Late quaternary environments of the Soviet Union 9780816612505, 9780816655311, 9780816669493

Table of contents :
Frontmatter
Contributors to This Volume (page ix)
Preface (page xi)
Introduction to the English edition-H. E. Wright, Jr. and C. W. Barnosky (page xiii)
Introduction-A. A. Velichko (page xxiii)
Late Pleistocene Glaciation of the Northern USSR
1. Late Pleistocene Glaciation of European USSR (M. A. Faustova, page 3)
2. Late Pleistocene Glaciation of Western Siberia (S. A. Arkhipov, page 13)
3. Late Pleistocene Glaciation of North-Central Siberia (L. L. Isayeva, page 21)
4. Late Pleistocene Mountain Glaciation in Northeastern USSR (V. G. Bespalyy, page 31)
5. Late Pleistocene Glaciation of the Arctic Shelf, and the Reconstruction of Eurasian Ice Sheets (A. A. Velichko, L. L. Isayeva, V. M. Makeyev, G. G. Matishov, and M. A. Faustova, page 35)
Mountain Glaciation
6. Mountain Glaciation in the USSR in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene (M. A. Faustova, page 45)
7. Late Pleistocene Glacier Regimes and Their Paleoclimatic Significance (I. M. Lebedeva and V. G. Khodakhov, page 55)
Permafrost in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene
8. Dynamics of Late Quaternary Permafrost in Siberia (V. V. Baulin and N. S. Danilova, page 69)
9. Late Pleistocene Permafrost in European USSR (A. A. Velichko and V. P. Nechayev, page 79)
10. Holocene Permafrost in the USSR (V. V. Baulin, Ye. B. Belopukhova, and N. S. Danilova, page 87)
Loesses, Fossil Soils, and Periglacial Formations
11. Periglacial Landscapes of the East European Plain (A. A. Velichko, A. B. Bogucki, T. D. Morozova, V. P. Udartsev, T. A. Khalcheva and A. I. Tsatskin, page 95)
12. Loess Stratigraphy in Southwestern Siberia (I. A. Volkov and V. S. Zykina, page 119)
13. The Loess of Central Asia (A. A. Lazarenko, page 125)
14. Cryogenic Processes in Loess Formation in Central Asia (A. V. Minervin, page 133)
15. Periglacial Landscapes and Loess Accumulation in the Late Pleistocene Arctic and Subarctic (S. V. Tomirdiaro, page 141)
16. Age and History of Accumulation of the "Ice Complex" of the Maritime Lowlands of Yakutiya (T. N. Kaplina and A. V. Lozhkin, page 147)
Vegetational History
17. Late Pleistocene Vegetation History (V. P. Grichuk, page 155)
18. Holocene Vegetation History (N. A. Khotinskiy, page 179)
19. Holocene Peatland Development (M. I. Neustadt, page 201)
Development of Animal Populations
20. Late Pleistocene Mammal Fauna of the Russian Plain (A. K. Markova, page 209)
21. Late Pleistocene Mammal Fauna of Siberia (N. K. Vereshchagin and I. Ye. Kuz'mina, page 219)
22. Late Pleistocene Insects (S. V. Kiselev and V. I. Nazarov, page 223)
Inland Sea Basins
23. Inland Sea Basins (A. L. Chepalyga, page 229)
Paleoclimatic Reconstructions
24. Methods and Results of Late Pleistocene Paleoclimatic Reconstructions (V. P. Grichuk, Ye. Ye. Gurtovaya, E. M. Zelikson, and O. K. Borisova, page 251)
25. Late Pleistocene Spatial Paleoclimatic Reconstructions (A. A. Velichko, page 261)
26. Holocene Paleoclimatic Reconstructions Based on the Zonal Model (S. S. Savina and N. A. Khotinskiy, page 287)
27. Paleoclimatic Reconstructions Based on the Information Statistical Method (V. A. Klimanov, page 297)
28. Holocene Climatic Changes (N. A. Khotinskiy, page 305)
Dispersal of Primitive Cultures
29. Paleolithic Cultures in the Late Pleistocene (N. D. Praslov, page 313)
30. Human Cultures and the Natural Environment in the USSR during the Mesolithic and Neolithic (P. M. Dolukhanov N. A. Khotinskiy, page 319)

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Late Quaternary Environments of the Soviet Union

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Late Quaternary Environments of the Soviet Union A. A. Velichko, Editor

H. E. Wnght, Jr., and C. W. Barnosky, Editors of the English-Language Edition

Translation copyright © 1984 by the University of Minnesota.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. Published by the University of Minnesota Press. 2037 University Avenue Southeast, Minneapolis, MN 55414

Printed in the United States of America. | Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Main entry under title: Late Quaternary environments of the Soviet Union. Translated from Russian Includes bibliography. 1, Geography, Stratigraphic— Quaternary. 2. Paleobiogeography — Soviet Union. 3. Paleoclimatology —

Soviet Union. I. Velichko, Andrei Alekseevich. II. Wright, H. E. (Herbert Edgar), Jr. 1917III. Barnosky, C. W.

QE696.L287 1984 551.7'9°'0947 83-25892 ISBN 0-8166-6949-X

The University of Minnesota is an equal-opportunity educator and employer.

Contents

Contributors to This Volume ix Preface xi

Introduction to the English edition—H. E. Wright, Jr. and C. W. Barnosky xu Introduction— A. A. Velichko xxiii Late Pleistocene Glaciation of the Northern USSR

1. Late Pleistocene Glaciation of European USSR

M. A. Faustova 3 2. Late Pleistocene Glaciation of Western Siberia

S. A. Arkhipov 13 3. Late Pleistocene Glaciation of North-Central Siberia L. L. Isayeva 21 4. Late Pleistocene Mountain Glaciation in Northeastern USSR V. G. Bespalyy 31 5. Late Pleistocene Glaciation of the Arctic Shelf, and the Reconstruction of Eurasian Ice Sheets A. A. Velichko, L. L. Isayeva, V. M. Makeyev, G. G. Matishov, and M. A.

Faustova 35 ,

Mountain Glaciation 6. Mountain Glaciation in the USSR in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene

L. R. Serebryanny 45 7. Late Pleistocene Glacier Regimes and Their Paleoclimatic Significance I. M. Lebedeva and V. G. Khodakhov 55 Permafrost in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene 8. Dynamics of Late Quaternary Permafrost in Siberia

V. V. Baulin and N. S. Danilova 69 9. Late Pleistocene Permafrost in European USSR

| A. A. Velichko and V. P. Nechayev 79

10. Holocene Permafrost in the USSR V. V. Baulin, Ye. B. Belopukhova, and N. S. Danilova 87 Loesses, Fossil Soils, and Periglacial Formations 11. Periglacial Landscapes of the East European Plain

A. A. Velichko, A. B. Bogucki, T. D. Morozova, V. P. Udartsev, T. A. Khalcheva,

and A. I. Tsatskin 95

12. Loess Stratigraphy in Southwestern Siberia ,

I. A. Volkov and V. S. Zykina 119 | |

13. The Loess of Central Asia A. A. Lazarenko 125 14. Cryogenic Processes in Loess Formation in Central Asia A. V. Mimervin 133 15. Periglacial Landscapes and Loess Accumulation in the Late Pleistocene Arctic and Subarctic S. V. Tomirdiaro 141 16. Age and History of Accumulation of the “Ice Complex” of the Maritime Lowlands of Yakutiya

T. N. Kaplina and A. V. Lozhkin 147 Vegetational History

17. Late Pleistocene Vegetation History

V. P. Gnchuk 155 18. Holocene Vegetation History

N, A. Khotinskty 179 19. Holocene Peatland Development M. I. Neustadt 201 Development of Animal Populations 20. Late Pleistocene Mammal Fauna of the Russian Plain

A. K. Markova 209 21. Late Pleistocene Mammal Fauna of Siberia N. K. Vereshchagin and I. Ye. Kuz’mina 219

22. Late Pleistocene Insects | S. V. Kiselev and V. I. Nazarov 223 Inland Sea Basins

23. Inland Sea Basins A. L. Chepalyga 229 Paleoclimatic Reconstructions

24. Methods and Results of Late Pleistocene Paleoclimatic Reconstructions V. P. Grnchuk, Ye. Ye. Gurtovaya, E. M. Zeltkson, and O. K. Borisova 251 25. Late Pleistocene Spatial Paleoclimatic Reconstructions

A. A. Velichko 261

26. Holocene Paleoclimatic Reconstructions Based on the Zonal Method

S. S. Savina and N. A. Khotinskty 287 _ 27. Paleoclimatic Reconstructions Based on the Information Statistical Method | V. A. Klimanov 297 28. Holocene Climatic Changes N. A. Khotinskty 305 Dispersal of Primitive Cultures 29. Paleolithic Cultures in the Late Pleistocene

N. D. Praslov 313 30. Human Cultures and the Natural Environment in the USSR during the Mesolithic and Neolithic

P. M. Dolukhanov and N. A. Khotinskty 319

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Contributors to This Volume

S. A. Arkhipov, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, USSR Academy of Sciences, Siberian Department, Novosibirsk 90 V. V. Baulin, Sccentific Research and Production Institute for Engineering Studies in Building,

Okruzhnoy proyezd 18, Moscow 105058 ,

Ye. B. Belopukhova, Scientific Research and Production Institute for Engineering Studies in Building, Moscow V. G. Bespalyy, North-East Scientific Research Institute, Far-East Scientific Center, USSR Academy of Sciences, Portovaya 16, Magadan 685010 A. B. Bogucki, L’vov Polytechnical Institute, Prospekt Mira 12, L’vov O. K. Borisova, Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences, Staromonetnty per. 29, Moscow 109017

A. L. Chepalyga, Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow | N. S. Danilova, Sczentific Research and Production Institute for Engineering Studies in Building, Moscow

P. M. Dolukhanov, Institute of Archaeology of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Leningrad Department, Dvortsovaya Naberezhnaya 18, Leningrad 41 M. A. Faustova, Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow V. P. Grichuk, Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow Ye. Ye. Gurtovaya, Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow L. L. Isayeva, Instetute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow T. N. Kaplina, Sczentific Research and Production Institute for Engineering Studies in Building, Moscow

T. A. Khalcheva, Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sctences, Moscow V. G. Khodakhov, Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow N. A. Khotinskiy, Insttute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow S. V. Kiselev, Moscow State Unwersity, Geographical Department, Leninsktye Gory, Moscow 117234

V. A. Klimanov, Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow I. Ye. Kuz’mina, Zoological Institute of the USSR Academy of Sctences, Universitetskaya

Naberezhnaya I, Leningrad |

A. A. Lazarenko, Geological Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Pyzhevskty per. 7, Moscow 109017

I. M. Lebedeva, Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow A. V. Lozhkin, North-East Scientific Research Institute, Far-East Scientific Center, USSR Academy of Sciences, Magadan V. M. Makeyev, Arctic and Antarctic Scientific Research Institute, Fontanka 34, Leningrad 192104 A. K. Markova, Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow G. G. Matishov, Murmansk Marine Biological Institute, Kil’skty Department of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Dal’ntye Zelentsy, Murmansk Oblast’ A. V. Minervin, Moscow State Uniwersity, Geological Department, Leninskitye Gory, Moscow 117234

T. D. Morozova, Instetute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sctences, Moscow V. I. Nazarov, Instetute of Geochemistry and Geophysics of the Byelorussian Academy of Sciences, Leninskty Prospekt 68, Minsk 220072 V. P. Nechayev, Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sctences, Moscow M. I. Neustadt, Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow N. D. Praslov, Institute of Archaeology of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Leningrad Department S. S. Savina, Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sctences L. R. Serebryanny, Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow S. V. Tomirdiaro, North-East Scientific Research Institute, Far-East Sctentific Center, USSR Academy of Sciences, Magadan A. I. Tsatskin, Instztute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow V. P. Udartsev, Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow A. A. Velichko, Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow N. K. Vereshchagin, Zoological Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Leningrad I. A. Volkov, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, USSR Academy of Sctences, Siberian Department, Novosibirsk E. M. Zelikson, Institute of Geography, USSR Academy of Sctences, Moscow V. S. Zykina, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, USSR Academy of Sctences, Siberian Department, Novosibirsk

Preface H. E. Wright, Jr, and C. W. Barnosky

The US-USSR Bilateral Agreement on Cooperation in the _ also with the loess deposits and permafrost features of the Field of Environmental Protection, Working Group VIII __ periglacial areas, the complex history of the inland seas, on Quaternary Paleoclimates, called for small conferences the sequence of vegetation, the distribution of mammal of American and Soviet scientists, of which four have been = and insect faunas, the development of human cultures, held. The Soviet delegations were headed by I. P. Gera- —_ and the reconstruction of climatic changes made possible

simov and A. A. Velichko, and the American by John by quantitative estimates based on various lines of eviImbrie and Alan D. Hecht. In order to bring the discus- dence. sions to a wider audience, it was decided to prepare mono- The U.S. National Science Foundation and the U.S. graphs summarizing the recent research results on Late National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration proQuaternary environments in the two countries, for simul- — vided funds for the translation of the Russian manuscript

taneous publication in English and Russian. The two into English. The translations were prepared for publicaAmerican volumes were published in English late in 1983: tion by the present editors, and the edited versions were one on the late Pleistocene edited by S. C. Porter, the — checked by the chapter authors with the assistance of I. I. other on the Holocene edited by H. E. Wright, Jr. Russian § Spasskaya of the Institute of Geography of the USSR Acaeditions of these two volumes are in preparation in Mos- — demy of Sciences. The introduction to this English edition

cow. by the U.S. editors provides a synopsis of the book. They

The present volume on the Late Quaternary of the — express their appreciation to A. A. Velichko, Ye. Ye. GurSoviet Union was prepared in Russian by Soviet specialists tovaya, I. I. Spasskaya, and the Soviet authors for their and edited by A. A. Velichko of the Institute of Geo- cooperation in the preparation of this edition and to Alan graphy of the USSR Academy of Sciences, with the assis- | D. Hecht for assistance in completion of the project. tance of Ye. Ye. Gurtovaya. It covers the time range from

the last interglaciation through the various phases of the H. E. Wright, Jr. last glacation and up to the present time, dealing not only C. W. Barnosky with the history of ice-sheet and mountain glaciation but

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Introduction to the English Edition H. E. Wright, Jr, and C. W. Barnosky

The Soviet Union is a vast and varied land, with an area Soviet research on Quaternary environmental history has larger than that of the United States and Canada com- _ been expanded during the last few decades in association bined, and with an equal diversity in physiography and cli- with the great mineral explorations of Siberia, so that mate. It stretches from the temperate Russian Plain in the something is now known about most of the country, and west across the Ural Mountains to the West Siberian Plain _ the synthesis represented by the present volume is timely. and the arid mountains of Central Asia, and thence tothe Although many more localities must be studied to confirm mountainous Northeast and the oceanic Far East of Kam- _ the postulated correlations from one part of the country to chatka. In the north is the Arctic Ocean, and in the south _—_ another and to fill in the gaps, a broad framework is now the subtropical shores of the Caspian and Black Seas and _ available for evaluation not only by Soviet scientists by also the semi-deserts of Kazakhstan and the Himalayan foot- by others who deal with global environmental history or hills. The vegetation is strictly zonal in its broad aspects in | who wish to compare Late Quaternary events in one half Siberia (east of the Urals). Tundra lies in the north, various of the northern Hemisphere with those in the other. facies of conifer forest (taiga) across the center, and steppe The introduction to the volume by A. A. Velichko proin the south. The temperate broad-leaved forest exists as vides an outline of the formal classification of the Late a wedge coming in from Europe in the west between taiga | Quaternary for the glaciated areas of European USSR and and steppe. The Far East vegetation is distinctive because for Siberia, with a table giving the names of the various

of its oceanic character. glacial, interglacial, and interstadial intervals for different

The broad scope of the country permits the study of sections of the country. It also presents his hypothesis for large-scale natural processes, not only as they are active asymmetry of glacial growth during the last glacial phase today but as they have operated in the past under condi- = (Valdai= Wisconsin) — initial climatic cooling first affected tions of changing climate, and this monograph is con- __ the interior of the landmass in Siberia, initiating glaciation cerned with the geologic record of environmental changes in that area. As cooling increased, glaciation extended from the last interglacial period through the various fluc- | westward into the European sector, whereas Siberia betuations of the last glaciation and up to the present. Be- came too cold for the invasion of moist air masses from the cause these major climatic changes were global, the events west, and glaciers there diminished while permafrost exof the Soviet land can be correlated with those of Western —_ panded over virtually the entire country. The effects of the

Europe, as indicated at least for the last 40,000 years by cold Siberian anticyclone during the glacial maximum radiocarbon dating. Yet the findings in this large area are | were manifested as well by the dominance of loess deposinot simply an extension of those to the west or those of _ tion and by the widespread development of tundra and America, because the configuration of the landmass influ- _ steppe at the expense of forest. enced the extent and style of glaciation, and the secondary This introduction to the English edition provides a syneffects of the ice sheet—such as the spread of proglacial — opsis of the contents of the monograph, with some comlakes— created unique circumstances. The vast size of the | mentary on the scope and emphasis of the research incontinent engendered climatic conditions much more ex- _ volved. The reader is referred to the introductory chapter treme than those in North America, even though the ice by A. A. Velichko and especially to his correlation table to sheets were less extensive. Thus permafrost was much more _ obtain an overall impression of the monograph and to widespread and reached greater depths, and loess deposits keep track of the stratigraphic terminology for different

were thicker. parts of the country.

Xill

XIV , WRIGHT AND BARNOSKY Glaciation Seas, and from there to the Black Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, thereby transecting the continent. The Scandinavian ice sheet reached into the northern patt This major reconstruction, which involves the recogniof the Russian Plain during the last glaciation, subdivided tion of new ice sheets larger than the Scandinavian ice into the Early Valdat and Late Valdai separated by the sheet itself, is controversial, however. Some of the critical Middle Valdai nonglacial interval, which includes several _ land areas east of the Ob’ River provide no firm evidence climatic fluctuations recorded by pollen evidence for alter- for glaciation, and some of the submarine features attrinating tundra and birch-conifer forests (Faustova, chap. _ buted to glaciation may in fact be non-glacial in origin. An 1). The ice sheet near the margin was differentiated into _ alternative reconstruction, favored by Velichko (chap. 5), a number of ice lobes fronted by proglacial lakes, and the —_ proposes separate small ice sheets on the Polar Ural Moun-

eastern portion was confluent with ice from Novaya tains and other highlands as well as on islands and peninZemlya. As the ice sheet began its retreat 16,000 to 15,000 _—sulas projecting onto the Arctic shelf (e.g., Taimyr, years ago, distinct fluctuations of the margins occurredon § Yamal). During the glacial maximum several of these ice the southwestern sector in Western Europe, with push masses merged, and the ice center shifted far enough to moraines and other indications of active ice, but farther the north so that glacial debris was transported south over east on the more continental Russian Plain the marginal _ the mountains to produce the observed directional features deposits were those of stagnant ice. Retreat was more rapid _and frontal moraines. All the ice masses did not link up, after 15,000 years ago, and especially after 12,000 years | however, and the lower Ob’ River was not blocked. ago. The late-glacial Salpausselka moraines of Finland ex- Because of uncertainties about the extent of ice cover in tend eastward into Karelia and the Kola Peninsula, where _ this region, the maps presented show both a maximum ice persisted until about 9500 years ago. The Novaya variant, with almost complete coverage of the Kara Sea Zemlya glacier also broke up about this time. In the West shelf and the adjacent parts of Siberia, and a minimum Siberian Plain in the lower Ob’ and Yenisey River valleys, variant, with largely separate ice masses on uplands and a the last glaciation is similarly subdivided into two glacial less extensive cover on the shelf. phases and an intervening complex interstadial (Arkhipov, Besides the northern ice sheets, extensive Late Pleistochap. 2). The taiga of today was converted to tundra or __cene glaciers occurred in the dozen or so major mountain

tundra-steppe. ranges that fringe the southern and eastern margins of the Farther east in north-central Siberia the Middle Zyr- Soviet Union, ranging from the Carpathians in the southyanka nonglacial interval, dated between 50,000 and — west to the mountains of the extreme northeast (Serebry24,000 yeats ago, is represented by several phases in which — anny, chap. 6). The older geomorphic studies have recenttrees invaded areas that are now tundra, implying warmer _—ly been supplemented by quantitative analyses of the

conditions than today (Isayeva, chap. 3). The Late lithology, mineralogy, fabric, biostratigraphy, and geoZytyanka Glaciation (Sartan, Late Valdat) that followed — chronology of the deposits, especially in the Caucasus, the was centered on different mountain groups and plateausin Pamir, and Tien-Shan.

northeastern Siberia as well (Bespalyy, chap. 4). Periglacial Interpretations of the paleoclimatic sequence in the loess and syngenetic ice-wedge features in alluvium indi- | mountains and the nearby loess areas differ, however, for cate a cold and windy climate. Tundra or forest-tundra ex- | some authors think that the glacial episodes were cold and

tended 1000 km from the ice margin. wet, with conifer forests descending on the mountains, The extent of ice sheets on the Arctic shelf of Eurasia is | whereas others believe they were cold and dry. The rela-

of special interest (Velichko et al., chap. 5). Submarine tions were complicated by continued mountain uplift, mapping through echo sounding, photography, and especially in the Pamir, resulting in progressively drier conbathymetry reveals relief forms that resemble moraine fea- _ ditions. In several areas two phases of glaciation are recog-

tures as well as glacial-erosional trenches similar to those _ nized, interrupted by an interval with higher percentages on the land surface. The Barents Sea shelf probably was _ of tree and shrub pollen than below or above, when steppe not occupied by an independent ice dome merging with __ or desert-steppe prevailed. During the last glaciation the the Scandinavian ice sheet. Rather, small ice capsmay have _ lower treeline descended about 1000 m below its present

occupied islands and plateaus on the shelf, which was position in Tien-Shan. reached by ice lobes from Scandinavia, Spitzbergen, Franz Holocene glacial fluctuations in the mountains have Josef Land, Novaya Zemlya, and other ice sheets, as indi- —_ been studied especially in the Caucasus, where progressive

cated by concentric zones of moraines. retreat is recorded even though the pollen evidence sugSome authors postulate that the Kara Sea shelf was oc- _ gests warmer conditions during the Middle Holocene than cupied by an ice sheet 2500 km in diameter, joined toa _ later. The apparent contradiction may reflect different criBarents Sea ice sheet. It carried glacial debris southward _ tical climatic effects at different elevations, e.g., snowfall across the mountains of northern Siberia and formed may have decreased in the high firn basins, while precipimoraines that dammed the northward flow of the great _ tation increased in the forest belt. Or the seasonal distribuSiberian rivers (Ob’, Yenisey, and Irtysh), producing huge _ tion of precipitation may have changed. There is no evilakes in the West Siberian Lowland that overflowed south- — dence that glaciers disappeared from the High Caucasus ward through the Turgay Hollow to the Aral and Caspian § during the Middle Holocene. Lichen dating suggests 10

INTRODUCTION TO THE ENGLISH EDITION XV episodic movements during the last 700-800 years of ice | Wasatch, the accompanying change in snowfall compen-

_ retreat—thus cycles of about 80 years. sated for only 30% of the change in ablation. In the mountains of Central Asia, major ice advances are The firn-line depression was greater in a temperate reindicated in the earliest Holocene and in the Middle Holo- —_ gion (Wasatch) than in a continental region (Pamir), becene, as well as numerous small advances that interrupted cause the greater snowfall in the former caused the glacier the general retreat. Little Ice Age advances were recorded _ to extend to lower elevations, where summer temperature in the 12th through 13th and the 18th through 19th cen- _—_and ablation are greater and more sensitive to change. The

turies, as in the High Caucasus. effects in a maritime region (Kamchatka) should be even Calculation of former glacier regimes provides a basis for greater, but here the glacier expanded into a large pied-

paleoclimatic reconstructions by Lebedeva and Khodakhov _— mont lobe, and the firn line was not depressed very much.

(chap. 7), who carefully estimated the critical parameters. Another effect of the firn-line depression was the inThe surface profile was assumed to be comparable to that _— crease in run-off, resulting from the decrease in evaporaof a modern glacier. Ablation was determined from the __ tion off the ice-covered surface, as well as from the lower summer air temperature above the ice surface, calculated air temperatures everywhere. Calculations for the Pamir from the normal lapse rate with elevation combined with and the Wasatch indicate an increase by four times. Lake the cooling effect of the ice surface. Calculation of snow Bonneville expanded below the Wasatch Range almost to accumulation was more difficult, especially in the moun- __ the level of the glacier margin. tains, where the orographic effect is dominant. Cooling by

the ice surface decreased the moisture content of the air, Permafrost

but the greater turbulence tends to offset this effect. The proportion of snow to rain increases with altitude. The The dynamics involved in the formation of ice complexes contribution of wind drift and avalanching was also in- can be viewed in recent floodplain alluvium in northern cluded in the calculation. For ice sheets, precipitation in- Siberia, where ground temperatures are lower than — 7°C creased with altitude and thus distance from the margin, | (Baulin and Danilova, chap. 8). The ice complexes of the but ice sheets blocked the passage of cyclones and intensi- _last glacial epoch are larger, however, with ice-wedge polyfied the cooling of the air, so the net result is uncertain. | gons that are thicker (3-5 m), more closely spaced (5 to 10 The mass balance also included a factor for the freezing of | m apart), and covering larger areas. Calculations from the

meltwater and rainwater. dimensions in the complex indicate a mean annual air

The mass-balance equations, after being checked on dif- | temperature of about 10°C below the present. ferent mountain glaciers and the Greenland ice sheet, were Pseudomorphs of ice-wedge polygons formed in conapplied to the reconstruction of the Scandinavian ice | temporaneous alluvium during the Zyryanka Glaciation sheet. With a regional depression of mean annual temper- _— occur as far south as latitude 52°N, those of the Karginskiy ature of 8°C for northwestern Europe during the last major _—Interglaciation latitude 56° to 57°N, and those of the Sar-

period of glacier growth (Late Valdai), snow accumulated tan Glaciation latitude 48° to 49°N. first in the Scandinavian mountains about 35,000 years Calculations based on heat exchange, air-temperature ago. The terminal area on the Russian Plain was reached _ fluctuations, moisture content of the ground, and geotherafter about 17,000 years. Subsequently the air temperature = mal flux indicate that in eastern Siberia the permafrost is

was increased by 5°C or 6°C, and the glacier mass was thawing from beneath at a rate of 1 to 3 cm per year and heated as much as 20°C by the freezing of meltwater and _ that farther west relict permafrost occurs at depths of 50 to the addition of rain. A thinning of 35% may have resulted 150 m and 200 to 400 m. The average annual ground temfrom this warming, in combination with increased flow perature near the surface in the north was — 20°C, comvelocity and thus a final “degradation advance” of the mar- _ pared with — 10°C to — 12°C today.

gin. With further thinning the accumulation area was In the Russian Plain, permafrost thawed completely eliminated, and the degradation became catastrophic, during the Mikulino Interglaciation, and forest covered completing the wastage in a total of 10,000 years. the entire area (Velichko and Nechayev, chap. 9). During The same set of equations was used for the reconstruc- _ the Valdai Glaciation intervals of permafrost development tion of representative Late Pleistocene mountain glaciers in ate recorded by three horizons of polygonal ice pseudothe Caucasus, Kamchatka, the Pamir, and the Wasatch morphs, fine-crack systems, and solifluction and involuMountains (USA). A value was first estimated from inde- __ tion layers in stratigraphic sections of loess and fossil soils. pendent paleo-environmental evidence for the depression The cryogenic structures of the Early Valdai disrupt the inof mean annual air temperature, and the altitude of the _ terstadial soil complexes. The most intense interval of cryoequilibrium line was estimated from end-moraine pat- genesis was the Late Valdai. This started in western Russia terns. Results show that the depression of summer temper- _ with a thin active layer, producing plastic deformation of ature was 9°C for the Wasatch Range, 6°C for the Cauca- _ the buried soil by seasonal freezing over a rigid base of persus, and 3°C for the Pamir and Kamchatka—inversely | mafrost. Then with the drier, more continental climate of proportional to the distance from the “‘cold center” repre- _ the glacial maxima, the active layer thickened and soliflucsented by the ice sheet. The critical factor in the mass bal- _ tion dominated. Farther east the process was mote intenance was ablation and thus summer temperature; for the sive, and fine polygonal cracking occurred. With the final,

xvi WRIGHT AND BARNOSKY more humid phase of Late Valdai loess accumulation, the _ large area. Sand grains are variably rounded by wind abra-

formation of polygonal ice veins was intensified; they sion. formed in moraines and glaciofluvial deposits on the Rus- The Bryansk soil (32,000 to 22,000 yr B.P.), which ts sian Plain as well as in loess, as they do today in areas of _ generally gleyed, has no modern analogues, because of the continuous permafrost where ground temperatures are less | deformation by contemporaneous frost processes. In the than —5°C to —7°C. These veins reached a depth of 5m —_— humus horizon freezing produced rounded aggregates of in the north, or 2.5 m in the south, and the polygons were clay, which had annular microstructure formed by segrega15 to 20 m wide. The volume of ice veins was only 8 to __ tion Ice. 12% of the mass— much less than for contemporaneous Loess II and II, separated by a weak soil, are well-sorted

features in Siberia. and up to 8 m in total thickness, with only slightly weath-

In the Holocene the southern boundary of permafrost ered mineral grains. Sand grains are rounded and dulled, shifted northward by 20° of latitude in the Russian Plain, indicating strong and long-term wind abrasion. Pollen 13° in western Siberia, and 6° in central Siberia, as annual content and remains of fossil mammals indicate tundratemperatures rose by 12 or 13°C, and areas of thawed steppe conditions (as in central Yakutiya today). Ice-wedge ground and thermokarst increased (Baulin et al., chap. | pseudomorphs dated 18,000 to 16,000 years ago and ex10). In the Early Holocene ice-wedge pseudomorphs still tending to latitude 48°N suggest an increase in moisture formed in areas 4° of latitude south of their present limit, | during the final phase of the Late Valdai Glaciation, and but in the Middle Holocene partial melting of permafrost | winter temperatures 20°C lower than today. Late-glacial occutred, with refreezing in the Late Holocene. Ground _(Alleréd) warming resulted in degradation of many icetemperatures were 1°C to 1.5°C higher than at present | wedge systems, which were later revived in the Younger during the warm interval; because of the change of state = Dryas. in the thawing process, the air-temperature change may In southwestern Siberia (Volkov and Zykina, chap. 12) have been 2°C to 3°C. Permafrost thawed to a depth of 50 _eolian features include deflation surfaces with areas of sand m of more, producing depressions in which peat accumu- _— dunes dating from the main Sartan (Late Valdat) Glacialated, although locally permafrost persisted at shallow tion. In the loess areas of the Ob’ River region the Berdsk

depth under the dark taiga. During the Late Holocene soil complex at the base contains two soils separated by a , frost-ctracks and ice wedges formed in the Holocene peat _loesslike layer. The structural and chemical properties of and recent alluvium. Calculations, modeling, and analysis the lower soil are those of a leached chernozem, formed of relict permafrost indicate that between 150 and 200 m _ during the last interglaciation under conditions similar to of Late Pleistocene permafrost thawed during the Holo- _ those of the forest-steppe in the area today. The upper soil cene in areas of permeable sedimentary rocks, and up to _ dates to an interstadial interval within the Early Zyryanka 300 m more in hard rocks. The relict permafrost in the | (Early Valdai) Glaciation. Each soil is modified in its upper Early Holocene had a latitudinal breadth of 700 kminthe part by cryogenic processes. Above a typical loess layer the

Russian Plain and 1200 km in western Siberia. Iskitim soil complex, which also contains two chernozemic soils separated by a loesslike layer, ts dated 33,000 to

7 19,500 years ago with 10 different samples from wood, Loess charcoal, bone, humus, and alluvium. Covering the Iski-

tim soil complex is a widespread loess formed from 19,000 Although loesslike sediments locally originate as alluvium to 14,000 years ago, which grades laterally on slopes to color colluvium, most loess is eolian, as determined by studies _luvial and solifluction deposits. Locally still other thin soils of the physical, mineralogical, and chemical properties of | and loess layers occur. the loess and the loessial soils that are interbedded in stra- In Central Asia (Lazarenko, chap. 13) the loess thickness

tigraphic complexes. reaches 200 m. Key sections in the Tadzhik Depression In the East European Plain most of the Mezin soilcom- _—_ feature the Olduvai paleomagnetic reversal of 1.6 to 1.8 plex represents the Mikulino Interglaciation (Velichko et — million years ago near the base. Nine soil complexes occur al., chap. 11). Regional variations are evident: forest soils | above the Matuyama/Brunhes reversal of 700,000 years and forest-steppe soils extended farther south than they do _ago. Five short reversed phases occur in layers generally less

today, and soil types of Western Europe extended into than 0.2 m thick, of which the Blake double interval Eastern Europe, indicating a less continental climate than (120,000 to 110,000 years ago) and the Laschamp event today, with less severe winters and wetter summets. (about 20,000 years ago) are recognized. The upper loess, The upper part of the Mezin soil complex was deformed — which contains the Laschamp reversal, is correlated with by frost processes and includes some loess. It was modified the post-Bryansk (Late Valdat) loess of the Russian plain. to the chernozemlike Krutitsa soil, formed under steppe | Thermoluminescence dates suggest correlations for older conditions in an Early Valdai interstadial interval, with a _loesses, e.g., the third soil complex (containing the Blake strongly continental climate. The soil was then ctyogeni- _ event) has dates of 115,000 to 130,000 years ago. cally deformed, with frost polygons indicating permafrost The buried soil complexes have at the base a well-devel-

conditions south to latitude 51°N. oped reddish brown profile with a sharp horizon of car-

Loess I (Middle Valdai) is more poorly sorted than the —_ bonate accumulation in disseminated form. Seasonal wetLate Valdai loess and is only 1.5 to 2 m thick over a very __ ting is indicated by micro-ortsteins, coarse structure, lack

INTRODUCTION TO THE ENGLISH EDITION Xvil of clay migrations, and rodent and molluskan faunas. with the adjacent subarctic portions of Eurasia and north Upward in each complex the indications of drier condi- | America supported a permanent anticyclone with cloudless tions increase, e.g., less distinct leaching of carbonate, skies, high summer solar radiation, very cold winters, and fewer signs of waterlogging, and increases in soluble salts, an arctic-steppe vegetation in Beringia (Tomirdiaro, chap. but these stratigraphic trends are less prominent than the _—‘15). The loess cover was broken by massive polygonal ice horizontal changes that occur outward from the moun- __ veins to produce the edoma complex of Yakutiya north of

tains. latitude 72°N, visible especially on the Arctic coast and tsThe loess itself was formed under arid conditions, asin- _—_ lands. Ice content may exceed 90% of the mass to a depth dicated by the high content of carbonate and soluble salts, of 35 m, with vertical ice veins 9 m wide and earth veins the presence of insect larval capsules (which inhibit desic- only 3 m wide. Thawing from the surface results in subsication), and a xerophilic molluskan fauna. Pollen content dence of the ice veins, leaving a microrelief of loess hilimplies birch-pine forests on mountain slopes that are bar- _ locks. ren of trees today, and a rich herbaceous flora in the foot- This arctic or shelf type of edoma represents slowly ac-

hills. cumulated loess containing clay but little sand, deposited Loess accumulation, which was initiated in the valleys under the stable air of a permanent anticyclone. Fine dust and thus reduced the relief, amounted to 1.0 to 1.5m per __ settled on the exposed arctic shelf and perhaps over the 1000 yr in the late Pleistocene. Late Quaternary orogenesis frozen Arctic Ocean. A dust layer of 1 m could be swelled deformed the loess cover to make loess hills. Climatic con- to 20 m by ice segregation. It may have supported the ditions became progressively drier with each soil complex, — steppe vegetation required for the Arctic mammoth.

culminating in the Berdsk complex (Middle Valdai). The subarctic type of edoma, found in the American The long controversy about the desert versus the peri- _ sector and in northeastern Siberia south of latitude 72°N, glacial origin of the loess in Central Asia can be considered consists of frozen sandy stratified loess with narrow synfrom mineralogical studies (Minervin, chap. 14). Loess genetic ice veins, dated to the Sartan Glaciation (Late Valparticles consist of silt-size microaggregates, in which a _ dai). Beneath this is buried woody peat and then loess with core of a primary mineral (e.g., quartz) is surrounded by _a higher ice content and wider ice veins, of Zyryanka age

calcite and a jacket of clay minerals, iron oxides, amor- (Early Valdai). phous silicic acid, finely dispersed quartz, and carbonates. More than 90 radiocarbon dates are available from the Experiments with freezing and thawing can reduce wet _—_ice complexes (Kaplina and Lozhkin, chap. 16). An older mineral fragments to silt and fine sand, but heating and _ice complex (Zyryanka=Early Valdai) was partly thawed cooling of air-dried fragments is ineffective. The process in during two subsequent warm intervals to produce thermoquartz and feldspar crystals involves crushing the thin walls karst depressions in which woody peat or lake sediments of dislocation channels by ice pressure. The breakage pro- — were deposited. Renewed ice accumulation during the Late

duces free-radicals, which cluster and hydrate in water. Valdai built up the surface by 20 m. Thawing began once The amorphous surface layer on the quartz fragments again about 12,000 years ago. reacts with water to form silicic acid, which combines with calcium. Calcite is a further product.

The polymineral jacket on the primary minerals results Vegetation History

when clay minerals adsorb Fe (OH)3, and this in turn adsorbs silica gel and organic matter. Dehydration during = The large number of Late Quaternary pollen records from

freezing and sublimation results in bonding the mineral the Soviet Union allows examination of the vegetation jacket to the primary particles through holes in the calcite during the climatic optimum of the last (Mikulino) interenvelope. Weathering experiments with cold water satur- _ glaciation, the glacial maximum of Late Valdai time, and ated with carbonic acid resulted in a 3 to 15% lossof mass _ the different phases of the Holocene. The coverage of sites and the formation of secondary carbonate and silicate min- _is great, and data are available from all areas except parts

erals and iron and aluminum oxides. of Siberia, Central Asia, the mountainous regions of the Observations on loess formation in semi-desert areas | south, and the Soviet Far East. The source and quality of

showed that silt dust when wetted and then dried produces _ these records vary considerably, inasmuch as pollen assema hard rock (takyr). Freezing then causes expansion andin- —_ blages are described from such different materials as peat

creases the porosity, which is not lost with subsequent — deposits, lake sediments, paleosols, and fluvial sands and thawing. With further freezing and drying the material — gravels. The radiocarbon dates necessary to establish an abresembles typical loess. But generally in this region the silt | solute chronology and thus permit precise correlations is dry rather than moist when freezing temperatures occur, | among sites are often lacking, especially from Pleistocene so that the full transformation to typical loess does not take —_ sites. Some of the Holocene records are well-dated, having place. Apparently the postsedimentation processes of as many as six to 11 radiocarbon dates from wood and orfreezing under severe Pleistocene periglacial climatic con- ganic lake mud i situ. At other sites the age is inferred

ditions are critical in loess formation. from the geologic or geomorphic position of the pollent-

Of particular interest in connection with the distribu- _ ferous sediments, from associated paleontologic remains, tion of loess is the hypothesis that the Arctic Ocean was so __ or from correlation with nearby dated pollen records. thickly frozen that it formed a “climatic dry land,” which In addition to the pollen data, which provide direct in-

XVill WRIGHT AND BARNOSKY formation on the fossil flora, vegetation reconstructions are —-gfotic-cryoxerotic transition) of Late Valdai time is based based on an analysis of phytogeography and community _ on 187 sites and very few radiocarbon dates. Glacial vege-

structure within the modern vegetation. Three types of tation seems to have no exact modern analogue: the periflora ate recognized: migration, orthoselection, and relict glacial areas of the country were covered by a mixture of (Grichuk, chap. 17). Migration floras are typical of the steppe, forest-steppe, and polar desert. Open forests of East European Plain, where Pleistocene glaciation was larch, pine, and birch in combination with steppe and most extensive and plant distributions greatly altered by —_ tundra species extended from eastern Siberia to the perirepeated glacial-interglacial cycles. The composition of the — phery of the Scandinavian ice sheet. In the Far East larch modern migration flora, as well as that of previous inter- _ and_ birch were common trees in an open forest-tundra glaciations, is determined by the location of glacial refugia landscape. Broad-leaved and coniferous trees were mainly and by the rate and direction of postglacial migration. confined to the southern European USSR, the southwestAn example of an orthoselection flora is the pine-birch — ern Ural and southern Altay Mountains, and the Far East. forest of western Siberia, where conditions during each ice = Most of the southern part of the country was covered by age were particularly severe. Unlike the region to the west, —_ poorly characterized Artemisia steppe and semidesert.

occupied by migration floras, this landscape does not offer The great number of sites of Holocene age lends detail large areas that could have served as glacial refugiafortem- —_ to the postglacial reconstruction, and as a result the vegetaperate species. As a result, extinction rather than range ad- _ tion history is more detailed (Khotinskiy, chap. 18). Many justments has been the main process of floristic change, _ sites are radiocarbon-dated (about 700 dates are available and plant communities have become progressively depau- _— for 1000 pollen records), but correlation among sites priperate with each successive glaciation. Long-term pro- marily rests on proper assignment of the Blytt-Sernander cesses, such as the development of continentality in Late | scheme to each record. In this volume the Blytt-Sernander Cenozoic time, have had a greater impact on the develop- _ classification is used to define both chronologic (timement of an orthoselection flora than the repeated glacia- _ parallel) and climatic units, thereby making an assump-

tions of the Pleistocene. tion 4 prior that climatic events were synchronous and that Relict floras are found in the southern Maritime Terri- _ the resulting vegetational response (at least of the local tories, part of the Caucasus, Central Asia, and the south- § component) was immediate across Europe and Asia. ern Baikal region. The fact that these floras show little The scale of vegetation change across the USSR in latechange in Quaternary time suggests a climate of relative glacial and Holocene time is impressive. The late-glacial

stability. vegetation was characterized by very heterogeneous comPollen records are interpreted in terms of the changing munities of tundra, steppe, and forest, most of which have

temperature and moisture conditions that characterize no modern analogue. Birch, pine, and spruce were the each glacial-interglacial cycle. Interglaciations begin with a dominant trees west of the Urals; larch was common to the watm-dry (thermoxerotic) stage, followed by a warm- _ east. In the coastal Far East, tundra and mountain tundra humid (thermohygrotic) phase. The glacial periods exper- _— prevailed. The pollen sequence shows three cool, tundra-

ience a cold-humid (cryohygrotic) stage, then a cold-dry _ like intervals and two intervening warm, more forested (cryoxerotic) stage. Identification of these different stages periods, similar to the climatic oscillations of northern in pollen records across the country is the primary means Europe. Khotinskiy suggests that the cold late-glacial perof correlation. By use of this method, a map constructed _ iods represent times of increased seasonality and decreased from pollen data at 268 sites shows the vegetation at the moisture. thermohygrotic-thermoxerotic transition of the Mikulino After about 10,000 yr B.P. communities began to sort Interglaciation, i.e., the climatic optimum. The intergla- | themselves into more modern associations, and distinct cial patterns bear close resemblance to present vegetation _ latitudinal zones of tundra, forest, and steppe replaced the distributions. Unlike today, however, in Mikulino time previous hyperzonal vegetation. During the Early Holopolar deserts were completely absent, tundra was mote _ cene (the Boreal Period) the coverage of forest was the restricted, and the northern borders of the boreal forest | same as today’s, although treeline extended as much as 200 and broad-leaved forest lay farther north. More subtle km farther north, evidenced by the occurrence of fossil comparisons ate also noted, e.g., birch featured more larch and birch wood dating to this period in the tundra prominently in the boreal than today. Broad-leaved trees of the Taimyr Peninsula. Birch was the dominant tree from and cedar (Pimus sibirica) were common in the southern _—_ eastern European USSR to southwestern Siberia. Spruce boreal forest. White beech (Carpinus betulus) was mote was also widespread, growing in parts of Siberia where it widespread in the southern forests of the eastern European _is not found today, thus indicating humid and less contiPlain. Elm and oak were present in the broad-leaved for- _ nental conditions. In Middle Holocene time (the Atlantic ests of southwestern Siberia, where they do not grow Period), the forest zone expanded dramatically northward today. Forest-steppe occupied much of the area of present- _—_at the expense of tundra. In European USSR the northern

day steppe, and true steppe was confined to the southeas- _limit of boreal forest shifted north as much as 400 to 500

tern East European Plain, Kazakhstan, and the western km from its present position. At the same time broadAltay. Deserts may also have been more restricted, al- _leaved trees, including oak, elm, lime, and hazel, typical though little information is available from those areas. today of the Baltic, Belorussian, and western Ukranian reThe vegetation map for the glacial maximum (cryohy- _— gions, migrated far into the forest zones of middle lati-

INTRODUCTION TO THE ENGLISH EDITION xix tudes, forming a belt of temperate forest in the European _— southern Russian Plain was inhabited by steppe species USSR that was three to four times wider than that of today (including horse, bison, saiga antelope) as well as mamand in places was as much as 1200 to 1300 km wide. Sur- moth and reindeer. Woodland mammals are found at

prisingly, the southern limit of forest was relatively un- most fossil sites, suggesting localized but widespread changed and similar to that of the present day. The vegeta- _ pockets of forest. In Late Valdai time the fauna was more

tional reconstructions of the northern and southern limits heterogeneous. Tundra and steppe species occurred of forest suggest that Middle Holocene temperatures wete together on the Central Plain north of about latitude considerably warmer in the north than they are today, but 50°N. South of that, the remains of periglacial, steppe,

that there was little or no change in the south. and woodland mammals are found, but the woodland A series of short-term climatic fluctuations is inferred types (for example, brown bear, boar, beaver, wood vole, © between 6400 and 3200 yr B.P., bringing to an end the = wood mouse) are usually confined to riparian sites. NorthMiddle Holocene thermal maximum in the Soviet Union. ern animals apparently ranged as far south as the Crimea, By Late Holocene time (late Subboreal Period) the forest/ | and southern forms penetrated farther north than they do tundra border had shifted southward 400 to 500 kilo- today. Reindeer is the most common fossil of this period, meters in some areas. The modern spruce taiga, which in- | and its remains are abundant across the entire Central cludes pine and birch in the western and central parts and _—Plain, the Black Sea, and the Crimea. The early disappearpine, larch, and birch in the east, became the dominant _ance of large animals like the mammoth and woolly rhinovegetation type. Broad-leaved trees were only minor ele- —_ ceros in Crimean faunas is attributed to Paleolithic hunments of the coniferous forests, much restricted from their __ ters.

