : BE 1 0 .9 1 , RO MCT 2 . 48 ; m a r s i p r i ( ' agen t ' ) : P oh l 1 . 6 1 , M ich igan 8 9 ; m cd ennu : Tu M 2 /3 1 47 , c f . p . 1 33 ; * v i0f ra sa : c f . n .4 4 ; s c r ibe : c f . n .3 9 ; a nd ( o fc ou r se ) ` s e rvan t /s lave ' ( BE 1 0 .84-5 , VS 4 . 152 ) . P h i l o i : X en . A n . 1 . 9 .3 1 , O e c . 4 . 19 ( O the r s a t rap s : e . g . Nep . D a t . 9 . 2 , P o lyaen . 7 . 23 .1 . T he K ing : D iod . 1 5 .10 .3 , 1 6 .50 .7 , 1 7 .35 .2 f . ,P lu t . T h em . 2 9 , Mo r . 1 74B , Aga th . 4 72 F 6 , Hd t . 7 . 39 .1 ) . H omo t r ap ezo i : X en . A n . 1 . 8 .25 , 9 . 3 1 . ( O the r s a t rap s : X en . C y r . 8 . 6 .11 , 1 4 . T he K ing :Hd t . 3 . 132 , X en . C y r . 8 . 1 .39 , 6 . 11 , 1 4 , O e c . 4 . 8 , C te s . 6 88 F 14 ( 4 3 ) , H e ra d id . 6 89 F 2 ) . S k ep t oukho i : X en . A n . 1 . 6 .11 , 8 . 28 . ( The K ing : i d . C y r . 8 . 3 .15 ) . Cunaxa c ava l ry : X en . An . 1 . 8 .6 , 2 1 f .T h i s i st h e s ame g roup a s 0 1 r Ep i a i n -ö v i n i b id . 1 . 5 .7 , 6 . 4 ( t hey w ea r t he s ame f i ne c l o the s a s as k ep t oukho s ( 1 .8 .28 ) a nd a r e a dd re s sed a s

p h i l o i ) . On r oya l f r iend s /benef ac to r s c f . Wie sehöf e r 1 980 . N eh . 4 . 23 , 5 . 10 , 1 418 . c f . a l so S anba l la t ' s c ompan ion s( i b id .4 . 2 . ) . C f . X en . A n . 1 . 6 .10 — a s sum ing ( c f . 6 -8 ) t ha t O ron te s h ad b een ap h i l o s l i ke t ho se , i n c lud ing h i s r e la t ive s , who t r ied a nd c ondemned h im . D iod . l o c . c i t . i mp l ie s t h ey i n c luded p e r son s o f h igh s t a tu s f r om o u t s ide S p i th r ida te s ' s a t rapy ( e .g . A t izye s , s a t rap o fP h ryg ia ; M i th robuzane s , h ypa rch o f C appadoc ia ) a nd t h e r oya l s yng en e i a i s aw e l l a t te s ted h onor if ic o rde r who se membe r s a r e n o t p e rmanen t ly a t tendan t u pon t h e k ing ( c f . A r r . A n . 7 . 11 .1 , 6 , X en . C y r . 1 . 4 .27 , 2 . 2 .3 1 , D iod . 1 6 .50 .7 , 1 7 .35 ,3 , H e r ac l id . 6 89 F 5 , Cur t . 3 . 3 .2 1 , 2 5 , 6 . 2 .7 , I E sd r . 3 . 4f . , 4 42 , J o seph . A J 1 .34 f .— some o ft h e se t e x t s i mp ly t h a t t h e r e la t ive s a r e as e pa ra te , h ighe r s t a tu s g roup , f r om me re p h i l o i ) . On t h e o the r h and a n e l i te c ava l ry u n i t o f 1 000 s yng en e i s a ppea r s a t G augame la ( A r r . A n . 3 . 11 .5 , D iod . 1 7 .59 .2 — and c f . p e rhap s t h e t wo u n i t s o f1 000 p i cked h o r se i n Hd t . 7 . 40 f . ) , a nd o ne m igh t t h ink t ha t t h e s a t rap ' s c our t c ava l ry , i m i ta t ive o ft h e K ing ' s ( Xen . C y r . 8 . 6 .10 ) , w a s ac opy o ft h e se ' Re la t ive C ava l ry ' . Hd t . 8 . 8 5 , T huc . 1 . 129 .3 , A r r . A n . 3 . 27 , 3 7 , S t rab .7 24 ,A e l ian VH12 .40 e t c .

3°

3 3

34

35

3 1

32

36

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d ign i ta r ie s , o ne o f whom h ad t h e t i le ' r oya l p ho in ik i s ti s ' , i . e . s c r ibe ( Xen . A n . 1 . 2 .20 , L ew i s 1 977 :25 n .1 34 ) . T h i s p e r son w a sp re sumab ly as ubo rd in a te o fC y ru s w i th in t h e C appadoc ian s a t rapy , a nd t h e t i le r e ca l l s H e rodo tu s ' s t a temen t t h a t e ve ry h ypa rch ( t he c on tex t s how s t h i s mean s , o r i n c lude s , s a t rap s ) h ad a r oy a l g r amma t eu s ( 3 .128 .4 ) . S p iege lbe rg ' s t r an s la t ion o f ad emo t ic l e t te r o fP he rend a te s i n c lude s a' r oya ls c r ibe ' a mong i t ss i gna to r ie s ( 1 928 :605 f . ) , a l though amo re r e c en t r ende r ing ( Hughe s a p . P o r ten 1 968 :56 ) e xpe l s t h e wo rd ' r oya l ' . I na ny e ven t , t h i s t e x t , t oge the rw i th s i gna tu re f o rmu lae i nA r ama ic s a t rapa ll e t te r s3 7 a nd i nE lam i t e l e t te r sf r om P ha rnace sa tP e r sepo l i s ,3 s e em st or e vea lh igh f unc t iona r i e si n wha tc an b e c a l led as a t r apa l c hance l le ry , v i z , ac hance l lo r , as c r ibe , a nd o the r p e r son s who c ommun ica te b e tween t h et wo .3 9 ( I ti si mpo r tan tt on o te t h a tt he se p e r son si n c lude many n on I r an i an s , a nd o ne o ft h em i sc a l led Y auna , ' t he G r eek ' . ) S om eh ave a l so s e en t h e Chance l lo ri nt h e my s te r iou s p e r sonage a t Memph i s t o whom o ne P e te s i s a ppea led f o rp ro tec t ion a ga in s te nem ie sa tE lH ibeh . 4°H ei sc l ea r ly ah igh p e r sonage ( t hough s ubo rd ina te t o t h e ' Ma s te r o f E gyp t '— sa t rap o r k ing ? ) , a dd re s sed i n q ua s i -pha raon ic t e rm s , p o s se s so r o f ap r ie s thood o nce t h e p re se rve o f t h e S a i te g ove rno r o fu ppe r E gyp t , a nd s u r rounded b y h i s own e n tou rage o f' n o tab le s ' a s w e l l a sE gyp t ian s ubo rd ina te s .4 1 H i s d emo t ic t i le i so ne u s ed l a te r o fH e l len i s t i c d i o ik e-t a i , b u ti ta ppea r so n ly o nce mo re i nt h eP e r s ian p e r iod , whe re i ti sh e ld b ya n E gyp t ian .4 2 A l te rna t ive i d en t if i ca t ion s i n c lude t h e s a t rap h im se lf ( B re sc ian i 1 969 :3 43 ) o rt h es a t r ap ' sj u r id i cu s ( S e id l 1 956 :33 ) . F o rt h el a t te ri d ea t iu la rp a ra l le l s c ou ld b e a dduced f r om B aby lon ia — the ' j udge o ft h e s a t rap G ob rya s '4 3 a nd t h e ` d a t aba r a o f( t he s a t rap ) A r ta reme ' ( PBS 2 /1 3 4 , 1 85 , S to lpe r 1 974 :1 34 n .6 7 ) , o f whom t h el a t te ri saB aby lon ian , d e sp i te h i sI r an ian t i le . ( Of c ou r se , t iu la rp a ra l le l i sn o g ua ran tee a ta l o fs ub s tan t ia l s im i la r i ty . ) A nd a n E gyp t ian A rama i c t e x t i n t u rn men t ion s ap typ r sn — common ly i n te rp re ted a s OP * pa t if r a s a , i . e . i n spec to r ( c f . t h e c ogna te * f r a saka o f B eyond t h e R ive r ( Ez r a 5 . 6 , 6 . 6 ) a nd o f t h e m a . f ennu h ou seho ld ( b e low ,p .1 33 ) ) —who i sa c t ive a t Memph i sa nd c ou ld a l so b er e levan t .4 8

t a nu ) . T he s e n eed n o t b e v e ry s en io r p e r son s ( c f . Z adok 1 978 :70 ) t hough t h e I r an ian R t f iunpa t i c ou ld h ave b een . P . Ry land s 9 . 1-5 . T he wo rd i sp i p r i t ( Pa rke r 1 96 1 :18 1 ) . F o r i d en t if i ca t ion w i th t h e c hance l lo r c f . Ray n .d . Ma s te r o fE gyp t : 2 /16 . P haraon ic a dd re s s : 3 /11 ( a nd c f . 2 /3 , s a id t o r e ca l l E gyp t ian i d iom f o r t he p ha raoh ' s t r ave l l ing c our t ) . P rophe t o f Amun , o nce ap r ie s thood o ft h e S a i te Ma s te r o f S h ipp ing : 8 /2 . No tab le s : 3 /4 , 4 /12 ( s o t oo t h e Ma s te r o fS h ipp ing : e . g . 7 /1 , 1 0 /2 ) . P owe rf u l s ubo rd ina te a gen t s : 1/ 1 , 2 /5 ,3 /5 f . ,5 /2 1 Unpub l . S aqqa ra p apy ru s , men t ioned i n T a i t 1 977 :30 f . ,a nd d a ted n o mo re e xac t ly t h an 5 25-332 B C . T he h o ld e r i so ne Ud jaho r re sne t , b u t t h e re i s a ppa ren t ly n o p a r t icu la r i nd ica t ion o f c onnec t ion w i th t h ef amou sh omonym ( c f . p .4 ) . P BS 2 /1 1 05 , 1 33 , 2 24 , BE 1 0 .84 , 9 7 , 1 28 , CBS 1 296 1 , 1 2966 . AP 3 7 .3 , 1 2 . Compa re L loyd 1 983 :334 , Ray n .d . No te , h oweve r , t h a t t h e s uppo sed A kkad ian v e r s ion o ft h es ame OP wo rd i nB E 1 0 .97 ( whe re t he p e r son i nvo lved i s a l so a ' j udge o f t h e s a t rap

AP 2 6 .22 f . : ' Anan i t h e s c r ibe ( a nd ) c hance l lo r ( b r l t rm ) . Nabuaqab w ro te i t ' ( j udg ing f r om h and w r i t ing n e i the ri st h es c r ibe o ft h el e t t e r ) . AD 4 ,6 10 : a l h ave t he f o rmu la ' Xi sc ogn izan to ft h i so rde r ( y d r t rm z nh ) , Y i s s c r ibe ' ( a ga in p a laeograph ic a rg umen t ss how Y i sn o tt h ea c tua lw r i te r ) . No te a l so i n B aby lon ia a Mede w i th t h e t i le b a l t e e -mu who a ppea r s i n M ich igan 8 9 ( a ' p a lace a ccoun t ' t ex t ) i n s ome c onnec t ion w i th t h e s a t rap Gobrya s . S ee H a l lock 1 969 : 5 11 . ,H inz 1 97 1: 3 10 f . ,L ew i s 1 977 :10 , n .38 , S to lpe r 1 984 :305 . Up t o t h ree p e r son s a r e n amed , as c r ibe ( of ten I r an ian , e ven t hough t h e t e x t s a r e E l am i te —hence n o t t h e w r i te r ) a nd t wo o the r s . A' r oya l s c r ibe ' a ppea r s i n YOS 7 . 114 , b u t h e i s a c tua l ly a t emp le of i c ia l ( s ee b e low p . 1 5 1 ) . No te a l so ap a lace s c r ibe ( CT 2 2 .242 ) —pe rhap s i nvo lved i n i n spec t ing r oya l wo rke r s— and t h e K ing ' s S on ' s s c r ibe ( Cy r . 1 77 , 1 99 , 3 64 ) . F o r s c r ibe s a s soc ia ted w i th s a t rap s o r g ove rno r s c f . BE 9 . 48 ( Ruk inpa t i , s c r ibe o fA r ta reme , a nd l a ndowne r ) , C amb . 3 44 ( o f t h e g overno r o fE gyp t ) , P oh l 1 . 6 1 ( o f Gobrya s t h e e l de r ) , PBS 2 /1 7 0 , 7 2 , 1 33 , BE 1 0 .10 1 , 18 , CBS 1 2985 ( Gob rya s t h e y ounge r ) , Amhe r s t 2 58 ( U g 37

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T he ' r oy a l ' s c r ibe i sn o t t h e o n ly ' r oya l ' o f ic ia l e ncoun te red i n p rov inc ia l c on tex t s . An umbe r o ft i le s o ft h i s s o r t w i l l b e e ncoun te r ed i n v a r iou s c on tex t s l a te r i n t h i s p ape r , b u t t h i s i st h e a pp rop r i a te p l ace t o m en t ion o ne w i th wh ich r e ade r s o fH e rodo tu s a nd o the r G reek s ou rce s w i l l b e f am i l ia r , n ame ly t h e ' r oya l j udge s ' . T he se a r e p e r son sa ppo in ted f o rl i f e who ' t ry c a se sa mong t h eP e r s ian sa nd i n t e rp re ta nce s t ra lc u s tom s ' ( Hd t . 3 . 3 1 .2 ) . T hey a r eo f ten f ound i nt h ee n tou rage o f t h e k ing h im se lf ,4 5 b u t t h e s t a tu s w a s c on s i s ten t w i th h o ld ing h igh of i ce f a r f r om t h er oya l c ou r t ,4 6 i n wh ich c a se , h oweve r , i tb ecome se f ec t ive ly a nh ono r if i cr ank r a the r t han a n a dm in i s t ra t ive p o s i t ion . Roya l j udge s a l so a ppea r i n n on -G reek s ou rce s . I n C y r . 3 12 ac ou r t v a r iou s ly c a l led ' t he k ing ' s n ob le s a nd t h ej udge s o f C y ru s , k ing o fB aby lon , k ing o fl a nd s ' o r ' t he n ob le s a nd j udge s i nc ha rge o ft h e p a lace ' d ea l s w i th am a r r iage c on t rac ted i ns omewha t d ub iou s c i rcum s tance s . T he s e t t ing o ft h e a f a i r i se v iden t ly e xa l ted ( one o ft h e p a r t ie s b e ing ap a lace of i c ia l who d en ied h av ing a c ted a sw i tne s st ot h eu n ion ) , a nd t h et r ibuna ls e em st ob eo ne w i th in t h e p a lace a nd ( w i tne s s t h e u nu sua l u s e o f t h e a c tua l k ing ' s n ame ) o ne s t and ing i nq u i te ac l o se r e la t ion sh ip w i th t h e mona rch . We m igh t t h e ref o re b e d ea l ing h e re w i th r oya lj udge s o ft h e s o r t f ound i nG reek s ou rce s . I ti s much l e s s c e r ta in t h a t t h i s i st h e c a se i nt h ree o the r d ocumen t s i n wh ich r oya lj udge s ( YOS 7 . 159 , 1 89 ) o r ' t h e r oya l c ou r t -hou se ' ( YOS 7 . 3 1 ) a r e , al i t t le s u rp r i s ing ly , c once rned w i th t h ef t so ft emp le p rope r ty ( S an N ico lö 1 932 :338 s ugge s ted t h a tw e a r e d ea l ing h e re w i th a n a ppea l o r w i th a c a se i n wh ich o ne p a r ty w a s n o t a t emp le -membe r ) ; a nd t h es i gn if i cance o ft h e' j udge o ft h ep a lace g a te 'a nd t h e' man s e t o ve r t h e d a t a ' who a r e e ncoun te red s imp ly a sw i tne s se s o f ad e te rm ina t ion o f mon th ly r a t ion s( VS 6 . 128 ) i sd ec ided ly o paque . E gyp t i an d ocumen t s p rov ide u s w i th a s i ng le a t te s ta t ion o f ' r oya l j udge s ' a t E l ephan t ine ( AP 1 . 3 ) , at e x t i n wh ich t h ey a r e r e spon s ib le , t oge the r w i th t h e g a r r i son c o mmande r , f o r r e ach ing a d ec i s ion a bou t wha t m ay b e c o lon ia l a lo tmen t s ( s ee b e low n .1 50 ) . I ti sh a rd t ob es u re whe the rt h ey a c tua l ly c on s t i tu te a h ighe r b oa rd t h an t h e ' p rov inc ia l j udge s ' o f AP 1 6 .7 a nd 2 7 .9 o r i ndeed t h an ` Da m ida ta a nd h i s c o l league s t h ej udge s ' i n AP 6 . 6 .4 7 ( Af te r a l , ' r oya l ' s ome t ime s s imp ly d e s igna te s s omeone who i sp a r t o f t h e P e r s ian s y s tem — ?i . e . o n P e r s ian r a t ion s —no t me re ly o ft h e n a t ive o ne ,4 8 a nd t h e ' Roya l Hou se ' o fE l ephan t ine m igh ta sw e l lb ec a l led a' p rov inc ia l ' t r ea su ry [ s ee b e low p p . 1 28 ] . ) T he f a c t t h a ti n AP 1 6 t h e p rov inc i a lj udge s a ppea r t os i tw i th t h ep r tky ' ( a s se s so r s ) o ft h e g a r r i son c o mmande r ( Po r ten 1 968 : 4 7 , G re lo t 1 972 :134 ) , n o t w i th t h e l a t te rh im se lf , m igh t s e em t os uppo r t ad if e ren t ia t ion o ft h e ' p rov inc ia l ' a nd ' r oya l ' b oa rd s . Howeve r , a 1 2 1 . T he o n ly I r an ian b e s ide s D am ida ta i sP a i sana ( AP 4 2 .2 , c f . 3 7 .9 , 4 0 .2 ) , a ppa ren t ly a t Memph i s ; h e , t oo , c ou ld b e ar oya l j udge . D a t aba r a a ppea r i n S aqqar a 1 3 ( men t ion ing t h e i r ` c h ief s ' ) , 1 4 ( whe re t h ey i sue a n o rde r , t rm ) . I n t h e Mu ra gu t e x t sj udge s b ef o re whom d ocumen t sa r ed rawn u p a r en orma l ly B aby lon ian , b u t a tl e a s t o ne I r an ian J udge o ft h e S in C ana l a ppea r s , U rda tu = *Xva rda ta ( Ca rda sc ia 1 95 1: 2 0n .1 ,H inz 1 975 :100 ) . e . g . A sho r ' t he r oya l b u i lde r ' ( AP 1 5 ) , A shanyahu ` t he r oya l s e rvan t ' ( S te rn 1 982 :207 ) , Ab la ' t he r oya lb oa tman ' ( Peek 1 9 ) .

Gobrya s ' ) , P BS 2 /1 6 3 ,7 3s hou ld p e rhap si nv i ew o f a more r e cen t ly p ub l i shed t e x t , RO MCT 2 . 36 , b e r e ad d if e ren t ly a nd d e r ived f r om OP * v iOf ra sa ( ' cou r ti n te r roga to r '? ) . Wha teve rt h ec o r rec tr e ad ing t h e d ocumen t o n ly men t ion st h i s of i c ia la s aw i tne s s a nd t he ref o re c a s t sn ol i gh to nh i sf unc t ion s . Hd t . 3 . 14 .5 , 3 1 .2 , P lu t . A r tox . 2 9 . D iod . 1 5 .10 , C te s 6 88 F 27 ( 7 0 ) p re sumab ly a l so r e f e r t o r oya l j udge s . Hd t . 5 . 25 ( O tane s , ' g ene ra l o ft h e c oa s t ' ) , 7 . 194 ( S andoce s ,h ypa rch o fC yme ) . O the r ( p la in )j udge s a ppea r i n AP 6 ,8 , 1 6 , 4 2 , 4 5 ( c f . P o r ten 1 968 :153 ) , S aqqa ra 1 6 , 2 7 , 3 0a , 7 9 , 45

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h omonym o ft h e g a r r i son -commande r i sm en t ioned i nt h e p reced ing l i ne o ft h i s l a cuno se t e x ta so ne o ft h ree ' j udge s ' , a nd t h et h ree may a f te ra l b et h ec o mmande r p lu s t wo ' p rov inc ia l ' j udge s . Mo reove r , t h e J ew s ' c l a im i n AP 2 7 t h a t t h e d e s t ruc t ion o ft h e i r t emp le s hou ld b e i nve s t ig a ted b y p rov inc ia lj udge s , t y p ty a nd * gaul aka s e em s al i t t le o dd i ft h e re w a s i n f a c t ah ighe rj ud ic ia l a u tho r i ty who se a r ea o fa c t iv i ty i n c luded t h eE l ephan t ine g a r r i son ( a sd id t h a to ft h er oya lj udge so f AP 1 6 ) . Of c ou r se , i ti sn o t i mpo s s ib le t h a t t h e r oya lj udge s w e re t oo g r and t o u nde r take i nve s t iga t ion t h em se lve s o r t h a t t h e a nonymou s a dd re s see o ft h e a ppea l i n AP 2 7w a sa c tua l ly o ne s u ch r oya lj udge . I nt h ec a se o ft h es a t r ap ' sr oya ls c r ibe , a tl e a s t ,i ts e em sr e a sonab le t os uppo se t h a t h e i sa ppo in ted b y t h e K ing , a nd h e c ou ld t h e r ef o re b e c on s t rued a sa mong o the r t h ing s ar oya l s py u pon s a t rapa l l oya l ty ( c f . X enophon ' s r ema rk s , C y r . 8 . 6 .1 1 ,o n t h e r o le o f r oya l ly a ppo in ted g a r r i son c omm ande r s ) . X enophon a l so m en t ion s a nnua l i n spec t ion s o fs a t rap ie s b y t h e k ing o r h i s a gen t s , who c ou ld i n c lude t h e ' K ing ' s E ye ' , ap e r sonage a t te s ted ( i n l a rge ly u n inf o rma t ive c on tex t s ) i n o the r G reek t e x t s .4 9 A no the rp a s sage o fX enophon ( Cy r . 8 . 2 .10 f . )i ss o me t ime st a ken t o d eny t h a t t h e re w a s o n ly o ne ` K ing s ' s E ye ' a nd t os ugge s t awho le s py s y s tem o f K ing s 'E ye sa nd E a r s , a ni n te rp re ta t ion i nc onnec t ion w i th wh ich o ne c ou ld a dduce t h e E gyp t ian p rov inc ia l of i c ia l c a l led * gaul aka o r ' l i s tene r ' ( AP 2 7 .9 ) , t h e d i d akka o fB E 1 0 .118 ( c h ief o ft h e h ad ru o f ' a rmy s c r ibe s ' ) a nd t h e p o s tu la t ed * d id iy aka ( H inz 1 975 :98 f . )o ft h eP e r sepo l i sd ocumen t s ( bo th t h e se wo rd sh ave t h es e n se ' o ne who s e e s ' ) . B u t mo re c a ref u l r e ad ing o fX enophon s ugge s t s ad if e ren t i n t e rp re t a t ion . H i s p o in t i sn o t t h a t t h e re w e re many of i c ia l s c a l led K ing ' s E y e s a nd E a r s ( f o r h oweve r m any t h e re w e re t h ey wou ld a l b e o pen t o t h e c r i t ic i sm o ft h e i r u t i l i ty wh ich X enophon a dvance s a ga in s t t h e K ing ' s E ye , v i z , t h a t e ve ryon e k new who t h ey w e re ) b u t t h a t , a l though t h e re w a s as i ng l e , v e ry s e n io r K ing ' s E ye , t h e K ing ' s p rac t ice o fr ewa rd ing i n f o rma t ion f r om w ha t ev e r s o u r c e mean s t h a t p eop le b ehave a st hough h e h a s m any e ye s a nd e a r s a nd i sa lway s l ook ing a nd l i s ten ing , b ecau se t h ey h ave n o i d ea who m igh t b e t ray a ny s e d i t iou s u t te r an ce s . I n X enophon ' s v i ew , t h e ref o re , s u rve i l lance i sa bove a l i n f o rm a l , e xemp l if i ed b y t h e s o r t o f mu tua l c r i t ic i sm o f of i c ia l s t o wh ich h e r e f e r s i n O e c onom i cu s 4 . 9 . Mo reove r , t h e who le r un o fG reek e v idence r equ i r e su st op o s tu la te n o mo r et h an a s i ng le K ing ' s E ye a nd n o K ing ' s E a r s a ta l . T he r e n eed b e n o c onf l ic t b e tween G reek a nd n on -G r eek s ou rce s o n t h i s p o in t : a f te r a l n e i the r t h e g aul ak a n o r t h e of i c ia l si nB aby lon ia a nd P e r s i si sa c tua l ly a t te s ted a s as py . 2 P ROV INC IAL S UBD IV IS IONS OF S ATRAP IES

Among of i c ia l s a s soc ia ted p e r sona l ly w i th t h e s a t r ap o ne p a r t icu l ar g roup c on s i s t s o f t h e i r s o -ca l led h ypa rch s . 5° O cca s iona l ly s u ch p e r son s a r e a l so d e s c r ibed a s 1 348a 18 ) . A dd i t iona l ly , t h e e v idence a bou t P h i l i scu s ( Dem . 2 3 .14 1 f . , X en . H e l l . 7 . 1 .27 , D iod . 1 5 .70 .2 ) a nd Z en i s a nd Man ia ( Xen . H e l l . 3 . 1 .10 f . )a moun t s t ot h e i r d e s igna t ion a sh ypa rch s o fA r ioba r zane s a nd P ha mabazu s r e spec t ive ly , a s w e l l a s mak ing c l ea r t h a t t hey a r e e x amp le s o f a who le c l a s s o f s im i la r s a t rapa lh ypa r ch s . ( So t oo , p e rhap s , X en . A n . 1 . 2 .20 : Cy ru s e xecu te s a r oya l s c r ibe a nd & Ep c i v r t va r ü j v1 5 i rdpr . ov S vv c i c r re ) .

C y r . 8 . 6 .16 , O e c . 4 . 6 ; p e rhap s s ome r oya l j ourney ing i nP e r sepo l i st e x t s o re . g . Ad . VH 1 . 3 1 1 . b e long s t o i n spec t ion t r ip s . K ing ' s E ye : A e sch . P e r s . 9 80 , Hd t . 1 . 114 .2 , A r i s t . A cha rn . 9 2f . , P lu t . A r t ox . 1 2 . T amo s ( Thuc . 8 . 87 .1 ) , A r sace s ( i b id . 1 08 .4 ) , S t age s ( i b id . 1 6 ) , a l h ypa rch s o f T i s saphe rne s ; A r iaeu s , h ypa rch o f Cy ru s ( Xen . A n . 1 . 8 .5 ) , Conda lu s , h ypa rch o f Mau so lu s ( P s . A r . O e c . 49

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h ypa rch s o fp a r t icu la r r e g ion s , a nd t h i s w a s p robab ly t r ue i n o the r , t hough n o t n e ce s sa r i ly a l , c a se s .5 1 T h i s b r ing s u s , t h e r ef o re , t o t h e v a r iou s g eog raph ica l s ubd iv i s ion so f as a t rapy .A t te s ted t i le si nG reek s ou rce sd raw o u ra t ten t ion t os u ch a r e a sa sI on i a ( hypa rch : T huc . 8 . 3 1 .2 ) , I on ia , A eo l i s a nd n e ighbou r ing a r ea s ( s a t rap a l i a s e p im e l e t& : D iod . 1 4 .19 .6 ) , T road ic A eo l i s ( s a t rap a l ia s h ypa rch : X en . H e l l . 3 . 1 .10 f . ) , L emno s ( hypa r ch : Hd t . 5 . 27 ) , L yc ia ( a rkhon t e s : FX V I p p . 3 2f .= S EG 2 7 .942 ) , a nd C a taon ia ( A sp i sq u i C a t aon i am t e n e ba t : N ep . D a t . 4 . 1 ) . T he re i sa l so t h e c a se o fS ogd iana , wh ich s e em s t oh ave h ypa rch s b u t n o s a t rap , u n le s s w e a s sume t h a tS ogd iana w a s as ubo rd ina te p a r to ft h eB ac t r ian s a t rapy ( no ts ome th ing c l ea r ly a t te s ted ) . T he r e levan t s ou rce s g ive v a ry ing h in t s a bou t t h e i n te rna ln a tu re o fs u ch a r ea s . I nL yc i a i ti ss t i l l t h e ( Ca r ian ) s a t rap who se a u tho r iza t ion i sr equ i red f o r t h e X an th ian d ec ree wh ich i n c iden ta l ly i n f o rm s u s a bou t t h e a r khon t e s . I n T road ic A eo l i sw eh ave ar eg ion o fs ma l lp o l e i sh e ld b yt h eh ypa rch ' sg a r r i son s , who may b e h e r ' p r iva te ' t r oop s r a the r t h an me rcena r ie s s t r ic t ly i n t h e p ay o f h e r s upe r io r P ha rnabazu s . ( Ib e l ieve t h i s t o b e t h e mo s t l og ica l e xp lana t ion o f P ha rnabazu s ' a ppa ren t a nd i mp ruden t f a i lu re t op ay t h e se m e rcena r ie s a f te r Man ia ' s mu rde r b y h e r s on in law : c f . T up l in n .d . (b ) . ) T o P ha rnabazu s s h e owe s t r ibu te a nd m i l i ta ry s e rv ice ( Xen . H e l l . 3 . 1 .1213 ) . T he h ypa rch o fI on ia i ss im i la r ly f ound i n am i l i ta ry c on tex t ( c f . n .5 1 ) a si sa no the r o f T i s saphe rne s ' h ypa rch s , S t age s , who i st w ice a c t ive i nt h e s ame a r e a o fc en t ra l I on ia b u t n eve r a c tua l ly d e s igna ted h ypa rch o fa p a r t icu la r r eg ion ( c f . n .5 1 ) . It h ink t h a t h e f a i r ly c l ea r ly h a s s u ch ar eg ion , b u t i t w i l lb e s ma l le rt h an t h el i ke so f' I on ia ' o r` Lyc ia ' . No ta l h ypa rch sa r ea l ike , a nd i n t h e l a s t a na ly s i s t h e t i l e l a y s mo re s t re s s u pon t h e i r s ubo rd ina t ion t os omeone e l se t h an u pon t h e i r c on t ro l o f ap a r t icu la r s o r t o f' h ypa rchy ' . ( Hence , o fc ou r se , t h e wo rd c an a sw e l l b e u s ed o f as a t r ap i nh i s c apac i ty a ss ubo rd ina te o ft h e k ing : c f . n .2 2 ) . Ano the r a pp roach t o s ubd iv i s ion s o fw e s te rn A na to l ian s a t rap ie s h a s b een m ade b y S ekunda n .d . ( a ) a nd ( b ) , who s e e s H e l le spon t ine P h ryg ia a nd L yd ia a s c on s i s t ing o f as ma l l n umbe r o f wha t h e c a l l s ' d ukedom s ' , e a ch p rov id ing c on t r ibu t ion st ot h e s a t r apa lc ava l ry v i at i e s o fp e r sona ll oya l ty b e tween i nd iv idua l c ava l rymen a nd t h e ' d uke ' . T he re may b e s ome th ing i nt h i s , b u t i d en t if i ca t ion o f a c tua l ' duke s ' i st r icky . S p i th r ida te s i st h e p a r ad igma t ic c a s e ( Xen . H e l l . 3 . 4 .10 , 4 . 1 .21 , A n . 6 . 4 .24 , 5 . 7f . , H e l l . Oxy . 2 1 ) , b u t I t amene s , f o r e xamp le , i s o n X enophon ' s e v idence ( An 7 . 8 .15 ) t oo l ow ly af i gu re t o b e a no the r i n s tance ( s ee T up l in n .d . (b ) ) . A t t he o the r e nd o ft h e emp i re B r ian t 1 982a :197 f .h a s i n te rp re ted t h e e v idence a bou t S ogd ian h ypa rch si nt h eA lexande rh i s to r i an sa sr evea l ing as e r ie so fd yna s t ic r e a lm s c en t red u pon p e t r a i , d ef en s ib le s t rongho ld s h ou s ing s t o re s o f t r ibu te c o l lec ted b y t h e h ypa r ch -dyna s t s f r om t h e i r s ub jec t s , b u t t h i s s e em s t o m e t o g o b eyond t h e a c tua l e v idence f o r A chaemen id c ond i t ion s , wh ich t r ea t s t h ep e t r a i a s p l ace s o fr e f uge r a the r t h an s t anda rd l o ca l ` c ap i ta l s '— though w e may w e l l b e l ieve i nt h eh ypa rch s 'r i gh tt o mob i l ize t h ep opu lace f o rm i l i ta ry p u rpo se s .5 2 B r ian t 1 982a :197 f . Re levan t s ou rce s a r e A r r . A n . 4 . 18 .4 f . , Cur t . 7 . 11 .11 f . ,P o lyaen . 4 . 3 .19 ( Rock o f A r iomaze s , S ogd ian Rock ) , A r r . A n . 4 . 2 1 .1 f . , Cu r t . 8 . 2 .19 f . ,P lu t . A l ex . 5 8 , S t rabo 1 .11 .4 ( Rock o f Cho r iene s o rS i s im i th re s ) . S ogd ian h ypa rch s : A r r .

T amo s ( c f . n .5 0 ) i sh ypa rch o f I on ia ( Thuc . 8 . 3 1 .2 ) . Z en i s a nd Man ia c on t ro l as pec if i c , t r ibu te p ay ing a r ea ( Xen . H e l l . 3 . 1 .10 f . ) . No te t h a t S t age si s t w ice a s soc ia ted w i th t h e T eo s/ Co lophon a r ea ( Thuc . 8 . 16 , X en . H e l l . 1 . 2 .5 ) , A r sace s w i th t h e Ad ramy t t ium/An tand ro sa r ea ( Thuc .8 . 108 ) .

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T u rn ing t oa r ea s whe re t h ee v idence i sp redom inan t ly n on -G reek w e may n o te f i r s t t h e c a se o f B aby lon i a . T he r e levan t e v idence c o me s i n v a r iou s , n o t e a s i ly i n te r r e la tab le f o rm s . ( i )T he Nabond iu s C h ron ic le ( ANET 3 06 ) r epo r t s t ha t C y ru s a ppo in ted g ove rno r s ( p aj l a t ) i nB aby lon i a i mmed ia te ly a f te r t he c onque s t ; b u t t h e o n ly mo re p rec i se i n f o rma t ion i nt h a tt e x tc once rn s Ugba ru , g ove rno ro f Gu t ium , who r ep re sen t s ar a the rs p ec ia l c a se ( c f . Z adok 1 98 1/ 2 :138 n .6 5 ) . ( i ) An umbe ro f d ocumen t s r e f e r t o ' a dm in i s t ra t ive d i s t r ic t s ' ( p i l ia tu I p a l ia tu = NA M ) n amed a f te r p rom inen t c i t ie s , v i z . B aby lon ( c ommon ) , B o r s ippa ( VS 3 . 182 , 5 . 48 , 9 2 , TEBR 8 0 ) , D i lba t ( VS 6 . 7 1 , D a r . 2 65 , 2 95 ) , K i sh ( Da r . 1 94 , 2 45 ) , a nd S i ppa r ( Cy r . 2 6 ) . T he t e rm ino logy c on t inue s n eo -Baby lon ian p r ac t ice , s ow e c an p robab ly a dd N ippu r , U ruk , a nd D e r t ot h e l i s t , e ven t hough t h ey a r e o n ly a t te s ted b ef o re 5 39 . T he p u re ly g eog r aph ica ln a tu re o ft h er e f e rence si nt h et e x t s mean st h a tn o of i c i a l s c l ea r ly a s soc ia ted w i th t h e se d i s t r ic t sa r e m en t ioned . One wou ld e xpec tt he man i n c ha rge t ob e ab e ip i t ia t i , b u t t h i si sa n e xce s s ive ly v ague t e rm , e qua l ly a pp l icab le a t v a r iou s l e ve l s o fs e cu la r a nd t emp le a dm in i s t r a t ion , a nd o ne c ou ld o n ly i d en t if y a p a r t icu la r b e ip i l ia t i a sg ove rno r o fa n a dm in i s t r a t ive d i s t r ic t o ft he s o r ti nq ue s t ion h e re i f t h e re w e re a pp rop r ia te ly s p ec if i c e v idence i n a dd i t ion t o t he m e re t i le —wh ich s e em sn eve rt ob et h ec a se . I na ny e ven tt h ea r ea si nq ue s t ion a ppea rt o b e o f r e la t ive ly l im i ted e x ten t ( c on s ide r ing , f o r e xamp le , h ow c l o s e B aby lon , D i lba t , B o r s ippa , a nd K i sh a r e t o o ne a no the r— they wou ld a l f i t w i th in t h e p re sumed a r ea o f t h e s i ng le P a le s t in ian ' p rov ince ' o f Do r [ s ee b e low ] ) , a nd t h e t e rm ino logy s e em s t od i sappea r i nl a te r A chaemen id t e x t s ; s ow e a r e p o s s ib ly n o t d ea l ing w i th a ny th ing o fg rea t s i gn if i cance i no u r p re sen t c on tex t . ( i i ) T he t e rm p i l za tu i so cca s iona l ly ( e .g . P BS 2 /1 4 3 , 7 2 ) u s ed o fc ana l -manage r s a nd t he v e ry e x i s tence o fs u ch of i c ia l s ( unde r wha teve r t i le ) a nd o f' j udge s o ft h e S in C ana l ' a nd t h e l i ke ( c f . n .4 7 ) d oub t le s s s how s t h a t c ana l s c on s t i tu ted a dm in i s t r a t ive u n i t s . T hey m igh te ven b er ega rded a sr oya la dm in i s t r a t ive u n i t s , i n sof a ra st h e manage r s w e re c rown -agen t s ( c f . p .1 33 ) . B u t t h ey a r e a l so , o fc ou r se , e x t reme ly s p ec ia l ized a nd e x t reme ly l o ca l u n i t s : t os p eak o fc ana l ' p rov ince s ' ( Zadok 1 978 :28 1 , 3 09 ) i sa m i s lead ing p e rpe tua t ion o fA kkad ian t e rm ino log ica l v aguene s s . ( i v ) Mo re i mpo r t a n t h e re a r e t h e v a r iou s ' g ove rno r s ' who se t i le a nd /o r a r ea o f c o mpe tenc e s ugge s t s ah ighe r p o s i t ion i nt h e h i e ra rchy , e . g . t h e g ove rno r o ft he S ea land ( t he a r ea o ft h e T ig r i s /Euph ra te s mou th s ) who se d epu ty a ppea r s ( i n ap r iva te c apac i ty ) i n YOS 7 . 106 , o r S i ba ' t he s a t rap ' ( PBS 2 /1 2 : t h e P e r s ian wo rd i su sed i n Akkad ian t r an sc r ip t ion ) , o r B e l gunu , g ove rno r ( L u .NAm ) o r ' s a t rap ' o fB aby lon i n 4 2 1-4 14 u nde r t h e P e r s ian s a t rap G ob rya s , who i so n r e co rd b o th i n b u s ine s s d ocumen t sr e la t ing t oh i sa nd o the rp rop r ie to r s 'l a nd a nd a sa d jud ica to ro f ad i spu te a bou tm i s s ing t emp le p rope r ty ( S to lpe rn .d . (a ) , ( b ) ) , a nd who i sc l ea r ly t oo g rand a f i gu re t o b e me r e ly i n c ha rge o f wha t t h e e a r l i e r d ocumen t s c a l l t h e p i t ta tu o f B aby lon . O the r r e la t ive ly c op iou s m a te r ia l c once rn s B eyond t h e R ive r ( o f wh ich , i n c iden ta l ly , B e l gunu w a s l a te r s a t rap ) a nd E gyp t . I n t h e f o rme r b ib l ica l t e x t s , c onf i rmed b yi n sc r ibed c o in sa nd s e a l sa nd b yp apy r if r om Wad iD a l iyeh ( S ama r ia ) A n . 4 . 1 .5 , 2 1 .1 ( c la s s ) , 4 . 2 1 .2 , 9( Cho r iene s : Cu r t iu s c a l l s h im , u nde r t h e n ame S i s im i th re s , as a t r ap e s—

j u s t a sX enophon w i l l u s es a t rapeu e in o ft h e h ypa rch Man ia ,H e l l .3 . 1 .10 ) . 1 22

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a nd E l ephan t ine , r evea l ' p rov ince s ' ( p hwh o r m ed inah ) s u ch a sJ udah a nd S a ma r ia ( a nd a l so , l e s s f u l ly a t te s t ed , G aza , A shdod , Do r , a nd o the r s ) , u nde r t h e c ommand o fn a t ive g ove rno r s ( p ia o rp e t tah )— in t h ec a se o fS a ma r i a as u cce s s ion o f membe r s o ft h e s ame f am i ly — and w i th o the r of i c ia l s s u ch a sp ref ec t s ( s gn ' ) , t r ea su re r s , a nd s c r ibe s ( a l la ppea ri nt h eS a ma r ia p apy r i ) a nd j udge s , c omm i s s ione r s , o ve r see r s , a nd c h i ef of i ce r s ( Ez r a4 . 8f .— if t h e se i ndeed a r ep rov inc ia l of i c ia l s ) .5 3 O nc onven t ion a li n te rp re ta t ion s o f N eh em i ah 3 t h e p rov ince o fJ udah a t a ny r a te w a s f u r the r s ubd iv ided i n to d i s t r ic t s ( p e l ekh ) a nd h a lf -d i s t r ic t s ( l j a s ip e l ekh ) u nde r c h ief s c a l led s a r ( S te rn 1 982 :237 f . ,i d en t if y ing 6p e l ekh ) , b u t i th a s r e cen t ly b een s ugge s ted t h a t t h et e x ti sa c tua l ly t a lk ing a bou t g roup s o f wo rke r sd o ing c on sc r ip tl a bou r ( on t h e r e bu i ld ing o fJ e ru sa lem ) a s af o rm o ft r ibu ta ry o b l iga t ion ( Dem sky 1 983 , a dduc ing A kkad ian p i lku ) . B e t h a t a si tm ay , t h e p rov ince s c e r ta in ly c on t inue A s sy r ian a nd n eo -Baby lon ian d iv i s ion sa nd a r ep e rhap st h et ype o ft h ing t h ea u tho ro fE s th e rh ad i nm ind when s ay ing t h a tt h e emp i re c on s i s ted o f1 27 p rov ince s ( 1 .1 , 8 . 9 , 9 . 30 ) ; t h e wo rd u sed i st h e s ame a nd ( g ran ted t h a t s ome s a t rap ie s m ay h ave b een r i che r i n s ubd iv i s ion s t h an o the r s ) t h e t o ta l i sr e a sonab ly c on s i s ten t w i th t h e n umbe r o f p rov ince s p e r s a t rapy t o b e p re sumed f o r B eyond t h e R ive r a nd f o r t h e o the r t e rm ino log i ca l ly p a r a l l e lc a se ,E gyp t . H e re t h e r e s e em s n o r e a son t od oub t t h e c on t inued e x i s tence o ft h e t r ad i t iona l n ome s o f Uppe ra nd L owe rE gyp t , t hough t h ed i rec te v idence i nE gyp t ian t e x t si s n o tc op iou s .5 4 E qua l ly ,i ti sc l ea rt h a tt h e re w e re u n i t sc a l led ' p rov ince s ' , t wo b e ing a t te s ted b yn ame , T hebe s a nd T . s ' t r s ( t he s ou th ) .5 A l though t h e l a t te ri sd e s igna ted at ii n P . B e r l in 3 110 , wh ich i s as t anda rd wo rd f o r n ome , i ti se v iden t t h a t t h e p rov ince s w e re l a rge r t h an n ome s , s i nce A rama ic e v idence i mp l ie s t h a t T . s ' i r s , wh ich i n c lude s E l ephan t ine ( AP 2 7 .9 , P . B e r l in 1 3582 ) , i sa d jacen t t oT hebe s ( AP 2 4 .33 f . ) a nd p re -Pe r s i an p e r iod e v idence f o r t h e t e rm i sa ga in s t i t sa pp l ica t ion j u s t t oE lephan t ine o r t oa n a r ea l a rge rt h an t h eE l ephan t ine n ome b u t s ma l le r t h an t h e who le r eg ion d own r ive ra sf a ra sT hebe s .5 6 T he se p rov ince sm ay b ea ni nnova t ion a s c o mpa red w i th t h e S a i te p e r iod , when t h e re i sn o e v idence f o r T i t r s a s a n a dm in i s t ra t ive u n i t w i th a s soc ia ted of i c ia l s ( c on t ra s t aXX I I d yna s ty r e f e rence t o t h e s c r ibe o ft h e r oya l a c coun t o ft h e t jo f T i t r s5 7 ) .T he re i sa l so n o e v idence f o r P e r s ian s ub sa t r apa l u n i t s l a rg e r t h an t h e p rov ince , f o r t h e c oncep t P t o r e s ( a l so ' t he s ou th ' ) v a r iou s ly u s ed o fa n a r ea s t a r t ing i nM idd le E gyp t ( P . Ry l . 91 /2 ( P e r s ian ) , S te rn 1 982 :237 i f . , 1 984 :78 i f .S t ern b e l ieve s t h e p rov ince o f Judah w a so n ly c r ea ted a f te r4 50 BC. Hd t . 2 . 164 .2 , a s se r t s t h e a ppa ren t ly c on temp o ra ry d iv i s ion o fE gyp tk a ta n omou s ;c f .2 . 4 ,4 2 ,4 6 ,7 1 , 9 1 , 1 52 , 1 65-6 , 1 69 , 1 72 , 1 77 . F o r p o s s ib le n ome s i n E gyp t ian s ou rce s c f . ( g ) P . C a i ro 5 0060 , P . V ienna 1 0 .150 , P . L ouv re E 9 292 , E df u Dona t ion T ex t ( Meek s 1 972 :pa s s im ) ; ( q r i t ) P .L oeb 4 6 , P .S t ra sbu rg 5 ; a l so P o sene r 1 936 :no . 1A l , D3 1 , 4 1 . T he A ra ma ic wo rd s py tkn i n AP 2 6 .9 , 2 2f .h a s b een d e r ived f r om a n o lde rE gyp t ian t e rm f o rn ome , v i z . s p i t , y i e ld ing t h e t i le ' c h ief o fc a rpen te r s i n c ha rge o ft he n ome ' ( G re lo t1 972 :288 ) . Thebe s : AP 2 4 .18b , 3 6 , 3 7 .6 , 6 8 .11r .2 7 : s t i r s : AP 2 7 .9 ( c f . 2 4 .39 , 4 2 , P . B e r l in 1 3582 , whe re t h e t e rm p rov ince i s om i t ted , a nd P . B e r l in 3 110 whe re i ti s c a l led t i ) . Anonymou s : AP 1 6 .7 , 1 7 .1 , BP 1 .11 .