Middle Holocene distribution. Particularly noteworthy is Markova (chap. 20) uses the modern distribution of the decline of elm in Soviet forests at 4600 yr B.P., coin- | small mammals with limited range and distinct ecology to ciding with its demise in northern Europe. The elm fall is | make inferences about the past climate of the Central Rusattributed to climatic cooling at the end of the Atlantic sian Plain. The mammal data suggest that the full-glacial Period, rather than to forest clearance by humans or to __ climate was cooler, drier, and more seasonal than that of widespread disease, which are offered as alternative hypo- today, which corroborates other evidence for enhanced theses farther west. The establishment of cooler conditions —_continentality in Late Valdai time. An analysis of contemduring the “Little Ice Age” is inferred in Subatlantic time poraneous Siberian faunas corroborates these climatic by the expansion of birch-pine forest at the expense of interpretations, although faunal differences were main-

spruce. tained between eastern and western Siberia despite the

Peatlands developed during the Holocene over vast parts widespread cold conditions (Vereshchagin and Kuz’mina, of northern European USSR, western and central Siberia, | chap. 21). The most distinctive glacial-age assemblages are and the Far East (Neustadt, chap. 19). In western Siberia reported in the Far East and include raccoon dog, badger, sevetal stages are distinguished in peatland formation, be- _ otter, tiger, horse, wild boar, and Manchurian hare. The ginning with the formation of numerous lake basins in | mammalian diversity of the region probably resulted from

late-glacial time. These basins were filled with peat and faunal exchange with the Indo-Malayan region to the merged into several large peatlands in Early and Middle south. Holocene time, and in Late Holocene time they coalesced Insect faunas from Late Pleistocene sediments of Siberia into the vast peat areas of today, some of which cover (Kiselev and Nazarov, chap. 22) yield paleoclimatic infor500,000 km*. The development of peatlands seems to be —s mation similar to that derived from the mammal records. independent of the many climatic fluctuations inferred § The interglacial faunas are very similar to those of today

from the pollen data in Chapter 18. and seem to reflect an environment like the present. Dur-

ing Valdai time the insect assemblages suggest widespread

open landscapes, but as with the interpretation of the

Fauna small-mammal data, provincial differences between east-

ern and western Siberian insects were maintained to some Most of the Late Quaternary vertebrate remains are asso- _—_ degree. ciated with archaeological sites (Markova, chap. 20). Inter-

glacial faunas, dated by their association with late Acheu- Inland Sea Basins

lian artifacts, are reported from the Central Russian Plain and the Caucasus. Much of the fauna, especially the small Bordering the Soviet Union in basins or on marine shelves mammals, bears close affinity with modern types, and fos- are marginal seas that today have wide connections to the sil mammals indicative of forest, steppe, and forest-steppe oceans, but during the times of eustatic sea-level depresare recovered in sites within those environments today. sion some of them were much more constricted, e.g., Sea Thus, the biogeographic distribution of interglacial and —_ of Japan (Chepalyga, chap. 23). In addition, semi-isolated postglacial mammals is probably very similar. In Early and _ basins like the Black Sea and the Baltic and White Seas Middle Valdai time the mammalian faunal complex, con- _ have limited connections to the ocean but in the past may sisting of mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, reindeer, polar have been completely isolated. Finally, fully isolated bafox, and pied lemming, was widespread over the Russian _ sins like the Caspian Sea fluctuated in level and in salinity

Plain and extended into the Crimea and Caucasus. The _ in response to climatic change and the input of glacial

xx WRIGHT AND BARNOSKY meltwaters. The records of these changes consist primarily The Caspian Sea transgressed in the Late Valdai to be of former strandlines and of fossils sensitive to ecological 1.5 times its present size and 28 m deeper, but with a sa-

conditions. linity similar to that of the present and a cooler temperaDuring the Mikulino Interglaciation the Black Sea was __ ture, with '8O values in mollusks suggesting inflow of gla-

a marine basin connected to the Mediterranean Sea, and cial meltwater. its level was 8 to 12 m higher than it is today. It was slight- With the lower ocean level during the Late Valdai Glaly larger and of similar salinity. Its surface waters were ciation, the Sea of Japan was transformed to a semi-isowarmer, and the deep waters were charged with hydrogen _lated basin with a restricted outlet and water temperature sulfide. At the same time the Caspian Sea was a closed 8°C to 10°C lower than today’s. Decreased salinity and basin with brackish water. Its level was above the present | temperature and increased incidence of berg-rafted partilevel, because the Mikulino climate was more humid than cles in the north are attributed to inflow from the Amur that of the present even though it was warmer, asindicated and other rivers.

by pollen studies in the region. During the Holocene sea level rose again and the Black

In the north during the Mikulino Interglaciation the | Sea once more received Mediterranean waters. Its level Arctic seas flooded the previously glaciated areas around _ transgressed to 3 to 5 m above the present in the Middle the White Sea and up the valleys, providing connections Holocene, but it has lowered in the last 3500 years, with to the Baltic Sea and the North Sea. Farther east in north- = minor fluctuations. The Caspian Sea level dropped in the ern Siberia it covered an area 1400 km from north to south —_ Early Holocene as the climate became drier, but it rose in and 1900 km from west to east. A large and varied marine —_ the Middle Holocene to its present level. The Sea of Japan fauna of boreal species indicates that the Gulf Stream — expanded with the postglacial rise in ocean level, and in penetrated far to the east; in addition, two species came __ the Middle Holocene the surface-water temperatures were in from the Bering Sea. The fauna suggests that the water as much as 3°C to 4°C warmer than they are today. temperatures were 2°C to 4°C warmer than today and that In the Baltic basin a series of disconnected proglacial

most of the sea did not freeze. lakes was joined to make the Baltic Ice Lake about 12,000

In the Early Valdai the level of the Black Sea was years ago, draining to the North Sea across Sweden. As the lowered to more than 100 m below modern sea level, in _ice retreated and sea level rose, the basin became flooded response to eustatic depression of sea level. The Straits of | to make the Yoldia Sea 10,500 to 9000 years ago. With Bosphorus were dry, and the Black Sea became isolated, as _ isostatic uplift of the outlet the sea was excluded and Lake is the Caspian Sea today. Salinity is estimated as 5 to 10%» = Ancylus succeeded. With further rise in sea level, Denunder conditions of a cold climate marked by periglacial mark Straits were opened and the matine waters once

steppes and coniferous forest. again came into the Baltic basin to make the Littorina Sea,

The Caspian Sea at this time (about 60,000 years ago), | whose strandline has subsequently been tilted by continon the other hand, rose to 76 m above its present level, _ ued isostatic uplift. A final regression to the Limnaea Sea and it was 2.5 times its modern size. It overflowed through _— involved further freshening of the water. the Manych Strait into the Black Sea. Subsequently it lowered through several stillstands to 4 to 6 m above the

present level by the end of the Early Valdai. This major Paleoclimatic Reconstructions transgression is attributed to reduced evaporation through-

out the drainage basin, resulting in increased input from A variety of methods that yield paleoclimatic estimates the Volga River. The salinity at this tme was 12 to 13 %o0, ~~ and information on past circulation systems are presented

as indicated by mollusk remains, and the water tempera- _in the next part of the volume. One method considers the ture was low, perhaps because of the influx of glacial melt- | modern distributions of specific plants (or groups of watets, as suggested by 6 ‘80 values of —12 to —14.5%o. plants) that occur together in the fossil record and relates In the Middle Valdai interstade the Black Sea trans- them to the climatic parameters that delimit their distrigressed to neat its present level, and its salinity was similar. _ bution today (Grichuk et al., chap. 24). Climagrams proThe Caspian Sea dropped to a low level because of warmer _ vide a graphic means of displaying the climatic values that

climatic conditions. The Arctic seas transgressed the North — citcumscribe the modern ranges of the fossil taxa. The Siberian Lowland, and the fauna indicates warmer water values where the ranges overlap are inferred to be the con-

temperatures than today. ditions responsible for sympatry of species in the past. This In the Late Valdai, the lowered sea level in the world method of paleoclimatic reconstruction works best in areas ocean caused the Black Sea level to drop once again, iso- of migration floras, where most of the species are present

lating it from the Mediterranean marine waters. The water _—in successive interglacial floras. Orthoselection floras are | was freshened by the inflow of glacial meltwater from the _less suitable because the modern flora is usually more denorth and by the reduced evaporation under conditions of | pauperate than that of previous interglaciations, and the a cool periglacial climate, and the basin apparently had an _—climagrams therefore utilize fewer taxa. The area of clioutlet through the Bosphorus, which has since been par- = matic overlap (shown by the climagram) for an orthoselectially filled with alluvium. The water was cool and not _ tion flora is usually greater and less precise than it would

chemically stratified. be if the flora were more diverse. The method does not

INTRODUCTION TO THE ENGLISH EDITION XxI work for relict floras, for they occur in areas of relative cli- southwestern zone of permafrost. Winters in Siberia were matic stability that have changed little in Quaternary time. also more severe than today, with temperatures dropping Climagrams were used to reconstruct climate at 25 sites to —70°C or —80°C in the arctic regions. The greatest of the Mikulino Interglaciation and seven of the Late Val- change in summer temperature occurred in the western dai Glaciation. The number of sites in this analysis as well | and southwestern USSR as well, contributing to the formaas the number of radiocarbon dates used to establish the tion of the Scandinavian ice sheet and the vast periglacial chronology is small. However, the sites typify a wide geo- _ region there. By contrast, summer temperatures in southgraphic region and are correlated on the basis of their geo- ern and central Siberia changed little from present values. logic position and pollen stratigraphy. The reconstruction Central Asia was cold and particularly dry at the glacial of full-glacial conditions between 20,000 and 18,000 yr = maximum as a result of the blocking effect of high-presB.P. is very tentative, for it depends on various kinds of sure systems on westerly sources of moisture. In the Far sites and almost no radiometric dates. One of the records, _—_ East the climate continued to be monsoonal, but less precithe Pucha section, lies within the limits of the last glacia- pitation was brought in from the Pacific Ocean with the tion and is dated to 21,410 yr B.P.; several other sites are reduced contrast between land and sea-surface temperainferred to be full-glacial on the basis of their pollen rec- _ tures.

ord; and still another site (Khotylevo II) is associated with An interesting feature of the summer climate in the archaeological remains, and the pollen may reflect local | western USSR was the creation of the “glacial monsoon”

disturbance rather than regional vegetation. from the juxtaposition of a cold high-pressure area over the Velichko (chap. 25) uses the climatic estimates pre- ice sheet and a warmer low-pressure system to the south. sented in Chapter 24 and earlier chapters to develop spa- Cold air descending southward off the ice sheet was adiatial climatic reconstructions for interglacial and full-glacial — batically warmed and dried over the periglacial region. time. Today the climate of the European USSR, which is During winter, dust transported by the glacial monsoons the area of migration floras, is dominated by low-pressure in summer settled out of the atmosphere and led to the systems in the North Atlantic Ocean. Western Siberia, formation of loess deposits on the Russian Plain. which is marked by an orthoselection flora, is governed by A second approach used to reconstruct Holocene climacontinental air masses. The relict flora of the Soviet Far tic history utilizes the relationship of vegetation zones and East is under the influence of monsoonal systems, which climatic parameters (Savina and Khotinskiy, chap. 26). result from an interplay between maritime Pacificandcon- | This apptoach assumes that the modern vegetation of the

tinental Siberian air masses. Soviet Union is delimited by specific climatic parameters During the Mikulino Interglaciation, circulation was la- (of extreme and average conditions) and that this relation-

titudinal, much as it is today, but seasonality was de- ship was unchanged through Holocene time. It also ascreased as a result of warmer winters, especially in the east- | sumes that these vegetation zones have a long history, ern Arctic. Temperatures south of latitude 50°N were the — which can be identified by pollen analysis, and that reasame or slightly cooler than those of today; precipitation sonably good analogues exist for the fossil reconstructions. was apparently higher and more uniformly distributed By use of this method, the sums of air temperatures, mean across the country. The climatic record implies that west- | January and July temperatures, humidity, and evaporation erly air masses from the Atlantic brought storms to the _ factors for different periods of the Holocene are estimated. European USSR, both in summer and in winter. Greater The results for the Boreal Period support the qualitative activity in the Atlantic, produced by a northward shift in —_ reconstruction from pollen data: compared with present the Gulf Stream, apparently allowed moisture to penetrate —_ conditions, January temperatures were lower in the Euro-

farther inland and to higher latitudes. pean USSR and higher in the Asian part. July temperaThe reconstruction of full-glacial conditions in Late Val- —_ tures show almost no change.

dai time is based on limited pollen data, but paleocryo- Klimanov (chap. 27) uses multivariate statistical techlogic data, fossil insects, and fossil mammals are also con- _— niques to make climatic inferences directly from pollen

sidered. The lack of modern analogues for many of the data, thus bypassing uncertainties associated with the biological assemblages owes its explanation to the fact that vegetational reconstructions. The statistical information meridional circulation patterns replaced the present latitu- method, which establishes an empirical relationship bedinal or zonal condition. This situation arose with the tween contemporary pollen and climate variables, is apsouthward shift of the Gulf Stream, which diminished the _ plied to the fossil pollen data to determine the best estiinfluence of the Icelandic Low and reduced the penetra- mate of past climate. The inferred climate during the tion of westerly storms in winter. Over much of the Soviet Atlantic Period indicates that the greatest rise in July Union the winter climate was controlled by a large high- | temperatures occurred at high latitudes, whereas at low pressure system, which formed from acoalescence of Polar, latitudes temperature changes were negligible. January Siberian, Central Asian, and Scandinavian anticyclones. temperatures decreased from west to east. Synoptic reconThe effect was to bring very low temperatures, dry condi- _ structions of the Atlantic Period suggest that the Gulf tions, and little cloud cover to most of the country. The Stream was more active in the North Atlantic and that the greatest decrease in winter temperatures is registered inthe | Siberian High was less active. Khotinskty (chap. 28) sugNorthwest near the Scandinavian ice sheet and in the gests that the climate of the Holocene is no different from

XX WRIGHT AND BARNOSKY that of other interglaciations because it shows a cyclicity of | change, and, with diversified resources, human cultures warm-moist and warm-dry events. The Early and Middle also changed. Mesolithic cultures date between 10,000 and Holocene represent the thermohygrotic and thermoxerotic 6000 yr B.P. in the forest zone and between 10,000 and stages, whereas the Late Holocene may be the beginning 8000 yr B.P. in the southern part (Dolukhanov and Khoof the cryohygrotic stage and the onset of the next glacia- _—_ tinskiy, chap. 30). The sites are dated largely by typology

tion. and distributed unevenly across the entire country. In most regions hunting, fishing, and gathering were the primary Human Cultures economies.

Neolithic sites, ranging in age from 7000 to 4000 yr The migration of early peoples into the Soviet Union was _B.P., are abundant, a fact that must reflect the increased sporadic, and the level of cultural development depended _ population density of that time. The diversification of the largely on the available resources (Praslov, chap. 29). The —_ landscape is evidenced by the great difference in the econoldest evidence of early Paleolithic people is found in cave = omies of different regions. Domestication of plants and and open-air sites in the Caucasus, southern Russian Plain, development of agriculture are first recorded at this time, Transcarpathia, Central Asia, and Kazakhstan. This distri- | with the center of cultivation located in the foothills of bution of sites suggests that humans did not inhabit areas Central Asia, Transcaucasis, and the Carpathian Mounnorth of latitude 48°N in either the Early or the Middle tains. In the forest zones foraging economies continued to

Pleistocene. With the warmer conditions of the Mikulino dominate. |

Interglaciation, the area of human occupation was ex- The Bronze Age developed in the Late Holocene about tended as far north as latitude 54°N, and by the last gla- 3000 yr B.P. It was recorded by a decline in agriculture and ciation it occupied much of northern Asia up to latitude —_an increase in nomadic pastoralism, although the correla71°N. Late Paleolithic peoples were apparently able to tion with vegetational changes inferred from the pollen adapt to the cold, dry glacial landscapes as a result of the records of this time is uncertain. Deforestation of the landdevelopment of hearth and dwelling structures and new = scape by human activity occurred relatively late in the techniques in splitting stone. Unfortunately, many of the | USSR. The Central Russian Plain was first deforested late Paleolithic sites in northeastern USSR, which would about 200 to 300 years ago, and other northerly regions provide information on the migration of early humans into show the effects of humans more recently. While environwestern Beringia, are still controversial in both their age mental change had a strong impact in shaping human cul-

and stratigraphic context. tures, human impact on the natural environment has been The Early Holocene was a time of great environmental _ negligible until very recently.

Introduction A. A. Velichko

The preparation of monographs dealing with the evolution —_ are made on the basis of several methods (lithostratigraph-

of the natural environment of the USSR and USA reflects ic, paleontologic, and radioisotopic). For the last Late an important stage in joint Soviet-American research on Pleistocene macrocycle (at least its second half), as well as problems in paleoclimatology, carried out in accordance — for the Holocene macrocycle, such interregional correlawith the plans for the implementation of the Agreement _ tions are the most reliable because of the accuracy of the between the USSR and USA on Cooperation in the Area _—_ radiocarbon method of absolute-age determination, al-

of Environmental Changes on Climate. Director of the re- | though the probability of errors must be considered. seatch being done in the Soviet Union is Academician I. _— Nevertheless, the availability of data and the reliability of

P. Gerasimov. correlations are very much greater for the last stage than for

The Soviet Union occupies a considerable portion of ex- older stages, and the paleogeographic reconstructions and tratropical Eurasia, and its territory is traversed by practi- paleoclimatic models are more reliable. cally all natural extratropical climatic belts. This accounts In general outline it 1s possible to compare the events in for the development of a wide range of zonal landscape — most of the USSR, as is evident from Table I-1, although types, with a complex system of local differences, and it | a good many problems exist in the correlation of natural Opens up extensive possibilities for studying large-scale | events as well as in the paleogeographic reconstructions natural changes as well as the reactions of the naturalcom- _ themselves. I will briefly describe the relationship of the ponents in different geographic zones to marked fluctua- = main phases of development in the Late Pleistocene and

tions of climate. then turn to some of the unsolved problems.

This monograph examines the natural changes that have Most agreement among the investigators exists for the taken place during the last 100,000 to 125,000 years. Such _—interglacial stage that marks the beginning of the last ma-

a chronologic range is of fundamental importance, for it crocycle. In the European part of the USSR, this interglacovers completely the last climatic macrocycle and the start _— ciation is most often referred to as the Mikulino; in Siberof a new one, of which the present isa part. The last clima- _ ia, it is referred to as the Kazantsevskoye Interglaciation.

tic macrocycle of the Late Pleistocene in the USSR, as in Characteristic of that time was a general increase in forest other extratropical regions, includes two principal com- _ cover and in availability of heat and moisture, especially in ponents: a warm interglacial stage and a cold glacial stage. | the West. Moisture supply was also greater in areas occuMacrocycles similar to the last constitute the principal sta- pied by present steppe. On the whole, however, the zonal ble component of macroscale global fluctuations of cli- structure was similar to the present one.

mate, at least they have during the last million years. The subdivision of the subsequent glacial epoch is not Interpretation of the characteristics of natural climatic uniform in different regions. In the European part of the changes in the course of such a macrocycle will undoubted- — USSR, this epoch is called the Valdai, which is subdivided ly aid the investigation of the general principles of long- —_ into the Early Valdai and Late Valdai Glaciations, sepa-

term climatic fluctuation on the Earth, and the study of rated by the Middle Valdai interval. Most researchers conthe present climate from an evolutionary viewpoint will sider the latter interval to be primarily a cool but climatipermit a clearer prediction of future natural trends. cally nonuniform megainterstade, although some believe One of the main problems that arises in interregional __ it to be of interglacial character. In the view of most invespaleogeographic reconstructions is the correlation of natu- _tigators, the Late Valdai Glaciation was the more wideral events in time. It is well known that such correlations spread, whereas the Early Valdai ice sheet did not extend XXiil

XXIV VELICHKO Table I-1.

Glacial Regions (N. S. Chebotareva, I. | Periglacial Regions—Loesses and Soils, j Arctic Basin (V. I. Black Sea Caspian Sea A. Danilova-Makarycheva, M. A. Cryogenic Horizons (A. A. Velichko) Gudina and S. L. (A. L. Chepalyga) (G. I. Rychagov)

Faustova, L. N. Voznyachuk, and Troitskiy) . others) Salpausselka

c | Palivere ‘S| Alleréd

7G Bolling Novoevksin Late Khvalyn 7>| Raunis warming Gleying level semifreshwater brackish-water advance basin ve| Vepsovo | Warming —100. basin, to —40 m +0 m ‘= | Middle Dryas

* Luga and Neva advances Loess II (Altynovo) | Yaroslavl’ Regression regression transgression | Maximum stage and beginning of | Loess II (Desna) Vladimir degradation (Yedrovo stage)

-A.— —— —— Dunayevo warming Bryansk interval

-‘$ _§ . (soil) to Surozh transgression Yenotayevka 25,000 yr30,000 B.P. Karginskiy

Ss “hb” o:

G Ms I (Khotyleva) transgression basin, regression, = Loess | Warming and cooling sea semimarine basin -10m —50 to -60

3 Smolensk phase (only in Siberia)

m

e Upper Volga warming Z, | Cooling

Krutitsa warming Krutitsa interval (soil)

7% rs} Smolensk phase basin, +48 m = & A= “a” SO 3

Kurgolovo cooling and glaciation Intra-Mezin loess Regression Pre-Surozh regression Early Khvalyn 3 within theShield confines=ofbasin, the ne — semifreshwater transgression =§ Baltic 100 m brackish-water =

= +10m basin § +8to —10to —15m 3 Mikulino Mikulino Interglacial Boreal transgression | Karangat trans- Late Khazar

& Interglacial soil gression sea basin brackish-water

‘pe

v &

much beyond Scandinavia. However, there are schemes in (Dunayevo) warming is also distinguished for the period which the dimensions of the two are considered equiva- 30,000 to 25,000 years ago. It is also possible that the

lent. warming of about 50,000 years ago corresponds to the _ Somewhat different interpretations have been proposed _—_ Krutitska (Upper Volga) Interstade in the European part of

for the glacial regions of Siberia, although there as well =the USSR. two glacial epochs separated by a nonglacial one are distin- In contrast to the European part of the USSR, for Siberguished within the Late Pleistocene. Each glacial epoch is ia, according to the opinion of most investigators, the considered independent in this case. The earlier one is | maximum ice extent was during the Late Pleistocene (Zyrcalled the Zyryanka, and the later, the Sartan (although in —syanka) glaciation, and that during the Sartan Glaciation some of the latest schemes the entire Late Pleistocene is the ice occupied a more modest area. Even smaller was the termed the Zyryanka). There are also independent region- _ Late Pleistocene glaciation in northeastern Asia, where it al names for individual glacial stages, as described in the —_ was restricted to mountainous areas.

corresponding sections of this monograph. It is possible that the indicated differences in the degree The interval separating the Zyryanka and Sartan Glacia- | of contemporaneous glacial development in Siberia and tions has been regarded for a long time as the climatically | eastern Europe are real. On the whole, the differences are complex Karga Interglaciation, approximately 50,000 to — explained by the theory of metachronicity of glaciation 25,000 yeats ago. Such an approach offers better prospects | (Gerasimov and Markov, 1939). This theory calls for reduc- , for correlation with the European part, where the Bryansk _ tion in glacial extent from west to east in the USSR because

INTRODUCTION _ XXV Correlation of Late Quaternary Glacial and Interglacial Events in the USSR

g q:

Western Siberia Central Siberia Northeast USSR

Glacial Regions Periglacial } Glacial Regions (L. L. Isayeva) Glaciations (V. G. Loessial-Glacial Loesses and Soils

Volkov) Kaplina and A. V.

(S. A. Arkhipov) Regions (I. A. Bespalyy) Complex (T. N. (A. A. Lazarenko) Lozhkin)

Cc

£ Polar Ural phase Bagan loess Noril’sk (north Taimyr Sartan (Bokhapcha Mus-Khaya cooling

zs Suma subcomplex Melkolamskiy) phase II, Iskaten’,

& c | N'yapan (Mokoritto, Upper Khaymikin) ~ Sopkevskiy phase Yel'tsovka loess ‘€ Taimyr) phase mountain-valley Formation of

warming (?) ‘= | Karaul (Ezhangodosyntabul’skiy- glaciation loessial-glacial 3S Tyuteyskiy Salekhard-Uval phase North Kokora) phase complex

> WwW

N ¥

aa

°

= Karginskiy warming Iskitim soil complex, | ¢ Lipovsko-Novoselovskiy Kuranakh-Salin é S 29,000 to 25,000 yr B.P. 32,000 to 24,000 -g warming, 30,000 to 24,000 warming (30,000

aS 2Lokhpodgort Glaciation yt B.P. -< yt B.P. to 24,000 yr B.P.) Zolotoy Mys warming | Tula loess ~ | Konoshchel’skiy cooling Formation of Soil complex 1

§ S Cooling, 45,000-44,000 yr B.P.| Upper soil of Berdsk | & (Zhigansk glacial complex, Karginskiy loessial-glacial

c = a | Shuryshkary warming 50,000 soil complex = 33,000 to 30,000 yr B.P.) (Penzhina) Inter- complex (34,000

oO Ss oo| (55,000) 45,000 yr B.P. = . glaciation to 30,000 yr B.P.) Ng ¢ Malaya to Kheta warming (interstade?) KhomusYurmkhskiy

E 5 8v eEarly Early cooling | warming wus warming

>a

=.oa

=oO Tylkhoy) cwT mountain-valley > 4& and submontane gS glaciation

s‘§Khoshgort stage Loess < | Murukta stage Zyryanka Formation of Loess Interstade Cryogenesis phase © | Interstade (Bokhapcha I, loessial-glacial

3 Kormuzhikhantskiy stage S Lowever Tunguska stage Vankarem, complex Soil complex 2

a

Loess

Kazantsevo Lower soil of Kazantsevo ? ? Berdsk soil complex

of the blocking influence of anticyclonic air masses ex- tic, the ice sheet was able to expand for a longer period of

panding from Siberia toward Europe. time. The stable anticyclonic masses in northeastern Asia A second, more differentiated explanation has been of- _ generally prevented the formation of ice sheets there and fered for the out-of-phase character of earlier and later gla- | instead promoted the development of permafrost. ciation in Siberia and eastern Europe. This explanation is During the Late Pleistocene, permafrost spread widely based on the hypothesis that there was asymmetry in the _ over the entire USSR, including the European part. There, glacial development in the Northern Hemisphere (Velich- _ thanks to detailed studies in the periglacial region, it has ko, 1980). According to this hypothesis, at the beginning —_ been possible to distinguish cryogenic horizons (Smolensk, of the Late Pleistocene, primarily in Siberia, cooling | Vladimir, Yaroslavl’) and to use them for correlation purreached a level such that snowfall increased. In northern _ poses for the first time. Similar horizons may be expected Europe, however, because of the longer influence of warm _in periglacial regions of western Siberia as well. In the loesAtlantic air masses, an increase in snowfall came later. sial periglacial regions both in the European part of the Thus, the Early Valdai Glaciation of eastern Europe was | USSR and in western Siberia, a great similarity was obless extensive than the Zyryanka Glaciation in Siberia. served in the sequence of loess formation and fossil-soil deDuring the Late Pleistocene, as the cooling incteased, the | velopment. The correlations between the Mezin soil comanticyclonic masses in Siberia prevented the formation of plex of eastern Europe and the Berdsk soil complex of vast ice sheets, whereas in eastern Europe, still subject to | western Siberia and between the Bryansk and the Iskitim the intrusion of relatively moist air masses ftom the Atlan- | complexes indicate a common character in the develop-

XXvI VELICHKO ment of the principal natural processes over vast areas of _ciations according to most investigators. However, one the extraglacial part of the temperate belt during the cold = must not overlook the fact that these data are not entirely

epochs of the Pleistocene. consistent with radiocarbon dates (as will be evident from A common trend is also observed in certain features of _ the corresponding section of this monograph). Obviously, climatic change in periglacial regions. Thus, judging from — this question requires further consideration. a study of loess strata in both regions, the first half of the Very important is the material characterizing the HoloLate Pleistocene glacial epoch was more humid than the — cene, for it directs the reader toward an analysis of the second. The same relations exist for the loess-ice complex _ present state of the environment. This material shows that in northeastern Asia. An extremely severe continental cli- the course of natural processes in different regions was not mate developed over the entire USSR during the period of | uniform. At the same time, data on all the regions of the maximum cooling 20,000 to 18,000 years ago, when the _—_ country clearly indicate that the optimum of the recent inpermafrost region moved farthest to the south, the forest __ terglaciation has already passed. belt was completely destroyed, and the system of natural A general cooling trend ts also attested to by paleoclimazoning underwent a complete rearrangement, in compari- _ tic reconstructions based on methods developed essentially son with ‘the interglacial, to produce a special hyperzonal _—_ by Soviet authors. Different chronologic sections impose

type of natural cover. different requirements on the quality of existing paleobo-

Recent studies have demonstrated the substantial roleof tanic data. Whereas Holocene vegetational formations cryogenic processes in the formation of loess, not only of were similar to recent ones, those of the Mikulino Interglathe so-called periglacial belt but also in Central Asia. It ciation differed appreciably. Therefore, methods based on should be noted, however, that the correlation of Late the analysis of modern vegetation can be applied to the Pleistocene events of Central Asia with events in regions Holocene, whereas for the last interglaciation only methfarther to the north continues to be a problem. This situa- | ods based on an analysis of the species composition are aption hinders a definitive solution of not only special prob- __ plicable. All paleoclimatic reconstructions are based on lems but also general fundamental ones. Chief among concrete facts; therein lies the fundamental characteristic them is the correlation of arid and pluvial periods with — of the selected approach.

events in the glacial regions. In the glacial stage, there oc- Comprehensive data on the dynamics of change in curred a marked aridization not only of the steppe areas _—_ natural components during the Late Pleistocene and Holobut also of areas farther north, which also were converted — cene are supplemented with sections describing the charac-

from forest into steppe and forest-steppe. The section of teristics of dispersal of primeval people in the Late Paleothe monograph discussing loesses of Central Asia also lithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic. From this, the reader gets shows the correlation of the loess-accumulation epochs an idea of one of the initial stages of interaction between with the glaciation epochs. On the whole, aridization took = humans and the environment and the success of human place during the glacial epochs over vast areas south of the —_ cultures in mastering the landscape.

glacier margin. Such are the basic characteristics of this monograph.

This does not mean, however, that the correlation of | One should also note that the authors and editors of this glaciation with aridity is a rule without exceptions. The hy- —_ book did not intend to produce a continuous spatial and pothesis of asymmetry in the development of the glacial chronologic description of the dynamics of all natural comepochs shows that, whereas in the Eastern Hemisphere cor- _ ponents. This type of treatment would be difficult to fit relation of glaciation with aridity is a general rule, in the — even into several volumes. This book mainly contains corWestern Hemisphere a correlation of glaciation with plu- _ relations based on results of recent studies and new reconvial conditions is characteristic. The out-of-phase character structions and models defining the most-advanced trends

, of these relations is accounted for by the special character- in paleogeographic research. istics of the atmospheric circulation model that has been At the same time, particular emphasis should be placed

proposed. , on the fact that the proposed paleogeographic construc-

A good many problems exist in studies of glaciation of tions are based on the work of many investigators, primarindividual mountain areas, such as the Caucasus, Pamir, _ ily the fundamental work of such Russian and Soviet scien- __ and Altay, for the dynamics of mountain glaciers are an __ tists as L. $. Berg, I. P. Gerasimov, P. A. Kropotkin, K. important indicator of climatic fluctuations. The impor- _K. Markov, G. F. Mirchink, V. A. Obruchev, V. N. Saks, tance of such data is already being revealed by paleoclima- N. A. Strelkov, and V. N. Sukachev. Investigators of diftic constructions based on data of paleoglaciologic model- _— ferent regions and specialists in different methods partict-

ing. pated in the preparation of this monograph. Their opin-

Finally, the material presented here makes it possible to ions and scientific conclusions do not always agree. compare natural events on dry land with the state of ad- | However, it is my view that an attempt to select a group joining sea basins. Analysis of the history of sea basins _ of authors primarily for the purpose of agreement of points shows that their reaction to climatic changes was not the _ of view is not always helpful in reflecting the actual state same and depended on the type of sea basin. Thus, the _ of affairs in the study of a given area. For example, it Black Sea, which was linked to an ocean, underwentadtop = would be much more effective to propose only one definite in level during the glacial epochs, whereas for the Caspian _ reconstruction of the ice sheets of northern Eurasia. HowSea, in an inland basin, transgressions corresponded to gla- _—_ ever, such a reconstruction cannot at the present time be

INTRODUCTION , XXVii supported by the evidence. Therefore, the book presents cow State University named after M. V. Lomonosov (Mosvatious concepts so as to enable the reader to obtain more —_ cow), the Polytechnic Institute (L’vov), and the Industrial

objective information. Scientific Research Institute of Construction Engineering The monograph was prepared at the Institute of Geo- of the State Committee for Construction of the USSR

graphy of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Its pre- | (Moscow). paration involved the participation of leading experts from Considerable assistance in the preparation of the illusa number of scientific and scientific-industrial institutions trative materials for the monograph was extended by the as well as educational institutions in the USSR: the Insti- | Cartography Section of the Institute of Geography of the tute of Geography of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR = Academy of Sciences of the USSR. Editing of the maps was

(Moscow), the Zoological Institute of the Academy of done by I. N. Chuklenkova. Sciences of the USSR (Leningrad), the Institute of Arch- The authors hope that the reader will gain a reasonably aeology of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Lenin- complete understanding of the characteristics of the naturgrad Division), the Institute of Geology and Geophysics of al development of the USSR during the Late Pleistocene the Siberian Division of the Academy of the Sciences of | and Holocene. They wish to express their most sincere the USSR (Novosibirsk), the Northeastern Combined thanks to their American colleagues for the considerable Scientific Research Institute of the Far Eastern Scientific | amount of work involved in the urgent translation and Center of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Vladivo- _—_ editing of this monograph. stock), the Geography and Geology Departments of Mos-

BLANK PAGE

Late Pleistocene Glactation of the Northern USSR

BLANK PAGE

CHAPTER T | Late Pleistocene Glaciation of European USSR M. A. Faustova

According to radiometric, geologic, glaciomorphologic, The upper band of marine deposits (Strel’ninskiye laand paleobotanic data, the Valdai Ice Age was character- __yers), separated from the Ponoy layers by an erosion surized by two cold stages in the European USSR. Toa large _face locally marked by gravel and, according to Apukhtin degree, the problem of the age of these stages, and parti- and others (1977), by a basal till, came to be treated as secularly of the early stage, is connected with the relation- | diments of the independent Middle Valdai transgression. ship of glaciations and marine transgressions in the Late Climatic conditions at this time were colder than the pre-

Pleistocene in the extreme north of the USSR. sent ones. Thus, in sections of the Kola Peninsula, two seThe marine series represented in sections of the Kola —_ patate marine members have now been identified that prePeninsula was differentiated by Lavrova (1960) into sedi- _ cede the glacial horizons of the first and late stages of the ments representing the boreal (correlated with the Ee- _— Late Pleistocene Valdai Glaciation. mian) and White Sea transgressions. However, the age of these transgressions as well as the relationship of marine deposits to moraines has since become the subject of pro-

tracted discussion. As a result of detailed studies using Early Valdai Glaciation

faunal, diatom, chemical, and palynologic methods, it has been established that the lower band of marine deposits, On the slopes of the Baltic Shield in Karelia, Early Valdai that is, the Ponoy layers (the names of the layers are those _ glacial deposits are separated from the Late Valdai moraine of rivers on the Kola Peninsula), correspond to the warm- by Middle Valdai peat dated as 46,700 yr B.P. (start of water boreal transgression (with water temperatures 4° to warming) and 43,900 yr B.P. (climatic optimum) (Ekman 6°C higher than present ones) (Gudina and Yevzerov, _ et al., 1979). The age and interstadial or interglacial rank 1973; Yevzerov, Lebedeva, and Kagan, 1976). However, — of the warm interval are still under discussion. In the Rusradiocarbon dates of shells from Ponoy layers in the inter- sian Plain, there are no obvious sections with Early Valdai

val 46,000 to 33,000 yr B.P. (minimum and maximum till overlying Mikulino deposits and overlain by plantdates: 33,650+4000 yr B.P. [TA-271] and 46,54041770 bearing Middle and Late Valdai sediments and Late Valdat yt B.P. [LU-1373], with two dates that were beyond the _ till. In the north of the Russian Plain (in the Onega and limit) suggested correlation with the Middle Valdai Inter- | Ladoga Basins and the Severnaya Dvina Basin), the major glaciation (Yevzerov, 1970; Gudina and Yevzerov, 1973), portion of the Early Valdai section consists of lacustrinealthough a final date for shells exceeding 30,000 yr B.P. _ glacial and lacustrine deposits, indicating limited conttwas interpreted by Arslanov (Arslanov et al., 1975) as the _ nental glaciation (Devyatova, 1980). In the basin of Severminimum age. It was not until the end of the 1970s that | naya Dvina River and its tributary Vaga, Early Valdai new dating by the uranium-thorium method finally con- —_ aquatic sediments consistently replace Mikulino sediments firmed the Mikulino age of the Ponoy layers. Three sec- | upward, and only locally are they separated by cover loams tions of Svyatonosskiy Bay and the Malaya, Kachkovka, that include an older till redeposited by solifluction. and Chapoma Rivers gave the following ages: 97,000+ The lack of Early Valdai glacial deposits in the sections, 4000 yr B.P. (LU-455B) for deposits in the first section, as well as the absence of Late Valdai radiometric dates for 102,000 + 4000 yr B.P. (LU-452A) and 114,000+4000 yr —_ the outermost moraine on the Russian Plain, have enabled B.P. (LU-452B) for the second, and 85,500 + 3200 yr B.P. a majority of investigators to conclude that the Early Val(LU-464) and 86,000 + 3900 yr B.P. (LU-464-B) for the — dai ice did not extend beyond the limits of the Baltic Sea

third (Arslanov, Yevzerov, et al., 1981). basin (Chebotareva et al., 1971; Voznyachuk, 1973; Gera3

4 FAUSTOVA simov, 1973; Chebotareva and Makarycheva, 1974; “Struc- | Upper Volga warming (Tarasovo warming according to L. ture and Dynamics of Europe’s Last Ice Sheet,” 1977; Dev- | N. Voznyachuk) and the Kruglitsa warming (first identiyatova, 1980). A similar conclusion has been reached for __ fied in Belorussia) (Voznyachuk, 1961, 1973). The stratoextraglacial regions of the Russian Plain (Velichko, 1975; — typic sections are located on the Minsk Upland at the Ivanova, 1977). However, in addition to concepts of the village of Tarasovo and in the Kruglitsa area. The name limited dimensions of the Early Valdai Glaciation, there | Upper Volga Interstade for the first post-Mikulino warmpersists the idea of a maximum spread of glaciation in the —_ ing was proposed by A. I. Moskvitin in 1950. Early Valdai (Raukas and Serebryanny, 1971; Serebryan- The absolute ages of the first post-Mikulino warm and

nyy, 1978; Arslanov, Breslav, et al., 1981). cool intervals are not certain, for the final radiocarbon The period separating the end of the Mikulino Intergla- — dates (in the intervals 64,000 to 58,000 and 55,000 to ciation from the emergence of the glacier on the European ‘52,000 yr B.P.) are minimal. During the warm phases, the Plain has been referred to by certain authors as the ice-free forest cover increased, with an expansion of pine and Valdai (Chebotareva et al., 1971). In the view of other in- — spruce (Chebotareva and Makarycheva, 1974). vestigators, a considerable portion of this period was taken up by the Middle Valdai Megainterstade (Voznyachuk,

1973). The term “ice-free Valdai” means that during the Middle Valdai Nonglacial Interval

first half of the Valdai the glacier did not reach the Russian Plain but remained within the confines of the Baltic Shield = The middle of the ice-free interval is marked by sediments and that the climate was fairly cold, with alternating warm — with radiocarbon dates of approximately 50,000 to 30,000 and cool intervals of different intensity and duration. Dur- _—yr B.P. (Figure 1-1). This period was also characterized by ing the relatively warm intervals, the vegetation was repre- _ short cool and warm intervals, with tundra-steppe associasented by periglacial tundra and arctic-alpine associations. tions and thin birch forests alternating with increased coniIn the deposits of the initial stages of the Valdai, two __ fer-birch forest cover. The most significant warming within

coolings separated by two warmings were recorded—the this interval (39,000 to 38,000 yr B.P.) is reflected most m 16

° ° ° of 2 — Reeoni LUGE G OG CG Ea ‘a oR Ys BaD YY /o a, WE —S g 6071000 LU-98 Su2.o-0'.0 54 FPR,

\\ re 0 ate Y MOQ KA IO. NR SSCS

8;

M ; St 77 (]))zsitzzsscce "4 ig iS gy) ea(78) oa 4 S S\s S. SIN 57: .% oo:2 >7ON Rta9ey NOOO QA WE WzF 41,700, 50000 Ss SO) ea ed

OMAR ti-Bea id se8 SSN (P 2 iS) 2 9 5 \ S\ 9 p \> Ls) 8 8 S © x x ae

LAMINA ade QQ QA 1000 = 900-Ss(«800-s—s«im00'—i‘iSStC«CSSCi«‘CSCi«‘aSSCi«iSSC«ém

Figure 1-1. Geologic profile of the left bank of the Kasplya River 8. Loam with sand lenses, heavily cryoturbated above the mouth of the Nevorozhka River, opposite the village of 9. Inequigranular sand with pockets of loam (cryoturbation) and

Sloboda, (after L. N. Voznyachuk [Arslanov et al., 1973].) an admixture of gravelly material

(Radiocarbon dates in years B.P.) 10. Humified loam

a 11. Muddy peat with vegetal remains (interstadial)

(late-glacial deposits) ge ,

1. Sand with basal gravel and boulders of fluvioglacial origin 12. Sandy loam (8 through 12 are of Lower Valdai age according

to L. N. Voznyachuk or from the end of the Mikulino and the

2. Till, moraine of maximum stage of Valdai Glaciation beginning of the Valdai according to F. Yu. Velichkevich)

3. Varied clays 13. Alluvial (?) sand, inequigranular, horizontally and obliquely

4. Fine sand with reddish brown ortsands, occasionally changing laminated, Late Pleistocene

en 14. Sandy-gravelly deposits, with boulders (basal level)

5. Inequigranular sand, with gravel, pebbles, and boulders AD. Boulder loam, Dnepr moraine 6. Loam and sandy loam, both altered by solifluction (layers 2 16. Alluvial wae _ 9 10- co 12-m terrace of - Kasplya _— through 6 formed in the first half and culmination phase of the ee _ OF the &- to D-mn vesrace (10 and £7 ste OF sete

maximum stage of Valdai Glaciation) ae age

7. Loam with an interlayer of muddy peat (Middle Valdai In- ae. nae depo we of “1 6- mets ' to 4-m — lain of the

terstade deposits) Kasplya River and its tributary (Holocene-age deposits).

LATE PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION OF EUROPEAN USSR > Table 1-1. Radiocarbon Dates for Organic Matter from Submorainic was determined for the stratotype of the Mologa-Sheksna

Deposits in the Interval 30,000 to 17,000 yr B.P., Fixing Interglaciation in the Upper Volga Basin (Arslanov et al.,

Icethought Sheet on the Russian Plain .: Ss dlecandinavian Valldai are now to represent an older interglathe fate Valdai Age of the Boundary of the Latest 1967). In addition, sediments initially assumed to be Mid-

Date Laboratory ciation (Arslanov et al., 1974; Chebotareva and Makary-

Section (yr B.P.) Number cheva, 1974). At the present time, the concept of an inter-

glacial rank for the Middle Valdai ts held by Raukas (1976) Drechaluki near Surazh, BSSR 17,770+170 LU-95A and Serebraynny (1978), who distinguish the Karukyula

3704 a aca Interglaciation within this interval. However, for deposits 23.6304370 LU-97A in the Karukyula section, the concept of an older (LikhvinPokrovskoye on the Puchka River near 21,4104150 LU-18B skiy) age is being advanced on the basis of radiocarbon Kubenskoye Lake, Vologda Province, 21,880+110 LU-18A dates (Arslanov, 1975; Shotton and Williams, 1973), a-

RSFSR long with a detailed plant-macrofossil study (Velichkevich Gozha River near Grodno, BSSR 18,730+ 1230 LU-76A and Liyvrand, 1976).

Fob. sO. tUee Deposits immediately preceding the time of maximum 22.9504.440 LU-89 spread of the Late Valdai glacier are most common in 25,1004 240 LU-90A western European USSR. In the Belorussian sections, 24,8604 230 LU-90B where they have been studied best, they are represented by Shapurovo, vicinity of Surazh, BSSR 22,5004210 LU-91 submorainic lacustrine-alluvial and alluvial deposits con29,150+850 LU-78A taining layers of vegetal detritus. Their age at the village 10 km north of Shenkursk, Vaga River valley 24,9004470 V-40 of Gozha is 25,000 to 18,000 yr B.P. (Figure 1-2) and at Dunayevo, Lovat’ River, Novgorod Province 27,500+1500 LU-28A the village of Drechaluki is 23,000 to 17,000 yr B.P. (Ar-

oe don ove Thee slanov, Voznyachuk, Velichkevich, Kur'yerova, and PetBorisova gora, vicinity of Surazh, BSSR 28,170+750 LU-105 tov, 1971; Arslanov, Voznyach uk, Velichkevich, Zubkov,

a set al., 1971). In the Kubenskoye Lake basin in Vologda Sources: Data from Kh. A. Arslanov, L. N. Voznyachuk et al., 1972. Province, submorainic lacustrine sediments with peat 1972. interlayers have an age of 21,410+150 (LU-18B) and 21,800+110 yr B.P. (LU-18A) (Arslanov et al., 1970).

| Still farther east, in the Vaga River valley (Onega River ba-

fully in the pollen diagrams for the Grazhdanskiy Prospect sin) north of the town of Shenkursk, submorainic deposits borehole (Leningrad) and in the quarry near the town of _ have a date of 24,900+ 470 yr B.P. (V-40) (Atlasov et al.,

Kashin (Kalinin Province). 1978). All the indicated sections are located near the

Sediments with a radiocarbon age of 30,000 to 17,000 boundary of the maximum spread of Late Valdai ice. yt B.P. represent the final stage of the ice-free interval | Thus, the age of this boundary is confirmed by radiometric (Table 1-1). This period includes the fairly distinct Duna- and palynologic data (Figure 1-3). yevo warming (25,000 to 22,000 yr B.P.), which is corre- The marginal formations of the Late Valdai ice at its lated with the Bryansk interval in the extraglacial zone. | maximum east of the Onega and Severnaya Dvina Rivers The marked cooling that followed was associated with an _— are correlated with the outer, morphologically well-deexpansion of the ice sheet and the appearance of arcticand _— fined marginal relief complex developed in the Mezen’ arctic-alpine flora in the sediments, with radiocarbon dates and Pechora Basins, on the basis of radiocarbon dates of of 24,000 to 18,000 yr B.P. Such flora is known in sections 47,000 to 33,000 yr B.P. on submorainic deposits chiefly from the village of Drechaluki near the town of Surazh in the Pechora River basin (Arslanov et al., 1977; Lavrov (Vitebsk Province, BSSR), on the Puchka River in the vil- and Arslanov, 1977; Arslanov, Lazrov, and Nikiforova, lage of Pokrovskoye (Vologda Province), and in the village 1981). The maximum Valdai Glaciation in the extreme of Gozha near the town of Grodno (BSSR) (Dorofeyev, northeastern Russian Plain, where no Early Valdai mo1957, 1963; Kolesnikova and Khomutova, 1971). Also raines have been found, is regarded as quasi-synchronous found in the sediments were reindeer antlers (Voznya- — with the Late Valdai maximum farther west. chuk, 1973) and traces of contemporaneous cryogenic de- The Middle Valdai fluctuations of climate and vegeta-

formation. tion are comparable to those recorded in the sediments of

The periglacial flora persisted during the entire interval the northwestern Russian Plain, with the exception of the from 50,000 to 24,000 yr B.P., even during periods of rela- watming of 47,000 to 45,000 yr B.P., when the climatic tive warming; therefore, this interval is not an interglacia- conditions are thought to have been close to the present tion. Some investigators who previously had distinguished ones for these regions (Loseva and Arslanov, 1975; Berdova cool interglaciation for this interval now define it as the skaya and Loseva, 1975; Loseva, 1978; Arslanov, Lavrov, Middle Valdai Megainterstade, which has a complex paleo- — and Nikiforova, 1981). This fact, which is of interest in itclimatic sequence: three warm phases separated by rela- self, requires further confirmation, for the dates obtained tively short cool phases (Arslanov, Breslav, et al., 1981). for the corresponding deposits are at the limit of resolution This interpretation was strengthened when a Mikulino age — for the method.

”1 dy.indaOss. geass . ulica

6 FAUSTOVA Gozha

m

A OU. mere aes eae NNN rome — ene = YE YG On 0 cs oe OS OT

Y@4 L25,100 91,200 [U-514B moraines) attest to the continental climate of the second stage of deglaciation. This is also indicated by the Late Val-

Sources: Atslanov, Lavrov, and Nikiforova, 1981; Lavrov and Arslenov, dai cryogenesis in the extraglacial zone (Velichko, 1973).

1977. By Vepsovo time, the ice sheet had shrunk considerably

in size, especially in its eastern part, owing to insufficient forms of small area and low relief, composed primarily of | nourishment and to the westward displacement of the cen-

a sandy-gravelly material of dead-ice origin. ter of outflow (Chebotareva, 1977). The Vepsovo cold During the period of initial deglaciation (Yedrovo stage stage is identified on both the European and the Russian , on the Russian Plain, Frankfurt or Poznan stage in western _— Plains as a time of ice advance. Because of the pronounced Europe), larger topographic features were formed but were —_— continental climate of the Russian Plain, however, the ice

mainly superimposed on older, pre-Valdai relief. Whereas margin did not reach the boundaries of the preceding in the Atlantic sector small oscillations occurred, the degla- _— stages of deglaciation, as was the case in Denmark, for ex-

ciation of the southeastern and eastern slopes was regres- ample. Aseyev (1974) notes a divergence of the boundaries sive, with preservation of the lobate form. Various portions of the maximum and Maritime stages toward the northeast lost their mobility, changing into dead ice, and primarily —_ as the Pomeranian features become less distinct. Previously accumulation ridges of terminal moraines were formed at formed marginal formations were destroyed or buried only the active margin. On the southeastern slope of the Scan- _—_on the flanks of glacial lobes, where they were close todinavian ice sheet, such dead-ice masses were particularly gether.

large, probably because ice is less active in a continental After the Vepsovo advance came the Kresttsy fluctua-

climate. , tion in the northwestern Russian Plain. During these two Large masses of dead ice in combination with favorable — events over the entite Russian Plain, the active ice formed

topographic conditions promoted the formation of parti- well-defined push moraines, erratic masses, and glacial cularly large proglacial lakes during the initial stagesofde- _—_ dislocations in a complex of several marginal zones, begin-

glaciation. Small proglacial lakes (Verkhne-Nemanskoye, ning in the west as the Baltic Ridge and continuing as the Verkhne-Vileyskoye, Verkhne-Berezinskoye, Verkhne- Velikiye Luki-Toropets, Vepsovo, Valdat, Kurillov-BeloDneprovskoye, etc.) wete formed during the maximum _—__zersk, and Konosha Ridges. They include the Latgal’skty, stage. In the Upper Volga Basin these were replaced by Bezhaniskiy, and Andogskiy Uplands, as well as other insmall meltwater plains and farther east by larger proglacial — terlobate uplands. This so-called main moraine belt (Sokolakes in the Mologa-Sheksna and Sukhona Lowlands and _lov, 1949) is characterized by continuity and exceptional especially in the basins of the Vaga and Severnaya Dvina freshness and distinctness of glactal landforms; this attests Rivers. During retreat from the maximum stage, large pro- _ to the transgressive-regressive character (with small oscillaglacial lakes appeared in the basins of the Neman and Vil- _ tions) of the second stage of deglaciation (Basalikas, 1965, ya Rivers and the Zapadnaya Dvina River and its tributary 1969; Kudaba, 1969; Faustova, 1972). As the glacier rethe Mezha. Large lakes continued to exist in the basins of | ceded, ice-dammed lakes were formed at its margin; the the Mologa, Sheksna, Sukhona, Vaga, and Severnaya largest were Lake Nizhne-Nyamunskiy and lakes in the

Dvina Rivers. | Volga Basin.

LATE PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION OF EUROPEAN USSR 9 In the second stage of deglaciation, the ice sheet kept its | ing Shapki-Kirsinskiy kame massif; thence, to the east glaciodynamic outline, with only local changes in structure — through ridges adjoining the Olonets Upland and in the caused by the occasional appearance of new lobes or ice Onega River basin.

tongues and the disappearance or shrinking of old ones. However, formations recording the Luga glacial recesThe deglaciation rates increased because of rapid ice stag- sion and the second phase of activation of the glacier front nation and frequent contact between the ice and the ad- _— during the late-glacial—the Neva advance—were pro-

jacent water bodies. duced by thin ice. Larger isolated uplands emerged from

Starting with Vepsovo time, in comparison with the — underneath the ice as nunataks. Marginal zones narrowed preceding stage of deglaciation, dead-ice formation accel- and constituent deposits thinned. The ice flow was transerated, and specific glacial landforms—the so-called formed into glacier tongues, which retained considerable “zvontsy,” that is, vatious types of glaciolacustrine pla- —_ activity only in the first stages. Push moraines with glacial teaus— began to form, caused by deep thawed patcheson __ dislocations were formed under the favorable conditions of

the ice surface. preglacial relief. The most pronounced warming within the second stage The increased role of meltwater and surface melting led of deglaciation—the Raunis warming—occurred before — to a major development of supraglacial kames and ablation the Luga advance of the glacier front, which marked the — moraines. Intricate polygenetic complexes with terminal beginning of the late-glacial. The onset of the Raunis moraines and drumlins are characteristic, along with a varwarming is dated by submorainic deposits making up the _ ied topography of ablation moraines and kames. Dead-ice lake terrace on the western edge of the Kubenskoye Lake — forms predominate when the marginal zones are examined hasin (Vologda Province)— 14,300+ 200 yr B.P. (LU-45B) in space as well as in section.

(Kabaylene, 1970). The end of the Raunis warming ts Regional differences in the processes of glacier morphofixed by deposits on the Raunis River northeast of the city genesis caused by conditions of nourishment lose their imof Riga— 13,000+ 500 yr B.P. (Mo-296), 13,2504160 yr portance, for the deglaciation was regulated mainly by a B.P. (TA-177), and 13,320+ 250 yr B.P. (Ri-39) (Stelle et rise in temperature. Nevertheless, in the western part of al., 1975). The climatic conditions of the interval were the sheet the first phase (activation of ice) and the second fairly harsh, as indicated by the presence of the following — phase (surface melting) were more distinct. mactforemains (sections on the Raunis River and sections During the third stage of deglaciation, sharp climatic on the southern margin of Latgal’skiy Upland): Betula ma- __ oscillations occurred, including the Bélling and Alleréd: na, Salix sp., S. cf. reticulata, S. polaris, Cerastium sp., the Bolling interval dates from 12,750 to 12,250 yr B.P. and, especially, Dryas octopetala, Selaginella selaginoides, (from a series of sections in Lithuania on the Ula and and Bryales (Savvaitov et al., 1964; Punning et al., 1968). | Myarkis Rivers, in the Priil’menskiy Lowland on the Lovat’

This warming lasted less than a millennium. River, in an area south of the town of Velikiye Luki in The Luga moraine overlies the sediments of the Raunis Smolensk Province near the settlement of Ponizov’ye on watming and underlies the intermorainic sediments inthe __ the Kasplya River, and in other places). According to some Kurenurme section in southeastern Estonia, north of the —_ authors, the Luga and Neva cold phases preceded the B6lLuga marginal zone. Its age is put at 13,000 yr B.P. onthe ling and belong to the Oldest Dryas (Gerasimov, 1969; basis of dates of 12,650+ 500 yr B.P. (TA-57) and 12,420 Chebotareva and Makarycheva, 1974; Chebotareva et al.,

+90 yr B.P. (TIn-35) on the intermorainic sediments 1978). According to others (Punning et al., 1967; Serebry-

(Punning et al., 1968). anny, 1978), the Bdlling interval separated these two cold

phases, of which the latter is correlated with the Middle

Stages of Deglaciation Dryas. During the Bélling, the Russian Plain became al(12,000 to 10,000 Years Ago) most completely free of ice (with the exception of the

northern and northwestern parts of Estonia), and arboreal The third and last stage of the deglaciation of the Russian vegetation (mainly tree birch) began to appear.

Plain begins at the end of Luga time (about 12,000 yr The Alleréd warming, which on the Russian Plain 1s B.P.). This last turning point was followed by irreversible | dated in the interval 11,950 to 10,800 yr B.P. (Punning et

deglaciation and breakup of the ice sheet under conti- _al., 1967; Zobens et al., 1969; Stelle et al., 1975), was , nental climatic conditions, and its rates accelerated mark- studied in many sections of the Baltic Republics (especially edly as a result of a worldwide warming trend. During the — Lithuania and Latvia), Karelia, Smolensk Province, and Luga stage, the boundary of the ice sheet on the Russian __ other locations. Unlike other late-glacial deposits, they are Plain was already located near the Baltic Sea and White mainly represented by peaty sediments. At the beginning Sea basins (marginal formations of the same age in Poland _ of the Alleréd and during the so-called Palivere advance and East Germany are located within the Baltic Sea and its (11,200 yr B.P.), the glacier was still active in the islands islands). The Luga marginal formations extend from the of the western Estonian Archipelago and southwestern EsLinkuva terminal moraine ridge in Latvia through the Vid- _ tonia south of the Gulf of Finland, but thereafter it quickzemskiy, Aluksnenskiy, and Khaan’yaskiy Uplands; the __ly receded (“Structure and Dynamics of Europe’s Latest Ice hilly ridges north of the town of Ostrov in the Chudsk Sheet,” 1977). Thin forests of pine, birch, and spruce were Lowland; ridges and areas of hilly moraines and kames in _— already growing on the Russian Plain.

the Luga Basin, the Volkhov Depression, and the interven- The later advance of the glacier margin during the

10 FAUSTOVA Younger Dryas (between 11,000 and 10,000 yr B.P.) was Deglaciation of Novaya Zemlya Ice Sheet

formerly known only in Finland (the Salpausselka moraines), but recent studies in Karelia and the Kola Penin- The deglaciation of the Novaya Zemlya ice sheet, which sula reveal the eastern extension of the Salpausselké. Mar- extended to the northeastern part of the Russian Plain and ginal glacial formations continue northward into the Kuito — was not a direct chronologic equivalent of the ScandinaLake area in northern Karelia and the Knyazh’ya Bay area _ vian ice sheet, differed in a number of characteristics. Durin southern Murmansk Province (Il’in et al., 1978), consis- | ing the maximum stage, the Malozemel’skaya and Bol’shetent with an early hypothesis (Rosberg, 1899). The same —=zemel’skaya Tundras and the lower course of the Pechora system continues to the western Kola Peninsula (“Structure River were covered over with ice of the Kola-Mezen’, Ba-

and Dynamics of Europe’s Latest Ice Sheet,” 1977). Wes- rents Sea-Pechora, and Novaya Zemlya-Kolva lobes tern Karelia was finally freed from the active glacier over _(“‘Structure and Dynamics of Europe’s Latest Ice Sheet,”

9500 to 9400 years ago. 1977). These lobes ended in outlet tongues that formed Thus, on the Russian Plain, except for a small portion | drumlinoid and fluted forms, which do not occur in the

of the Gulf of Finland coast, Scandinavian ice existed from § Russian Plain farther west. At the ice margins in the basins

24,000 to 18,000 yr B.P. until the Alleréd, and, within the of the Mezen’, Pechora, and Usa Rivers and their tribuconfines of the Baltic Shield, until the middle of the — taries, huge ice-dammed lakes formed as a result of the

Preboreal. flooding of the river valleys. The paleogeographic situation on the Russian Plain dur- During the deglaciation, three belts of marginal forma-

ing the second half of the late-glacial was related tothe de- _—_‘ tions were produced: an outer belt, a transgressive main

glaciation history of the Baltic Sea and White Sea basins, belt located in the central part of the Bol’shezemel’skaya some of the aspects of which are yet to be definitively elu- Tundra (this belt was morphologically the most distinct),

cidated. and an inner belt. According to the radiocarbon dates of

The northward retreat of ice during the Bolling warming 9990+ 100 (LU-391) and 99004110 yr B.P. (MGU-276) was accompanied by the emptying of local ice-dammed obtained from peat and wood in submorainic lacustrine lakes and the expansion of the southern Baltic proglacial deposits in the area of the mouth of the Pechora River near

basin, which was preceded by a brackish-water basin (arctic _ the village of Markhida, the main belt of marginal formaLomma Sea) formed in the southwestern part of the Baltic _ tions and the one farther north may have been very young. Sea basin during the deglaciation of southern Sweden. An Those data require thorough investigation, however. oceanic connection with the proglacial basin probably ex- According to Lavrov and Arslanov (1977), the breakup isted at the start of the Alleréd (Lavrova, 1968), and the _ of the marginal zone of the Novaya Zemlya glaciet’s maxiBaltic Ice Lake itself was formed at the boundary between mum stage occurred at the beginning of the Bélling. Allu-

the Alleréd and Younger Dryas. This lake initially had a vium of this age, 12,2604180 yr B.P. (LU-364B) and very limited connection to the ocean, and only at the 12,360+170 yr B.P. (LU-390), is overlain with Alleréd laboundary of late- and postglacial time (10,200 yr B.P.) was _—_—custrine sediments dated at 11,830 + 220 yr B.P. (LU-516).

a marine regime reestablished there. (See Serebryanny, A complete breakup of the glacier front occurred during 1978.) The lake marks the beginning of the postglacial his- the Preboreal, after which an alluvial terrace began to form tory of the Baltic region, which is related to the existence _in the valleys. Deglaciation involved the formation of large of the Yoldia, Ekheney, and Ancylus Seas, as well as _ proglacial lakes in the Bol’shezemel’skaya Tundra. others. The problem of marine incursion into the White Sea is of fundamental importance, for it is associated with the

deglaciation history of the adjacent portion of the Barents : References

Shelf and the northeastern Russian Plain. The existing Apukhtin, N. I., Klyunin, S, F., and Tkachenko, L. I. (1977). Paleogeodata are ambiguous. fauna enabled several a . . . graphy of the easternFinds part ofof themarine Kola Peninsula in the Upper PleistoInvestigators (e.g. ’ Medvedev et al., 1970; Pleshivtseva, cene (according to data from 1972-1974). I” “Stratigraphy and Paleo-

1970) to infer that seawater entered the White Sea and geography of the Quaternary of the Northern European USSR.” (G. Dvina Bay during the Alleréd and the Younger Dryas. S. Biske, ed.), pp. 16-21. Karelian Branch, USSR Academy of Scien-

There is also the view that a proglacial basin isolated from ces, Petrozavodsk. the ocean existed in the White Sea for a long time until Armand, N. N., and Romanova, V. P. (1977). The White Sea glacier the Preboreal (10,000 yt B.P.) because of the presence of flow. Jv “Structure and Dynamics of Europe’s Latest Ice Sheet.” (N. an ice barrier in the entrance of the White Sea (Yevzerov, S. Chebotareva, ed.), pp. 72-80. Nauka Press, Moscow. Kagan, et al., 1976; Kaligina et al., 1979). According to Arslanov, Kh. A. (1975). Radiocarbon geochronology of the upper Pleisthese conc epts, the marine fauna found was not in situ but tocene of the European USSR (glacial and periglacial zones). Bulletin was redeposited from interglacial deposits. These A of the Commission for the Study ofL. theI., Quaternary Period A. 43, 3-25. : . older . rslanov, Kh. A., Auslender, V. G., Gromova, Zubakov, I., concepts are consistent with some of the gcomorp hic data and Khomutova, V. I. (1970). Paleogeographic characteristics and abon a deglaciation of the eastern part of the Baltic Shield solute age of the maximum stage of Valdai Glaciation in the region and with palynologic data (Malyasova, 1971, 1976) indi- of Kubenskoye Lake. USSR Academy of Sciences Doklady, seriya

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CHAPTER )

Late Pleistocene Glaciation of Western Siberia S. A. Arkhipov

In the northern part of the West Siberian Plain, the latest — nologic data (Table 2-1, and Figure 2-1). Thus, according (Zyryanka or Valdai) glaciation includes deposits occurring to radiocarbon determinations and with the widely known stratigraphically above the Kazantsevo (Eemian, Mikulino) | data on Europe and North America compiled by Kind horizon. According to traditional concepts, the glaciation (1974) taken into account, the age of the Lower Zyryanka had two cold phases separated by the Karginskiy Inter- horizon in Siberia is usually estimated at 70,000 to 50,000 stade. In works published during the 1950s, only the final yr B.P., the Middle Zyryanka horizon at 50,000 (55,000) (Sartan) stage of the Zyryanka Glaciation was referred to ‘to 20,000 yr B.P., and the Upper Zyryanka horizon at the later phase. From this came the name Sartan Glacia- 22,000 to 10,000 yr B.P. (Arkhipov, 1977; Arkhipov et tion (Saks, 1953; Strelkov et al., 1959). At the end of the al., 1977). In addition, several thermoluminescence dates

1960s, it was determined that the later phase included not (100,000+17,000 and 110,000+27,000 yr B.P.) have only the recessional (Sartan) stage but also the earlier Gy- _ recently been obtained from the base of Kormuzhikhantdan and N’yapan stages of glaciation. In order to avoid _—_ skiy moraine; these suggest that the origin of the Zyryanka confusion, it has been proposed that the later phase be —_ Glaciation dates back to about 100,000 yr B.P. (Arkhipov called the Late Zyryanka Glaciation and the earlier phase, et al., 1978; the analyses were performed by A. N. Shelthe Early Zyryanka or Yermakovo Glaciation (Troitskiy, koplyas at the Institute of Geological Sciences of the Aca1967; Arkhipov, 1971). The complex interstade between §_demy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR).

them, including two coolings and three warmings, cannot The Lower Zyryanka horizon includes the Khashgort correctly be called the Karginskiy Interstade, as proposed and Kormuzhikhantskiy moraines in the Ob’ River valley by Kind (1974), for originally Saks (1953) attributed tothe | and the Yermakovo moraine on the Yenisey, as well as priKarginskiy age only the time interval between 30,000 and _— marily lacustrine sediments in the periglacial zone. At the 20,000 years ago. To this interval corresponds only one of | mouth of the Ob’ in the Salekhard region, the Khashgort the warm phases within the Middle Zyryanka Interstade, | moraine lies on marine Kazantsevo layers (Arkhipov et al., obviously synchronous with the Stillftied B (Plum Point, 1977). The latter are characterized by a complex of arcto-

Bryansk) Interstade. boreal foraminifers very similar to those from the Eemian layers of western Europe (Gudina, 1976). Farther south in

lel * at the Ob’ River valley within the confines of Belogor’ye, the

Subdivisions of the Zyryanka Glaciation base of the Kormuzhikhantve till was dated by the ther-

According to currently held concepts, the entire mass of | moluminescence method at 100,000+ 17,000 and 110,000 Zytyanka Glaciation deposits is distinguished as a super +27,000 yr B.P., and the underlying presumably Kazanthorizon of the same name, which as a stratigraphic sub- _—_ sevo alluvial and lacustrine sediments were dated at division evidently corresponds to the American term 130,000+24,000-and 130,000 + 31,000 yr B.P. Lacustrine “stage.” The superhorizon is subdivided into the Lower, sediments with peat dated by thermoluminescence at Middle,and Upper Zyryanka horizons (substages), for 70,000+15,000 yr B.P. contain fossil seeds and fruits indi-

which the previous names (Yermakovo, Karginskiy, and cating an interstadial warming that may separate the Sattan) have been retained in geologic practice. The pro- | Khashgort stage from the Kormuzhikhantskiy stage. posed subdivisions are based primarily on the stratigraphy The Middle Zyryanka horizon is divided into several of morainic and related marine, lacustrine, and alluvial | subhorizons (sub-stages) and layers, which thus far have strata, as well as on radiocarbon dating reinforced by paly- been primarily of local stratigraphic significance. The 13

:ae a.

14 ARKHIPOV

Table 2-1. Stratigraphic Scheme of Zyryanka Glaciation

“fix |,8

'4C = 11,400-10,700 yr B.P.

o fluvioglacial sands lacustrine-glacial clays, sands |

'4C = 16,000-15,000 yr B.P.

2:2¢

Salekhard-Uval layers: moraines, fluvioglacial |

sands, sandy loams, boulders 44C = 20,000-19,500 yr B.P.

« Sb .. Karginskiy layers: alluvial sands, sandy loams, Alluvial sands, sandy loams, clays, ws

F- 3 Z| “C=29,000-25,000 yr B.P. 4C = 26,000-23,000 yr B.P. E

3 |38 yt BP. | gc

5 5 Lokhpodgort layers: Kazym layers: lacustrine | Lacustrine-glacial and lacustrine clays, loams, a : © |< 6 | moraine, varved clays clays, '*C=39,000-36,000} sandy loams, **C=38,000-35,000 yr B.P. SOX

Kharsoim layers: Zolotoy Mys layers: - Alluvial sands, sandy Lagoon and marine 3M & moraine clays and sands | alluvial sands, clays, -loams, peat, sands and sandy loams} ¢ ©

g with Foraminifera, peat, | 14C = 43,000-39,000 with Foraminifera ep .

40,000 yr B.P. > 40,000 yr B.P. yr B.P.

g lacustrine clays, peat, TL= 70,000+ 15,000 -fluvioglacial sands 8 yt B.P.; Kormuzhikhantskiy moraine, TL= 100,000 + 17,000, 110,000 27,000 yr B.P.

Marine and alluvial Kazantsevo deposits TL= 130,000 + 24,000, 130,000 + 31,000 yr B.P.

lower Kharsoim subhorizon in the Lower Ob’ River region (SOAN-658) and 39,900+80 yr B.P. (SOAN-681). They includes estuarine and marine clays with an arctic complex have their analogues in the lower Yenisey Valley. (See of foraminifers. At the mouth of the Ob’ River east of Sa- | Table 2-1.) lekhrad, peat interlayers in estuarine clays yielded radio- The superjacent Karginskiy subhorizon is composed of carbon dates of 36,400 + 80 yr B.P. (SOAN-676) and more alluvial sands and clays with lenses of peat. In the Salethan 40,000 yr B.P. Also included in the subhorizon are _—khard region, these deposits are heavily eroded and overZolotoy Mys alluvial sands and loams with lenses of peat __lain by glacial formations of the Salekhard-Uval stage. extensively developed in the lower Ob’ River valley. Radio- | Karginskiy layers are radiocarbon-dated at 25,900 + 240 yr

carbon dates for the peat are 39,150+1200 yr B.P. B.P. (SOAN-671) and 29,500+ 520 yr B.P. (SOAN-974). (SOAN-978), 39,860+ 1000 yr B.P. (SOAN-976), and The Karginskty alluvium is spread much more widely in 40,800 + 1300 yr B.P. (SOAN-682) for the upper inter- _ the periglacial zone of the lower Ob’ region and in the layers and more than 40,000 yr B.P. for the lower ones _ northern Yenisey, where it fills buried valleys cut out of (Arkhipov, 1977). In the northern Yenisey Valley, distinct | Middle and even Lower Zyryanka sediments. However, it stratigraphic analogues occur in the marine and continen- should be noted that, according to Kind (1974), the entire tal facies. (See Table 2-1.) Thus, the Kharsoim Interstade = mass of sediments separating the Yermakovo and Gydan is reliably dated at 50,000 to 40,000 yr B.P. The sediments (Karaul) moraines is referred to the Karginskiy suite on the belonging to it rest on an eroded surface of glacial deposits | Yenisey. (See Table 2-1.) that, given their stratigraphic position, can only be of Early The Upper Zyryanka horizon is subdivided into several

Zyranka age. climatostratigraphic units, the rank of which has not yet-

The Lokhpodgort glacial subhorizon was named after a been definitively established. Best substantiated are the moraine of the same name heretofore observed only inthe Salekhard-Uval and Gyda layers, which on the Ob’ and mouth of the Ob’ near Salekhard, where it restson marine Yenisey belong to the maximum stage of glaciation Kharsoim layers. To the south in the Ob’ River valley, gla- (22,000 to 16,000 yr B.P.). Younger N’yapan (15,000 to ciolacustrine and lacustrine sediments make up Kazym lay- 13,000 yr B.P.) and Noril’sk (approximately 11,400 to

ets with radiocarbon dates of 37,850+80 yr B.P. 10,300 yr B.P.) layers (stages) were first identified in the

LATE PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION OF WESTERN SIBERIA 15

af

northern Yenisey. (The latter were referred by Saks to the cally complete degradation of the dark coniferous forests Sartan Glaciation.) Their correlations in the lower Ob’ re- _— that had grown there extensively during the Kazantsevo gion are considered to be the Sopkei and Polar Ural layers. Interglacial. Southern dry steppes were converted into Thus, the main criterion for the establishment of the prin- _ periglacial cold steppes. At the beginning of the glaciacipal stages of the Late Zyryanka Glaciation are terminal tion, under cold but moist climatic conditions, the former and recessional moraines, which are very distinct in relief. forest zone was occupied by forest tundra and, at the end, Interstadial formations have been studied very little. when the climate became markedly continental and dry, by periglacial tundra-steppes (Giterman et al., 1968).

Climate and Vegetation In the past, Early Zyryanka interstadial formations were

not known. Today, they are detected in the periglacial Climatic changes during the Zyryanka Glaciation are de- —_ zone in the lower Ob’ River valley and on the Belogor’ye termined very clearly from the migration of recent vegeta- | Upland asa band of lacustrine clays with peat dated by the tion-landscape zones toward the south or north (Arkhipov, | thermoluminescence method at 70,0004 15,000 yr B.P. 1971). It is now commonly agreed that the period of Early —_ Fossil plants from buried peat in this zone are scarce but Zytyanka Glaciation in western Siberia involved a practi- include nuts and cones of Picea obovata Ldb., Pinus sp.,

=

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SHURYSCHKAR ) SUBZONE ) x WARMING LIGHT NORTHERN TAIGA — %0 FOREST FOREST-TUNDRA | FOREST

TUNDRA 50000 (Gomes)

Figure 2-1. Principal stages in the development of vegetation and climate in the Middle Zyryanka Interstadial complex.

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LATE PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION OF NORTH-CENTRAL SIBERIA 23

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Late Pleistocene glaciers in the | ;

[cy] ~ J| 1. Boundaries of maximum extent of aa 9. Dzhangodskiy pressure ridge (|)

Verkhoyansk hes the east 10. Marginal formations of the second deglaciation phase of the northern ice

2. Boundary of the early (maximum) sheet: |V = Mokoritto ridges, V = Upper

stage of Zyryanka Glaciation in the Cen- Taymyr Ridge tral Siberian Highland and the North ; . here pints! sineandiies F=4 11. Marginal formations of the third

Zyryanka Glaciati |

deglaciation phase of the northern ice

3. Boundary of the second stage of sheet, identified from radar pictures

fynen teen 12. Regions of alpine glaciation during

Zyryanka Glaciation , | [e ] 13. Areas covered during Zyryanka

LAr 4. Undifferentiated boundary of Sartan time

—! 5. Boundary of maximum extent of the Glaciation by low-activity local ice caps

Putorana ice sheet of Sartan Glaciation, _ a }

which records the first phase of 14. Principal directions of ice flow dur-

deglaciation ing Zyryanka Glaciation

[=] 6. Marginal formations of the second [ —+] 15. Principal directions of ice flow dur-

deglaciation phase of the Putorana ice ing Sartan Glaciation

mon [a | 16. Sample locations and results of 7. Marginal formations of the third radiocarbon dating of plant remains deglaciation phase of the Putorana ice from deposits of underlying Sartan sheet moraine and glaciofluvial sediments — 8. Marginal formations of the max- [ * | 17. Location of Cape Sabler section

imum extent the nstructed northern icewith sheetinsufof a : | Freof18.

the Sartan Glaciation: |i =Syntabul'’skiy == be lee onecla a ee ne Ridge, !!l=North Kokora Ridge

Figure 3-3. Boundary of maximum extent, stages, and deglaciation phases of Zyryanka and Sartan ice sheets in north-central Siberia. (Map compiled by L. L. Isayeva.)

26 ISAYEVA a

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1. Moraine of early Middle Pleistocene 10. Glaciofluvial deposits of the second aE oiaciation +/ stage of the Zyryanka Glaciation

== 2. Middle Pleistocene lacustrine deposits 11. Lacustrine deposits of the Early Karginskiy interval

glaciation Karginskiy interval

L4\A, 3. Moraine of late Middle Pleistocene 12. Lacustrine deposits of the early Middle

VGlaciation . oo.Se

alllxz - 4. Alluvial deposits of Kazantsevo horizon 13. Alluvial deposits of the Late Karginsky *—— interval

:Clllk2-=3 5. Lacustrine deposits of Kazantsevo allis-IV4 14. Alluvial deposits of the Sartan Glacia-

horizon -*_*_*) tion and the Early Holocene

6. Moraine of first stage of Zyryanka 15. Alluvial deposits of the Holocene

Pill zr 7. Lacustrine interstadia!l deposits of | 2 | 16. Location of boreholes -—*—4 Zyryanka Glaciation

Zyryanka Glaciation

igiize’y 8. Moraine of the second stage of N _ | 17. Hypothetical correlation lines 9. Glaciolacustrine deposits of the second 18. Base of Quaternary deposits: a.

. stage of the Zyryanka Glaciation established; b. hypothetical

Figure 3-4. Basic geologic-geomorphologic sections through (a) the Aganyli Depression and (b) the Murukta Depression of the Central Siberian Highland.

LATE PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION OF NORTH-CENTRAL SIBERIA 27 , which corresponds to maximum ice extent, the glaciers of land was penetrated by a marine transgression (Andreyeva, the North, Putorana, and Anabar centets merged into a 1980), which is represented by clays and by aleurites with single cover that occupied the entire northwestern part of shells of bathypelagic marine mollusks (Table 3-1 and Figthe Central Siberian Highland (Figure 3-3) and formed ures 3-1 and 3-2) widely distributed in the basins of the large lobes extending southward along the Yenisey Valley | M. Romanikha and Boyarka Rivers. Radiocarbon dates on and eastward along Khatanga Bay. It also may have cov- this part of the section ate 43,600+ 1500 yr B.P. (GINered the Severnaya Zemlya Islands, for the Zyryanka mor- 673) from wood and 31,000+750 yr B.P. (MGU-486) aines occur everywhere as well as on the shelf below the _ from shells. The decline of the transgression is represented present ocean level. There, the moraine rests on Kazan- there by marine and riverine sandy and pebbly sediments tsevo deposits and is overlain by radiocarbon-dated Kar- containing woody detritus dated at 39,000 to 32,000 yr ginskiy deposits, which also occur on high marine terraces, | B.P. In the western (Pyasina River basin) and northeastern

indicating glacioisostatic uplift of the islands. parts of the lowland, marine conditions of sedimentation In the Verkhoyansk Range, the glaciation was largely re- _ still existed at that time. A further retreat of the sea result-

stricted to the valleys, although the high parts of the ed in the formation of lacustrine and lacustrine-riverine mountains may have been covered by an ice cap. Large deposits localized in separate topographic depressions piedmont glaciers reached the Lena River valley at the base (with radiocarbon dates of 29,000 to 23,000 yr B.P.). The

of the range. aleurites and sands in the upper part of Bolshaya Balakhna At the maximum of Zyryanka Glaciation, the east-west | Basin, with shallow-water mollusks dated at 33,000 to

section of the Nizhnyaya Tunguska Valley wasdammed by _— 26,000 yr B.P., record a lagoon-type basin that remained the ice and was filled by a proglacial lake to an elevation _ the longest within the lowland. In the North Siberian Lowof not less than 280 m. Upstream alluvium is of periglacial land, there also existed closed depressions where transgrestype and contains pseudomorphs of ice wedges formed at _ sion waters did not penetrate and where lacustrine aleuritthe same time as the alluvium. This indicates a fairly harsh —_ic-argillaceous and sandy deposits were formed during the climate at the glacial maximum (although the size of the —_ entire Karginskiy interval.

pseudomorphs ts small, with a maximum depth of 0.7 to In the central Siberian Highland, Karginskiy lacustrine 1.0 m). The cold climatic conditions of that time are also — and alluvial deposits are locally buried by Sartan glacial indicated by the pollen spectra from the alluvium, which — sediments. Lacustrine sediments fill up the Aganyli and indicate a peculiar periglacial tundra-steppe with grasses, | Murukta depressions, reaching a thickness of 75 m in the Artemisia, chenopods, lichens, and mosses. Woody plants _ latter, and can be traced part way up the valleys of the Koare represented by dwarf birch, alder, and A/waster and _ tuy and Moyyero Rivers in these basins. A radiocarbon date

possibly by tree birch and larch. Harsh winters with little of 35,800+1700 yr B.P. (GIN-493) (Bardeyeva et al., snow afe indicated by numerous mammalian remains 1980) was obtained from alluvial deposits (channel facies) (e.g., horse, bison, and mammoth) buried in Zyryanka al- _ buried under a Sartan moraine in the Kotuy River valley, luvium. Throughout the Central Yakutya Lowland, peb- _—_and a date of about 37,000 yr B.P. was obtained from the bles vertically oriented by frost action are found at dif- _ pebbly alluvium in the Nizhnyaya Tunguska Valley under ferent geomorphologic levels. It can be assumed that the sediments of a proglacial Sartan lake. In regions not covtaiga forests that grew in central Siberia before the glacia- _ ered by glaciers and not flooded by Sartan proglacial lakes, tion degraded almost completely during the last glacia- | Karginskiy deposits are represented by fluvial terraces III tion, remaining as small islands in the southern part of the _and II of large rivers (Nizhnyaya Tunguska, Kotuy, Moy-

region in the Upper Angara Basin. yero). A radiocarbon date of 28,800+500 yr B.P. (GIN

237) (Kind, 1974) originates from an oxbow-lake facies of

, the Nizhnyaya Tunguska’s second terrace. Middle Zyryanka On the western slope of the Verkhoyansk Range, in the

During the Middle Zyryanka Interstade, the glaciersonthe __right-bank portion of the Lena River Plain, the Karginskiy Central Siberian Highland shrank considerably, remaining —_ horizon is clearly divided into three bands of different ages only on the Putorana Plateau and the Anabar Highland. _—_and of partially different origin. The oldest band is alThe Murukta and Aganyli Basins were occupied by lakes. — luvium with radiocarbon dates of 37,000 to 33,000 yr B.P. Pollen spectra from interstadial deposits of the Murukta on plant remains. The alluvium is buried by moraine and Basin indicate very thin larch forests, with shrubs and _fluvioglacial deposits of the Zhigansk glacial complex. The grasses in openings; that is, they indicate a harsher climate _ latter, in turn, is overlapped or bordered by alluvium of than the present one. The ice sheet in the North Siberian _ fluvial terrace II of the Lena River near the village of ZhiLowland broke up into a series of dead-ice blocks, which — gansk, with dates of 30,000 to 29,000 yr B.P. (Table 3-1) did not expand until the next glaciation (Isayeva et al., | (Kind et al., 1971; Kolpakov and Belova, 1980).

1980). For Karginskiy time, repeated fluctuations of the climate are recorded by pollen evidence of a change in vege-

Karginskiy Interval tation from middle taiga forest to forest-tundra and

tundra. Three stages of warming, separated by two cold At the beginning of the Karginskiy interval, the Zyryanka _ intervals, are indicated by Kind (1974) for the Yenisey glaciers degraded completely, and the North Siberian Low- Valley. Similar fluctuations for the North Siberian

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1. Pebbles ES} 4. Aleurite CZ7J 8. Plant detritus

2. Gravel SS 5. Clay VZZ71 9. Cross-bedding 3. Sand 6. Alluvial peat {-* _]10. Sample locations for radiocarbon dates 7. Wood fragments Figure 3-5. Section of lacustrine deposits of Baty-Sala beds (Karginskiy interval), their diatomaceous characteristics (after M. Cherkasova), and their spore-pollen characteristics (after M. Nikol’skaya).

Lowland are based on the pollen and diatom content of indicate an almost complete absence of tree pollen and a lacustrine deposits in the Baty-Sala Basin (Figure 3-5)(An- preponderance of dwarf birch, alder, and A/master. The dreyeva, 1980), representative of the entire Karginskiy in- | sharpest Karginskiy cooling even led to glaciation (Zhiterval, with three warmings (early: 50,000 to 44,000 yr — gansk glacial complex, 33,000 to 30,000 yr B.P.) in the B.P.; middle: 42,000 to 33,000 yr B.P.; late: 30,000 to Verkhoyansk mountain system. The large size of the gla24,000 yr B.P.). Warming epochs are dominated by trees _—ciers (exceeding the boundaries of the mountains), deand shrubs (60% to 90%) in the pollen spectra, although _— veloped in such a short period of time, suggests that the trees do not exceed 40% of the sum of trees and shrubs. __ glaciation, which began in the mountains during Zyryanka Of interest is the presence of 20% to 30% spruce pollen. _ time, was not completely interrupted, although it did deThis is remarkable because the nearest spruce at the pre- —_ crease markedly in dimension. Data on the Zhigansk Glasent time is 500 km south of the Batay-Sala Basin, which ciation are in accord with those on the Lokhpotgort Glais completely in the tundra zone. Macrofossils in the ciation in the northwestern Siberia. Karginskiy deposits include seeds of taiga elements (duck-

bean, water milfoil, pondweed), which do not grow in the Sartan (Late Valdai) Glaciation

tundra zone at the present time. Sediments of the Karginskiy warm epochs are characterized by the presence of a The cooling that followed the Late Karginskiy warming led small number of cold-water diatoms (up to 12% versus to the formation and development of Sartan (Late Valdai) 27% to 43% in sediments of cold epochs). In modern _— Glaciation. The Sartan horizon of northern Siberia encomsediments cold-water diatom species (arctic, arctoboreal, passes glacial deposits and the lacustrine and alluvial deand northern alpine) are present in amounts of 10% to _ posits associated with it, as well as widely distributed eoli-

25% (M. N. Cherkasova, personal communication). an and cryogenic loess-ice formations. Thus, the Karginskiy warm intervals were warmer than In the North Siberian Lowland, Sartan glacial deposits the present climate. For the cold epochs, the pollen spectra = are represented by ground moraines and a complex series

LATE PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION OF NORTH-CENTRAL SIBERIA 29 of terminal moraines bordered by fluvioglacial gravel § ground moraines, filled terminal formations, and gravel in trains. The location of the marginal formations on the low- _—_dead-ice fields contiguous to terminal moraines on the land, as well as the lithology and long-axis orientation of proximal side and characterized by a distinct hill and basin the stones, indicate two centers of glaciation: a northern relief. Belts of marginal formations delineate the Putorana one somewhere on the Kara Sea Shelf and a southern one _— Plateau in the east and south (Isayeva, 1972). Traced most

on the Putorana Plateau. The maximum advance of the clearly and almost continuously (as in the North Siberian northern ice sheet is recorded by a frontal ridge, which ex- — Lowland) are three belts, tentatively correlated with the tends across the entire lowland from the southwest to the —_ terminal moraines of the northwestern foot of the Putonortheast (it is known by the name of Dzhangodo-Syn- __rana Plateau identified by Saks (1953) and Strelkov (1957) tabul-North Kokora Ridge [Figure 3-3]). The deposits be- | as Zyryanka formations. The occurence of Karginskiy deneath this ridge (and possibly also those in detached posits (dated from more than 50,000 to 40,000 yr B.P.) masses) have dates of 41,000 and 29,000 yr B.P. on plant =‘ (Troitskiy, 1967) under the earliest (Karaul) of these fordetritus and 37,000, 29,000, and 25,000 yr B.P. on marine mations now permits one to regard them as of Sartan age. mollusks incorporated in the moraine (Figures 3-1 and Lacustrine deposits are represented by varved clays, 3-2). Peat underlying the fluvioglacial deposits are dated _—_aleurites, and sands. In the Norilka River basin, at the foot at 37,090 + 1500 yr B.P. (SOAN-1077) and plant detritus of the northwestern slope of the Putorana Plateau, a radiofrom sediments underlying meltwater deposits yielded a carbon date of 19,000 yr B.P. was determined from fine date of 30,600+ 2000 yr B.P. (GIN-1559). Thus, the plant detritus from the lower portion of a section of lacusDzhangodo-Syntabul marginal formations are considered __ trine clays resting on ground moraine. In the Nizhnyaya to be Sartan (Late Valdai) in age. Farther to the north, § Tunguska Valley, covered with Sartan glacial deposits near another frontal ridge, the Mokoritto-Upper Taimyr frontal the estuary, lacustrine deposits of a proglacial lake are repmoraine ridge, records the advance of two huge glacier —_ resented by aleurites and sands lining the valley to an elelobes from the north across the Byranga Mountains (Figure —_ vation of 180 m and traced up the river to the settlement 3-3), and a large number of separate ridges indicate a par- = of Tura. Farther up the river, they are replaced by alluvial tial retreat of the ice sheet. On the northern coast of the deposits of the first fluvial terrace, which are characterized Taimyr Peninsula, another frontal moraine ridge identi- _ by the presence of thick syngenetic ice wedges.

fied from aerial photographs may record a third major In the highland area covered by Sartan glaciers or by phase in the development of the northern ice sheet. Atthe —_ waters of glacial lacustrine basins, only the alluvium of flunorthern base of the Putorana Plateau, Sartan glacial de- _ vial terraces is bordered by Sartan deposits. On the Anabar posits form several marginal arcs that cross each other tran- = Highland, small terminal moraines of valley glaciers can be sgressively. The glacial and fluvioglacial deposits forming _ tentatively referred to the Sartan.

the arcs overlie marine and continental Karginskiy de- At the foot of the western slope of the Verkhoyansk posits, which have several radiocarbon dates from 43,000 _—Range, Sartan deposits are represented by ground moraine

to 23,000 yr B.P. (Isayeva et al., 1976). and an intricately structured complex of marginal deposits Widespread Sartan lacustrine deposits in the lowland forming marginal arcs of piedmont glaciers. As it has alare represented by aleurites and fine sands with horizontal —_ ready been stated, the alluvial sands underlying them were

and wavelike laminations. The deposits form a series of — radiocarbon-dated at 30,000 to 29,000 yr B.P. Three belts lacustrine terraces 40 to 100 m high, with transition to flu- of marginal arcs are the most distinct: the Ulakhankyuelvioglacial trains on the distal side of glacial ridges. The flu- _—skiy, Sigenekhskiy, and Segemdinskiy belts. Dates of lavial deposits entrench the lakebeds. In the south-central — custrine deposits associated with the youngest belt are part of the lowland in the Kheta River basin, the oldest 15,850+460 yr B.P. (GIN-333) and 15,100460 yr B.P.

river terrace (enclosed in lacustrine ones) is dated at (GIN-332). 15,630+80 yr B.P. (GIN-938) and 13,700+ 150 yr B.P. Thus, during the Sartan Glaciation the centers were lo(GIN-692). However, in the northern part of the lowland cated in the same place as those of the Zyryanka Glacia(in the basin of the Upper Taimyra River and Lake tion, but the dimensions were much smaller (Figure 3-3). Taimyr), lacustrine deposits continued to form in later — Glaciers of the North and Putorana centers came together phases of deglaciation as well, and some lakes have per- _ only in the far west of the North Siberian Lowland, and sisted until the present time (e.g., Lake Taimyr, Lake its central and eastern parts were free of this ice. Minor Labaz). Alluvial deposits in the third fluvial terrace of the = mountain glaciers developed on the Anabar Highland, but Khatanga River, whose basin was not occupied by a pro- _ the glaciation of the Verkhoyansk Range was extensive and

glacial lake, have a date of 17,7804200 yr B.P. (GIN- almost equal to the Zyryanka Glaciation. As in Ver937), and those of the second fluvial terrace of the Kheta _ khoyan’ye, on the Putorana Plateau and in the North Siand B. Balakhnya Rivers are dated at 14,000 to 10,000 yr —_ berian Lowland marginal frontal formations recorded three B.P. Above the lacustrine deposits or (in the east) on older = major pauses during the general retreat of the ice sheets. sediments lie eolian sands forming either single or complex The retreat of the piedmont glaciers of the Verkhoyansk

dunes. Range ended around 15,000 yr B.P. However, glaciers con-

On the Central Siberian Highland, the Sartan horizon _ tinued to exist in the mountains, as recorded by valley teralso includes glacial, fluvioglacial, lacustrine-glacial, and = minal moraines. Small glaciers are known in the Verkho-

alluvial deposits. The glacial complex is made up of yansk Range at the present time as well. At the maximum

30 ISAYEVA glaciation in the central part of the North Siberian Low- _ north during either the Syntabul’skiy or the Upper Taimyr land, the vast Pralabaz Lake basin was formed; the lake _ glaciation phase. In that case, it may be inferred that over - emptied into the Laptevy Sea around 14,000 yr B.P. Asthe — the Taimyr in Sartan time only alpine glaciation developed glaciers retreated, a few other lakes of smaller size were in the highest northeastern part of Byrranga Mountains, formed in the lowland. During glacial expansion and after where traces of local valley glaciation have been preserved. the emptying of Pralabaz Lake, winds from the west pro-

duced oriented dunes in the central and eastern parts of References

the lowland (eastern and northeastern directions pre-

dominate at present). ; ; Andreyeva, S. M. (1978). Zyryanka Glaciation in north-central Siberia. Eolian processes were extensively developed at that time USSR Academy of Sciences Izvestiya sertya geograficheskaya 5, 72-78. in the Lena-Vilyuy Lowland as well, as indicated by the pe- —Andreyeva, S. M. (1980). The North Siberian Lowland in Karginskiy culiar omnipresent loess-ice cover deposits—loams, sandy time: Paleogeography, radiocarbon geochronology. I” “Geochronology

loams, fine sands, and buried ice—thought to be of cryo- of the Quaternary Period” (I. K. Ivanova, and N. V. Kind, eds.), pp. enic-eolian origin. The cover deposits probably started to 183-91. Nauka Press, Moscow. Fn during ie Karginskiy vaterval (Zhipansk cooling), Bardeyeva, M. A., and Isayeva, L. L. (1980). Identification of the Murukbut they appear to have accumulated most activ ely durin g ta horizon in Quaternary deposits of northern Siberia. USSR Academy a ; Glaciation. . . of Sctences Doklady 251, the Sartan The formation of169-73. syngenetic , op . . . atdeyeva, M. A., Isayeva, L. L., Andreyeva, S.thick, M., Kind, N. V., Nikol’-

ice-wedge features in Sartan alluvium and the develop- skaya, M. V., Pirumova, L. G., Sulerzhitskiy, L. D., and Cherkasova, ment of eolian processes (formation of a ventifact horizon, M. N. (1980). Stratigraphy, geochronology, and paleogeography of the

sandy dune masses, single eolian forms) in central Siberia Late Pleistocene and Holocene of the north of the Central Siberian indicate very harsh climatic conditions during the Sartan Highland. In “Geochronology of the Quaternary Period” (I. K. IvanGlaciation. The valleys of shallow rivers were filled with ova and N. V. Kind, eds.), pp. 198-208. Nauka Press, Moscow. rubbly slope sediments. A layer of cryogenically reworked Isayeva, L. L. (1972). Marginal glacial formations of the northwestern soils up to 5 m thick was formed on surfaces that were free Central Siberian Highland. In “Marginal Formations of Continental

of vegetation or turf. Tundra or forest-tundra was present Glaciations” si ‘ soretsky , D. I. Pogulyayev, and S. M. Shik, eds.), even 1000 km from the glacier edges, as evident from pol- PP. 205-11. Nauka Press, Moscow. len spectra from alluviun of terrace I. On this basis one Isayeva, I. L., Kind, N. V., Andreyeva, S. M., Ivanenko, G. V., Ni

. . .. kol’skaya, M. V., Sulerzhitskiy, L. D., and Fisher, E. L. (1980). Geo-

can. chronology postulate that of central Siberia thePleistocene maximum of h ;the North . ee andmost paleogeography of the at Late of Saftan Glaciation was a peculiar zone of cold desert and Siberian Lowland based on radiocarbon data. I” “Geochronology of

semidesert. Grassy plant associations could have grown the Quaternary Period” (I. K. Ivanova and N. V. Kind, eds.), pp.

along the river valleys and in the zones of periglacial 191-98. Nauka Press, Moscow. floods, and farther to the south islands of forest vegetation Isayeva, L. L., Kind, N. V., Kraush, M. A., and Sulerzhitskiy, L. D. could have occurred. On the whole, the conditions for (1976). Age and structure of marginal formations at the northern foot growth of vegetation were much harsher than during Zyr- of the Putorana Plateau. Bulletin of the Commission for the Study of

yanka time; practically all of central Siberia was a perigla- the Quaternary P riod 45, 117-23.