T he r e levan t wo rd a ppea r s i n f r agmen ta ry a nd u n in te l l ig ib le c on tex t si nS aqqa r a 1 0 1 .6 , 1 03 .2 . Re levan t S a i te t e x t s : P . T u r in 2 46 , 2 46B , 2 47 , 2 48 ( many o ccu r rence s i nd ef in i t ion s o fs i te o fl a nd : w r i t ten v a r iou s ly D-I t / r s j ( ' sou th d i s t r ic t ' ) o r T il t i r s -N jw • t ( ' sou th d i s t r ic t o f Thebe s ' , i . e . a r ea s ou th o fT hebe s ) ; t h e r eg ion i n c lude s H e rmon t h i s ) ; P .L ouv re 7 845A ( whe re i ti n c lude s l a nd ' we s t o fT hebe s ' , i . e . a n a r ea o n t h e w e s t b ank o ft h e N i le o ppo s i te T hebe s , wh ich c an h ave b een i n ad if e ren t a r ea f r om T hebe si t se lf : i tw a si nt h eP a thy r i te n ome i nh e l len i s t ic t ime s ) ,P .L ouv re 7 858 . L ouv re S t e le C 112 ( c f . G r i ff i th 1 909 :143 n .2 ) . I th a s b een c l a imed t ha t t h i s T e t r s s t re tched a tl e a s t t oA syu t , t hough t he o n ly e v idence i st h e g eographi c a ls p read o ft h es c r ibe ' sp r ie s thood s .

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7 /13 ( S a i te ) ) a nd ( a ppa ren t ly ) o ft h e who le a r ea s ou th o ft he d e l ta ( P . B ib l . Na t . 2 15 v e r so ) c a n b e ap u re ly g eog raph ica l c oncep t i nb o th c a se s . ( P t o r e s , i nt he l a rge r s e n se ,i sl a s ta t te s ted a sa na dm in i s t ra t ive u n i tl o ng b ef o re t h ee nd o ft h eS a i te e r a .5 8 ) On t h e o the r h and , t h e ( d if f e ren t ) h i e rog lyph ic t e rm s u sed i n t h e t i t le s o f A t iyawahy ' g overno r ( r p r t ) o f Cop to s ' ( Po sene r 1 936 :no s . 2 6 , 3 0 ) a nd a nonymou s ' g ove rnor s ( I v t j r ) o f n ome s a nd c i t ie s ' ( i b id . n o . 61 .6 ) m igh t b e e v idence f o r c i ty -gove rno r s , i n c lud ing o ne s i n n ome -cap i ta l s , a s d i s t inc t f r om n o ma rch s , t hough t h e f o rme r a tl e a s t i sa r cha ic a nd c ou ld b e e s sen t ia l ly h ono r if i c , l i ke h i s o the rt i le s r so fP e r s ia ( Po sene r1 936 :24-30 , S cho t t 1 967 :88 f . ) . ( Th i sp o s s ib i l i ty i sa p e renn ia l p rob lem o f E gyp t ian t iu la tu re . ) G ran ted a p rov ince , n o me , a nd ( p e rhap s ) c i ty h i e ra rchy , s ome a t te s ted of i c ia l s f i ti ne a s i ly , e . g . t he s c r ibe s ,j udge s , * t ipa t i a nd * gaul aka o ft h e p rov ince ( AP 1 6 .6 , 1 7 .1 , 2 7 .9 ) ,5 9 t he ' c h ief ( )o ft h e n ome ' ( P . C a i ro 5 0060 ) a nd ' s c r ibe o f t h e n ome ' ( P . V ienna 1 0 .150 ) ," t h e c ommande r ( r ab h ay la ) o ft h e E lephan t ine/ S yene g ar r i son e s tab l i shmen t ( ap e r son s e en a s much i n j ud ic ia l r o le s a s i n s t r ic t ly m i l i ta ry o ne s ) ,6 1 t h e e ponym s ( ?c ommande r s ) o f t h e d e g e l in w i th in t h e g a r r i son .6 2 B u t t h ere a r e a l so v a r iou s p rob lem s . 1 ) T he a zd aka ra ( a n I r an ian t i le ) who a ppea r o nce m igh t b e c i ty , n o me , o r p rov inc ia l of i c ia l s ,6 3 a nd M i thr ida te s ' t he b oa tman ' o f AP 2 6i so fu nce r ta in s t a tu s . I sh e t h e c h ief o f a' hou se o fb oa t s ' o ft h e s o r t a t te s ted a tS aqqa ra ( A ime -G i ron 1 93 1: no s . 5 . 11 , 1a .4 ) o r me re ly as ubord ina te of i c ia l w i th in s uch a n i n s i tu t ion ; a nd d oe s t h e i n s t i tu t ion , i fw e a r e r i gh t t o p o s tu la te i ta ta l , c oun t a sp a r t o ft h e p rov inc ia l s t ruc tu re o r s t and i n amo re d i rec t r e la t ion t o t h e s a trap , t o who m t h e ma t te ri ni sue i n AP 2 6 ,r epa i ro f ab oa t ,h a sb een d i rec t ly r e f e r red ? 2 ) P . B e r l in 1 3552 s p eak s o ft h e t io f O sorwe r , a n E gyp t ian who se h ou se a t E lephan t ine i s ap o s s ib le g ra ins to rage p l ace i nP .L oeb 1 .( He i sa l so n amed i nP . B e r l in 1 3562 , 1 357 1 . ) P or ten 1 968 :45 n .2 6 i d en t if i e s h im a s af r a ta rak ( s ee b e low ) , a nd wonde r s whe the r h e w a s a c tua l ly aP e r s ian who h ad t a ken a n E gyp t ian n ame ( f or wh ich p rac t ice c f . P o sene r 1 936 :no . 3 3 ) . M igh t h e n o t a l te rna t ive ly b e a n o ma rch ? 3 ) I n BP 8 . 23 , ( 6T i shr i ( V I I ) D a r iu s y ea r8 )t h e r a b h a i l a Wa idrang i sg iven t h e a dd i t iona l t i le h p t l jpe . T he re i sl i t t le d oub t t h a t t h i s m ean s ' gua rd ian o f t he/a s e ven th ' ( OP * haf t axva -pä tä : Henn ing 1 968 , B ogo l iubov 1 974 , H inz 1 975 : 46 ) , b u tt h ep rope ri n te rp re ta t ion o ft h i si sa no the r ma t te r . Ih ave j u s tt wo o b se rva t ion s . I nP . Ry land s 9 . 5/14 , 1 8 , 6 /1 f . ,7 /11 f . ,1 0 /1 f . i t i s t h e a r ea f r om t h e s ou th w a tch t owe r o f Memph i s ( s ome 6 0 km s ou th o f Memph i s : Yoyo t te 1 972 ) t o E lephan t ine a nd i sr u led b y t h e Ma s te r o f S h ipp ing . I n1 0 /8 i ti sd e s igna ted On g aul aka c f . a bove p . 1 20 . *T ipa t i ( A r . t y p ty ' ) h a sb een v a r iou s ly e xp la ined ( Po r ten 1 968 :50 n .8 3 ) . H inz 1 975 :92 d en ie s t h a t i tr e cu r s i nE l am i te g a rb i n P F 1 250 , 1 902 . P o s s ib le p rov inc ia l a c coun t a n t s : AP 6 8 .11r .2 , 1v .1 . 6° T he f o rme r p ay s t emp le t a x ; t h e i n come o ft h e l a t te r ' s of i ce i s' g iven ' t o a no the r p a r ty l i ke t h e i n come o f r e l ig iou s o ff i ce s i n many o the r d ocumen t s . B o th a r e p robab ly n o t d i rec t ly p a r t o f t h e P e r s ian a dm in i s t ra t ion .

J ud ic ia l : AP 1 . 3 , 1 6 .7 ,2 0 .4 ,2 5 .24 ,3 8 .3 , BP 8 . 2f . O the r : AP 3 0 .7 ( l ead ing E gyp t ian t r oop s a ga in s t t he J ew i sh t emp le ) , BP 1 3 .7 ( f rag men ta ry ) , G re lo t 1 972 : n o .7 5( d ed ica to ry i n sc r ip t ion ) . C f . P or ten 1 968 : 2 9f . , who a l so n o te s ' c en t u r ion s ' ; a nd a dd S aqqa r a 3 . 6 , 1 5 .2 , 6 3 .3 , 13 .2 . The P e r son sn amed i nt h e f o rmu la l y r PN ( unde r c on t ro l o f PN ) i n A im-G i ron 1 93 1 : 5 . 11f . , 1l a .1 , 2 , 2 8 .2 may b eo the rs u ch m i l i ta ry of i ce r s . AP 1 7 .5 .7 . G re lo t 1 972 : 2 82 r e s to r e s t h e t ex t t o l o ca te t h em i n ' t he f o r t E l ephan t ine ' . One c ou ld a s w e l l r e ad ' f o r t S yene ' o r e ven ' t he p rov ince ' . They a r e a s soc i a ted w i th t h e s c r ibe s o ft he p rov ince . The s ame t e x t men t ion s ` B igdan a nd h i s c o l league s ' w i thou ts u rv iv ing t i le .

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( i ) T he s ugge s t ion ( K r a e l ing a d B P l o c . c i t . , H enn ing 1 968 :138 ) t h a t h p t l jpe r e p r e sen t s as t ep o n t h e p romo t ion ladde r b e tween r a b h a i l a a nd f r a t a r ak ( t he l a t te r a n of i ce Wa id rang h e ld b y 4 10 BO i ss omewha t i n secu re , s i nce Wa id r ang i so nce a g a in p l a in r a b h ay l a i nA P 2 5 .24 ( 3K i s lev ( IX ) D a r iu s y ea r 8 )a nd i tm igh t b e t h e c a se t ha t h p t i : ipe w a s s imp ly a r egu la r a nc i l la ry t i le o f t h e r a b h a i l a , n o rma l ly i g no red i nJ ew i sh A ram a ic d ocumen t s . ( i ) T he r e cu r rence o fh p t 1 : 1 ( i . e . ' s even th ' ) i n S aqqa ra 6 3 .4 i n af r agmen ta ry c on tex t a l so n am ing d e g e l membe r s ( i . e . s o ld ie r s ) s ugge s t s t h a t w e may b e d ea l ing w i th c o mmand o fm i l i ta ry u n i t s n o t a dm in i s t ra t i ve o ne s . I ti sc e r ta in ly n o t s a f e t o a s sume t h a t o u r p i c tu re o ft h e s a t rapy o r i t s p rov ince s/ nome s ( c f . H inz l o c . c i t . , P o r ten 1 968 :44 ) h a s t o a c commoda te t h e i r d i v i s ion i n to s e ven d i s t r i c t s . 4 ) P . B e r l in 1 3582 r e f e r s t o o ne P rnw a s b e ing ' i n c ha rge o f T i t r s a nd t h e ( ? )f o r t re s s o f S yene ' i n4 88 /7 . T he v i ew t h a t P rnw i si d en t ica l n o t o n ly w i th a h omonym a tE l ephan t ine i nP .L oeb 1( wh ich h ei s )b u ta l so w i th P rn t t =P he ren d a te s , s a t rap o f E gyp t b ef o re a nd a f te r t h e d a te o f P . B e r l in 1 3582 ( P . B e r l in 1 3539-40 ) i si n co r r ec t . T he n ame s a r e ( p a c e S p iege lbe rg 1 928 , Z auz ich 1 978 ) d if e ren t ( s ee Hughe s 1 984 )— the n on -Egyp to log i s t c an o n ly wonde r b emu sed ly why a nyone s hou ld e v e r h ave t hough t o the rw i se . We d o n o t t h e ref o re h ave t o e xp la in why as a t r ap s hou ld t empo r a r i ly h ave at i le r e la t ing s o le ly t o s ou the rn E gyp t . B u t t h e re i ss t i l l ap rob lem i nt h e c o mb ina t ion o ft h e h i e ra rch ica l l e ve l s o f p rov ince ( 71 t r s ) a nd c i ty ( ' the ( ? )f o r t re s s o fS yene ' p robab ly d oe s n o t d i s t ingu i sh b e tween t h et own a nd s ome i n s t i tu t ion w i th in i ti nv i ew o ft h ei n te rchangeab le u s e o f` Syene ' a nd ' t he f o r t S yene ' i nA rama ic t e x t s ) . Do w ec onc lude t h a t ap rov inc ia l g ove rno r w a s n o rma l ly a l so c i ty -p ref ec t o f t h e p rov inc i a l c ap i ta l ? O r d oe s t h e s p ec if i cr e f e rence h e r er a the ri mp ly t h a tt h e se wou ld u sua l ly b es e pa ra te of i ce s ?6 4 5 ) A n umbe r o f A r ama ic d ocumen t s u s e t h e t i le s f r a t a r ak a nd s g n ' , who se i n te rp re t a t ion p o se s c e r ta in d if i cu l t ie s . T he f r a t a r ak ( a lway s a n I r an i an ) a ppea r s b o th a tS aqqa ra ( S aqq a ra 2 7 .5 — the t e x ta l so m en t ion sj udge s ) a nd E lephan t ine ( AP 2 0 .4 , 2 7 .4 , 3 0 .7 = 3 1 .6 ) . AP 2 0 .4 n ame s h im a sc o-membe r w i th t h e r a b h ay l a o fa T r ibuna lo f Nef a ' , a nd i ti sc l ea rf r om t h eo rde ro fn ame si nt h a t t e x ta nd f r om t h e p e r sona l c a ree r o f Wa id r ang t h a t t h e of i ce i ss upe r io r t o t h a t o f r a b h ay l a . A l though Wa id rang w r i t e s t oh i s s on a nd s u cce s so r a sr a b h ay l a t oo rde r t h e a t tack o nt he J ew i sh t emp le ( AP 3 0 .7 = 3 1 .6 ) ,i tn eed n o tf o l low t h a th i sn o rma lr e s idence w a s n o t E l ephan t ine / S yene . S eve r a l p o s s ib le i n te rp re t a t ion s o ft h ef r a t a r ak s ugge s t t h em se lve s . ( a ) Nom a rch ( Po r ten 1 968 :47 , G re lo t 1 972 : 2 00 ) —bu t It h ink o ne m igh t e xpec t n oma r ch s t ob e E gyp t ian , t hough , o fc ou r se , t h e b o rde r n ome a nd t h e Memph i te n ome c ou ld b e e xcep t iona l . ( b ) Ap rov inc ia l m i l i ta ry c o mmande r -the t r oub le w i th t h i si st h a ti ti nvo lve sp o s tu la t ing a n of i c ia lf o r who se e x i s tence t he re i sn o i ndepend en t e v idence . ( c ) P rov inc ia l g ove rno r ( B re sc ian i 1 969 :324 f . , Ray n .d . ) . T h i s i st h e b e s t s o lu t ion . AP 3 7 .6 i sn o t as e r iou s o b jec t ion , s i nce t h e a su mp t ion t h a t i td e s igna te s t h e T hebe s p rov inc ia l g ove rno r a sp qyd i su nf ound e d ;6 5 a nd a l though P a le s t in ian p a ra l le l s ( p . 1 23 ) m igh t l e ad o ne t oe xpec t t h e t e rm a nd e ven i fn o t ( s o P o r ten 1 968 :54 n .102 ) c ou ld d e s igna te a n e s ta te -manage r ( t h i s b e ing t h e t i le ' s a s soc ia t ion e l sewhe re i n E gyp t ( AD p a s s im ) a nd B aby lon ia ( c f .p .1 34 ) ) .

Two mo re a ppa ren t P e r s ian of i c i a l s o n r e co rd a tE lephan t ine i nt h e s ame p e r iod a r e A r tabanu s ( P . L oeb 1 )a nd Ravaka ( P .B e r l in 2 3584 ) . The wo rd may a c tua l ly b e av e rb , n o t at i le , 64

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p l j t , t h e o n ly a t te s ta t ion o f t h a t t i le i n E gyp t ian A rama i c i si n r e f e r ence t o a p lu ra l i ty o fe v iden t ly l owe r rank of i ce r s ( Bre s c ian i 1 960 , F i tzmye r 1 962 ) a nd w e n eed n o t a f te r a l a s sume t h eP a le s t in ian a nd E gyp t i an c a se s t ob e i d en t i ca l : t h e f a c t t h a t t h e E gyp t ian p rov ince s a r e aP e r s i an i nnova t ion c ou ld a c coun t f o r as pec ia l ( I ran ian ) t i le . S gn ' d if e r s f r om f r a t a r ak i nt wo r e spec t s . F i r s t ly , a l though i ti sn o t as p ec if i ca l ly I r an ian t i le , i ti sa t te s ted i nt wo o the rp a r t s o ft h ee mp i re . S a ma r ia P apy ru s 1 4 ( c f . C ro s s 1 974 :18 , 1 986 :7 ) i s ad ocumen t e xecu ted b ef o re ` Ye shua , s on o fS anba l la t a nd H anan t h e s g n" , t h e l a t te r b e ing t h e ref o r e a n a s soc ia te /subo rd in a t e o f t h e p rov inc ia l g ove rno r ( f o r o the r t e x t s e s tab l i sh t h a t Y e shua h e ld t ha t p o s i t ion ) . T he wo rd r e cu r s i nN eh em iah 5 . 17 o fp e r son s who a t e a tt h e g ove rno r ' s t a b l ei nJ udah , a nd S t e rn 1 984 :8 1 s e e s t h em a sc o mmande r s o fs ma l l m i l i ta ry g a r r i son s . F u r the r e a s t , o ne i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e i n sc r ibed mo r t a r s , p e s t le s , a nd p l a te s f ound a t P e r sepo l i s i st h a t t h ey r e f e r t o ah i e ra rchy o f of i c ia l s i n A r acho s ia , at r ea su re r r e spon s ib le f o rt h ree f o r t re s se s , e a ch o f wh ich h a s as g n ' ( ?f o r t re s sc o mmande r ) a nd s ub t r ea su re r .6 T he re i sn o p rov ing t h a tt h e of i c e r si nP a le s t ine a nd A r a cho s ia a r e s ub s tan t ia l ly c o mpa rab le w i th t h e E gyp t ian c a se ( t hough t h ey a r e a tl e a s t a l o f l owe r s t a tu re t h an t h e p rov inc ia l g ove rno r ) , b u t t h e i r e x i s tence m ake s i t u n su rp r i s ing t h a t o ne s hou ld e ncoun te r s g n ' i n a n E gyp t i an p rov in c e . T h i s , h oweve r , l e ad s t ot h e s e cond d if e r ence b e tween f r a t a r ak a nd s g n ' . Whe r e a s w e d o f i nd r e f e rence s t o a c tua l , i nd iv idua l a nd n amed f r a t a r ak s , t h e s g n ' a ppea r s o n ly i n l e ga l f o rmu lae wh ich e nv i sage o r p rec lude l e ga l p roceed ing s ' b ef ore s g n ' o rj udge ' ( AP 8 . 13 , 1 0 .13 , 2 0 ) o r ' b ef o re s g n ' o rl o rd ' ( AP 4 7 .2 , 7 , BP 9 . 19 , 1 0 .13 ) o r' b ef o re s g n ' o rj udge o r l o rd ' ( BP 1 2 .18 ) . (We a l so o nce g e t ' b ef o r ej udge o r l o rd ' ( BP 1 . 6 ) . )6 7 I ti sc o mmon ly s uppo sed t h a t ' l o rd ' r e f e r st ot h es a t rap o rt he f r a t a r ak , w i th s g n ' t h e ref o re d e s igna t ing e i the r t h ef r a t a r ak o r t h e r a b h ay l a . Of t he se t h e l a t te r i s p ref e rab le s i nce i tk eep s t h e s g n ' d own t o al e ve l mo re c on s i s ten t w i th t h a t i n n on -Egyp t ian e v idence . B u t i tm ay b e wo r th a i r ing a d if e r en t a pp roa ch . T he p u rpo se o f t h e f o rmu lae u nde r d i scu s s ion i se v id en t ly t o p r ec lude f u r th e r l e ga l a c t iv i ty ' i na ny c ou r t wha t soeve r ' . B u ti ti sc l ea rf r om p a r t icu la rc a se s t ha tt h el e ga l p rob lem so fm embe r so ft h eE l ephan t ine g a r r i son c ou ld f a l lw i th in t he c ompe tence o fv a r iou s p e r son s ( t he f r a t a r ak , t h e r a h h ay l a , t h e l a t te r ' s a s se s so r s , r oya lj udge s , p rov inc ia lj udge s , p l a in u nqua l if i ed j udge s ) ,a nd i fw ee s say p rec i se i d en t if i c a t ion o f ' l o rd ' , s g n ' a nd ' j udge ' w e r un t h e r i sk o f r ende r ing t h e f o rmu lae i n ef f e c t ive . B ea r ing i n m ind t h a t a l t h e t e rm s a r e i nt h em se lv e s q u i te v ague a nd c apab l e o f r e f e r r ing t o av a r ie ty o fs p ec if i c of i c ia l s ,6 8 i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t ' j udge ' c ove r s a ny r e levan t of i c ia l who se t iu la r r o le i ss o le ly j ud ic ia l a nd l o rd a nd /o r s g n ' c ove r s o the r p e r son s who se f unc t ion s a r e w ide r t h an , t hough c an i n c lude , t he j ud i c i a l . I n ' Lo rd ' c an b e u sed o ft h e s a trap ( AD 3 . 3 , 4 . 2 , 1 0 .1 , AP 1 6 .8 , 1 7 .5 , 2 7 .2 , p e rhap s 3 3 .7 , 1 3 , 3 4 .6 ) b u t a l so o f l e s s e r p e r son s : e s ta te h o lde r s ( AD 7 . 4f . ) , g ove rno r o fJ udah ( AP 3 0 .1 f . ) , a nonymou s a ddr e s see o f AP 2 7 , M i th ravah i s t ( AP 7 0 ) , v a r iou sJ ew s ( AP 3 7 .1 , 3 8 . 1 , 1 2 , BP 1 3 .1 , 9 ) . The wo rd i sn o t c onf ined t o A chaemen id A r ama ic : c f . Dupon t S omme r 1 948 :43 1 . ( S a i te ) . S gn ' c an d e s igna te a ' c h ief c a rpen t e r( AP 2 6 .9 ,2 2 ) .

B owman 1 970 p ub l i she s t he t e x t s , b u t t h ey s hou ld b e i n te rp re ted a s b y L ev ine 1 972 , Naveh / S akhed 1 973 , Voge l sang 1 985 :85 . F o r p rec lu s ion o f s u i t w i thou t n am ing o f p o s s ib le j udge sc f . AP 5 . 8 ,6 . 12 ,8 . 14 ,2 1 ,9 . 15 , 1 3 .8 f . , 1 4 .7 , 1 0 , 1 5 .25 , 2 9 , 2 0 .10 , 1 6 , 2 5 .10 , 1 7 , 2 8 .12 , 1 4 , 4 3 .8 , BP 3 . 12 ,4 . 12 , 1 5 ,2 2 , 5 . 6 , 1 5 ,7 . 32 , 8 . 5 , 1 .8 , 1 2 . No te a l so P BS 2 /1 2 1 , whe re s u i ti sp rec luded b ef o re ' k ing ,s a t rap o rj udge ' .

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o the r word s , t h e r e f e rence o fl o rd a nd s g n ' may d if e r d epend ing o n whe the r o ne o rb o th a r e m en t ioned i nt h e f o rmu la ( t hu s h e lp ing t oe xp la in why t h e f o rmu la ' s v a r ia t ion s d o n o t a ppa ren t ly m a t te r ) ; a nd s g n ' s hou ld b e n o mo re a st h e t i le o fa p a r t icu la r of i c ia l t h an i s' l o rd ' . T he a rgumen t wou ld f a l l , o f c ou r se , i fa nyone c ou ld d emon s t ra te t h a t t h e v a r ied c on ten t s o f t h e f o rmu la a nd t h e r egu la r a ppe a rance o f at i le n eve r a t te s ted i n i t s own r i gh t i n t h e E l ephan t ine a r ch ive s r e la ted t o t h e p a r t icu la r a nd v a r ied k ind s o fp ro spec t ive l e ga l a c t ion a nd p o in t a t i sue .B u tt od a te t h e re s e em st ob en or e a son t ot h ink t h a tt h i si st h ec a se . 3 INDIVIDUAL PLACES AS AD MINISTRATIVE UNITS A f t e r t h i s p ro longed c on s ide r a t ion o fm a t e r ia l f r om E lephan t ine , w e m ay t u rn t o o the re v idence a bou tc i t ie so ro the ri nd iv idua lp l ace s ( a so ppo sed t or eg ion s ) wh ich m ay c oun t a sa dm in i s t r a t ive u n i t s . I n f a c t , e ven v i l lage s c ou ld h ave t h e i r l o ca l a u tho r i t ie s . T he 1 0 ,000 h ad d ea l ing s w i th ak oma r ch i nn o r the rn A rmen ia ,6 9 w h i le S aqqa ra 2 2 p e rhap s r e f e r s t o av i l lage e l de r ( t hough i n i t s e lf q i ryah c ou ld m ean ' t own ' a sw e l l a s` v i l lage ' ) . One n a tu ra l ly a s sume s t h a t t h e se a r e n a t ive , a nd t h a t t h ey r epre sen t l ong e s tab l i shed s t ruc tu re s ; X enophon , t hough , d oe s n o te t h a t t h e A rmen ian k oma r ch s poke P e r s ian , a si ndeed d id o the ri nhab i tan t s o f av i l lage i nt h e s ame r eg ion ( An . 4 . 5 .10 ,3 4 ) . I r an ian r u le i sp re t ty i n t ru s ive i fav i l lage -head c an d o t o s p eak t h e c onque ro r ' s l a nguage . B u t a tt h i s l e ve l i ti sr a the r t h e i n t ru s ion o f a c tua l I r an ian s t h a t i so fp a r t icu la r i n te re s t , f o r t h e me re e x i s tence o fm an ipu lab le l o ca l s t ruc tu re s i na ny i n d iv idua l c o mmun i ty , b e t h ey t h e mag i s t ra te s o f ap o l i s o r t h e of i c ia l so f aB aby lon ian t own , 7°i s( a ss t re s sed a tt h eo u t se t ) r e la t ive ly b ana l . S o f a r a sc i t ie s a r e c once rned , o ne c ou ld p e rhap s f i nd t h i s i nt h e I r an ian h ypa rch s o f S e s to s ( Hd t . 7 . 33 , 7 8 , 9 . 115 f . ) a nd Cyme ( i d . 7 . 194 ) . A re t h ey P e r s ian c i ty -gove rno r s i mpo sed u pon l o ca l a dm in i s t r a t ion ? S hou ld o ne a s sume t h a t t h i s w a s c ommon , t h a t i ti sr ef l ec ted i n D iodo ran p a s sage s wh ich r epo r t t h e i sue o f r oya li n s t ruc t ion s ' t os a t rap sa nd t oc i t ie s ' ( 1 4 .80 .7 ) o r ' t os a t rap sa nd t h e c i t ie st h ey r u led ' ( 1 4 .98 .3 )— the wo rd s a t rap b e ing u s ed i nb o th c a se s o f al ow l ie r of i c ia l t h an t h es a t rapa lv i ce roy — and t h a tp a ra l le l sc an b ef ound i nt h ep r a ef e c tu so fP a sa rgadae ( Cu r t . 5 . 6 .10 ) o r D am a scu s ( i d . 3 . 8 .12 , 1 3 .2 ) , B a t i s , t h e m an i nc ha rge o fG aza i n 3 33/2 ( A r r . A n . 2 . 25 .4 , C u r t . 4 . 6 .7 , J o seph . 1 .320 ) , Rha th ine s t h e e pa rch o f G o rd ium i n3 95 ( He l l . Oxy . 2 1 .6 ) , t h e' s a t rap s ' o fP u ra a nd Makka si nP F6 79-68 1 , o r A t iyawahy t h e ' g ove rno r ' o fC op to s ( p . 1 24 ) ? T he a n swe r i sp robab ly n o . T he S e s to sh ypa rch s e em st ob ea c t ive i na na r ea w ide rt h an j u s t S e s to s ( h ei st h e ref o re a t ype o fr eg iona lh ypa r ch ) , a nd t h es ame w a st r ue a tC yme f o ra l w ek now ( o re l se t h e h ypa rch r e la te s t ot h e p l ace ' s s p ec ia l r o le a sf l ee t b a se ) . I ndeed , i tc ou ld b e t r ue 4 . 5 .10 w e s hou ld u nde r s tand t h a t t h ey e xpec ted t o f i nd t h i so ne k oma rch b u td id n o td os o . 7° e . g . ! a k in t em i o f U ruk ( S an N ico le 1 94 1 :12 1 . ) , B o r s ippa ( VS 6 . 128 ) o rB aby lon ( Camb . 2 76 ) , l a ngu o f S ippa r ( S an N ico le 1 94 1:34 ) , l a t ammu o f S ippa r ( YOS 7 . 106 ) , ' c i ty -ch ief ( l a m uhh i u Ru ) o f S ippa r ( Camb . 1 9 ) o r H and id i ( BE 8 . 80 ) , NIN.KU o f B aby lon ( Da r . 1 54 , 2 06 ) o r Ku ta ( BM 8 4 .211 .2 14 ) , l a knu o f N ippu r ( BE 9 . 23 , 1 0 .76 , PBS 2 /1 7 0— the c i ty -qua r te r s w e re u nde r a p aqdu :Z adok 1 978 :275 ) .

Xen . A n . 4 . 5 .10 , 2 4 , 2 7-30 , 3 2 , 3 4-5 , 6 . 1-3 . T he re w e re s e ve r a l v i l l l age s i n t h e v i c in i ty ( c f . 4 . 5 .23 f . , 3 01 . ) a nd a t f i r s t s i gh t t wo d if e ren t k omarch s a r e men t ioned ( 4 .5 .10 a nd 4 . 5 .24 , w i th a l s ub sequen t r e f e rence s b e ing t o t h e l a t te r ) , l e av ing o pen t he p o s s ib i l i ty o f ak oma rch f o re ach v i l lage ( c f . 2 4 : ' t he k oma rch o f t h i s v i l lage ' ) . Mo re p robab ly h oweve rt h ek oma rch i n4 . 5 .24-6 .3 i si nc ha rge o fa l t h ev i l lage s ( h eh a sr e la t ive si ns e ve ra l ( 3 2 ) a nd i ti sh e who m Che i r i sophu s a nd X enophon l a te r c ro s s e xam ine ) , a nd when Che i r i sophu s a nd h i s c on t ing en t e n te r a v i l lage r pös TÖV K 'ha p riV a t 69

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i n s ome o f t h e n on -G reek l o ca t ion s j u s t m en t ioned , whe re o ne ' s g rea te r u nce r ta in ty a bou t t h e n a tu re o f n a t iv e a dm in i s t ra t ive i n s t i tu t ion s make s i t d ange rou s ly e a sy t o a s sume d i rec t r u le o f ac i ty ( a s o ppo sed t o ar e g ion c en t red u pon ac i ty ) t h rough a ne x te rna l ly i mpo sed of i c i a 1 .7 1 V a r iou s o the r s o r t s o f e v idence c onf e r s p ec ia l s t a tu s u pon i nd iv idua l p l ace s w i th in a s a t rapy . T he s a t rapa l c ap i ta l i t s e lf o bv iou s ly c o me s i n to t h a t c a tego ry ( when i tc an b e i d en t if i ed ) , a s d o p rov inc i a l c ap i ta l s . B u t wha t a bou t o the r l o ca t ion s ? T he e v idence f o r s a t rapa l p a lace s /re s idence s b eyond c ap i t a l s i si n ade q ua te t ol e ad t oa ny p a r t icu la r c onc lu s ion .7 2 T ha t a bou t t r ea su r ie s i sal i t t le b e t te r . Ma jo r t r ea su r ie s ( p lace s s t o r ing s i lve r i n s i zeab le q uan t i t ie s , a s w e l l a s o the r v a luab le s ) w e re t ob e f ound i nr oya l a nd s a t r apa l c ap i ta l s , a nd s ome o ft h e v ague r e f e rence st o' t he ( r oya l ) t r ea su ry ' o rt h el i ke m ay a l so r e la te t os uch i n s t a l l a t ion s .7 3 L eav ing a s ide T imaeu s ' c l a im t h a t t h e E phe s ian A r tem i s ion w a s r e bu i l t i n t h e s e cond h a lf o ft h e f ou r th c en tu ry u s ing P e r s ian p a r aka t a th eka i r e cove r ed f r om t h e t emp le , wh ich m ay h ave l i t t le r e levance t ot h eo rd ina ry s y s tem ,e ven i fi ti sc r ed ib le a ta l 1 ,7 4 s e ve ra l b od ie s o f m a te r ia l d o r e la te t o t r ea su ry s i te s o fl owe r s t a tu s . I n E gyp tt h e re w a s aRoya l Hou se o r Roya lT rea su ry a tE l ephan t ine , wh i ch s upp l ied p aymen t si nk ind a nd i ns i lve ra nd i sa s soc iab le w i th ' of i ce r s ' , s c r ibe s , a nd t r ea su ry a c coun tan t s .7 5 T he f a c tt h a tt h eg ra in i n come i n AP 2 4i sl a be l led a s' f rom T i t r s ' o r ' f rom T hebe s ' s ugge s t s t h a t t h e t r ea su ry wo rk s a tp rov inc i a l l e ve l a nd w e may a s sume t h a t t h e p re sence o f at r ea su ry i n ap rov inc ia l c ap i ta l w a s as t anda rd p henomenon . T he v o lum inou s Ph i l i s to -A rab ian ' , Th i l i s to -Egyp t ian ' a nd Y ehud c o inage s w i l l b e ac onf i rma t ion o ft h i s , i ft h ey w e re i n f a c t m in ted a tp rov inc ia l t r ea su r ie s( S te rn 1 982 :22 1 f . ,1 984 :111 ) . I n t h e c a se o fP u ra o ne s hou ld n o te t h a t K a r ld i ' s a t rap a t P u ra ' a nd t r ave l l ing t h i the r i n Y ea r 2 1 , mon th 7 ( PF 6 8 1 ) may b e t he p re sumed s a t rap o f C a rman ia ,f o r whom c f . P F1 330 ( s ame d a te ) . P o s s ib le e xamp le s : Hd t . 3 . 122 ( Magne s ia ) , N eh . 3 . 7 ( J e ru sa lem ) , D iod . 1 6 .4 1 .5 ( S idon : c f . C le rmon t G anneau 1 92 1 , Con tenau 1 923 ) , X en . A n . 1 . 4 .10 ( Be le sy s ' p a lace i nS y r ia ) , 3 . 4 .24 ( una t t r ibu ted p a lace 8d ay s n o r th o fN ineveh ) , 4 . 4 .2 ( p a lace o fs a t rap o f A rmen ia ) , 4 . 4 .7 ( p a lace o fh ypa rch o f W. A rmen ia ) . S ome b a s i l e ia i n E . I r an may b e r e levan t ( Ar r . A n . 3 . 25 .1-6 , 3 0 .6 , 4 . 5 .3 , Cu r t . 6 . 5 .24 , S t rabo 7 23C ) . T he b a s i l e ia o fA ska lon ( P s . S cy 1 .78 ) i st h es e a t o ft h e g overno r o fA shdod , t h e L ach i sh r e s idence t h a t o f t h e g overno r o f I dumaea ( S te rn 1 982 :249 ) . F o r r e s idence s/ pa r ad e i so ii ns a t rapa lc ap i ta l sc f . X en . H e l l . 4 . 1 .15 f . ( Da scy le ium ) , O e c . 4 . 20 , D iod . 1 4 .80 .2 ( S a rd i s ) ,X en .A n . 1 . 2 .7 ( Ce la ina i ) . C ap i ta l s : S u sa : Hd t . 5 . 49 , P o lyc l i t . 1 28 F 3 , a nd c f . n .1 09 . P e r sepo l i s : C ame ron 1 948 :9 , C ah i l l 1 985 , S t rabo 1 5 .3 .3 , Cu r t . 5 . 5 .2 , ( ? ) Nep . D a t . 5 . 3 , D inon 6 90 F 23 , a nd c f . n .109 . P a sa rgadae , E cba tana : c f . n .1 09 . B aby lon : A r r . A n . 3 . 16 .3 , Cu r t . 5 . 1 .20 , E z ra 1 . 8( ? ) , 6 . 1 f . , S t rabo 7 3 1 , a nd c f . t e x t b e low . Memph i s : ( i ) T emp le o f P tah : c f . s t a tue o f P tah h o tep , ' t rea su ry c h ie f ' , f ound t h e re ( Cooney 1 953 ) a nd r e f e rence s t o ' s tone s o f P tah ' ( c f . n .1 5 ) ; ( i ) Roya l Hou se : S aqqa ra 1 7 ,3 1 ,8 3 . ( The se n eed n o tb e t h e s ame i n s t i tu t ion . ) S a rd i s : A r r . A n . 1 . 17 .3 , D iod .

1 7 .2 1 .7 . D a scy le ium : H e l l . Oxy . 2 2 .3 ( ? ) . O the r i t em s : S u s a : E s th e r 3 . 9 , 4 . 7 . E gyp t : Hd t . 2 . 149 . B eyond t h e R ive r : E z r a 6 . 4 , 8 ,7 . 20 f .( IE sd r . 6 . 25 , 2 9 ) . T ema : Donne r -Rö l l ig 1 963 :no . 28 ( bu t I wonde ri ft h i sr oya l t r ea su ry i sr e a l ly a ny th ing t o d o w i th P e r s ia ; t h e s ame d oub t a pp l ie s t ot h e ' g overnor o fT ema ' —who i sa l so s on o ft he K ing o fL ihyan — i nC ro s s1 986b ) . T imae .556 F 150b . A r tem idoru s d i sm i s sed t he s t ory , c l a im ing t h a tt h e re w e re n op a r aka t a th eka i a nd t h a ti ft h e re h ad b een t h ey wou ld h ave b een b u rned . Hou s e : AP 2 . 12 1 . ,4 3 .8 , BP 1 .6 . G ranary : AP 2 . 14 , 1 .6 , ( ? )50 .6 , BP 3 . 9 , 6 . 7 , 1 0 .4 , 1 .4 . Ove r lap o f t e rm ino logy i n AP 2 , B P 1 g ua r an te e s t he i r i d en t i ty ; a nd b o th a r e c onnec ted w i th p aymen t o f r a t ion s ( BP 1 .4 , AP 2 . 5 , 4 3 .8 ) a nd s a la ry ( AP 2 . 16 , 1 .16 ) . T he g w rn ' ( g rana ry ) wh ich a ppea r s a ss t ore p l ace f o r c e rea l s n o t y e t p a id a s r a t ion s ( AP 2 4 .4 1 ) a nd a s t h e r o ya l g rana ry p a r t ly d e s t royed i n t he E l ephan t ine r i o t s ( AP 2 7 .5 ) i sp e rhap s p a r t o f t he s ame i n s t i tu t ion ; AP 2 4 s how s t ha t i ts upp l i e s b o th S yene a nd E l ephan t ine . I n P . L oeb 1 c o rn i st o b e ' a s s igned t o t h e t r ea su ry ' ( t ran s la t ion d oub tf u l ) — p e rhap s a t E l ephan t ine . T he ' b ank ' o f t h e m an i n c ha rge o f T s t r i a nd T hebe s ( P . B e r l in 1 3582 ) i s o b scu re . AP 2 . 12 f .a ppa ren t ly n ame s ' s c r ibe s o ft he t r ea su ry ' C i v il ; a nd t h e t r ea su ry ( g nz ' ) a c coun tan t s o f AP 2 6 .4 , 2 3 a r e e v iden t ly o f f ic ia l s o ft h e Roya l Hou se .

7 1

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B aby lon ian t e x t sr e f e rt o ac on s ide rab le v a r ie ty o fs t o rehou se s , t r e a su r ie sa nd t h e l i ke . Many a r e o fn o p a r t icu la r r e levance h e re , b u t a tl e a s t s e ven c a tego r ie s o f ' r oya l ' o r o the rw i se s p e c ia l s t o rage p l ace s p re sen t t h em se lve s . A n umbe r o f Mu ra gu a r ch ive t e x t s f r om N ippu r d i sc lo se t h e e x i s tence o f t h e n akandu l a r r i , ' r oya l s t o r ehou se ' o r ' t r ea su ry ' , wh ich w a s i n t h e c on t ro l s u cce s s ive ly o f Manu g tanu ( t he k ing ' s n ephew ) a nd A r tab sa r ( s ee b e low p . 1 35 ) a nd emp loyed t h e l a bou r o f ac a tego ry o f d ependen t p e r son ( t he l u . s Y ann e ) . Unf o r tuna te ly n o th ing much e me rge sa bou ti t sf unc t ion sa sa ni n s t i tu t ion ( S to lpe r 1 974 :13 1 f . ) . A d if e ren t s e t o f Mu ra gu t e x t s r epea ted ly n ame s t h e b i t l a rd ( r oya l h ou se ) a s r e c ip ien t o fi l ku ( o r ap a r t t h e reo f ) p a id o n b ow f i ef s ( c f . p p . 1 53 ) , a nd t h e s ame n a me r e cu r si na ne a r l ie rt e x t ,V S3 . 159 , whe re at a xc a l led m ik su i sp a id t ot h er oya l h ou se i na c co rdance w i th r oya ll aw . ( E l l i s 1 974 d i scu s se st h ee a r l ie rh i s to ry o fm ik su b u ti su nhe lpf u lo nt h eA chaemen id p e r iod . I n CT 2 2 .5 i ta ppea r st od eno te ac ana l t o l l . The wo rd a ppea r si nA rama ic g u i se i nE gyp ta s as i lve rt a xi nS aqqa ra 1 9 . ) I ti s a tl e a s t p o s s ib le , h owev e r , t h a t i nt h i s d ocumen t b i tl a r r i i ss imp ly a n a bb r ev ia t ion f o rt he ' r oya lb i tm ik su ' ,a ni n s t i tu t ion ( a to rn ea rG ib i ) m en t ioned i n RO MCT 2 . 35 a st he l o cu so f as l ave s a le . I ti sn o tu n l ike ly t h a tt h e( Egyp t ian ) r a bm ik su n amed i na p r iva te c apac i ty i nV S 4 . 194 h ad s ome c onnec t ion w i th t h i s i n s t i tu t ion , a nd mo re o r l e s s c e r ta in t h a t i t s p e r sonne l i n c luded a * hama r aka r a ( a ccoun tan t ) , f o r o ne a ppea r s a s aw i tne s s i n RO MCT l o c . c i t . ( The re i sa l so ar oya l h ama r ak a r a i n BE 1 0 .13 , p e rhap s t o b e c onnec ted w i th a r oya l t r ea su ry o f o ne s o r t o r a no the r ; a h ama r aka r a o f A r tab s a r ( PBS 2 /1 8 4 ) , o ne t ime c on t ro l le r o f t h e n akandu l a r r i ( a bove ) ; a nd o the rl e s sw e l l -def ined b ea re r s o ft h e t i le ( BE 1 0 .59 , 8 0 , 8 2 , 9 7 , E i le r s 1 940 : 5 6 ) . ) I n t h e c a s e o ft h e b i t s u tum l a rd ( r oya l s t o rehou se ) a t te s ted a t S i ppa r ( Ca mb . 2 02 , 2 56 , 3 59 , C y r . 7 4 ) a nd U ruk ( YOS 7 . 88 ) t h e o n ly f i s ca l f unc t ion f o r wh ich e v idence c om e s t o h and i st h e s upp ly o f f ood s tuf f s t o wha t s e em t o b e t emp le o f i c ia l s a nd wo rke r s , b u t t h e r oya l b i t k a r i ( e v iden t ly as t o rep l ace d e sp i te t he c u r ren tt r an s la t ion s' q uay ' o r ' h a rbou r ' ) i si n t ima te ly a s soc ia t ed w i th t h ec rown a nd i t s a gen t s i n c onnec t ion w i th r en t d ue t o t h e s upe r in tendan t o fr oya l d a te s ( RO MCT 2 . 23 , a tI s in ) , p aymen t o ft h e ' K ing ' s S ha re ' ( BE 8 . 85 ; c f . p . 1 49 ) a nd d i sbu r semen t o f ' r oya l ' b a r ley f o r u ppa ia t a , i . e . OP * upaya t a , t h e wo rd u s ed i n E la m i te g a rb i n t h e P e r sepo l i s d ocumen t s f o r ( r oya l ) f ood s upp l ie s ( Da r . 2 44 , S to lpe r 1 977 :254 f . ) . E v iden t ly t h i s i st h e s t o rep l ace f o r t h e p roduce o fs p ec if i ca l ly r oya l p rope r ty . F i n a l ly t h e re a r e t wo i n s t i tu t ion s n o t d e s igna ted ' r oya l ' b u t n one the le s s e v iden t ly l i nked w i th t h e P e r s i an o rgan iza t ion o fB aby lon ia . I n BE 9 . 19 ad eb ti st ob ep a id ' i n t h ee nc lo su re a tt h e h anba r a g a te ' , whe re h anba r a = OP * hampa r a , E l am . a m ba r a l , t h e s t anda rd wo rd f o r s t o rehou se i nt h e P e r sepo l i s t ex t s . We c an t e l ln o th ing o fi t sf unc t ion s , b u tt h eu n ique u s eo ff o r e ign t e rm ino logy i na f ormu la whe re n ume rou s p a ra l le l s l e ad u s t o e xpec t a n A kkad ian t e rm mu s t d i sc lo se a s p ec i a l i n s t i tu t ion ( S to lpe r 1 977 :254 ) , t hough p e rhap s o ne a t a n a dm in i s t ra t ive ly l ow l e ve l . Much mo re s ub s tan t ia l i st h e k e i r ( t rea su ry ) who se c h ief w a s t h e I r an i an B aga sa ru , v a r iou s ly c a l led r a b k a s i r a nd g anzaba r a ( Da r . 1 05 , 2 96 ; t h e f o rme r t i l e r e cu r s much l a te r a st h a t o f aw i tne s s i nP BS2 / 1 6 8 , b u t t h e ' s c r ibe s o ft h e b i t k af i r anu ' o fC amb . 3 84 a r e n o t r e levan t , a tl e a s t t oB aby lon ia , i f Z adok 1 976a i sc o r rec t i nt h ink ing t h a t t h e d ocumen t w a s w r i t ten i nP e r s i s ) . We

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o n ly h ea r o ft h e k af i r c a sua l ly , i n d ocumen t s c once rned w i th B aga sa ru ' s p r iva te b u s ine s st r an sac t ion s ,b u tb ea r ing i nm ind t h a tt h el a t te r ' sl a ndho ld ing sw e re r ound B aby lon w e m ay w e l l b e d ea l ing w i th t h e t r ea su ry o ft h e c ap i ta l i t s e lf . T he s ame m ay , o fc ou r se , b e t r ue o ft h e ' r oya l h ou se ' a nd t h e n akandu ! c i r r i o f Mu ra gu t e x t s ( t ha t i s , t h e se c ou ld b e o the r e xamp le s o f v ague r e f e rence s t o r oya l t r ea su r ie s a c tua l ly r e la t ing t oi n s ta l la t ion s i nr oya l/ s a t r apa l c ap i ta l s : c f . n .7 3 ) . B u t t he o the r i t em sj u s tr ev iewed mu s tf a i r ly c e r ta in ly b el o c a ted a t amo r e' p rov inc i a l 'l e ve l . A t t h e c en t r e o ft h e emp i re t h e P e r sepo l i s a r ch ive s r e vea l t r ea su r ie s e xp l ic i t ly a t te s ted a ss u ch o ra sl o ca t ion so f' t rea su ry wo rk e r s ' a tP e r sepo l i s ( Came ron 1 948 :9 , C ah i l l 1 985 ) , P a sa rgadae ( PF 6 2-3 ) , S h i r az ( 5 9-6 1 , 1 28 , 8 65 , 8 77 , 1 944 ) , Ma tezz i g ( 7 01 , 2 0 17 , P Fa 3 0 ; a l so C amb , 3 84 w i th Z adok 1 976 :69 f . ) , Rakk an ( PF 6 5-6 , 8 66 , 1 947 ) , H i ran ( 5 8 ) , Huna r ( 4 06 ) , K aup i r r i g ( 4 05 ) , Anka r rakkan ( 8 63 ) , Ku rpun ( 8 79 , 158 ) , N a r ezza g ( 8 78 , 1 825 , 1 852 ) a nd U r andu g ( 8 64 ) .7 6 T o t he se K och 1 98 1 a dd s af u r the r e i gh t b y i d en t if y ing t h e of i c ia l s K a rk i g a nd S uddayauda i nr a t ion d ocumen t s b ea r ing S ea l 1 " a nd i n s ome e n t r ie s i n a c coun t t ex t s a s s u cce s s ive H of s cha tzwa r t e i n 5 08-503 a nd 5 02-497 B C ( H inz 1 97 1 :283 t hough t t h ey we re V iz e -I n t end an t en ) a nd t h en t r ac ing t h e i r wo rke r -g roup s o n t h e a s su mp t ion t h a t t h e l a t te r w i l l i n f a c t b e ` t rea su ry -wo rke r s ' .7 8 ( I f s o , n o t a l worke r -group s a t t r ea su ry s i te s w e re t r ea su ry -wo rke r s , s i nce w e f i nd s u ch g roup s u nde r o the r a ppo r t ione r sa nd a s s igne r si n5 08-497 a tm any o ft h er e levan tp l ace s . B u tt h a ti sn o t p a r t icu la r ly s u rp r i s ing . T he f a c t s t h a t w e d o n o t f i nd wo rke r s a s soc i a ted w i th K a rkf g a nd S uddayauda a t a l e xp l ic i t ly a t te s t ed t r ea su r ie s a nd t ha t e xp l ic i t ly a t te s ted t r ea su ry -wo rke r s a nd t r ea su ry of i c ia l s c an b e d i scove red who a r e c onnec ted w i th o the rh ighe ra u tho r i t ie sa r e al i t t l e mo re wo r ry ing , b u tm igh th ave s p ec ia l e xp lana t ion s .7 9 )A s sum ing Koch i sr i gh t , w e h ave t h e ref ore a tl e a s t 1 9 t r ea su r ie si nt h e P e r s i s/ E l am a dm in i s t ra t ive r eg ion o u t s ide P e r s epo l i si t se lf . A lmo s t a l a r e i nH a l lock ' s P e r sepo l i s -Sh i raz -Na rezza g a r e a —nece s s a r i ly s o i n t h e c a se o f K och ' sa dd i t iona li t em s , s i nce t h e i ri d en t if i ca t ion d epend so nu s eo fs e a l 1 , wh ich i s c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft h ea r ea . (Whe re af u r the r mo re p r ec i se l o ca l iza t ion c an b em ade i n t e rm s o fS umne r ' s d iv i s ion o ft h e a r ea i n to t wo ' u rban r eg ion s ' [ c f . a bove p . 15 ] t h e t r ea su r ie s a r e mo re o f ten i nt h e S h i raz d i s t r ic t t h an t h e Ma tezz i g o ne : t h i s w i l l a nd f o r ta r ei n s t i tu t iona l ly e qu iva len t . T he a dd i t iona l p l ace s a r e Manduma t ti i , P ar m izzan , P i t tanan , g a la /K un ta r tur r izzan , T enukku , T uk ra g , U skanna g , Z ika r a . T he s u mma ry t a bu lat i on a t K och 1 98 1 :244 f . s uf f e r s f r om c e r ta in om i s s ion sa nd i n accu rac ie s . K a rkü a nd S uddayauda d o n o t a ppea r a t Huna r o r K aup i r r i g : a n a c c iden t p e rhap s , b u t p o s s ib ly wo r ry ing s i nce t h e se p l ace s a r e n o t b ad ly r ep re sen ted i nt h ea r ch ive a nd h appen t ob et h eo n ly t wo t r ea su r ie s o u t s id e t h e P er sepo l i s /Sh i raz/ Na rezza l t r i ang le . T he t r ea su ry ' d e l ive ry man ' a t Rakkan g e t s r a t ion s u nde r as e a led d ocumen t o f Z i s saw i i n5 021 B C ( PF 1 947 :3 1 ) : p e rhap s i nd iv idu a l f unc t ion a r ie s w e re d ea l t w i th d if e ren t ly f r om wo rke r -g roup s ? T rea su ry -wo rke r s a t Ku rpun a r e a s s igned b y M idadda ( PF 158 ) . T h i s h a sn od a te , s o h e m igh t b e as ho r t l ived H of s cha tzwa r t b e tween S uddayauda a nd B a ra tkama ( a t te s ted f r om 4 95 B C ) .

Unnamed t r ea su r ie s a ppea r i n P F 6 7-8 ( p rob . Rakkan , c f . 6 5-6 ) , 7 3-6 , 1 29-3 1 , 1 442 , 1 788-9 , 1 800 . 7 3-5 a nd 7 6 n ame t wo s e t s o f o the rw i se u nknown of i c ia l s a nd s hou ld c once rn t wo t r ea sur ie s n o t among t ho se n amed i n t h e c ompa rab le t e x t s , 5 8-66 . T he a nonymou s t r ea su ry-wo rke r s i te s i n 1 0 13-5 a nd 120 a r e a s soc ia ted w i th S h i raz ( r ea son u nc lea r ) a nd B a rn i l ( ?c f . 1 2 12 ) r e spec t ive ly b y K och 1 982 :235 , 2 43 . T he P e r s ian g azophy l ak ia i i n S t rabo 1 5 .3 .6 m ay b e o n ly P e r sepo l i s a nd P a sa r g adae , b u t 1 5 .3 .3 i sp e rhap s a c cep tab le e v idence f o r A chaemen id t r ea su r ie sa tG abae a nd T aoce . B u t n o t s im i la r d ocumen t s w i th o the r s e a l s , c f . Koch 1 98 1: 2 35 ( Ka rk i g ) , 2 40 f .( Suddayauda ) : i n t h e l a t te r c a se Koch p o s tu la te s ad i s t inc t h omonym . Koch d oe s , h oweve r , c oun t P F 105 ( Suddayauda , s e a l 3 12 : wo rke r s i nt h e f o r t ) a nd 109 ( Ka r l a s e a l 2 52 : wo rke r s o f I r d abamma ) , a l though 1 042-3 ( Ka rk i i ' , s e a l 7 6 : wo rke r s o f I r dabamma ) i s d i s c oun ted a nd w e d o n o t h ave t oa s sume t h a t t r ea su ry 76

7 8

79

77

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b e p a r t ly af unc t ion o ft h e d i spa r i ty i ns i ze b e tween t h e t wo r eg ion s , t hough o ne n o te s ap a r t icu la r c oncen t ra t ion i n t h e w e s tern e nd o ft h e S h i r az r eg ion , d i rec t ly c onnec ted w i th S h i r az i t s e lf . ) T he o n ly t r ea su r ie s o u t s id e t h e P e r sepo l i s -Sh i raz N a rezza g t r iang le a r e K aup i r r i g ( c h ief c i ty o f t h e K amf i ruz a r ea ) a nd Huna r , wh ich i se v iden t ly i n t h e F ah l iyun ( c f . i t s a s soc ia t ion i n P F 1 , 2 0 19 , 1 092 w i th p l ace s t o b e l o ca ted t h e r e ) , b u t t h i s i sp re sumab ly t o s ome e x ten t a n a c c iden t o f e v idence : o ne c an s u re ly a s sume , b y a na logy w i th t h e r e s t o ft h e d a ta , t h a t t h e K amf i ruz a nd F ah l iyun a r ea s a c tua l ly h ad mo re t h an o ne t r ea su ry a p ie ce . S o f a r a s f unc t ion i sc once rned , t h e se t r ea su r ie sc l ea r ly r e semb le ( e .g . ) t h eE l ephan t ine Roya l Hou se i nn o tb e ing c onf ined t ot h es t or age o fs i lve r , a si se v iden tf r om t h et ype so f t r ea su ry-wo rke r emp loyed i nt h em ( PF 8 64-6 ) a nd f r om t h e d e l ive ry o fh ide s t o t h em ( 5 8-76 ) , p o s s ib ly f o r u s e i n manuf ac tu re o fl e a the r g ood s ( H inz 1 97 1 :268 , K och 1 98 1: 2 32 ,—Cah i l l 1 985 :375 , r e ly ing o n a n a rgumen t f r om s i l ence , d oub t s whe the r t h e P e r sepo l i s t r ea su ry i t se lf h ad manuf ac tu r ing f unc t ion s ) . B u t i ti sn o t e n t i re ly c l ea r t h a t t h e t r ea su r ie s w e re s t o rep lace s f o r g ra in o r t h e l i ke t ob e u s ed a s r a t ion s f o r ' t rea su ry wo rke r s ' o r a ny o the r c a tego ry o f wo rke r o r ( e .g . ) g a r r i son s o ld ie r . T he s u rv iv ing e v idence g ive s u sl i t t le i nt h e w ay o ft i le s f o r l o ca l t r ea su ry of i c ia l s ; 8°a nd t h e l a rge n umbe r o f p l ace s i nvo lved , i n c lud ing s ome ( e spec ia l ly among Koch ' s a dd i t iona li t em s ) wh ich a r e o n ly r a re ly men t ioned i nt h ea r ch ive i n a ny c apac i ty , s ugge s t s t h a t t h e t r ea su r ie s c anno t a l b e ' p rov inc ia l ' o ne s o ft h e s o r t s ugge s ted b yt he E gyp t ian e v idence . ( A s im i la rp rob lem o fc l a s s if i ca t ion a f ec t se . g . A rad , ag a r i son s i t e whe re a( non I ran ian ) * g anzaba r ai so nr e co rd ( S te rn 1 982 :45 ) , a nd t he t h ree A racho s i an f o r t re s se s men t ioned a bove ( p . 1 26 ) , u nde r t h e o ve ra l l s upe rv i s ion o f at r ea su re r a nd e ach h av ing i t s own s ub t r ea su re r , whe re w eh ave t o c hoo se b e tween s a t r apy /p rov ince a nd p rov ince /sub -p rov ince a s t h e s phe r e s o f r e spon s ib i l i ty o ft h et r ea su re ra nd s ub t r ea su r e rr e spec t ive ly . ) We c an , h oweve r , b e r e a sonab ly s u re t h a t t h e P e r s i s t r ea su r ie s f o rm a d if e ren t , s ma l le r a nd mo re i mpor tan t c a tego ry o f s t or age p l ace b y c o mpa r i son w i th t h e ' g rana r ie s ' a nd ' s torehou se s ' f ound i nt h e P e r sepo l i s a r ch ive s b o th a tt r ea su ry s i t e s a nd e l sewhe r e , n o t t o m en t ion t h e many o the r l o ca t ion s a t wh ich p rov i s ion s o r s upp l ie s a r e p rov ided f o r wo rke r s o r h igh of i c ia l s o r t r ave l le r s b u t wh ich a r e n eve r e xp l ic i t ly d e s igna ted ' s to rehou se ' o r a ny th ing e l se . I ti sp e rhap s w i th s i t e s l i ke t h i s t h a t o ne s hou ld c o mpa re e . g . t h e e v idence i n X enophon ' s A naba s i s f o r v i l lage s i n S y r ia ( 1 .4 .9 , 1 9 ) , B aby lon i a ( 2 .2 .13 f . ,3 . 4 , 2 1f . ) , n o r th Me sopo tam ia ( 3 .4 .17 f . ,3 1 , 5 . 1 , 1 2 ) a nd A rmen ia ( 4 .4 .2 , 7 , 5 . 24 ) a s c onven ien t s ou rce s o f a c cumu la ted n a tu ra l p roduce f o rh ung ry m e rcena r ie s8 1 ( t hough i ti sr a re f o ra t te s ted P e r sepo l i s a r ch ive s t orehou se st ob ea c tua l ly c a l led ` v i l lage s '8 2 ) a nd s ome a tl e a s to ft h eP a le s t in ian s i t e s whe re e x cava t ion h a sr evea led s t o rep i t so rg r ana r ie s( S te rn 1 982 :237 ) . Ad if e r en t s o r t o fd i s t inc t ion b e tween p l ace s w i th in s a t rap ie s i ss ugge s ted b y a r a re G reek a t temp t t o d e sc r ibe s y s tema t ica l ly t h e i r i n te rna l wo rk ing s , v i z . t h a t 80 A t r ea su re r ( k anzab a r a , * ganzaba r a ) a ppea r s a t Rakkan ( 1 947 .19 ) b u t t h e E lam i te s ynonym k apnu s k i ra n orma l ly r e f e r s t o wo rke r s n o t o f ic ia l s . T he d e l ive ry man ( 1 947 .10 f . )a nd s c r ibe s ( 8 66 .7 , 1 947 .17 ) a r ea l so k u r t al 8 1 F o r t h e i mpo r tanc e o fv i l lage s i n t h e i mpe r ia l l and scape c f .B r ian t1 982 :137 f .

8 2 Mu ran : g rana ry ( 1 636 ) , v i l lage ( 1 857 ) . H ida l i : s t o rehou se ( 2 00 ) ,v i l lage ( 2 057 ) .T anda r i : r oya lf ood s upp ly ( 1 16 , 1 24 ) , v i l lage ( 1 736 ) . S ome e i gh t o the r v i l lage sa r en amed , a nd a nonymou s r e f e rence s o ccu r i n4 5 , 6 94 , 1 573 , 1 967 , 2 033 , 2 057 , t h e p l ace s o f ten b e ing s ou rce so fs upp l ie s .

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c onduc ted b y X enophon i nt wo r e la ted b u t d i s t inc t p a s sage s , C y r opa ed i a 8 . 6 .1 f .( a p u rpo r ted a c coun t o f C y ru s ' i n s t i tu t ion o f s a t rap ie s ) a nd O e c onom i cu s 4 . 5f .( a c ommen ta ry o n t h e P e r s ian K ing ' s g rea t i n te re s t i n a g r icu l tu r e a nd w a r ) . P rom inen t i nb o th i st h e q ue s t ion o fg a r r i son ing , o n wh ich ma t te r t h e f o l low ing c on s i s ten t p i c tu re s e em s t o eme rge ( c f . T up l in n .d . (b ) ) . E ve ry s a t rapy c on ta in s a c o mp lemen t o fp h r ou r o i , a l r e ce iv ing p aymen t wh ich c o me s ( u l t ima te ly ) f r om t h e s a t rap a nd i sd rawn , l i ke t r ibu te , f r om l o ca lr e sou r ce s , a l e ngaged i np ro tec t ing t h e p rov ince ( aj ob wh ich i st h es a t rap ' sr e spon s ib i l i ty ) ,a nd a lu nde rc ommande r s who a r es ubo rd ina te t ot h es a t rap b u t ( l ike h im ) a ppo in ted b y t h ek ing , i na na t temp tt o e n su re t h a t t h ey a r e n o t n e c e s s a r i ly i n capab le o fr e s i s t ing s a t r apa l d i saf f ec t ion . T he g a r r i son s a r e n o t , h oweve r , u n if o rm , s i nce a d i s t inc t ion i sd rawn b eween a k r a g a r r i son s ( gua rd ing r e la t ive ly f ew i mpo r tan tu rban c i tade l s ) a nd t r oop sd i s t r ibu ted w ide ly a nd i ns ma l l u n i t s t h rough t h e k hö r a . T h i s p hy s ica l c on t ra s t c o r re spond s t o f ou r f u r the r a dm in i s t ra t ive d i s t inc t ion s . ( a ) E a ch a k r a g a r r i son h a s ap h rour a rch , b u t t h e k hö r a t r oop s a r e o rgan i zed u nde r c h i l ia r ch s , c ommande r s o fa r t if i ca l u n i t s d ef ined i np r inc ip le b y n umbe r s , n o t b y t opog r aph ic s e t t ing s ( i . e . f o r t re s se s ) . ( b ) T he re a r e v a r iou s h in t s t h a t t h e a k r a g a r r i son s a r e ' K ing ' s Men ' i n s ome u nexp la ined f a sh ion n o t t r ue o ft h e k hö r a g a r r i son s ( s ince a l r e ce ive p ay f r om t h e s a t rap , t h i s i sn o t ad i s t inc t ion c onnec ted w i th s ou rce o f r emune ra t ion ) . ( c ) A l l p h r ou r o i r e ce ive p aymen t , b u t X enophon o cca s iona l ly r e s e rve s t he wo rd m i s tho p ho r o i f o r a k r a g a r r i son s , a st hough t h e i r ma in ten ance d epend s more t o t a l ly u pon d i rec t a nd l i t e r a l p aymen t . One m igh t g ue s s a t ad i s t inc t ion b e twe en ' pu re ' m e rcena r ie s a nd e . g . m a in ta ined m i l i ta ry c o mmun i t ie s . I n s hor t , t h e a na ly s i s a ppea r s t o s ugge s t as p ec ia l c a tego ry o f p l ace s wh ich a r e ' r oya l g a r r i son ' s i te s . Unf o r tuna te ly s y s tema t ic c o mpa r i son w i th e v idence i n G reek a nd n e a r e a s te rn s ou rce s a bou t a c tua l g a r r i son s d oe s n o t t r iumph an t ly v ind ica te t h i s a na ly s i s , a nd o ne h a s t o a bandon a b so lu te ly s t r ic t i n te rp re ta t ion o fX enophon ' s d e sc r ip t ion s t o a vo id s i gn if i can t i n conc inn i t ie s . One may n o te a mong o the r t h ing s t h a t X eno p hon ' s u s e o f` c h i l ia rch ' i nt h i s c on tex t i so the rw i se u npa ra l le l led i n A chaemen id p e r iod s ou r ce s ( t hough , a sw e w i l l s e e , t h e re i ss ome th ing r e levan t i n ah e l len i s t ic s ou rce ) , t h a t , a l though t h e re a r et r ace so f' r oya l ' f o r t s , t h ey d on o t a l a ppea ri nt h e s o r t o f u rban c en t re s X enophon l e ad s o ne t o e nv i sage , a nd t ha t t he a ppa ren t d i s t inc t ion s b e tween ' p u re ' a nd o the r me rcena r ie s i sh a rd t o m a in ta in , a tl e a s t s o l ong a si ti sa l ied t ot h e d i s t inc t ion b e tween r oya l a nd o the r g a r r i son s i te s . ( Th i s i s o ne o ft h e a ppa r en t s t r ic t i mp l ica t ion s o fX enophon ' s p i c tu re wh ich n eed s t o b e a bandoned . ) A t t h e s ame t ime , a no the r i n te rp re t a t ion o f g a r r i son d i s t r ibu t ion , B r ian t ' s t h e s i s t h a t t h e e mp i re ' s b a s ic f i s ca l u n i t s w e re m i l i t a ry c i rcum sc r ip t ion s c en t red u pon f o r t r e s s t r ea su r ie s ( 1 982a :19 1 f . ) , a l so p rove s h a rd t oj u s t if y , a tl e a s t f r om a c tua l A chaemen id e v idence . Among t h e k nown t r ea su ry s i t e s wh ich m igh t b eh e ld t oe xemp l if yt h es c heme —Br ian ta dduce st ho se o fP e r s i s /E la m ( who se r o le a sg a r r i son s i te s i sn o t s t r ic t ly a t te s ted 8 3 )a nd t h e E l ephan t ine Roya l Hou se , a nd m igh t h ave a dded A r ad a nd t h e A racho s ian f o r t s —E l ephan t ine c e r ta in ly c o r re s p ond st oa na dm in i s t ra t ive u n i tl a rge rt h an t ho se B r i an th a si nm ind : f o rh ea ppea l s 8 3 H inz 1 97 1:266 f .f i nd s t r ea su ry g ua rd s i n P F 8 64-5 ,b u tt h et e x to n ly s ays t r ea su ry -wo rke r s . On ly

P e r sepo l i sa nd S h i raz a r eo n r e cord i nt he a r ch ive s a s h av ing b o th af o r t re s sa nd at r ea sury . 1 32

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i n t h i s c on tex t t o X enophon ' s c h i l ia rch s , who a r e p r ec i se ly n o t i n p l ace s l i ke E l ephan t ine wh ich mu s t b e ag ood c and ida te f o r ar o ya l g a r r i son s i te o n t h e X enophon t ic s c heme . A nd w eh ave a l ready n o t iced t h a tt h es t a tu so ft h eo the rs i t e s i sa tl e a s th a rd t oj udge . 4E STATES S of a r Ih ave b een p u r su ing ' pub l ic ' a dm in i s t ra t ive u n i t s . B u ti nt h eg ene ra lc on tex t o fP e r s ian m e thod so fe xp lo i t ing t h e emp i re , t h e r ea r eo the rs o r t so fu n i to fp e rhap s e qua l s i gn if i cance , n am e ly p a rce l s o fl a nd ( i nc lud ing v i l lage s , e ven c i t ie s ) p l aced i n t h e h and s o fv a r iou s b enef i c ia r ie s o ft h e r u l ing a nd e xp lo i t ing p owe r . ' E s ta te s ' o f o ne t ype o r a no the r ( s ome t ime s s p awn ing t h e i r own i n te rna l a dm in i s t r a t ion ) m a t te r f o r ar ounded i mp re s s ion o f wha t t h e emp i re w a s l i ke q u i te a s much a s s a t rap ie so rp rov ince s . F i r s tt h e re i st h er e a le s ta te o ft h eK ing a nd o the rm embe r so f t h e r oya l f am i ly . B aby lon ian d ocumen t s r e f e r t o e . g . r oya l c ana l s , r e se rvo i r s , u s ba r r a land ( a n I r an ian t e rm o fu nce r ta in i mpo r t ) , f i ef s o ft h e r oya l t a b le , t h rone f i ef s , r oya l t r ea su ry l a nd , r oya ll a nd , n o tt om en t ion s t ab le s , b a r ley , p ou l t ry , c a t t le , a nd d a te s ( t he l a s t t h r e e a ppea r ing i nr e f e rence s t o t h e of i c ia l s i nc ha rge o ft h e se c o mmod i t ie s ) .8 4 O n ly ac e r ta in a moun t c an b e s e en o ft h e a dm in i s t ra t ion o fs u ch p rope r ty . T he m an i nc ha rge o ff e ed ing t h er oya l c a t t le r e ce ive sp aymen t sl i s ted i n at ex t l a be l led ' p a lac e a c coun t ' b y i t s e d i to r ( M ich igan 8 9 ) . T he j ob o f t h e s upe r in tenden t o f r oya l d a te s i n c lude s c o l lec t ing r en t f r om r oya l p rope r ty ( RO MCT 2 . 23-25 ) . I n Mu ra gu d ocumen t s t h e ' l and o ft h e r oya l t r ea su ry ' i sh e ld b y af i ef co l lec t ive o f § u . s Y ann e o f t h e r oya l t r ea su ry u l t ima te ly s ubo rd ina te t o v e ry h igh rank ing p e r son s ( c f . a bove , p . 1 29 , b e low , p . 1 53 ) . A ga in , c ana l m anage r s , who a r e mo s t ly B aby lon ian , who se p owe r s i n c lude c on sc r ip t ion o f l a bou rf r om o the rl a ndowne r sa nd who se s ubo rd ina te si n c lude c ana li n spec to r s , a r e t h em se lve s s ubo rd ina t e t o ac l a s s o f m a l ennu -of f i c ia l s ( s ome t ime s I r an ian , s ome t ime s n o t , a nd a tl e a s t o nce d e s igna ted ' r oya l ' [ BE 9 . 59 ] ) wh ich a ppea r s t o b e c once rned w i th a l s o r t s o f c rown p rope r ty ( i n o ne t e x t t h e Mu ra gu f i rm p ay s r en t s o n ' a l ll a nd s wh i ch a r e c rown p rope r ty ' t ot h e m a . s ' ennu ' s a gen t s ) . T hey a r e i n t u rn a s soc ia ted w i th * f r a saka ( i nve s t iga to r s ) , t h e i r h ou seho ld i n c lude s af i ef c o l lec t ive o f c ana l -wo rke r s , a nd o ne o f t h e i r s e rvan t s i sf o reman o f a no the r c o l lec t ive o fg room s . T hey a r ep e rhap si mmed ia te ly s ubo rd ina te t ot h e s a t rap : o ne r e corded c ana l r en t g oe s t o as e rvan t o ft h e s a t rap G ob rya s ( S to lpe r 1 974 :6 1f . ) . Ou t s ide B aby lon ia r oya lp rope r ty a ppea r si nt h ef o rm o fv i l lage sn ea rP r iene ( Tod 1 85 .9 f .— a s sum ing c on t inu i ty f r om A chaemen id c ond i t ion s ) o r h e rd s o f Med ian h o r se s( S t rabo 1 .13 .7 )o rr oya lp a r ad e i s o i8 5 o ri nde te rm ina te ' r oya ll a nd 'i nE gyp t8 6

w a s n o t t h e K ing ' s ( VS 6 . 17 1 ) . S t ab le s : TEB R 4 7 , T uM 2 /3 1 24 , 1 83 , PBS 2 /1 14 . B a r ley : D a r . 2 44 . P ou l t ry : BE 9 . 20 , 1 0 . 128 , P BS 2 /1 6 3 , 7 6 , 1 33 , 1 60 . C a t t le : M ich igan 8 9 , B IN 1 . 7 , YOS 7 . 77 , 1 46 . D a te s : RO MCT 2 . 23-5 . N eh em . 2 . 8 , A r r . A n . 6 . 29 .4 , S t r abo 7 30 . F o r o the r p a r ad e i s o i c f . n .130 ; t h ey a r e n o t n o rma l ly c a l led s p ec if ica l ly ' r oya l ' , b u tn o te P lu t . A r t ox . 2 5 ( a t ar oya l s t a thmo s ) , D iod . 1 6 .4 1 .5 , Cur t . 7 . 2 .22 f .( f o r r oya ld ive r s ion ) . Meek s 1 972 : p a s s im . Roya l l a nd i sa l so men t i oned i n P . L i l le 2 2 , 2 3 u nde r Nec tanebo I ,b u t i s

C ana l s : D a r . 4 1 , V S 3 . 68 , YOS 7 . 162 , TCL 1 3 .155 , B IN 1 . 7 , GCC I 2 . 390 , TEB R 2 5 , F P 5 3 , 6 3 , BE 9 . 7 , 7 3 , P BS 2 /1 2 ,5 8-9 ,7 3 , 1 58 . Re se rvo i r s : B E 9 . 7 , PBS 2 /1 1 58 , T uM 2 /3 1 47 . U sba ra : BE 9 . 28 , 3 2a , 6 7 , 7 3 , 1 0 .3 1-2 , P BS 2 /1 1 24 , 1 50 , T uM 2 /3 1 47 , CBS 5 205 . F i ef s. . :V S5 . 128 , PBS 2 /1 6 5 , 1 86 , S t ra s s ma ie r 8 t h C ong r e s s 3 1 . Roya l T rea su ry L and : BE 1 0 .34 = PBS 2 /1 4 1 . Roya l L and : l a nd i sd e s ign a ted a s r oya l p rope r ty w i th v a r iou s f o rmu lae i n YOS 7 . 156 , TCL 1 3 .203 , V S 5 . 55 , F P 1 , RO MCT 2 . 9 , 2 3-5 , B IN 1 . 118 , P BS 2 /1 3 6 = BE 1 0 .46 , BM 16622 . L ea se s c ou ld i n c lude ag ua ran tee t h a t l a nd 84

8 5

8 6

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o r a' r oya l e s ta te ' i nP e r s i s ( PF 1 987 ) o r a n i r r iga t ion s y s tem i n Cho ra sm ia ( Hd t . 3 . 117 : s e eb e low ,p .1 44 ) . A s f o r t h e r e s t o ft h e r oya l f am i ly , G reek s ou rce s k new o fc i t ie s o r v i l lage s o r l a nd ( e spec ia l ly i n E gyp t a nd S y r ia ) b e ing a loca ted t o p rov ide t h e Queen w i th c l o th ing .8 7 T hey a l so k new o f Queen P a ry sa t i s ' v i l lage s /c i t ie s i n w e s te rn Med ia , wh i le B aby lon ian t e x t s p rov ide e v idence f o rh e rh o ld ing s i nB aby lon i a , a sa l so f o r a n ' E s ta te o f t h e Queen ' .8 I r ta g c luna , D a r iu s ' w if e , h a s a n e s ta te i n P er s i s ( PF 1 836-7 ) , a s d oe s h e r s on A r same s ( Ha l lock 1 978 :113 ) a nd a no the r r oya l l a dy , I r dabamma ( PFa 2 7 ) : t h e re i sa l so men t ion o f a' v i l lage o f I r ta gduna ' ( PF 7 18 ) . B ack i n B aby lon ia w e h ea r o f aC rown P r inc e ' s E s ta te 8 9 a nd o fl a ndho ld ing s o f v a r iou s o the r ' s on s o f t h e ( r oya l ) h ou se ' , 9° a nd , a pa r t f r om t wo r e f e rence s t o a c coun tan t s i n P e r sepo l i s t e x t s ( PF 1 837 , P F a 2 7 ) , i ti sa ga in B aby lon ia , a nd e s pec ia l ly t h e Mu ra gu a r ch ive , wh ich p rov ide s mo s t e v idence o f t h e i n terna l work ing s o fs u ch e s ta te s ( S to lpe r 1 974 :89 i f . ; b u t c f . n .8 9 f o r t he s i x th c en tu ry C rown P r ince ' s E s ta te ) . T hey c on s i s t o f v a r iou s t ype s o f l a nd ( i nc lud ing r oya l u s ba r r a land a nd b ow -f i ef s ) a nd t h ey a r e a dm in i s te red b y manage r s who c an b e s l ave s ( e .g . BE 1 0 .84-5 ) a nd who r e ce ive r a t ion s f r om t h e e s ta te-produce a nd/o r f i ef h o ld ing s o ft h e i r own w i th in i t .S uch manage r s a r e v a r iou s ly d e s igna ted p aqdu o r u s t a r ba r ( t he l a t te r b e ing aP e r s ian t e rm o n ly a t te s ted i nt h e l a te r A chae men id p e r iod a nd s ome t ime s f ound w i th t h e a dd i t iona l q ua l if i ca t ion ' o f t h e k ing ' ) . V a r iou s o the r o f f ice r s a r e a l so v i s ib le , e . g . j udge s o f P a ry sa t i s ' e s ta te . A l l t he se p eop le t e nd t o b e B aby lon ian s , a l though u s t a rba r -of f i c ia l s w i th I r an i an n a me s a ppea ri ne . g . BE 1 0 .9 , 1 5 , BM 5 4025 = E i le r s1 940 :107 . B eyond t h e c onf ine s o ft h e r oya l f am i ly s im i la r s o r t s o fp a t te rn eme rge . G reek s ou rce s s p eak o f t h e s a t rap T i s saphe rne s ' C a r ian o i ko s ( s ome th ing s ub s tan t ia l e nough t o me r i t f u l l sca le m i l i ta ry a t tack 9 1 )a nd g ene ra l ized r e f e rence s t os a trapa l i d ia o r r oya l g i f t s t o s u cce s sf u l of i c ia l s may c oncea l ( among o ther t h ing s ) s im i la r s ou rce s o f w ea l th .9 2 Gove rnor s o fJ udah o f ten ' a cqu i red l a nd ' wh i le i n of i ce ( N eh em iah 5 . 14 f . )a nd e v idence h a sb een c l a imed f o rt a x -exemp t s a t rapa le s ta te s i n Moph a nd G ibeon ( S te rn 1 982 :209 , B r ian t n .d . (a ) ) . A t e x t f r om B aby lon ian g a t i r ( TEB R 3 1 ) men t ion s g ove rno r ' s l a nd i n ab ounda ry d ef in i t ion a nd H e rodo tu s ' a c coun t o ft h e B aby lon ian s a t rap ' s p e r sona l p e rqu i s i te s ( Hd t . 1 . 192 ) g ene ra l ly n o tv e ry e v iden ti na ny L a te P e r iod s ou rce s ( L loyd 1 983 :327 ) . X en . A n . 1 . 4 .9 ( Sy r ia , P a ry sa t i s ) , Hd t . 2 . 98 , A then . 3 3F ( Egyp t ) , P l a t . A l c ib . I1 23B , C ic . V e r r . 3 . 33 . P a ry sa t i s : X en . A n . 2 . 4 .27 ( c or n , s h eep , k h r i t na ta , a nd r apod a ) , P BS 2 /1 3 8 , 5 0 , 6 0 , 7 5 , 1 05 , 19 , 1 33 , 1 46-7 , BE 1 0 .97 , T uM 2 /3 1 85 . E s ta te o f Queen : B E 9 . 28 = T uM 2 /3 1 79 . B E 9 . 50 , S to lpe r 1 974 :92 f . T he e s ta te o f L ady Am i s r i ( ?Ame s t r i s ) a ppea r si n BE 9 . 39 , 1 0 .45 , CBS 5 199 . BE 1 0 .5 , 3 1 , 4 5 , 5 9 , 1 0 1 , PBS 2 /1 5 1-2 , 9 0 , 1 33 , 2 02 , S to lpe r 1 974 :89 f .T he C rown P r ince ' s E s ta te a ppea r s a l so e a r l ie r i n t h e A chaemen id p e r iod : VS 3 . 2 10 ( whe re ad eb t o fb a r ley owed t oi ti sc o l lec ted b y a n a gen t o f t h e m an ' i n c ha rge o f t h e t a x d emand s o f t h e C rown P r ince ' s E s ta te ' ) , 5 . 60 , 1 29 ( wh ich b o th men t ion t h e s t ewa rd , r a b b i t i , o f t h e

e s ta te , at ype o fa gen t e ncoun te red i no the r P e r s ian l a ndho ld ing s ( s ee b e low ) ) . Cy r . 1 77 r e co rd st he l o an o fs i lve r wh ich i st h e C rown P r ince ' s p rope r ty , a nd t h e re we r eC rown P r ince ' sp a lace s ( YOS 7 . 8[ Uruk ] , CT 5 7 .36 [ S ippa r ] ) . S to lpe r1 974 :96 f .( a tl e a s tn ine i nd iv idua l s ) . T i s s aphe rne s : X en . H e l l . 3 . 2 .13 , N ep . A g e s . 3 . 1 . ( H i s ' p rope r ty ' r e a l ized 9 20 t a len t s i n 3 95/4 : He l l . Oxy . 1 9 .3 ) I d ia : T huc . 8 . 45 .6 , X en . H e l l . 1 . 5 .3 , H e l l . Oxy . 1 9 .2 . ( Th e i d i o i p ho r o i o fX en . H e l l . 2 . 1 .4 , 3 . 8 a r e a s p ec ia l , c on t rove r s ia l c a se : L ew i s 1 977 : 19 , Tup l in n .d . (a ) . ) F o r s a t rapa l t r ea su re i n t he f o rm o f me ta l , c l o th ing e t c . c f . P o lyaen . 7 . 23 .1 (Mau so lu s ) . I d r ieu s w a s ' t he r i che s t man i n A s ia Mino r ' ( I soc . 5 . 103 ) . G if t s : X en . O e c . 4 . 7f . ,C y r . 8 . 1 .39 . S a t rap sw e re a l so , o fc ou r se , o n s a la ry s c a le s l i ke t he d ign i t a r ie s o ft he P e r sepo l i sa r ch ive .