7s - .stage Isotope Data.” Nauka Press, Moscow. ciation of Sartan Glaciation cannot be characterized Kind 4. . ae ind, N. V., Kolpakov, V. V., and Sulerzhitskiy, L. D. (1971). Age of

cial zone. The course of climatic changes during the degla- Kind, N. V. (1974). “Geochronology of the Late Anthropogene Based on

because of an almost total lack of organic remains in de- the glaciation of Verkhoyan’ye. USSR Academy of Sciences, Izvestiya

posits of that time. sertya geologicheskaya 10, 135-44.

The Late Pleistocene paleogeography of north-central Kolpakov, V. V., and Belova, A. P. (1980). Radiocarbon dating in the Siberia described above ts only one of the possible inter- glacial region of Verkhoyan’ye and its framing. I” “Geochronology of

pretations of the data available at the present level of the Quaternary Period” (I. K. Ivanova and N. V. Kind, eds.), pp. knowledge. Some data contradict this interpretation. On 235-38. Nauka Press, Moscow. the western shore of Lake Taimyr, a section of a 30-m lake — Saks, V. N. (1953). “The Quaternary Period in the Soviet Arctic.” Pro-

terrace is characterized by a series of successive dates from ceecunes of the Scientific Research Institute of the Geology of the Arc-

,000 yr B.P. to those of Holocene ages. The section i ue Tt . .

represente d by horizontally s ratified conechromatie Strelkov, S. A. (1957). Stratigraphy of Quaternary deposits of northwest-

. . . ern Siberia and the Taimyr Lowland. I” “Proceedings of the Inter-

aleurites and fi ne sands with P lant detritus (moss and departmental Conference on the Study of Unified Stratigraphic gtasses). The section has no breaks in sedimentation; Its Schemes of Siberia” (V. N. Saks, ed.), pp. 373-82. Gostoptekhizdat,

presence in the far north of the North Siberian Lowland Leningrad. ,

and the Byrranga Piedmont contradicts the concept of the Troitskiy, S. L. (1967). New data on the last cover glaciation of Siberia.

spreading of the Sartan ice sheet to the lowland from the USSR Academy of Science, Doklady 174, 1409-12.

CHAPTERS

Late Pleistocene Mountain Glaciation in Northeastern USSR V. G. Bespalyy

Mountain glaciation in the northeastern USSR is dealt with Zyryanka Glaciation

at length in the works of S$. V. Obruchev, D. M. Kolosov, N. Saks, N. A. Shilo, Yu. N. Trushkov, A. P. Vas’kovskiy, Traces of the first Late Pleistocene glaciation (Zyryanka, acO. B. Kashmenskaya, Z. V. Khvorostova, Yu. P. Barano- _—_ cording to Saks, 1948) are widely represented in the region

va, S. F. Biske, Yu. I. Gol’dfarb, O. M. Petrov, and many (Table 4-1). In the Yano-Kolymskiy Highland they are other authors. Despite the enormous volume of research known as the first Bokhapcha Glaciation (A. P. Vas’kovalready carried out, there is as yet no consensus on the _ skiy’s term), on Chukotka as the Vankarem Glaciation number and scale of Pleistocene glaciations. During the (Petrov, 1966), and in northeastern Priokhot’ye as the last decade, radiocarbon dating has shown that well-de- | Tylkhoy Glaciation (Bespalyy, 1974). The glaciation enfined depositional and erosional forms were produced by — compassed practically all mountain masses above 1000 m Late Pleistocene glaciations. This has made it possible to (Figure 4-1). Judging from altitudes on cirque floors, the chart glacier forms and to establish the thickness and scale — snow line underwent considerable fluctuation. In northern of glaciations. Such work was done by the Cenozoic Stra- — Priokhot’ye, it descended to 400 m (Voskresenskiy and tigraphy and Geomorphology Laboratory of the Joint | Voskresenskiy, 1977). Even lower was the snow line on the Northeastern Scientific Research Institute in accordance coast of eastern Chukotka, where there are cirques with with studies under the International Geological Correla- _ floor altitudes of 60 to 80 m above sea levels. In the interition Program, Quaternary Glaciations of the Northern _ or of the continent, the snow line gradually rose and reach-

Hemisphere. ed an elevation of 1450 to 1850 m in the Chersk mountain system (Miller, 1976).

Z : In the southeastern part of Chukotka, in the eastern part | he | \\_ of the Koryaki Upland and Kamchatka, and in northeast-

/ ‘QY—\4 =shelf. | \\Marginal ce meadeposits bo age oeglaciation onto the x / 1S of this arecu nowprin subNS Ly | Wo \ \| merged. Eroded into them are submerged shorelines

TIN pw GY M\YN "BsL,] created during warm Late Pleistocene intervals, when the

YY) [- WA SRVASVKAS

WH NGS WASSIA DIN sea level was 15 to 45 m below the present level. Ss N77 ys | WN Ne Ke The intensity of the first Late Pleistocene glaciation was N NWR j GG S yy | ‘S different in various regions. The heaviest glaciation ocSES SAS )

Late Pleistocene Glaciation of the Arctic Shelf, and the Reconstruction of Eurasian Ice Sheets A. A. Velichko, L. L. Isayeva, V. M. Makeyev, G. G. Matishoy, and M. A. Faustova

The problems associated with judging the extent of Late characteristics and on correlation with dated marginal Pleistocene glaciation on Eurasia’s Arctic Shelf are closely | zones on the coast. Therefore, the reconstructions made related to the problems encountered in reconstructing the thus far are hypothetical. entire system of ice sheets in northern Eurasia during the Late Pleistocene. Marine-geologic studies at many points

of the present Eurasian shelf have resulted in the discovery Barents Sea Shelf

of deposits and relief forms similar to those formed by glaciers on the continent. Detailed geologic mapping on the _Reconstructions of Late Pleistocene glaciation in the EuroEuropean and Asian Arctic Shelves in the 1970s—includ- pean (Barents Sea) sector of the Arctic are essentially reing echo sounding and photography of the bottom, large- | duced to two variants: (1) an independent Barents Sea ice scale profiling, and bathymetric mapping of the surface— sheet merged with the Scandinavian ice sheet, forming a has confirmed the hypotheses previously advanced by sev- dome on the central low-lying shelf zone (Grosswald, eral authors (V. A. Obruchev, N. N. Urvantsev, S. A. Ya- 1977, 1980; Schytt et al., 1968), and (2) a more limited kovlev, V. N. Saks, and others) for the existence of past ice Barents Sea glacier on the Arctic Shelf—a concept that has

sheets within the confines of the present shelf. many adherents: V. D. Dibner, G. G. Matishov, A. A. Geomorphologic indications of the extent of ice sheets Velichko, V. G. Khodakov, M. A. Faustova, and others. on the shelf include systems of marginal glacial formations —_It is assumed that the centers of such glaciation were con-

as well as marginal longitudinal and transverse trenches _ fined to elevated relief forms— islands and high plateaus and submerged fjords. Marginal trenches and fjords have = (Velichko and Khodakov, 1979). Danilov (1971) and © a stepped longitudinal profile, overdeepened depressions, others hold the extreme view that there was no shelf glaciaand U-shaped cross sections, all of which indicate glacial tion during the Late Pleistocene. erosion. End moraines are traced as concentric chains over We briefly discuss the support of modern data for each the bottom of trenches and submerged plateaus. Their re- | of the proposed hypotheses. The chief arguments in favor lief reaches 100 m, and their narrow transverse profile and of a single dome in the central low-lying zone of the Bardepths above them range from 50 to 350 m. The ridges are — ents Sea Shelf spreading out toward its periphery are the composed of dense boulder clays and loams and ate cov- _saucer-shaped shelf, which is attributed to the weight of ered with a thick pebble or boulder mantle (Dibner et al., _ the ice sheet, and the pattern of uplift isolines. However, 1971; Blazhchishin and Lin’kova, 1977; Matishov, 1976a, studies made during the 1970s indicate no relationship 1976b, 1980). According to G. G. Matishov’s studies, the | between the isostatic effect and uplift isolines for the ridges include push moraines, frontal moraines, and coast- _ glacial episode of 21,000 to 18,000 years ago (Boulton, al morainic ridges. A system of erosional-depositional for- 1979). The absence of such a relationship was also inmations was formed by fluvioglacial flows. In the sea-floor dicated earlier by Saks (1948), Strelkov (1968), and Dibner topography, a zone of predominant excavation, a zone of —_ (1970) as well as by Lavrushin (1970) and Lazukov (1972). nonuniform glacial accumulation, and a periglacial and The hypothesis cited is inconsistent with paleoglaciologic

periglacial-marine zone can be clearly distinguished. calculations, which indicate that there was not enough The dimensions of the Late Pleistocene glaciation of the time to form a single dome in the central part of the Arctic Shelf depend on the age determination of the mat- _ Barents Sea Shelf (Velichko and Khodakov, 1979). In adginal formations. Their dating is based on geomorphologic _ dition, detailed echo sounding has failed to detect traces 35

36 VELICHKO, ISAYEVA, MAKEYEV, MATISHOV, FAUSTOVA of glacial activity in the shallows of the Pecheromorskiy tion for the glaciation of the Arctic’s European sectors, but Plain (Matishov, 1977), and there are no traces of alinkage | already they contradict even the version discussed above. of the Scandinavian and Spitzbergen ice sheets. (Data on Thus, radiocarbon dating of bottom sediments of Lake the limited dimensions of the Spitzbergen ice sheet during | Endlevatn on Andya Island (Vester Aalen Archipelago) on the Late Pleistocene are discussed later in this chapter.) Norway’s outer shelf, located on the proximal side of Egga According to the second reconstruction, the Scandina- _1 ridges, are 18,000, 18,700, and 19,000 yr B.P. (Vorren, vian and Spitzbergen glaciers in the Late Pleistocene 1978). These dates probably attest to the modest dimenreached the outer edge of the shelf in the west. Between _ sions of the Late Pleistocene glacial maximum, with a date them was a region of shelf glaciation, inside which probably —_ not older than 18,000 yr B.P., as assumed by Grosswald existed a small, independent ice sheet whose center waslo- (1977), who regarded the Egga 1 ridges as representing one cated on the Medvezh’ye Nadezhdinskiy Upland. The of the deglaciation stages of the shelf’s Late Pleistocene Scandinavian ice sheet was connected to the Lofoten and __ glaciation, as did Andersen (1968, 1976). The data on Ponoy local ice sheets, and it extended northward along _— Lake Endlevatn are consistent with conclusions about the marginal trenches in numerous lobes. In the east, the — glaciomarine origin of deposits on the Norwegian shelf Spitzbergen and Franz Josef Land ice sheets merged with north of Tromsé, for which a date of 13,350 yr B.P. was the Novaya Zemlya ice sheet, which in turn merged obtained from shells. This conclusion was reached on the southward with the Vaygach and Pay-Khoy ice sheets in __ basis of a detailed lithologic study of sediments (Vorren et the Urals, forming lobes that reached the Pechora Lowland _al., 1978). Changes in ice volume during the Weichselian, in the south. The glacier limits are shown on the shelf by _ calculated for western Norway by Miller and Mangerud concentric zones of marginal formations linked to the mar- (1980) by means of the amino-acid method, showed that ginal zones of the Scandinavian, Spitzbergen, Novaya | during a major portion of the Weichselian the Norwegian Zemlya, and Franz Josef Land ice sheets. On the Barents _ coast was free of ice. Gradually the dimensions of the Late Sea Shelf, at least four concentric zones of marginal glacier Pleistocene glacier of the Spitzbergen Archipelago shrank. formations can be traced to the periphery of the ice sheets | Well known from the literature are sections in marine terof Scandinavia and Barents Sea islands. These complexes _ races in which Holocene sediments rest continuously on are divided into an outer (pre-Valdai) and an inner (Val- = marine sediments radiocarbon-dated at 40,000 to 26,000

dai) complex. yt B.P. or are separated from them only by a bed of collu-

The boundary of Late Pleistocene glaciation on the outer vium (Blake, 1961; Salvigssen, 1977; Feyling-Hanssen, shelf of Norway is represented by the end-moraine com- —_1965; Troitskiy and Punning, 1979). The extent and radioplex Egga 1, which is one of five heterochronous glacial carbon dating of submarine and continental end moraines complexes of Late Pleistocene glaciation on Scandinavia’s _led to the conclusion that the ice did not totally cover the outer shelf, referred to 21,000 to 17,000 yr B.P. The com- _—_ coast and that nunataks were very common inside the area plex is up to 50 km wide and is made up of two to four _— occupied by the ice (Salvigssen, 1977). Thus, the Late ridges with a configuration reflecting the lobate structure —_ Pleistocene glacier limit may have been close to the coast. of the ice sheet that descended on the shelf along marginal According to the concept of a limited glacial extent on trenches. The thickness of the deposits forming the ridges _ the Barents Sea Shelf, the continental ice there started to

is 200 m or more. The Late Pleistocene age is indicated by contract with the Pomeranian Vepsovo stage around the fresh relief of the ridges and the presence of exclusively 15,000 yr B.P. At the same time, the band of shelf glaciers Holocene sediments on their surface (Holtedahl and Selle- and drifting icebergs increased (Matishov, 1980). Morainic voll, 1972). The similarity of the glacial forms on the floor _— ridges were formed then on intrashelf cuestas, as were of the Barents Sea and on the coast of northern Norway en- _ ridges on subbathyal plains (Disko and others). Starting at abled the adherents of the second hypothesis to draw the 13,500 yr B.P., the continental ice sheet was within the inboundary of the ice sheet’s maximum extent from the Egga __ ner shelf, and during the Younger Dryas it terminated in

1 end moraine to ridges with depths of 300 to 400 m, lo- valley glaciers that scarcely reached beyond the coast cated on the Medvezh’ye Lowland and near the western _— islands, as indicated by numerous radiocarbon dates on shore of Spitzbergen (Matishov, 1980). The Novaya Zem- — moraines in the mouths of fjords and on the islands and lya complex of marginal formations at depths of 200 to 300 _ the coast. m in the eastern part of the Central Lowland, and neigh-

boring submarine elevations and marginal trenches, are Kara Sea Shelf also referred to the maximum stage of Late Pleistocene gla-

ciation. Such a reconstruction is consistent with currently | Data on the glaciation of the Kara Sea Shelf are scarce. available geologic material and with the concept that gla- | Hypotheses about the formation of the Late Valdai ice ciation centers are confined to highlands where snow ac- _ sheet on the Kara Sea Shelf and its expansion onto the notrcumulated (Velichko, 1979). It 1s also consistent with cal- thern margins of the Asian continent have been actively culations on the development phases of the Late Valdai | developed in the last few years by Grosswald (1977, 1980).

Scandinavian glacier (Khodakov, 1973). New data indi- | He reconstructed an ice sheet of up to 2500 km in cating limited glaciation of contiguous sectors of the Arctic | diameter, with its center located in the northern part of (Canada, Greenland) and certain islands of the European _—_ the Yamal Peninsula and adjoining parts of the shelf north and Asian sectors do not yet permit a different reconstruc- | of the Tazovskiy, Gydan, and Taimyr Peninsulas. The ice

LATE PLEISTOCENE GLACIATION OF THE ARCTIC SHELF 37 linked up with the Barents Sea ice sheet to form a single The Polar Ural-Novaya Zemlya and Taimyr-Severnaya ice sheet in the area of the Svyataya Anna Trough. There- § Zemlya covers did not link up, leaving the northern part construction was based mainly on an analysis of marginal — of the Kara Sea Shelf, the Svyataya Anna Trough, and the glacial formations on the Taimyr Peninsula, the Yenisey | Central Kara Upland free of ice. Valley, and western Siberia; on data about the transport of Such a reconstruction is in good agreement with the detritus from the northern coastal areas of the Taimyr aforementioned data reported by Lastochkin (1977) and Peninsula across the Byrranga Mountains into the North Dibner (1970) on the structure of the Kara Sea Shelf, and Siberian Lowland and from the shelf into western Siberia; it accounts for the absence in western Siberia of any disand on data indicating the development of large proglacial tinct end moraines over a long stretch east of the Ob’ lakes in western Siberia. However, there are facts that ar- _—- River’s mouth. It also accounts for the southward transport

gue against such a reconstruction. In the area of the Cen- — of detritus from northern Taimyr across the Byrranga tral Kara Upland and the Svyataya Anna Trough, accord- § Mountains, as well as for the geographic confinement and

ing to Lastochkin (1977; Lastochkin and Fedorov, 1978), configuration of the Mokoritto-Upper Taimyr glacial there are no indications of glacial action but only erosional —_ ridges. On the whole, even in this reconstruction, all the and erosional-tectonic relief forms. According to Dibner known data have not been logically or definitively inter(1970), relief forms similar to marginal glacial formations —_ preted. On the one hand, still unexplained is the northon dry land are known on the floor of the Kara Sea Shelf | ernmost end moraine on the north coast of Taimyr; this

and east of the Novaya Zemlya Depression along the ridge could have been formed only by an ice sheet located shores of Novaya Zemlya and farther east on the Yamal- _—on the Kara Sea Shelf. Without sufficient proof, the glaGydan Shallows. These formations may outline the limits _ cial origin and Late Valdai age of part of the ridge forms of two different ice sheets—the Novaya Zemlya and the in northwestern Siberia is doubtful, for they are of Late Taimyr-Severnaya Zemlya (Figure 5-1). Moreover, in the Valdai age. The complexity of these problems 1s discussed reconstruction under consideration, the southern boun- _ in the chapter dealing with western Siberia (Chapter 2). In dary of the Kara ice sheet on the North Siberian Plain is such a reconstruction, a major ice advance far to the south drawn with insufficient reliability. This boundary isdrawn up the Yenisey Valley is not very understandable either, along discontinuous remnants of glacial ridges, whose cor- _—_ although the moraine left by such ice is radiocarbon-dated relation and age have not been adequately substantiated. as Late Valdai in age (Kind, 1974; Troitskiy, 1967).

Also cautioning against such a reconstruction are the ra- On the other hand, even such a “minimalist” recondiocarbon dates of 16,000 to 15,000 yr B.P. from the west _ struction may yield an exaggerated representation of the coast of the Yamal Peninsula (Figure 5-1), which were ob- — dimensions of glaciation during the Late Valdai. Thus, a tained from buried peat located in the upper levels of ter- section of Cape Sabler, mentioned in the chapter dealing race III (Danilov, 1980). The data are still too scarce and ~— with central Siberia (Chapter 3), contradicts the hypothesis the concepts still too insufficiently substantiated to sup- _—_ of an expansion of the Sartan (Late Valdai) ice sheet from port a long lacustrine transgression in western Siberia, the north to the lowland both in the maximum and Upper which should exist if a single thick ice sheet existed on the Taimyr glaciation phases. One can, therefore, postulate

Kara Sea Shelf. that in the entire Taimyr during Sartan time only moun-

A different reconstruction of Late Valdai ice sheets in _ tain-valley glaciers developed and that these were confined northern Asia was ptoposed by Velichko (1979). Its basis to the highest northeastern part of the Byrranga Mounis the hypothesis that ice sheets started in highlands on the _ tains, where traces of local valley glaciation are preserved. northern continental margin (Putorana Plateau, Polar This concept is consistent with data on the emergence of Ural, Byrranga Mountains) and on the islands of Novaya = marine Karginskiy deposits locally on the bottom of glacial Zemlya and Severnaya Zemlya. At the glacial maximum, depressions in the rear part of the Dzhangodo-Syntabul’the glaciation center was displaced from the Byrranga — skiy-North Kokora Ridge, for these areas lie only under a Mountains to the north coast of the Taimyr Peninsula and _ layer of lacustrine deposits. A slight glaciation of Sever-

adjoining parts of the Kara Sea Shelf, and the North naya Zemlya at the Late Valdat maximum (20,000 to Taimyr and the Severnaya Zemlya ice sheets merged into 18,000 yr B.P.), similar in size to the recent glaciation, is a single cover. Such reconstructions were made previously | supported by data obtained there in the last few years. by Strelkov (1968) for the Early Valdai Glaciation. Two Thus, radiocarbon dating of the mammoth bone observed other ice sheets, formed over the Polar Ural and Novaya on many islands of the archipelago at the margins of recent Zemlya, also merged into a single cover at the glacial max- _ glaciers has shown that the glaciers of 24,000 to 19,000 yr imum. Their expansion to the east was recorded by sub- __B.P. did not surpass recent ones in size (Makeyev et al., merged glacial forms on the eastern slope of the Novaya 1979; Arslanov et al., 1980). The glacial maximum of the Zemlya Depression and by moraines in the southwestern _—_ Late Valdai on Severnaya Zemlya was at 18,000 to 14,000 part of the Yamal Peninsula. The boundary of the Taimyr- —_ yr B.P. However, even so, one must not postulate the forSevernaya Zemlya cover in the west is also shown by glacial mation of a continuous cover over the entire shelf, for the forms indicated by Dibner (1970) in the Yamal-Gyda glaciers were smaller than recent ones as early as 11,500 yr Shallows of the Kara Sea Shelf. The Dzhangodo-Synta- __ B.P. bul’skiy-North Kokora Ridge of the North Siberian Low- All the contradictions and interpretations of existing land is taken as the southern boundary of the ice sheet. data and differences in reconstructions of the entire glacier

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10 > cessional phases is based on dating recessional moraines.

3 The temperature of the summer period during retreat of the last ice sheet from the European plains was characterized by great instability, but on the average was 2°C to 3°C

7 lg L lower than me present and toward end 3 ofremperarure this period became 2°C to 3°C higher thanthe the present F910 3050 100 F000 100 2000 Km temperature (Holocene optimum). We include in the cal-

Figure 7-4. Mean annual accumulation C versus typical dimension culation the constant value Az, equals —2.5°C. Thus, it

L of recent ice sheets. was found that the ice balance of phase 5 of the advance

PALEOCLIMATIC SIGNIFICANCE OF LATE PLEISTOCENE GLACIER REGIMES 59 a

.~

I Pp 2 tpt arn ,

AC 240gent K 07 coe oA

/ ceeeeeeth 160ep } \ _ weet ; hy Ny” g

-§ AeC a eee l,4m JO fxm 6 (b) shape of the last northern European Figure 7-5. (a) Climatic conditions and

5 ice sheet in the epoch of its advance. Abbreviations: ¢,, recent mean summer air

—— temperature; Af;,, its depression in the Z 1 / | ,| || annual epoch of glacier advance; C, recent total precipitation; A, ablation of snow J and ice at temperature ¢,+ At,; 1, current 7 if van starting at the water A |topographic dN through divide of6,section, the Scandinavian mountains; 2 ys, numbers of glacier advance g tll ) Va Fan wlll Faiiisressai AMMAR usdnnanadaanedade phases; dashed line, calculated altitude of M1 Do 500 1000 1500 2000 its equilibrium line. L,“m

(Figure 7-5) was almost exactly equal to zero; that is, the | and in different places in that epoch, high velocities glacier could have remained in place but could not have _ formed glacier lobes at the ice-sheet margin. This entire set

retreated. In phase 6, the position was similar. of phenomena is termed a “degradation advance” (KhodaWe noted above that the shape of the glacier during the —_ kov, 1978), characterized by a rapid decrease in thickness advance was determined by statistical and physical analogy = along with an advance and a general loss of glacier mass to recent ice sheets. Moreover, the fact that the tempera- _ resulting from the sharply increased ablation of the glacier tures of the former glacier ice of different dimensions were _ surface. identical to recent analogues implies the same ice plasticity Figure 7-6 shows the transition from the advance phase _

and conditions of basal sliding. The rigid ice of the cold _ to initial phase 1 of retreat without any change in glacier , epoch gave a fairly sharp form to the surface of the glacier. | mass. The glacier margin, in accordance with paleogeograThe marked warming of 5°C to 6°C during the deglacia- _ phic data, is located on the southern periphery of the Valtion must inevitably have led to an appreciable heating of dai upland. On the basis of elementary geometric consithe entire body of the glacier. Moreover, the elevation of — derations, with the elliptic shape being retained, relations the mean temperature of the glacier in the zone covered —_ (equation 9) for the epoch of glacier degradation becomes

by the melting of previously accumulated firn was much H=0.048VL and H,,=0.061VL. (10)

greater than 5°C to 6°C because of the secondary freezing

of the meltwater and possibly because of the appearance We see that the decrease in glacier thickness corresponds of rainwater. We estimate that for the glacier of phase 5 —_—'to a calculation based on completely independent and of the advance the ice and firn were heated by as much as __ purely physical considerations (Paterson, 1972). The new

20°C. shape does not differ from the old one enough to exceed This situation must inevitably have resulted inachange the range of the 5% confidence interval (Figure 7-3).

in the shape of the glacier. Paterson (1972) estimates a The calculations made after the introduction of Af, thinning of 35% with a warming of 20°C. Possibly atacer- | equals —2.5°C and with the preceding dependence of C tain time and in a certain sector a comparatively slow ad- on L (Figure 7-4) give the time of retreat from maximum vance changed to a rapid one, as is seen in recent mountain phase 1 (Figure 7-6) to 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 as 2740, 6175,

and valley glaciers (Dolgushin and Osipova, 1971). 8020, 9065, and 9715 years, respectively. Starting with Thus, the climatic warming led to (a) arise of the equili- | phase 4, the glacier is devoid of the accumulation area, brium line (dashed curve in Figure 7-6), an increase inthe — and its degradation assumes a catastrophic character. Such ablation area, a corresponding dectease in the accumula- _a situation is known from direct observations in the epoch tion area, and as a result a decrease of the ice balance (see —_ of recent warming in the Arctic on the Novaya Zemlya and equation 7); and (b) an increase in flow and hence to an = Severnaya Zemlya ice sheets (Khodakov, 1978). advance of the glacier margin, while the lowering of the Similarly, Khodakov (1979) has calculated the advance surface of the glacier enhanced ablation. At different times of ice sheets in the eastern sector of the Arctic (Figure 7-7).

60 LEBEDEVA AND KHODAKHOV

, hn

4 | LL _ Bf

Wa LT 322

a Cast Figure 7-6. Shape of the last northern retreat (1 6retreat are the numbers of 7 PN Yy ner, European icethrough sheet in thephases. epoch ofshows its } Y/ppy the Lined area

2 é — x Se i eee rere glacial advance during initial stage of

Lx Q 300 1000 1500 £m thinning.)

Certain specific aspects of this calculation are related tothe temperature was selected by calculating the increase in volconditions of a shallow sea and its ice cover, but they do —ume of snowfall if the total precipitation and volume of not play a decisive role. In accordance with existing dates ablation remained constant. The reconstruction of the glafor marine deposits, the control figure for the entire cycle —_ ciers was made in only four highlands (Table 7-1), but they of advance was taken to be 12,000 years, so that phase 5 — are exposed to such different climatic conditions, from esis absent from Figure 7-7. As follows from calculations bas- _ pecially maritime (Kamchatka) to highly continental (Paed on average data, all the separate ice sheets in the Arctic mir), that the results obtained make it possible to draw coalesced at the time of their maximum extent. No certain important global-scale conclusions about the climaanalogues exist today. One can only assume that converg- _ tic and natural characteristics of the Late Pleistocene glacial ing ice flows sent active lobes into regions as marked on maximum. Figure 7-7. However, the paleogeographic situation of the The majority of glaciers studied are still in existence epoch of advance makes it necessary to postulate that the — (with the exception of Little Cottonwood and Bells in the quantities C used in the calculation (Figure 7-4) were ac- | western USA), and they are of the valley type. The altitude tually smaller, perhaps by a factor of 2. Then, the duration of the firn line on them differs very markedly —from 0.5 of the advance increases proportionately, and there is not km on the Koryto Glacier (in maritime Kamchatka) to 4.9

enough time for the glaciers to coalesce. km on the Uysu Glacier (very continental eastern Pamir). With all its obvious shortcomings, the model undercon- = Snowfall at these levels amounts, respectively, to 300 g per sideration has the advantage of taking the greatest account square centimeter per year—the greatest precipitation on of data on recent ice sheets, which reflect in concealed — Eurasia’s glaciers—and 65 to 75 g per square centimeter fashion certain effects that cannot yet be adequately de- __ per year. In the central part of the Caucasus, where the cli-

scribed theoretically. mate is temperate on the Kolka-Mayli Glacier, the present

altitude of the firn line is 3.6 km, and the precipitation at

Reconstruction of the Regime of this level amounts to 110 g per square centimeter per year.

Former Mountain Glaciers The presence of snowfields in the near-crest portion of the valleys of the Wasatch Range, occupied by the Little The reconstruction was done for individual glaciers of the | Cottonwood and Bells Glaciers, made it possible to calcuCaucasus, Kamchatka, and the Pamir in the USSR and for _—_ late the summer temperature at their altitude level. The the Wasatch Range in the USA. It was based onthe above- _ calculation was made for g between a pair of lower-lying described system of equations 2 through 7, which con- —_ weather stations, Cottonwood Dam (1509 m) and Silver

stitute an actualistic model of mountain glaciation. Lake (2664 m), by using equations 2 and 5. It was found The calculation sequence was as follows. First, geomor- _ that the present snowfall at an altitude of 3.5 km in the phic features, palynologic evidence, frost soils, and other | Wasatch Range amounts to 155 g per square centimeter characteristics were used to establish the general climatic per year, which is close to the precipitation at approxisituation of the period of 20,000 to 18,000 years ago, con- = mately the same altitude in the Caucasus (Table 7-1). firmed insofar as possible by radiocarbon dating (Velichko We have already substantiated the assumption that at and Lebedeva, 1974; Khodakov, 1978). Principal atten- the maximum of Late Pleistocene glaciation the total attion at this stage was given to the evaluation of snowfall | mospheric precipitation was approximately the same as it from spore-pollen data and to their distribution with alti- is now and, therefore, that the values used in the recon-

tude. structions are those given in Table 7-1. It is shown quantiThen, calculations of the volumes of accumulation and __tatively below that Late Pleistocene mountain glaciation ablation were carried out at equal-altitude intervals above could not have been caused solely by an increase of atmosthe glacier margin, as marked by remains of old end-mo- _ pheric precipitation in the range of possible values.

raine complexes, up to the ice divide, in order to obtain The selection of ¢ at which the volume of ablation on the air temperature for which A equals C plusG. Summer __ glaciers becomes equal to the accumulation led to the de-

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Cottonwood mate, where a large amount of precipitation allows the glaWaach Bells 4055 + +2355.°66 «26°59 + ~>900 9 ciers to descend to low altitudes, the reduction in ablation | and the depression of the firn line are more pronounced

than in continental regions; there, because of a small

amount of precipitation, the glaciers are confined to high termination of A¢;, which is the depression of ¢ at 20,000 _— altitudes, where the temperatures are cold. For example, to 18,000 yr B.P. (Table 7-1). The summer temperature —a cooling of 1°C will result in a decrease in ablation by 60 was found to be 9°C below the present one in the Wasatch __g per square centimeter per year if this decrease occurs at Range, 6°C lower in the Caucasus, and 3°C lower on the =a mean annual air temperature of 5°C but only 13 g per

Pamir and Kamchatka. square centimeter per year at a summer temperature of

It is immediately apparent that the difference between —2°C. these values in the highlands depends on how far they are According to this logic, one could expect that on Kamfrom the “cold center” located at high latitudes. As the — chatka, an area with a maritime climate, the depression of distance from the ice sheet increased, the general climatic the firn line must have been most pronounced. However, cooling became attenuated. It was most pronounced inthe it can be seen from the example of the Koryto Glacier that Wasatch Range, for the margin of the ice sheet was less an important role is also played by the orographic characthan 1000 km away. The Valdai cover was much more dis- __ teristics of the glaciation region. In this case, during the tant from the Caucasus, but the Pamir turned out to be cooling period, the Koryto Glacier, which occupied a wide the farthest — 3000 km away. Therefore, although the Lit- _ valley with a very low gradient, advanced into the foothills tle Cottonwood, Bells, Uysu, and Fedchenko Glaciers were — with a large lobe, and the increase in accumulation volume located at almost the same latitude (40°N), the tempera- _— was offset by ablation, with a small depression of the firn

ture conditions of their existence were quite different. line. The fact that it was a lowering of air temperature and Hence, it is clear that the depression of the firn line at not an increase in atmospheric precipitation that played a the maximum of Late Pleistocene glaciation ranged bedecisive role in the formation and existence of large moun- —_ tween very wide limits, depending (1) on how far a given tain glaciers in the Late Pleistocene can be ascertained from = highland was removed from the margin of the ice sheet, the reconstruction of the mass balance of Little Cotton- (2) on the continentality of its climate, and (3) on the orowood Glacier. Its maximum dimensions were recorded by __ graphic characteristics of the glaciation. moraines, which were closely associated with dated depos- Still another important consequence of the nonuniformits of Lake Bonneville (Richmond, 1964; Morrison, 1965). __ ity of cooling is evident from the data in Table 7-1. As the The glacier was 18 km long, and it completely occupied a _ altitude of an area increases in highlands, the air tempera-

valley that is now empty. ture decreases by 0.7°C per 100 m. The summer tempeta-

For the same total precipitation as the present 53.7 g per ture at the firn line in the Late Pleistocene turns out be square centimeter per year at the Cottonwood Dam higher than the present one if the warming associated with weather station, 109.5 g per square centimeter per year at _— the decrease of its altitude is not offset by a general climathe Silver Lake weather station, and 201 g per square cen- __ tic cooling. This factor was important in the mountains of timeter per year at the snowfield level, the existence of the — the Caucasus and the Pamir.

glacier was due to the fact that, with cooling, the reduction In the Wasatch Range, the general climatic cooling was of ablation that took place was several times greater than so pronounced that, even when the firn line dropped to the increase in the proportion of snowfall. Under present 2.7 km, the summer air temperature at this level was subclimatic conditions, 0.42 km? per year of snow and ice, ex- __ stantially below the present temperature in the snowfield pressed in terms of water, could emit and evaporate from _ belt at an altitude of 3.5 km. the area occupied by the glacier; not even a quarter of this In general, the decline of the firn line caused by cooling amount is supplied by atmospheric precipitation. As the results in an increase in the area and volume of accumulasummer temperature dropped by 9°C, this value was tion on the glaciers. This also results in an expansion of the

in , ||

PALEOCLIMATIC SIGNIFICANCE OF LATE PLEISTOCENE GLACIER REGIMES 63

-5 | aa . 0 0,4 0,2 0,3 Oe \. XiA xm’ /year

-10 Yes | hel

,14|

~15 i]! || Vy | atxC || .\

'~3

Le] 1. X' for total precipitation equal to the present one Figure 7-8. Calculation of volume of acE=-] 2. X’ for total precipitation one-third less than the present one “bletion td kin!/vea of nan ane E:4 3. X’ for total precipitation one-third greater than the present one Little Cottonwood Glacier at the max-

[o] 4. A'at g=10°C/km and At=2°C imum of Late Pleistocene glaciation. At, is for summer temperature, and g ts ver-

[a] 5. A’ at g=7°C/km and pt,=4°C tical gradient of air temperature.

ablation region, mainly as a result of the elongation of the — Lake Bonneville, which at least in the eastern part almost tongues. However, in the second case, when the air tem- came into contact with glaciers that had descended to an perature at the altitude of the firn line and in the ablation = altitude of approximately 1.5 km. region was depressed, the glacier tongues must have been The flux of solar radiation at the maximum of Late Pleisparticularly large. Therefore, whereas in the Wasatch tocene glaciation may be assumed to be equal to the preRange large valley glaciers appeared in areas where there _ sent flux (Gates, 1976). However, because of heavy cloudiis no glaciation at all at the present time, in the Pamir the _ ness, the total incoming radiation in the region of Lake increase in glaciation area was approximately equal to that —_ Bonneville may have been less intense. For this reason, and

of the present glaciation. also because of lesser heating of the surface, the effective

Everywhere at the cooling maximum of the Late Pleisto- outgoing radiation also should have been weaker. It can be cene the runoff from precipitation in regions of mountain _ postulated, therefore, that the radiation balance was simiglaciation was much greater than the present one, for the _lar to the present one.

precipitation, as already stated, was approximately the At the same time, the heat balance should have undersame as now. This results from the fact that the evapora- _ gone appreciable changes because of the decrease in evapotion from the snow and ice surface is much less than from _ration related to the climatic cooling. With the same total the ground, for the surface does not heat up above 0°C. _ precipitation as now, namely 54 g per square centimeter Therefore, the volume of evaporation from catchment __ per year at an altitude of 1.5 km, where the glaciers ended, areas occupied by glaciers was appreciably smaller than it | but with a lower summer temperature (approximately is with the present glacier dimensions, because today there 15°C), the soil was better supplied with water, and there

are vast areas of exposed ground surface. are indications that under these conditions forests grew However, the surface of the ground also heated up and _ below the glaciers (Morrison, 1965). Thus, neither lake evaporated less than now because of the cooling. Accord- transgression nor the appearance of forest vegetation in ing to our calculations, the runoff from the glacier catch- — any way signifies a transition to a pluvial epoch, but both ment areas of the Pamir was approximately four times are caused only by a cooling of the climate and a rearwhat it is at the present time (Lebedeva, 1977). The same —_ rangement of the heat balance in the extraglacial regions. increase in runoff characterized the Little Cottonwood and Paleoglaciologic reconstructions make it possible, with a

Bells Rivers in the Wasatch Range. minimum of initial data, to establish a complete set of naThe increase in runoff caused the transgression of lakes _ tural climatic characteristics of the past consistent with its

in intermontane troughs of the Great Basin in North characteristics preserved up to the present. Such reconAmerica, and the decrease in evaporation from the water _ structions help identify the errors of other reconstructions surface caused the formation of a huge freshwater lake, in determining the dimensions and ages of glaciations or

64 LEBEDEVA AND KHODAKHOV estimates of paleoclimate, for they can reveal inconsisten- equal to the present precipitation. As indicated by an analcies among individual parts in a system of concepts about _ysis of model results from a reconstruction of the summer

the nature of past epochs. paleoclimate of this epoch (Manabe and Hahn, 1977), this A paleoglaciologic reconstruction refuted the hypothesis hypothesis is entirely admissible for the southern half of

that the Pamir’s large-scale valley glaciation was of Middle — the USSR. Only in the Northeast could the decrease in prePleistocene age. The prominent elements of the landscape cipitation have been so marked as to appreciably affect the are vety “fresh” morainic complexes. It can be shown, in _ calculated depression of summer air temperature. It is clear

accord with Gerasimov (1964), who first gave a correct ex- | from the above discussion that lower total precipitation

planation of this phenomenon, that “fresh” moraines values would lead to a greater depression in summer air could have formed only during the maximum of Late temperature. Pleistocene valley glaciation. At that time, because of the Comparison of the values of summer air-temperature already nearly modern altitude of the mountains and gen- _— depression obtained by a large mathematical model eral climatic cooling, the major portion of the heat sup- | (Manabe and Hahn, 1977) and by our method show that, plied to the glaciers was expended in evaporation; there- on the average, the results are practically the same fore, the melting and runoff and their erosive power were throughout the USSR. The differences are slight in the

low (Lebedeva, 1977). : periglacial zone of Europe (according to both reconstrucAnother hypothesis that did not stand the paleoglacio- _—_ tions, — 8°C), somewhat greater in western and eastern Si-

logic test was that of a reticulated partial ice-sheet glacia- _ beria, but major for the Caucasus-Caspian and Central tion of the Pamir 20,000 to 18,000 yr B.P. (Grosswald and _— Asian regions. In the Caucasus-Caspian region, the matheOrlyankin, 1979). This hypothesis was based on two pre- _— matical model outlines a vast area with a slightly positive

mises. The first was a strong depression of the July airtem- anomaly, and our model gives an anomaly of —5°C to , perature for Central Asia, — 25°C, obtained inthe model §—7°C. With summets as warm as today’s or even warmer, of Gates (1976), and the second was the adoption of a _at least a fivefold increase in total annual precipitation 900-m depression of the firn line as an average for the en- —_ would be necessary to force the glaciers to descend to their

tire Northern Hemisphere. The firn line descended into Late Pleistocene maximum. It is evident from the present the valleys of the eastern part of the Pamir. There formed data shown in Figure 7-7 that in this case the precipitation an ice resetvoit from which glaciers of many hundreds of _at the equilibrium line of the glaciers (3.3 to 3.8 km above

kilometers ran down in different directions. sea level) would be as much as 600 g per square centimeter A reconstruction of the mass balance of Uysu Glacier, per year, that is, an annual snow layer up to 15 m thick which in this case had a length of 180 km and descended _—at the equilibrium line and over 20 m thick, on the into the Kashgar Depression to an altitude of 2000 m, _ average, in the accumulation region. Such values are not showed that it should have existed when summer air known anywhere in the world. Even on the glaciers of New temperatures were 9°C cooler. However, the annual runoff Zealand and Iceland, the thickness of the annual snow from this huge but not the largest glacier in the reticular _ layer is less than 10 m. Let us note that the mathematical glaciation of the Pamir should have been 40 times the model gives a slightly negative precipitation anomaly in runoff from the recent Uysu Glacier. Thus, one of the this region, and, hence, this model cannot be used at all smallest rivers of the Pamir, with a mean annual discharge _—_ to account for the large advance of mountain glaciers.

of less than 1 m® per second, should have become almost - The situation in the Central Asian mountain mass is

as full as the Syr-Dar’ya River, one of the largest in Central more difficult to analyze. On our map (Figure 7-7), the Asia. Such a tremendous increase in mountain runoff northern half of this mass is characterized by an anomaly should have left the clearest traces in river valleys on the of —3°C to —5°C, whereas according to the mathematical plains and in the Aral Sea region, but no such traces have = model it is —4°C to — 8°C and up to — 12°C in the Him-

actually been observed. alayas. The model’s precipitation anomaly in this region ts

According to Gates (1976), the very strong depression of close to zero. As a whole, the results given by the matheJuly air temperature for Central Asia indicates that, even matical model differ from ours in having a much greater in the lowest regions (the Takla Makan Desert, the Tarim _ spatial variability, and certain areas have extremely high Basin), the mean summer temperature should be negative. values of summer air-temperature anomalies that cannot Such temperature conditions would immediately convert be correlated, even qualitatively, with data on the dimenthe low areas into ice reservoirs, the level of which would sions of former glaciers. quickly climb to the highest peaks, and all the mountain Despite the obvious inadequacy of the data of Figure systems of Asia would be buried under an ice cover. 7-7 on former mountain glaciation, as contrasted with an abundance of data on recent glaciation, one can formulate

Paleoclimatic Consequences a working hypothesis for further application of the

method. The depression of Eurasia’s summer air tempetaThe reconstruction of former ice sheets and mountain gla- _ ture in the epoch of the maximum of Late Pleistocene glaciers in the USSR enables us to give a quantitative estimate ciation had an essentially nonlatitudinal distribution. The of the summer air temperature depression at the time of | most pronounced cooling is attributed to the Northwest the stationary phase of maximum glaciation. The annual _—_and the least to the Southeast, without any marked local atmospheric precipitation is everywhere assumed to be _ differences. Barrier effects were weakly manifested; that is,

PALEOCLIMATIC SIGNIFICANCE OF LATE PLEISTOCENE GLACIER REGIMES 65 they were not appreciably intensified as compared to the between 30,000 B.P. and 13,000 B.P. with special reference to the present effect. The development of the proposed method Netherlands. Mededelingen Ryks Geologische Dienst 32, 181-253. for reconstructing glacioclimatic conditions of the past fe- Lauscher, F. (1954). Klimatologische Problem des festen Neiderschlags.

quires primarily an increase in the quantity of reliable data ve ey fr Meteorologte, Geophysik, und Biokiimatologie, Ser. B. 6, iosic data on atmoepberie precipitation well as paleoeco- Lebedeva, I. M. (1977). Role of evaporation in the degradation of Pamir’s

, latest old glaciation. USSR Academy of Sctences, Izvestiya, sertya geograficheskaya 1, 71-79.