87

9°

88

9 1

92

89

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s u r e ly p re suppo se s l a nd -ho ld ing , a sd oe s t h e t i le ' s t ewa rd o fG ob rya s ' e s ta te ' i na d ocumen ta l so r e f e r r ing t ot h e ' c ana l o fG ob rya s ' ( PE 8 . 80 ; a nd c f . TEBR 8 9 ) . T he E l am i te v e r s ion o f DB 4 7 e ven a ppea r s t o d e sc r ibe t h e f o r t A r gada a st h e i r ma t am ( e s t a te ) o f t h e A racho s ian s a t rap V ivana . Much mo re i n f o rma t ive ly , t e x t s f r om B aby lon ia a nd E gyp t i lu s t r a te t h e e s ta te s o ft h e E gyp t ian s a t r ap A r same s i ns ome d e t a i l . 93 No r i si to n ly s a t r ap s t h a t c o me i n to q ue s t ion . On t h e o ne h and A r toxa re s ( A r thaa r ) a n i nf luen t ia l c ou r t f i gu r e i n C te s ia s ( 6 88 F 1 415 ) , t u rn s u p a s l a ndowne ri ne l even B aby lon ian t e x t s( L ew i s1 977 :2 1 )a nd X enophon e nv i sage st h e e l de r Cy ru s g iv ing m embe r s o f h i s p e r sona l c ou r t o i ko i , k hö r a i a nd s e rvan t s ( ?k u r t al -wo rke r s ) i np rov inc ia l a r ea s wh ich w i l l p rov ide t h em w i th d a smo s a nd b e a v a i lab le f o r d i rec t u s e o n t h e o cc a s ion o f of i c ia l v i s i t s t o t h e r e levan t a r ea ( Cy r opa ed ia 8 . 6 .4-5 ) . On t h e o the r h and X enophon a l so s a y s ( i b id . 1 0 ) t h a t m embe r s o ft h e s a t rapa l c ou r t w e re g iven l a nd , a nd t h i s p ropo s i t ion c an b e e a s i ly i l u s t ra ted f r om Nea rE a s te rn s ou rce s . T he P e r sepo l i s a r ch ive sr e f e rt o an umbe ro f e s t a te h o lde r s , i n c lud ing s ome k nown i n of i c ia l c apac i t ie s i n o the r t e x t s .9 4 A n I r an ian s e c re ta ry o ft h e B aby lon ian s a t rap t u rn s u p i nB E 9 . 48 a s owne r o f af i e ld , a nd a n u s t a r ba r ( c f . p .1 34 ) who b ea r st wo n ame s , o ne B aby lon ian a nd o ne I r an ian , h a s ap lo t d e sc r ibed a s' g if t o ft h ek ing ' ( n id in tu l a r r i ; E i le r s 1 940 :107 ) . B e l gunu ( c f . p . 1 22 ) p o s se s sed b o th c rown -g ran t l a nd ( n id in tu l a r r i a ga in ) a nd l a nd n o t s o d e s igna ted , wh ich m ay h ave b een h i s p r io r t o a ppo in tmen t ( YBC 1586 , S to lpe r 1 986 a nd n .d . ) . B aga s a ru t h et r ea su re r( c f . p .1 29 ) owned a nd r e ce ived i n come f r om l a nd n ea r B aby lon ( s ome o fi th e ld j o in t ly w i th amembe r o ft h e E g ib i b ank ing f am i ly ) wh ich h e a dm in i s te red t h rough ar a b b i t i ( Da r . 1 05 , 2 96 , 5 27 , 5 34 , 5 42 ) . Mo re g ene r a l ly t h e r e a r e p l en ty o f I r an ian l a ndowne r s i n A na to l ia , E gyp t , a nd B aby lon ia k nown t o u s o n ly b y n ame , s ome o f whom w i l l b e of i c ia l s o f t h e s a t rapa l e n tou rage . S ome t e x t s s p eak o f , f o r e xamp le , t h e f a rm o fB agada t a ( BE 9 . 65 ) o r t h e ' e s ta te o ft h e P e r s ian ' ( VS 4 . 87 /8 , B E 1 0 .10 1 ) o r t h e c ana l o fU g tana ( BE 9 . 65 ) .9 5 A no the rt r ea t st h et own o fR ab i ia a sv i r tua l ly b e long ing t o( ad if e ren t ) B agada ta ( BE 1 0 .9 ) . I nB E 9 . 48 B agam i r i , s on o fM i t r ada ta , l e a se s p rope r ty ( s ome o fi ta cqu i red f r om h i s l a te u nc le ) a nd adwe l l ing -hou se t ot h e Mu ra gu f i rm f o r a 6 0 -yea r p e r iod .9 6 I n UET 4 . 99 B ag i g l e nd s al a rge q uan t i ty o fb a r ley t h rough t h e a gency o fh i sr a bb i t i ;t h el a t te r ' st i le i nd ica te st h a tB ag i sh a s ac on s ide rab le e s ta te ( c f . a bove ) a nd i n as im i l a r f a sh ion w e c an i d en t if y a dd i t iona l e s ta te owne r s i n t h e Mu ra gu a r ch ive b ecau s e d ocumen t s a s soc ia te t h em w i th ' manage r s ' w i th t h e s ame

n ow S umne r 1 986 :26-7 ( i nco rpo ra t ing i nve s t i g a t ion sb yS to lpe r ) . No te a l so c e r ta in P e r s ian t oponym s ( one a p a lace s i te ) d i scu s sed i nZ adok 1 976a :72 . E l sewhe re i n t h e emp i re n o te t h e f o r t if i ed manor -hou se o f A s id a te si nX en .A n .7 . 8 .8 f . D i s t inc t f r om B agam i r i , s on o f A spada g tu , a b ow -f i ef h o lde r ( BE 9 . 106 , 1 0 .50 , PBS 2 /1 7 7 , 1 92 ) b u t c once ivab ly i d en t ica l w i th aB aga . . a t te s ted a s e s ta te manage r i n t h e Queen ' s E s ta te i n t h e s ame y ea r .

B aby lon ia : S to lpe r 1 974 :94 f . E gyp t : AD p a s s im . 94 e .g . g u tezza ( PF 1 505 ) , I g t imanka ( 1 80 , 1 802 ) , I r tupp iya ( 3 30 , 1 527 , F o r t . 1 09 1 ) , D au r i ga ( PF 3 31 ) , D ayakka ( 5 8 1 ) , B akabada ( 1 256 ) , B akank a ma ( 1857 ) , Ma rr iya ( 1 898 ) , M i gpa rma ( 2 027 ) , M i tu rna ( 2 070 ) , U g tana ( 2 07 1 ) . T he e s ta te s a ppea r t ob e c lo se t o p l ace ( s ) o fo f ic i a l a c t iv i ty i nt he c a se s o f g u tezza ( 1 50-4 w i th 5 201 , 6 37-8 , 6 401 ) a nd I g t imanka ( 1 802 w i th 4 05 , 9 25-8 ) . O the r n amed e s ta te h o lde r s a ppea r i n4 44 , 1 855 , 1 857 , 2 025 , 2 075 . A nony mou se s ta te s : 1 368 , 2 079 . On P e r s i se s ta te ss e e 9 3

95

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t i le s a nd f unc t ion s a st ho se k nown i nr oya l e s t a te s .9 7 F o r t h e s o r t o fl a ndho ld ing s w e a r e n ow c on s ide r ing s e em i ng ene ra l t o b e c h a r ac te r ized b y t h e s am e t ype o f i n te rna l a dm in i s t ra t ion . T he mo s t c op iou s a nd i n te rconnec ted e v id ence i st h a t a bou t t h e e s ta te s o fA r same s a nd t wo o the rw i se u nknown P e r s ian s , Wa roh i a nd Wa rf i g , i nE gyp t .9 8 F rom t h i s eme rge s ap i c tu r e o ft h e owne r r unn ing h i s e s ta t e s o r d oma in s t h rough a m anage r ( o r m anage r s ) who a r e r e spon s ib le e . g . f o r s upe rv i s ing t h e wo rke r s ( g a rdu ) a nd s l ave sw i th in i ta nd c o l lec t ing ' t ax ' d ue f rom i t ( t he t e rm u s ed , m nd t , i so ne a l so a pp l icab le t or oya l t r ibu te , a nd i tc om e si n af o rm wh ich c an b e c a r r ied t o B aby lon , i . e . s i lve r ) .9 I n p e rf o rm ing h i s d u t ie s h e i s s ome t ime s a s soc ia ted w i th a c coun tan t s a nd c an c a l l u pon t h e s e rv ic e s o f al o ca l m i l i ta ry c o mmande r , t hough t h e re i sn o p rov ing t h a t t h i si sap r iva te m i l i t ia a sh a s s ome t ime sb een c l a imed ."° H i sr ewa rd si n c lude a& yi n ( AD 2 ) , a ppa r en t ly ag ran t o fe i the r l a nd w i th in o r s ome s o r t o fr evenue f r om t h e e s ta te . ( He i sa l so as l ave owne r . ) T h i s r e ca l l s B aby lon ian e v idence , a sd o e s a no the r t e x t ( AD 8 ) wh ich a l so c a s t sl i gh t o n t h e s ou r ce s o fA r same s ' t a x ' : t h i s r e co rd s A r same s ' a s s ign a t ion t o a n E gyp t ian o f ad oma in ( b ag a ) c on s i s t ing o fl a nd wh ich , i fu n tenan ted , wou ld b e d i rec t ly i n co rpo ra ted i n to t h e e s ta te . I n r e tu rn t h e a s s ignee p ay s r en t ( h lk ) t o t h e e s ta te , wh ich w e n ow s e e c on s i s t s a tl e a s t p a r t ly , l i ke B aby lon ian c oun t e rpa r t s , o f s ma l le r , d ependen te s ta te -un i t s . ( The u s eo ft h et e rm h l ka l so p a r t icu la r ly r e ca l l st h e p aymen t o fi l ku ( e tymo log ica l ly c ogna te ) b y B aby lon ian b ow -f ief h o ld e r s t o t h e a u tho r i t ie so ft h el a rge re s ta te o f wh ich t h eb ow -f i ef w a sp a r t ( s ee p p . 1 53 f . ) . Bu ti t wou ld p e rhap s b e u nw i se t oi n f e r t h a t t h e E gyp t ian c a se i si na l r e spe c t s p a ra l le l . ) T he s i tua t ion i n AD 8mu s t b e d i s t ingu i shed f r om t h a t o f Wa roh i ' s d oma in : t h i s t oo i sg iven t oh im b y A r same s , b u t a ppea r s t ob e q u i te s e pa ra te f r om t h e l a t te r ' s h o ld ing s , t h e g i f t b e ing f r om A r same s q ua s a t rap , n o t q ua e s ta te owne r . Is a y t h i s w i thou t p re jud ice t o t h e i mponde rab le q ue s t ion o f whe the r A r sam e s h a s h i s E gyp t ian e s t a te s b ecau se a nd o n ly s o l ong a s h e i ss a t rap . E i the r w ay h e w i l l d oub t le s sh ave t h em t h ank st or oya lg ran t . I ti st h i s s o r t o fb ackg round t h a t w e s hou ld h ave i n m ind when w e r e ad i n a G reek s ou rce a bou t t h e k hö r a o f Memnon '° 1 o r o fT i th rau s te s" 2 o r o ft h e K ing g iv ing a n o i k o s o r l a nd t o s u ch wo r th ie s a sM i l t i ade s ' s on Me t iochu s ( Hd t . 6 . 41 ) , e . g . P a r r inu s ( PBS 2 /1 7 0 , 9 8 , 1 02 , BE 1 0 .103 ) , I p raduparna ( BE 1 0 .114 ) , Uma r ta gpa ( PBS 2 /1 1 0 ) , Unna tu ( CBS 1 298 1 ) , G ibbu ( PBS 2 /1 4 3 ) , A r tau manu ( CBS 4 998 ) , M i t ra ta ( BE 1 0 .114 ) , P i t ibr i ( BE 1 0 .29 , T uM 2 /3 1 48 ) . I n t h e K a s r a r ch ive t h e re a r e many I r an ian p ropr ie to r so fr e a le s ta te ( S to lpe rn .d . ) . 9 8 A r same s : AD 1 , 2 , 4 , 6 -8 , Wa roh i : AD 1 0 , Wa r f i g : AD 1 2 . ( Ia s sume t h a t b a ga ( doma in ) a nd b y t ' ( e s ta te , h ou se ) i n t he se d ocumen t s a r e n o t d i s t inc tc a tego r ie so fh o ld ing ) . A r same sh ad e s ta te si n L owe r a nd U pp e r E gyp t , b u t t h i s w a s p e rhap s r a re , t h e l a ck o f e v idence f o r I r an ian e s ta te -ho lde r s i n d emo t ic t e x t s b e ing c onven ien t ly e xp la ined i f mo s t s u ch e s ta te s w e re i nt h ed e l ta . B aga r e cu r si nS aqqa ra 4 1 , 4 6 , 4 7 i , i n wh ich l a s t c a se t h e owne r s h ave s em i t ic o r E gyp t ian n ame s . S aqqa r a 6 ,4 8 s p eak o fa t ype o fe s ta te c a l led r i k . 9 Manage r : p a s s im . T hey a r e v a r iou s ly E gyp t ian , B aby lon ian a nd , a tl e a s t o nce , I r an ian ( Ma spa t , AD 1 2 ) . S ucce s s ion o f f a the r b y s on a ppea r s i n AD 2 . 9 7

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P qyd r e cu r s i n S aqqa ra 6 4b , 8 5 , AP 3 7 ( c f . p . 1 25 ) , G re lo t 1 972 :no . 9 9 . G a rdu /s l ave s : AD 5 ,7 , 9 , 1 2 . T ax 1 0 , 1 . 1" A ccoun tan t s : AD 8 11 . P or ten 1 968 :46 t h ink s t h e se a r e ` pub l ic ' of i c ia l s a l so a c t iv e i n p r iva te c on tex t s ,b u tc f .p .1 33f . f o re s ta te of i c i a l se l sewhere . M i l i ta ry h e lp : AD 4 . "1 T he s ou rce s r e la te t o t wo d if e r en t a r ea s : ( i ) w e s te rn T road : D em . 2 3 .154 , 1 57 , P s . A r . O e c . 1 351b 1f , ( i ) A e sep su sv a l ley : S t rabo 5 87 , ( ? )A r r . An . 1 . 17 .8 . P o lyaen .4 . 3 .15 m igh tb e long w i th e i the r . "2 FGH 1 05 .4 . T i th rau s te s m igh t b e o ne o f t he r oya l s a t r ap s o ft h e s ame t e x t , b u t i ts t il wou ld n o t f o l low t h a t t h e k ho ra w a s h i s s a t rapy . T ha t Chare s c ho se t o a t tack i td oe s n o t s e t t le t h e q u e s t ion ( c f . n .9 1 ) , a nd T i th rau s te s ' 2 0 ,000 c ava l ry ( S cho l . De m . 4 . 19 ) a r e ap o s s ib ly s u spec t q uan t i ty , s i nce t he s c ho l ia s ti sc o mmen t ing o nc o mp la in t sa bou t ` p ape r ' A then ian a rm ie s o ft e n o r t wen ty t hou s and me rcena r ie s .

ACHAE ME N ID AD M IN IST RAT ION

P hy lako s o f S a mo s ( i d . 8 . 85 ) , D emocede s o f C ro ton ( i d . 3 . 132 ) a nd e ven t h e d epo sed B aby lon ian K ing Nabon idu s ." 3 B u t w e s hou ld b ewa re o f p u t t ing e ve ry th ing u nde rt h es ame h ead .T he v a r iou st e x t sr e la t ing t od ona t ion so fc i t ie s , '" t h ough c on s i s ten t i ns ome c a se s w i th t h e r e c ip ien t a c tua l ly r e s id ing i na nd r u l ing t h ec i ty i nq ue s t ion ( t h i sw a sc e r ta in ly t h ep o s i t ion o fT hem i s toc le sa t Magne s ia a nd o ft h e Gongy l id s a nd D ema ra t id s i nA eo l i s ) , a r e p e rhap s s t r ic t ly s p eak ing g i f t s o f p o r t ion s o f r oya l r e venue n o t o f e s ta te s wh ich h appen t o c o inc ide w i th who le p o l i t ica lu n i t s .'° 5 A ga in ,t h e re a r ev a r iou sl a nd -g r an t sd i s t ingu i shed f r om t h ea bove b y b e ing much s ma l l e r ( no q ue s t ion o f i n te rna l a dm in i s t ra t ion , t hough t h e r e c ip ien tm ay l e a se i tt oa no the rt e nan t ) a nd mo re e xp l i c i t ly t i ed t ot h ep rov i s ion o f s e rv ice o r o the r d u e s t o t h e c rown , e . g . B aby lon ian b ow -f i ef s , l a ndho ld ing s o f E gyp t ian g a r r i son s ( c f . p p . 1 52 f . ) , t h e s e t t lemen t o f e x i led D e l ian s a nd o f E gyp t ian s i n A eo l i s ( t he f o rme r a t l e a s t c a r ry ing m i l i ta ry o b l iga t ion s ) , 106 t h e a ppa ren t c oncen t r a t ion s o f I r an ian s e t t le r s , p e rhap s ' m i l i ta ry c o lon i s t s ' , i n t h ree d i s t inc t a r ea s o fL yd i a a nd i nC appadoc ia ," 7 a nd t h e l a nd i nE gyp t o cca s iona l ly d e sc r ibed b y ad emo t i ct e rm l a te ra s soc ia ted w i th h e l len i s t ic katoikoi. 1°8 A f i na l ,a nd q u i te d if e ren t , s o r t o f ' s e t t lemen t ' i st h a t o f t r an sp l an ted p r i sone r s o f w a r ( c f . n .2 8 ) —qu i te d if e r en tb ecau se t h e se a r et h et oo l sa nd o b jec t so fe xp lo i ta t ion ,n o ti t s b enef ic ia r ie s , c r ea t ing w ea l th f o r t h ek ing a nd g e t t ing ( a sP e r sepo l i s t e x t ss how ) n o more t h an b a re s ub s i s tence i n r e tu rn . I ti st ime n ow t o t u rn t o t h a t o the r , mo s t o bv iou sf o rm o fe xp lo i ta t ion ,v i z . t r ibu te . I TR IBUTE 1 GENERAL CONS IDERAT IONS

T r ibu te w a s f undam en ta l t o t h e emp i re . I n A e schy lu s (Persae 5 85 ) t h e f e a r t h a t P e r s ian p owe r m igh t c o l lap se i st h e f e a r t h a t s ub jec t s w i l l n o l onge r k eep P e r s ian 1° 8 D e l ian s : T huc . 5 . 1 , 3 2 , 8 . 108 .4 . E gyp t ian s : X en . C y r . 7 . 1 .45 , H e l l . 3 . 1 .7 . Ande r son 1 970 :168 q ue s t ion s t h e c l a im t h a t t h i ss e t t lemen tw en t b ack t o t h e s i x th c en tu ry . I n t h e s ame g ene ra l a r ea w e h ave Hy rcan ian a nd A s sy r ian r oya l me rcena r ie s a t C oman ia ( Xen .A n .7 . 8 .13 ) . 1° 7 L yd ia : s ub s tan t ia l e v idence e x i s t s f o r t h e s u rv iva l o f P e r s ian c u l t s i n t h e S a rd i s - Magne s ia T hya te i ra t r iang le , a t Hypa ipa a nd i n t h e K a takau m ene ( e v idence c an b e a s semb led f r om K e i l 1 923 : 2 50 1 , Robe r t 1 963 :no s . 2 25 , 2 33 , 1 975 :308 , 3 26 f . , 1 978 :283 1 . , 1 982 :372 1 , TA M 5 /1 2 67 ) . T he f i r s t a r ea i st h a t o f Hy rcan i s ( Robe r t 1 948 :16 1 , S t rabo 6 29 , t h e l a t te r men t ion ing P e r s ian e p o iko i ) , D a r iu k ome ( Fouca r t 1 885 , 3 98 , 1 887 :90 1 , Robe r t 1 982 : 3 73 ) a nd p e rhap s Cy ruped ion ( S t rabo l o c . c i t .— o the r s p u t i ti n K a takaumene ) . C appadoc ia : S t rabo 7 33 ( f i re -wo r sh ip , many P e r s ian t emp le s ) , a nd c f . 5 12 . O the r s c a t te red e v idence f o r c u l t s i n Ana to l ia : D iogen . 6 92 F l ; Robe r t 1 963 :349 , 1 978 :277 . T he re i sa l so , o fc ou r se , much p e r sona l I r an ian n omenc la t u re . 1° 8 P . L oeb 4 5 , P . C a i ro 3 1046 , P . Mo scow 4 24 ; a nd c f . P . Ry land s9 . 17/2 ( S a i te ) . T he t e rm i sk land ( n b 4= k a t o iko s ) : Ma l in ine 1 967 :78 .

1° 3 B e ro s s . 6 80 F 9 , a r e s idence i n C a rman ia . A bydenu s 6 85 F 6 s peak s o fh e g emon iJ ( c f . t h e c l a im t h a t A s tyage sw a s made r u le ro f Hy rcan ia : C te s . 6 88 F 9a , J u s t . 1 . 6 .6 ) . I t i s t emp t ing t o s uppo se t h a t T imago ra s a nd C a l l ige i tu s ( Thuc . 8 . 6 , 3 9 ) a nd N icogene s o f A egae ( P lu t . T hem . 2 6 ) a r e a l so b enef ic ia r ie so fr oya lo rs a t rapa ll a nd g ran t s . 1° 4 Them i s toc le s : T huc . 1 . 138 .5 , D iod . 1 .57 .7 , P lu t . T h em . 2 9 , Nep . T h em . 1 0 , A then . 2 9F , A r i s todem . 1 0 .4 , S cho l . A r . E qu . 8 4 . P y tha rcu s : Aga thoc le s 4 72 F 6 . Amyn t a s : Hd t . 8 . 134 . L ycon : C te s ia s 6 88 F 15 ( 5 3 ) . G ongy lu s : X en . H e l l . 3 . 1 .6 1 . , A n . 7 .8 .8 f .D ema ra tu s : t wo g i f t s , o ne o f' l and a nd c i t ie s ' c .4 90 ( Hd t . 6 . 40 ) , t h e o the r o fT eu th ran ia s / H a l i sarne a f te r 4 79 ( Xen . H e l l . 3 . 1 .6 , A n . 7 . 8 .18 ) . A lc ib iade s : Nep . A l c . 9 . 2 . C roe su s : C te s ia s 6 99 F 9 , J u s t in . 1 . 7 .7 . 1° 5 I n P y tha rcu s ' c a se ( n .104 ) o ne wonde r s i ft he c i t ie s a r e mo re t han v i l lag e s— in wh ich c a se e s ta te h o ld ing may b e t he a pp rop r ia te c a tegory . S im i la r d oub t s a r e p o s s ib le w i th L ycon , g iven t h a t C te s ia s c a l l s P a ry sa t i s ' v i l lage s ' c i t i e s ' ( n .8 8 , C te s . 6 88 F 16 ( 6 5 ) ) . F or ag i f t o fv i l lage s a nd t h e r i gh t t o P e r s ian d re s s b y A lexande r , p re sumab ly i m i ta t ing A chae men id p rac t ice ,c f .P lu t .A l ex . 3 1 .

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l aw s , d o p r o skyn e s i s , o r p ay d a smo s : c o mpa re t h e f o rmu lae o f r oya l i n scr ip t ion s m en t ioned e a r l ie r( p . 1 33 ) a nd n o te t h a tt r ibu te a l so a ppea red a s as ymbo lo fP e r s i an p owe ri nt h eS uez C ana ls t e lae ( Po sene r1 936 :n o . 8 . 6 ) . H e rodo tu s ' c l a im t ha tP e r s i s i t s e lf w a s n on t r ibu ta ry ( 3 .97 .1 ) a c co rd s w i th t h i s s ymbo l i c c harac t e r , b u t i ti sn o t s t ra igh tf o rwa rd ly t r ue . T he i n c lu s ion o fP e r s i si n aL i s t o fP eop le s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e f o rmu la a bou t t r ibu te i n DB 6 -7 m igh t b e a n o ve r s igh t , b u t t h e P e r sepo l i s d ocumen t s c e r ta in ly e s tab l i sh t h a t s ome t r ibu t ep aymen t sw en t o n i nP er s ia ( Koch 1 980 ) . P e rhap s t h e e xemp t ion a pp l ied o n ly t o t h e n ob i l i ty ( Br ian t 1 982a :342 , 5 0 1 ) —bu t i nt h a t c a se why d id H e rodo tu s n o th ave af i gu r e , a l be i t al ow o ne , f o r P e r s ian t r ibu te ? —o ro n ly t os i lve rt r ibu te ( Dand amayev 1 972 :43 ) . D a r iu s s a y s t h a t h i s s ub jec t s b o re h im t r ibu t e , a nd t h i s i sn o t me r e ly af i gu re o f s p eech . T h roughou t H e rodo tu s ' T r ibu te L i s t ( 3 .89-96 ) t h e s i ze o fa n a r ea ' s t r ibu t e i sc on s i s ten t ly e xp re s sed a s' s uch -and such as um w en t t oD a r iu s ' , t h e me ta l b e ing p re sumab ly s upp l ied i n b u l l ion f o rm a nd c e r ta in ly s t o red t hu s , p e rhap s a f te r f u r the r r ef inemen t ( c f . Oppenhe im 1 947 ) , t ob ec o ined a sa nd when r e qu i red , a nd f o ro the r e v idence w e c an t u rn t oP o lyc l i tu s ' r ema rk s ( 1 28 F 3 ) a bou tt h e t r ea su r i e s i n S u sa b u i l t t o r e ce ive t h e t r ibu te ( bo th s i lve r a nd o the r n on -pe r i shab le n a tu r a l p roduce ) , t ot h e l a rge s i lve r a c cumu la t ion s c ap tu red b y A lexande r ( s e eb e low ) , 1°9 t o s t a temen t s i nG reek s ou rce s a bou t s a t r ap s s e nd ing t r ibu te ( i nc lud ing h o r se s ) t o t h e K ing"° o r a bou t ar ebe l l iou s r eg iona l g ov e rno r s t ea l ing q ua e r e g ip o r t a r en tu r ( Nep . D a t . 4 . 2 ) , a nd t ov a r iou s P e r sepo l i s t e x t s wh i ch r e f e r t ot r ea su r e o r s i lve r o r t a x b e ing t r an spo r ted t o S u sa o r P e r sepo l i s o r f r om S u sa t o Ma tezz i g . '" Bu t w e s hou ld n o tn ece s sa r i ly a s sume t h a t a l t h es i lve r t r ibu te q uo ta o f ap a r t i cu la r r eg ion w a s c a r r ied o ft o Me sopo tam ia o r I r an . H e rodo tu sh im se lf n o te s t ha t ap o r t ion o f t h e C i l ic i an p ho r o s ( 2 8 p e r c en t ) w a s r e ta ined i nt h e s a t rapy t o p ay f o r g a r r i son c ava l ry a nd a r rangemen t s o f t h i s s o r t m ay h ave b een q u i te c o mmon : a f te r a l , X enophon ( Cy r opa ed ia 8 . 6 .3 ) m ake si ta ppea r t h a tt h es a t rap ' sp aymen to fg a r r i son m i s tho s a nd e xecu t ion o f o the r u n iden t if i ed f unc t ion s ( DA ( ) TEX()1'301V ö Tt 8 49 ) w a s s t anda rd ly ac on sequence o ft r ibu te -co l le c t ion , a nd He rodo tu s ( 3 .91 .3 ) r e co rd s t r ibu te i n k ind ( c o rn ) l e v ied i n E gyp t f o r P e r s ian s a nd e p ik ou r o i i n t h e s a t rapy . T h i s s uppo s i t ion m ay h e lp w i th t h e p rob lem s ome h ave p e r ce ived i n t h e s u rp r i s ing ly s ma l l p e rcen tage ( a bou t s e ven p e r c en t ) o ft h e t h eo re t ica l t o t a l t r ibu te i n come f o r 5 20-33 1 BC wh ich A lexande r a c tua l ly f ound i nS u sa a nd P e r sepo l i s" 2 a nd t h e s u rp r i s ing p a r s imony o ft h e k ing i np rov id ing c a sh t op ay f o r t h e m i l i ta ry d ef ence o fh i s own i n te re s t s e . g . i nw e s te rn Ana to l i a . C awkwe l l 1 968 :4 c onf ron t s 1° 9 S u sa ( A r r . A n . 3 . 16 .7 , D iod . 1 7 .66 , Cu r t . 3 . 2 .11 ,P lu t . A l ex .3 6 , S t rab . 1 5 .3 .9 ) ,P e r sepo l i s ( P lu t . A l ex . 3 7 , D iod . 1 7 .70 , Cu r t . 5 . 6 .3 , S t rab . l o c . c i t . ) , P a sa rgadae ( Cu r t . , S t rab . 1 .cc . ) , E cba tana ( S t rab . l o c .c i t . ) . 1 10 Cy ru s : X en . A n . 1 . 1 .8 . Mau so lu s : P s . A r . O e c . 1 348a4f . I d r ieu s : I s oc . 5 . 104 . A rmen ian s a t rap : S t rabo 5 30 ( 2 0 ,000 h o r se s a tt h e t ime o ft he M i th ra f e s t iva l :b u ts u re ly at r ibu te p aymen t ) . l i t P F 5 7 ( t ax , Ma tu rban -Su sa ) , 1 357 ( t rea sure , B aby lon -Su sa : c a r r ied b y P a t ia sa , e l sewhe re at ihe c o l lec to r ) , 1 342 ( s i lve r , S u sa - Ma tezz i g : c a r r ied b y a t r ea su re r , e l sewhe re a t te s ted a s b az ika r a , t a x -

h and le r ) , 1 495 ( t ax , B a r r ikana-Su sa ) , P Fa 1 4 a nd ( unpub l . ) Q 8 09 ( t rea su re , K e r man -Su sa ) . P a t ia sa a l so a ppe a r s t h r ice a c company ing g roup s o f h or se s ( PF 1 394 , 1 472 , 1 570 ) , wh ich m igh t b e t r ibu te ( s o Koch 1 980 :123 ) . " 2 F o r s ou rce s c f . n .109 . Ia s su me 1 20 ,000 t a len t s a tP e r sepo l i s ( D iodo ru s , Cur t iu s ) a nd s ome 1 80 ,000 f o rS u sa , P e r s epo l i sa nd P a sargadae , r e spe c t ive ly c i r c a 4 . 5% a nd 6 . 5% o ft h et h eo re t ica lt o ta l( 1 90 x 1 4 ,560 t a len t s ) . T he r e i sn o f i gu re f o r B aby lon , a nd a l l w e k now a bou t E cba tana i st h a t Da r iu s I r e moved s e ven o r e i gh t t hou sand t a len t s t henc e ( Ar r . An . 3 . 19 .5 ,D iod . 1 7 .74 .4 , S t rab .l o c . c i t . ) . 1 38

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t h i s d if i cu l ty b y d i sc a rd ing H e rodo tu s ' c l ea r s t a temen t t h a t as i lve r t r ibu te w a s l e v ied f r om a l a r ea so ft h e emp i re i nf a vou ro fP o lyc l i tu s ' c l a im ( 1 28 F 3 ) t h a ti tw a s c onf ined t ot h ep a r a l i a , w i th t h er ema in ing ( i n land ) r eg ion sp ay ing p roduce i n s tead ( dye s , d rug s , h a i r , woo l , a n ima l s ) . T he A chaemen id k ing s c e r ta in ly d id r e ce ive t r ibu te i n k ind ( s ee b e low ) , b u t w e h ave e v idence f o r s i lve r tax p aymen t s i nt h e P e r sepo l i s d ocumen t s" 3 a nd i nB aby lon ia ( b e low p p . 1 53 f . )— and t h i s d e sp i te t h e f a c t t ha ts i lve ri sn o tn a t ive t oB aby lon ia — so P o lyc l i tu s ' s imp le p i c tu re i sc e r t a in ly w rong ( i n sp i red , p e rh ap s , b y h i s a wa r ene s s o f t h e i r re levan t f a c t t h a t o n ly t h e emp i re ' sf r inge sh ad c o inag ee conom ie s ) .T he p rob lem a bou tt h eb u l l ion i nS u sa a nd P e r sepo l i s i sb e t te r s o lved b y s uppo s ing t h a t o n ly a c e r ta in p ropo r t ion o f t h e s i lve r t r ibu te i n come h ad e ve rb een i nt h e ma jo rt r ea su r ie sa tt h ee mp i r e ' sc en t r e . A r e cen t d i scu s s ion o ft h eP e r sepo l i s t r ea su ry wou ld make t h a t p ropo r t ion v e ry l ow i ndeed o r e ven e l im ina te i ta l toge the r . C ah i l l 1 985 a rgue s t h a t t h e P e r sepo l i s t r ea su ry w a sa bove a l ap l ace o fs t o rage f o rg i f t ss ymbo l ic o ft h ek ing ' sp owe rn o ta c en t re f o r r e ce iv ing t r ibu te i n come a nd r ed i s t r ibu t ing i t i n to t h e i mpe r ia l e cono my . H ei sn o te n t i re ly c l ea ra bou th ow h er ega rd s t h eb u l l ion e l emen t o ft h e t r ea su ry ' sc on ten t s , b u tt h ei mp l ica t ion o fh i so ve ra l la rgumen ta ppea r st ob ee i the r t h a t t he b u l l ion w a sn o tt r ibu te a ta l o rt h a t , i fi tw a s , i t st r an sf e rt oP e r sepo l i sw a s i na ny c a se o fc e remon ia l s i gn if i cance a nd t h e p ropo r t ion o ft r ibu te t r an sf e r r ed i n t h i s f a sh ion w a s n eve r much mo r e t h an t h e c i r c a f i ve p e r c en t r ep re sen ted b y wha t A lexande r e ven tua l ly f ound t h e re ( c f . n . 12 ) . T he f i r s t o ft h e se a l te rna t ive s s t and s i n f l ag ran t c on t rad ic t ion t o t h e l i t e ra ry a nd i n sc r ip t iona l e v idence u n le s s o ne a s su me s t h a t P e r sepo l i s w a s s o t o ta l ly a ' r i tua l ' c i ty o u t s ide t h e o rd ina ry a dm in i s t r a t ive s t ruc tu re s a st ob e i r re levan t t o s t a temen t s , e ven r oya l o ne s , a bou t t r ibu te b e ing ' b rough t t ot h ek ing '— a v i ew wh ich If i nd al i t t le d if icu l t t os qua re w i th t h e e x i s tence t h e re o fa n a r ch ive l i ke t h a t f r om t h e F o r t if i ca t ion ( i r re spec t ive o f whe the r t h a t a r ch ive w a s o r ig ina l ly s t o red i n t h e t r ea su ry ) . T he s e cond a l te rna t ive i st h e ref o r e t h e b e t te r o ne . B u t t h e s ma l l s u rv iv ing c o rpu s o ft r ea su ry t ab le t s , a lmo s te n t i re ly c once rned w i th s i lve r p aymen t s g iven t o wo rke r si np a r t ia l o r ( r a re ly ) t o ta l r e p l acemen t o f p aymen t i n k ind a nd i n te rp re ted b y C ah i l l a s s o me th ing q u i te e xcep t iona l ,i ss u r e ly a nu n re l iab le r ef l ec t ion o ft h e who le r ange o f t he t r ea su ry ' s a c t iv i t ie s a nd C ah i l l mu s t b e o ve re s t ima t ing t h e p u re ly s ymbo l ic i mpor t o ft h e b u l l ion h o ld ing s . T he f a c t t h a t t h e t r ea su ry c on ta ined s ome t h ing s wh ich w e re n o t e a s i ly r ed i s t r ibu tab le d oe s n o t p rove t h a t e ve ry th ing i tc on ta ined wa sp rac t ica l ly i nt h a tc a tego ry , a nd o n C ah i l l ' s own v i ew S u s aw a s ' p re sumab ly ' a p l ace whe re ' t axe s a nd o the r r evenue s f o r i mpe r ia l p u rpo se s [ we re ] c o l lec ted a nd s t ored ' ( 1 985 : 3 87 )— th i s i n c on t r ad i s t inc t ion t o P e r sepo l i s— and y e t s ome 5 0 ,000 t a len t s w e re d i scov e r ed i n t h e E l am i te c ap i ta l b y t h e Macedon ian s . Is hou ld s uppo se , t h e ref o re , t h a tt h ep ropo r t ion o fs i lve rt r ibu te i n come a c tua l ly b rough tt o t he k ing a nd s t o r ed i nt h em a jo rt r ea su r ie so f Me sopo tam ia a nd I r an w a sd ec ided ly h ighe rt h an f i ve o rs e ven p e rc en t . I n3 . 89 H e rodo tu s a t t r ibu te s t h e e s tab l i shmen t o f ar egu la r s i lve r t r ibu te s y s tem " 3 C f . n . 11 . PT 8 5 , a n Akkad ian t e x t men t ioni ng s i lve r t r ibu te , f ound a tP e r sepo l i s , w a s p robab ly wr i t ten t h e re o r a tl e a s t i n P e r s i s : c f . Z adok 1 976a ( who i d en t if i e s aB aby lon ian p re sence a t Ma tezz i g

i n5 26-2 1 BC, a nd wou ld h ave PT 8 5 w r i t ten t he re ) , S to lpe r 1 984 ( pub l i sh ing a no the r Akk . t e x t d ef in i te l yw r i t ten a tP e r sepo l i si nD a r iu s 'r e ign ) .

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t o D a r iu s , h i s p redece s so r s h av ing m e re ly r e c e ived u n regu la r ized g i f t s . T he s ame v i ew i sa s se r ted b y P o lyc l i tu s 1 28 F 3 , i sc e r t a in ly a s sumed i n as t o ry i nP lu ta rch Mo r a l i a 1 72F a nd P o lyaenu s 7 . 11 .3 a bou t D a r iu s ' f i r s t t r ibu te a s se s smen t , a nd i s p re sumab ly i mp l ied b yP l a to ' sc l a im ( L aw s6 95C ) t h a tD a r iu si n corpo r a ted i n to t h e l aw ' t he d a smo so fC y ru s wh ich h e ( i . e . Cy ru s ) h ad p ro m i sed t ot he P e r s ian s ' . O the r t e x t s , h oweve r , a ppea r t od eny D a r iu s ' p r imacy . S ome a r e a dm i t ted ly o fd oub tf u l w e igh t . X enophon ' s w i l l ingne s s t o a t t r ibu te t r ibu te d emand s t o t he e l de r Cy ru s ( Cy r opa ed ia 7 . 4 .2 , 8 . 1 .9 , 6 . 1 f .e t c . ) c anno tb er e ga rded a sr e l i ab le e v idence , n or c an A r r ian ' s s t a temen t t h a t t h e I nd ian s p a id t r ibu te a c co rd ing t o t he a s se s smen t o f C y ru s ( I nd i c a 1 . 3 ) , i n v i ew o f u nce r ta in ty a s t o whe the r I nd ia w a s w i th in t h e emp i re a tt h e t ime ( I nd ian s a r e m i s s ing i n t h e L i s t o f P eop le s i n DB 7 ,t hough a ppea rr egu la r ly t h e reaf te r ) . E ven C y ru s ' own s t a temen ti nt h e Akkad i an C y l inde r T ex t ( ANET 3 16 , B e rge r 1 975 :199 ) t h a tt h ek ing so fa l t h e wor ld ' b rough th eavy t r ibu te a nd k i s sed my f e e ti nB aby lon ' mu s tb e t r ea ted c au t iou s ly : f o rs i nce t h e t e x t r e la te s t o C y ru s q ua k ing o fB aby lon a nd b e long s f i rm ly a nd e xc lu s ive ly i n t h e t r ad i t ion o f Me sopo tam ian r oya l b u i ld ing t e x t s ( H a rma t ta 1 97 1 , Kuh r t 1 983 ) , t h e e xp re s s ion o fu n ive r sa lr e cogn i t ion o ft h en ew k i ng ' sp owe rb yr ef e renc et ot r ibu te may b e d i c ta ted b y t h a t t r ad i t ion a nd t h e c l a im t h a t t r ibu te w a s a c tua l ly p a id may b e v a l id o n ly f o r t h e e x -Baby lon ian emp i re . (W i seman ' s h in t , 1 967 :504 , t h a t t h e f r agmen ta ry r oya l s t a temen t s a bou t t r ibu te c om ing t oB aby lon ia i n BM 8 2684 + 8 2685 m ay b e C y ru s ' i sf a r t oo s p ecu la t ive t o h e lp . ) T he o the r e v idence a to dd s w i th H e rodo tu s ' s t a temen ti n3 . 89 i sp rov ided b yH e rodo tu sh im se lf , wh en h es ay s t h a t Sme rd i s r em i t ted t r ibu te f o r t h ree y ea r s ( 3 .67 .3 ) a nd s p eak s o fL ibyan s a nd C y renean s a g ree ing t o p ay t r ibu te t o C amby se s ( 3 .13 , 4 . 165 ) . Th i s d oe s a tl e a s t s how t h a td if e r en tv i ew sw e re c u r ren ta l ready i nt h ef i f th c en tu ry ( wh ich w i l lh e lp t oe xp la in X enophon ' s l i ne i nC y r opa ed ia ) , b u t s t i l l d oe s n o t s e t t le t he t r u th o ft he m a t te r ; i tw a s a l t oo e a sy f o r c l a s s ica l G reek s t o a s sume c a sua l ly t h a t t he A chaemen id k ing h ad a lway s r e ce ived t r ibu te a sh e d id i nt h e i r own t im e . On t he who le , H e rodo tu s ' c l ea r s t a temen t , when n o t a dd re s s ing h im se lf t o t h e q ue s t ion c a sua l ly , t h a t D a r iu s i n t roduced ac hange s e em s t o d e se rve p recedence . T he b e s t v i ew i sp e rhap s t h i s : t h e A chaemen id e mp i re h ad c o me i n to e x i s tence b y t he P e r s ian k ing ' s s u cce s s ive a cqu i s i t ion o f l a rge e x i s t ing i mpe r ia l e n t i t ie s ( Med ia , B aby lon , L yd ia , E gyp t ) , e a ch w i th i t s own i n te rna l t r ad i t ion o f r oya l ' t r ibu te ' . T he se t r ad i t ion sw e re m a in t a ined s e pa r a te ly f o rt h eb enef i to ft h en ew A ch aemen id r u le r ( a nd m ay i ns ome c a se s h ave i nvo lved e l em en t s o fr e la t ive ly u n regu l a r ized g i f t -g iv ing ) . Wha t D a r iu s d id w a s p e rhap s t oc r ea t e as omewha t g rea te r d eg ree o f u n if o rm i ty b e tween t h e d if e r en t a r ea s o ft h e emp i r e ( e .g . b y l a y ing d own s ome u n if o rm p r inc ip le s o fa s se s smen t ) a nd c e r ta in ly t oo rde r an ew a c tua l a s se s smen t , wh ich q u i te p o s s ib ly i n c rea sed t h eb u rden . How g rea t w a s t h a t b u rden ? One e ncoun te r s s ome i n f o rma l i nd i ca t ion s . H e rodo tu s d ec la re s t h a t P e r s ian d emand s l e d t h e B aby lon ian s t o p ro s t i tu te t h e i r d augh te r s" 4 a nd l e s sf r ivo lou s ly N eh em i ah 5 . 6r epo r t sh eavy b o r row ing i no rde rt o Hd t . 1 . 197 . ( A d if e ren t c onnec t ion b e tween P e r s ia a nd B aby lon ian p ro s t i tu te s a ppea r s i n P lu t . Mo r . 1 73C : ma in tenance o fp ub l ic p ro s t i tu te s w a s a

r equ i remen ti mpo sed a f te r aB aby lon ian r evo l t . T h i s i se v iden t ly a r ework ing o f wha t a ppea r s i n Hd t . 1 . 156 a bou tp un i shmen to fr ebe l l iou sL yd ia ) .

"4

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p ay t h e k ing ' s t r ibu te ." 5 C ook 1 96 1 s aw t h e i mpove r i shmen t o fc l a s s ica l I on ia i n t e rm so ft r ibu te , b u tt h i si sas p ec ia lc a se o fa na r ea ( i nh i sv i ew ) p ay ing t a xe st ot wo i mpe r ia l p owe r s . A ta ne a r l ie rd a te M i le tu s , f o re xamp le , w a ss a id t ob ea t ah e igh t o fp ro spe r i ty a f te r4 0 y e a r so fP e r s ian r u le ( He rodo tu s5 . 28 , Roebuck : 1 959 : 1 3 1 — b u t c on t ra s t T ozz i 1 978 :chap te r 5 ) . Re sen tmen t o f t h e t r ibu te b u rden i s , n one the le s s , ap o s s ib l e e xp lana t ion o f t h e I on ian r evo l t , a nd i ti s mo re o r l e s s e xp l ic i t ly a t te s ted a s ac au se o f r ebe l l ion i n E gyp t ( D iod . 1 .7 1 .3 , C u r t . 4 . 7 .1 , B r ian t n .d . (b ) ) . T he r e co rded i nd i ca t ion s o fr oya l t a x r a te s i nB aby lon i a a r e n o t o bv iou s ly u ndu ly h a r sh , t hough d oub t le s s o ne c an o n ly r e a l ly j udge ap a r t icu la r o b l iga t ion i nt h e l i gh t o fa l at a xpaye r ' s o b l iga t ion s t os t a te , t emp le o r wha teve r , a nd t he p aymen t o fr oya l i l ku c ou ld c e r ta in ly l e ad t o d eb t ." 6 T he o n ly g loba l f i gu re o n o f e r i st h a t i n H e rodo tu s ' t r ibu te l i s t ( 3 .89-96 ) , whe re e a ch n omo s i s a s s igned af i gu r e i nB aby lon ian s i lve r o r E uboean g o ld t a len t s a nd af i na l t o ta l i s p roduced o f1 4 ,560 E uboean t a len t s . B u tt h em anu sc r ip tf i gu re sd on o ta dd u p , a nd t h es imp le s te menda t ion t om ake t h em d os oi nvo lve sp o s tu la t ing ac onve r s ion r a te o f7 8i n s tead o f7 0E uboean m ina it ot h eB aby lon ian t a len t ." T he g ene ra lo rde ro f m agn i tude i sn o t p e rh ap s much a f ec ted , t hough , a nd e ven s ome r a the r r ad i ca l c r i t ic i sm s o fH e rodo tu s ( e .g . t h e c l a im o fA rmayo r 1 978 t h a t t h e i nd iv idua l n omo s f i gu re s a r e H e rodo t ean i nven t ion s ) a low s t h a t t h e t o ta l m ay c o me f r om a r e pu tab le s ou rce . C awkwe l l 1 968 :4 n o te s t h a t i ti s c r ed ib le i n t h e l i gh t o f A n t igonu s ' l a te r a nnua l t r ibu t e i n come o f 1 ,000 t a len t s ( D iodo ru s 1 9 .56 .5 ) . C ompa red w i th A then ian t r ibu te i n come a nd a low ing f o rt h ed if e ren ts c a le o ft h e t wo emp i r e st h ef i gu r ei sn o td i sp ropo r t iona te ly l a rge . On t h e o the r h and , t r ibu te w a s n o tj u s t am a t te r o fs i lve r p aymen t s . S eve ra l t e x t s d i s t ingu i sh b e tw e en o b l iga t ion s i ns i lve r a nd i nk ind , s ub sum ing b o th u nde r t h e h ead ing o ft r ibu te . H e rodo tu s ' own l i s t n o te s f i sh a nd c o rn i nE gyp t , h o r se s i n C i l ic ia , e unuch s i nB aby lon ia ." 8 T he p s eudo-A r i s to te l ian O e c onom i c a ( 1 345b281 346a5 ) i n c lude s s om e p roduce t a xe s i n t h e s a t r apa l r evenue , b u t Ta Kar a y i jv K a i e t yopa i na ran c ou ld b e c a sh d ue s . ( Fo r af u l l l i s t c f . p . 1 46 ) . T he t a xe s o f B eyond t h eR ive re nab led i t st r e a su re r st op rov ide b o th s i lve ra nd c o mmod i t ie st o t h eJ ew s ," a nd when S t r abo ( 1 1 .3 .8 )s a y st h a tt h eC appadoc ian ss e n tt h ek ing 1 500 h o r se s , 2 000 mu le s a nd 5 0 ,000 s h eep i n a dd i t ion t o a r gu r ikon t e l o s a nd t h a t t h e Mede s ' p a id ' ( i raov v ) n ea r ly t w ice t h i s t h e a n ima l s a r e c l ea r ly t r ibu t e . A t amo re 7

9

" c f . N eh em . 9 . 36 : ` t oday w ea r es l ave sa nd a l t h e l a nd ' s p roduc e g oe s t ot h e k i ng whom T hou h a s s e t o ve r u s ' . N eh em . 5 . 6 a l so m en t ion s , t hough n o t s p ec if ica l ly i nc onnec t ion w i th t a x p aymen t , p l edgi ng o fc h i ld r en f o r ad eb t , ap rocedu re r a re ly a t te s ted a l so i n B aby lon ia ( Dandamayev 1 976 :438 f . ) . Vo l u n tary t emp le s e rf dom a ppe a r si nL a te P er iod E gyp t ( L loyd 1 983 :315 ) , a sd oe s a bandonmen t o fl a nd d ue t ot ax b u rden s( P . Ry land s9 . 6 /15 ( S a i te ) ) . " BE 9 . 94 , 9 4a , 9 5-6 , 1 0 .5 1 , 5 7 , PBS 2 /1 4 0 , 8 9 , CBS 5 516 , 1 2863 , 1 2966 , 1 3022 , C a rda sc ia 1 95 1: 4 0 , S to lpe r 1 974 :159 f . " The I nd ian s p ay 3 60 E uboean g o ld t a len t s , i . e . 4 680 s i lve r t a len t s . T he o th e r 1 9 n omo i s hou ld t he re f o re p roduce 9 880 E uboe an s i lve r t a len t s . A l l MSS , s a ve o ne , a t 9 5 .1 m ake t h e t o ta l 9 540 , a nd t h e

e xcep t ion ( S ) h a s t h e c o r rec tf i gu re i nr a su r a ( i . e . a sa c o r rec t ion ) . T he a c tua lt o ta lo fi nd iv idua lf i gu re sf o r t h e 1 9 n omo i i s7 600 B ab . t a len t s . T h i s e qua l s 9 880 E ub . t a len t s i f 1B ab . t a len t =7 0 E ub . m ina i . A c omp l ica ted a t temp t b y D e sca t n .d . t o ' e xp la in ' t he f i gu re o f 9 540 a l so i nvo lve s t h e w rong e xchange r a te . " 3 . 9 1 .2 ( f i sh , s o ld f o r s i lve r : 2 . 149 ) ; 9 0 .3 ( 3 60 h or se s ) ; 9 2 .1 ( 5 00 e unuch s ) . C i l ic ian a nd ( c f . b e low ) Med ian h o r se s t u rn u p i n E gyp t a c co rd ing t o o ne r e ad ing o f P . A ram . F lo rence 19 13 ( M i l ik 1 960 ) ; c on t ra s t B re sc ian i 1 959 , Hof t i jze r 1 962 , Sw igge r s 1 980 . " E z ra 7 . 2 1 f .( IE sd r . 8 . 18 f . ) ; c f . E z r a6 . 8 ( IE sd r . 6 . 29 ,J o seph .A J1 .16 ) .

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l o ca ll e ve l ,a na rmy l a nd tax men t ioned a tS aqqa r ai n c luded s i lve ra nd m a te r ia l s .1 2 ° We a l so h ave i nd iv idua lr e f e rence st ot r ibu te i nk ind . Ho r se sr e cu ra tA spendu sa nd i nA rmen ia ,1 2 1 s h eep , g oa t s , a nd c e rea l s i nP e r s i s ( PF 2 67-73 ) . S eve r a l p a s sage s i n X enophon a nd b ib l ica ls ou rce sc l ea r ly c onnec tt r ibu te a nd a g r icu l tu r a lp roduce . '2 I ti st emp t ing t ot h ink t h a tt h ec e rea ls t o re sd e s t ined f o rt h eE lephan t ine g a r r i son i n AP 2a nd 2 4 ( d rawn i no ne c a se f r om t h ep rov ince s o fT i t r sa nd T h ebe s ) r ep re sen t t a x p aymen t s a nd t o s ugge s t as im i la r e xp lan a t ion o ft h e f ood s tuf f s r e corded i n o s t r aca a tB ee r -Sheba ( S t e rn 1 982 :45 , Naveh 1 973 , 1 979 ) , A rad ( S t e rn l o c . c i t . , N aveh 1 975 ) ,Y a t ta a nd T e l l' I ra ( Naveh 1 985 ) . No r d oe s s o ca l led ' t r ibu te ' ( whe the r i n s i l ve r o r k ind ) e xhau s t t h e r ange o f o f e r ing st ot h eA chaemen id k ing s , t h e re b e ing ( a tl e a s t ) t wo o the ra r e a s wor thy o f n o te . ( i ) A m a jo r e l emen t i n t h e i c onog raphy o f P e r sepo l i s i s t h e e x ten s ive r e p re sen t a t ion o ft h e b r ing ing o fc l o the s , p rec iou s o b jec t s , a n ima l s , a nd t h e l i ke t o t h e K ing f ound i n t h e s o ca l led T r ibu te B ea r e r r e l ief s o n t h e s t a i r c a s e s o f t h e A padana , P a lace H a nd t h e P a lace o fD a r iu s (Wa l se r 1 966 ) . D e sp i te t h e mode rn l a be l , t h e se s hou ld n o tb e r ega rded a sa ni mage o ft h e t r ibu te s y s tem : t h e d e lega te s a r ep re sen t ing g i f t sa nd t h ec o mpo s i t ion s ymbo l iz e st h e emp i re ' sr e spec tf o rt he k ing n o t i t s mundane f i s ca l s ub jec t ion t o h im ( Roo t 1 979 :227 f . , C ah i l l 1 985 :387 f . ) . No ri si tm e r e ly as ymbo li fC ah i l l 1 985 i sc o r re c tt oi d en t if yt h ec on s t i tu en t so fs u ch g i f t si ns ome o ft h ec on ten t so ft h eP e r sepo l i st r ea su ry .G if t so ft h i ss o r ta r en o rma l ly a dd i t iona l t o o rd ina ry t r ibu te , b u t H e rodo tu s ( 3 .97 ) n o te s t h a t t h e E th iop ian s , C o lch i an sa nd s ou th C auca s ian s , a nd A rab sh ad t h ep r iv i lege ( c f . 3 . 9 1 ) o fp ay ing n o t r ibu te b u t m e re ly o f e r ing r egu la r g i f t s . S i nc e E th iop ian s a nd A r ab s a ppea r r egu la r ly i nr oya l L i s t s o fP eop le s a nd t h e ref o r e i mp l ic i t ly a sp aye r s o fb az il w e h ave ac on t r ad ic t ion i nt h ee v idence .E i the rt h et wo s ou rce sr e f e rt od if e r en tg roup s o fE th iop ian s a nd A rab s ( a nd H e rodo tu s f a i led t o n o t ice t h e o ne s who d id p ay t r ibu te ) o rt h eK ing w a sd i s inc l ined t od i s t ingu i sh g i f ta nd t r ibu te when g l o r ify ing h i s own p owe r ( bu td id n o tt h ink t h eC o lch ian sw o r th amen t ion ) . T he s ugge s t ion o fE ph 'a l 1 982 :206 f .t h a tt h ef r ank incen se g iven b yt h eA rab so fG aza / I e ny su sw a s s imp ly at a xu pon t h ep rof i t so fs upe rv i s ing t h ei n c en se t r ade o nb eha lf o ft h eK ing i sa n i n te re s t ing v a r ia t ion o ft h e s e cond t ype o fs o lu t ion b u t o ne n o t o bv iou s ly e x ten s ib le t ot h eo the ra r ea si nvo lved . ( i ) I na n a t temp tt og ive s ome i mp re s s ion o ft h ee no rmou sw ea l th o fB aby lon ia H e rodo tu sr e po r t s ( 1 .192 ) t h a tt h e who le emp i re w a sd i v ided u pf o rt h ep rov i s ion i ng ( t r oph i ) o ft h e K ing a nd h i s a rmy a nd t h a t u nde r t h i s s y s tem B aby lon ia w a s r e spon s ib le f o r t h e p rov i s ion s o ff ou r mon th s o u t o fe ve ry y ea r . He rodo tu s s ay s e xp l ic i t ly t h a t t h i s w a s a dd i t iona l t o p ho r o s , b u t l e ave s ac ruc ia l q ue s t ion u nan swe red : i st h i s a dd i t iona l t os i l v e r t r ibu te o r t oa l s p ec ie s o ft r ibu te ? S im i la r

1 20 S aqqa ra 2 4 .11 . I n a no the r S aqqa ra t e x t ( A ime -G i ron 1 92 1:56 ) t h e s ame t a x a ppa ren t ly o n ly i nvo lve s s i lve r . I n S aqqa ra 3 1 s ome th ing , ( ? )n a tu ra l p roduce , g oe s f r om t h e ' f i e ld s o f t h e a rmy 't ot h e Roya l Hou se . A r r . A n . 1 . 26 .3 , X en . A n . 4 . 5 .25 , i nb o th c a se s

b red a s` d a smo sf o rt h ek ing ' .C f .a l so n n . 10 , 1 22 . X en . O e c . 4 . 11 , X en . A n . 3 . 4 .3 1 ( b a r ley , w ine , o a t s f o r h o r se s ' c o l lec ted f o r t he s a t rap o f t he c oun t ry ' ) , N eh em . 1 3 .10 £ , IE sd r . 4 .6 f . ,J o seph . A J 1 .46 f .A nd ( ? )c f .t h es t o rage j a r so f Jud ah ( p . 1 47 ) . 1 22

1 21

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AC HAE ME N ID AD M IN IST RAT ION

q u e s t ion s a r i se w i th c e r ta in t e x t s a bou t t h e K ing ' s T ab le ,1 2 3 w i th X enophon ' s s t a t emen t t h a t s a t rap s h ad t o s e nd t h e ' g ood t h ing s ' o ft h e i r s a t rap ie s t o t h e k ing ( Cy r opa ed i a 8 . 6 .6 ) o r i n deed w i th t h e b u i ld ing m a te r ia l s o f t h e S u sa P a lace f o unda t ion t e x t s ( c f . n .2 0 ) , whe re t h en amed s ou rce s amoun tt o al i s to fp eop le so f t h e emp i re . Wha teve r t h e a n swe r , t h e s imp le f a c t t h a t s u ch i n come e x i s ted i s s i gn if ican t e nough . T h e c o l lec t ion o f n a tu ra l p roduce a nd i t s r ed i s t r ibu t ion a s r a t ion s a nd s a la r ie s t o a gen t s o ft h e r u l ing p owe r i s ac en t ra l f a c t o ft h e P e r s i an s y s te m . S ome e v idenc e o f t h i s h a s a lway s b een t h e re i n t h e l i t e ra ry s ou rce s , a l ong s ide t h e p e rhap s mo re p rom inen t r e f e rence s t o a ppa ren t ly i n te rm i t ten t g i f t -g iv ing o nt h ep a r to ft h ek ing o ro the r s .H e rac l ide s6 89 F 2k new t h a tt h ek ing ' s d o rypho r o i a nd p e l ta s t s r e ce ived f ood a sm i s th o s . T he g ua rd ian s o fC y ru s ' t omb g o t s h eep , w ine , a nd c e r ea l s ( A r r . A n . 6 . 29 .7 , S t rabo 1 5 .3 .7 ) , a nd t h e m embe r s o ft h e r oya l h a rem r e ce ived f ood a lowance s ( E s th e r 2 . 9 ) . T he g ove rno r o fJ udah w a s e n t i t led t oc l a im 4 0t a len t s ' wo r th o ff ood p e rd ay f o rh i st a b le ( N eh em iah 5 . 4f . ) ,t h e B aby lon ian s a t rap g o th o r se sa sw e l la ss i lve r ( He rodo tu s 1 . 192 ) , a nd s ome s a id t h a t C y ru s r ebe l led b ecau s e o fa n i n adequa te s a la ry ( P lu t . A r t ox . 4 ) . I ti sa l so p o s s ib le t h a ts t or ie si nA e l ian V a r i aH i s t o r ia 1 . 3 1 f .a bou tg i v ing n a tu ra lp roduce t ot h ek ing d u r ing h i s t r ave l s a r e ad im r ef l ec t ion o fd ocumen t s a bou t r oya l p rov i s ion s i nt h e P e r sepo l i s a r ch ive s ( PF c a tego ry J ) . B u t d ocumen ta ry e v idence h a s i mmea su rab ly e n r iched t h e p i c tu r ew i th p aymen t si nk ind t og a r r i son s i nE gyp t1 2 4 a nd ( p e rhap s ) P a le s t ine ( c f . p .1 42 ) a nd P e r s i s ( PF 1 857 , w i th S umne r 1 986 :26 f . ) , r a t ion sf o rg a rdu i n E gyp t a nd B aby lon ia 1 2 5 a nd a bove a l t h e who le b u reauc r a t ic s y s tem i n P e r s i s/ E lam ( p . 15 ) f o r d i s t r ibu t ing s a la ry , r a t ion s , a nd p rov i s ion s t ot h ek ing a nd h i s c ou r t , h igh f unc t iona r ie s ( s ome r e ce iv ing p rod ig iou s a moun t s e ve ry d ay ) , k u r tal -wo rke r s , t r ave l le r s o fv a r ied s t a tu s , a nd e ven t o a n ima l s —wh ich b r ing s u s b ack t oG reek e v iden ce a nd t h e v i l lage s wh ich h ad t of e ed t h e B aby lon ian s a t rap ' s d og s ( He rodo tu s 1 . 192 .4 ) o rp rov ide ma in tenance f o r af a vou r i te r oya lc ame l ( P lu t . A l ex . 3 1 , S t rabo 7 37 ) . S i lve r i s , o fc ou r se , b y n o m ean s a b sen t f r om t h e o ve r a l l p i c tu re : e ven i n P e r s i s t h e l a te r s e r ie s o f T rea su ry T ab le t s s how s t h e r egu la r r e p lacemen to fs ome p o r t ion o fp aymen t si nk ind w i th s i lve r ,t hough when g r a in i s s or ep laced i ti sas i gn o fc r i s i s ( Ha l lock 1 985 :603 , H inz 1 97 1 :274 f . ) . B u ti tc anno t b e t oo much s t re s s ed t h a t t o av e ry l a rge d eg ree t h e e mp i re r an n o t o n ly n o t o n c o inag eb u tn o te ven o np rec iou sm e ta l . The A chaemen id s a r e n o to r iou s f o r a n i n te re s t i n g a rden s a nd i n a g r icu l tu r e . S t rabo r epo r t s aP e r s ian s ong a bou t 3 60 u s e s o ft h e d a te -pa lm ( 7 42C ) a nd make s a g r icu l tu ra ls k i l l ( a sw e l la st h em anuf ac tu re o ft h et oo l so fw a ra nd h un t ing ) p l ay a r o le i nP e r s ian e duca t ion ( 1 5 .3 .18 ) . Cy ru s a s ton i shed L y sande rb yh i s p l ann ing a nd i n AP 1 2 , 1 9 , 2 3 , 5 1 , 5 3 , A ime -G i ron 1 93 1: no . 8 7 a r e c onnec ted w i th r a t ion d i s t r ibu t ion . S aqqa r a 4 6 may a l so b e r e levan t ; a nd a d if e ren t wo rd f o r p rov i s ion s a ppea r s i n S aqqa r a 2 5 . S o ld ie r s d id a l so r e ce ive s a la ry ( p r s ) i n s i lve r : AP 2 . 16 , 1 .6 , ( ? )1 6 .4 , G re lo t1 972 :no s .2 2 &2 5 ,B re sc ian i1 960 :no . 1 . 1 25 E gyp t : AD 9 . 1 ( a r t i s t -ga rdu , i n c lud ing as c u lp t o r a nd h i s womenf o lk ) . B aby lon ia : VAS 3 . 178-9 . V a r iou s t ex t s n ame a ` r a t ion-po r t ionee ( p i t ipabag a ) o ft h eg a rd u : BE 9 . 15 , 1 0 .95 , 1 27 , P BS 2 /1 2 02 . F or a no the rr a t ion -g ive rc f .Z adok 1 976b : 5 .

C te s ia s 6 88 F 53 ( d inne r d i scu s sed i n On t h e T r ibu t e o fA s i a ) , D e inon 6 90 F 12 ( wha t i sc on sumed i s aq ua s i -apa rkhi f r om t h e who le emp i re ) . I d . F 23a i mp l ie s t h a t Ammon iac s a l t a nd N i le w a te r w e re b rough t f o r t he D inne r , 2 3b s peak s o f N i le a nd D anube w a te r p u t i n t h eg aza a s ac onf i rma t ion o f t he emp i re ' s e x ten t . S t r ab . 7 35 ( A s so s whea t , S yr ian w ine ,E u laeu sw a te r ) . 1 24 AP 2 . 5 ( a s r e s to red i nG re lo t 1 972 ) , 2 4 .39 , 4 2 , 4 3 .8 , BP 1 .4 . ( Cow ley ' s r e s to ra t ion o ft he r e levan t word , p tp ' , i n AP 3 7 i sw rong . ) I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t s o me /a l lo ft h eo the rw i se u nexp la ined l i s t so fn ame s 1 23

1 43

CH R IST OPHE R TUPL IN

p l an t ing o f ap a r ad e i s o s a tS a rd i s ( Xen . O e c . 4 . 20 f . ) , a nd t h i s wa sj u s t o ne a spe c t o f t h eg ene ra l r equ i remen tu pon as a t rap t oe n su r et h a tt h i s k ho r a wa s w e l l -popu l a t ed a nd p roduc t ive , p rov ided w i th a n a bundan ce o f t r ee s a nd o th e r a g r icu l tu r a l p roduce ( Xen . O e c . 4 . 8 , 1 5 , C y r . 8 . 6 .16 ) . ( A r s i te s ' r e f u sa l t o c on temp la te a ' s co rched e a r th ' s t ra tegy i n3 34 — `no to ne h ou s eb e long ing t oh i ss ub je c t s wa s t ob e b u rned ' ( A r r . A n . 1 . 12 .910 ) -ha s b een t hough t ar ef l ec t ion o f t h i s , t hough i t s hou ld b en o ted t h a tA r taxe rxe sI ,D a r iu sI , a nd t h eC i l ic ian s a t rap A r same sw e r e l e s ss e n s i t ive . '2 6 )We a c co rd ing ly f i nd e v idence f o rt h ee s tab l i sh men to fn ew c rop s i ni mpe r ia l a r ea s , e . g . G ada ta s ' t r an sp lan ta t ion o fc r op s f r om B eyond t h e R ive r t o I on ia ( S IG 3 2 2 ) , t h ep l an t ing o f Cha lybon ian v i ne si nD ama scu s ( Po s idon . 8 7 F 68 ) , o r t h e i n t roduc t ion o f p i s tacch io s i n A leppo , s e same i n E gyp t a nd r i ce i n Me sopo tam i a ( Gh i r shman 1 954 :182 ) . I tl ook sa st hough p opu la t ion a nd c u l t iva t ion i n c rea sed i n A chaemen id B aby lon ia ( S to lpe r 1 974 :199 f . ) a nd t h e r e i st a lk o f t e chn ica li nnova t ion si nc on t ro lo fw a te r supp ly ( Oppenhe im 1 985 :578 ) . T he k ing c e r ta in ly owned t h e c ana l s , d e r iv ing d i rec t p rof i t f r om t h i s o n t op o ft h e p rof i t s r aked o f ff r om t h e r e su l t s o fu s ing c ana l w a te r ( S to lpe r 1 974 :6 1 1 . ) . Roy a l i n te r e s t o ft h i s s o r t i sr ef l ec ted i ns ome G reek t e x t s a bou t B aby lon i a ,1 2 7 a nd e l s ewhe re t h e P e r s ian s t ook g ood c a re o ft h e Memph i s d yke ( He rodo tu s2 . 99 .3 ) , e n cou raged t h e e x ten s ion o fq ana t i r r iga t ion i n Hy r can ia '2 8 a nd e x ac ted p aymen t f o rw a te r u se i n C ho ra sm ia . "2 9 T he n ume rou sp a r ad e i s o i a t te s ted i nl i t e ra ry s ou rce s , "° B aby lon i an d ocumen t s ( S ippa r: CT 2 2 .198 i ,Cy r . 2 22 ;U ruk : YOS 3 . 133 ; N ippu r : CBS 1 3039 ) a nd t h e P e r sepo l i s a r ch ive s , whe r e a t l e a s t 1 5 p a r t e t a§ l o ca t ion s a r e n a med a s p l ay ing ar o le i nt h eb u reauc ra t ic s y s tem ( PF i ndex s . v . , H in z 1 975 : 7 2 ) ,a r ea c tua l ly o n ly t h et i p o f ap henomenon who se c au se s , i tw i l lb e c l ea rn ow , we re t h o rough ly h a rd -headed ; a nd B r ian t h a s e ven s ugge s ted , n o te n t i re ly f a nc if u l ly , t h a tp a rad e i s o i w e re a c tua l ly m ean t i n t e r a l ia t o s ymbo l ize t h e who le e mp i re ' s a g r icu l tu ra l a do rnmen t —f o rp rof i ta sw e l la sp l ea su re ." ' C e r t a in ly when D a r iu sp r ay s( DPd 3 ) f o r p ro tec t ion a ga in s t e nem ie s a nd T he L i e ( e x te rna l a nd i n te rna l t h r ea t s ) a nd a ga in s t F am ine ( ap a i r ing wh ich r e ca l l s X enophon ' s s t re s s i nO e c onom i cu s 4 . 5f .o n X en . A n . 1 . 6 .1 ( 4 0 1 BO , Cu r t . 3 . 4 .3 ( 3 34 /3 ) , i d . 4 . 9 .7 f . , 1 21 . , 1 0 .12 f . , D iod . 1 7 .55 .2 ( 3 32 ) . Cu r t iu s d oe s o b se rve t h a t A r same s o ugh t t o h ave b een p ro tec t ing h i ss a t r apy . A r r . A n . 7 . 2 1 .5 , S t rabo 1 6 .1 .9 ; Hd t . 1 . 189 ( Cy ru s ' p un i shmen t o fR . Gynde s i sp re sumab ly a f a nc if u lt a le i n sp i red b yA chaemen id w a te rwo rk s ) . P o lyb . 1 0 .28 .3 : t ho se who b rough t w a te r t o p rev iou s ly u ncu l t iva ted r eg ion s w e re e n t i t led Kap re l l cat T hy x j )pa v f o r f i ve g ene ra t ion s , t h e p r iv i lege b e ing p re sumab ly e xemp t ion f r om w a te rc ha rge s l i ke t ho se i n Cho ra sm ia ( n .13 1 ) : c f . B r ian t 1 982a :427 1 . A rchaeo log ica l e v idence h a s b een c l a imed f o r A chaemen id q ana t si no the ra r ea s , b u t i n s ome c a se s t h e r e cen t t r end i s t o a t t r ibu te t h e i n cep t ion o fs u ch s y s tem s t o o the r , s ome t ime s s ub s t an t ia l ly e a r l ie r , p e r iod s a nd s t re s s l a ck o fd emon s t rab le A chaemen id i n te rven t ion e ven l a te r o n ( Oman : S a l le s n .d . Q a t if : P o t t s 1 984 :109 . B ac t r ia : v a r iou s v i ew s i n B r ian t 1 982a :424 , 1 984 :47 f . , G a rd in & L yonne t 1 978/9 :136 1 . ) A n A chaemen id d a te c an s t i l l b e ma in ta ined a t e . g . E l Kha rgeh ( Egyp t ) , a l rU la ( He jaz ) : B r ian t 1 982a :424 , Na s if 1 26

1 27

1 28

1 44

1 980 . F o r i r r iga t ion -wo rk s n ea r P e r sepo l i s c f . S umne r1 986 :13 1 . Hd t .3 . 117 : h e re i ti sn o t aq ue s t ion o fe x t end ing c u l t iva t ion b u to ft he k ing e x trac t ing r e venue o n t op o fpho r o s . ' 3° G ene ra l X en . O e c . 4 . 13 , Cy r . 8 . 6 . 12 , A d. VH 1 . 33 ( wh e re t h e K ing ' s r e ac t ion t o af i ne p ea r i s 'Wh ich p a r ad e i so sd oe si tc ome f r om ? ' ) . D a scy le ium : X en . H e l l . 4 . 1 .15 1 . , 3 3 . C e la ina i : i d . A n . 1 . 2 .7 1 . S a rd i s : i d . O e c . 4 . 20 , D iod . 1 4 .80 .2 , ( ? )P lu t . A l c . 2 4 . S y r ia : X en . A n . 1 . 4 .10 . S idon : D iod . 1 6 .4 1 .5 , C le rmon t -Ganneau 1 92 1 . P a le s t ine /Beyond t he R ive r : N eh em . 2 . 8 . B aby lon ia : Xen . A n . 2 . 4 .24 f . , S t rab . 7 4 1 . S u sa : C te s . 6 88 F 34 , E s th e r 1 . 5 , 7 . 7 . P a sa rgadae : A r r . A n . 6 . 29 .4 , S t rab . 1 5 .3 .7 , S t ronach 1 978 :107 f .P e r sepo l i s p l a in : S u mne r 1 986 :27 . E cba t a na : Cu r t . 7 . 2 .22 . Med ia / C adu s ia : P lu t . A r tox . 2 5 . S ogd iana : A r r . A n . 4 . 6 .1 , Cu r t . 8 . 1 .11 f .T h e r egu la r f e a tu re s a r et r e e s , o the r p roduce , r unn ing w a te r a nd a n ima l s ( f o r h un t ing ) . F o r ah un t ing g round n o t c a l led p a rad e i s o sc f . S t rab . 5 89 . B r ian t 1 982a :45 1 1 . On g arden ing , h un t ing a nd r oya li d eo logy c f . F au th 1 979 . 1 29

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t h e t w in r oya l c once rn s f o r g eo r g ika a nd p o l em ika ) , F am ine i sn o t j u s t an a tu ra l d i s a s te rb u t ad i rec t f i s ca lc a ta s t rophe . And t h e c onnec t ion o fg e o r g ika a nd p o l em ika i nt h eX enophon p a s sage j u s tm en t ioned i ss imp le :i fm i l i ta ry c on t ro li sg ood , t h e re w i l l b e p eace a nd t h e l a nd -wo rke r s w i l l p roduce t h e max imum d a smo s— to p ay a mong o the rt h ing sf o rt h em i l i ta ry c on t ro l . 2 S ATRAP IES AND P ROV INCES

S o much , t h en ,i ng ene r a lt e rm s . Wha tc an b es a id i n mo re d e ta i la bou tt h ew ay si n wh ich t r ibu te w a s c o l lec ted ? T he l a rge s t v i s ib le t a x u n i t i s t h e s a t rapy . I n H e rodo tu s ' T r ibu te L i s tt h e2 0n omo ia r es a t rap ie s , E z r as p eak so ft h et a xo fB eyond t h e R ive r ,1 3 2 t h e s a t r apa l e conomy i n p s eudo -A r i s to t le ( 1 345b20 f ) i se n t i re ly a m a t te r o f c o l lec t ing r e venue t o f e ed t h e r oya l e conomy , A lexande r o rde r s t h e H e l le spon t ine P h ryg ian s a t rapy t op rov ide ' t he s ame t r ibu te a su nde rD a r iu s ' ( A r r . A n . 1 . 17 .1 ) , a nd i n X enophon ' s a na ly s i s o fs a t r apa l d u t ie s o ve r s igh t o fd a smo s i s s t re s sed ( Cy r . 8 . 6 .3 , 1 6 , O e c . 4 . 5 , 1 ) . A cco rd ing ly w e f i nd s a t rap s p r e s sed f o r a r rea r s b y a nd d i spa tch ing d ue d a smo i t ot h e k ing ,1 3 3 t h e r evo l t o fs a t rap s c u t s o f r oya l i n come ( D iod . 1 5 .90 .4 ) , a nd a t amo re l o ca l l e ve l i ti st ot h e s a t rap t h a t t h e h ypa rch s Z en i s a nd Man ia g ive t h e i r p ho r o i ( Xen . H e l l . 3 . 1 .12 ) , wh i le t h e f ood s t o re s i nn o r th A s sy r ian v i l lage s ' c o l lec ted f o r t h e s a t r ap o ft h e c oun t ry ' ( Xen . A n . 3 . 4 .31 ) may r ep re sen t t r ibu te p aymen t s . When C u r t iu s r epo r t s t h a t t h e Ma l l ian s a nd Oxyd r acae o nce p a id t r ibu te ' t ot h eA r acho s i an s ' , t h el a t te rp h ra se p re sumab ly s t and sf o rt h eA racho s i an s a t rap .1 3 4 T he s a t r ap s ' r o le c ou ld i n c lude a s se s smen t : t h ey p e rf o rmed t h i st a sk f o rD a r iu sa t t h e s uppo sed i n s t i tu t ion o f t h e s y s tem ( P lu t . Mo r . 1 72F , P o lyaen . 7 . 11 .3 ) a nd A r taphe rne s made an ew a s se s smen t o fI on ia a f te r t h e r evo l t ( Hd t . 6 . 42 .2 ) . T he c o mp la in t s o fD a r iu s ( S IG 3 2 2 ) a bou t G ada ta s ' e xac t ion o fp ho r o i f r om A po l lo ' s p hy t ou rg o i a nd h i s i n s i s tence u pon t h e i r c u l t iva t ing p rof ane l a nd ( i n o rde r t o i n c rea se t h e t r ibu te -p roduc ing a r ea ) r ep re sen t s r oya l r e ac t ion t o ab i t o fp i ecemea l s a t rapa l a s se s smen t— a s sum ing , a s mo s t h i s to r ian s d o , t h a t G ada ta s w a s as a t rap ( r a the r t h an e . g . ap a r ad e i s o s -keepe r a s s ugge s ted b y D andamayev 1 984b : 1 14 ) . Mau so lu s c e r ta in ly w a s a nd i sr ep re sen ted a sr e spond ing t od emand s f o rp ho r o i b y i n s t i tu t ing e i spho r a i ( P s . A r . O e c . 1 348a4 f )— the s a t r ap c an e v iden t ly i nven t wha t i mpo s t sh el i ke st om e e tt h eK ing ' sg loba lr equ i remen t s .' A r taphe rne s ' a s se s smen t o ft h e I on i an t r ibu te w a s b a sed s o le ly u pon m ea su re men t o ft h e c i t ie s ' l a nd , b u t H e rodo tu sd oe sn o te xp la in h ow e xac t ly t h i sl e d t oa n a s se s smen tb e ing f i x ed . E v idence h a sb een p roduced f o r t h ee x i s tence i nB aby lon ia o f ad e ta i led l a nd r e g i s te r ( k a r ama r r i ) , s how ing p rope r ty b ounda r ie s , owne r sh ip , a nd t ax o b l iga t ion s ,1 3 6 a nd t r ace s o ft h e s ame m ay b e d i sce rned i nP e r s i s ,1 3 7 w h i le t h e E df u d ona t ion t e x t m en t ion s i n f o rma t ion a bou t l a nd f r om t h e ' Of f i ce o f 35

D a r . 5 5 1 , BE 9 . 55 , CBS 1 2859 , w i th S to lpe r 1 974 :47 1 , 1 977 :259 1 .S to lpe r wou ld a l so c onnec t t h e d i d akka a nd h a t ru o fa rmy sc r ibe s ( p . 1 20 ) w i th t h i sr eg i s te r . 1 37 c f . P F7 79 , 1 245 r e co rd ing ak a r ama r a s ( p e r son ) who a l so ( Fo r t . 3 562 ) ' w r i te s p eop le d own ' , a f unc t ion f u r the r a s soc ia ted ( 1 620 , 1 242-3 , F o r t . 3 568 ) w i th ' mak ing i nqu i r ie s ' o r ' i nve s t iga t ing ' . ( The wo rd f o rt h i si sc ogna te w i th p a t if r a sa ( n .4 4 ) ) .

E z r a 6 . 8 ( IE sd r . 6 . 29 ( Co i le S y r ia a nd P a le s t i ne ) ,J o seph .A J1 .16 ( S ama r ia ) ) . Thuc . 8 . 5 .5 , A r . O e c . 1 348a4f , X en . A n . 1 . 1 .8 , I s oc . 5 . 104 . Cu r t . 9 . 7 .14 . On A r acho s ian /I nd ian r e la t ion s s e e Voge l sang 1 985 . I ti sa l so i nd i rec t ly r e levan t t ha t Mau so lu s c an g ran t a t e l e ia t o ac i ty o u t s ide t h e emp i re , Cno s so s , ö r c ians Mai m : row / Ws C i px E t( L ab raunda 4 0 ) .