References Manabe, S., and Hahn, D. G. (1977). Simulation of the tropical climate of an ice age. Journal of Geophysical Research 82, 3889-911. Dolgushin, L. D., and Osipova, G. B. (1971). New data on pulsations Morrison, R. B. (1965). “Lake Bonneville. Quaternary Stratigraphy of the of recent glaciers. Iv “Glaciological Studies: Chronicle, Discussions” Eastern Jordan Valley, South of Salt Lake City, Utah.” U.S. Geological (V. M. Kotlyakov, ed.), vol. 18, pp. 191-218. Interdepartmental Geo- Survey Professional Paper 477.

physical Committee, Moscow. Paterson, W. (1972). “Physics of Glaciers.” Pergamon Press, London. Gates, L. (1976). Modeling the ice-age climate. Science 191, 1138-44. Richmond, G. M. (1964). “Glaciation of the Little Cottonwood and Bells Gerasimov, I. P. (1964). The paleographic paradox of Pamir. USSR Aca- Canyons, Utah.” U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 454-D,

demy of Sciences, Izvestiya, sertya geograficheskaya 3, 4-13. pp. 1-41. Grosswald, M. G., and Orlyankin, V. N. (1979). The late Quaternary ice Schiipp, M. (1979). Das Problem der langfristigen Klimaschwankungen. cap of Pamir. Iz “Glaciological Studies: Chronicle, Discussions” (V. M. Versuchsanstalt fir Wasserbau, Hydrologie, und Glaztologie, Mittedl-

Kotlyakov, ed.), vol. 35, pp. 85-97. Interdepartmental Geophysical ungen 41, 257-65.

Committee, Moscow. Shumskiy, P. A. (1969). “Dynamic Glaciology.” Nauka Press, Moscow.

Khodakov, V. G. (1978). “The Water-Ice Balance in Regions of Recent Velichko, A. A. (1980). Latitudinal asymmetry in the state of natural

and Old Glaciation of the USSR.” Nauka Press, Moscow. components of glacial epochs in the Northern Hemisphere. USSR AcaKhodakov, V. G. (1979). Paleoglaciological reconstruction for the epoch demy of Sciences, Izvestiya, sertya geograficheskaya 5, 5-23. of the maximum of Late Pleistocene glaciation of the USSR and certain Velichko, A. A., and Lebedeva, I. M. (1974). Experience with a paleoglapaleoclimatological consequences. USSR Academy of Sciences, seriya ciological reconstruction for eastern Pamir. In “Glaciological Studies:

geograficheskaya 6, 27-32. Chronicle, Discussions” (V. M. Kotlykov, ed.), vol. 23, pp. 109-17. In-

Kolstrup, E. (1980). Climate and stratigraphy in northwestern Europe _ terdepartmental Geophysical Committee, Moscow.

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| Permafrost in the Late Pleistocene and Holocene

BLANK PAGE _

CHAPTER 8

Dynamics of Late Quaternary Permafrost in Siberia V. V. Baulin and N. S. Danilova

The formation of permafrost began in the USSR at the polygons are more than 12 m thick (as in the region of Neystart of the Quaternary (Popov, 1967). The oldest paleon- _ to Lake on Yamal, etc.) and are fairly widely distributed. tologically dated traces of permafrost were discovered in On Yamal, they have been traced up to the latitude of the the northeastern USSR in the valley of the Chukoch’ya — Yuribey River valley, and on Gydan up to latitude 69° N; River (Arkhangelov and Shaposhnikova, 1974) in the so- to the south, they are encountered sporadically. The ice called Olerian suite, which is referred to the Early Pleisto- | wedges are as much as 2.0 to 2.5 m wide, and the distance cene. Depending on climatic fluctuations, the areas occu- —_ between them is about 8 to 10 m. South of latitude 66° pied by permafrost sometimes increased, covering almost to 67° N in western Siberia, permafrost of Kazantsevo time all of the USSR, and at other times greatly decreased. was not preserved, and up to 64°N there are only traces of However, in the Far North and Northeast, the permafrost _it in the form of ice-wedge-polygon pseudomorphs and was preserved during the entire Quaternary. It is helpful —_ horizons of involutions. to start the analysis of permafrost dynamics in the Late A definite regularity in the stratigraphic distribution can Pleistocene with the Kazantsevo (Mikulino) Interglacia- be noted: in the middle portion of the Kazantsevo sedi-

tion. ments, there usually are no traces of frost, and typical pseudomorphs are found only at the base and top (expo-

The Kazantsevo Interglaciation sures near the settlements of Gorki and Kazymskiy Mys, In western Siberia, the forest boundary shifted by 5° of lat-

itude (Volkova, 1977) in comparison with the present m

boundary, and in central Siberia by 2° to 4° (Ravskiy, 9 00) 49 > po oo oo es

1972). In northwestern Siberia, where a transgression of a 7 4 4

thawedsea completely under seatime floor, and it was 1970), pre- the frost Z warm took place atthe that (Lazukov,

served only on50islands at sea thelevel. present time have tions more than to 60 mthat above As shown by Af)elevaYW 2 models formation (Baulin _— FE ++FPO See thicknessofofpermafrost the frozen ground was about 200ettoal., 3001967), m. ZO the fF SOF

The oldest syngenetic frozen strata with ice-wedge poly- BALERS TL A f . gons preserved up to the present time are found there in 0 LER RRR RTE KEE A

coastal deposits consisting of regressive, primarily sandy 0 detri50 100m and sandy-loam facies with a high content of vegetal tus as well as peat interlayers (Trofimov et al., 1980). The 1. Interbedded loam and sandy loam

deposits have a comparatively high volumetric ice content + ine

for sands and sandy loams, amounting to 40% to 50% or more; their swollen and massive basal, lenticular, horizon- 3. Interbedded sand and loam

tally stratified cryogenic structures confirm their syngenetic Figure 8-1. Pseudomorphs of polygonal ice veins in two stages at the freezing. The thickness of the syngenetic horizon averages base of Kazantsevo deposits, Migetl-Posl channel of Ob’ River valley.

5 to 6 m and locally increases up to 8 to 10 m. Ice-wedge — (Sketch by L. M. Shmelev.) 69

ee , | 7 Sco ce . co

— = ; — 3 Boh ; P nie. ,a Q ca ; o — “~~ ie WS ; ey © =n YP Ae aaa | LK 2 §2 tee eed ) i = BS yr . ai S S> eee eee _—— seers ee —_— ¥ out . ~~ eh | . —_ (= oo = -~ ~ rere * ‘ ‘

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| > 7 Nf a

k? ; , . - = .

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. jh re ’ae “gg .#q4>x re 2 Qa©o>

:|her \ 2 ; ' _— 1. >we\Ss,‘.a. > ae aed : ts a a 2 27 : 4 8 Hi »iet y| > >>og fs , “4 , a;EA

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x PY f[= ; \. A = i] '|t VA wy ea \, } ~~, z YS 8 Be SO LL og ahh | 8 "i ~‘a“ YL -~ j », a ” Y fe) 4 — -_. x :A aQ ¥Uw , os \wo>\ i\ Sis Ccwo 12) Yu a. Fe } reA2s. e} a + ¥. , ’ Be ia& 7 A RO ~ 4 «| vy u *Sib p 8 ¢2 S L& Saneecael «wed E

\ s\ f t . oa = Jeafee Ue >*“< 7V ti; 34: *> xx > 7~i4fe.) Cc :-ms > ;& —_ ‘ 4:.re] © 2]

pe ge Oe YS ‘*e#° wy VY™®, > AK? S 3 E “-°"* eS “22 ae > / Ds. || A 2>Q®o=2. & be i \e yw AS Dy WwW ZY "ge . : yk ited i , , > ) & 2 & fo) os z

ij.\°‘cry / ed 4 \ ® od 5 oO e~ \?- Co ?% S g7s ry ; “s j\i~ Da, th 5 elli:> “ “~~ ¥ A- yor ” @)to > 4o: -.

+, > * * ie ues = 3 cc s \t42an ‘yp & S6 4 s oZ ; a Bs es 0 etPa Vd Geo NE al ac Por “> cae — he cael P = = re S : . fo PP = Ni = _t P-ee - \“ {L t—~—s——"7T 5 j / A 7 a ce > ..— \ . ' , : ae ‘ S oY P \ Aso a ~s S < = a Ea ee an TT i, ee i ao — — - ie
SN xNH AX ttOO LYVA 2vag \ “=e EeBs s 2$s8 |i3 ih LASS) EW LA) RN \\ \ee ATA fe=2gsE=|G ; Ss ¢ x\~~ RAOTHAHND re SNES 8 62 UE : — ' ar i" "\ \ SE = zv BAD LY LOS AX hy 7 > SE\S 6 6 NK @ = |eeve “ \ & 4 f Y \ XxX XK X Vd v \ Po 2 4 Y .., YY sh #t 4 , e 'é \ y . 4... \ =e N > ¥ —~\VARP\ oA \, _— REO ee g - ;.\% : fp‘‘if\ aMs . ' ttiy4x-NN - - *Sus ’ b— —oe Sk) S| = y ol f= rr s = ho A\ Ne OS) AA KM - Lre) ae oO er zs~~&— 2 Pr: :s & —_> : : \ PR ‘ y an ae et "x8 Pa A ‘ , ’ ° o\ . j . = > DB ai mo] = Y ~ * % 7 , sal aa. . > 2 ” = © od | a _ : = i. \e , A AX \y A yy? « . ~ a 3 _— G. £ S

ees =~ . a . : YX “® > i. ystee —yeee -®;“\,bp : = S ® = a. ; V \ : : : © ~ =: Vr? a.Pees : / 2)2Ay ye 3 Beis RAINS § §8 ds

||«< We! LAW ae s £ a 8 | gS ais Bat VAN ee ao = = m §. a. mae gF yas - —y,, ‘Ey) BAY —: -Ssd /f+ X PiSN wk se GK \ i x FQ\ \s 2 \ N * RN ! a

4ZA we xbsoe Pl >| | og X\ \ eal we an a ‘ ot) ee my, / J EB

= a \ uy ; aa. r =. ‘id J 7? Vi | = {~$———_____ er AY NS | - i, i 2 \\ I) | ne| S

ninitiimpumnnnnitiaieilaaiaia SN ia Wc >» © e/ ms lnm z

omtiTiga iin a —— ~ ‘a ‘aa\| zSF - ——— =N4040 {0 So eL SE Taaee _ aa

A. RUSSIAN PLAN (East= 30°) B. WEST SIBERIA (East~ 75°) C. EAST SIBERIA (East=125°)

N. Lat. 68 84 60 56 52 48 N = 72 68 64 60 56 52 48 * Nilat.72 68 & 60 56 52

|80rae|80=280— T 204 “7 DE | E 20 yiContinental ae . ’ TT EEE aw,

30 ne me 30permafrost

a yWee ~~ ~~~~ 7 ; - sh _$ < | o

* _— oor : i ,~Pa°f pS ees a = id £ “ > Ag o :a) % ’ 4 : a? “* age atlas. ® , © »» %, 7pa ».ay re hee” - "| it —_— Ay » 4 oy fo) 2 eS hn 95 4 | c£ = JY ‘v c al”) wy , | £ © Giey Mo oS LC. ” . | 5 Q . ¥ ’ ‘ =~ ; y a “= Lt oO :€* ‘~ ‘ ~ ,’“) ’ fo t_Fe A-“oe ~aed ch 7A ~° a_ 2_ ’ . ~~. ate’ _ ; X« “x \7 ~ 3 i fr As ne = . ’ 4 _ ~ Boe r Bee ; | fF eg & aw DD owl *4% 9 th vr °e 7 Ao] =5® i?) jFy ~ v oe . — j‘.‘4‘~y ee’ s . ‘ a ” P ~ “4 ’ 3 a ™ ; ° = X ~ xt’ « 7 ri ’ aim ‘ } O ae fi * ’ X 5" . a ea a c yal ey (U8 44 « A ’ \ w re) . s}/ \:J;edCp Ly A » 2 a“ ws a L ~ y a 4 -” \ i , 1 { ¥ » . ¥ re ee am \ . é « ws 4 a ‘ 4 wl ’ .

_— > oo xs roe YS = = :8 Oo mse p> 2" SS -< nt Pa ee ae NAS acne ‘¢iaNae .o°sF E9 ~3 a ny : 4 & . e ! ”o a 4 { A my oes ( f = Bi wa oO ‘ ~~ : a™ > ,7? \ | 47 ! mt (Vee an ~.~=< re, Ren »4A6“2aH orerifincs ——— ry=8iad mi mm ¥ ~aan ° a=a4“ye o >2giF)8§ 2 fv to B ¢ § tee | 25 Lyx }eile eet or 5s 3S «UBER 2 Z»“~ ' +\1% )“LA }.‘or’ 4 P 35,000 (Bratislava) | Platovo Krutitsa soil Total humic acids > 37,000 (IG-53) Melekino Krutitsa soil Total humic acids > 35,000 (LGU)

Dol’ni Vestonitse Upper humified level Total humic acids > 51,800 (grN-2599) Czechoslovakia Lower humified level Total humic acids > 52,000 (grN-2105) > 55,000 (gtN-2604)

soils with different degrees of gleying (on the slopes and _ position to loess II. In its upper part is the Yaroslavl’ cryobottoms of the depressions) to an automorphous soil, with — genic horizon, with ice-wedge pseudomorphs. a profile sharply differentiated into genetic horizons—a Loess III serves as the parent material for Holocene (resoil classified as pseudopodzolic. The second phase of soil cent) soils, which in this region are represented by gray for-

formation in this section is represented by a soddy- _ est soil. chernozem soil with a thick, dark gray humus horizon con- THE OKA-DON PLAIN taining a well-defined chernozem-type aggregation of humic acids. The Krutitsa soil-formation phase cor- In the Oka-Don Plain, practically all Late Pleistocene responds to the warm (Krutitsa) Interstade, which dates _ horizons of loesses and fossil soils also overlie the Dnepr back to the beginning of the Valdai (Table 11-5) and pro- — moraine, especially in the Middle Oka Basin. For example,

bably correlates with the Brérup Interstade. the Elat’ma section on the left bank of the Oka Valley The Mezin soil complex was disturbed by frost action in — within the southeastern margin of Meshchera (Figure 11-5) the earliest cryogenetic phase of the Late Pleistocene, that shows a thick polygenetic fossil soil above the Dnepr mois, the Smolensk phase. The early “a” phase of this com- _raine and resting directly on thin fluvioglacial sands. On plex preceded the Krutitsa phase of soil formation and is __ the basis of its stratigraphic position and its similar morrepresented by wedge-shaped structures in the section; the — phologic indicators, it correlates with soils of the Mezin later “‘b” phase has mainly solifluction dislocations and complex. The clearly differentiated fossil soil profile con-

fine polygonal fissured structures. sists of a humus horizon 0.65 m thick and an eluvialAbove the Mezin complex lies the Valdai loess, which __illuvial horizon of 1.1 m. The nature of the profile implies is divided into three well-stratified horizons. The lowest — two independent phases of development: phase I (horizon horizon consists of loess I (Khotylevo loess), which was de- | _A2 and horizon Bt) for forest soils formed as a result of eluposited slowly and has a heterogeneous granulometric _ vial-illuvial processes (Salyn phase), and phase II (horizon composition and obscure bedding. It served as parent ma- Al) for soils with a predominant sod-building process terial for the Bryansk fossil soil, which in this region differs | (Krutitsa phase). Separation of the soils into two indepenstructurally from its variants farther west in that it has a —_ dent phases is clearly emphasized by the solifluction deforlight brown to pale yellow humified horizon with relict | mation at the level of horizon A2 (Smolensk cryogenic horspots and lenses of a dark gray humus horizon containing —_izon, phase “a”). In contrast to regions of the Russian Plain coarse humus of fulvate composition and a characteristic farther west, wedge-shaped structures here are isolated and ooid type of aggregates. Below it is a thin transition hori- very rare. zon B, represented by a pale yellow loam filled with micro- The final stage in the formation of the humus horizon crystalline calcite and numerous iron-manganese nodules. _ of the Krutitsa phase coincides with the next cooling wave

The soil overlies a gleyed loam and is dated at 25,000 to (Smolensk cryogenic horizon, phase “b”), which ts fe-

24,000 yr B.P. (Table 11-4). flected in the Oka Basin much more broadly in the form

The Bryansk fossil soil is marked by a spot-medallion _ of solifluction crumplings, cryoturbations, and ice wedges. type of deformation in the Vladimir cryogenic horizon, Soils of the Mezin complex are overlain by a thin horizon which corresponds to the final stages of the Bryansk inter- of loesslike loam—loess I, which ts often hidden in the val. Located above is loess II (Desna horizon), which here _ profile of the Bryansk soil overlying it. Its thickness in this constitutes the most typical loess, with a thickness of 5 to —_— region does not exceed 1.0 to 1.5 m.

6 m, predominance of the 0.01 to 0.05-mm fraction, high Stratigraphically above loess I lies a soil similar in strucporosity, and predominance of quartz inthe mineral com- __ ture to the Bryansk soil of the Dnepr Basin at a depth of position. It is separated from loess III (Altynovka horizon) 2 to 5 m, in some cases immediately under the Holocene by a gleying level, which corresponds to the Trubchevsk soil. The humus horizon consists of light gray loam with horizon of the Russian Plain. The gleying horizon is gener- —_ a dove-colored shading. The soil is dislocated in the Vladi-

ally apparent as an interlayer of greenish gray gleyed loess mir ctyogenic horizon, with wedge-shaped deformations with brown ferrugination spots. Loess III is similar in com- —_ over the entire profile. In the Fat’yanovka section, where

102 VELICHKO, BOGUCKI, MOROZOVA, UDARTSEV, KHALCHEVA, AND TSATSKIN

Total chemical composition

Mechanical Sid,0,if,AO, Sid,* m composition Fe,0), Al. humus 0 2 40 60 80 woyo 20 40 60 80 100% 40 60 B80%0 2070 20% 0 05 if 0 1-0

,ia |0,05-0,04 025-0,05

Q

li ' | Al

3 ; li Sif, 4 | ] % bog 57 “Be,

: % ma Fe ie -, _ “a * - :

—~ J. . oy, a. a; “ey @|) #gei.

2|$,:

ny ®. c. ¥ A he és =< ~ = Figure 11-11. Microstructure of humus

‘ yohet,iya ee horizon of soils of Krutitsa phase of : 4 the Al Mezin complex. Gun’ki section,

wae we A A. ~ Dnepr Basin. (Magnification 5x 9 with one nicol prism.)

ai

60 80 80 / j / 7007/ /70 /

PERIGLACIAL LANDSCAPES OF THE EAST EUROPEAN PLAIN 109

i, LOESS | / LOESS Il h LOESS Ill

/

60 60 i 60 / 50 50 / a"— = .50 y v2

A. = / | i 40 ) 40 = 40 i : —T = / = rH 30 30 = 30 | = = Ml = 20 : | | 20 = = 20 = 10 77 = = = (0== 10 — = 6 ¢& = :=====es 2— Mh | Eg Ff l

Q | | I} =o 0 | | ll WW 0 | lI II IV classes

ouncnes,

ZZZ] 1. Sand grains with shiny surface EMM 4. Sand grains with dull surface (0M) 2. Sand grains with quarter-dull surface [>] 5. Change in degree of surface texture as a function of rounding class 3 3. Sand grains with half-dull surface Figure 11-12. Character of rounding and surface treatment of sand grains from different horizons of Valdai loesses.

a correction for its pedometamorphic transformation. Flu- _dication of the participation of cryogenic processes in the vic acids predominate (Morozova, 1963b; Morozova and formation of soils of Bryansk time, soils that, according to Chichagova, 1968), and the humic acids are characterized the data of A. A. Velichko, formed a fine, hummocky, by a lower dispersion coefficient than those of the Krutitsa cryogenous microrelief of spot-medallion type. | Interstade (Table 11-7). In the humified horizon, the clay- We can speak with complete confidence of the uniquehumus mass is compressed into simple rounded aggre- __ ness of soils of this time interval, which is paleogeographgates, frequently delineated by shells of optically oriented _ ically unusual. We do not know of any analogues for these clay (Figure 11-14). Inside the aggregates and in the non- _ soils, and apparently such analogues did not exist on the aggregated mass, the clayey substance has an imbricate Russian Plain during the Holocene. The western portions microstructure. No illuvial cutans have been observed. There are many microortsteins and spotty accumulations of

sisal hydroxide. a peculiar tna es et Table 11-7. Properties of the Humus

mass in the humus horizon into round, well-defined ag- of Bryansk Interval Soils

gregates of the first order arises during cryogenic coagula- iain tion under favorable conditions. This finding is confirmed Humus Total C (0.001% C,, by experimental data, as is the appearance of a peculiar an- Section (%) (%) Cha! Cf Exes

nular of Samia optically oriented clays attributed to the for- ag mama0.085 lm aaa isi.shape P iin ay ar Likhvin 0.731 0.424 0.66 mation of an annular microstructure of segregation ice ne veered meee

(Kosheleva, 1958; et al.,0.34 1973). —0.135 |||7 woKonishchev Ivanchino 0.59 0.28

. ere . Bryansk 0.82 0.476 0.171.147 0.119 . . Arapovichi 1.18 0.667 0.65 . Gun’ki 0.97 0.56 0.57 _

As an example of favorable conditions for aggregation,

one can cite the conditions prevailing in central Yakutiya, —

where in the upper horizons of pale yellow, frozen soils

. Kalach 0.54 0.31 0.29 0.057

one observes well-defined, rounded aggregates of simple structure resembling cluster aggregates of Bryansk soil (Morozova, 1965). Macrofrost deformations are a direct in- Symbols as in Table 11-6.

:

:

110 VELICHKO, BOGUCKI, MOROZOVA, UDARTSEV, KHALCHEVA, AND TSATSKIN

> Sid. Sid

Lap ,

A

BRYANSK lz. Humus & Silt uclay Sil, ADs Fes ALO, Fees

A . /)

r 0 240 4% 10 30 50% 70 80% 1 15% 5 6%7 1 35 70 \

\

\

\

/

,

/

ois

B

CO, Humus = Siltaclay Sid, Al,0, Fe,0FesUs 10 nik m ARAPOVICHI S ty Sid, ALD; Fads ADO;

: 3 6%0 4% 20 40 60% 70 80% 12 15%22 4% 8 H 40 80 120

TMU ft.

\ | l

|

|

Figure 11-13. Analytical characterization

1 of soils of the Bryansk interval in the

w Figure 11-3.

97 25 Arapovichi section. For symbols, see

Dnepr Basin. (A) Bryansk section, (B)

of the Russian Plain (Volynskaya Upland) formed a region _—_ weathering coefficient K-1 is low (0.19). Certain mineral

of soils of fairly uniform structure, arbitrarily called frost- grains, particularly feldspars, bear traces of neocrystallizagley soils because of strong indications of gleying, which _ tion. However, completely fresh grains with distinct cryswere reinforced even more due to the later cryogenesis of — tallographic form are very rare. the Vladimir phase (Figure 11-15). The Bryansk soil man- The quartz sand grains are different from those of loess tle generally shows an increase in the rate of soil formation _I. They are uniform both in degree of rounding and in surin the southern and eastern regions of the Russian Plain _ face texture. In the Desna Basin, as much as 80% to 90%

and a decrease in gleying. of quartz grains of the 0.5 to 1-mm fraction from loess be-

Above the Bryansk fossil soil, there are Valdai loess II _long to classes II] and IV. Of these, 30% to 40% are close and III, separated by a weak soil (Trubchevsk gleying level) to an ideally round shape. Grains of class 0 and 1 are en-

in the Desna and Oka River basins, where the loess is countered singly. The degree of rounding for all samples thickest. These are described only for the Desna Basin, amounts to 65% to 80%, with a Cailleux rounding coeffiwhere each of them shows up clearly in the sections. cient of 0.35 to 0.45. The fairly high degree of rounding is closely related to the type of surface texture (dullness),

THE LATE VALDAI HORIZON: LOESS I which reaches 80% to 95%. In some cases, up to 100%

The loess II (Desna loess) horizon, which overlies the Bry- ra nig on het wo Py mages a pe and up di.

ansk fossil soil, is the thickest of the Late Pleistocene a h bn . “d a — - lia a gle loesses, reaching 3 to 4 m in the Desna Basin and decreas- a © pe i i oe See ane een ing gradually in all directions. Thus, on the Oka-Don "#178 4f€ Found’ of elliptical. Plain and in Volyno-Podoliya, it is less than 2 to 3 m thick.

This horizon in the Desna Basin has the most obvious char- Ee SEEDS NOP SORTS ROEM FOF acteristics of typical loess. It consists primarily of silt (0.05 Loess III (Altynovka loess) is the youngest of the Late Pleis-

to 0.01-mm fraction up to 50%), with carbonate content _—_tocene loesses. It is not much thinner than loess I, fairly high (4% to 6%) and a porosity of 40%. The amounting to an average of 2.5 to 3.5 m, with its maxi-

bi , : : . i ae

PERIGLACIAL LANDSCAPES OF THE EAST EUROPEAN PLAIN 111

i - Th os 4 i, a. J “af Tia? a vhs as = 4 Sas Se eta Ot of ASe EetrPte es ae he hae .‘-eae teriseet te =eS

Fe' ,Aa aOE Pt _# Adgay LaresS 3Te ta.alse Ny igee; : _ hb ey Ore, FY Ne © ds et Sa a oe ,*

* es. : “4 7 rsaee”.|. 2 ee.~"ze=D7+ba ;r-,eaos . " ee ; Dot eS ae

r PGES SE Sirah Mata BY ccls lef yt

FSS 2 Pty weed c™ 2;oeit a a& mn . . . . “ ms ep due. Eh ea es, - :.es : ait ” yy’ ® “;o.:A .4_:*‘~ ca Ae ae ‘es a= s . as t Ly | ie ote : -.: ‘ms +- }re . a‘~07 .A '~ e.»; :Be + 7 ° Pe : , ’- t,: :49. ., ,_ - ‘ Pine €: >“i“ b: ‘tes ry ‘y oe ‘J aS AB es ; a oy Bing Se -. . »»! Shy- ;gt >Fa a ‘ . ‘wg , a . ‘YW. 5 a Be hon “ : rae “»

. neat 2 Yt ae : > “4 i‘. Ps horizon of Bryansk fossil soil in the eu & ie | ce’ wey. * Dnepr Basin (Bryansk section). (Ooid . of “" ie ON tee eS ~* microstructure; imbricate and annular

~ . plasma. )

: en ~ £ . » "#7 es microstructure of optically oriented

mum thickness also in the Desna Basin. It commonly Paleoecology

serves as the parent material for Holocene soils, and this should be taken into account in an interpretation of its | On the basis of data on the structure of soil, loess, and cryproperties. Like older Valdai loesses, its sand content in- — ogenic horizons, as well as paleontologic materials concreases to the east (the fraction of fine sand amounts to tained in them, one can establish the sequence of change 15% to 20%), as does the amount of clay (up to 30% to _ in natural conditions from the onset of the Late Pleistocene

40%). In the West, in the region of Volyno-Podoliya, as to its end.

compared to the central regions, the composition resem- rane nena Araneuns bles that of loess II. The silt fraction there amounts to 50%

to 60% , the carbon dioxide content is close to 4% to5%, During the period between about 125,000 and 80,000 yr the porosity is nearly 50% , and the coefficient K-1 is 0.34. —_B.P., in the band of forest soils in the central and southern

In rounding and surface texture, the sand grains of loess _ parts of the East European Plain, the structure of the soil III are also similar to those of loess I] but are even more —_— mantle differed appreciably from the present one. At that

homogeneous in rounding, surface texture, and size. time there occurred an expansion into eastern Europe of Grains larger than 1 mm are rare; only 10 to 15 grains of forest soils with a sharply differentiated profile, that is, this size could be obtained from 100 to 150 kg of loess. analogues of pseudopodzolic soils, which at the present Rounding in the 1.0 to 0.5-mm fraction amounts to 75% time are common in central Europe. An appreciable exto 85%, with a rounding coefficient of 0.35 to 0.45, asin _ pansion of the belt of these soils, not only in the latituloess I]. The total dullness is also high, up to 90% to — dinal but in the meridional direction (Figure 11-16), and

|N |P| \| |||||\||||}|| | -

100%, for an overall dulling of 50% to 70%. replacement of a considerable part of the steppe zone by

ry 910 i D2 we ee — ae en oe ee HHT TTT | | \ | |

TT | | Poff °>||

KORSHEV CO. Humus & Siltaclay SiO, AC,0, Fe,0; Ayo, Fea Os

m 0 4% 02 08% 20 30 40% 70 75% w# i124 2 4% 10 12 §0 75 100

4 | || || || |Figure 11-15.fossil Analytical characterization S | oy of Bryansk soil on the western 3 -| tity | | | |/| margin of the Russian Plain, Korshev sec| | J | | | | tion (Volyno-Podoliya). For symbols, see

| | | | | Figure 11-3.

112 VELICHKO, BOGUCKI, MOROZOVA, UDARTSEV, KHALCHEVA, AND TSATSKIN

TPCT, 5 RIT + a" a St OY os. el ea Sed AY Ze]

SNge NAN weA¢ tae hy

T soemecctememsemnaaerr= aoa” war waar | “fT yS VCS ee

= eens ee eeeBK oe MSMEG ZF pM AAT -\) : MM -\ Sa een eee {| aS So ly iy iy We eredNeer ORG EAA -F -TR SRR SS Se yoI A oe

Se SLY oe Bit IT 7 VW Ne =—=s 1 ENT An perce (SS 4 4 5 9-S} 7 OY |r J USNS eae ocge Ss Sa? \ le A, gg ae ae Nye el

j as So : \, A an ggg eg Me as at w= - y * —— ist ” . _ yc A, Ee aN Go “2. Cy- _— “a —— fp Sv 0,74 IS “BA = me an PAR a =a a =p\; 4 Ye 47 f a4/7 CLAELSE y Wiig py: ;ae REL

BOISE SOG: app YY fin UMM Ws i4Ss lity ¥, y GUY VpAfyjaVi >‘Vlas A. It G Kg ie, Gos SAL Ly Lely 00 ES MATE Sopp fn ls iy yp > MD vy 07 LAMA ; : GIAbh ba > ge» 2 CLOT

Pp: Sify LOLLY, VIS Lh a | pyle

x > A ‘ \\\ . \ ANN WN —. Bez M GY; AK XS ARG

,tezkI iy LIA SEWes > AWW Vi NA TS Of IGS rc \N YS “2‘\( $8 Pe \eS so" 1 :iy: Me —S PINS ARR BS ARAMA NOS Vio OR S WEAN SEMIS

PCR ‘

> SRR \ LLIN IA ER YON of NA\XY PRLS 7,LASS ‘ eg flee. Ls jVC IH \S \ SIN fess FH BC \\SS KX SREY. ,: = ~ a NUS 7 y . KRY -~] steppe soils (ordinary chernozems) are confirmed by fossil finds of small steppe mammals—

pa] Dry steppe (chestnut) soils steppe pika, gray hampster, suslik, narrow-skull field-

rT. one , mouse, steppein“pestrushka” (Markova, 1975)—1in mole ee burrows soils of the Krutitsa interval. Soils of cherno-

[F-2_].Recent coastline zemlike appearance were prevalent at that time; they also

Coastline of Mikulino Intergiaciation after: expanded into hee that had been under broad-leaved for-

| . ests in the Mikulino Interglaciation. On the East European

Pr] 4 : pros O. K. Leontyev, Plain as well as in central and western Europe, judging

oy SER ees a th ee from paleopedologic data (Fink, 1969; Velichko and

et International Map of Quaternary Deposits Morozova, 1969), open spaces with chernozemlike soils of Europe, with additions by V. P. Grichuk were displaced in the areas of deciduous forests. Thus, the

EA] A. L. Chepalyga landscape-climatic conditions were evened out in latitude.

3 Homogenous gley soils 4

Whereas during the Mikulino Interglaciation the Atlantic

Inset: , conditions, with a greater heat and moisture supply, pene-

5 Above-trost soddy-gley soils trated far to the east (with a simultaneous meridional Above-frost soddy-gley illuvial-carbonate soils expansion), during the epoch of the Krutitsa interval there

Soddy-nongley illuvial-carbonate soils occurred a far-westward expansion of sharply continental

[==3 Frozen soils on sands conditions associated with a marked expansion (particular~ Boundaries of paleoso! areas ly to the east) of open spaces with steppe soil formation.

e Key sections The degradation of the forest zone over a considerable porSections with radiocarbon dates tion of the continent, along with a general reduction in

zonality (the phenomenon of hyperzonality, according to A. A. Velichko), are reliable indications of the interstadial character of this chronologic interval. In the central regions one can speak of specific climatic parameters for that time only for a certain interval. Because recent chernozems extend all the way up to the Altay territory, one can infer an

appreciable lowering of winter temperatures (possible range of January temperatures from —4°C to — 20°C).

114 VELICHKO, BOGUCKI, MOROZOVA, UDARTSEV, KHALCHEVA, AND TSATSKIN The July temperatures, however, could have remained analogues today. The conditions of the Bryansk interval close to the present ones (about + 20°C), and the precipi- _—_(interstade) also appear to be unusual in many respects and tation decreased to 300 to 500 mm per year. Thus, on the —_ have no modern analogues. Indeed, structurally homogencontinent the contrast and continentality of the climate — eous cryogenous soils (Figure 11-16, inset) occurred widely

increased. over the entire periglacial region of the East European Plain , starting at least with the latitude of the city of Vlad-

MIDDLE VALDAI, PHASE “b” imit, where a Bryansk soil profile was found (56° to OF SMOLENSK CRYOGENESIS 57°N), and farther south as well. Did a warmer phase ocThe Krutitsa warm interval, which can best be compared “uf at the start of the Bryansk Interstade? We do not have with the Brorup Interstade, was followed by a new wave of 2My such indications thus far. On the contrary, all available cooling and cryogenesis. Whereas cryogenic deformations 4ata point unequivocally to cold conditions. . of phase “a” of the Smolensk cryogenic horizon (from The very homogeneous structure of the Bryansk soil proabout 60,000 to 55,000 yr B.P.) were heavily veiled by files from north to south in the basins of the Oka, Don, subsequent soil formation during the Krutitsa interval, de- #4 Dnepr attests to a distinct hyperzonality for that formations of phase “b” that disturbed this soil are clearly ©POch. Soils similar to the pale yellow cryogenous soils of manifested. Attention is drawn to the latitudinal manifes- | ™odern Yakutiya predominated in the central and eastern tation of cryogenic deformations. From Volyno-Podoliya Pat's of the plain, and cryogenous gley soils similar to to the Don Basin, the deformations indicate the existence those of Taimyr predominated in the west, where moisture of a system of shallow polygons, with sides of 1.5 to 2.5 WS higher. Very severe continental conditions for that m formed by earth-ice veins 1.0 to 1.5 mhigh and 10 to —‘“me_are indicated also by paleontologic data. Markova 20 mm wide in the upper part. In the upper 0.2 to 0.4 m, (1975) was able to extract from mole burrows of that soil these systems are usually disturbed by solifluction and ‘™ the Arapovichi section (Desna Basin) the remains of cryoturbation. The region of permafrost, generally similar such small mammals as the collared lemming, which inin its regime to the conditions of phase “a”, extended to habited the northern Arctic, and several steppe species:

a latitude of 51° to 52°N. the steppe vole, suslik, steppe marmot, and natrow-skull

On the basis of a calculation on the remains of preserved _fi¢ldmouse. The last-named species now inhabits both

annual elementary cracks, the duration of the formation of | St¢Ppe and tundra. . . i,

this horizon was short— about 15 to 200 years. The results of palynologic studies of profiles of this soil

are very significant. Z. P. Guvonina in the same ArapoMIDDLE VALDAI COLD EPOCH OF vichi section and E. E. Gurtovaya in the Boyanichi section LOESS I (KOTYLEVRO LOESS) in Volyno-Podoliya found pollen of Betula nana and Al-

. naster fruticosus. Using the climatogram method, these

The low-temperature conditions leading to the develop- —_ authors obtained estimates of climatic parameters in the ment of permafrost most probably lasted even longer following ranges: January temperatures from — 19°C to (about 55,000 to 30,000 yr B.P.) during the formation of = _ 214°C July temperatures from +18°C to +14°C, and loess I. This is indicated not only by loess in the upper part total annual precipitation from 450 mm to 350 mm. of fissures but also by fissured frozen-ground formations in Consistent with these conclusions, present regions with loess I. The temperature regime corresponded to the for- analogous soil data suggest winter temperatures even lower mation of permafrost, but the ground moisture permitting (down to — 30°C). Thus, the Bryansk interval was a very the development of cryogenic deformation existed on the cool, hyperzonal epoch differing from loess-accumulation western plain. Only the so-called “dry” frozen ground epochs by the cessation (attenuation) of loess accumulation existed in the central and eastern regions. However, in = and a certain increase in moisture. comparison with the younger loess horizons, the loess I interval had less extreme continentality, as indicated by oc- VLADIMIR CRYOGENIC HORIZON casional indistinct, thin bedding and by a more clayey The Bryansk soil profile was formed against a background composition. The fairly high content of both clayey and of frozen ground (Morozova, 1962). However, a wave of sandy fractions indicates that the optimum conditions for distinct crvogenesis occurred at the end of the ‘aterval

loess formation had not yet occurred. This is also support- yb

ed by the very slight eolian abrasion of the sand grains (about 23,000 to 22,000 yr B.P.), for the already formed

Finally. | Lisloess only 1.5Itois2.0only m thick soil to profile cryogenesis. vast areas inally, 1.5 2.0wasmdeformed thick byover a vastIn area, ; of attesting to low rates of accumulation (about 0.05 mm per the basins of the Oka, Don, and Dnepr, a microrelief of

oo ; ; fissured formations of spot-medallion type was formed, of

year) and homogeneous conditions during a long period of the type well known in the present permafrost region. On

the Middle Valdai. the western East European Plain, solifluction dominated,

indicating a higher moisture content. This epoch differed LATE VALDAL, BRYANSK INTERSTADE from the Bryansk interval proper through an increase in The Bryansk (about 30,000 to 24,000 yr B.P.) fossil soil is | the amplitude of annual temperatures, primarily as a rethe chronologic analogue to the Stillfried B soil in central sult of a lowering of winter temperatures, but probably aland western Europe and the Farmdale soil of North Amer- _—_ so. as a result of a certain decrease in precipitation, especial-

ica (Table 11-1). The loess-accumulation epochs have no __ly in the central and eastern parts of the plain.

|W | E A B C J | | | sQo , |0 au 27° 30° 33° 36° 39° 42” EL.

m

|

rae

gS 4 = ~

;

,E30< QF

32 005- JOT - 001 ra) IOS mm eo, 60

=a

=| = 10

=1 | Pf 12 | | | S0 ee ee| |

116 VELICHKO, BOGUCKI, MOROZOVA, UDARTSEV, KHALCHEVA, AND TSATSKIN

I II If V Y m 10 | | | | |

hh hh 51° 4,9° ui7° LS ONL.

Te)

4 2

‘om p)

TS

52b 0.oQ05-001mm %| qQ &

= Ew < 0.001mm OL

—0

I to V). re

Figure 11-18. Change in the properties of Valdai loesses according to the zones along a meridional profile across the Russian Plain (from

PERIGLACIAL LANDSCAPES OF THE EAST EUROPEAN PLAIN 117 morphological similarity of the loess to the gray soils of re- cial Regions” (A. A. Velichko and V. P. Grichuk, eds.), pp. 128-50.

cent deserts (Morozova, 1963a). Nauka Press, Moscow.

On the whole, there were most extremely continental Bogucki, A. B., Velichko, A. A., and Nechayev, V. P. (1975). Paleocryoconditions of the entire Late Pleistocene and possibly of genic process in western Ukraine in the Upper and Middle Pleistocene.

. In “Problems of Regional and General Paleogeography of Loessial and

the Pleistocene. The very low the Perielac; . 3entire ; eriglacial Regions” (A. A.temperatures Velichko, of ed.), pp. 80-89. USSR Academy

winter months (below — 30°C) were combined with very of Sciences, Institute of Geography, Moscow. low precipitation (under 200 mm per year). In the West, Cailleux, A. (1942). The eolian periglacial actions in Europe. Mémozres however, the moisture content might have been somewhat de la Société Géologique de France, Paris, N. S. 21 (46). higher; there the facies of dry permafrost was replaced by Fink, J. (1969). Le loess en Autriche. Im “Stratigraphy of Europe’s permafrost containing pseudomorphs of frost wedges in- Loesses.” Supplement au Bulletin de |’Association francaise pour

side the loess. An indirect indication of very severe “frost” Etude du Quaternaire, Paris. conditions of loess formation in regions farther east is the __ Follmer, L. R., Berg, R. C., and Acker, L. L. (1978). Soil geomorphology

high content of closed pores in these loesses, which has of northeastern Illinois. In “A Guidebook for the Joint Field Confer-

been attributed to segregation ice. ence of the Soil Science Society of America and the ico Bical Society out in different regions, makes it pos- of America.” [Illinois Geological Survey, Urbana, Illinois, . Our . ., work, : ; . carried Glushankova, N. I. (1971). Characteristics of the group composition of

che loots tepion of the Eee Bsoteun >| the structure of humus of buried soils of the Likhvin key section. Moscow State Univer-

; a uro can ain during tha sity, Vestnik, seria geograficheskaya 5, 109-13.

epoch. The maximum accumulation of post-Bryansk Gtichuk, V. P. (i972), iif of a valeobotanical study of loesses of the loesses (Figure 11-17) was 6 to 8 m thick in the central part Ukraine and south of the Central Russian Upland. In ‘‘Loesses, Buried

of the plain at about latitude 52°N, decreasing insigifi- Soils and Cryogenic Phenomena on the Russian Plain” (A. A. Velichcantly to the west but sharply to the east. The clay fraction ko, ed.), pp. 26-48. Nauka Press, Moscow. increased in the same direction, as if the marginal zone of —_ Kaplina, T. N., and Lozhkin, A. V. (1984). Age and history of accumula-

accumulation were located there. The decrease in accumu- tion of the “ice complex” of the maritime lowlands of Yakutiya. In lation took place both north and south of this latitude “Late Quaternary Environments of the Soviet Union (A. A. Velichko, (Figure 11-18), but to the north the loess graded into cover Kh d.), pp. 147-51. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.

, . . abakov, A. V. (1946). Rounding indices of coarse gravel. Sovetskaya

deposits with both clayey and sandy fractions, and to the geologiva 10, 98-99

south the finer fractions increased with a fairly high degree Khalcheva, T. A. (1972). Variety of the mineralogical composition of

of homogeneity. loess horizons of the Russian Plain. J” “Loesses, Buried Soils and Cryo-

genic Phenomena on the Russian Plain” (A. A. Velichko, ed.), pp. 49-

THE YAROSLAVL’ CRYOGENIC PHASE 59. Nauka Press, Moscow.

. . Konishchev, V. N., Faustova, V. N., and Rogov, V. V. (1973). Reflection

Radioisotope data on the age of p seudomotp hs of ice of cryogenic phenomena in the microstructure of Quaternary deposits. wedges indicate that the strongest cryogenesis wave began In “Micromorphology of Soils and Loess Deposits” (S. V. Zonn, ed.), to develop about 18,000 years ago. In the epoch of about pp. 61-66. Nauka Press, Moscow. 18,000 to 16,000 yr B.P., the permafrost region reached its —_ Kosheleva, I. T. (1958). Mictomorphology of tundra soils as a possible in-

maximum in eastern Europe both in its southward advance dicator of their genesis. USSR Academy of Sciences, Izvestiya, serta

(to latitudes of 50° to 48°N) and in thickness (up to 150 geograficheskaya 3, 88-92. to 200 m). Such an extensive development with ice and Lazarenko, A A. (1984). The loess of Central Asia. Iv “Late Quaternary ice-earth veins should be correlated with a certain increase Environments of the Soviet Union” (A. A. Velichko, ed.), pp. 125-31.

in moisture content during the final phases of the Valdai University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis.

Glaciation. Markova, A. K. (1975). Paleogeography of the Upper Pleistocene based Paleobotanic analvsis of ‘ce-wed d h on an analysis of fossil small mammals of the upper and middle Dnepr a € analysis O© an Ice-weage pscucomorp at region. Iz “Problems of Regional and General Paleogeography of

the Late Paleolithic campsite of Timonovka II in the Desna Loessial and Periglacial Regions” (A. A. Velichko, ed.), pp. 59-68. River basin (Velichko et al., 1977) suggests that the Jan- USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Geography, Moscow. uary temperatures at the center of the East European Plain Morozova, T. D. (1962). Fossil soil of the Valdai Interstade. USSR Aca-

were under — 30°C, that is, more than 20°C lower than demy of Sciences, Doklady 143, 405-8. the present temperatures in that region. The July tempera- Morozova, T. D. (1963a). Some results of a micromorphological study of

tures, however, declined much less— by 3°C to 5°C. loesses. Iz “The Anthropogene of the Russian Plain and Its StratigraAfter the Allerdd warming, when many ice-wedge syS- phic Components” (M. I. Neustadt, ed.), pp. 86-99. USSR Academy

tems were degraded, the former polygonal systems were re- of Sciences Press, Moscow. .