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Wr i t ing s ' .1 3 8 B u t t h e c l a im a dvanced b y S t o lpe r ( n . 1 36 ) t ha t A r t aphe rne s w a s c on s t ruc t ing as im i la r r eg i s te r o fI on ian l a nd i so n ly q ue s t ionab ly c ohe ren t w i th H e rodo tu s ' i mp l ica t ion t h a t A r t aphe rne s a s se s sed e a ch p o l i s r a the r t han a l i nd iv idua l l a nd -ho ld ing s ( c f . p . 1 48 ) . T he p o in t o f h i s mea su remen t s may h ave b een s imp ly t or e -e s tab l i sh h ow much c u l t ivab le o ro the rw i se u sef u ll a nd e ach p o l l s h ad ,f r om wh i ch a na s se s smen tm igh tb ec a lcu la ted b ys ome r u le o ft humb . ( De sc a t n .d . s ugge s t s , o n t h e b a s i s o f ah e l len i s t ic t e x t f r om S a rd i s ( c f . p . 1 47 ) a nd o f r ewo rk ing o fH e rodo tu s 'T r ibu te L i s tf i gu re s ,t h a tt h er u le i nvo lved av a lua t ion f o r t a xp u rpo se s o f6 0d a r ic s f o re a ch a r ea o fo ne p a r a sang p e r ime te r . T he a rgumen ti s s p ecu la t ive ,t os a yt h el e a s t . ) T ha t t r ibu te r equ i remen t s w e re g ene ra l ly c a lcu la ted o n l a nd i s o bv iou s ly c r ed ib le i nv i ew o fe ve ry th ing a l ready s a id . B u t t h e re a r e t r ace s o fv ar iou s o the r s o r t so fb a s i s . T he p s eudo -A r i s to te l ian O e c onom i c ac l a im s ( 1 352b27 ) t h a tA lexande r r ev ived a n o b so le te , p re sumab ly A chaemen id , t a x o n i mpor t s i n to B aby lon i a . V a r iou s p a s sage si nE z r a ( 4 .13 , 2 0 , 7 . 24 ) p rov id e a n a ppa ren t ly c omp l e te l i s t o ft h e t h ree t a xe s a pp l icab le t o i nhab i tan t s o f B eyond t h e R ive r wh ich a r e u nde r t h e c on t ro lo ft h eT r ea su re r so ft h a ts a t r apy ,v i z . m ind a , b e l oa nd h a l ak . M ind ai sar a the r g ene ra l wo rd f o r t a x , u s ed e l sewhe re o f' t he t a x o fB eyond t he R ive r ' ( Ez r a 6 . 8 ) , t h e ' K ing ' s T r ibu te ' ( N eh em . 5 . 3 ) , t a x p a id o n g a r r i son c o lony l a nd ( c f . n .1 50 ) , a l a nd owne r ' s i n come f r om t e nan t s ( AD 1 0 , 1 ) , a nd e ven t h e w age s e a rned b y a s l ave h i red o u tb yh i s owne r ( S aqqa ra 2 1 .1 —Akkad ian m and a t tu i su s ed i n as im i la r c on tex t : D andamayev 1 976 :436 , 4 40 , 1 984a :33 1 ) . H a lak r e ca l l s B aby lon ian i l ku , a l a nd t a x( c f . p p . 1 53 f . ) ,o rt h et a x owed t oA r same s 'e s ta te b y at enan ti n AD 8 .T he m idd le t e rm , wh ich r e cu r si nE gyp t ( S aqqa r aV , XX IV , D e lapor te 1 9 12 :73 , 7 8-80 , 9 5 ) , i sp e rhap s h e r e at a x o n s ome th ing o the r t h an l a nd : t h e NEB r ende r s i t p o l l tax . An e ven f u l le r l i s t o fs a t rapa l r evenue s i sp rov ided b y p seudo-A r i s to t le ( 1 345b28 f ) , emb rac ing t a xe so na g r icu l tu ra lp roduce , a n ima l s , c o mme r c ia la c t iv i ty , ap o l l tax ( e p ik epha l a i on ) , a nd a wo rke r tax ( k h e i rjnax i on ) —f o r wh ich l a s t c o mpa re a n i mpo s t i n S aqqa ra 1 9 , a ppa ren t ly c ha rged i n a c cordance w i th t h e n umbe ro fga rdu -wo rke r si n ap a r t icu la rt a xu n i t . J u s ta sw e c an a t temp t t od iv ide s a t rap ie si n to c on s t i tuen t g ene ra l a dm in i s t ra t ive u n i t s , s ow ec an a t temp tt od i sce rn s ma l le rt a xe n t i t ie sw i th in t h em . T he r e su l t s a r e p a r t ia l ly p a ra l le l . We h ave a l ready n o t iced t h eh ypa r ch sZ en i sa nd Man i ac o l lec t ing p ho r o i f o r P ha rnaba zu s ( Xen . H e l l . 3 . 1 .12 ) . P seudo -Ar i s to t le ( 1 348a 18 f ) r e co rd s s t o r ie s a bou t Mau so lu s ' h ypa rch , C onda lu s , g a the r ing t a xe s t o f e ed t h e s a t rapy ' s t r ibu te q uo ta . C onda lu s c an a ppa ren t ly e xe rc i se s ome d i sc re t ion i nd ec id ing u pon wha t p e r son s a nd m a te r ia l s t oa s se s s a nd e xac t d u e s , b u t t h e s t o r ie s a r e s ome t ime s d i sconce r t ing ly f a r -f e tched . F o r e xamp le , C ond a lu s i n f o rm s t h e L yc ian s t ha t t h e K ing h a s o rde red e ve ryone t os h ave o fh i s h a i r ( i n o rde r t o p rov ide a n e c cen t r ic t r ibu te i nk ind ) a nd t h en a g ree s t oc o mmu te t h i s t o ac a sh p aymen t— th i sb e ing a n e x amp le o fl e vy ing e p ik epha l a ion . E xcava t ion s i nP a le s t ine h ave p rodu ced many s t o rage ja r h and le s s t amped w i th t h e n ame o f t h e p rov ince o f J udah ( a nd s ome t ime s a l so t h e t i le p l ih , ` g ove rno r ' ) . S t e rn 1 982 :205 f . ,2 37 , 1 984 :108 a rgue s t h a t t h e se a r e s t amp s o f g ove rno r s a nd l e s se r o f ic ia l s a nd t h a t t he p r ac t ice i s 1 38 Meek s 1 972 :20 . F o r p a ra l le l s c f . i b id 5 8 , Wi ld 1 954 :181 .

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c onnec ted w i th t a x -co l le c t ing , t hu s m ak ing t h e p rov ince at a x -un i t i ns ome s e n se . C e r t a in ly t h ey mu s tm a rk t h ej a r s ' c on ten t sa ss om ehow b e long ing t ot h ep rov inc ia l g ove rn men t o r a dm in i s t ra t ion , j u s t a s d o t h e e a r l ie r u n in sc r ibed i m i ta t ion A chaemen id j a rs t amp s ( S te rn 1 982 :209 f . ,1 984 :109 ) . T he f a c tt h a t S t e rn t a ke s t h e l a t t e r , l i ke t h e Moph s t amp s ( f rom t h e n ame o f aJ ew i sh t own ) , t o b e t h e t r adema rk s o fp r od u c e f r om r oy a l e s ta te s ( r a the r t h an o f t h e t a x i n come o f t h e p rov ince ) i lu s t r a te s t h e u nce r ta in ty o fa ny p a r t icu la r i n te rp re ta t ion a nd m ay e ven d a mage t h e l og ic o fh i s i n f e rence f r om t h e d i sappea rance o ft h e l a t te r t ype s a nd s ub sequen t a ppea rance o ft h eJ udah s t amp s t h a t t h e p rov ince o fJ udah o n ly c ame i n to e x i s tence a f te r 4 50 BC. ( Of c ou r se , t h e m e re a ppea rance o ft h eJ udah s t amp s a nd c o in s m ay i ni t s e lf e s tab l i sh t h e t r u th o ft h e p ropo s i t ion i r r e spec t ive o fe a r l ie r p heno men a . ) I na ny c a s e , t h e re c an b e n o c e r ta in ty a bou t t h e p rec i se r e la t ion sh ip b e tween s t amped j a r s a nd t h e ' K ing ' s T r ibu te ' , a nd t h e s ame p rob lem a r i se s w i th t wo o the r i t em s , Nehem iah ' s a g r icu l tu r a l t ihe t o s uppo r t L ev i te s i nt h e T emp le ( N eh em . 1 3 .10 f . ) a nd B agoa s ' t a x o f5 0 d r achma i p e r l amb o n t emp le s a c r if i ce s ( J o seph . A J1 .297 ) . B o th c a se sd o , o fc ou r se , i lu s t r a te ag ove rno r ' sr i gh tt oi nven t n ew t axe s . I nE gyp t S a i t en oma rch s a r e s a id t oh av e p l ayed ar o le i nt a x -ga the r ing ( L loyd 1 983 :334 ) b u tt h e re i sn o s u ch e v idence f o rt h eP e r s i an p e r iod ; o nt h eo the r h and , t he c o rn o fT i t r sa nd T hebe si n AP 2 4 m igh t , a sa l re ady n o ted , b ep rov inc ia l t a x d ue s . X enophon ' s a na ly s i s o ft h e g a r r i son s y s tem ( a bove p p . 1 3 1 f . )e nv i sage s c h i l ia rch s i n c ha rge o f g a r r i son u n i t s i n t h e k hö r a . O the rw i se u na t te s ted i n t h e A chaemen id p e r iod , t h ey f i nd ap a ra l le l i n ah e l len i s t ic t e x t f r om S a rd i s ,1 3 9 w h ich d e sc r ibe s a n e s ta te c on s i s t ing o fv i l lage s a nd k l i r o i a nd s a y s t h a t t h e se e n t i t ie s owe p a r t icu la r s um s o f p h o r o s t o an amed c h i l ia rchy . I ft h i s t e x t i s ag u ide t o A chae men id p rac t ice ( A tk in son ' s d ownda t ing o ft h e d i spo s i t ion s t o wh ich i tr e f e r s t ot h e l a te t h i rd c en tu ry i nc on t ra s t t ot h e o r ig ina le d i to r s ' l a te -f ou r th c en tu ry d a te m ake s t h i s ar e a l q ue s t ion ) i te me rge s t h a t o ne t a x -co l lec t ing u n i t , much s ma l le r t h an p rov ince o r h yp a rchy , w a s t h e a r e a c on t ro l led b y ac h i l ia r ch ( t he re i sn o t e l l ing whe the rt h ec h i l ia rch h a s ar o le a sa s se s so rt oo ) . T he f a c tt h a ti ti sv i l lage sa nd k l e-r o i t ha t a r e e ncumbe red , n o tj u s t t h e e s ta te t h ey c on s t i tu te , p re sumab ly s how s t h a t c h i l i a rch ie s d o n o t c o me i n to t h e ma t te r b ecau se Mne s imachu s , a nd h i s p u ta t ive A chaemen id p e r iod p redece s sor s , a r e s ome s p ec ia l s o r t o fe s ta te -ho lde r : t h e i mp l ica t ion i sr a th e r t h a t a l t a x l iab le p a rce l s o fl a nd i n ag i ven r e g ion wou ld owe p ho r o si n i t ia l ly t ot h ec h i l ia rch . 140

3 TO WNS AND V ILLAGES Men t ion o fv i l lage s b r ing s o ne t op l ace - r a the r t h an a r ea -un i t s . When H e rodo tu s s a y s ( 6 .59 ) t h a t n ew ly acceded P e r s ian k ing s r em i t t r ibu te a r rea r s ' f rom a l t h e c i t ie s ' h e i sd oub t le s s g u i l ty o fa n u ndu ly h e l len ic f o rmu la t ion , b u t v a r iou s o the r t e x t s c onf i rm t h a t t h e c i ty i s ap o s s ib le t a x -un i t . T hu s A spendu s b reed s h o r se s f o r t r ibu te ( A r r . A n . 1 . 26 .3 ) , C y rene a nd B a rca s ubm i t t op ho r o s ( Hd t . 3 . 13 , 4 . 165 ) , Buck le r & Rob in son 1 9 12 ( r epub l i shed a s S a rd i sV I I .1 ) . S ee A tk in son 1 972 . 1 4 ° c o l . 1 . 31 . L a te r Mne s imachu s ' h o ld ing s a r e r e su med a s( i )' v i l lage s , k l i r o i , a t tached o i kop ed a , l a o i p lu s f am i l ie s a nd b e long ing s , w ine ja r s( ? ) , p ho r o s i n

money a nd wo rk , o the r i n come f r om t h e v i l lage s a nd much e l se ' ( c o l .1 . 11 f . ) a nd ( i ) ' v i l lage s , k l& o i , k h c i r ia a nd o i k e ta i ' ( c o l .2 . 5 ) . B uck le r & Rob in son 5 4 a s sume t h a t e ve ry th ing b e s ide s v i l lage s a nd k l J r o i i s n o ts ub jec tt ot r ibu te i ni t s own r i gh t .

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C y ru s s e nd s A r taxe rxe s d ue d a smo i f r om c e r t a in I on ian p o l e i s ( Xen . A n . 1 . 1 .8 ) , t h e k ing o f Cyp r io t S a lam i s i st o p ay t r ibu te ( D iod . 1 5 .8 .2 ) , a nd a f te r t h e c onque s t A lexande r m ake s v a r iou s d i spo s i t ion s a bou t t h e p ho r o i p rev iou s ly p a id b y I l ium ( S t rabo 5 93 ) , E phe su s , a nd Ma l lu s ( A r r . A n . 1 . 17 .10 , 2 . 5 .9 ) . T he re i s a l so H e rodo tu s ' a c coun t o f t h e I on ian r e a s se s sm en t ( 6 .42 .2 ) . A f t e r s a y ing t h a t A r taphe rne s s ummoned a ng e l o i f r om t h e c i t ie sa nd c o mpe l led t he I on ian s t om ake mu tua l a rb i t ra t ion a g reemen t s , h ec on t inue s ' He c o mpe l led t hem t od o t h i sa nd h e m ea su red t h e i rl a nd a nd f i xed p ho r o if o re a ch o ft h em ( b c c iaro ta t ) ' . A tf i r s ts i gh tt h i s m igh t r e f e r t o a s se s smen t o f a l i nd iv idua l l a ndowne r s i n t h e r e levan t c i ty t e r r i to r ie s . B u tt h es y n th eka i made b y ' t he I on i an s 'a r e ,o fc ou r se ,b eween c i t ie s , a nd t h ep lu ra l4 K c iaTo ta t , i . e . ' f o re a ch g roup ' , c an , i nt h ec on tex to fc i ty -dwe l le r s , o n ly m ean ' f o r e a ch c i ty ' . H e rodo tu s i st h e ref o re c l ea r t h a t t h e s a t rap c a r r ied o u t h i s a s se s smen t c i ty b y c i ty , p rov id ing e a ch p o l i s w i th at r ibu te -quo ta . T h i s d oe s n o t p rove t h a t t h e c i t ie s w e re t h e reaf te r f r ee t o m a tch i tb y wha teve r mean s t h ey w i shed ,b u tt h i si sw i thou td oub tt h es imp le s th ypo the s i s . A f te r c i t ie s , t h ree q ua s i -c iv ic c o mmun i t ie s i nC a r ia ( two k o ina , o ne u s ing p o l i s t e rm ino logy , a nd as y ng en e ia ) wh ich a r e o n r e co rd g ran t ing t ax e x emp t ion s t o i nd iv idua l s , b u te xcep t ing f r om t h e se g r an t si mpo s t sv a r iou s ly d e sc r ibed a sb a s i l ik a b a s i l ik o ip ho r o i , a nd a pomo i r a ( ar oya l t a x t e rm i nP to lema ic t ime s ) .1 4 1 T h ree p re l im ina ry p o in t s . 1 . When c i t ie sw i th in t h ee mp i re g ran tg ene ra l t a xe xemp t ion s t h e re i sn eve ra ny r e f e rence t or oya lt a xe s .1 4 2 S i nce t h ec i t ie s owed t r ibu te q ua c i t ie s , t h i s p henomenon s imp ly s how s t h a t t h e c i ty c ou ld d ec ide h ow t o p roduce i t s q uo ta , a nd o n whom t o make t h e b u rden f a l l , a si ts aw f i t . 2 . One o ft h e C a r ian e n t i t ie s , K oa rende i s , i sa l so o n r e co rd mak ing a n a t e l e i a g r an t c ove r ing g ea rg ia a nd a l o the ri n cumben to b l iga t ion sw i th n of u r the rq ua l if i ca t ion .1 4 3 H e re , t h e ref o re ,i t i sb ehav ing l i ke ac i ty . 3 . Ano the r C a r ian e n t i ty , P l a ta se i s , wh i le i n s i s t ing t h a t t h e h ono rand p ay b a s i l ika t e l E , d oe s e xemp t h im f r om ' wha teve r r oya l o r c i v ic e p ig r apha im ay f a l lu pon i t '( L ab r aunda 4 2 ) . T he r ea r et h e r ef o re s om er oya l i mpo s t s wh ich a pp ly t o P l a ta se i s a s ak o inon a nd f r om c on t r ibu t ion t o wh ich t h ey c an c hoo se t oe xemp t a ny i nd iv idua l— aga in b ehav iou rj u s t l i ke t h a t o f ac i ty . S o l ong a sw e t r ea t t h e t h ree r oya l i mpo s t s a sp a ra l le l t h e re a r e t h r ee p o s s ib le c onc lu s ion s ( Ho rnb lowe r 1 982 :16 1 f . f a vou r s t h e f i r s t ) . ( a ) T he se i mpo s t s a r e a c tua l ly o b l iga t ion s u pon a n i nd iv idua l ( o r u pon a n i nd iv idua l a sm embe r o fs ome o the r e n t i ty t h an t h e o ne s i nq ue s t ion h e re ) a nd t h e t e x t s a r e m e re ly n o t ing f o r s a f e ty ' s s a ke t h a tt h e se o b l iga t ion sa r eu naf f ec ted . H ence t h eK oa rende i sc an f a i lt o men t ion t h ep o in tw i thou tt h i sa c tua l ly m a t te r ing a nd t h eP l a ta se i sc an w a ive t h ea ppa ren t ly d if e ren t b a s i l ika i e p ig r apha i . ( b ) T he i mpo s t s a r e o b l iga t ion s u pon t h e e n t i t ie s ( a s t r ibu te i so ne u pon a c i ty ) a nd i t me re ly h appen s t h a t o n s ome o cc a s ion s t h e se e n t i t ie sc ho se n o tt ow a ive t h e i rr i gh tt oc o l lec tc on t r ibu t ion st os uch o b l iga t ion s , a c ho ice wh ich n o c i ty i se ve r r e co rded a s m ak ing , a nd wh ich t he K oa rende i s t h em se lve s o nce d id n o t m ake . ( c ) T he i mpo s t s a r e ( a ga in ) o b l iga t ion s o n t h e 1 42 X an thu s ( FX V I p .3 2f .= S EG 2 7 .942 ) , K io s ( Tod 1 49 ) , E ry th ra i ( Tod 1 55 ) , Mi le tu s ( Tod 1 95 , i f t h i sb ep r e -334 ) .C f . a l so S inu r i7 5 A—B . S I G 3 11 . No te a l so t he K i lda re i s o f Robe r t 1 950 :14 .

L ab raunda 4 2 ( P la ta se i s ) , S EG 2 6 .1229 ( Koa rende i s ) , S i nu r i7 3 + Robe r t 1 949 :63 f .( s yng en e i ao fPe leko s ) .A pomo i r a : OG IS 9 0 ,S EG 1 2 .550 . The se t e x t s a nd t ho se i n n .143 a ppea r i n Ho rnb lowe r 1 982 :364 f . 1 41

1 43

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e n t i t ie s , b u t t h e r u le s a bou t t r ibu te , i mpo sed b y t h e P e r s ian a u tho r i t ie s , w e re s u ch t h a t t he e n t i t i te s w e r e n o t p e rm i t ted t o e xemp t p e r son s who wou ld n o rm a l ly b e l i ab le . Th i s v i ew r equ i r e s u st oa s sume t h a t i nt ho se g ran t s o fa t e l e ia wh ich d o n o t m en t ion r oya li mpo s t si ti ss imp ly t a ken f o rg ran ted t h a tb e s towa lo fa t e l e i aa lway s r e f e r s t o t ho se t e l ë wh ich t h e a u tho r i ty i nq ue s t ion i sa lowed t ow a ive ( i . e . , i nt h e h e l len i s t ic f o rmu la , t ho s e i r w hra t s K vp i c e , i c rn ) . T he d i sadvan tage w i th s o lu t ion ( a ) i st ha t i na tl e a s t t wo c a se s t h e t e x t i sc e r ta in ly s of o rmu la ted a st om ake a l t h e i mpo s t s men t ioned a pp ea r o fc o mpa rab le s t a tu s v i s -à -v i s t h e e xemp t ing a u tho r i t y . T he d i sadvan tage o fs o lu t ion s ( b ) a nd ( c ) l i e si nt h es ub jec t ion o ft h eP l a ta se i st o t wo r oya l o b l iga t ion s . One c ou ld s a y t h a t t h e b a s i l ika i e p ig r apha i a r e e x t r ao rd ina ry i mpo s t s ,n o tc ove red b ya ny h ypo the t ica lr u le sa ga in s tw a ive r s . B u tt h a tc r e a te st h e p a radox t h a t t h e c i ty ' s own e p ig r apha i ( t he o n ly c i v ic i mpo s t m en t ioned ) a l so t u rn o u t t ob ei n te rm i t ten ta nd e x t rao rd ina ry . T he se d i sadvan tage s c an b e m i t iga ted b y n o t t r ea t ing t h e t h re e r oya l i mpo s t s a sp a ra l le l . L e t u s a s sume , i n s tead , t h a t i nt h e P l a ta se i st e x t b a s i l ika ie p ig r apha ir e f e rt ot h ec o mmun i ty ' sr e gu la ro b l iga t ion t op ay r oya l t r ibu te , whe r ea s b a s i l ika t e l J a r e a n i nd iv idua l ' s o b l iga t ion , m en t ioned s upe rf luou s ly b u t p e rh ap s u nde r s tandab ly g iven t h a t b a s i l ika i e p ig r apha i h ave ( a l so s upe rf luou s ly ) b een e xp l ic i t ly m en t ioned a nd w a ived . I n t h e o the r t e x t s b a s i l iko i p ho r o i a nd a pomo i r a a r e c o mmun i ty o b l iga t ion s ( e qu iva len t t ob a s i l ika i e p ig r apha i ) wh ich t he c o mmun i t ie sc ho se n o tt ow a ive . T he v i l lage s o ft h e Mne s imachu s e s ta te ( p . 1 47 ) owe p ho r o s t o t h e a pp rop r ia te c h i l ia rchy , wh ich s e em s t o m ake t h em t a x u n i t s i nt h e i r own r i gh t . C ompa r ab ly s p ec if ic e v idence f r om a c tua l A chaemen id p e r iod s ou rce s i sn o t a l t h a t p l en t if u l . T he re i sl i t t le t ob e g a ined f r om S aqqa ra 2 2 wh ich S ega l o p t im i s t ica l ly l i nk s w i th v i l lage t a xa t ion ( no wo rd f o r t a xa t ion a ppea r s , a nd t h e wo rd t r an s la ted ' c o l lec ted ' o r' e xac ted ( t axe s ) ' a ppea r se l sewhe re o n ly i nt e x t s wh ich S ega lp ruden t ly c l a s s if i e s m e re ly a s' c omme rc ia l ' ) . A lexande r ' sl e t te rt oP r iene ( Tod 1 85 ) s how sh im l e vy ing p ho r o i f r om l o ca l v i l l age s , a ppa ren t ly q ua r oya l p rope r ty . T h i s m ay c on t inue A chaemen id p rac t ice , b u t w e a r e g e t t ing v e ry c l o se h e re t od i rec t l a nd lo rd / tenan t r e la t ion s , a tt h e f u r the s t r emove f r om t r ibu te a sw e n o rma l ly u nde r s t and i t . One m ay c ompa re t h eK ing ' s S ha re ( PBS 2 /1 3 2 , 5 9 , B E8 . 85 , 9 . 73 ) a nd K ing ' sH a rve s t ( CBS 1 2922 ) a t te s ted i nB aby lon ia i nc onnec t ion w i th c rown p rope r ty , a sw e l l a s t h e * upaya t a ( c f . p . 1 29 ) o f t h e ' t own ' I q i ga i l i ( VS 6 . 160 ) . A l so i n B aby lon ia , H e rodo tu s r epo r t s ( 1 .192 .4 ) t h a t f ou r v i l lage s w e re a t e l e i s o n c ond i t ion o f p rov id ing s u s tenance f o rt h es a t rap ' sd og s . I ta ppea r s , t h e ref o re , t h a tv i l l age s wou ld n o rma l ly b e l i ab le t ot e 1 J . O r d oe s H e rodo tu sj u s t m ean t h a t i nd iv idua l v i l lage r s w e re l e t o fi nd iv idua l t a xe s i n r e tu rn f o r s p ec ia l f ood p roduc t ion ( pu t a no the r w ay , t ha tt h ev i l lage o n ly c ame t oc on s t i tu te at a xu n i tf o rt h e ( ef ec t ive ) d og tax )? S im i la r u nce r ta in ty a f ec t s t h e 1 7 h o r se s f o r r oya l d a smo s f ound i na n A rmen ian v i l lage b y t h e 1 0 ,000 ( Xen . A n . 4 . 5 .24 ) . I ti st emp t ing t o r e ga rd t h e p e r sophone k oma r ch a st h e l o ca l of i c ia l t h rough whom h ighe r a u tho r i ty c hanne l s i t s d e mand f o r t r ibu te a nd t oi d en t if y t h e v i l lage , t h e ref o re , a st h e u n i t o fa s se s smen t ( B r ian t 1 982a :152 ) .B u te ven g r an ted t h ep rem i se , t h ec onc lu s ion n eed n o tf o l low . 4 TE MPLES

G iven t h e i mpo r tance o f t emp le s i n l a ndho ld ing , e s pe c ia l ly i n E gyp t a nd 1 49

CH R IST OPHE R TUPL IN

B aby lon ia , o ne l ook sw i th p a r t icu la ri n te re s ta tt h e i rr o le i nt h e t ax s y s t em . On t h e w e s te rn f r inge o ft h e emp i re G ada ta s ' i n jud ic iou s a t temp t t o e x t rac tp ho ro i f r om A po l lo ' s p hy t ou r g o i ( p . 1 44 ) p re sumab ly r ef l ec t s t h e a s sump t ion t h a t a s ag ene r a l r u le s a c red l a nd i sa sl i ab le t ot a x a t ion a sa ny o the r s o r t ( a s sum ing t h a t h e w a s n o t s imp ly c l a im ing t r ibu te o n t h es e cu la rl a nd h ew a st r y ing t og e t t hem t oc u l t iva te ) . B u t f o r mo re c op iou s e v idence a bou t t h e i n te r re la t ion o ft emp le s a nd t h e P e r s i an a dm in i s t r a t ion o ne mu s tl ook t oB aby lon i a . A chaemen id k ing s c an b e f ound m ak ing o f e r ing s t ot h e B aby lon i an t emp le s , e . g . w ine f r om B eyond t h e R ive r (We i sbe rg 1 967 :10 ) o r ' p rov i s ion s b ef ore t h e s t a tue o fB e l ' ( J oanne s 1 980 :156 ( 1 3 )— though t h e e xecu t ion o ft h i s i sa c tua l ly t h e d u ty o f at emp le p rebend ) , a nd w e h ave a l r eady n o t iced p aymen t s f r om t he r oya l s t o rehou se t o t emp le p e r sonne l ( p . 1 29 ) . B u t o the r t e x t s r e f e r r ing t o wo rke r s a ppa ren t ly w i th in t h e t emp le e conomy who a r e ' o n r oya l p rov i s ion s ' ( YOS 7 . 16 , C amb . 3 33 , D a r . 7 2 ) o r t o t h e k ing ' s f i x ing o fn o rm s f o r t emp le s l ave s ' r a t ion s ( YOS 3 . 45 , 8 1 , 1 06 , D andamayev 1 984c :50 1 ) p o s s ib ly ( i n t he f i r s t c a se ) a nd c e r ta in ly ( i n t h e s e cond ) c once rn p aymen t sa c tu a l ly made b y t h e t emp le , e v iden t ly i nc onnec t ion w i th wo rk d one f o rt h ek ing ( i n YOS 3 . 45 ar oya la gen to ve r see st h e s l ave s ' a c t iv i t ie s ) . Mo reove r , t h e A chaemen id k ing s d epa r ted f r om l a te n eo B aby lon ian p receden ti ne xemp t ing t h em se lve s , t h e i r f am i l ie sa nd e n tou rage f r om r egu la r t ihe s t o t h e t emp le s o ft h e s o r t g ene ra l ly i n cumben t u pon t h e s a t rapy ' s p opu la t ion ( Dandamayev 1 969b ) . I n s ho r t , i ti st h e k ing ' s r e ce ip t o fo b l iga t ion s f r om t h et emp le sa nd h i si n te rf e rence i nt h e i ra dm in i s t ra t ion t h a ti smo s tp rom inen t . V a r iou s h in t s o fs u ch i n te rf e rence c o me i nt e x t s wh ich s a y t h a t f a i lu r e t o c a r ry o u t s ome t a sk w i l lb e as i n a ga in s t ( o rw i l le a rn t h e p un i shmen t o f ) t h ek i ng o r t h e s a t rap . S ome t ime s t h e t a sk i s e xp l ic i t ly a n o b l iga t ion o f t emp l e t o r oya l a dm in i s t r a t ion o ft h et ype sn o ted b e low ,b u te l sewhe re w ec an o n ly a s sume ad i rec t o ri nd i rec tr oya li n te re s ti ne . g . a na r t i san s ' o a th o ft emp le se rv ice ( YNER 1 . 1 ) , t h e p roduc t ion o fs a c r if i c i a l a n ima l s ( YOS 7 . 160 , TCL 1 3 .162 ) o r f i sh ( VS 2 0 .87 ) f o r t h e t emp l e , t h e s upp ly o f s h ephe rd s o r aw eave r ( YOS 7 . 25 , B IN 2 . 114 ) , a r rangemen t s f o r g ua rd ing t h e E anna s a nc tua ry ( B IN 1 . 169 , GCC I 2 . 103 ; a nd c f . YOS 7 . 154 ) , p aymen t o fq u i t ren tb y b i rd -hand l e r s ( TCL 1 3 .168 ) , t h ef to ft emp l e p rope r ty ( YOS 7 . 192 , TCL 1 3 .142 ;c f . p . 19 ) a nd s oo n . Mo r e s p ec if i c a nd e xp l ic i t e v idence c o me s i n av a r ie ty o ff o rm s . At emp le f i ef owe s r oya l t e l i tu tax i n YOS 7 . 38 ( c f .J oanne s 1 982 :13 ) . T he i n co me o f at emp le p rebend c an b e r oya l p rope r ty ( YOS 7 . 79 ) . We i sbe rg 1 967 :10 may r e f e r t o u ndef ined d ue s t o b e t r an spo r ted f r om E anna ( U ruk ) t o B aby lon , a nd t wo f ou r th -cen tu ry d ocumen t s ( UET 4 . 48-9 ) a ppa ren t ly c once rn d e l ive ry o f' t axe s o f t emp le s l ave s ' t ot h ek ing ( t he d e ta i l s a r ed i spu ted , w i tne s st h e v a r ied s umma r ie si n S an N ico l6 1 950 :227 , Oppenhe im 1 950 :190 , D andamayev 1 984c :125 , 5 46 . T he wo rd f o r t a x i s OP * ba r r a ) . B u t t h e m a jo r c a tego r ie s o fe v idence c onc e rn l a bou r o b l iga t ion sa nd t h es upp ly o fa n ima l sa nd n a tu ra lp roduce , s ome t ime sd e s igna ted a s t h ek ing ' s m ea l ( s u sbu t i ) o r ' p rov i s ion s ' a nd s ome t ime s e xp l ic i t ly h av ing i t ss ou rce s i nt h e m a te r i a l s o ft emp le s a c r if i ce s .' " C onnec t ed w i th t h e l a t te r i st h e s o ca l led M ich igan 8 9 , B IN 1 . 7 ( a l l c onnec ted w i th r oya l c a t t le ) , YOS 7 . 187 . S a t r ap : TCL 1 3 .150 , 1 52 , YOS

1 44 L abou r o b l iga t ion s . K ing/Pa lace : CT 2 2 .12 1 , 2 44 , YOS 3 . 133 ( i nc lud ing e s tab l i shmen t o fp a r a d e i s o i : D andam ayev 1 984b : : 14 ) , YOS 7 . 77 , 1 46 ,

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' r oya l b a ske t ' ( q uppu ) wh ich r e ce ived t ho se p o r t ion s o ft emp le i n come e a rma rked f o r t he k ing ( c f . S an N ico l6 1 94 1 :31 , We i sbe rg 1 967 :12 , D andamayev 1 984c :56 f . ) . I n B IN 1 . 7 w e h ea r o f s o ld ie r s g ua rd ing i td u r ing t r an spo r t t o B aby lon , b u t mo s t o fo u r e v idence f o r i t s e x i s tence c o me s f r om t h e t i le o ft h e r oya l t emp le of i c ia l a tU ruk i nc ha rge o fi t( f o r as e lec t ion o fr e f e rence s s e e S an N ico l6 1 94 1 :20 f . ) . T he d e s igna t ion ' r oya l ' i ss ome t ime s d ropped , s o t h e p e r son ' i n c ha rge o ft h e b a ske t o fE babba ra ' may b e t h e c or re spond ing of i c ia l a tS i ppa r : o ne may c e r ta in ly a s sume t ha t t h e re w a s o ne t h e re a nd i na l ma jo r t emp le s . Nor w e re t hey t h eo n ly r oya l of i c ia l si n t roduced i n to t emp le a dm in i s t ra t ion , t h es e n ior e che lon s o f wh ich i n c luded a ' r oya l c omm i s s ione r a nd o ve r see r ' a t U ruk ( S an N ico l e : . 1 94 1 :18 f . ) a nd B aby lon ( TCL 1 3 .193 ) , a nd a ' h igh of i ce r a nd r oya l c o mm i s s ione r ' a tN ippu r ( B igg s 1 978 :132 ( 2 6 ) ) . I ti si mpo r tan t t os t re s s , h oweve r , t h a t t h i s i n t ru s ive r oya l s upe rv i s ion i si n p r inc ip le me re ly ac on t inua t ion o fl a te n eo-Baby lon ian t r end s , t hough t h e r oya l c o mm i s s ione r a t S i ppa r i sn o t a t te s ted u n t i lC a mby se s ' r e ign a nd t he ' r oya lc omm i s s s ione ra ppo in ted i nE anna ' a nd ' r oya l s c r ibe a ppo in ted i nE anna ' ( YOS 7 . 107 , 14 , 18 , 1 30 , 1 31 , 1 64 , 1 98 , TCL 1 3 .170 ) a r e a t te s ted o n ly i nh i s r e ign , when t h ey t empo rar i ly r ep lace t h e l ong e s tab l i shed q i pu . I ts hou ld a l so b e n o ted t h a t t h e re w e re e v iden t ly r oya l c o mm i s s ione r s b e l ow t h e v ery s e n ior l e ve l s : i n RO MCT 2 . 5 p ro sopog raph ica l c on s ide ra t ion s g ua ran tee t h i s , a nd s ome o ft h e n umerou s i nd iv idua l s w i th t h e t i le who a ppea r c a sua l ly i n d ocu men t s , e . g . a sw i tne s se s , a r e p robab ly i nt h e s ame c a tegory ( t he re i se ven o ne w i th a n I r an ian n ame i n UET 4 . 1-2 ) . T he k ing s w e re c l ea r ly v e ry c once rned t h a t t h ee xac t ion o ft h e i rd ue ss hou ld p roceed w i th t h e max imum e f i c iency . I nE gyp t t h e s u rv iv ing p i c tu re i ss omewha t d if e ren t . I n i t ia l ly C amby se s s ough t t oi mpo se r e s t r ic t ion so ns ome t emp le i n come . T he r e levan tt e x t ( P . B ib l . Na t . 2 15 , v e r so d .1 17 = S p iege lbe rg 1 9 15 :32 ) i so b scu re b u ts e em st os a yt h a t awho le r ange o f c o mmod i t ie s ( s h ip t imbe r , f i rewood , f l ax , l i ve s tock , f ow l s , s i lve r , c orn , ( ? )i n cen se , p apy ru s ) w e re n o l onge r t ob e g iven t o t h e t emp le s , a pa r t f r om t h ree n ear Memph i s ( Yoyo t te 1 972 ) . I n s tead t h e p r ie s t s w e re who l ly o r p a r t ly t os upp ly t h em f o r t h em se lve s , i n s o me c a se s f r om s p ec ia l ly d e s igna ted a r ea s . F igu re s a r e g iven wh ich may e xp re s s t h e s i lve r v a lue o fs ome o ft h e c ommod i t ie s , mo re t h an 1 . 5 t ime s H e rodo tu s ' f i gu re f o rt h e s a t rapy ' s s i lve r t r ibu te ( c f . B re sc ian i 1 969 : 3 35 , 1 985 :506 ) . T he i mp l ica t ion s o f a l t h i s a r e s omewha t u nc lea r t o me ( a nd t h e i n f orma t ion s i t s s omewha t u nea s i ly w i th C amby se s ' a leged f a vou r f o r t h e Ne i th t emp le a tS a i s : P o sene r 1 936 : n o . 1 ) . Wha t s o r t o f ' g if t s ' a r e o u t lawed , d o t h ey 7 . 137 . ( I n TCL 1 3 .150 ac ana l r evenue a gen t o rde r s p rov i s ion o f u r al u-wo rke r s f o r c ana l ma in tenance , n on-comp l iance t ob e p un i shed b y t h e s a t rap ) . No te a l so i n spec t ion o f wo rke r s b y t emp le of i c ia l s p lu s a p a lace s c r ibe ( CT 2 2 .242 ) . O the r r e f e rence s t o worke r in spec t ion ( Cy r . 2 92 , VS 6 . 249 , 2 64 ) d o n o t c e r ta in ly i nvo lve t h e k ing . One n a tu ra l ly r e ca l l s ( imp l ied ) s upe rv i s ion o f wo rke r s i n X en . O e c . 4 . 9 , C y r . 8 . 1 .9 , t hough t h a t w i l l n o t b e c onf ined t o t emp le -worke r s ( r oya l g a rdu Ik u r tal wou ld b e e qualy r e levan t ) . g u ibu t i : YOS 7 . 86 , 1 29 ; a nd c f . YOS 7 . 123 ,P oh l 1 . 67 , GCC I2 . 120 wh ich d on o tu se t he t e rm b u t t h e d e ta i l s o f wh ich c onnec t t h em c l o se ly w i th t h e t e x t s wh ich d o . P rov i s ion s : Cy r . 1 5 1

1 62 , GCC I2 . 126 ( bo th men t ion t he of i c ia li nc ha rge o f p rov i s ion s f o r t h e k ing ) , VS 6 . 179 . P rov i s ion s f r om o cca s iona l s a c r if i ce s : VS 6 . 143 , 1 62 . O the r r e f e rence t o r oya l s a c r if i ce s : YOS 3 . 4 1 , 7 . 8 . I n TCL 1 3 .152 ar oya l c omm i s s ione r a nd o ve r see r o fE anna ( c f . b e low ) i s e xcep t iona l ly c a l led ' r oya l c o mm i s s ione ra nd i nc ha rge o f regu la rr oya ls a c r if i ce s ' . O the r e v idence : TCL 1 3 . 153 ( s heep f o r t h e k ing , r e ce ived b y ap a lace s t ewa rd ) , YOS 7 . 168 ( s upe r in tendan t o f I g ta r ' s d a te s p rov ide s d a te s f o r p a lace ) , P oh l 1 . 6 1 ( i n spec t ion o fE anna a n ima l s b y t emp le of i c ia l s a nd s a t rapa ls c r ibe /a gen t ) .

CH R IST OPHE R TUPL IN

c o me f r om t emp le t e nan t s o r o u t s ide r s , w a s t h e r oya l t r ea su ry p l ann ing t o a b so rb t h ec o mmod i t ie s wh ich wou ld o the rw i se h ave b een g iven ?I n as en se t h eq ue s t ion i s o fp a s s ing i mpo r tance , s i nce D a r iu s ' c od if i ca t ion o ft r ad i t iona l E gyp t ian l aw ( p . 12 ) o ugh t t oh ave s wep t t h e d i spo s i t ion s a way . T hey d o n o t c on s t i tu te t h e o n ly s i gn , h oweve r , o fr e s t ra in t u pon t emp le w ea l th , e ven a s ide e . g . f r om c l a im s a bou t X e rxe s ' c onf i sca t ion o fh uge a moun t s o fl a nd f r om t h e g od s o fB u to ( Urkunden I . 11 f . ) . F o r e x amp le , p r iva te d ona t ion s t o t emp le s o ft h e s o r t e x ten s ive ly a t te s ted u nde rt h eS a i te sd i sappea rf r om v i ew , t hough r oya ld ona t ion sc on t inue ,i ft h eE df u t e x t i sr e l iab le ( Meek s 1 972 :153 , 1 977 :653 ) . S i nce s u ch d ona t ion s p rov ided c o s t s f o r f une ra ry c u l t s , af unc t ion t h en eed f o r wh i ch d i d n o t s udden ly c e a s e i n5 25 BC, t h e c hange mu s t r ep re sen t e x te rna l i n te rf e rence i nt h e t emp le ' s f i nance s , a nd h e lp s c r ea te t h es u sp ic ion t h a tt h e re m ay h ave b een o the rs u ch i n te rf e rence s . A l lt h es ame t h et emp le sc e r t a in ly w en to np o s se s s ing l a nd a nd r e ce iv ing i n co me f r om i t . When s u ch l a nd w a s s o ld t h e t emp le c on t inued t or e c e ive at ihe ,1 4 5 when i tw a s l e a sed p rov i s ion s t i l l h ad t o b e m ade a bou t p aymen t o f t a x t o t h e t emp l e . '4 6 S eve ra l d emo t ic p apy r i r e co rd t emp le t a x r e ce ip t s ( P . S t r a s sbu rg 5 ,P . L oeb 4 6 , P . C a i ro 5 0060 ) , i nt h e l a s t c a se f r om a n i mpo s t o n b ee r a nd w ine p a id b y a' c h ie f ' ( )o f t h en ome ' , s o ld ie r s ,p a s t opho r o ia nd o the ru n t i t led p e r son s . B yc on t ra s to ne c an f i nd n o c l ea r e v idence f o r t h e s t a te ' s l e vy ing o ft a x u pon t h e t emp le , ap rob l em wh ich a l so e x i s t s i n t h e S a i te p e r iod , when j u s t o ne p o s s ib ly r e levan t t e x t c o me s t o h and . '4 7 N o r i si to n ly a m a t te r o fs i l ence , o r ad if i cu l ty c onf ined t o t emp le s . H e rodo tu s s a y s t h a t m embe r s o ft h e w a r r io r c l a s s ( makh imo i ) p o s se s sed 1 2 a r ou r a e s ta te s wh ich w e re t a xf r ee , ap r iv i leged p o s i t ion o n ly p a ra l le led among p r ie s t s , '4 8 a nd i ti sr egu la r ly a s sumed t h a t t h i s w a s t r ue o ft h e P e r s i an p e r iod .' " I tb eg in s t o l ook a st hough t h er oya lt r ea su ry ' ss ou rce so fi n come i nE gyp tw e re n o td i s t r ibu ted v e ry e ven ly o ve r t h e who le s a t r apy . O the r e v idence i sm eag r e : w e h ave a l ready n o t iced p o s s ib le i n come f r om t a x i n k ind ( p . 1 42 ) , a nd S aqqa ra 1 9 r e co rd s a n ( ? )a nnua l s i lve r tax o fs ome s o r t ( t he p aye r s a r e E gyp t ian ) . B u t p a radox ica l ly w e c an s e e a s much e v idence o fr evenue f r om t h e e mp i re ' s own g a r r i son t r oop s a s f r om n a t ive s ub jec t s . Membe r s o f g a r r i son s a t E l ephan t ine a nd e l sewhe re a ppa r en t ly h ad s ome l a nd s o n c o lon ia l t e nancy f r om t h e K ing ;1 5 °f ou r S aqqa ra p apy r i s e em t o c once rn t a x f r om s u ch l a nd t o t h e r oya l t r ea su ry ( 2 4 , 3 1 , 7 4a , A ime -G i ron 1 92 1: 5 6 ) a nd as omewha t o b scu re E l ephan t ine t e x t ( AP 1 7 ) h a s b een i n te rp re ted a sr e f e r r ing t ot a x u pon c o lon ia l a lo tmen t s ( mn t ) r e ce ived mon th ly b y P .L ouv re E7 128 = Ma l in ine /P i renne 1 950 /1: n o . 1 8 . F o r e a r l ie r p rac t ice c f . i b id . n o s . 1 517 ( P . T u r in 2 46 ,2 47 ,P . BM 1 0 117 ) . T h i s i sa b sen t i nP . L oeb 4 5 , b u t s e e P . A ram . B aue r-Me i s sne r =G re lo t 1 972 :n o . 1 .( The r e levan t wo rd f o r t a x [ m s ] r e cu r s i n a n o s t racon [ S ega l 1 969 :173 ] . ) F o r e a r l ie r p r ac t ice c f . P . L ouv re E 7 833A ,B ,7 836 ,7 839 ,7 845A ( a l li n Hughe s1 952 ) . P . Ry land s9 . 2 1/16 ,c f . Meek s 1 979 :644 . T he t e x t a bou t D a r iu s ' l e ga l c od if i ca t ion ( p . 12 ) g ive s s pec ia l m en t ion t o t h ree c l a s se s , p r ie s t s , w a r r io r s a nd s c r ibe s , b u t t h e re i sn o e v idence a bou t t a xp r iv i lege sf o rt h el a s t -named . c f . L loyd 1 983 :309 , B re sc ian i 1 958 :134 f . ( A l though H e rodo tu s s p eak s o ft h e e x i s tence o ft h e

m akh imo ii nt h e p re sen t t e n se ( 2 .164 f . )a nd d raw s a n i mp l ic i t d i s t inc t ion b e tween t he i r n umbe r s i n t h e f i f th c en tu ry a nd e a r l ie r , h e c a s t s s t a temen t s a bou t t h e i rp r iv i lege si nt h ep a s tt e n se . ) Ho ld ing s o f d e g e l o r a rmy : AP 1 6 .2 , ( ? )8 0 .5 . Ho ld ing s o fi nd iv idua l s : AP 7 . 2 , 8 . 2 , 3 3 .6 , BP 1 2 .5 . T he c ruc ia l a r ama ic t e rm i sm hh sn , a l so u s ed o ft h e ' po s se s s ion ' o f ag overnmen tb oa t b y a n E gyp t ian i n AP 2 6 .3 . S e e G r e lo t 1 970 :30 f .P or ten /S zub in 1 982 , 1 985 t a ke t h e t e rm t o d eno te h e red i ta ry p rope r ty h o lde r s , b u t d o n o t d eny t h a t i tc ou ld d e s igna te ' m i l i ta ry c o lon i s t s ' . T he wo rd m n t ( po r t ion ) i n AP 1 . 3 , 1 7 .2 h a s a l so b een t hough t t o r e f e r t o k l i r o i ( Po r ten 1 968 :52 ,G re lo t1 972 :76 ) .

1 45

1 46

1 50

1 47

1 45

1 49

1 52

AC HAE ME N ID AD M IN IST RAT ION

t h ree g roup so f of i c ia l s ,i n c lud ing p rov inc ia ls c r ibe s , a nd a c coun ted f o rb yt h em t o t h es a t rap ( Po r ten 1 968 :52 ) . ( I ti sf a i rt oa dd t h a tt h es ame t e x th a sa l so b een r e ad a s r e f e r r ing t op aymen t sb yt h es a id of i c ia l st ot h et r oop s( G re lo t 1 972 :280 f . ) . ) 5 BABYLONIAN LAND—TAXES T u rn ing b ack t o B aby lon ia ag ood d ea l o fe v idence c o me s t o h and o ft a xe s a nd o the r o b l iga t ion s i n cumben tu pon v a r iou s s o r t s o fn on temp le l a nd . I mpo s t su pon s p ec if i ca l ly c r own p rop e r ty h ave a l ready b een men t ioned ( c f . p p . 1 33 ) . Wha t w e a r e c once rned w i th n ow i s' m i l i ta ry ' f i ef land a nd l a nd ( o r i nd iv idua l t a x p aye r s ) who se s t a tu si su ndef in ed i nt h es ou rce s . One o f t h e b e s t a t t e s ted e l emen t s o f l a ndho ld ing i n B aby lon ia c on s i s ted o f ( t heo re t ica l ly ) i n a l ienab le b u t h e r i tab le f am i ly -he ld f i ef s , k nown a sb ow -f i ef s o r ( mo re r a r e ly ) h o r se -o rc ha r io t -f i ef s .' 5 1 T he se a r ea t te s ted o n ly f r om t h es t a r to ft h e A chaemen id p e r iod ( Dandamayev 1 967 , 1 983 ) a nd t h e b u lk o ft h e i n f o rma t ion c o me sf r om t h e Mu ra gu a r ch ive a tN ippu ri nt h er e ign so fA r taxe rxe s Ia nd D a r iu s I .B u tt h ep henomenon w a sc e r ta in ly g ene ra li nB aby lon i a , t h et e rm ino logy b e ing a t te s ted a t B aby lon , B o r s ippa , S ah r inu , a t i r , S i ppa r , U r , a nd U ruk ( j oanne s 1 982 :9 ) ; a nd t h e u s e o ft h e t e rm ' b ow ( -f i e f ) ' i n t h e Akkad ian v e r s ion o f DB 1 4 ( Vo ig t lande r 1 978 :17 , 5 ) f o r t h a t wh ich G auma t a t ook a way f r om t h e ' a rmy ' o r ' p eop le ' s ugge s t s t h a t s ome th ing c ompa rab le e x i s ted e l sewhe re i n t h e emp i re , p e rhap ss p ec if i ca l ly i nP e r s i s . T he e v idence f o r t a x e s a nd o the r o b l iga t ion s u pon s u ch f i ef s r un s a sf o l low s . ( i ) I n t h e Mu rau a r ch iv e t h e n o rma l i mpo s t u pon f i ef s , a l though t h e re i st h e o dd e xcep t ion ( e .g . t h e p aymen t c a l led PA.0 . s Y a r r i i nB E 1 0 .15 ) , i sa n a nnua l s i lve r t a x d e s igna ted a si l ku , r unn ing a tb e tween 1 0s h eke l sa nd 1 7m ina i , w i th ac on s tan tr a te o ve r t ime f o r a ny g i ven f i ef ( Ca rda sc ia 1 951 :100 f . ,S to lpe r 1 974 :206 n .3 0 ) . T h i s t a x w a s c o l lec ted b y t h e f o remen ( s ' aknu ) o ft h e c o l lec t iv i t ie s ( h ad ru ) , c h ief ly e t hn ic o r o ccupa t iona l i nt i l e , i n to wh ich t h e f i ef s w e re g rouped . ( Such . a knu , i ts hou ld b e n o ted , r ep re sen t aq u i t e s ub s tan t ia l l a ye r o f of i c ia ldom w i th in t h e s a t r apy , o ne d rawn l a rge ly f r om t h e B ab lyon ian p opu la t ion a nd i mpo sed u pon t h e h ad ru t o r ep re sen t i ti nr e la t ion t o ah ighe r a u thor i ty ( S to lpe r 1 974 :12 1 f . ) . T hey a l so s e em , a s c o l lec to r s o f aq u a s i -m i l i ta ry t a x— see b e low — to b ea r ad i s tan t s im i la r i ty t o h o lde r s o f t h e s am e t i le i n s e ven th c en tu ry A s sy r ia ( Po s tga te 1 980 :75 ) . ) T he f u r the rp rog re s su pw a rd so ft h ep roceed so fi l ku t axa t ion i sr a re ly v i s ib le , b u tt h e re i si np r inc ip le a tl e a s to ne f u r the r s t age b ef o re t h e r oya l t r ea su ry i sr e ached , t h a t o f t h e l a rge e s ta te -ho lde r s w i th in who se e s ta te s t h e f i ef s a r e o f ten l o ca ted ( Ca rda sc ia 1 951 : 1 04 f . ,S to lpe r 1 974 :12 11f ) . T he s i gn if i cance o fi l ku w i l l b e f u r the r d i scu s sed b e low . ( i ) Non - Mu ra gu d o cumen t s o fe a r l ie r ( t he m a jo r i ty ) , c on tempo ra ry a nd l a te r d a te 1 51 S ee i n g ene ra l C a rda sc ia 1 95 1 , 1 958 , 1 977 , S to lpe r 1 974 :14 f . , 11-47 , J oanne s 1 982 :845 . I n a l ienab i l i ty i sd educed f r om L u tz 1 928 :269 f .= C a rda sc ia 1 951 : 1 79 f .= E be l ing 1 952 , whe re a dop t ion i su s ed t oa l iena te af i ef ( a no the re xamp le o f a dop t ion a ppea r s i nV S 6 . 188 ) . B u t c on t ra s t TEBR 3 1 , a ppa ren t ly a s a le o f ab ow f ief . I n BE 9 . 99 a b ow -f i ef i sa c tua l ly c a l led n i d in tu l a r r i , ' g if t f r om t h e k ing ' , b u t e ven i n d ef au l t o f s u ch d e sc r ip t ion o ne

mu s t a s sume t h a t b ow -f i ef s a r e n o rma l ly i n o r ig in r oya l g ran t s . Howeve r UET 4 . 4 1/42 a nd Wa lke r 1 973 :127 ( 1 7 ) d e sc r ibe f i ef s a s p rope r ty o f g od s , s ugge s t ing t h a t t h ey h ad b een g ran ted b y at emp le ( c f . R ie s 1 976 :40 ) . T he r eve r se p henomenon o ccu r s i n VS 5 . 55 whe re ab i tr i t t i , c ha rac te r i s t ica l ly at emp le f i ef i s' p rope r ty o ft h ek ing ' . RO MCT 2 . 9 men t ion s l a nd wh ich i sb o th ab i tr i t t ia nd ab i ta zanu ( ?q u ive r f i ef ,i . e .b ow -f i e f ) . 1 53

CH R IST OP HE R TUPL IN

a l so r e f e r t o s i lve r p aymen t s i n cumben t u pon b ow -f i ef s . I n many c a se s s u ch p aymen t sa r eg iven n o d e sc r ip t ive t i le ( Da r . 1 99 ,3 07 , VS 4 . 77 , 9 6 , 1 25 , 6 . 194 ,2 77 , TEB R 1 ) , b u te l sewhe re we f i nd t he t e rm s i l ku ( VS 4 . 127 , M ich igan 4 3 , TEB R 2 ) , ' f ron to ft h eb ow ' ( VS 6 . 60 , RO MCT 2 . 9 , T uM 2 /3 2 201 ) a nd t e l i tu ( Camb . 1 3 ) . T he d ocumen t s r a re ly i lum ina te t h e of i c ia l a genc ie sb y wh ich t he se p aymen t s a r e r e ce ived ; b u t TEBR 2d oe s men t ion ' r ece ive r so ft h e h ad ru ' c o l lec t ing i l ku , a nd i n M ich igan 4 3 i ti sp a id t o t he s Y a knu o f ac o l lec t ive j u s t a s i n t he Mura gu t ex t s . ( Bo th t h e se t e x t sa r ec on tempora ry w i th t h e Mu ra gu a r ch ive . ) ( i i ) T he re i sa l so e v idence b o th i nt h e Mu ra gu a r ch ive a nd e l sewhe re f o r ( l abou r ) s e rv ice o b l iga t ion sf a l l ing u pon f i ef s . I n VS 6 . 302 e i gh teen b ow -f i ef h o lde r sh ave t o h e lp move ab oa t a nd i n VS 6 . 160 p aymen t f o r work c onnec ted w i th t he r oya l q uay a nd d e l ive ry o fu paya t a ( c f . p .1 29 ) c ome s ( p robab ly ) f r om af i ef -ho lde r . VS 6 . 155 r e f e r st o ap aymen to fs i lve rf o r( i . e . i nl i eu o f )r oya l wo rk c harged a ga in s tt h e c ha r io t f i ef o f at emp le of i c ia l ; a nd t h ree Mu rak i t e x t s s p eak o fp i rqu , a ppa ren t ly a c o rv& d u ty ( BE 1 0 .43 , PBS 2 /1 2 8 , 1 07 ) . A l so n o tewor thy i s TCL 1 3 .203 wh ich s t ipu la te s mo re g ene ra l ly t h a t p e r son s s h a r ing ab ow -f i ef s h a l l ' s e rve t h e k ing ' i n p ropor t ion t ot h e i rs h a re . T he Akkad ian t e rm u s ed h e re r e ca l l s ( a ) VS 6 . 188 , whe re s h a re i n af i ef c a r r ie st h eo b l iga t ion t o' p e rf orm i l kuse rv ice f o rt h ek ing 'a nd ( b ) BE 1 0 .15 , CBS 1 2794 , whe re p a lah

LUGAL ,

' s e rv i ce o f t he k ing ' , i sa n o b l iga t ion

i n cumben t o n s ome l a nd , t hough o ne f u lf i l led b y as i lve r p aymen t . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a ta l t h e se t e x t sa r ea c tua l ly r e f e r r ing t oi l kuse rv ice ( o ri t s mone ta ry e qu iva len t ) a nd r e la te more t om i l i tary t h an l a bou r s e rv ice . ( The f i ef i n BE 1 0 .15 b e long s t oa g roup who se ' p rof e s s iona l 'd e s igna t ion a ppea r st ob em i l i ta ry :R ie s1 976 :40 . ) T h i s r ange o fe v idence a bou t o b l iga t ion s i sm a tched i fo ne t u rn s t o d ocumen t s n o t e xp l ic i t ly c once rned w i th b ow -f i ef s a nd t h e i r h o lde r s . The re a r e many r e f e rence s t o i l ku-paymen t s ( M ich igan 1 5 , 2 4 , 2 6 , Cy r . 8 9 , D a r . 3 23 , BE 8 . 100 , TCL 1 3 .197 , 1 98 , VS 4 . 109 , 1 21 + 1 22 , 1 23 , 1 32 , UET 4 . 60 ) , i n c lud ing o ne whe re i ta ppea r st ob ei nf l ou rn o ts i lve r( Be ren s 1 05 ) . O the rt e x t s men t ion t e l i tu ( CT 2 2 .5 , 5 7 .17-25 ) , m ik su ( CT 2 2 .5 ; c f . a bove p . 1 29 ) , v a r iou s ' g if t s ' t o t h e k ing o r p a lace ( RO MCT 2 . 23 , P oh l 2 . 10 , YNER 1 . 2 , TCL 1 3 .153 ) a nd ' money f o r m i l i tary o u tf i t t ing ' ( s ee b e low p . 1 29 ) . One o f t h e r oya l ' g if t s ' i sr e ce ived b y ap a lace s t ewa rd a nd p a s sed b y h im t o am inor c i ty a dm in i s t ra to r ( TCL l o c . c i t . ) b u t o the rw i se , a s b ef o re , t h e of i c ia l a genc ie s i nvo lved a r e n o t e v iden t . L abou r o r s e rv ice o b l iga t ion s a l so r e cu r : r equ i s i t ioned u r al u labou r ( c f . n . 1 44 ) i sf ound i n Cy r . 8 ,2 24 , TCL 1 3 .173 , VS 6 . 119 , 1 50 , t h e o b l iga t ion s b e ing f u lf i l led b y f i xed p aymen t o r b y a c tua l ly h i r ing a s ub s t i tu te . UET 4 . 48-9 a ppa ren t ly r e cord s o ne Ku su rea ' sh i re o fp e r son s t op e rf orm at a sk c onnec ted w i th t a xe s ( c f . p .1 50 ) , wh i le i n UET 4 . 1-2 a dop t ive c h i ldren a r er equ i red t o' d ot h es e rv ice f o rt h e God sa nd t h e K ing ' c ha rged a ga in s t ( t he l a nd o f ) t h e i rp a ren t s . A nd j u s ta s VS 6 . 188 s poke o fi l ku a s as e rv ice p e rf ormed , n o tj u s t at a xp a id , s oS t ra s sma ie r 8 t h C ong r e s s3 1 a nd T uM 2 /3 1 72 r equ i re s omeone t o p e rf o rm ( l i te ra l ly ' g o ' ) t h e r oya l i l ku i n cumben t o n s ome l a nd . T h i s b r ing s u s t o t h e f u r the r c on s ide ra t ion o ft h e s i gn if i cance o fi l ku p ro m i sed a bove . I n Mu ra gu t e x t s , b y c on t ra s t w i th a l o the r e v idence , t h e re i s ar egu la r f o rmu la wh ich i t em ize s t h e c on s t i tuen t p a r t s o fi l ku a s' s o ld ie r o ft h e k ing , f l ou r ,

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ACHAE ME N ID AD M IN IST RAT ION

b a r r a , a nd t h e o the r d ue s o ft h e r oya l h ou se ' ( Ca rda sc i a 1 95 1 :98 f .F o r b a r r a c f . a bove p .1 50 . I l ku a nd ' o the rd ue s ' r e cu r si n UET 4 . 60 , a nd w eh ave n o ted ac a se o f i l ku p a id i nf l ou r , b u t t h e se a r e a tb e s t v e ry p a r t ia l p a ra l le l s f o r t h e f o rmu la f r om o u t s ide t h e Mu ra gu a r ch ive . ) T he f i r s t i t em s how s t h a t i l ku , wh ich e s sen t ia l ly m ean s ' s e rv ice ' , i ss p ec if i ca l ly c onnec ted w i th m i l i t a ry s e rv ice —no t s u rp r i s ing ly s i nce we a r e h e re ( a s i ns ome n on - Mu r a gu t e x t s : a bove ) d ea l ing w i th f i ef s n amed a f te r as pec ie so fa rmamen t . E v iden t ly i l ku c on ta in sa tl e a s ta ne l emen tc o r re spond i n g t o t he o b l iga t ion t op rov ide ar oya l s o ld ie r . We h ave a l ready s e en e xamp le s o f t h e p r inc ip le o f money i nl i eu o fs e rv ice ( i nc lud ing s ome wh ich m ay r e f e r t o i l ku u nde r ad if e ren t n ame ) . I n s p ec if i ca l ly m i l i ta ry c on tex t s t h e p r inc ip le c an b e i lu s t ra ted b yv a r iou so the rp henomena . Al a rge n umbe ro ft e x t sf r om t h er e ign so f C y ru s , C amby se s , a nd D a r iu sr e f e rt o( money ) f o rt h eo u tf i t t ing o f as o ld ie r , o f ten a ppea r ing a s a n a nnu a l p aymen t . Wha t i sh appen ing i st h a t l a nd -owne r s a r e p rov id ing money t op ay as ub s t i tu te t ou nde r t ake t h e i r t e chn ica l o b l iga t ion t od o m i l i ta ry s e rv ice — and n o to n ly money b u tp rov i s ion sa sw e l l . ' 52 A c en tu ry l a te rw e f i nd t he s ame t h ing i n UET 4 . 109 ( 3 97 /6 ) whe re Ku su r ea s upp l ie sp ay , p rov i s ion s , a nd a rmamen tf o ra no the rp e r son t ou nde r take h i sr oya la nd e su se rv ice ( a ppa r en t ly aP e r s ian t e rm s i gn if y ing m i l i ta ry l e vy ) . None o ft h e se t e x t s r e la te s e xp l ic i t ly t o b ow-f i ef s . B u t as im i l a rs i tua t ion i si nf a c t a t te s ted a p ropo s o fs u ch af i ef i n5 30 BC, when ap a i r o ff i ef -ho lde r s p rov ide ar oya l s o ld ie r , o ne N abuber gunu , p lu s t r ave l p rov i s ion s a nd money ( Camb . 1 3 ; c f . J oanne s 1 982 :19 , D andamayev 1 983 :57 ) , a nd s uch as ub s t i tu t ion a l so a ppea r s t oo ccu r i nD a r . 4 30 ( bow f i e f ) a nd ( p e rhap s ) D a r . 1 54 ( c ha r io t f i e f ) . T he se t e x t s c an i nt u rn b e c o mpa red w i th as e t r e la t ing t o b ow -f i ef sf r om ap e r iod o fn ine d ay si n4 22 BC. F ive o ft h e se ( BE 1 0 .6 1-2 , P BS 2 /1 5 4 , 1 67 , 1 94 , CBS 4 992 ) a r e mo r tgage s t o c ove r d eb t s f o r d re s s , e qu ipmen t , p rov i s ion s , a nd ( p e rh ap s ) money i nc onnec t ion w i th am i l i ta ry e xped i t ion t oU ruk . . No th ing i ss a id a bou t a n a c tua l s o ld ie r , b u t i n t h e s i x th t e x t w e e ncoun te r a n a greemen t b e twe en t wo j o in t -f i ef h o lde r s a c co rd ing t o wh ich o ne o ft h em w i l l a c tua l ly g o a s ac ava l ryman t oU ruk , wh i le t h e o the r w i l l p rov ide e qu ipmen t a nd o ne m ina o f s i lve r f o r p rov i s ion s ( Lu tz 1 928 , C a rda sc ia 1 95 1 :179 , 1 958 :5 f . , E be l ing 1 952 ) . C le a r ly e a ch f i ef w a s e xpec ted t o p rov ide a n a c tua l s o ld ie r a nd a pp rop r ia te e qu ipmen t a nd p rov i s ion s . ( No th ing e s tab l i she s whe the r t h e s o ld ie r c ou ld b e a n o u t s ide r a sw a s a ppa ren t ly t h e c a se 1 08 y ea r s e a r l ie r . ) T he f i r s t y ea r o f Da r iu sI ' s r e ign s aw ah uge n umbe ro f mo r tgage a g reemen t s b e tween f i ef h o lde r s a nd t h e Mu ra s gu : n o rma l ly t h e n a tu re o ft h e d eb t l y ing b eh ind t h e a g reemen t s i s u n s ta ted , b u t o cca s iona l ly i ti sc onnec ted w i th p aymen t o f i l ku , a nd i th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t t h i s w a s a c tua l ly t r ue i nt h e ma jo r i ty o fc a se s ( S to lpe r 1 974 :162 f . ) . Bu ti ft h i si ss ot h es um si nvo lved s how t h a t wha ti sh e re b e ing c a l led i l ku c anno tb e t he r egu la r a nnua l t a x f r om wh ich w e b egan ( J oanne s 1 982 :23 ) . T h i s s i tua t ion h a s b een h ypo the t ica l ly c onnec ted w i th l a rge sca le mob i l i za t ion i nB aby lon i a i n t h e c on t ex t o fs t rugg l e s f o r t h e t h rone a f te r A r taxe rxe s I ' sd ea th ( S to lpe r l o c . c i t . ) a nd i n t h i s c a se i l ku w i l l b e d e sc r ib ing t h e s o r t o f a c tua l c o s t s a t tendan t u pon mob i l iza t ion s e en i nt h et e x t sf r om 4 22 s c . 1 52 Cy r . 3 3 1 , C amb . 1 7 , 2 76 , 2 9 1 , 3 22 , D a r . 4 6 , 12 , 1 4 1 , 1 56 , 1 64 , 1 67 , 2 20 , 2 34 , 2 53 , 3 08 , 4 8 1 , VS

4 . 139 . S ee Oppenhe im 1 945 :239 f . ,1 985 :573 .

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We h ave t h e ref o re t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween ( i ) a n a nnua l mone ta ry l e vy s ymbo l iz ing t h eo b l iga t ion o ft h ef i ef h o lde rt op rov ide s o ld ie r s a nd p rov i s ion sa nd ( i ) t h e r i gh t o ft h e k ing t oc a l l f o r a dd i t ion a l a c tua l s upp ly o fs o ld i e r s , e qu ipmen t a nd p rov i s ion s .1 5 3 S ince t h e c op iou s Mu ra sf t i a r ch ive o n ly y i e ld s c l e a rs i gn s o ft h i s r i gh t b e ing e xe rc i sed i nt wo y ea r s , i tm ay h ave h appened o n ly r a r e ly a nd i nt ime s o fr e la t ive c r i s i s b y t h e l a te r f i f th c en tu ry ( f o r af u r the r e x amp le s e e UET 4 . 109 , a bove ) ; a nd t h eB aby lon ian e v idence a s awho le c ou ld r ef l ec t t he K ing ' si n c rea s ing r e l iance u pon me rcena ry s e rv ice p a id f o rb yt a xa t ion . 6I ND IV IDUAL TAX—PAYERS

F ina l ly , a f te r t h e t r ibu te o fs a t rap ie s , s ma l le r r e g ion s , c i t ie s , v i l lage s , t emp le s , a nd e s ta te s , s ome c a se s whe re t a xp aymen tc anno tf o rt h e mo s tp a r tb ec l e a r ly a s soc ia ted w i th a ny e n t i ty l a rge r t h an t h e i nd iv idua l . A pp rop r ia te ly , p e rhap s , t h i s b r ing s u s b ack t o P e r s i s . ( On a l o f wha t f o l low s s e e K och 1 980 . ) E igh t P e r sepo l i s t e x t s ( 2 67-273 ) r e f e r t o l a rge o r v e ry l a rge g roup s o fs h eep a nd g oa t s r e ce ived a st a x ( b az i l— the wo rd f o r t r ibu te i n r oya l i n sc r ip t ion s ) a nd v a r iou s ly e n t ru s ted t o i nd iv idua l o f ice r s ( i n o ne c a se f o r u s e i np aym en t o ff ood r a t ion s ) o r ' w i thd rawn ' ( a ga in , o nce , f o r p rov i s ion s ) o r u s ed i n wha t a r e a ppa ren t ly a t temp t ed t r ad ing t r an sac t ion s . Among t h e p e r son s n amed i n t h e t e x t s i so ne App i t r ank a , k nown e l sewhe re ( PF 1 942 .29 ) a s at a x -hand le r . Af u r the rd ocumen t , P F2 008 , p rov ide sa n a c coun t o f s h eep r e ce ived a s t a x a nd e n t ru s ted t o Makama f o r H a r r ena t o a ppo r t ion . T he se n ame sp rov ide c onnec t ion sb o th w i th t h ef i r s ts e t o ft e x t s ( whe r e t wo d if e ren t p e r son s n amed Makama a ppea r i nP F 2 68-9 ) a nd w i th a no the r p a i r o ft a b le t s wh ich o f e r s ome f u r the r d e ta i l s . I nP F2 025 Rauba sa a nd h i s c o l league s , ' p aye r s o ft h e l a nd ' ( Ha l lock ) o r ' Be rgzah le r ' ( Koch ) , t a ke at o ta l o f5 74 s h eep a nd g oa t s f o r t h e K ing ' s T ax a nd e n t ru s t t h em i nt wo u nequa l g roup s t o Mak ama t h e c a t t le c h ief a tU randu g ( at r ea su ry s i t e , i n c iden ta l ly ) a nd Um izza t he h e rd sman a t H i ran . T he f i r s t g roup ' p e r ta in s t o t h e d a l a l ak i p e r son s ' i n H a l lock ' s r e nde r ing , t hough Koch s a y s t h a t d a l a l ak i m ean s S t eu e r abgab en , t h e s e cond w e r e ' a t t h e s h eepf o ld s ' . I n b o th c a se s t h e a ppo r t ione r i s( once a ga in ) H a r rena . T he t a b le t emana te s f r om P ha rnace s ' c hance l le ry , a nd i n P F 2 070 w e h ave a l e t te r f r om R auba sa a nd h i s c o l league s t oP ha rnace s g iv ing s ome mo re i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e a n ima l s e n t ru s ted t o Um izza . ( i )R auba sa h ad g o t t h em f r om s i xp e r son s a tH i ran : f ou r( one awoman ) h ave n ot i le b u ta r ej u s ts a id t ob e' a tt h ee s ta te o fM i tu rna , t h e a n s a r a of i c ia l a nd s l augh te re r ' , wh i le t h e o the r t wo a r e ar oya l r a r a wo rk e r a nd a t r ea su re r . ( The o n ly i nd ica t ion o fo r ig in i nP F2 67273 i st h e m en t ion o f Ma rduka p eop le i n2 73 . ) ( i ) Um izza h a s n ow t a ken t h e a n im a l s t oP ha rnace s . Rauba s a a nd h i s c o l league s a l so s a y t h a t t h ey s e n t t h e t a x -hand le r s t oP ha rnace s , a nd i tm ay b e 1 53 Wi th s u ch e xcep t iona l c a se s J oanne s 1 982 :22 a s soc ia te s VS 4 . 96 ( 5 19 B C , ' s upp lemen ta ry s i lve r o n t h e b ow -f i ef a nd ' f i r s t r e ce ip t s o f s i lve r o n b owf i ef s ' ) a nd VS 4 . 126 , M ich igan 2 6 ( bo th 5 13 B C , b o th c onnec ted w i th a y ea r ' s s e rv ice i n E l am ) . B u t M ich igan 2 6 a t l e a s t e xp l ic i t ly r e f e r s t o u r al us e rv ice , n o t t h e ref o re o n t h e f a ce o f i tm i l i ta ry . I a s sume t h a t t e x t s s u ch a sT uM 2 /3 1 83 a nd P BS 2 /1 14 wh ich r e la te j u s t t o p aymen t s f o r ' wage s a nd p rov i s ion s ' f o r t wo o r t h ree ' s o ld ie r s o ft h e k ing ' d o

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n o th ave t ob et a ken a sr e f e r r ing t oa c tua ls o ld ie r so n c ampa ign . I fs o , t h e ' s o ld ie r o ft he k ing ' e l emen t o f i l ku may t h eo re t ica l ly c o r re spond t o w age s / p rov i s ion s ( r a the r t h an e . g . e qu ipmen t ) f o r as o ld ie r ( Ca rda sc ia 1 95 1:99 ) . B u t t h e f a c t s t ha t ( i ) w age s a nd /o r p rov i s ion s a r e v a lued a t 1m ina i nP BS 2 /1 14 a nd i nt h el e vy t e x to fL u tz 1 928 e t c . ( n . 1 5 1 ) a nd ( i ) 1m ina i sq u i te ac om mon i / kura te d o n o t ( p a c e C a rda sc ia 1 95 1 :18 1 f . , 1 958 :76 f . ) c on s t i tu te as i gn i f i can tc o inc id ence .

ACHAE ME N I D AD M IN IST RAT ION

t h a t Um izza i st ob e c on s t ru ed a so ne s u ch . A ta ny r a te w e d o h ave h e re mo re o fa p i c tu re t han u sua lo ft h ej ou rney o ft r ibu te f r om t h ei nd iv idua lp aye ru p t oh ighe s t a dm in i s t ra t ive e che lon s— though o ne wou ld s t i l l l i ke ac l ea re r s t a temen t o f wha t P ha rnace sw a sg o ing t od ow i th t h ea n ima l s . A no the r s e r ie s o f d ocumen t s c once rn , i n H a l lock ' s t r an s la t ion , ' d epo s i t s ' o f v a r iou s c ommod i t ie s ' t o t h e a c coun t o f ' n amed p e r son s ( g ene ra l ly o the rw i se u nknown a nd s ome t ime sf ema le ) ,1 a nd i th a sb een s ub sequen t ly s ugge s ted ,o nt h e b a s i s o ft he h i s to r ica l a s soc ia t ion s o ft h e r e levan t E l am i te v e rb , t h a t t h ey a r e r e a l ly t a xp ay men t sb y p r iva te P e r s ian l a ndowne r s ( H inz 1 97 1: 1 89 , K och 1 980 :106 f . ) : i t i st os uch p eop le t h a to th e rd ocumen t sr e f e ri n wh ich c o rn i sd e sc r ibed a s' f rom t h e p eop le ' ( PF 13 , 2 00 , 4 54 , 1 973-7 , 1 985 ) . T he p aymen t s i n c lude c a t t le , c o rn , f r u i t , d a te s , f i g s , n u t s e t c . a nd m ay b e t ihe s , s i nce t h e s e a l o fP a t ia sa t h e t ihe rece ive r ( 1 942 ) s ome t ime s a ppe a r s o n t h e t a b le t s . A no the r a s soc ia ted p e r son i s t h e r u i d abaz iy a , l a nd tax o f ic ia l ( PF 1 968 ) . K och d oe s n o t r a i se t h e q ue s t ion o ft h e r e la t ion b eween t h e t a x i nvo lved h e re a nd t h a t i n t h e f i r s t s e t o ft e x t s d i scu s sed 54

a bove . C e r ta in ly d i s t inc t f r om b o th o f t h em i s wha t i sf ound i n y e t a no the r c a tegory o fd ocumen t st o wh ich a t ten t ion i sd rawn b y o cca s iona l a ppea rance s o fa b az ika r a ( t ax -hand le r ) .1 5 5 T he se , i ti sa rgued , r e la te t o al e a s ing p rac t ice b y wh ich t h e a dm in i s t ra t ion s upp l ie s s e ed a nd t h en c l a im s at e n o r t h i r tyf o ld r e tu rn ( d epend ing o n t ype o fc rop ) . T he l a nd i nvo lved c an b e e i the r c rown o r p r iva te p rope r ty , a nd t h e p ro ceed s mo s t ly g o t op rov ide p rov i s ion s ( i . e . wo rke r r a t ion s ) , t hough a p ropo r t ion i sw i thd rawn a nd d i s appea r s f r om s i gh t . T he d i s t inc t ion b e tween t h i s l e a se i n come a nd t h e t a x d i scu s sed a bove i su nde r l ined b y af u r the r c i rcum s tance . I ns om ea c coun t ing t e x t s af u r the rd educ t ion o f at e n th o rt h i r t ie th i s made f r om t h e f o rm e r , s ome th ing wh ich a l so h appen s w i th t h e i n come o fd i rec t work ing o fc rown l a nd b y k u r t a s Yb u t n o t w i th t h e t a x r e ce ived f r om p r iva te t a x p aye r s . K och 1 980 :136 s ugge s t s t h a t t h e se e x t r a d educ t ion s w en t t o t h e p e r sona l p rov i s ion ing o ft h ek i ng . T he m a te r i a la s semb led i nt h ep reced ing p age si se a sy t os umma r ize i nt h el i t e ra l s en se o fc onden sa t ion , b u td if i cu l ti na ny mo r ei n te re s t ing s e n se . Ih ave s hown t h a t g ene ra la na ly s i so fi mpe r ia l of i c i a l sl e ad so ne ' sa t ten t ion t os u ch e n t i t ie sa ss a t rap ie s , s ub reg ion s ( e .g . p rov ince s , h ypa rch ie s o fv a ry ing s i ze , n ome s , ( p e rhap s ) g a r r i son c h i l ia rch ie s ) , c i t ie s , i nd iv idua l f o r t re s se s , t r e a su ry s i t e s a nd s ma l le r s t o rep lace s , v i l lage s , e s ta te s a nd t h e i r c on s t i tuen t e s ta te s , f i ef s , e t c . T he re a r e a l so p l en ty o f a t te s ted of i c ia l s whom i ti sh a rd t o ' p lace ' , a nd p e rhap s t ype s o fr eg ion f o r wh ich n op e r t inen t of i c i a lt i le s u rv ive s . A ga in ,e v idence a bou tt r ibu te c o l lec t ion r e la te si t t o m any o ft h e e n t i t ie sj u s t m en t ioned , a sw e l l a st o t emp le s o r i nd iv idua l s . T he p rob lem l i e si nt h ei n t e rconnec t ion o ft h eh igh l igh ted d e ta i l s . I s' h ie r a rchy ' ,w i th i t s i mp l i ca t ion s o fc on t inuum o fa u tho r i ty f r om t op t ob o t tom t h e a pp rop r ia te t e rm t ou s e o ft h e v a r iou s a gen t s o ft h e r u l ing p owe r w i th in as a t rapy ? How s hou ld w e e nv i sage t h ei n te r r eac t ion o fp henomena t h a tl ook b u reauc r a t ic a nd o ne st h a tl ook 1 54 P F1 38-232 ,1829 ,1849-51 ,1955 .11 f . ,1 968-70 , 1 982-8 ,2 0 18-24 ,P Fa 1 . 1 55 A ccoun t t ex t s w i th h ead ing s ' s e t a s ide ' , ' p rov id ed f o r p rov i s ion s ' , ' w i thd rawn ' ( e .g . P F 1 955-65 ,

2 075-6 , P Fa 3 2 ) ; a l l t ex t s i n Ha l lock 1 969 : c a tegor ie s F( ' se t t ing a s ide . . ' ) ,G( ' prov id ing f o r p rov i s ion s ' ) . T ax-hand le r s a ppear i n 4 38 , 4 43 , 4 51 , 5 12 , 5 67 , 1 942 .25 f . , 1 943 .37 , 1 965 .4 f .( c f . 4 92-3 , 5 66 , 6 45 ) ,

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f e uda l ? G ran ted t h e v a r iou s t ype s o fe v idence a bou t t a x a t ion , h ow d o w e p i c tu re t h ea c tua ls t age so ft h ep roce s sb y wh ich as a t rap e nd su pw i th s oa nd s o much s i lve r t o f o rwa rd t o t h e k ing ? P u t a no the r w ay , a t h ow m any r emove s d o t h e t a x p aymen t s Ih ave d e sc r ibed s t and f r om ' Th e K ing ' s T r ibu te '? When a n E gyp t i an e s ta te owne r p ay s h a l ak t o A r same s ' e s ta te , w a s h e t h e r eby mak ing a n ( i nd i r ec t ) c on t r ibu t ion t ot h er oya l t r ibu te , o rw a sh ea l so e ncumbe red w i th o th e ru na t te s ted d i rec tp aymen t s t ot h a te nd ? Wha t i st h e r e la t ion b e tween t h i sE gyp t i an ' s s i tua t ion a nd t h e B aby lon ian f i ef -ho lde r p ay ing i l ku t o af o reman p u t i n p o s i t ion b y t h e s upe ro rd ina te e s ta te -ho lde r ? How f a r s hou ld w e g o i n a s sum ing t h a t b ow -f i ef p rocedu re s w e re t ob e f ound a l o ve r t h e emp i re ( i s as i ng le a t te s ted k l e r o s h i pp ik o s i n h e l len i s t ic Magne s i a a d S i py lum ( SdA 4 92 ) g ood g round f o r p o s tu la t ing a n e x ten s ion e ven t o w e s te rn Ana to l ia )? Wha t w a s , a f te r a l , t h e r e la t ion b e tween p ho r o sa nd t h eK ing ' st r oph e ? One m ay , p e rhap s , s t i l l l ook f o r f u r the r a s s i s tance f r om t h e P e r sepo l i s a r ch ive s . D e sp i te t h eo dd i t ie so ft h ea r ea t h ey c ove r , e xhau s t ive a na ly s i so ft he i n te r re la t ion s o fp l ace s , p e r son s a nd s e a l s c an i np r inc ip le r eve a lp o s s ib l e s t ruc tu re s ; a nd t h e re a r e a l so , o fc ou r se , m any t e x t sb o th f r om P e r sepo l i sa nd f r om A chaemen id B aby lon ia s t i l l a wa i t ing me re p ub l ica t ion , l e t a l one a na ly s i s a nd c o mb ina t ion . T he p ropo s i t i on t h a t ' t he re w a sn o u n if o rm i n f ra s t ruc tu re o fA chaemen id r u le i nt h e s a t rap ie s , a nd n o g ene r a l s y s tem f o r t h e c o l lec t ion o f t r ibu te c an b e d i sce rned ' ( Cook 1 983 : 1 73 ) m ay b ed e s t ined t os t and ( i t may e ven b et h es imp le t r u th ) , b u tw ec an a t l e a s t h ope t oa cqu i re b e t te r i n f o rma t ion a bou t a nd u nde r s t and ing o ft h e m an if o ld v a r ie t ie sa nd o fs u ch ' s y s tem 'a st h e re m ay h ave b e en i np a r t icu l a rs a t rap ie s .