. . Morozova, T. D. (1963b). Structure of ancient the soilsformation and principles vived in the Younger Dryas, as expressed ,of . their geographical distribution in in different epochs of the UpperOe Pleisof younger generations of pseudomorphs in the tops of al- tocene. Pochvovedeniye 12, 26-37

ready CxISTINg fissured structures. Morozova, T. D. (1965). Mictromorphological characteristics of pale yellow soils of central Yakutiya in relation to cryogenesis. Pochvovedentye 11, 79-89.

References Morozova, T. D. (1972). Micromorphological peculiarities of fossil soils and some problems of the paleogeography of the Mikulino (Eem) InBogucki, A. B., and Morozova, T. D. (1981). Buried soils of the Mezin terglacial on the Russian Plain. I” “Soil Micromorphology” (S. Kowa(Gorokhov) complex of Volynskaya Upland and adjacent regions. In linsky, ed.), pp. 595-606. Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, War-

“Problems of Paleogeography of the Pleistocene of Glacial and Perigla- saw. |

118 VELICHKO, BOGUCKI, MOROZOVA, UDARTSEV, KHALCHEVA, AND TSATSKIN Morozova, T. D. (1981). “Development of the Soil Mantle of Europe in schaften 9.

the Late Pleistocene.” Nauka Press, Moscow. Velichko, A. A., Grekhova, L. V., and Gubonina, Z. P. (1977). “Habitat Morozova, T. D., and Chichagova, O. A. (1968). Study of the humus of of Primitive Man of Timonovka Campsites.” Nauka Press, Moscow. fossil soils and their importance in paleogeography. Pochvovedeniye 6, Velichko, A. A., and Morozova, T. D. (1963). The Mikulino fossil soil

34-43, and its peculiarities and stratigraphic significance. In “The Anthropo-

Orlov, D. S., Grishina, I. A., and Eroshicheva, N. L. (1969). “Humus gene of the Russian Plain and Its Stratigraphic Components.” USSR

Biochemistry.” Moscow State University Press, Moscow. Academy of Sciences Press, Moscow. Paepe, R. (1969). Lithostratigraphic units of Belgium’s Upper Pleisto- Velichko, A. A., and Morozova, T. D. (1969). The loesses of Belgium. cene. Jn “Stratigraphy of Europe’s Loesses.” Supplement au Bulletin de USSR Academy of Sciences, Izvestiya, seria geograficheskaya 4, 69-76.

l’ Association Francaise pour l’Etude du Quaternaire, Paris. Velichko, A. A., and Morozova, T. D. (1972). The main horizons of Sycheva, S. A. (1978). Soils of the Mezin complex of the Oka-Don Plain. loesses and fossil soils of the Eastern European Plain: Stratigraphy and USSR Academy of Sciences, lzvestiya, seria geograficheskaya 1, 81-92. paleogeography. In “Loesses, Fossil Soils and Cryogenic Phenomena on Udartsev, V. P., and Sycheva, S. A. (1975). Upper Pleistocene loesses and the Russian Plain” (A. A. Velichko, ed.). Nauka Press, Moscow.

buried soils of the Oka-Don Plain. I” “Problems of Regional and Velichko, A. A., and Morozova, T. D. (1973). The soil cover of the UpGeneral Paleogeography of Loessial and Periglacial Regions” (A. A. per Pleistocene (Mikulino) Interglacial. I” ““Paleogeography of Europe Velichko, ed.), pp. 26-42. USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of in the Late Pleistocene” (I. P. Gerasimov, ed.), pp. 225-40. VINITI

Geography, Moscow. Press, Moscow.

Velichko, A. A. (1973). “The Natural Process in the Pleistocene.” Nauka Volkov, I. A., and Zykina, V. S. (1984). Loess stratigraphy in southwest-

Press, Moscow. | ern Siberia. Iv “Late Quaternary Environments of the Soviet Union”

Velichko, A. A. (1977). Die Erforschung von Léssgebieten und die Palio- (A. A. Velichko, ed.), pp. 119-24. University of Minnesota Press, geographie der Eiszeitepochen. Schriftenrethe fir geologische Wissen- Minneapolis.

GCHAPIECR ] y

Loess Stratigraphy in Southwestern Siberia I, A. Volkov and V. S. Zykina

Predominantly subaerial sediments accumulated in the | hummocks and a thin cover of variable thickness. Both the southern part of the West Siberian Plain during the Late _ crests and the cover between them consist mainly of eolian Pleistocene on geomorphic levels above the floors of large _—_ traction deposits. The crests are common on all old landdepressions and river valleys. Extensive studies of these de- forms, including the regionally developed second terrace posits have shown that the principal factor in denudation

and transport was wind. The sediments comprise a sepa- %. ” er rate subaerial formation having a characteristic spatial and — ie ayy : facies differentiation and a rhythmic structure reflecting (4 x e :

climate-caused irregularities in sedimentation (Volkov, 4 $ o Bee ot 1971b, 1980). Regions marked predominantly by old de- ne. oe we tt >» Saget . egies

flation and accumulation of coarse traction deposits are a a? ee” & distinct from regions marked predominantly by atmos- ? Mp +. &* ee ‘g , ,

pheric dust deposits. Examples of the first type are many a? " mn : areas of the interfluves of the Ishim and Irtysh River valleys ge Ps - Rube I a a

and of the Ishim and Tobol, as well as of the Barabinskaya =.’ « . re .; . Steppe and the western part of the Kulundinskaya Steppe he” oH ¢ Pak ‘ (Volkov, 1968). Regions of the second type include the _ Cee et TY i ES ae

(Volkov, 1971b). Ault Fee Rat

eastern part of Kulunda and the plain at the Altay foothills = & We 78 oe, >a 2 d>.. The regions where deflation and eolian traction deposits ~~ NS * D> Po < f Re. were predominant are characterized by extensive old defla- ee at »— ve 7 , tion depressions and eolian depositional landforms. The “>. ne See Py eg cover of old subaerial deposits has a highly variable thick- - 4. 4487 a oe PF ae ness and consists mainly of sand of varying grain size, oc- Se « ¢ i ee “SEyt oe Pp casionally even with an admixture of stones. In addition to po PS oe ale Ts > toe

: , ‘St14% A rr +i -eg r4 F at < \ s-»y° x‘ fil es bal Pins * ae

. 8 As a ’ ee ™ a ss ~ a « : ——* a ig 7 — ) , — penetrating the loess, roots up of to steppe semidesert plants into developed a pressure 45 kgand per square

| centimeter and compacted only the walls of root passages | without increasing the total porosity. As a result of biob kg —s chemical activity, the roots encrusted the walls of the pas-

05 O07 10 15 20 cm’ — sages with carbonate salts and substantially increased the Figure 14-7. Development of a subsidence character in a sample of structural ae Me Noes. Phnyrogcas macropores did

recent proluvial takyr of loessial composition during wetting- . ,

freezing-drying: (a) before wetting-freesing-drying eyele (nacural loess of the active layer, me wails were not encrusted with sample); (2) after one cycle of wetting, freezing, and drying. saits tn macfopores Caused Dy Ice, it was Precisely such macropores that were responsible for the subsidence character of loess, and they closed up during subsidence. The from natural loess in trenches 10 to 2 m? in volume; they experiment confirms the results previously obtained by froze at the start of winter and swelled to a porosity of 50% Velich ko and Markova (1971). It was also found that to 52% (with an ice content of about 30%). An intensive weath ering crusts (from laterite to kaolinite) do hot have sublimation of ice from loosened silts took place during a subsidence properties. Many years of field studies conpowerful Asian anticyclone in the winter. In April and ducted by the Engineering Geology Department of MosMay, the silts assumed the typical characteristics of natural 6°” State University showed that the subs! dence character

loess, with distinct subsidence properties (Minervin, of loess 1s formed in zones with the cryoeluvial type of

1975). weathering (northern Kazakhstan, southern West Siberia, Steppe Altay, Minusinskiy intermontane trough, and the southwestern Siberian Platform).

The Alluvial Hypothesis In conclusion, the composition, structure, and subsi-

; . ; dence character of loess in Central Asia resulted from a set Moeeing or me sv psicence Character of alluvial loess was of nostsedimentation and hypergenic physiochemical pro-

during 2 5 month bu mp test a the aroun ra oot we cesses under severe Pleistocene periglacial climatic condi.

q ag by 8 ‘After drain d dtvine in the h tions, a decisive role having been played by seasonal and

topping by 8 m. After drainage and drying in the hot multiyear cryolithogenesis. |

summer, the alluvial floodplain deposits were compacted during shrinkage to a porosity of 35%; subsidence character was absent both at atmospheric pressure and at a pres-

sure of 15 kg per square centimeter. References

A second experiment was carried out on the high flood- aoa: a a.

plain of the Ob’ River in Novosibirsk Province during a Berg, be S. (0947). “Glimate and Life.” State Publishing House of Geo9-month pump test with a 6-m drop in groundwater level Chepizhnyy K. 1, Sergeyeva, N. E., and Barsanov, G. P. (1973). Sym-

in cryptostratified alluvial floodplain loess. Drainage of metry and structure of dissolution forms on the pinacoid of quartz water from the alluvium, deep seasonal freezing, and crystals. A. Ye. Fersman Mineralogical Museum, Vypod 22, 96-106.

thawing and drying during the hot summer months con- Nauka Press, Moscow.

verted the water-saturated floodplain alluvium into a Deryagin, B. V. (1967). Inertia-less deposition of particles from a fluid

typical subsidence loess. flow on a sphere under the influence of van der Waals attraction

forces. In “Studies in the Area of Surface Forces” (D. V. Deryagin,

. . ed.), pp. 69-81. Nauka Press, Moscow. The Soil Hypothesis Fedorov B. A. (1962). Frost formations in the steppes and deserts of ; Eurasia. Jz “Problems of Stratigraphy and Paleogeography of the Qua-

Berg (1947) and numerous adherents of the soil hypothesis ternary (Anthtopogene)”’ (V. I. Gromov, ed.). Commission on the

attribute a considerable role in the formation of loess to Study of the oe emary Trudy 19. USSR cadens of Sciences,

macropores and branching canals (passages of dead plant Moscow.

140 MINERVIN Fotiyev, S. M. (1978). “Hydrogeothermal Characteristics of the Cryogenic loesslike rocks. Im “Recent Exogenic Processes” (V. G. Bodnarchuk,

Region of the USSR.” Nauka Press, Moscow. | ed.), Part 2, pp. 67-79. Naukova Dumka, Kiev. Gedroyts, K. K. (1955). “Selected Works.” Vol. 1. State Publishing Popov, A. I. (1979). Cryolithogenesis and its place in the lithogenesis sys-

House of Agricultural Literature, Moscow. tem. Problemy Kniolitologi 8, 7-26. Kiselev, V. F. (1970). “Surface Phenomena in Semiconductors and Di- Popov, A. I., and Kudryavtseva, M. M. (1940). Study of coagels of mu-

electrics.” Nauka Press, Moscow. tual precipitation. Pochvovedentye 8, 54-67.

Kostenko, N. P. (1962). Loessial rocks in the mountains of southern Cen- Shantser, Ye. V. (1966). Outline of a study of genetic types of continentral Asia. Iz “The Latest Stage of Geological Development of Tadzhik- tal sedimentary formations. USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of

istan’s Territory” (V. I. Popov, ed.), pp. 119-41. Donish Press, Du- Geology, Trudy 161.

shanbe. Shumskiy, P. A. (1955). “Principles of Structural Glaciology.” USSR AcaMinervin, A. V. (1975). Role of hypergenesis processes in the formation demy of Sciences, Moscow. of the subsidence character of loessial rocks in southern Siberia: Gene- Strakhov, N. M. (1960). “Principles of Lithogenesis Theory.” Vol. 1. Aca-

tic principles of geological engineering study of rocks. “Proceedings of demy of Sciences of the USSR, Moscow. International Conference” (E. M. Sergeev, ed.), pp. 305-14. Moscow Tsekhomskiy, A. M. (1960). Structure and composition of the film on

State University, Moscow. quartz sand grains. Iv “The Weathering Crust” (I. 1. Ginzburg, ed.), Minervin, A. V. (1979). Formation of the subsidence properties of loesses Issue 3, pp. 293-312. USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow. from windblown dust under present conditions of central Asia. In- Turbin, L. I., and Aleksandrova, N. V. (1970). Formation of the loessial

zhenernaya Geologiya 3, 78-85. rocks of Tien-Shan. “Proceedings of International Symposium on the Minervin, A. V. (1980). Modeling of the conditions of formation of Lithology and Genesis of Loessial Rocks” (G. A. Mavlyakov, ed.), Vol. coarse dust particles of loessial rocks. Imzhenernaya Geologiya 1, 1, pp. 345-54. FAN Press, Tashkent.

51-60. Velichko, A. A. (1973). “The Natural Process in the Pleistocene.” Nauka

Nesmeyanov, S. A. (1977). “Correlation of Continental Rock Masses.” Press, Moscow.

Nedra Press, Moscow. Velichko, A. A., and Markova, A. K. (1971). Two main forms of large

Pedro, Zh. (1971). “Experimental Studies of Geochemical Weathering of pores in loesses. USSR Academy of Sciences, Doklady 197, 899-902.

Crystalline Rocks.” Mir Press, Moscow. Zimon, A. D. (1976). “Adhesion of Dust and Powder.” Khimiya Press,

Popov, A. I. (1968). The cryogenic factor in the formation of loessial and Moscow. . |

CHAPTER ] 5 Periglacial Landscapes and Loess Accumulation in the Late Pleistocene Arctic and Subatctic S. V. Tomirdiaro

In connection with the extensive Late Pleistocene oceanic posits of an edoma complex in northeastern USSR were ice cover in the more humid regions (Velichko, 1973), a2 long regarded mainly as a variety of floodplain alluvium pronounced cryoxerophytization of landscapes took place (Popov, 1967). Shilo (1971) criticized this concept, and even in western Eurasia. At that time, the eastern part of _ the present author in northern Yakutiya and Chukchi Penthe Arctic and Sub-Arctic (so-called Beringia) was located _—_ insula established an eolian genesis for the edoma deposits

in the interior of a huge continent, for the thickly frozen and attributed them and other frozen loess strata of PleisArctic Ocean, unopened for millennia, formed a true “cli- | tocene Eurasia to a single time of formation of loess and matic dry land” in this area. This “dry land,” together with — ice in the past (Tomirdiaro, 1980). These deposits have the adjacent continents of North America and Eurasia, now begun to be distinguished as a Siberian type of loess produced in the climatic sense a single “supercontinent” (Trush and Kondrat’yeva, 1980). On arctic maritime lowwith a huge arctic-subarctic landscape hyperzone (a term _ lands of Yakutiya and on islands of the Novosibirsk Archicoined by Velichko, 1973). Here, as within the deep interi- _ pelago north of latitude 72°N, the material differed so or of the supercontinent, a special cryoarid zone was sharply from ordinary loess edomas that for a long time it formed, along with a permanent arctic global anticyclone had been mistaken for huge buried glaciers (Toll’, 1897). that no longer exists (Tomirdiaro, 1980). This resulted in The chief constituent is ice preserved to the present time an almost constant cloudless sky and consequently a sharp _ only in the major islands of the Novosibirsk Archipelago, increase of solar insolation and summer temperatures, and on the coast of northern Yakutiya approximately bealong with an even greater drop of winter temperatures —_ tween the Indigirka River and the mouth of the Anabar (Kaplina and Kuznetsova, 1975). This in turn led to the River. In the south, this region is bounded on the plains recently proposed concept of arctic steppe or even arctic by approximate latitude 72°N, and near mountain struc-

prairie (Tomirdiaro, 1972) on the Bering dry land. In tures by the foothills. 1979, this problem was dealt with at a special international Until recently, it was assumed that deposits of all the symposium at Burg Wartenstein (Hopkins et al., 1982). | edomas studied could be unified into a single edoma suite; Arctic frost-steppe landscapes were local variants of the the edoma outcrop of Duvanny Yar on the Kolyma River, huge periglacial frost steppes of the entire transcontinental | composed of loess with a very low ice content and fine ice

superzone of that time. veins, was designated as the stratotype for the entire In this entire superzone, the main geologic processes | “edoma suite” (Sher, 1971). In the meantime, the author's were the formation of huge covers of loess and the devel- _— studies distinguished a separate regional arctic or glacial opment of a stable permafrost with polygonal ice veins | edoma, that is, the shelf type (Figure 15-1).

(Velichko, 1973). Analogous processes should also have The arctic type of frozen-loess deposits (shelf-type prevailed within Beringia. Indeed, there are preserved pe- | edomas or arctic-type loess) is characterized by the followculiar frozen loess masses, called edoma complex in Yaku- _ ing features: (1) The total average content of Pleistocene tiya and Goldstream Formation in Alaska (Péwé, 1975). | subterranean ice amounts to 85% to 93% of the volume (“Edoma” is a local Russian word that apparently means _ of the entire mass of deposits to a depth of 30 to 35 m or earth “eaten up” by lakes. It refers to high residual masses = more. (2) The width of extremely hypertrophied syngenetof Pleistocene loess plains, which the population watched _ic ice veins averages 8 to 9 m, and the mineral mass of frobeing “consumed” by a very active process of Holocene la- zen-loess columns, or so-called “earth veins,” is only 2 to custrine thermokarst formation [Tomirdiaro, 1978].) De- | 3 min diameter. (3) The soil mantle covering this ice-filled 141

142 TOMIRDIARO

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Figure 16-3. Radiocarbon dates giving the age of the ice complex. The numbers of the dates correspond to the numbers of the sections from which they were obtained (Figure 16-1). (1) Dates accompanied by pollen spectra with a predominance of tree and shrub pollen, (2) dates accompanied by pollen spectra with a predominance of grass pollen or spores, (3) dates for which no pollen spectra are available. (I) Dates from sediments underlying the ice complex, (II) dates from the ice complex, (III) dates from sediments overlying the ice complex.

THE “ICE COMPLEX” IN YAKUTIYA 151 with lacustrine, paludal, and locally alluvial sediments sponding to the Alleréd. From that time on, there began containing peat and wood, from which numerous datesof an active fragmentation of the edoma surface, composed group I and parts of group III were obtained. The preserva- of the IC and thermokarst, and it was followed by the filltion of IC fragments under the lacustrine sediments indi- ing of thermokarst depressions by lacustrine and paludal cates that the thawing of frozen ground was not contin- deposits of the Holocene (Kaplina and Lozhkin, 1979). uous and did not result in their complete degradation. The Such is the history of accumulation of the IC, as inferred mean annual temperature of the ground rose only to the _—_‘ from radiocarbon dates. Obviously, it is yet to be refined.

range of subzero values. Of particular importance in this respect will be layer-byAt the end of Khomus-Yuryakh time, IC accumulation layer dating of the thickest key sections. The dating of soil resumed, as indicated by the dates of group II, obtained _ horizons buried in the IC, which thus far have not been mainly from the lower layers of the “upper” IC, which are _ given sufficient attention, looks very promising. also characterized by tree pollen. The dates of 34,000 to

30,000 yt B.P. come not only from the IC but also from References

the dated taberal layers in sections 24 and 25.

Renewed warming from 30,000 to 24,000 yt B.P. caused Kaplina, T. N., and Lozhkin, A. V. (1979). The age of alass deposits of further thermokarst activities, as confirmed by the dates of Yakutiya’s Maritime Lowlands (based on radiocarbon data). USSR Aca-

groups I and III. Sediments of that time include lacustrine demy of Sciences, seriya geologicheskaya 2. _, , and paludal deposits containing wood and extending to Kaplina, T.N., Sher, A. V., Giterman, R. E., Zazhigin, V. S., Kiselev, the northern margins o £ the lowlands (sections 6 and 8). S. V., Lozhkin, A. V., and Nikitin, V. P. (1980). Key section of Pleis. ye . . tocene deposits on the Allaikha River (lower reaches of the Indigirka). Palynologic data also indicate an increased forest cover in Bulletin of the Commission on the Study of the Quaternary 50.

the fegion. . Kolesnikov, S. F. (1980). Cryogenic structure of the Kuchchuguy Suite

Deposits of this interval were first described and radio- of the Yana-Indigirka Lowland. Scientific and Technical Collection of carbon dated for the lowlands by Timashev (1972) in the Abstracts of the USSR State Committee for Construction, series 15, Kuranakh-Sala River valley (section 2), so the local name “Engineering Research in Construction, Geocryological Studies,” No.

of Kuranakh-Sala warming is proposed, correlating with 1. Moscow. the Bryansk Interstade in the European USSR (Velichko, — Kolpakov, V. V. (1979). Glacial and periglacial topography of the Verk1973), the Novonazimovskiy warm interval in the Yenisey hoyansk glacial region and new radiocarbon datings. I” “Regional Geo-

region, and the Plum Point Interstade of North America morphology of Newly Developed Areas” (A. I. Muzis, ed.), pp. 83-98.

(Zubakov, 1974). Sediments of the Kuranakh-Sala warm- Nedra Press, Moscow.

, : | - . . . . Kondrat’yeva, K. A., Trush, N. I., Chizhova, N. I, and Rybakova, N.

ing in ceftain sections (10, 14) include buried soils, which O. (1976). Characteristics of Pleistocene deposits in the Mus-Khaya

may be dated In the future. Outcrop on the Yana River. In “Cryological Research” (V. A. KudryThe geologic location of radiocarbon dates in the 24,000 avtsev, ed.), No. 15, pp. 60-93. Moscow State University Press, Mos-

to 11,500 yr B.P. time interval, combined with the dates cow. from group I, indicated very intensive accumulation of IC, Lozhkin, A. V. (1976). Vegetation of western Beringia in the Late Pleisto-

resulting in strata up to 20 m thick. According to palynolo- cene and Holocene. J” “Beringia in the Cenozoic” (V. L. Kontrimavi-

gic data, this period was very cold and arid. chus, ed.), pp. 72-77. USSR Academy of Sciences, Far Eastern Scienti-

Deposits of that time interval were studied in most de- fic Center. Vladivostok. —

tail p alyn olo gi c ally and tadiocarbon-dated in the Mus- Lozhkin, A. V. (1977). Radiocarbon datings of Upper Pleistocene deposKhava section on the Yana (section 5), where they com- its of Novosibirsk Islands and age of the edoma suite of the northeast-

1ay , y ern USSR. USSR Academy of Sciences, Doklady 235, 435-37.

PIIse only a part of the IC section and are located at a Sher, A. V. (1971). “Mammals and Stratigraphy of the Pleistocene of the height of 16 to 18 m above the water (Kondrat’yeva et al., Far East of the USSR and North America.” Nauka Press, Moscow. 1976; Lozhkin, 1977; Kolpakov, 1979). The local name of Sher, A. V., and Kaplina, T. N. (eds.) (1979). “Guidebook of Scientific Mus-Khaya can be proposed for the cold interval corre- Excursion on the Problem ‘Late Cenozoic Deposits of the Kolyma Lowsponding to the Sartan cold interval and for the formation land’.” Fourteenth Pacific Ocean Scientific Congress, Stage 11. All-

of loess II and III in the European USSR (Velichko, 1973). Union Institute of Scientific In the sections of the Khroma (10), Allaikha (15), and Timashev, I. Ye. (1972). Stratigraphy of the Pleistocene of the western Shandrin (16) Rivers, the Mus-Khaya sediments are over margin of the Yana-Indigitka Lowland. Isvesttya Vysshykh Uchebnykh

25 to 30 m high; and, in the sections of the Duvanny Yar Zavedenty, Geologia y Razvedka 10, 21-25. vo.

. Tomirdiaro, S. V. (1980). “The Loess-Ice on the Kolyma River (23), they are more than 18 mFormation above . ;of . Eastern Siberia in the river. But in several sections (11,, 14) they are located Late Pleistocene and’ Ho ocene.” Nauka Moscow. y Velichko, A. A.the(1973). “The Natural Processes in thePress, Pleistocene.

at only 2 to 5 m above sea level. . Nauka Press, Moscow.

The dates of group III indicate that the accumulation of — Zubakov, A. V. (ed.) (1974). “Geochronology of the USSR,” Vol. 3. Ne-

IC ended around 12,000 yr B.P., that is, in a period corre- dra Press, Leningrad.

BLANK PAGE -

Vegetational History

BLANK PAGE

CHAPTER 1 / Late Pleistocene Vegetation History V. P Gnchuk

A comparatively thorough study of the Late Pleistocene ve- | importance. The most versatile tool is pollen analysis, getational history of the USSR has been made possible by — which makes it possible to obtain relevant data at any strathe more comprehensive paleobotanic information pro- __ tigraphic level from practically any deposit. The separation vided by over 900 papers dealing with pollen analysis pub- = method of preparing pollen samples (Grichuk, 1937) per-

lished from 1962 through 1977. Detailed palynologic —§ mits study not only of peat and organic lacustrine sedistudies of a great many sections are available for all the |= ments but also clay, loam, sand, and coarse gravels. The ptincipal regions of the country, except for parts of Siberia cavitation method (Grichuk et al., 1967) is more effective and the deserts of Central Asia. The extent of Late Pleisto- for loess and buried soils. cene studies varies for different parts of the USSR, but Negative results in pollen analysis (if carefully conductpalynologic data are available for large regions of the coun- ed) can be informative, because a consistent absence of a try. Data on recent (subfossil) pollen spectra from most taxon in the spectrum is direct evidence of its real absence parts of the USSR ensure the reliability of phytocenotypic _ or very insignificant occurrence in a region during a partiinterpretations. Few studies discuss the vegetational his- cular time interval. Paleobotanic data provide only selectory over a large area, but mention should be made of _ tive information on past vegetation. Krasilov (1972) noted monographs by Giterman and others (1968), Saks (1970), that, in addition to loss of information as a result of fossil-

and Makhnach (1971). ization, considerable loss derives from the impossibility of A systematic examination of Late Pleistocene vegeta- _ identifying all the vegetal remains. tional history is a difficult task. The Late Pleistocene is sub- A second and extremely important source of informadivided into four formal units, which are presented in _ tion necessary in reconstructing past vegetation is provided

Table 17-1. by florocenogenetic analysis of modern vegetation and in The extent of Early Valdai (Zyryanka) Glaciation and _ particular of relict flora. Before extensive pollen and mathe paleogeographic rank of the Middle Valdai (Kargin- — crofossil (carpological) analyses, florocenogenetic analysis skiy) interval, as either interglaciation or interstade, is dis- was the chief source of information on Late Pliocene and

cussed among Quaternary scientists, but the amount of | Quaternary flora and vegetation (Maleyev 1941, 1948; paleobotanic data from these horizons is comparatively | Kleopov, 1941; Sochava, 1946; Krasheninnikov, 1951). limited. Therefore, this survey will examine only the initial | The studies of Krasheninnikov (1951) on the Pleistocene and final stages of the Late Pleistocene: the Mikulino Interglaciation (Eemian of western Europe) and the Late Val- Table 17-1. Subdivision of the Late Pleistocene

dai Glaciation (Late Wiirm of western Europe), the maxi- a

mum phase of which occurred between 20,000 and 18,000 Index Siberia years ago.

Qi, | Late Valdai (glacial) | Sartan (glacial)

. Qin | Middle Karginskty Sources of Paleobotanic Data Valdai Q2, Zytyanka (glacial) In floristic and vegetational reconstructions, the palyno- Qin | Mikulino Kazantsevo logic and plant-macrofossil analyses and the determina- Note: Units adapted by the Ministry of Geology of the

tions of plant tissues and leaf imprints are of greatest USSR.

155

156 GRICHUK floristic complex are confirmed by newly available dated ample, Figure 17-2 (A-D) shows the occurrence of four paleobotanic materials. Florocenogenetic analysis provides species found in relict habitats within the upper forest and basic information on past plant cover in certain regions, in- alpine belts of the Altay, the Sayan, and other mountains cluding the Arctic (Tolmachev and Yurtsev 1970), certain _—_ farther east in Siberia. The ecology of these and other relict

mountainous regions of Siberia, and desert plains of Cen- — species within their principal ranges makes it possible to tral Asia and southern Kazakhstan (Korovin, 1961). The characterize past plant formations. The main formations in results reveal the most significant stages in vegetational this region on solonetz soils during the last glaciation were history and provide phytocenotic information for extreme open pine, larch, and birch forest; grassy and herbaceous

conditions. meadow-steppe; and grassland. Paleobotanic data from It is not possible here to discuss the method of florocen- __ the upper loess horizon in this part of the Middle Russian ogenetic analysis, but we cite some comparatively simple | Upland (which ts reliably correlated with the last glaciaexamples using relict species. Figure 17-1 (A-D) shows the tion) made it possible to date this epoch and confirmed

distribution of certain species that are common in the the ecologic and phytocenotic conclusions (Grichuk, broad-leaved and coniferous/broad-leaved forests of Eu- —-1972). rope and the Far East. These species are also fairly common Special information is provided by data on endemic spein isolated locations thousands of kilometers away in the cies. The abundance of paleoendemics, particularly those so-called “dark taiga” of the Altay and south of Krasno- with a narrow, localized distribution, is a definite indica-

yarsk along the Yenisey River. tion that the environmental conditions of a region were

Figure 17-1A shows the occurrence of Pol/ystichum unchanged over a long period. In cases where paleoendembraunit Fée in Europe and eastern Asia. Anumber of spe- _ ics of genus rank are found, one can be confident of stable cies, including Actgea spicata L., Geranium robertianum conditions over a very long period (Tolmachev, 1974a). L., and Asperula odorata L., have similar distributions. | Such regions are found in the southern part of the USSR Other species, for example Circaea lutetiana L., Asarum in the Caucasus (Kolkhida and northeastern Dagestan),

europaeum \., Brachypodium silvaticum (Huds.), and Central Asia (the Karatau Range, Kendaktas Mountains, Bromus beneckeni (Lge) Trimen, are common only in Eu- — and Kungey-Ala-Too Range), the southern Baikal region, rope and in isolated locations in the Altay (Figure 17-1B). | and the southernmost Soviet Far East. This fact must be The third group of species, such as Festuca extremiorien- __ considered, of course, when interglacial and glacial vegetatalis Ohwi, Mentspermum dahuricum D.C., Viola dactil- tion is to be reconstructed. In conclusion, a vegetational toides Roem, and Osmorhiza aristata (Thunb.) Mak. and reconstruction must combine paleobotanic information, Jabe (Figure 17-1C), has its principal range in eastern Asia which permits reliable geologic correlation and interpretaand in isolated locations in the southern Baikal region, tion, with the results of florocentric analysis, which spect-

along the Yenisey River, and in the Altay. fies phytocenotic phenomena. A good example of such an The isolated locations of these species in the Altay and = approach is the well-known monograph by Vul’f (1941). in other regions of Siberia constitute surviving remnants of The botanical history of the USSR provides support for a once-continuous belt of broad-leaved forests extending __ three basic types of flora (Lavrenko, 1938): (1) re/ict floras, across all of Eurasia. Floristic materials are available that | characterized by an abundance of old, relatively unchangpermit the age of this belt to be estimated. A fairly large ing elements; (2) orthoselection floras, which have been number of endemic species, including Ti/ia stbirica Bayer | changing in the same direction for a long time (primarily (Figure 17-1D), also grow in these same forests in the Al- _in the direction of increased aridity or continentality; and tay. I. sthirica is morphologically very close to both the —_ (3) migration floras, which migrated to a given territory afEuropean T. cordata Mill. and the Far Eastern T. amuren- __ ter the preceding flora was eliminated during periods of sts Rupr. and is considered by many systematists to be a __ glacial or periglacial conditions. These types of flora tresubspecies of the former. Other Altay endemic species, quire a differentiated approach to the reconstruction of such as Galium krylova jin, Brunnera sibirica Stev., and _ past vegetation. Dentaria stbirica (Schulz) N. Busch, differ little from closely related European species; this fact suggests that the

Altay nemoral species became isolated fairly recently and Methods and Procedures for

that the broad-leaved forest belt extended across Siberia Dating Materials during the Mikulino (Kazantsevo) Interglacitation. Analy-

sis of the ecologic connections among the mentioned Determining the age of materials used in reconstructing species within their present-day range permits a detailed | vegetation becomes complex when one deals with the endescription of the composition and cenotic features of tire Late Pleistocene over the entire USSR. Radiocarbon Mikulino-age formations in the Altay and other regions _ dating is limited to the last glaciation and the preceding

that feature nemoral species. Middle Valdai (Karginskiy) interval. For the entire USSR, As a second example we can cite data on glacial relicts | only a limited number of dated sections spans the maxiin the flora of the southeastern Middle Russian Upland, mum phase of glaciation, 20,000 to 18,000 years ago, and graphically referred to by the well-known botanist Kozo- _ it ts difficult to reconstruct the vegetation of the last glactaPolyanskiy (1931) as the “land of living fossils.” As an ex- tion.

LATE PLEISTOCENE VEGETATION HISTORY 157

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“

178 GRICHUK western Altay Mountains of Siberia, coniferous/ broad- Quaternary Deposits of the Maritime Territory.” Nauka Press, Novosi-

leaved forests existed in isolated refuges. bitsk.

The southernmost USSR represents the extraglacial re- Korovin, E. P. (1961). “Vegetation of Central Asia and Southern Ka-

gion, because both paleobotanic and historicofloristic data zakhstan,” Book I. Uzbek Academy of ae Press, Tashkent. consistently show that vegetation of the maximum of Kozo Fowyansy B.Pine M. (1931). “In the Living Fossils: 7 . ine ofglacial the History Mountain Forests onLand theofSteppe PlainAnofOutthe has no analogues. Artemisial grass steppe and semidesetts Central Black Earth Region.” Uchebno-pedagogicheskoye Press, Mos-

are reconstructed for the plains of the extraglacial region, cow.

and mountain steppe and coniferous/broad-leaved and Krasheninnikov, I. M. (1951). Principal modes of development of southbroad-leaved forests are reconstructed for the mountains. ern Urals’ vegetation in relation to the paleogeography of northern EuSimilar forests undoubtedly existed in the extreme south rasia in the Pleistocene and Holocene. In “Geographical Studies” (A.

of the Far East as well. I. Solovyev, ed.), pp. 170-217. Geografgiz Press, Moscow.

Krasilov, V. A. (1972). “Paleoecology of Terrestial Plants.” Far East Research Century, Vladivostok. Kurentsova, G. A. (1973). “Natural and Anthropogenic Alternations of

References | the Vegetation of the Maritime Territory and Southern Amur Region.”

Nauka Press, Novosibirsk. Chebotareva, N. S., and Makarycheva, I. A. (1974). “The Last Glaciation Lavrenko, Ye. M. (1938). History of the flora and vegetation of the USSR

of Europe and Its Geochronology.” Nauka Press, Moscow. based on data of the present distribution of plants. I” “The Vegetation Gerasimov, A. I. (ed.) (1969). “Endemic Mountainous Plants of Central of the USSR” (Yu. D. Tsinserling, ed.), Vol. 1, pp. 235-96. USSR Aca-

Asia.” Nauka Press, Novosibirsk. demy of Sciences Press, Moscow and Leningrad.

Giterman, R. E., Golubeva, L. V., Zaklinskaya, E. D., Koreneva, E. V., Makhnach, N. A. (1971). “Stages of Development of Belorussia’s VegetaMatveyeva, O. V., and Skiba, L. A. (1968). “Main Stages of the Devel- tion in the Anthropogene.” Nauka i Tekhnika Press, Minsk. opment of Central Asia’s Vegetation in the Anthropogene.” Nauka Maleyev, V. P. (1941). Tertiary relicts in the flora of western Caucasus

Press, Moscow. and principal stages of the Quaternary history of its flora and vegeta-

Grichuk, V. P. (1937). A new method of treating sedimentary rocks for tion. In “Materials on the History of the Flora and Vegetation of the purposes of pollen analysis. Sovzet Section of the International Society USSR” (V. L. Komorav, ed.), Vol. 1, pp. 61-144. USSR Academy of

for the Study of the Quaternary, Trudy 3, 159-65. Sciences Press, Moscow and Leningrad. Grichuk, V. P. (1949). Exploration of the process of formation of broad- Maleyev, V. P. (1948). Principal stages in the development of vegetation

leaved forests in the Eastern European Plain in the Quaternary. Vo- of the Mediterranean and mountain regions of the south of the USSR

prosy geografit 12, 79-96. (Caucasus and Crimea) in the Quaternary period. Gosudarstvennogo Grichuk, V. P. (1961). Fossil floras as a paleontological basis of the strati- Nikitskogo Botanicheskogo Sada, Trudy 25, 1-251. graphy of Quaternary deposits. I” “Relief and Stratigraphy of Quater- Markov, K. K. (1955). Geography of USSR territory in the Quaternarynary Deposits of the Northwestern Russian Plain” (K. K. Markov, ed.), Anthropogene (basic concepts). Jz “Outlines of the Geography of the

pp. 25-71. USSR Academy of Sciences Press, Moscow. Quaternary” (K. K. Markov, ed.), pp. 5-24. Geografgiz Press, Moscow. Grichuk, V. P. (1969). Glacial floras and their classification. I” “‘The Last Neustadt, M. I. (1957). “History of the Forests and Paleogeography of the Ice Sheet in the Northwestern European USSR” (1. P. Gerasimov, ed.), USSR in the Holocene.” USSR Academy of Sciences Press, Moscow.

pp. 57-70. Nauka Press, Moscow. Panychev, V. A. (1979). “Radiocarbon Chronology of Alluvial Deposits Grichuk, M. P. (1970). Principles of formation of recent spore-pollen of the Cis-Altay Plain.” Nauka Press, Novosibirsk. spectra as the basis for interpreting fossil spore-pollen spectra. I ‘‘His- Saks, V. N. (ed.) (1970). “History of the Development of Vegetation in tory of the Development of Vegetation of the Extraglacial Zone of the the Extraglacial Zone of the West Siberian Lowland in the Late PlioWest Siberian Lowland in the Late Pliocene and Quaternary” (V. N. cene and Quaternary.” Nauka Press, Moscow.

Saks, ed.). Nauka Press, Moscow. Sochava, V. B. (1946). Some aspects of the florogenesis and phytocenoGrichuk, V. P. (1971). Analysis of the structure of the Pleistocene vegeta- genesis of the Manchurian mixed forest. I” “Materials on the History

tional cover across the USSR. Pollen et Spores 8, 101-16. of the Flora and Vegetation of the USSR” (V. L. Komarov, ed.), Vol. Grichuk, V. P. (1972). Principal stages of the history of vegetation in 2, pp. 283-320. USSR Academy of Sciences Press, Moscow and Leninsouthwest of the Russian Plain tn the Late Pleistocene. I” “Palynology grad. of the Pleistocene” (V. P. Grichuk, ed.), pp. 9-53. USSR Academy of Tolmachev, A. I. (1974a). “Introduction to Plant Geography.” Leningrad

Sciences, Institute of Geography, Moscow. State University, Leningrad. Grichuk, M. P., Shumova, G. M., and Shiporina, I. A. (1967). Applica- Tolmachev, A. I. (ed.) (1974b). “Endemic Mountain Plants of Central

tion of a new method of isolating pollen from Pleistocene loesslike and Asia.” Nauka Press, Novosibirsk. | clayey deposits. Moscow State University, Vestntk 3, 56-59. Tolmachev, A. I., and Yurtsev, V. A. (1970). History of the Arctic flora Khotinskiy, N. A. (1977). “The Holocene of Northern Eurasia.” Nauka in relation to the history of the Arctic Ocean. I” “The Arctic Ocean and

Press, Moscow. Its Littoral in the Cenozoic” (A. I]. Tolmachev, ed.), pp. 87-100. Gt-

Kind, N. V. (1974). “Geochronology of the Late Anthropogene Based on drometizdat Press, Leningrad.

Isotope Data.” Nauka Press, Moscow. Vdovin, V. V., Votakh, M. R., and Zudin, A. N. (1969). Materials perKleopov, Yu. D. (1941). Main developmental characteristics of the flora taining to the stratigraphy of the Pleistocene of the Chumysh Salair reof broad-leaved forests of the European USSR. Iw ‘Materials on the gion. I” “The Quaternary Geology and Geomorphology of Siberia” (V. History of the Flora and Vegetation of the USSR” (V. L. Komarov, N. Saks, ed.), pp. 58-67. Nauka Press, Novosibirsk. ed.), pp. 183-256. USSR Academy of Sciences Press, Moscow and Le- Vul’f, E. V. (1941). Historical plant geography. J “History of Floras of

ningrad. the Globe” (S. Yu. Lipshits, ed.), pp. 3-546. USSR Academy of

Korotkiy, A. M., Karaulova, L. P., and Toritskaya, T. S. (1980). “The Sciences Press, Moscow and Leningrad.

CHAPTER 7 8 Holocene Vegetation History N. A. Khotinskty

Studies of the Holocene vegetational history in the USSR —_ was quickly replaced by zonal vegetation, atmospheric cir-

have been based mainly on pollen analyses. Early analyses culation was transformed from a meridional to a zonal of lacustrine-paludal deposits were made by Sukachev type, and the Paleolithic stage was succeeded by the Meso(1906), Dokturovskiy (1918), and Dokturovskiy and Ku- _ lithic stage. In accordance with the opinions of most Soviet dryashov (1923). The study of arboreal pollen provided a _ investigators, this dividing line will be taken as the begincomprehensive picture of Holocene forest history in the ning of the Holocene. USSR (Neustadt, 1957). New information has since been A modified Blytt-Sernander scheme (Figure 18-1), obtained by isolating nonarboreal pollen and spores and = which adequately reflects the character of global climatic by closer taxonomic identifications. Advances in the study _— fluctuations, was adopted as the chronologic-paleogeoof the Holocene vegetational history have been described graphic standard of the Holocene. Use of this scheme as an (Gudelis and Neustadt, 1961; Neustadt, 1965, 1969, international standard could significantly facilitate corre1971; Kotinskiy and Koreneva, 1973, Savina, 1975). Very lation and comparison of Holocene paleogeography recently, studies have focused on the history of the north- _— throughout the world. ern and eastern USSR, where numerous palynologic and The most complete and reliable information on Holoradiocarbon data have already been obtained. Regionsthat —_cene vegetational history was obtained from palynologic remain poorly studied include the mountainous regions of __ studies of well-dated peat sections. In regions where bogs the southern USSR, the plains of Central Asia, and part of are absent, such steppe and desert areas, palynologic data Siberia and the Far East. Radiocarbon dating has made it _ on alluvial and other inorganic deposits have been used. possible to correlate vegetational records across northern About 1000 pollen diagrams and about 700 radiocarbon Eurasia from western Europe to the Pacific coast (Khotin- dates are used to reconstruct the Holocene vegetation, and

skiy, 1977). vegetational maps for the Boreal period (9000 to 8000 yr , B.P.) (Figure 18-2) and the Late Atlantic time (6000 to

Methodological Premises — 4600 yr B.P.) are presented (Figure 18-3). All these data were used to compile the vegetation maps.

The duration of the Holocene, or more accurately the age The Holocene vegetational history can be traced of its lower boundary, ranges between 16,000 and 8000 yr _‘ through pollen diagrams from the several sites. The PoloB.P. in the USSR. Despite existing discrepancies, many in- _ vetsko-Kupanskoye mire (Figure 18-4), located 150 km vestigators (Markov, 1965; Neustadt, 1957; Kind, 1974; north of Moscow, lies in a subzone of mixed broad-leaved/

Khotinskiy, 1977) have come to the conclusion that the coniferous subtaiga forest. The diagram covers the latelower boundary should be synchronous and time parallel, glacial Alleréd and Younger Dryas periods and the Holorather than time transgressive, for all regions. The difficul- | cene from the Preboreal period to the present time. ties in determining the lower boundary of the Holocene The Melent’yevo bog (Figure 18-5) is located in northare due to the fact that at the end of the last glaciation eastern European USSR in the northern dark coniferous several sharp natural changes occurred that reflected the _taiga. The diagram characterizes vegetation during the Al-

fluctuating character of the climatic transition. leréd period and the Holocene from the Boreal period to The paleogeographic data obtained show that the most _ the present time (with some gaps). significant environmental changes in the USSR occurred The Medvyanka River valley mire (Figure 18-6) lies near around 10,300 yr B.P. At that time, hyperzonal vegetation _ the town of Tula in the broad-leaved forests of the south179

; phases periods oA-3 ern forest zone of the European USSR. The diagram spans

Oo the Younger Dryas period and the Holocene from the Pre+. A000 boreal period to the Sub-Atlantic period. S A-2 oS The Chernovskoye mire (Figure 18-7) is located 30 km — northwest of the city of Sverdlovsk, on the eastern slope of + A D the Urals in the southern taiga. The diagram covers almost

s the entire Holocene from the late Preboreal to the present.

2 S A- 3 The Th Nizhnevartovskoye (Figure is located in 0 the southern taiga ofmire western Siberia18-8) in the Ob’ River valB C ley. The Holocene. diagram characterizes vegetation during the entire The Uandi mire (Figure 18-9) is found on Sakhalin Is-

, ) B-3 1 land, in the Tatar Straits, within dark coniferous mon— (} 00 tane forest. The diagramthe spans the Younger Dryas and the

qo entire Holocene.

S B-9 c Thes the Medvyanka River valleyon mire only and site nonarwhere pollen sum was based the was total the arboreal

4 2 3 000 boreal pollen, A/wus. At the pollen, remaining sites, 3 the pollenexcluding sum includes just arboreal excluding

v2 Corylus.