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Abbrev ia t ion s AD Amhe r s t

G . R . D r ive r ,A r ama i c Do cum en t s ( Oxf ord 1 957 ) . A . Ungnad , Neubaby lon i sche P r iva tu rkunden ... Amhe r s t ,

A f0

1 9

( 1 959/60 ) , 7 4-82 . ANET J .B . P r i tcha rd , A n c i en tN ea rE a s t e rn T ex t si nT ran s la t ion ( P r inc e ton 1 969 ) AP A . E . Cow ley ,A rama i cP apy r i ( Oxf o rd 1 923 ) . B E8 A . T . C lay , L ega la nd C omme r c ia l T ran sa c t ion sf r om N ippu r ( Ph i lade lph ia 1 908 ) B E9 H . H i lprech t /A . T . C lay , B u s ine s s D o cumen t s o f t h e Mu r a shu ( Ph i lade lph ia 1 898 ) . BE 1 0 A . T . C lay , B u s in e s s Do cum en t so ft h e Mu r a shu ( Ph i lade lph ia 1 904 ) . B e ren s T . G . P inche s , B aby lon ian T ab l e t so ft h eB e r en sC o l l e c t i on ( London 1 9 15 ) . B IN 1 C . E .K e i se r ,L e t t e r sa nd C on t r a c t sf r om E r e ch ( New H aven 1 9 17 ) . BR M 1 A . T . C lay , B aby l on ian B u s ine s s T ran sa c t ion s ... ( New Yo rk 1 9 12 ) . C a mb . J .N . S t ra s sma ie r , I n s ch r if t en v on C amby s e s ( Le ipz ig 1 890 ) . CBS Unpub l i sh ed Un ive r s i ty o fP enn sy lvan ia t a b le t s ( c f . S to lpe r 1 974 ) . CT Cune if o rm T ex t s. .i n t h e B r i t i sh Mu seum . ( CT 2 2 .1-248 t r an s la ted i n E . E be l ing , N eubaby l on i s ch eB r i ef e ( Mun ich 1 949 ) . ) Cyr . J .N . S t ra s sma ie r , I n s ch r if t en v on C y ru s ( Le ipz ig 1 890 ) . Dar . J .N . S t ra s sma ie r , I n s ch r if t en v on D a r iu s ( Le ipz ig 1 892 ) DB e t c . t ex t si nR . G . K en t , O ld P e r s ian 3 ( New H aven 1 953 ) . F P K . R . Neme t -Ne ja t , L a t eB aby l on ian F i e ld P l an s ( Rome 1 982 ) . FX V I H . Me tzge re ta l . , F ou i l l e sd eX an tho sV I ( Par i s 1 979 ) . GCC I2 R . Doughe r ty , A r ch iv e sf r om E r e ch... ( New H aven 1 933 ) . L abraunda J .C rampa , L ab r aund aI I( S tockho lm 1 969 , 1 972 ) . Mich igan E . W. Moore , N eo -Baby l on ian D o cum en t s i nt h e U n iv e r s i ty o f Mi ch ig an C ol e c t i on ( Ann A rbo r 1 939 ) . OG IS W. D i t tenbe rge r , O r i en t i s G ra e c i I n s c r ip t ion e s S e l e c ta e ( Le ipz ig 1 903 ) . PBS 2 /1 A . T . C lay , B u s in e s sD o cum en t so ft h e Mu ra shu ( Ph i lade lph ia 1 9 12 ) . P eek T . G . P inche s , I n s c r ib ed B aby l on ian T ab l e t s i np o s s e s s ion o f S i r H en ry P e ek ( London 1 888 ) . P F , P Fa T ex t si n Ha l lock 1 969 a nd 1 978 r e spec t ive ly . P oh l 1 ,2 A . P oh l , N eubaby l on i s che R e ch t su rkund en An . Or . 8( 1 933 ) , 9( 1 934 ) . PT T ex t si nC ame ron 1 948 . RO MCT 2G .J .P . McEwan , L a t eB aby l on ian T ab l e t si nt h eR oya l On t a r io Mu s eum ( 1 982 ) , S aqqa ra J .B . S ega l , A r ama i cP apy r if r om N o r th S aqqa r a ( London 1 983 ) . S dA H . B eng t son , S t aa t sve r t räg ed e sA l t e r tum s ( Mun ich 1 962 ) . S EG S upp lemen tum E p ig raph icum G raecum . S IG 3 W. D i t tenbe rge r , S y l log e I n s c r ip t ionum G ra e ca rum ( Le ipz ig 1 9 15-24 ) S inu r i L . Robe r t , L e S an c tua i r ed eS inu r i ( Pa r i s 1 945 ) . S t ra s sma ie r A c t e sd u8 eC ong r i uI n t e rna t iona ld e sO r i en ta l i s t e s , I ep a r t ie , I b( L e iden 1 893 ) , 8 t h C ong r . 2 81 f . TA M 5 J .K e i l , P . He r rmann , T i tu l iA s ia e Mino r i sV( V ienna 1 98 1 ) . TCL 1 3 G . C on tenau , C on t r a t s N eo -baby lon i en s I ( P a r i s 1 929 ) ( t ran s la ted i n E . W. Moo re , N eo -Baby lon ian Do cum en t s ( Ann A rbo r 1 935 ) ) .

1 59

CH R IST OP HE R TUPL IN

TEBR TL T uM 2 /3

T ex t si nJ oanne s 1 982 . E .K a l inka , T i tu l iA s ia e Mino r i s I( V i enna 1 90 1 ) . 0 . K rückmann , N eubaby lon i s ch e R e ch t s - u nd V e rwa l tung su rkund en ( Le ipz ig

UET

1 933 ) . H . F igu l la , B u s in e s sD o cum en t so ft h eN eo -Baby l on ian P e r iod ( London 1 949 ) .

U rkund en I K . S e the , H i e r og lyph i s ch e U rkund en d e rg r i e ch i s ch r öm i s chen Z e i t( L e ipz ig 1 904 ) . V S 3 -6 A . Ungnad , V o rd e r a s ia t i s che S ch r if td enkmä l e r ( Be r l in 1 907-8 ) ( t r an s la ted i nS an XPa e t c . YBC YNER 1 YOS 3 YOS 7

N ico lö/ Ungnad 1 935 ) . s e e DB e t c . u npub l i shed Y a le Un ive r s i ty L ibra ry t a b le t s . D . We i sbe rg , Gu i ld S t ru c tu r e a nd P o l i t i c a lA l l eg ian c e ... ( Ya le 1 967 ) . A . T . C lay , N eo -baby l on ian L e t t e r sf r om E r e ch ( New H aven 1 9 19 ) . A . T remayne , R e co rd sf r om E r e ch... ( New Haven 1 925 ) .

A rama ic a nd E gyp t ian d emo t ic t ex t s a r en orma l ly p ub l i shed w i th t r an s la t ion s . Where t h e p l ace o f p ub l ica t ion o f d emo t ic t e x t s i s n o t s t a ted i t c an u sua l ly b e l o ca ted i n E . L üddecken s , ' P apy r i , Demo t i sche ' , L ex ikon d e r A gyp t o log i e I V 7 50-899 . Akkad ian t ex t s , o n t h e o the r h and , a r e o f ten i n i t ia l ly p ub l i shed o n ly i n h and -cop ie s o f t h e c une if orm t a b le t s . The whe reabou t s o f s uch t r an s la t ion s a s e x i s t c an b e s ough t i n R . B orge r , H and bu ch d e rK e i l s ch r if t l i t e r a tu rI —I I I( Be r l in 1 967-75 ) .

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AC HAE ME NI D AD M I NIST RAT ION

B ib l iography A ck royd , P .n .d . , ' The w r i t ten e v idence f o rP a le s t ine ' ,P ro c e ed ing sA cha emen id Wo rk shop . A ime -G i ron , N . 1 92 1 , ' F ragmen t d e p apyru s a r ameen p rovenan t d e Memph i s ' , JA 1 8 , 5 6-64 . 1 931 , T ex t e sa r ami en sd ' E gyp t e( Ca i ro ) . 1 939 , ` Adve r sar ia S em i t ica ' ,B IFAO 3 8 ,1-63 . A nde r son ,J .K . 1 970 , M i l i t a ry T h eo ry a nd P ra c t i c e i nt h e A g e o fX enophon ( Be rke ley , L o s A nge le s ) . A rmayor , 0 .K . 1 978 , ` He rodo tu s ' C a ta logue so ft h eP e r s ian Emp i re ' , TAPA 1 08 ,110 . A tk in son , K . M . 1 972 , ' A h e l len i s t ic l a nd c onveyance : t he e s ta te o f Mne s imachu s i n t h e p l a in o fS a rd i s ' ,H i s t o r ia 2 1 ,45-75 . B a lkan , K . 1 959 , ' I n sc r ibed b u l lae f r om D a sky le ion-E rg i l i ' , Anad o lu 4 ,123-8 . B a l l , C .J .1 892 , ' AB aby lon ian Deed o fS a le ' ,P BSA 1 4 ,166-9 . B e rge r , P . -R . 1 975 , De r Ky ro szy l inde r m i t d em Z u sa tzf ragmen t B IN 2 . 32 ... ZA 6 4 , 1 92-234 . B igg s , R . D . 1 978 , ' Cune if orm I n sc r ip t ion s ' ,i nD . McCown e ta l . ,N ippu r I( Ch icago ) . B oa rd man ,J .1 970 , ' Py ram ida ls t amp s e a l si nt h eP e r s ian Emp i re ' , / r an 8 ,19 -46 . B ogo l iubov , M . 1 974 , ' T i t re h ono r if ique d 'un c hef m i l i ta i re a chemen ide ...' , A c t a I r an i ca , 1e s e r ie ( Commemora t ion Cy ru s ) , Hommage Un ive r se l I ( Tehe ran-L iege ) , 1 0914 . B ow man , R . 1 970 ,A r ama i cR i tua l T ex t sf r om P e r s epo l i s( Ch icago ) . B re sc ian i ,E .1 958 , ' L as a t rap ia d 'Eg i t to ' , SCO 7 ,132-88 . 1 959 , ` Un p ap i ro a r ama ico d aE lH ibeh A egyp t . 3 9 ,3-8 . 1 960 , P ap i r ia r ama ic ie g iz ian id ie poca p e r s iana ...' ,RSO 3 5 ,11-24 . 1 969 , ' Egyp t i n t h e P e r s ian Emp i re ' i n H . B eng t son , T h e G r e ek s a nd t h e P e r s ian s ( London ) ,3 33-53 . 1 985 , ' The P e r s ian o ccupa t ion o fE gyp t ' , C amb . H i s t o ry o fI r an i ,5 02-28 . B r ian t ,P .1 982a ,R o i s , t r i bu t se tp ay san s( Par i s ) . 1 982b , Et a te tp a s t eu r s( Pa r i s , C ambr idge ) . 1 984 ,A s i eC en t r a l ee tl e sr o yaume sp r o che -o r i en taux d up r em i e rm i l lMa i r e( Par i s ) . n .d . (a ) , ' Don s d e t e r re s e t d e v i l le s : l ' A s ie m ineu re d an s l ec on tex te a chemen ide ' , P r o c e ed ing so fB o rd eaux c o nf e r en c eo n Ana t o l ia ( Ap r i l1 986 ) ( f o r thcom ing ) . n .d . (b ) , ' E thno c la s se d om inan te p e r se e tp opu la t ion s s oum i se sd an s l ' e mp i re p e r se : l e c a s d 'ügyp te ' , i n A . Kuh r t & H . S anc i s i - Wee rdenbu rg , A cha em en id H i s t o ry I I : Me thod o l ogy a nd T h eo ry ( Le iden ,f o r thcom ing ) . B ryce ,T . 1 983 , ' Po l i t ica lu n i ty i nL yc ia d ur ing t h ed yna s t ic p e r iod ' , JNES 4 2 ,31-42 . Buck le r , W. & Rob in son ,D . M . 1 9 12 , ' G reek I n sc r ip t ion sf r om S a rd i s ' ,A JA 1 6 ,11-82 . C ah i l l ,N . 1 985 , ' Th et r ea su ry a tP e r sepo l i s. . A JA 8 9 ,373- 8 9 . C ame ron , G . 1 94 1 , ' Dar iu sa nd Xe rxe si nB aby lon ' ,A JSL 5 8 ,314-25 . 1 948 ,P e r s epo l i s T r ea su ry T ab l e t s( Ch icago ) . 1 958 , ' P e r sepo l i st r ea su ry t a b le t so ld a nd n ew ' ,JNES 1 7 ,16 1-75 . 1 965 , ' New t e x t sf r om t h eP e r sepo l i st r ea su ry ' , JNES 2 4 ,167-92 . 1 973 , ' The P e r s ian s a t rap ie sa nd r e la ted ma t te r s ' , JNES 3 2 ,47-56 . C a rda sc ia , G . 1 951 ,L e sa r ch iv e sd e Mu rd u ( P a r i s ) . 1 958 , ' L ef i ef d an sl aB aby lon ie A chemen ide ' ,R e c . S o c .B od in 12 ( Bru s se l s ) , 5-88 . 1 977 , ' A rme e e t f i sca l i te d an s l a B aby lon ie a chemen ide ' , i n A rm& e tf i s c a W d an s 1 6 1

CH R IST OPHE R TUPL IN

l em ond ea n t iqu e ( CNRS ,P a r i s ) , 1 10 . C awkwe l l ,G . 1 968 , ' The p owe ro fP e r s ia ' ,A r epo , 1 -5 . C le rmon t -Ganneau , C . 1 921 , ` L e p a rade i so s r oya le a ch8men ide d e S idon ' , B evB ev . B i b l . 3 0 ,106-9 . C on tenau ,G . 1 923 , ' S cu lp ture p rovenan td el av i l le ' , S y r ia 4 ,276-8 . C ook ,J .M . 1 96 1 , ' The p rob lem so fc l a s s ica lI on i a ' , PCPS 1 38 ,917 . 1 983 , T h eP e r s ian Emp i r e ( London ) . Cooke ,G . A . 1 903 , T ex t book o f No r th S em i t i cI n s c r ip t ion s( Oxf o rd ) . C ooney ,J .D . 1 954 , ' The p or tra i t o fa n E gyp t ian c o l labora to r ' , B u l l . B rook lyn Mu s eum 1 5 , 1 16 . C ro s s , F .M . 1 974 , ' The p apyr i a nd t h e i r h i s to r ic a l i mp l ica t ion s ' , i n P . W. & N . L . L app , D i s cove r i e si nt h e Wad i Da l iy eh ( Cambr idge Ma s s . ) . 1 986a , ' S amar ia P apy ru s 1...' ,E r e tz I s ra e l1 8 ,7 *17* . 1 986b , ' An ew A rama ic s t e le f r om T ayma ' ,F e s t s ch r if tJ . F i tzmy e r . D andamayev , M . 1 963 , ' Fo re ign s l ave s o n e s ta te s o fA chaemen id k ing s a nd n ob le s ' , P r o c . XXV m t . C ong . o fO r i en ta l i s t s (Mo scow ) ,I ,1 4754 . 1 967 , ' D ie L ehn sbez iehungen i n B aby lon ien u n te r d en e r s ten Achamen iden ' , F e s t s c h r if tE i l e r s (W ie sbaden ) ,3 7-42 . 1 969a , ' Achaemen id B aby lon ia ' , i n I .D iakonof f , An c i en t Me sopo tam i a ( Mo scow ) , 2 69-311 . 1 969b , De rT empe lzehn te i nB aby lon ien ' ,F e s t s ch r if tA l th e im ( Ber l in ) ,8 2-90 . 1 972 , ` Po l i t i sche u nd w i r t schaf t l iche G e sch ich te ' , i n G . Wa l se r , B e i t räg e z u r A chäm en id eng e s ch i ch t e (W ie sbaden ) , 1 5-58 . 1 975 , ' Fo rced l a bou ri nt h eP e r s ian Emp i re ' ,A l t o r i en t .F o r s chung en 2 ,71-8 . 1 976 , ' Soc ia l s t ra t if ica t ion i n B aby lon ia ...' ,i n J . Ha rma t ta & G . K omo roCzy , W i r t s chaf tu nd G e s e l l s chaf ti ma l t en V o rd e r a s i en ( Budape s t ) ,4 33-44 . 1 977 , ' S ta te a nd T emp le i nB aby lon ia . .' ,i nE .L ip in sk i , S t a t ea nd T emp l eE c onomy i n t h eA n c i en tN ea rE a s t( Leuven ) ,5 89-96 . 1 982 , ' Neo-baby lon ian E lde r s ' , i n S o c i e t i e s a nd L anguag e s o f t h e An c i en t N ea r E a s t [ F e s t sch r if tD iakono f f ] (Wa rm in s te r ) ,3 8 --4 1 . 1 983 , ' On t h ef i ef i nB aby lon ia i nt he e a r ly A chaemen id P e r iod ' ,i nH . Koch & D . N . Mackenz ie , K un s t , K u l tu ru nd G e s ch i ch t ed e rA chämen id enz e i t. . ( Be r l in ) , 5 7-9 . 1 984a , ' Baby lon ia i nt he P e r s ian Age ' , C amb .H i s t .J ud a i sm 1 ,326-42 . 1 984b , ' Roya l p a rad e i so i i n B aby lon ia ' , A c ta I r an i c a , 2e s e r ie ( Hom mage s e to pera M in im :a ) ,v o l .i x (= F e s t sch r if t Duche sne -Gu i l lem in ) ( L iege ) , 13- 1 8 . 1 984c , S l av e ry i nB aby lon ia ( Nor the rn I l ino i s UP ) . D e lapo r te ,L .1 912 ,E p ig r aphe sa r am&n s( Pa r i s ) . D em sky ,A . 1 983 , P e l ekh i n Nehem iah 3 ' , / E J3 3 ,242-4 . D e sca t , R . n .d . , ' I : in sc r ip t ion d e Mne s imache e t l e s y s teme t r ibu ta i re a chem en ide ' , P r o c e ed ing sB o rd eaux c o nf e r en c eo nA na to l ia ( Ap r i l1 986 ) . Donne r ,H . & Rö l l ig , W. 1 963 , K anaana i s ch eu nd a r amä i s ch eI n s ch r if t en I (W ie sbaden ) . Dupon t -Somme r , A . 1 948 , ' Un p apyru sa r ameen d ' epoque s a i te ... ' ,S em i t . 1 ,43- 6 8 . E be l ing ,E .1 952 , ' D ie Rü s tung e i ne sb aby lon i schen P anze r r e i te r s

ZA 5 0 ,203- 1 3 .

E i le r s , W. 1 940 , I r an i s ch eB eam t ennam en i nd e rk e i l s ch r if t l i ch en Ü b e r l i ef e rung ( L e ipz ig ) . E l l i s , M . 1 974 , ' Taxa t ion i na nc ien t Me sopo tam ia . . ' , JCS 2 6 ,2 11-50 . E ph 'a l , I .1 978 , ' The w e s tern m ino r i t ie si nB aby lon ia . O r .n . s .4 7 ,74-90 . 1 982 , T h eA n c i en tA rab s : n omad so nt h eb o rd e r so ft h ef e r t i l ec r e s c en t( Le iden ) . F au th , W. 1 979 , De rk ön ig l iche G ä r tne ru nd J äge ri mP a rade i so s . ..' ,P e r s i ca 8 ,1-54 . F i tzmye r ,J .1 962 , ' The P adua a r ama ic p apyru sl e t te r s ' , JNES 2 1 ,15-24 . 1 62

ACHAE ME N I D AD MI N IST RAT ION

F oucar t , P . 1 885 , ' I n sc r ip t ion sd 'A s ie Mineu re ' , BCH 9 ,387-403 . 1 887 , 1 :exp lo ra t ion d el ap l a ine d el 'He rmu s ' , BCH 1 ,79107 . F re i , P . 1 984 , ` Zen t ra lgewa l tu nd L oka lau tonom ie i mA chämen iden re ich ' , i nP ' F re i&D . Koch , R e i ch t s id e eu nd R e i ch so rgan iza t i on i mP e r s e r r e i ch ( F re ibu rg /Gö t t ingen ) . G a rd in , J . C . & L yonne t , B . 1 978/9 , T ro spec t ion d e l aB ac tr iane o r ien ta le ' , Me sopo t . 1 3/14 ,99154 . G h i r sh man ,R . 1 954 ,I r an ( Harmond swor th ) . G ray son ,A .K . ( 1 975 ) ,A s sy r ian a nd B aby lon ian C h r on i c l e s( New York ) . G reenf ie ld ,J .& P o r ten ,B . 1 982 ,B i su tun I n s c r ip t ion o fD a r iu sI :A rama i cv e r s ion ( London ) . G re lo t ,P . 1 970 , ' E s sa id er e s tau ra t ion d up apyru s AP 2 6 ' , S em i t .2 0 ,22-32 . 1 972 ,D o cumen t sa r aW en sd 'Egyp t e( Pa r i s ) . G r if f i th , F . L I . 1 909 , C a ta l ogu e o f D emo t i c P apy r i i n t h e J ohn R y land s L ib ra ry I I (Manche s te r ) . H a l lock ,R .T . 1 960 , ' An ew l ook a tt h eP e r sepo l i st r ea su ry t a b le t s ' , JNES 1 9 ,90100 . 1 969 ,P e r s epo l i sF o r t if i ca t ion T ab l e t s( Ch icago ) . 1 973 , ' The P e r sepo l i sf o r t if i ca t ion a r ch ive ' , O r .n . s .4 2 ,320-3 . 1 977 , ' The u se o fs e a l s o n t h e P e r sepo l i s f o r t if ica t ion t a b le t s ' , i nM . G ib son & R . D . B igg s , S ea l sa nd S ea l ing si nt h eA n c i en tN ea rE a s t( Ma l ibu ) , 1 27-33 . 1 978 , ' S e lec ted F o r t if ica t ion T ex t s ' , CDAF I8 ,109-36 . 1 985 , ' The e v idence o ft h eP e r sepo l i st a b le t s ' , C amb .H i s t . I r an 2 ,588-609 . Harma t ta ,J .1 97 1 , ' The l i t e ra ry p a t te rn o ft h e B aby lon ian e d ic t o f Cyru s ' , AAAS Hung . 1 9 ,220 f . Henn ing , W. B . 1 968 , T in p e r s i sche r T i te l i m A l ta ramä i schen ' , i nI n Memo r iam P . K ah l e ( Be r l in ) , 1 38 -45 . Her ren schm id t ,C . 1 983 , ' Su rl ac ha r te d ef onda t ion DSaa ' ,R ev . A s sy r . 7 7 ,177-9 . H inz , W. 1 97 1 , ` Achämen id i sche Hof ve rwa l tung ' , ZA 6 1 ,260-3 11 . 1 975 ,N eu e Weg ei mA l tpe r s i s chen (W ie sbaden ) . Hof t i jze r ,J .1 962 , ' En P apy ru sf ragmen ta u sE lH ibeh ' , VT 1 2 ,342-4 . Hornb lowe r , S .1 982 , Mau s o lu s( Oxf o rd ) . Hughe s , G . 1 952 , S a i t eD emo t i cL and L ea s e s( Ch icago ) . 1 984 , ' The s o ca l led P he renda te s Cor re spondence ' , F e s t s ch r if t L üdd e ck en s (Wü rz b u rg ) ,7 5-86 . J e l inkovä -Reymond , E . 1 955 , Ta iemen t d u p re s iden t d e l a Nec ropo le ( P . C a i re 5 0060 ) ' ,B IFAO 5 ,33-55 . J oanne s ,F .1 980 , ' Tex te sn eo-baby lon ien sd eS t ra sbou rg ' , RA 7 4 ,145-69 . 1 982 , T ex t e si c onom ique sd el aB aby l on i er & en t e ( Pa r i s ) . K e i l , J . 1 923 , ' D ie Ku l te L yd ien s ' , i n W. B uck le r & W. C a lde r , A na t o l i an S tud i e s ( Manche s te r ) ,2 39-66 . K le i s s , W. 1 981 , T in Ab schn i t t d e r a chämen id i schen Kön ig s s t ra s se ...' , AM I n .f . 1 4 , 4 5-54 . Koch , H . 1 980 , ' S teue rn i nd e ra chämen id i schen P e r s i s ? ' ZA 7 0 ,105-37 . 1 98 1 , ` Hof scha tzwa r te u nd S cha tzhaü se ri nd e rP e r s i s ' , ZA 7 1 ,232-47 . 1 983 , ' Zu d en L ohnve rhä l tn i s sen d e r D a re io sze i t i n P e r s ien ' , i n H . Koch & D . Mackenz ie , K un s t , K u l tu ru nd G e s ch i ch t ed e rA chäm en id enz e i t( Be r l in ) , 1 9-50 . Kuh r t , A . 1 983 ,' The Cy ru s Cy l inde ra nd A chaemen id i mpe r ia lp o l icy ' ,J SO T2 5 ,83-97 . n .d . , ' Baby lon ia f r om Cy ru s It o Xe rxe s ' , C amb . An c i en tH i s to ry I V 2. Kuh r t , A . & S he rw in - Wh i te , S . f o r thcom ing , ' Xe rxe s ' d e s t ruc t ion o f B aby lon ian t emp le s ' , i n H . S anc i s i - Wee rdenbu rg & A . Kuh r t , A cha em en id H i s t o ry I : t h e G r e ek 1 63

CH R IST OP HER TUPL IN

s o u r c e s ( Le iden ) . L ev ine ,B . 1 972 , ' A rama ic t e x t sf r om P e r sepo l i s ' , JAOS 9 2 ,70-9 . L ew i s ,D .M . 1 977 , S pa r t aa nd P e r s ia ( Le iden ) . 1 984 , ' Po s t sc r ip t ' ,i nA . R . Bu rn ,P e r s ia a nd t h eG r e ek s2 ( London ) , 5 87-609 . L loyd ,A .B . 1 982 , ' The i n sc r ip t ion o f Ud jahor re sne t ' , JEA 6 8 ,166-80 . 1 983 , ' The L a te P e r iod , 6 64-323 B .C . ' , i n B . T r igge r e ta l . , An c i en t E gyp t : as o c i a l h i s t o ry ( Cambr idge ) ,2 79-348 . L u tz , H . 1 928 , ' An a greemen t b e tween a f e uda l l o rd a nd h i s r e ta ine r ...' , UCPSP 9 , 2 69-77 . Ma l in ine , M . 1 967 , Tar tage t e s tamen ta i re d 'un p rop r ie te f am i l ia le ' , R ev . E gyp t . 1 9 , 6 5-85 . Ma l in ine ,M . &P i renne ,H . 1 950 /1 , ' Documen t sj u r id ique se gyp t ien s ' , A HDO 5 ,11-91 . McEwan ,G . 1 983 , ' L a te B aby lon ian K i sh ' , I r aq 4 5 ,117-23 . Meek s ,D . 1 972 ,L eG rand T ex t ed e sD ona t ion sa u T emp l ed 'Edf u ( Ca i ro ) . 1 977 , ' L e s d ona t ion s a ux t emp le s d an s r ügyp t e ' , i nE . L ip i r i sk i , S t a t e a nd T emp l e E c onomy i nt h e An c i en tN ea rE a s t( Leuven ) ,6 05-88 . Meu leau , M . 1 969 , ' Me sopo tam ia u nde rP e r s ian Ru l e ' , i nH . B eng t son , T h e G r e ek sa nd t h e P e r s ian s( London ) ,3 54-85 . M i l ik ,J .T . 1 960 , ` L e t t re a r ameene d 'E lH ibeh ' ,A egyp t .4 0 ,79-8 1 . Moo re ,E .1 939 ,N eobaby l on ian D o cum en t si nt h e U n iv e r s i ty o f Mi ch igan ( Ann A rbo r ) . Na s if ,A . 1 980 , ` Qana t sa ta l 'U la ' ,P SAS 1 0 ,75-80 . Naveh ,J .1 973 , ' The a r ama ic o s t raca ' ,i nY . Aha ron i ,B e e r -Sheba I( Te l Av iv , 1 973 ) ,7 9-82 1 975 , ' The a r ama ic o s t raca f r om T e l A rad ' , i n Y . Aha ron i , A rad I n s c r ip t ion s U e ru sa lem ) . 1 979 , ' The a r ama ic o s t raca f r om T e lB ee r -Sheba ( 1 97 11976 ) ' , T e l Av iv 6 ,182-95 . 1 985 , ' Pub l i shed a nd u npub l i shed a r ama ic o s t raca ' ,r A t iqo t( E .S . ) 1 7 ,114-2 1 . Naveh ,J .& S haked , S .1 973 , ' R i tua lt e x t so rt r ea su ry d ocumen t s ? ' , O r .n . s . 4 2 ,445-57 . Oe l sne r ,J .1 976 , ' Zw i schen Xe rxe su nd A lexande r. . 'WO 8 ,310 18 Oppenhe im ,A .L . 1 945 , ' S tud ie si n Akkad ian L ex icography ' , O r .n . s . 1 4 ,235-4 1 . 1 947 , ' Af i sca lp rac t ice o ft he a nc ien t Nea rE a s t ' , JNES 6 ,116-20 . 1 950 , ' M . F igu l la : Bu s ine s s Documen t s. .' , JCS 4 ,188-95 . 1 985 , ' The B aby lon ian e v idence o fA chaemen id r u le i n Me sopo tam ia ' , C amb . H i s to ry o fI r an 2 ,529-87 . P a rke r ,R .A . 1 96 1 , ' The d u ra t ive t e n se si nP . Ry land sI X ' ,JNES 2 0 ,180-7 . P e t r ie , W. F .1 9 10 , Meydum a nd Memph i s( London ) . P o r ten ,B . 1 968 ,A r ch ive sf r om E l ephan t in e ( Be rke ley ,L o s Ange le s ) . P o r ten ,B . &S zub in ,H . 1 982 , ' Ance s t ra le s ta te si nA rama ic c on t rac t s ' , JRAS , 1 -9 . 1 985 , ' He red i ta ry l e a se si nA rama ic l e t te r s ' , BO 4 2 ,283-8 . P o sene r , G . 1 936 ,L ap r em i& ed om ina t ion p e r s ee nE gyp t e( Ca i ro ) . P o t t s , D . 1 984 , No r th-ea s te rn A rab ia i nt h e l a te p re I s lam ic e r a ' , i nR . B ouchar la t &J . .F . S a l le s , A r ab i e o r i en t a l e , Mi sopo tam i e e tI r an m i r id iona l d a n s r ag e d u f e r a u d e bu t d e l a p& iod ei s l am iqu e( Par i s ) ,8 5114 . Ray ,J .D .n .d . , ' Egyp t( 5 25-404 B .C . ) ' , C amb . A n c i en tH i s to ry 1 72. R ie s , G . 1 976 ,D i eN eubaby l on i s ch en B od enpa ch tf o rmu la r e( Be r l in ) . Roaf ,M . 1 974 , ' The s ub jec tp eop le so nt h eb a se so ft h es t a tue o fD a r iu s ' , CDAF I , 7 3160 . Robe r t ,L .1 948 , ' Hy rcan i s ' ,H e l l en i ca 6 ,616 . 1 949 , ` Dec re td 'une s yngen ie c a r ienne ' ,H e l l en i ca 7 ,63-8 . 1 950 , ' I n sc r ip t ion sc a r ienne s ' ,H e l l en i c a8 ,5-21 . 1 64

ACHAE ME N ID AD M IN IST RAT ION

1 963a , ' Bu l le t in e p ig raph ique ' , BCH 7 6 ,12 1-92 . 1 963b , Nom si n d ig in e sd an sl ' A s i e Min eu r e( Pa r i s ) . 1 975 , ' Une n ouve l le i n sc r ip t ion g recque d eS a rde s ' , CRAI ,3 06-30 . 1 978 , ' Ma led ic t ion sf une ra i re sg recque s ' , CRAI ,2 4 1-89 . 1 982 , ' Documen t sd 'A s i e Mineu re ' , BCH 1 06 ,308-78 . Roebuck , C .D . 1 959 , I o n ian T r ad ea nd C o l on i sa t ion ( New York ) . Roo t ,M . C . K ing a nd K ing sh ip i nA cha em en id A r t( L iege ) . S a l l e s , J . -F . n .d . , ` L e g o lf e a r abo-pe r s ique d u 6 e a u 4 e s i ec le s ' , P r o c e ed ing s A cha emen id Wo rk shop . S an N ico lö ,M . 1 932 , ' P a re rga B aby lon iaca V I-V I I I ' ,A r . O r .4 ,325-48 . 1 941 , ' Be i t räge z u e i ne r P ro sopog raph ie n eubaby lon i schen B eam ten ...' , S B B ay . A k . Wi s s . ( I .2 ) . 1 950 , ' Neubaby lon i sche Urkunden a u sU r ' , O r .n . s . 1 9 ,2 17-32 . S an N ico 16 , M . Ungnad , A . 1 935 , N eubaby lon i s ch e R e ch t s - u nd V e rwa l tung su rkund en ( Be r l in ) . S cho t t ,E . 1 967 , ` E in d a t ie r te Ap i sb ronze ' ,R ev .E gyp t . 1 9 ,88-98 . S e id l ,E . 1 956 ,Ä gyp t i s che R e ch t sg e s ch i ch t ed e rS a i t en -u nd P e r s e rz e i t( G lück s tad t ) . S ega l ,J .B . 1 969 , ' M i sce l l aneou sf r agmen t si nA rama ic ' ,I r aq 3 1 ,170-4 . S ekunda , N . n .d . (a ) , ' P a t te rn s o fP e r s ian a r i s toc ra t ic s e t t lemen ti nt he Da scy le ion s a t rapy ' , i nA . Kuh r t&H . S anc i s i - Wee rdenbu rg , A cha emen id H i s t o ry I I : Me thod o logy a nd T h eo ry ( Le iden ,f o r thcom ing ) . n .d . (b ) , ' Achaemen id c o lon iza t ion i n L yd ia ' , P r o c e ed ing s o f B o rd eaux c o nf e r en c e o n Ana t o l ia ( Ap r i l1 986 ) . S he rw in - Wh i te , S . 1 982 , ' Med ian A r tem i s i n a n e a r ly h e l len i s t ic f une ra ry i n scr ip t ion ' , ZPE 4 9 ,30 . Sm i th ,H . S . & Kuh r t ,A . 1 982 , ' Al e t te rt o af o re ign g ene ra l ' ,J EA 6 8 ,199-209 . S p iege lbe rg , W. 1 9 15 ,D i es o g enann t eD emo t i s ch eC h ron ik ( Le ipz ig ) . 1 928 , Dre i d emo t i sche S ch re iben a u s d e r Kor re spondenz d e s P he renda te s ' , S i tz . P r eu s s .A kad . W i s s .H i s t .-Ph i l .K l . ,6 04-22 . S tern ,E .1 982 , Ma t e r i a lC u l tu r eo ft h eL and o ft h eB i b l ei nt h eP e r s ian P e r i od (Wa rm in s te r ) . 1 984 , ' The P e r s ian c onque s t a nd t he p o l i t ica l a nd s o c ia l h i s tory o fP a le s t ine i n t h e P e r s ian p e r iod ;t h ea r chaeo logy o fP e r s ian P a le s t ine ' ,i nC amb .H i s t .J ud a i sm 1 ,7 0114 . S to lpe r ,M . W. 1 974 , Manag em en ta nd P o l i t i c si nA cha emen id B aby l on ia ( D i s s . Mich igan ) . 1 977 , ' Th ree I r an ian l o an -word s i n l a te B aby lon ian t e x t s ' , i n L . L ev ine ( e d . ) , Moun t a in sa nd L ow land s( Ma l ibu ) ,2 51-66 . 1 984 , ' The Neo-Baby lon ian t ex t f r om t he P e r sepo l i s f o r t if i ca t ion ' , JNES 4 3 , 2 99-3 10 . 1 986 , ' Be l gunu t h es a t rap ' ,F e s t s ch r if tR e in e r( New H aven ) . n .d . , ' The K a s rA rch ive ' ,P r o c e ed ing sA cha emen id Wo rk shop . S t ronach , D . 1 978 ,P a sa rgad a e( Oxf ord ) . S umne r , W. 1 986 , ' Achaemen id s e t t lemen ti nt h eP e r sepo l i sp l a in ' ,A JA 9 0 ,33 -3 1 . Sw igge r s ,P .1 980 ,' No te s u ru np apy ru sa r ameen d 'E lH ibeh ' ,A egyp t .6 0 ,93-5 . T a i t , W. J .1 977 ,P apy r if r om T eb tun i si nE gyp t ian a nd i nG r e ek ( London ) . T ozz i ,P .1 978 ,L aR ivo l ta I o n i ca ( P i sa ) . T re s son ,P .1 93 1 , l as t e le d e Nap le s ' ,B IFAO 3 0 ,369-9 1 . T up l in , C . J .n .d . (a ) , ' The t r ea ty o fB o io t io s ' , i n H . S anc i s i - Wee rdenbu rg & A . Kuh r t , A cha emen id H i s t o ry I : t h eG r e ek s o u r c e s( L e iden ,f o r thcom ing ) . n .d . (b ) , ' P e r s ian g a r r i son s i n Xenophon a nd o the r G reek a nd n on -G reek s ou rce s ' , 1 65

CH R IST OP HE R TUPL IN

AM I( f o r thcom ing ) . V oge l sang , W. 1 985 , ' E a r ly H i s to r ica lA racho s ia . .' ,I A2 0 ,55100 . Vo ig t lande r , E . N . v on 1 978 , T h e B i su tun I n s c r ip t ion o f D a r iu s I : B aby l on ian v e r s ion ( London ) . Wa lke r , C .B . F .1 973 , ' Cune if o rm T ab le t si n. .T ru ro ' ,4 f0 2 4 ,122-7 . Wa l se r , G . 1 966 ,D i e V ö lk e r s chaf t en a uf d e nR e l i ef sv on P e r s epo l i s( Be r l in ) . We i sbe rg ,D . 1 967 , ' A Neobaby lon ian t emp le r epo r t ' , JAOS 8 7 ,812 . Wie sehöf e r ,J .1 980 , ' D ie " F reunde" u nd "Woh l tä t e r" d e sG ro s skön ig s ' , S /9 ,7-21 . Wi ld ,H . 1 954 , ' S ta tue d e Hor -Nef e r ' ,B IFAO 5 4 ,173-219 . Win lock ,H . 1 94 1 , T h e T emp l eo fH ib i si nE lK ha rg eh O a s i s :P a r t IE x cava t ion ( New Yo rk ) . Wi seman , D .J .1 967 , ' Al a te B aby lon ian t r ibu te l i s t ? ' ,B SOAS 3 0 ,495-504 . Y a ron ,Y . 1 96 1 , T h eL aw o ft h eA rama i cP apy r i( Oxf o rd ) . Yoyo t te ,J .1 972 , ` L al o ca l i sa t ion d e Ouenkhem ' ,B IFAO 7 1 , 1 10 . Z adok , R . 1 976a , ' Connec t ion s b e tween I r an a nd B aby lon ia i nt h es i x th c en tu ry ' , I r an 1 4 , 6 1-78 . 1 976b , ' Th ree I r an ian l o an word si nl a te B aby lon ian d ocumen t s ' , BO 3 3 ,5-6 . 1 978 , ' The N ippu r r eg ion d u r ing t h e L a te A s sy r ian , Cha ldaean a nd A chae men ian p e r iod s . .' ,/ OS 8 ,266-332 . 1 979 , T h eJ ew si nB aby l on ia ( Ha if a ) . 1 981/2 , ' I ran ian a nd B aby lon ian No te s ' ,A f0 2 8 ,135-9 . Z auz ich , K .-Th . 1 978 ,P apy r ia u sd e rI n s e lv on E l ephan t in e( Be r l in ) .

AC HAE ME N I D AD M I NIST RAT IO N ADDENDA

p .1 20 : o nt h eK ing ' sE ye s e eC a s s io , CQ n . s .35 ( 1 985 ) ,4 1-2 . p .1 26 : o ns g n 's e en ow J .G reenf ie ld , O r .Su e c .3 3/5 ( 1 984 /6 ) , 1 53 . p .1 36 : o nd wi ni n AD 2s e en ow H . S zub in & B . P o r ten , JNES 4 6 ( 1 987 ) ,3 9-48 .

1 66

THE SY MPOS IASTS M . ACTON ,E sq . , Oxf ord . Mr s .F . ACTON , Oxf ord . D r . KATHER INE AD SHEAD , Un ive r s i ty o fC an te rbu ry , New Z ea land . P rof e s sor A . ANDREWE S , New Co l lege , Oxf ord . D r . R . A SHTON ,L ondon . D r . A . BURNET T ,B r i t i sh Mu seum ,L ondon . P rof e s so rT .V . Bur rREY ,C ambr idge . Mr s .J . CARG ILL THOMP SON ,L ondon . D r . I AN CARRAD ICE ,B r i t i sh Mu seum ,L ondon . G . L . CAWKWELL ,E sq . , Un ive r s i ty Co l lege , Oxf ord . D r .J .J . COULTON , Me r ton Co l lege , Oxf ord . N . M .D E COURCY ,E sq . ,C amb r idge . P rof e s so rJ .K . DAV IE S , Un ive r s i ty o fL ive rpoo l . D r . S .F R IED , New York . N .M . HARDW ICK ,E sq . , Oxf ord . M . R . HAY ,E sq . ,L ondon . G .K .J ENK IN s ,E sq . ,L ondon . D r .A LAN J OHN STON ,L ondon . J ONATHAN H . KAGAN ,E sq . , New Yo rk . D r .P H IL IP K INN S , Newbu ry . Mr s .A .T .L . KUHRT , Un ive r s i ty Co l lege ,L ondon . P rof e s so rD .M .L EW I S , Chr i s t Chu rch , Oxf ord . P rof e s so r HAROLD B . MAT T INGLY , Un ive r s i ty o fL eed s . D r . DAPHNE NA SH , Oxf o rd . M me H . N ICOLET ,B ib l io theque Na t iona le ,P a r i s . D r .M .j E S SOP P R ICE ,B r i t i sh Mu seum ,L ondon . P rof e s so rM . Coo l , RO OT , Oxf ord . D r . N .K . Rur rER , Un ive r s i ty o fE d inbu rgh . D r .T .T .B . RYDER , Un ive r s i ty o f Hu l l . J .S P IER ,E sq . , Oxf ord . P rof e s sor R .A . TOML IN SON , Un ive r s i ty o fB i rm ingham . D r .C .J . TUPL IN , Un ive r s i ty o fL ive rpoo l . M ICHAEL V ICKER S ,E sq . ,A shmo lean Mu seum , Oxf o rd . M i S S UTE WARTENBERG ,H e ide lbe rg . D r . D .J .R . WILL IAM S ,B r i t i sh Mu seum ,L ondon . R .T . WILL IAM S ,E sq . , S tD av id s .

1 6 7