In the vegetational reconstruction, the Holocene pollen

i spectra seem to reflect adequately the character of past veOO 4 0 0 0 getation. This assumption supported by numerous data — comparing the pollen spectra ofis surface samples with mo~< , dern vegetation. pollen in the : AT-2 USSR seem to Overall, delineate modern vegetation zonesspectra and subzones O. (Neustadt, 1957), but detailed studies have been confined

+ Siberia. ,

mom 6 L 5000 generally to the European USSR and western and central

> = Correlation—ofdiocarbon Holocene deposits by palynologic and ra- | data is based on the following assumptions. A Any pollen diagram integrates widespread vegetational

. ,

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HOLOCENE VEGETATION HISTORY 187 Thus, changes in pollen spectra may be erroneously attri- reported by Kind (1974) and other investigators suggest buted to plant migrations when, in fact, they reflect only —_ that similar fluctuations also occurred in Siberia. a change in the reproductive mode of local vegetation. The unique environmental conditions during late-glaThe Holocene record of northern Eurasia contains a cial time were chiefly the result of a climate that featured number of bio- and climatostratigraphic boundaries that short, hot summers; long, cold winters; large temperature reflect synchronous vegetational and climatic change over _ differences; and little precipitation. Analogues of such enormous areas. The following boundaries are delimited conditions have not been found anywhere. Only the presby numerous radiocarbon dates: the late-glacial/postgla- ent climates of Yakutiya and the continental regions of the cial boundary between the Younger Dryas and Preboreal Northeast remotely resemble the past climate, because periods (DR-3/PB) is at about 10,300 yr B.P., the Prebor- | remnants of the late-glacial vegetation complex of the tuneal/Boreal (PB/BO) at 9200 yr B.P., the Boreal/ Atlantic dra, forest, and steppe, in particular the “cold” steppe, are

(BO/AT) at 8000 yr B.P., the Atlantic/Subboreal found in central Yakutiya and in the Yana, Indigirka, and (AT/SB) at 4600 yr B.P., and the Subboreal/Sub-Atlantic | Kolyma River basins, growing adjacent to forest and tunboundary (SB/SA) at about 2500 yr B.P. These boundaries dra communities (Karavayev, 1965; Yurtsev, 1974). considerably facilitate long-range correlation of Holocene The Northeast provides an incomplete but close ana-

deposits. logue of the late-glacial tundra and steppe landscape that covered vast areas of northern Eurasia. Tundra and steppe

Principal Stages and Boundaries in the plants did not form mixed associations: Steppe communi-

. ties usually developed on the southern, well-heated slopes

Vegetational History of water divides, river terraces, and similar areas, whereas tundra communities usually grew in moist areas of low reLate-glacial time is notable as having a severely continental _lief. climate, when a large part of the USSR was covered by a Steppe and tundra communities could have coexisted in combination of tundra, forest, and steppe elements—the a severely continental climate, because the summers were phenomenon of zone mixing (Grosset, 1961) or hyperzon- _ short but fairly warm. The short vegetative period of many ality (Velichko, 1973). The late-glacial pollen spectra con- _— plants growing both in modern tundra and steppe envitain not only forest and tundra elements but also taxa that © ronments is a result of insufficient heat in the tundra and today are found in the steppe and desert zones. The wide- _ insufficient moisture in the steppe. Four types of climatic spread occurrence of steppe is suggested by the significant | tegimes are observed in the modern steppe zone of the amount of Artemisia and Chenopodiaceae pollen. Tundra USSR (Budyko, 1977): an arctic regime in the winter, a

communities are recognized by pollen of dwarf birches tundra regime in the early spring, a forest regime in the (Betula nana, etc.) and spores of tundra species of Lycopo- _ late spring, and a steppe regime in the summer. If the tundium and Selaginella. (See \ate-glacial segments of the Po- _— dra zone is evaluated in the same fashion, similar climatic lovetsko-Kupanskoye, Melent’yevo, and Uandi diagrams, stages should be recognized. It is this similarity that per-

Figures 18-4, 18-5, and 18-9.) mitted tundra and steppe vegetation to form such an unIn late-glacial time, there occurred an unusual meeting —__ usual complex.

of the North with the South, during which present-day ve- The boundary between late-glacial and postglacial time getation zones shifted and formed unusual assemblages. or between the Younger Dryas and the Preboreal period Within a degraded forest zone, tundra communities pene- | (DR-3/PB) delimits a period of appreciable change in the trated fat south, and steppe communities far north, over — physiographic conditions throughout northern Eurasia. In vast areas of northern Eurasia. Birch, pine, and spruce were _ pollen diagrams, this boundary at approximately 10,300 yr

part of the forest vegetation west of the Urals, and larch = B.P. separates the late-glacial period of almost treeless stands grew to the east. In the coastal regions of the Far —_ landscapes from the postglacial period of forest vegetation

East (Kamchatka, Sakhalin), there are no indications ofex- (Figures 18-4, 18-5, and 18-9). , tensive “cold” steppe development. Instead, late-glacial The transition to the postglacial epoch involved a rapid pollen assemblages are dominated by tundra and moun- __ restructuring of landscapes from hyperzonal to zonal type.

tain-tundra taxa (Figure 18-9). Thus, in both the latitu- The unique late-glacial vegetation separated into tundra dinal and meridional profiles one notes certain provincial | elements in the North, steppe in the South, and forests of differences in the late-glacial vegetation of northern Eur- __ birch, pine, spruce, and larch over a large part of northern

asia. Eurasia. The major vegetation zones of northern Eurasia

Late-glacial pollen data from western Europe and the _ (tundra, forest, and steppe) developed within a few cenEuropean USSR indicate fluctuations in the vegetation and _ turies— almost instantaneously in geologic time. Such raclimate. Three cold Dryas epochs (DR-1, DR-2, DR-3) are _—_ pid vegetational changes are the result of a sharp climatic separated by the relatively warm Bolling (BO) and Alleréd = warming and a shift from meridional to zonal circulation

(AL) interstades. Cold stages were characterized by in- patterns. creased continentality and widespread treeless landscapes

covered by “cold” steppe and tundra communities. During PREBOREAL PERIOD the interstades, continentality became somewhat attenu- _—‘ The Preboreal period (PB) was a transitional stage in which ated, and the role of woody formations increased. Results _ there was a partial return to late-glacial vegetation during

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formation of tundra, forest, and steppe zones (Figure 18- — north than at present. On the Taimyr Peninsula, larch 10). Late-glacial vegetation had disappeared in most re- | wood found within the present tundra is dated 8760 + 150 gions, although vegetation differed substantially from the — yr B.P. (GIN-790) and 8440+ 210 yr B.P. (GIN-789) near

present. the Vol’shaya Balakhnya River and at 8220+ 120 yr B.P. The tundra zone in the European USSR occupied only §(GIN-1198) near Lake Taimyr.

a naffow maritime strip along the Kola and Yugorskiy In the northeastern USSR (east of the Lena River), the Peninsulas. A northward movement of treeline during the __ coastline lay north of its present location, and the NovosiBoreal period is indicated by the remains of tree birch __ birsk Islands were part of mainland Asia. It is evident that found tn the modern tundra zone, dated at 8060460 yr __ the forest vegetation in these regions, consisting of sparse B.P. (LU-6565), 8730+ 70 yr B.P. (LU-658), 8840+ 70 yr birch groves, moved at least 100 to 200 km north of its B.P. (LU-657), and 9190 + 60 yt B.P. (LU-684) (Figure 18- — present limit because numerous remains of Boreal-age 2). During the Boreal period, tundra expanded to the east, —_— birch wood have been found in the modern tundra zone.

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196 KHOTINSKIY only a northern and middle taiga existed. In the European __ est/tundra border to the north at that same time. Grichuk USSR, dark spruce taiga was located 400 to 500 km north = (1969) noted that around 5400 yr B.P. regions of Eurasia _ of its present position. In the southern and middle taiga, | and North America located north of latitudes 45°N to

the appearance of broad-leaved species is noted. 55°N experienced winter and summer temperatures greatA northward shift of taiga forests occurred on a small — er than those recorded at present. To the south a kind of scale in western Siberia. Spruce-larch forests grew in the “neutral” belt existed, where the temperature regime difnorthern part of the forest zone. Farther south, they were _ fered little from the present one, and still farther south, replaced by middle-taiga cedar (Pimus stbirica) and spruce _ beyond latitude 40°N, winter and summer temperatures forests and southern-taiga fir and spruce forests. In the | were lower than today’s. The forest-steppe coincided with southern taiga, a wide belt of birch forest with a mixture this belt and accounted for the stability of the forest/ of broad-leaved species (U/mus, Tilia, Quercus) west of the — steppe border in the southern European USSR and western

Irtysh River reached its Holocene maximum. Siberia. The great shifts in the tundra/forest boundary in On the Céntral Siberian Plateau, northern-taiga spruce- | the North during the Late Holocene indicate the great larch forests were also common, although spruce was less _— variability in climate in maritime territories compared to

important than during the Boreal period. Middle-taiga the relative climatic stability of interior northern Eurasia. cedar-spruce forests and southern-taiga fir-spruce forests The character of vegetation in steppe and desert zones grew farther south. Ti/ia, U/mus, and Quercus grewinthe during the Atlantic period can be determined only tentasouthern forests near Lake Baikal, although those trees are _ tively, for representative Holocene sections in these areas

absent there at the present time. are lacking. It can be assumed that these zones were estab-

Over a large area of the northeastern USSR, as in the lished during the Atlantic period close to their present poBoreal period, there were light coniferous forests of larch sition and that they have not shifted since that time. This during both the Atlantic and Boreal periods. Their Holo- | does not mean, however, that the climatic conditions withcene history, however, has not been determined ade- in these zones remained absolutely stable; in fact, data in-

quately. dicate that arid periods alternated with moist periods. In

In the European USSR, a belt of mixed forests including | Central Asia, for example, the so-called Lyavlyakanskiy broad-leaved species as well as birch, pine, and spruce was _ pluvial epoch between 8000 and 4000 yr B.P. is characterfound south of the spruce taiga. To a certain extent, these —_ized by the formation of soils, considerable flooding of the mixed forests resembled the modern coniferous/broad- | Karakumy and Kyzylkumy Deserts, and the appearance of leaved (subtaiga) forests that are now found approximately — lakes (along which numerous Neolithic tribes settled)

500 km farther south. (Mamedov, 1978). On the basis of these data, Mamedov

Farther south extended a wide belt of broad-leaved for- | (1978) concluded that precipitation during the Atlantic ests composed of Quercus, Ulmus, Tilia, and Corylus. petiod was twice as great as at present in this region, and During the Atlantic period, broad-leaved species spread that vast areas of Central Asia were covered with steppe. eastward into the forest zone of the European USSR. These _—‘ The pollen data from the steppe and forest-steppe zones

species migrated from the Baltic region, Belorussia, and = of western Siberia, however, do not indicate a penetration the western Ukraine, rather than from the south as was _ of steppe into Central Asia, where a pluvial epoch unpreviously believed. An opposing westerly and northwest- | doubtedly occurred. Rather, they show an extensive spread erly migration of broad-leaved species occurred from the of local mesophytic vegetation but not in any radical zonal southern Urals, where they had survived the last glacia- rearrangements. tion. On many Holocene diagrams from the forest zone of During the transition from the Atlantic to the Subbor-

the European USSR and the Urals, the pollen of broad- eal period (AT/SB), the tundra advanced southward, leaved species is most abundant at the end of the Atlantic | broad-leaved species and other thermophilous taxa partialperiod (Figures 18-4 and 18-7). The belt of broad-leaved ly disappeared, and other changes tn the vegetation ocforests attained a width of 1200 to 1300 km in the western — curred that indicate a climatic cooling. Palynologic data European USSR and a width of 300 km in the east. Broad- _— indicate that this transition encompassed two cool intervals leaved forests also reached their maximum extent in the —_ at about 4900 and 6400 yr B.P. These climatic events were southern Far East at that time. At present, this forest belt | expressed with different intensity across northern Eurasia has a width of only 200 to 400 km. The northern boundary — and show up clearly in the Camp Century paleotemperain the Atlantic period shifted more than 800 km, but the ture curve from Greenland (Dansgaard et al., 1970) (Figsouthern boundary almost coincided with the present one. _—_— ure 18-12).

Recent palynologic data from deposits dated by radio-

carbon within the southern forest zone and forest-steppe SUBBOREAL PERIOD of the European USSR and western Siberia (Serebryan- The Subboreal period (SB) is identified as a complex stage naya, 1980; Khotinskiy, 1977) show that the forest/steppe in the vegetational and climatic history of northern Eurboundary, which earlier had shifted from north to south, asia. Pollen data obtained do not support the traditional became stationary in the second half of the Atlantic period —_ concepts of xerothermic conditions throughout the period at roughly its present position. The stability of this boun- —_—or of an expansion of steppe into the present-day forest dary is surprising, particularly when one considers the ma- _—zones. Palynologic data permit the Subboreal period to be jor shift of up to 400 to 500 km that took place in the for- — subdivided into three phases: SB-1, early-Subboreal cool-

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HOLOCENE PEATLAND DEVELOPMENT 203 Table 19-2. Peat Cover and Thickness in Accumulation Belts of the USSR

Peat Coverage Thickness Dry Peat per 1 ha

ges of| SE Reserve Absolutely Peat Accumulation Belt Surface of Peat of of Surface Polar belt of slight Less than 1% 1.0 m Less than 15 tons peat accumulation

Belt of intensive peat 1% to 40% 2.2m 30 to 1000 tons

accumulation (average 6%) (average 150 tons) Southern belt of slight 0.01% to 1% 1.5m 0.25 to 25 tons

peat accumulation (average 0.2%) (average 5 tons) Southern belt of negligible | Up to 0.01% 1.0m Less than 0.25 tons peat accumulation

countries within the taiga zone (Finland, Canada, etc.). In | 1938). In western Siberia, depths of 10.4 m near NizhneFinland, for example, about 52,000 km? of boggy forested vartovsk, 9.2 m in the Urals, and 10 m on Kamchatka were areas alone were drained in 1979 (“Finnish-Soviet Sympo- —_ recorded (Neustadt et al., 1936). A depth of 7.9 m is not

stum on Forest Drainage,” 1980). uncommon, although peat thicknesses do not generally exThe surface area of peatland in the USSR was estimated —_ ceed 5 to 6 m in large bogs. The average peat depth usually

on the basis of calculations for the Bakchar Bog, oneofthe is not greater than 3 to 4 m. largest bogs of western Siberia, with an area of 2268 km? For comparison, I will cite data on the thickness of other

(Table 19-3) (Neustadt et al., 1977). Holocene deposits. Lacustrine deposits (sapropel) reach a The development of the Chistik peatland of Kalinin thickness of 20 to 25 m in some freshwater lakes; and at Province, with an area of 8000 ha (Neustadt, 1976), is | Lake Somino of Yaroslavl’ Province 40 m has accumulated traced by a series of four maps showing the extent of the _in a funnellike depression, the largest known thickness of bog during the Paleoholocene (12,000-9800 yr B.P.), Eo- | Holocene sediments in the world (Neustadt et al., 1965). holocene (9800-7700 yr B.P.), Mesoholocene (7700-2700 — Holocene delta deposits of the Severnaya Dvina attain a yt B.P.), and Neoholocene (2700-0 yr B.P.). During the thickness of 26 m (Jousé, 1939). Marine Holocene deposits , Paleoholocene (Figure 19-2A), there were 50 separate lakes on the Caspian Shelf are 25 m thick (Shcherbakov et al.,

and a number of swamps. In the Eoholocene (Figure 19-1977), and those in the Sea of Japan are 25.2 m thick 2B), the picture changed substantially. Forty-eight lakes § (Troitskaya, 1975). developed into bogs. Individual centers of bog formation Peatlands represent a special landscape with a unique merged into 17 approximately large paludal bodies. Dur- —_—shydrologic regime and an unusual flora and fauna. Plants

ing the Mesoholocene (Figure 19-2C) all except 3 paludal § indigenous to bog environments give rise to bog formaareas merged, and during the Neoholocene (Figure 19-2D) tion. Large peatlands can influence the character of the clithe remaining areas fused together, creating one contin- = mate of neighboring regions. The accumulation of moisuous bog with an area of about 8000 ha. The dynamics of — ture in the bog soils causes infertility, just as drought

this development are represented in Table 19-4). affects desert soils. Because bogs are capable of indepenThe thickness of peats varies widely. In the European _—_ dent development and utilization, we should consider the USSR, the greatest peat thickness, 12.5 m, was recorded in reclamation of boggy lands and control of bog formation a small area of the Panfilovskiy raised Sphagnum bog. A just as we plan for desertification. For several centuries, similar maximum figure of 12.4 m was noted for the Im- _ people have been trying to convert bogs into cultivated natskiy bog of the Georgian SSR (Provorkin, 1957). Other = areas to be used as agricultural fields and pastures and bogs have maximum depths of 11 m and 10m (Dubakh, areas for extracting peat for fuel and for fertilizer. During

Table 19-3. Increase in Boggy Areas during the Holocene Table 19-4. Holocene Peat Formation in the Chistik Bog

Date Boggy Area Boggy Area Boggy Lands Bog-Forming (yr B.P.) (%) (km?) (km?) Processes Period of Holocene (ha) Remark 2000-0 20.3 497,350 2,450,000

4000-2000 35.3 864,850 1,952,650 Neoholocene About 8000 -

6000-4000 28.3 693,350 1,087,800 Mesoholocene 4700 8000-6000 14.7 360,150 394,450 Eoholocene 2500 Average yearly 0.6 increase: to 0.8 ha 9000-8000 1.4 34,300 ~

Total 100 2,450,000 2,450,000 Paleoholocene 200 ~

AN B N FeetSSEERE awe 7 fen 204 NEUSTADT

Paleoholocene Eoholocene a 12,000-9,800 yr B.P. — et 9800-7700 yr B.P. CR

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--- 1. Present peatland boundary MM ® Reed [32] 15. Sphagnum transitional — 2. Boundaries of peatlands and ES 9. Forest-reed §9)16. Sphagnum magellanicum

lakes for thea given period 7 ("0 17. Sphagnum fuscum siiiniia 10. Forest transitional 9 Fig 11. Sedge/Hypnum Eg 18. Cotton grass

ZZ 3. Sedge

4. Hypnum, reed

y 12. Hypnum transitional R52] 19. Complex top

Forest om 5.[—_].13. Sphagnum transitional HB 20. Sapropel (lakes) Alder SS6. MB 4 Sphagnum \owland FJ 21. Sand

Ean 7. Forest-sedge Figure 19-2. The development of the Chistik peatland during the Holocene.

the 20th century, peatlands have been actively drained in cal Africa, providing there exists favorable climatic, many regions, and this practice undoubtedly will continue geomorphic, and hydrologic conditions. in the future. However, part of the bogs must be left alone In most cases, bog formation is irreversible under presas an example of natural geosystems and as a special type ent conditions. The frequent occurrence of well-decom-

of natural landscape. posed peat in bogs, often associated with large stumps and

It should be noted that, in addition to negative impacts, trunks, indicates extreme climatic and hydrologic condibog formation also has a positive side—the accumulation __ tions in which either the rate of bog formation decreased, of organic matter in the form of peat. In the USSR, 200 __ thus allowing well-decomposed peat to accumulate, or billion tons of peat (based on a 40% moisture content), —_ previously deposited peat decomposed. In either case, the amounting to 66% of the world reserves, accumulated __ bog is maintained by internal water reserves during a per-

during the Holocene (Markov and Koroshev, 1975). iod of arid climate. Following some disturbances, such as Bog formation occurs mainly in the forest zone of the forest clearance or fire, bog formation has ceased and a temperate belt, where the climate favors peat accumula- _ new forest cover has developed as a result of increased wation. However, it can develop in a number of other vegeta- __ ter loss through transpiration. tion zones, including areas of Cuba, Indonesia, and tropi-

CcOTT N D N WkoN nnn is:

HOLOCENE PEATLAND DEVELOPMENT 205

Mesoholocene i i Neoholocene 7700-2700 yr B.P. Crete 2700-0 yr B.P. Te ie

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s8éM O05RES - EeSLES RREXCYLGTZAAD EBthese HOLM a wee ZHfloodplain E 2 y . forests. So 2S eGS SA BH SKN ASE 82522 regions along SESS Sse eee els ea saersszelso Se sbe tease Se&23 Finally, siteisislocated locatedonon southern SCS ETZEL S Severs Pees alc esx inally, the the Karagash Karagash site thethe southern Rus-

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4 he So oF oe Se SS Dnestr River (David and Lungu, 1972). This terrace has

LATE PLEISTOCENE MAMMAL FAUNA OF THE RUSSIAN PLAIN 213

Bos trochoceros. , , me | been dated as Mikulino by several methods. The fauna in- el 11h Of

. on! 50

cludes straight-tusked elephant, Khazar mammoth, and Ca [LA NA

The presence the straight-tusked elephant (a forest SeC4 (| species) and theofKhazar mammoth (a steppe species) suggests a forest-steppe landscape the lowerRussian Dnestr River. The location of this site onalong the western PlainL~. b le; f

supports this interpretation, because at present this region ; ( Soe on the boundary between forest-steppe and i ar. ~ j ; a \ | Thus, even the scarce vertebrate data from Mikulino

time give a definite idea of the faunal composition and x a a | Ya | ecology. Among the large mammals are ancient ee _ NO, Wj | such as straight-tusked elephant, an early woollyspecies mam- pb sy Ne, moth, steppe wisent, woolly rhinoceros, and cave-dwelling \ Ne a predators, and yet on the whole the fauna is very similar x Ne

to themodern modernones one. above The interglacial rodents do Obviously, not differ —S from the subspecies rank. PO the basic ecologic requirements of the mammals were also "OF 4° | the same as those of present mammals; therefore, changes ! in the Mikulino mammal communities reflect changes in

the landscape from north to south. The fossils suggest that [oe] Sites:

broad-leaved forests occurred north to latitude 56°N to 1. Rumlovka

57°N. From there the forest-steppe fauna had a range ex- é. Borisova Mountain tending from southwest to northeast just as it does today. . Nasberovisy dV (Mousterian lave The steppe mammals were widely distributed over the 5 Ne odova f ane’ V (Mousteran layers)

. . . Korman (Mousterian layers)

Russian Plain, and the northern boundary of the steppe 6. Trinka

was nearly the same as the present one, as the findings in 7. Buzduzhany

the south Voronezh region indicate. 8. Kokuneshty 9. Skulyany

10. German-Dumeny 11. Vasilika

Mammals of the Early and Middle Valdai | "2 Vykhvatintsy . finka Rich material is available for the first half of the Valdai. 14. Betovo Fossil mammals of Early and Middle Valdai age are found . Grloor yovka in Moustetrian campsites, but some nonarchaeological sites 17. Kodak | also occur. The latest Mousterian sites are dated between 18. Shubnoye 45,000 and 30,000 yr B.P. A Valdai age for some Mouster- 19. Antonovka ian campsites is suggested by the composition of the mam- 20. Rozhok | and I mal fauna, which is dominated by forms tolerant of the 22. Sukhaya Mechetka

4: , 21. Gerasimovka

cold. More than 40 Early Valdai mammal sites are avail- 23-31. Crimean sites (Kiik-Koba, Kosh-Koba,

able. Chagorak-Koba, Bolchiy Grot, Chokurcha,

The Early and Middle Valdai mammals record a sharp Shaytan-Koba, Kabazi, Bakhchisarayskaya rearrangement in the faunas of eastern Europe, particular- Southern boundary of the range of pied and ly a very wide distribution of periglacial animals (Table 20- common lemmings

| 1). Mammoth remains are found at sites from the Neman Southern boundary of the range of mammoth

and Desna River basins (latitude 53°N) to the Crimea (Fig- |

ure 20-2). Woolly rhinoceros remains are found in the aa Coastline according to A. L. Chepalyga Middle Valdai alluvium of the Neman Riv et (Kalinovskty, Figure 20-2. Sites of mammal remains from the Early and Middle

: . . . aldal of the Nussian Flain an rimea.

1979), at Mousterian campsites of the Middle Dnestr and o. o¢ the Russian Plain and Cri Dnepr regions, on the Don, and in the Crimea. Reindeer, which extended to the Crimea in the South, were also very widely distributed. The areas of pied and common lem- mammoth faunal complex (Vereshchagin, 1979; Vereshmings expanded considerably southward, and their re- = chagin and Baryshnikov, 1980c), which included mammains are known at Belorussian sites, in Mousterian camp- moth, woolly rhinoceros, reindeer, polar fox, and pied

sites of the Middle Dnestr (Chernysh, 1973), and on the lemming, was widespread over the Russian Plain. The Desna River (Tarasov, 1977), 1300 km from their present —_ presence of pied and common lemmings suggests that par-

habitats. ticularly severe conditions prevailed up to latitude 49°N Thus, in the Early and Middle Valdai, the so-called on the western Russian Plain, to latitude 51°N in the Des-

214 MARKOVA na Basin, and apparently still farther north in the East. In , Belorussia and the Prut, Dnestr, and Desna basins, how- : ~ 30” : 0 oo — ever, woodland species such as red deer, moose, brown fl “ s UX

bear, weasel, and wood and bank vole were found along OY & | \ with atctic species. A major role was played in these re- N i a, gions by steppe species including the bobac, marmot, i! i es

: : ; é oe ! NO

ground squitrels of To several species, steppe wisent, and horse. the southeast in thenarrow-headed Middle BOY Z aA

vole, aM a a 60°

ways a a pA

Dnepr and Don Basins, the Severskiy Donets Basin, and sey AS a Se | the Middle Volga Basin, extinct periglacial species includ- iL

ing mammoth, reindeer, woolly rhinoceros, cave lion, and y~ | J bear, as wellsuch as reindeer, wereand alsopolar widely Arc-_ OC tic animals as lemmings foxdistributed. have not been 4=(\\ observed in these roleofofincreased the steppe species increases from west regions. to east asThe a result continen| \ |, NL 3 ; «‘\| tality. In the Volga Basin, and particularly at the Mouster- | : | la fg ian campsite Sukhaya Mechetka, bones of great suslik, lit- a 6f! ot . tle jerboa, and saiga have been found (Vereshchagin and DRE g * } an

Kolbutov, 1957). J Loa ama nu

DuringPlain the was Early and Middle thespecies, southernmost ide.™~ pd :| Russian inhabited mainlyValdai, by steppe in- ry}. Wd cluding horse, bison, and saiga antelope, but mammoth Z yas arate . | and reindeer apparently also existed there, as indicated by : I aaa SS I\p e their remains inand numerous Crimean1980b). Mousterian campsites ! BoAo¢ , | PN _. | Sf < (Vereshchagin Baryshnikov, The link between Lea

the Crimean Highland Russtan Plain during the Pe \ . Early and Middle Valdai was strongerand than itthe is at present, = for the level of the Black Sea during that period was lower 30° 40° 50° than it is today. (See Figure 20-2.)

; . Troitsa Il

Thus, the mammals indicate a marked environmental

change in eastern Europe during the Early and Middle Val- [e] Sites: dai. A considerable expansion of arctic species (lemmings, 1. Byzovaya

polar fox) had already taken place at that time. The peri- A Sung glacial mammoth faunal complex (mammoth, woolly 4. Yurevichi rhinoceros, cave-dwelling predators) spread south to the 5. Pushkari Crimea and Caucasus; this finding indicates an appreci- 6. Pogon

: : . ; yers 2 to 4)

able cooling and aridity. Steppe mammals penetrated far 7. Arapovichi to the northwest during more arid conditions, and remains . Rector Vill ew 9 and 6)

of ground squirrels and pikas have been noted in the mod- 10. Kostenki XIV (layers 2 to 4) ern forest zone of Belorussia. Woodland mammals found 11. Molodova V (layers 8 to 10) in most sites on the Russian Plain (except in the southern 12. Korman’ IV (layer 7) present-day steppe) suggest the existence of localized for- EA Southern boundary of the range of pied and

est vegetation. The role of these woodland species increases common lemming

in the western Russian Plain and mountainous Crimea and Coastline decreases eastward.

Figure 20-3. Sites of mammal remains from the Bryansk Interstade

Mammal Fauna of the Bryansk Interstade of the Russian Plain. The Bryansk (Paudorf) Interstade is recorded throughout —Chernysh, 1973), Yurevichi (site 4) on the Pripyat’ River, the Russian Plain as the Bryansk fossil soil (Velichko and —_and Sungir’ (site 2) on the Klyaz’ma River. Mammal bones Morozova, 1972), dated at 30,000 to 25,000 yr B.P. The — were found in alluvium of the Oka River near the village interstadial fauna is known from a series of radiocarbon- _ of Troitsa (site 3) and at the Byzovaya campsite on the dated sites (Figure 20-3 and Table 20-1). The Arapovichi —_ Pechora River (site 1) near the Arctic Circle (Guslitser and site lies in the soil itself (Figure 20-3, site 7), but correla~ | Kanivets, 1965). tive strata are found at the Pushkari (site 5), Pogon (site The mammal sites of Bryansk time reveal the following 6), Kostenki VIII (layers 2-4) (site 9), Kostenki I (layers 4 basic features. (1) Mammoth and reindeer remains were and 5) (site 8), and Kostenki XIV (layers 2-4) (site 10) | found everywhere, from the Pechora Basin in the north to (Velichko, 1961), as well as Molodova V (layers 8-10) (site the middle course of the Dnestr (Figure 20-3). Bones of 11), Korman’ IV (layer 7) (site 12) (Ivanova, 1977a, 1977b; woolly rhinoceros were found at only two sites. Remains of

. : 20 30° 40 50

LATE PLEISTOCENE MAMMAL FAUNA OF THE RUSSIAN PLAIN 215

other tundra-steppe periglacial species, such as cave-dwel- 3 ° e

ling predators and giant deer, were noted at a number of , GF sites. (2) Remains of arctic species (pied lemming and Ob’ | of * Cyl \ sh lemming) were found in the Desna, Oka, and Klyaz’ma : {weed at eS) YN

River basins. polar fox was found in thepika, Donground Basin at7 ,wer a erADy Kostenki. (3) The Steppe mammals, including So3

squirrels, mole-rat, steppe lemming, yellow lemming, nar- ; ot oe

row-headed vole, horse, saiga, bison, and aurochs, were : aan found at all sites. (4) Forest animals were less common, but uy. en Q D> - 159°

brown bear, marten, and wolverine were found at Sungira; i ee AN 7 bankdeer voleinatKostenki Troitsa II; beaver, wolverine, brown bear,Poo. and f/ pe eo |y. pw red VIII; and red deer at the Dnestr 3/ a campsite. all cases, and forest animals wereAtnosites lessfarther common Peo_SonRr~a ( “\ eV Sf than arctic,Inperiglacial, steppe species. a “aN north absent, in the Oka Basins,animals red deerincluded bones aoe 7 . a¥ ;/ eG f were andand theKlyaz’ma group of forest | , oi Mes

. . : 4 p ( Wa

taiga species such as wolverine, marten, and brown bear. yy pe et Je | — y

Judging from the fossil record, the Bryansk warming was 1) 4 oa c — slight and did not greatly affect the faunal composition. If 40; (o~< a* \ Tuo? the data are complete, only lemmings show a restricted Ce mae?) a

distribution. During the Early Valdai they spread all the 2 re, : | —, | the Bryansk Interstade they were not observed south of the \ a Sj Desna Basin. On the central Russian Plain, open land- , jt ee 2 an scapes of periglacial forest-steppe were inhabited by a large : ee eel |

way up to the middle course of the Dnestr, whereas during ~ iY eee. ] sites Forest islands were probably confined to moist areas near Southern boundary of the range of pied

rivers and other bodies of water. —J and common lemmings

Southern boundary of the range of

Mammal Faunas of the Late Valdai mammoth

The Late Valdai (24,000 to 11,000 yr B.P.) is represented Maximum Imi of glaciers

by more than 60 sites, most of which are found in associa- Coastline tion with Upper Paleolithic campsites (Table 20-1). Sites Figure 20-4. Sites of mammal remains from the Late Valdai of the

extend from latitude 55°N in the North to the southern _ Ruscian Plain and Crimea. Russian Plain (Figure 20-4) and to Crimea, which in Late Valdai time was connected to the Russian Plain as a result

of lowered sea level (Figure 20-4). vole, common hamster, steppe lemming, yellow lemming, The northernmost sites located in the Zapadnaya Dvina _ narrow-headed vole, horse, and bison. Basin date to the period of maximum glaciation at 18,000 Woodland mammals are less common, although reyt B.P. Thus, the animals lived near the glacier margin pri- = mains of field vole, brown bear, weasel, wolverine, and or to its maximum advance. The arctic and steppe species lynx were noted at these sites. Even remains of red deer indicate severe natural conditions, and only one forest ani- have been found at the Novgorod-Severskaya campsite

mal, the field vole, was noted. (Desna Basin). On the whole, taiga mammals dominate Somewhat more temperate conditions ate indicated by | among the forest species, but they are not abundant, alfossils from Volyno-Podoliya and along the upper reaches _ though they indicate the vegetation types. Tundra-steppe

of the Dnepr, Don, and Oka Rivers. Remains of mam- animals prevailed from the ice border south to latitude moth, woolly rhinoceros, cave lion, hyena, and cave bear 55°N (in the Oka Basin), to 52°N in the Desna Basin, and were found at these sites, as well as reindeer, whose re- to 50°N on the western part of the Russian Plain in an mains dominate Late Valdai sites (in contrast to Early Val- | open landscape 300 to 400 km wide, with localized taiga

dai sites, in which mammoth is dominant). All the sites vegetation in the river valleys. contained pied lemming, Ob’ lemming, and polar fox; Farther south along the Middle Dnestr and Prut, the and remains of the musk ox were found at the Volyno-Po- |§ Yuzhnyy Bug, the Middle Dnepr, the Severskty Donets, doliya and Desna sites. Steppe species include pika, bobac = and the Middle Volga River basins, as well as in regions

marmot, ground squirrels, little jerboa, northern mole- farther north, there were mammoth, woolly rhinoceros,

216 MARKOVA steppe wisent, and aurochs. Giant deer, which was not Discussion found in the periglacial strip, has been noted there. During the Late Pleistocene, this animal lived in the periglacial | On the whole, the Late Pleistocene fauna reflects the gensteppe that extended from northern Eurasia and the Brit- _ eral cooling, decreased precipitation, hyperzonal cryoxeroish Isles to southern Siberia (Vereshchagin and Baryshni- tic conditions, and associated expansion of permafrost and kov, 1980a). Musk ox was uncommon. Red lemming re- _—cryoxerophytic vegetation (Velichko, 1973). mains are reported within this region in the middle course A number of absolute climatic parameters were obof the Prut River. Polar fox was more common there than _ tained by means of climatograms applied to data on mamit was farther north. Steppe species included bobac mart- _— mals (mainly small mammals). This method, proposed by mot, ground squirrel, mole-rat, yellow lemming, natrow- _ Iversen (1944), is discussed in Chapter 25 of this monoheaded vole, and horse. Donkey remains were found in graph. The climatic reconstructions depend on the quality

the Volga River basin. of the original data. Faunal remains furnish good results

The woodland species include brown bear, wolverine, only when species with a clearly manifest ecology and a rellynx, and moose. Species of the present-day broad-leaved atively narrow distribution are used from nonredeposited forests, including red and roe deer, were more widespread — sediments. Even so, only approximate values can be de-

than they are farther north. Thus, extinct periglacial, rived, because the data are incomplete. steppe, and woodland mammals jointly inhabited a con- For the Mikulino Interglaciation, we obtained climatic siderable portion of the Russian Plain north of latitude reconstructions for the Shkurlat site (about latitude 51°N)

47°N to 48°N. (Alekseyeva, 1980) by combining the climatic areas of the Along the north coast of the Black Sea and near the Sea _—yyellow and steppe lemmings, great and little jerboa, nar-

of Azov, the faunas are dominated by such steppe species | row-headed vole, and common hamster. Average July as bison, horse, wild ass, and sheep. Reindeer remains also temperature was practically the same as the present, about are characteristic for this area during the Late Valdai, but + 20°C, and the average January temperature was — 14°C, remains of mammoth or woolly rhinoceros have not been about 5°C lower than at present. Total annual precipitafound. Either these large mammals could not find an ade- — tion was 230 mm (now 450 mm), and the total snowfall quate food source in the impoverished steppe landscapes, | was 130 mm (now 150 mm). Thus, the climate at the

or they were exterminated by ancient hunters. Shkurlat site apparently was cooler and drier (more conFinally, the mountain faunas of the Crimea are diverse _ tinental), probably corresponding to the beginning of the as a result of the variety of landscapes at different alti- interglaciation. tudes. There is also a considerable component from the The indexes reconstructed for the Gadyach site at latiRussian Plain, for example, arctic hare, arctic fox, and tude 51°N presumably indicate the climate during the reindeer (Vereshchagin and Baryshnikov, 1980b). By Late Krutitsa Interstade. Average July temperature was + 20°C; Valdai time, mammoth and woolly rhinoceros had already average January temperature, — 14°C; total annual prectdisappeared from the Crimea, apparently because of Pa- _ pitation, 420 mm (now 500 mm); and snowfall, about 100

leolithic hunters. Cave-dwelling predators were wide- mm (now 130 mm). Hence, climatic conditions were spread, and steppe species attained a great diversity. The | somewhat more continental then than they are now, con-

following mammals have been reported in Crimean firming a Krutitsa age for this site. faunas: pika, several species of ground squirrel, little jer- Climatic indexes for the Early Valdai were obtained boa, common hamster, gray hamster, steppe lemming, from the fauna of the Betovo Mousterian campsite (Desna yellow lemming, narrow-headed vole, small corsac fox, Basin; see Figure 20-2) (Tarasov, 1977). The climatograms Caballine horse, wild ass, and saiga. Woodland species in- for pied and Ob’ lemmings, steppe pika, bobac marmot, cluded brown bear, wild boar, red deer, beaver, wood narrow-headed vole, common vole, and other species were

vole, and wood mouse. Moose was absent. used to derive an average July temperature of + 15°C, an Thus, the Late Valdai fauna of the Russian Plain and average January temperature of —17°C, a total annual Crimea reflects considerable environmental change during —_ precipitation of 350 mm, and a snowfall of 120 mm. WinLate Valdai time. Cold-tolerant species such as mammoth, __ ter temperatures were more than 10°C lower than today,

woolly rhinoceros, giant deer, and reindeer inhabited the | and summer temperatures were 5°C to 15°C lower, at periglacial tundra-steppe and forest-steppe. Steppe species | +15°C. The annual precipitation was 200 mm less than ranged far north and west of their present habitats. Onthe present values. other hand, northern tundra species, such as lemming, po- For Bryansk time, climatic parameters were derived for lar fox, and musk ox, penetrated far south. The reindeer, two sites, Arapovichi and Troitsa II (Figure 20-3). They one of the animals most extensively hunted by ancient hu- — showed winter temperatures of + 8°C to + 10°C. July temmans, ranged over the entire Russian Plain to the Black Sea —s peratures were also lower than today. The precipitation

and Crimea. was 200 to 250 mm less, and snowfall was about 100 mm Woodland species were few and inhabited riparian __ less. areas. Practically none has been found adjacent to the ice The climatic characteristics for Late Valdai time are

margin or on the southern Russian Plain. For many wood- __ based on fossils from the Upper Paleolithic campsites of land species, the forested low mountains of Crimea pro- _ the Desna Basin. The severe continental climate (Markova,

vided refugia. 1975b) is reflected in the decreased precipitation (200 to

LATE PLEISTOCENE MAMMAL FAUNA OF THE RUSSIAN PLAIN 217 400 mm lower than today) and snowfall (reduced by al- of the stratigraphy of continental deposits of the Quaternary on the termost one-half). The January temperatures dropped to ritory of the USSR. USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Geology,

— 22°C, more than 10°C below the present, but summer Trudy, sera geologicheskaya 17. _ temperatures were similar to present ones. Guslitser, V. I., and Kanivets, V.1. (1965). Paleolithic monuments on

the Pechora. based In “Stratigraphy anddata Pertodization Thus,;climatograms on local faunal (for small of the Paleolithic of Eastern and Central Europe.” Nauka Press, Moscow.

mam mals) SUgBest fairly stable but severe continental con- Gvozdover, N. D. (1964). Late Paleolithic monuments of the Lower Don.

ditions during the Valdai. These results have been con- In “The Paleolithic of the Dnepr and Sea of Azov Region” (B. A. Ryba-

firmed by the results of other paleoecologic methods. kov, ed.), pp. 37-41. Nauka Press, Moscow and Leningrad. Ivanova, I. K. (1977a). Geology and paleogeography of the Korman’ IV site against the general background of the Stone Age geological history

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Bryusov, A. Ya. (1940). Traces of a Paleolithic campsite near the village A. (1977). New location of large mammal fauna in the basin of the of Ulyank (Chuvash ASSR). Bu/letin of the Commission on the Study Upper Don. Jw “Lithology and Stratigraphy of the Sedimentary Cover

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Chernysh, A. P. (1968). The Ataki I Paleolithic campsite. Bu//etin of the versity, Voronezh. Commussion on the Study of the Quaternary 35, 102-112. Moscow. Rogachev, A. N., Anikovich, M. V., and Artemova, V. D. (1979). KosChernysh, A. P. (1973). “The Paleolithic and Mesolithic of the Dnestr tenki VIII (Tel’manovskaya campsite). I” “The Upper Pleistocene and

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Moldavai,” pp. 19-24. Shtiintsa Press, Kishinev. Rogachev, A. N., Anikovich, M. V., and Belyayeva, V. I. (1979). KostenGromovy, V. I. (1935). New data on the fauna and geology of the Paleo- ki I (Polyakov campsite). I” “The Upper Pleistocene and Development lithic of Eastern Europe and Siberia: The Paleolithic of the USSR. State of Paleolithic Culture at the Center of the Russian Plain” (G. I. Goret-

Academy of History and Material Culture, Izvestiya 118, 246-70. sky, ed.), pp. 68-74. Voronezh State University, Voronezh. Gromov, V. I. (1948). Paleontological and archaeological substantiation Rogachev, A. N., and Sinitsyn, A. A. (1979). Kostenki XIV (Markina

218 MARKOVA Mountain). J “The Upper Pleistocene and Development of Paleolithic (A. A. Velichko, ed.), pp. 71-114. Nauka Press, Moscow. ~ Culture at the Center of the Russian Plain,” (G. I. Goretsky, ed.), pp. Vereshchagin, N. K. (1979). “Why the Mammoths Died.” Nauka Press,

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Sciences, University of Leningrad. piedmont of North Crimea during the Paleolithic. Iz “Mammals of Tarasov, L. M. (1977). The Betovo Mousterian campsite and its natural Eastern Europe in the Anthropogene” (E. O. Skarleto, ed.). USSR Acasurroundings. Iz “Paleoecology of Ancient Man” (I. K. Ivanova and N. demy of Sciences, Institute of Zoology, Trudy 93, pp. 26-49. Lenin-

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Velichko, A. A. (1975). Problems of correlation of Pleistocene events in from Paleolithic campsites on the Don and Upper Desna. In ‘“‘The the glacial, periglacial-loessial, and maritime regions of the eastern Mammoth Fauna of the Russian Plain and Eastern Siberia.” USSR AcaEuropean Plain. Jz “Problems of Regional and General Paleogeo- demy of Sciences, Institute of Zoology, Trudy 72, pp. 77-110. Leningraphy of Loessial and Periglacial Regions” (A. A. Velichko, ed.), pp. grad. 7-25. USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Geography, Moscow. Voznyachuk, L. N., and Kalechets, Ye. G. (1969). Some results of zooVelichko, A. A., Gribchenko, Yu. N., Markova, A. A., and Udartsev, logical studies at the Berdyzhskiy Upper Paleolithic campsite in 1959V. P. (1977). Age and conditions of habitation of the Khotylevo II 1968. “Transactions of the Third Scientific Conference of Young Geocampsite on the Desna. In “Paleoecology of Ancient Man” (I. K. Iva- logists of Belorussia,” pp. 36-42. Nauka 1 Tekhnika Press, Minsk. nova and N. D. Praslov, eds.) pp. 40-50. Nauka Press, Moscow. Yefimenko, P. P. (1953). “The Primitive Society.” Naukova Dumka Velichko, A. A., and Morozova, T. D. (1972). The Bryansk fossil soil and Press, Kiev. its stratigraphic importance and natural conditions of formation. Ix Zavetnyayev, F. M. (1978). “The Khotylevka Paleolithic Site.” Nauka “Loesses, Buried Soils and Cryogenic Phenomena on the Russian Plain” Press, Leningrad.

CHAPTER y ] Late Pleistocene Mammal Fauna of Siberia N. K. Vereshchagin and I. Ye. Kuz’mina

The Late Pleistocene mammal fauna of Arctic and south- were found wolf, brown bear, polar bear, woolly mamern Siberia became known at the turn of the century from moth, Lena horse, reindeer, and musk ox. Remains of the fragmentary data of Academicians P. S. Pallas, I. F. _ saiga antelope were found in the lower reaches of the Ob’. Brandt, A. F. Middendorf (1869), I. D. Cherskiy (1891), | Remains of woolly rhinoceros and bison were not found on M. V. Pavlova (1910), and others. By the 1950s, new light the Gydanskiy Peninsula (Kuz’mina, 1977). No remains of had been shed on the fauna of central and southern Siberia _—_ arctic fox have been found thus far in northwestern Siberia

by the remarkable excavations of Paleolithic campsites by in the Late Pleistocene. Soviet archaeological work and through the paleozoolog- Farther south, cave lion, mammoth, Lena horse, woolly

ical studies of Gromov (1948). rhinoceros, red deer, and moose inhabited the basin of the A series of new studies on paleontologic materials now —_ lower course of the Irtysh during Zyryanka time (Vangenmakes it possible to characterize the Late Pleistocene mam- geym, 1977). Giant deer occurred 100 km north of Tomsk mal fauna of individual regions of northern Asia on the near Krasnyy Yar on the Ob’ (Alekseyeva, 1980). The Kuzbasis of the remains of 65 species recovered from geologic — netsk Basin, according to the data of Galkina (1975), was sites (Alekseyeva, 1980; Vangengeym, 1977; Vereshcha- inhabited by bank vole, collared lemming, Siberian brown gin, 1959a, 1959b; Vereshchagin and Barishnykov, 1980; lemming, steppe lemming, water vole, narrow-headed Galkina, 1975; Yermolova, 1978; Kuz’mina, 1971, 1977; vole, tundra vole, and Siberian mole-rat. Among large Sher, 1971). The indicator and widely distributed species | mammals the following also inhabited the Kuznetsk Basin in this region (Table 21-1) include wolf, red fox, arctic fox, | and the western slopes of the Altay: cave hyena, cave lion,

brown bear, sable, wolverine, cave lion, northern pika, Asiatic wild ass, argali sheep, Siberian ibex, yak, and Eurasian beaver, bank vole, woolly mammoth, woolly — aurochs. rhinoceros, Siberian roe deer, red deer, moose, reindeer, Thus, three regions with a greatly similar mammal fauand steppe wisent. Some of these species, inhabitants of | na can be distinguished in western Siberia in the Late forested and rocky biotopes, lived in intrazonal elements _ Pleistocene as follows: a northern part, with a predomiof the landscape zone of cold Pleistocene steppe. nance of cold-tolerant species (musk ox, Lena horse, polar bear); a southern region, with a predominance of warmth-

oe loving species (red deer, giant deer, corsac fox, wide-

Western Siberia hoofed horse. Asiatic wild ass) and with species associated Sites with skeletal remains of the following Late Pleisto- With forest biotopes (sable, wolverine, roe deer, beaver, cene animals are confined in western Siberia to the eastern Water and bank voles, etc.); and a southeastern part, with slopes of the southern Urals, the Ishim-Irtysh interfluve, 2 fauna very similar to that of eastern Siberia. the Kuznetsk Basin, and the Western Altay: corsac fox,

small cave bear, steppe ferret, gray marmot, Siberian Eastern Siberia

mole-rat, and wide-hoofed horse. |

In Zyryanka and Sartan time, as the northern half of | During the Late Pleistocene, the mammals of eastern Siwestern Siberia became free of the sea, it was settled from __ beria constituted a single complex that in the present state the west, south, and east. On the Yamal Peninsula, inthe of knowledge is difficult to divide according to landscape-

, 219

lower reaches of the Ob’, and on the Gydan Peninsula geographic zones. Deposits dated as Zyranka and Sartan

Table 21-1. Late Pleistocene Mammals of Siberia (Including the Arctic Zone)

Western Eastern Far East,

Taxon Common Name Siberia Siberia South LAGOMORPHA

Caprolagus brachyurus Temm. | Manchurian hare x

Lepus Don hare Lepustanaiticus timidusGureev. L. Arctic harex

Ochotona alpina Pall. Alpine pika xxx x x Arvicola terrestris L. Waterbeaver vole x xx x X Castor fiber L. Eurasian RODENTIA

Citellus glacialis Vinog. Indigirka long-tailed x ground squirrel

Citellus undulatus Pall. Long-tailed ground squirrel x

Clethrionomys sp. Bank vole x x x

Dicrostonyx torquatus Pall. Collared lemming x x Lagurus lagurus Pall. Steppe lemming x x Lemmus sibiricus Kerr Siberian brown lemming x x Marmota baibacina Kastsch. Gray marmot x Marmota camtschatica Pall. Black-capped marmot x

Marmota sibirica Radde Tarbagan marmot x Microtus gregalis Pall. Narrow-headed vole x x Microtus oeconomys Pall. Tundra vole x

Myospalax myospalax Laxm. Siberian mole-rat Xx CARNIVORA

Alopex lagopusL. L.Gray Arcticwolf fox x x x Canis lupus

xx Cuonbengalensis alpinus Pall. Dhole cat x Xx Felis Kerr. Leopard Felis lynx L. Eurasian lynx x xx Gulo gulo L. Wolverine x x Lutra lutraBodd. 1. Eurasian otter xx Martes flavigula Yellow-throated marten Martes zbellina L. Sable x x xx Meles meles L. Eurasian badger Crocuta spelaea Gold. Cave hyena x

Mustela eversmanni Less. Steppe ferret x

Mustela sibiricus Pall. Siberian: weasel x

Nyctereutes procyonoides Gray Raccoon dog x Panthera pardus Gold. U.. Snow Panthera spelaea Caveleopard lion x x xx

Panthera tigris L. Tiger x Spelaearctos rossicus Botis. Small cave bear x Ursus arctos L. Brown bear x X x Ursus maritimus Phipps Polar bear X X Vulpes L. Corsac foxfox x Vulpescorsac vulpes L. Red ARTIODACTYLA

x4x

Alces alces L. Moose (Eurasian elk)XxXx xx Bison priscus Bo}. Steppe wisent Bos batkalensis N. Ver. Baikal yak X X Bos Aurochs Capraprimigenius sibirica Pall. Boj. Siberian ibex X| x x Capreolus pygargus Pall. Siberian roe deer x 4 x Cervus elaphus L. Red deer (wapiti) x x x Gasella gutturosa Gmel. Mongolian gazelle X Megaloceros giganteus Blum. Giant deer x x

Moschus moschiferus L. Musk deer x x Nemorrhaedus caudatus Milne-Edw. Common goral x Ovibos moschatus Zimm. Tundra musk ox x x Ovts ammonEschsch. L. Argali sheep x xx Ovtis nivicola Snow sheep Parabubalis capricornis V. Gromova _Goat-horned antelope X Rangtfer tarandus L. Reindeer x xx Saiga tatarica L. Saiga antelope X

Sus scrofa L. Wild boar x

Spirocerus kiakhtensis M. Pavl. Twisted-horned antelope x PERISSODACTYLA °

Equus sp. Wild horse X Coelodonta antiquitatis Blum. Woolly rhinoceros x x x

Equus hemionus Pall. Asiatic wild ass X x Eguus latipes Gromova Wide-hoofed horse x

EquusPROBOSCIDEA lenensis Russ. Lena horse X x Mammuthus primigenius Blum. Woolly mammoth x x x

LATE PLEISTOCENE MAMMAL FAUNA OF SIBERIA 221 (Vangengeym, 1977; Sher, 1971) in the basins of the Pleistocene wild animals are found in frozen ground more Nizhnyaya Tungska, Angara, Aldan, Lena, Vilyuy, and —_ often than anywhere else. The shelf of the Laptev and East Markha Rivers were found to contain skeletal remains of Siberian Seas in some places (Oyagosskiy and Khaptashinwolf, red fox, arctic fox, brown bear, wolverine, cave lion, — skiy Yar, Ayon Island, etc.) is covered with bones of horse,

Don hare, alpine pika, long-tailed ground squirrel, Indi- reindeer, bison, musk ox, and mammoth washed up by girka ground squirrel, black-capped marmot, beaver, col- _ tidal waters. Occasionally, bones of wolf, brown bear, cave , lared lemming, Siberian brown lemming, steppe lem- __ lion, and (rarely) woolly rhinoceros, moose, and saiga an-

ming, water vole, and narrow-headed vole. telope are also found. In addition, complete or partial carcasses of mammoth, Sites in Alaska and in the valley of the Yukon River and horse, woolly rhinoceros, and steppe wisent have been pre- _its tributaries, similar in age and taxonomy, contain essenserved in the frozen state in deposits of eastern Siberia tially similar fauna (Guthrie, 1968; Irving et al., 1977) but (Rusanov, 1968; Vereshchagin, 1981; Lazarev, 1980; Ver- not woolly rhinoceros, which apparently did not live east

eshchagin and Lazarev, 1977). of the Kolyma Basin. This similarity of Pleistocene mamMountain animals were abundantly represented. The re- = mal complexes from the plains of the two adjacent conti-

gion was inhabited by the dhole, musk deer, twisted- nents, now separated once again by the sea, confirms the horned antelope, Siberian ibex, argali sheep, snow sheep, existence, during the epoch of maximum cooling, of wide

and Baikal yak. continental links at the location of the shelf zone and Ber-

Somewhat apart faunistically stood the Transbaikal re- ing Straits, that is, the Bering Land Bridge. gion, in southeastern Siberia, inhabited by animals of Similar features are also preserved in the modern mamxerophytic landscapes and a sharply continental climate: | mal fauna of extreme northeastern Siberia and Alaska. tarbagan marmot, Mongolian gazelle, Asiatic wild ass,and = This fauna includes Bering brown bear, arctic fox, red fox, saiga antelope. These species have survived in the steppes wolverine, stag moose (Cervalces), reindeer, and longand semideserts of Kazakhstan and Mongolia to this day, _ tailed and Indigirka ground squirrels among other species. and during the Late Pleistocene the saiga antelope oc- At the same time, secondary and marked differences in curred widely in western and eastern Siberia up to the | the mammal fauna of these regions are apparent as a result shores of the Polar Basin. Its fossil remains are also known _ of ecologic barriers and older migration routes. Such are on the Novosibirsk Islands. Such a wide distribution of the subspecies differences among the modern snow sheep saiga antelope remains can be explained not only by the = and Dall sheep of Chukotka and Alaska, the absence of considerable spread of open steppe landscapes in the Late the mountain goat of Alaska on the Chukotka Peninsula Pleistocene but also by the distant migrations very typical and the Koryak Highland, species differences among ot-

of this animal. ters, and so on (Chernyavskiy, 1976). Thus, 43 species of mammals known from fossil remains

(Table 21-1) inhabited the territory of eastern Siberia dur- South of the Far East

ing the Late Pleistocene. Skeletal remains of 8 species were found only in eastern Siberia: black-capped and tarbagan _— The south of the Far East was faunistically the most unusu-

matmots, long-tailed and Indigirka ground squirrels, al region of the Late Pleistocene. Deposits in caves of the Mongolian gazelle, twisted-horned antelope, goat-horned = Maritime Territory have been found to contain skeletal re-

antelope, and snow sheep. mains of species not found farther northeast: raccoon dog,

An extensive exchange of species between Eurasia and _— Siberian weasel, yellow-throated marten, badger, otter, North America occurred during the Pliocene and Pleisto- —_ leopard cat, tiger, leopard, Manchurian hare, horse, wild cene (Hibbard et al., 1965; Vereshchagin, 1971). Eastern boar, and mountain antelope. In addition, species comSiberia was last connected to North America during the = mon in southeastern Siberia also inhabited the Far East, Late Pleistocene via the Bering region. Apparently, cave namely, dhole, lynx, and musk deer in addition to 15 spe-

lion, northern pika, moose, musk ox, snow sheep, saiga cies widely distributed in the Paleoarctic: wolf, red fox, antelope, and yak entered North America at that time. | brown bear, sable, wolverine, cave lion, northern pika, Mammoth and short-horned bison moved back into Amer- _ beaver, red-backed vole, mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, ica. In addition, collared lemming, reindeer, and, appar- _—_— roe deer, red deer, moose, and bison (Table 21-1). Reently, horse and marmot reentered America, their place of | mains of cave hyena are known from cave deposits of west-

origin (Kuz’mina, 1977). ern Siberia and the Far East.

The mammal fauna of the Far East indicates that the cli-

Bering Region and Asian-American mate there during the Late Pleistocene was milder than

Faunistic Links that in Siberia. The species diversity was due to the pene-

tration from the south of certain species more characteristic Skeletal remains of Late Pleistocene mammals are particu- _ of the Indo-Malayan zoogeographic region. larly abundant in deposits of Zyryanka-Sartan (Wisconsin)

age over all of northeastern Siberia, including the Novosi- Conclusi

bitsk Islands, Wrangel Island, Maritime Lowland, Chu- oncluslons kotka Peninsula, and Kamchatka. There, the remains of | Comparison of species compositions of the mammal fauna soft tissues, horn sheaths, and fur from many species of of western and eastern Siberia and the south of the Far East

222 VERESHCHAGIN AND KUZ’MINA showed that differences can be traced even for the Late | Guthrie, R. D. (1968). Paleoecology of the large-mammal community in Pleistocene. Remains of corsac fox, small cave bear, steppe interior Alaska during the Late Pleistocene. American Midland Natur-

ferret, gray marmot, Siberian mole-rat, and wide-hoofed alist 19, 346-63. .

horse were found only in western Siberia. Remains of tar- Hibbard, C. W., Ray, D. E., Savage, D. E., Taylor, D. W., and Guilday, bagan marmot, black-cappe d marmot long-taile d groun d J. E. (1965). Quaternary mammals of North America. I” “The Quater-

, oe . . : nary of the United States” (H. E. Wright, Jr., and D. G. Frey, eds.),

squitrel, Indigirka arctic ground squirrel, Mongolian ga- pp. 509-26. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.

zelle, and snow sheep were found only in eastern Siberia. Irving, W. N., Mayhall, I. T., Melbye, F. I., and Beebe, B. F. (1977). There were many more species in the south of the Far East, A human mandible in probable association with a Pleistocene faunal namely, raccoon dog, Siberian weasel, yellow-throated assemblage in eastern Beringia: A preliminary report. Canadian Jour-

marten, badger, otter, leopard cat, tiger, leopard, Man- nal of Archeology 1, 81-93. churian hare, horse, wild boar, and mountain antelope. Kuz’mina, I. Ye. (1971). Formation of the theriofauna of the Northern Paleontologic data indicate a later Late Pleistocene set- Urals in the Late Anthropogene. USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute

tlement by’mammals of northern regions of western Si- of Zoology, Trudy 49, 44-122. . . beria, where cold-tolerant species predominated widely. Kuz mina, I. Ye. (1977). On the origin and history of the theriofauna of The southern part was inhabited by warmth-loving spe- the Siberian Arctic. USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Zoology,

; ; . . . Trudy 63, 18-55.

cles, associated either with forest biotopes or with steppe Lazarev, P. A. (1980). “Anthropogene Horses of Yakutiya.” Nauka Press,

and semidesert biotopes. The Late Pleistocene mammal Moscow.

fauna of eastern Siberia was more uniform. In thiscomplex —_ Middendorf, A. F. (1869). “A Voyage to the North and East of Siberia,”

one can distinguish only the faunas of the Transbaikal re- Vol. 2, Sect. 5, “Siberian Fauna.” Russian Geographical Society, St.

gion and southeastern Siberia, including species of moun- Petersburg. |

tain and plains landscapes adapted toa dry, sharply con- Pavlova, M. V. (1910). Description of fossil remains of mammals of the tinental climate. The composition of Far Eastern mammals Troitsko-Kyakhtinskiy Museum. Troztsko-Kyakhtinskty Section of the

in the Maritime Territory indicates a milder and more hu- Russian Geographical Society, Trudy 13 (1), 21-64.

. em Yakutiya.” Press, Moscow. Sh i . south of representatives of theNauka Indo-Malayan . . , . er, A. V. (1971). “Mammals and Stratigraphyzoogeograof the Pleistocene of the

mid climate than in Siberia, and the penetration from the Rusanov, B. S. (1968). Biostratigraphy of Cenozoic Deposits of South-

phic region. All the latest studies confirm the hypothesis Extreme Northeast of the USSR and North America.” Nauka Press,

offered by Sushkin (1925) that there were different condi- Moscow.

tions of formation and development of western Paleoarc- Sushkin, P. P. (1925). Zoological regions of Central Siberia and neigh-

tic, eastern Paleoarctic, and Far Eastern faunas. | boring parts of mountainous Asia. Bulletin of the Moscow Society of Naturalists New Series 34, 50-71. Vangengeym, E. A. (1977). “Paleontological Substantiation of the Strati-

References graphy of Central Asia’s Anthropogene.” Nauka Press, Moscow.

Vereshchagin, N. K. (1959a). “The Mammals of the Caucasus.” USSR Alekseyeva, E. V. (1980). “Mammals of the Pleistocene of Western Si- Academy of Sciences, Moscow and Leningrad.

beria’s Southeast.” Nauka Press, Moscow. Vereshchagin, N. K. (1959b). Remains of mammals of the mammoth Chernyavskiy, F. B. (1976). Systematic relationships of certain land mam- epoch of the Taimyr Peninsula. Bu//etin of the Moscow Soctety of Na-

mals of the Old and New World in connection with the problem of turalists Biological Series 64 (5), 5-16. Beringia. Iv “Beringia in the Cenozoic” (V. L. Kontrimavichus, ed.), Vereshchagin, N. K. (1971). The cave lion and its history in the Holarctic

pp. 147-50. USSR Academy of Sciences, Far East Scientific Center, region and within the confines of the USSR. USSR Academy of

Vladivostock. Sciences, Institute of Zoology, Trudy 49, 123-99.

Cherskiy, I. D. (1891). “Description of Collections of Postquaternary Vereshchagin, N. K. (1981). “The Magadan Mammoth Cub.” Nauka Mammals Obtained by the Novo-Siberian Expedition of 1885-1886.” Press, Moscow.

Russian Geographical Society, St. Petersburg. Vereshchagin, N. K., and Baryshnikov, G. F. (1980). Areas of the hoofed Galkina, L. I. (1975). Fauna of Anthropogene rodents and leporids of the fauna of the USSR in the Anthropogene. USSR Academy of Sciences, plateau along the Ob’ River and Kuznetskaya Basin. USSR Academy Institute of Zoology, Trudy 93, 3-20. of Sciences, Siberian Branch, Institute of Biology, Trudy 23, 155-64. Vereshchagin, N. K. and Lazarev, P. A. (1977). Description of parts of Gromoy, V. I. (1948). “Paleontological and Archeological Substantiation a carcass and skeletal remains of the Selerikanskiy fossil horse. USSR of the Stratigraphy of Quaternary Continental Deposits in the USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Zoology, Trudy 63, 85-185. (Mammals, Paleolithic).” USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Geo- Yermolova, N. M. (1978). “Theriofauna of the Angara Valley in the Late

logy, seria geologicheskaya, Trudy 17. Anthropogene.” Nauka Press, Novosibirsk.

CHAPTER ) y Late Pleistocene Insects S. V. Kiselev and V. I. Nazarov

Systematic studies of fossil insects in the USSR did not be- _ fossil sites of these weevils in the Northeast are quite dis-

gin until the 1960s. Since that time, data have been pub- tant from their modern ranges, indicating a previous lished on the composition of Pleistocene insect faunas of greater extent of steppe and meadow-steppe than at presthe European USSR (Panfilov, 1965; Medvedev, 1968a, ent. Analysis of weevil fossils indicates cyclic climatic 1968b, 1976; Nazarov, 1979; Voznyachuk, Makhnach, et changes in the occurrence of steppe and tundra-taiga spe-

al., 1979; Voznyachuk, San’ko, et al., 1979), Siberia cies. (Kiselev, 1973), Yakutiya (Grushevskiy and Medvedev, Steppe assemblages dominate the fossil fauna; tundra 1962, 1970; Grunin, 1973; Medvedev and Voronova, assemblages consist almost exclusively of inhabitants of 1977; Sher et al., 1979; Kiselev, 1981; Kaplina et al., | comparatively dry biotopes, such as grass and herb mea1980), Chukotka (Kiselev, 1980a, 1980b; Boyatskaya and = dows or shrub-herb gentle slopes (e.g., the carabids PteroKiselev, 1981), and some other regions of the Soviet Union _—stzchus sublaevis Sahlb., Curtonotus alpinus Payk., and (Kiselev et al., 1981). The locations of the main sites of | Aszara glacialis Munch. and the leaf beetles Chrysolina fossil insect remains in this country are shown in Figure septentrionalis Dej., C. subsulcata Munh., and C. cavigera

22-1). Sahlb.). Taiga and tundra (sensu stricto) beetle species To date, only two regions of the USSR—Belorussia and _ play a secondary role in this type of fauna. Thus, a steppe-

northeastern Siberia, primarily the Kolyma Lowland— tundra must have predominated in a severe continental have been studied extensively in the paleoentomological and arid or semiarid climate similar to, or more severe sense. This makes it possible to compare the development than, the present ultracontinental climate of the interof the insect fauna in the West and East of the country, | montane basins of Yakutiya (Verkhoyansk, Oymyakon). that is, in regions of markedly different environmental his- The opposite type of Late Pleistocene entomofauna in-

tory. cludes taiga insects (e.g., Trachypachus zetterstedti Gyll., gyllenchahi Gyl., and Camponotus Herculeanus ‘hari L.) and tundraPissodes mesophiles (e.g., Pterostichus costatus

Northeastern Siberia Men., P. agonus Horn., and Cryodzus spp.) typical of for-

In the Kolyma Lowland, the Late Pleistocene entomofau- est-tundra Or sparse larch forests. The presence of a few nas can be grouped into tundra, tundra-taiga, and steppe St€PPe insects in such faunas indicates a somewhat more species. Among the most typical members of the steppe Severe climate than the present one in the Kolyma Lowgroup are the weevil genera Conocleonus and Stephano- land even during the “warm” interstades of the Late Pleiscleonus. Today, species of the subfamily Cleoninae, which ‘ocene. includes these weevils, are confined to the steppe and

mountain-steppe regions of southern Siberia and Mongo- Belorussia lia, although some penetrate into central Yakutiya

through steppe-type extrazonal areas (Stephanocleonus The situation in Belorussia was entirely different. During eruditus Faust, S. fossulatus Disch.) and as relicts known the Mikulino Interglaciation, the entomofauna differed even from areas of Taimyr, western Chukotka, and Wran- little from the present one, although it did include insects gel Island (Comzocleonus ferrugineus Fahr., C. astraga/i that now live farther south and west, such as the carabids Ter-Min. et Korot., C. czerascens Hochh.) (Korotyayev, Epaphius rivularis Gyll., Oodes gracillis Villa, and Chisen1977; Korotyayev and Ter-Minasyan, 1977). Almost all — cus tristis Schall.; the click beetles Amzpedus nigrinus Hbst. 223

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» & SSULZLA s ” f ¥ _—S> : Y ge —™:: — 108

m basin dourozh Black Sea Or-4 x nee —— - 5 -_ a Karangat

40 2 : r mil “:\ Pre - Sourozh \ New ) y basin Euxin basin 80

90 80 70 60 30 40 30 20 0 8 6 4 20

90

xbasin=> basin basin

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Marine § SemiMarine Semifreshwater

Figure 23-1. Fluctuations of level and alternation of basin types of the Black Sea during the Late Pleistocene and Holocene.

Coastal waters of the littoral and sublittoral of the Ka- __ basis of the mollusk composition, reached 30 °/oo (Nevess-

rangat Sea were populated by a rich fauna of Mediterra- kaya, 1965). The dominantly marine diatom flora connean-type mollusks (120 species, including 41 bivalvesand _ firms the high salinity of the waters of the Karangat Basin.

62 gastropods) (Nevesskaya, 1965; Il’ina, 1965; Trash- The water temperature in the shallow part of the basin chuk, 1974). However, in composition this fauna is closer | was somewhat higher than the present one, for the content to that of the North Atlantic; it contains only 40% of the — of warm-water Lusitanian and Canarian species of bivalve species inhabiting the Mediterranean and 10% of the spe- —_ mollusks reached 25% (15 species out of 59) whereas in cies inhabiting the Tyrrhenian Basin. The composition of _ the Black Sea today it does not exceed 20% (7 species out the Karangat fauna includes characteristic mollusks with 2. _ of 39) (Nevesskaya, 1965). The surface waters in the open 5% of species that do not inhabit the Black Sea at the pres- _ part of the basin were also warmer than the modern ones,

ent time (e.g., Cardium tuberculatum Poitt., Paphia judging from the presence of a recent tropical diatom spesenescens Coc., Ensis ensis (L.), Chlamys varia (L.), and cies, Thalasstonema oestrupu, in its sediments (Jousé and

Centhium vulgatum Brug.). It is postulated that on the Mukhina, 1980). These data are in agreement with the shelf of the Karangat Basin and in the Mediterranean Sea _ conclusions from spore-pollen complexes both in deep-sea there existed ecologic zones of filter-feeding organisms liv- boreholes (Koreneva, 1980) and on the surrounding dry ing at shallow depths and feeding on detritus from aque- _ land. At the same time, periglacial steppes disappeared, ous suspensions and collecting detritophages (Nevesskaya, | and the coast was mainly covered by broad-leaved forests

1965). (white beech, beech, oak, elm, linden, and alder) as well

In the open sea, particularly in the region of the deep- _as coniferous forests (spruce, fir, and pine) in the mounsea depression, planktonic organisms lived only in the up- _ tains. per layer of the water, which was not subject to hydrogen The presence of an appreciable content of sapropel and sulfide contamination. A rich complex of diatoms of ma- _ pyrite in the deep-sea sediments of the Karangat Sea (Nerine and brackish-water species is known there, including —_ prochnov, 1980) indicates the existence of a zone of hydroThalasstosira oestrupu (Ostf.) Pr.-Lavr., T. subsalina Pr.- —_ gen sulfide contamination at great depths. Lavr., Cyclotella caspia Grun., Cosctnodiscus sahischi, C. berforatus Ehr., and Thalassionema nitzschoides Grun.

(Jousé and Mukhina, 1980). In sediments of the Karangat THE CASPIAN SEA: LATE KHAZAR

Basin in the deep-sea trench, microfloras of nannofossils nena ane ees

were abundant, with a predominance of one species, An isolated late Khazar brackish-water basin was formed Gephyrocapsa caribbeanica Boudr. et Hay, along with G. _ in the closed Caspian depression. Its coastal deposits in teccf. oceamica Kampt. (Shumenko and Ushakova, 1980). _ tonically relatively stable regions (lower Volga, MangyshThese species are characteristic of the zone of Emziliania _lak) occur at elevations of 10 to 20 m below sea level, huxley (Lohm.) of Eemian age, although E. Aux/ey itself whereas in uplift zones (Dagestan) they form terraces with

was not observed there. elevations of 40 to 50 m above sea level (Fedorov, 1978). On the basis of the above data on the fauna and flora, The level of the late Khazar basin was probably at 10 to

one can reconstruct the ecologic conditions of the Karangat 15 m below sea level, that is, above the present level of the Basin. This marine basin was similar in salinity and tem- _—_ Caspian, but it still cannot be regarded as transgressive perature to the modern Mediterranean. Its salinity, on the —_‘ (Figure 23-2). This was more probably a regression of small

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\~ey? am 682 eee oe ~100

~60

Mikulino | | interglacial : 80 10 60 50 40 30 20 40 0

-80

aterolaciall Caley Valdat | Middle Valdat | Late Valdat |Holocene

Vr BP x 10 3

Figure 23-2. Relationship of transgressions and regressions of the Black and Caspian Seas to glaciations on the Russian Plain. (Based on data from Rychagov, 1977, and Ostrovskiy, Izmaylov, Shcheglov, et al., 1977.) (Abbreviations: hz,, late Khazar; hv,, early Khvalyn; en, Yenotayevka; hv, late Khvalyn; mg, Mangyshlak; nc, New Caspian; kg, Karangatian; ps, pre-Surozh; sz, Surozh; neu, New Euxinian; ch, Black Sea.

dimensions, associated with a more favorable water bal- | Volga River drainage basin and of mixed grass steppes into ance than during other interglacial epochs. The Mikulino — the Caspian region makes it possible to postulate a 33% Interglaciation was distinguished not only by a warmer cli- —_ increase in runoff in comparison with the present runoff, mate but also by more humid conditions in the arid zone. that is, an increase of up to 430 km?. The water area of the Thus, in the basin of the Volga, which is the main tribu- late Khazar Basin was approximately 500,000 km’. The tary of the Caspian, forest spread eastward at the expense sediments in this water area were probably also 33% greatof steppe, and mixed grass steppe occupied large areas of — er than present ones; that is, a layer of 230 mm over this the northern Caspian region. The expansion of areas with area makes a volume of 115 km’. The total gain of the more humid conditions considerably increased the inflow | water basin thus amounts to 545 km’. The loss consisted from the basins of the Volga and Ural and offset the in- | of evaporation from the water area, which could have been

creased evaporation under warm climatic conditions. 20% higher than at present, that is, a layer of 1100 mm Therefore, the regression, usually very deep for interglacia- | or 550 km%, a value close to the gain.

tions, did not reach any considerable magnitude. The waters of the late Khazar basin were inhabited by The water balance of late Khazar time can be recon- _—a rich molluscan fauna dominated by the endemic genus structed as follows. The expansion of forest areas into the | Didacna (D. surachanica Andr., D. subovalis Prav., D.

INLAND SEA BASINS 233 ballast Prav.), as well as by Adacna plicata Eichw., Mono- boreal, 10 boreal-arctic, and 9 arctic species; in northern dacna caspia Eichw., Dreisena polymorpha Pall., and Cor- Siberia, 1, 11, 20, 7, and 7, respectively; on Chukotka, 1, ,

bicula fluminalis Mill. The abundance of fauna with 7, 3, 3, and 2, respectively. In the boreal sea, there first warmth-loving elements reflects the variety of ecologic | appears a new faunal element, E/phidium excavatum, and niches and the warm-water conditions of this basin, ascon- in Siberia and Europe, E. propinquum, Triloculina tnfirmed by the spore-pollen characteristic of its sediments Aedra, and Pseudopolymorphina novangliae. In addition, (Rychagov, 1977). The mean annual temperature of the Lagena hispida, L. laevis, L. semilineata, and Ammonia

water based on data of the calcium/strontium method Jeccarii appear only in Europe; E/phidium boreale and

reached 18°C in Transcaucasia. species that previously inhabited the Pechora Basin (Quz-

queloculina agglutinata, Q. deplanata, fynling cylin. droides, and Elphidella arctica) appear in Siberia and Bu/z-

ARCTIC BASIN: BOREAL TRANSGRESSION mina maneinata on Chukotka (Val’katlen complex) (GudDuring the Mikulino (Kazantsevo) Interglaciation an ap- _— ina, 1976).

preciable transgression of the marine basin to the adjoin- The climatic conditions of the boreal sea were much ing Arctic dry land occurred, a transgression most extensive | warmer than the present ones. Thus, in the early phase of in the regions of continental glaciation. In northern Eu- —_ Kazantsevo time, the water temperature in the southeast rope this basin flooded considerable areas around the of the Kata Sea had already risen 0.5°C to 1°C above the White Sea, in the valleys of Severnaya Dvina, Mezen’, present value. At the interglacial optimum, the air temOnega, Pechora Rivers, and in the Karelian lakes, where perature rose by 2.5°C to 4.5°C on the Yamal Peninsula, the basins of Onega Lake and Ladoga Lake probably pro- —_ by 5°C to 6°C in the mouth of the Yenisey, and by 4°C vided a connection with the Mya basin of the Baltic and _ to 6°C in the Ob’ River basin (Troitskiy, 1979). The water farther west with the Eemian basin of the North Sea. In temperature within the boundaries of dispersal of boreal northern Siberia, the boreal transgression also flooded the _ species did not descend below 0°C, and the mean annual Yamal, Gydan, and Tazovskiy Peninsulas; the southern temperature was 2°C to 4°C above the present one. The part of Taimyr; and the lower parts of the Ob’, Yenisey, — major portion of this sea did not freeze, but ice-rafted deand Khatanga River valleys, as well as lower parts of the _tritus indicates that floating ice could have been present Arctic islands. Within the confines of Chukotka its depos- _ there (Troitskiy, 1979). These data indicate that the influits ate known along the shores of Provideniya Bay and _ ence of the Gulf Stream extended far east and covered a Krest Bay and stretch in a wide band around Anadyrskiy considerable portion of the Arctic basin. Bay and Kolyuchinskiy Inlet. According to Troitskiy

(1979), the north-Siberian field of the marine Pleistocene , extended over 1400 km from north to south and 1900 km Early Valdai

from to east, occupying an area (PITSUNDA) of about 1 million | km?2.west BLACK SEA: PRE-SUROZH The marine basin of the boreal transgression was settled SEMIFRESHWATER BASIN by a rich and varied fauna of mollusks (111 species), crus- | According to data from a study of overdeepenings in valtaceans (6 species), brachipods (3 species), and foramini- —_ leys of the Caucasian coast, the post-Karangatian regresfers (66 species). The zoogeographic composition of the sion of the Early Valdai (Figure 23-1) reached strandlines molluscan fauna—including 14% boreal, 6% primarily of —100 to —110 m (Ostrovskiy, Izmaylov, Shcheglov, et boreal, 37% boreal-arctic, and 43% arctic species— reflects al., 1977). Deposits of this basin were successfully una significant warming and deep penetration of boreal spe- covered by borings on Cape Pitsunda at depths of 90 to

cies from both west and east into the center of the Arctic 180 m. The uranium-thorium absolute age of mollusk (Troitskiy, 1979). Thus, the region of northern Siberia was _—_ shells is 47,0004 1700 yr B.P. (LU-413). These deposits

penetrated by the following western boreal immigrants — wete also observed in deep-sea boreholes 379A (64-m to presently living in the zone influenced by the Gulf 78-m interval) and 380 (47-m to 58.5-m interval), and also Stream: Balanus balanoides, Cingula aculenus, Pagurus in core sample 1857-2 (230- to 274-cm interval) (Neprochpubescens, Lacuna divaricata, L. pallidula, Buccinum un- nov, 1980). datum, Neptunea despecta, Nucula tumidula, Modtola As for the ecologic conditions of this basin, the presence modiolus, Cerastoderma edule, Astarte sulcata, Arctica ts- of the mollusks Drezssena rostriformis Desh., D. polylandica, Mya arenaria, and Zyrphaea crispata. Amongeast- morpha Pall., Micromelania caspia Eichw., M. elegantula em immigtants, only two species, Liomesus nassula and Grimm determines that this basin was of semifreshwater Pseudopyrita compressa, made their way from the Bering —_ type (Ostrovskiy, Izmaylov, Shcheglov, et al., 1977). How-

Sea, that is, 4000 km farther east. ever, the presence of infrequent Didacna suggests that at

The fauna of benthic foraminifers is composed quantita- the peak of the regression the basin could have been of tively and qualitatively of a rich complex containing 66 —_ brackish-water type. The composition of the diatom flora

species in the European USSR, 42 in western Siberia, 35 from deep-sea boreholes (Stephanodiscus astraea, S. in the Tatmyr Lowland, and 19 on Chukotka (Gudina, Aantzschit, Cyclotella kiitzingiana) is characteristic of 1976). The number of warm-water elements decreases moderately cold slightly mineralized bodies of oligofrom west to east: 1 boreal-Lusitanian, 22 boreal, 19 arcto- trophic water (Jousé and Mukhina, 1980).

234 CHEPALYGA It is possible that the regression of this basin was asso- © —100 m) must have resulted in rapid overdeepening of ciated with Early Valdai glaciation and the glacioeustatic the strait between them, and the level could have stabiregression of the ocean at that time. A sea-level depression _lized at +20 to +25 m. Moreover, the water area decould have resulted in the drying of the Bosphorus, the creased to 800,000 km?, and under constant climatic concomplete isolation of this basin, and the formatin of a ditions the discharge through the Manych Strait should closed Caspian-type basin. This was probably a normally have increased and reached a volume of 100 km?. Howaetated basin with a salinity of up to 5%o0 to 10% 0. The ever, this basin could not have been a through-flow basin climatic conditions were severe, and, judging from pollen for a long time, for balance calculations show that it data from deep-sea boreholes, marked changes took place — should have been completely freshened after 2000 to 3000 from periglacial steppes to coniferous forests (Koreneva, years. This figure is not confirmed by the molluscan fauna,

1980). however, which continued to reflect fairly high salinity. CASPIAN SEA: EARLY VALDAI Thus, on the basis of the presence of the mollusks Didacna BRACKISH- WATER BASIN cristata (Bog.), D. ebersint Fed., D. protracta Eichw., D.

barallela Bog., and others, the salinity of the Early KhvaA brackish-water early Khvalyn Basin formed in the Cas- lyn Basin appears to have been around 12% to 13%o0 pian depression of that time (Figure 23-2). This was one — (Svitoch, 1976). Therefore, the depression of the level of of the major transgressions of the Caspian (up to 48 m__ the Early Khvalyn Basin was caused by a change in climatic above sea level), its level was 76 m above the present one, _ conditions, possibly during the phases of climatic warmand the water area was 950,000 km? (2.5 times the area of _ ing. the present Caspian). This transgression reached these The water temperature of this basin was comparatively enormous dimensions in its early phase. It was probably low, although at times it may have risen almost to the presshort-lived, for a discharge is postulated through the ent value. This is indicated by a low 6 '80 value (up to Manych Strait, where the present discharge threshold is = — 12%9 to — 14.5% in comparison with the present value +26 m. At a later stage, the level stabilized at lower of about 0), possibly as a result of the influence of cold glastrandlines, +20 to +25 m (Buynak stage), and at the cial waters of light isotopic composition (Nikolayev and end of the Early Valdai it first dropped to+14to +15 m Popov, 1973). However, the presence of Corbicula flumt(Turkmen stage), then to +4 to +6m. These stages were —w@/zs Miill. shells attests to short warming phases.

separated by appreciable regressions. , Radiocarbon datings of mollusk shells are contradictory and obviously too young (some dates of early Khvalyn are . , younger than those of late Khvalyn). Dates obtained by Middle Valdai

the thermoluminescence method give the age of the early Khvalyn transgression as 40,000 to 70,000 years, the age BLACK SEA: SUROZH SEMIMARINE BASIN of the maximum stage being assumed to be about 60,000 _In recent years, increasing amounts of data have appeared years, and they give the age of the Buynak transgression as on the post-Karangatian transgression of the Late Pleis-

42,000 years (Rychagov, 1977). tocene, which was earlier referred to as the Surozh trans-

The water balance of the early Khvalyn Basin can be gression (Popov and Zubakov, 1975). The Surozh most satisfactorily explained, in particular, by assuming transgression probably differed little in size from the Karconditions of an ice-free regime on the Russian Plain(Che- § angatian transgression and the present Black Sea. Its debotareva and Makarycheva, 1974). The absence of an ice posits are located mostly below sea level (about — 10 m) sheet did not prevent moist ait masses from moving from __ or in overdeepenings of valleys (on the shores of the Kerch’ the Atlantic into the basins of the Volga and Ural, and, — Strait, in the valley of Zapadnyy Manych, and in the lower therefore, the precipitation was not much less than it is at reaches of Salgir and Mius [Livensadovka]). In the water the present time. If one considers that, because of the low —_ area of the Black Sea, these deposits probably include lithtemperatures, the evaporation was insignificant and that ified sands with a molluscan fauna, recently uncovered by almost the entire Volga River basin was occupied by per- marine drilling west of the Karkinitskiy Peninsula (Gollmafrost (Velichko, 1973), the river discharge could have _ tsyn Rise) at the Shagana liman and Kyzaul’skaya bank

exceeded the present one by a factor of at least 1.5 and (Pazyuk et al., 1974; Shnyukov and Trashchuk, 1976; reached 500 km*. The precipitation on the water area Trashchuk and Boltivets, 1978). In tectonically active areas could have been close to the present amount of 170 mm, __ of the Caucasian coast, the height of the Surozh Terrace giving a water volume of 162 km?. The total gain was 662 _—is 18 to 20 m (Ostrovskiy, Izmaylov, Shcheglov, et al., km?. Because of low temperatures and increased sea-ice 1977). Two phases of the Surozh transgression are obcover, the chief loss component of the water balance (eva- _— served (Figure 23-1): an early phase with a height of — 10

poration from the water area) could have dropped by afac- to —15 m and a late phase almost up to the present level tor of 1.5 to 710 mm and thus a loss of 650 km°. This ex- — or even higher (Ostrovskiy, Izmaylov, and Shcheglov, et cess of about 12 km?* could have discharged through the _al., 1977). Manych Strait into the Black Sea. However, the maximum In the deep-sea depression, Surozhian deposits were unlevel of the Caspian, +48 m, was probably short-lived, for | covered in boreholes 379A (64 - to 78-m interval) and 380

! the large difference in the levels of these seas(+48 mand (47- to 58.6-m interval) (Neprochnov, 1980).

INLAND SEA BASINS 235 Absolute radiocarbon dates of molluscan shells are avail- isolated Caspian Basin of that time (Figure 23-2). The level able for sections of the Surozh Terrace on Cape Tuzla — of the Caspian dropped by 100 m in comparison with the (Zubakov, 1974)—30,450+42200 yr B.P. (LG-90)—and maximum of the preceding Early Valdai Transgression to for the Surozh stratotype on Zapadnyy Manych— _ strandlines of —45 to —60 m (Rychagov, 1977; Varush32,350+ 5200 yr B.P. (LU-534-V). The uranium-thorium — chenko et al., 1980). However, the ecologic conditions and method for these two sections gave an age of 34,030+900 composition of the fauna underwent little change. The yt B.P. (LU-450). In addition, analysis by the uranium- __ regression of the Yenotayevka Basin should be attributed thorium method of Surozh mollusks on the Chushka Spit —_ to a warming of the climate in the Middle Valdai and a (Kerch’ Strait) gave 40,70041200 yr B.P. (LU-449) for | markedly increased evaporation from the water area of the samples from a depth of 11.8 to 12.5 m and 41,25041340 _ basin. yr B.P. (LU-448) from a depth of 14.6 to 17.3 m (Ostrov-

skiy, Izmaylov, Shcheglov, et al., 1977). THE ARCTIC BASIN: KARGINSKIY In the shallow zone of the shelf, deposits of the final TRANSGRESSION

phase of development of the Surozh basin include Tar- The transgression of the Arctic basin encompassed vast khankut layers with marine fauna (sands with Cerastoder- _ areas of northern Asia, particularly in regions of continenma lamarckt Reeve, Abra ovata Phil., and Dreissena poly- tal glaciation. This transgression has been studied most morpha Pall.), as well as Karkinit layers with the latest closely on the North Siberian Lowland, where it penetratmarine elements (silty sands with Cerastoderma larmarcki ed into the residual uncompensated glacioeustatic trough

and Drezssena polymorpha). that remained after the Zyryanka Glaciation (Andreyeva,

In the deep-sea depression, these deposits are uncovered 1980). The maximum extent of the marine basin occurred by the deepest borings and contain infrequent shells of during the first phase of the interglaciation: the coast of Cerasoderma lamarcki in a stratum of ooze with hydro- Khatanga Bay, the upper reaches of the Kheta and Dutroilite interlayers (Shcherbakov et al., 1978). dypta Rivers, the basin of the Pyasina and Verkhnyaya TaiThe molluscan fauna of the sublittoral is similar in com- myra Rivers, the shore of Lake Taimyr and Yeniseyskiy position to the present Black Sea fauna, but in the final Bay, and the lower course of the Yenisey River. Marine maximum stage of the Surozh transgression (after Ostrov- deposits occur mainly on Zyryanka glacial sediments. Raskiy, Izmaylov, Shcheglov, et al., 1977) it differed little — diocarbon dates give their ages as 24,000 to 50,000 years from the Karangatian fauna, and its composition includes (Andreyeva, 1980). not only Black Sea but also Mediterranean species: Paphia The shallow marine basin was settled by boreal and arcsenescena (Coc.), Chlamys glabra (L.), and Cerithium vul- tic species of mollusks: Mytilus edulus, Macoma baltica, gatum Brug. A special flora of planktonic diatoms inhabit- — Port/gndia arctica, P. arctica siliqua, Mya truncata, and ed the surface layer of the open sea. In addition to the — Astarte borealis. The zone of deeper waters was inhabited brackish-water Cyclotella caspia Grun., Stephanodiscus by Bathiarca glactlis and Yoldtella intermedia. The fotaastraea Kiitz., and S. hantzschia Grun., the following — miniferal fauna of the middle portion of the marine secmarine species appear: Thalasstostra oestruptt (Ost.) Pr.- tions is represented by an arctoboreal complex (35 species) Lavr. and I. swbsalina Pr.-Lavl. (Jousé and Mukhina, with a predominance of Ephidiidae and an occurrence of

1980). Islandiellidae and Cassidulinidae (Gudina, 1976). Faunis-

On the basis of the composition of the fauna and flora, tic and palynologic data indicate a warmer climate than the salinity of the Surozh basin was similar to the present _ the present one (Andreyeva, 1980). one or slightly lower. At the maximum phase of the trans-

gression, the salinity could have risen almost to the level , of that of the Karangatian Basin (Ostrovskiy, Izmaylov, Late Valdat Balabanov, et al., 1977).

The high content of pyrite and sapropel in the sedi- ae A DERESCIWATER BASIN. ments (Neprochnov, 1980) suggests hydrogen sulfide con-

tamination of deep waters of the Surozh Basin. The eustatic regression of the world ocean caused by the On the basis of the mollusks and diatoms from that Late Valdai Glaciation led to a drop in the level of the time, the climate appears similar to the present one or —_ Black Sea to strandlines of —90 to — 110 m and to a loss somewhat colder. Pollen spectra in the deep-sea depression of the two-way connection with the Mediterranean (Figure were characterized by frequent changes of steppe and for- = 23-1). As a result, a considerable portion of the shallowest associations, with a predominance of the latter (Ko- | water shelf was drained, particularly the northwestern reneva, 1980). The Surozh transgression is correlated with | water area and the entire Sea of Azov. The influx of waters the warming of the Middle Valdai (Bryansk, Mologa- through the Bosphorus from the Mediterranean ceased,

Sheksna Interstade). and the basin was freshened.

Regressive sediments of offshore bars (pebble gravel and

CASPIAN SEA: YENOTAYEVKA sands with coquinas) marking the coastline of the New

REGRESSIVE BASIN Euxinian Basin were observed at depths to 90 m (Shcher-

A considerable regression, marked by the formation of — bakov et al., 1978). These sediments record the lowest Yenotayevka deposits of the lower Volga, is notable inthe —_level of the New Euxinian Basin. According to data on

236 CHEPALYGA strandlines of overdeepenings of river valleys (Ostrovskiy, | Nevesskaya, 1965). For this purpose, it is necessary to pos-

Izmaylov, Shcheglov, et al., 1977), the regression could _tulate a much greater depth of the Bosphorus than the

have reached strandlines of —110 m. present one. The latest studies at the gauging site of the

The oldest radiocarbon dates for mollusk shells of New Istanbul Bridge overpass (Degens and Ross, 1974) reveal Euxinian offshore bars (17,780+200 yr B.P.) were ob- that the bottom of the Bosphorus consists of loose, pretained at a depth of 80 to 90 m at the shelf edge south of | sumably very young deposits to a depth of 90 m. This conthe Crimea (Shcherbakov et al., 1978). In a deep-sea de- _ firms the possibility of a flow-through character of the pression, deposits of terrigenous clayey ooze of the “lacus- | New Euxinian Basin even at its lowest level. This conclutrine stage” are dated at 16,900+ 270 and 13,850+200 yr _— sion is supported by data from a reconstruction of the B.P. (Degens and Ross, 1972). The youngest dates of the = water balance of this basin (Kvasov, 1975). New Euxinian deposits in the shelf zone are 8550+ 130 yr The water balance of the basin could have been as folB.P. and in the deep-sea zone 8600+ 200 yr B.P. (Shcher- _—_ lows. It is assumed that, because of a drop in temperature,

bakov et-al., 1978). the evaporation and precipitation for the water area

The shallow-shelf zone of the New Euxinian Basin was (320,000 km?) were lower than the present ones by a factor occupied by a fauna of mainly brackish-water mollusks, | of 1.5 and that the river discharge was 40% lower than the consisting of species that tolerate maximum freshening: — present one (Kalinin et al., 1976). In addition, glacier Dreissena polymorpha Pall., D. rostriformis rostriformis waters passed through the Dnepr River basin from a sector Desh., D. r. distincta Andt., Monodacna caspia Eichw., _ of the ice sheet with an area of 500,000 km? and an annual Adacna vitrea euxinica Nev., Hypanis plicatus relictus precipitation of 150 mm (Kvasov, 1975).

(Mil.), and Micromelania caspai Eichw., as well as purely Gain:

freshwater species of gastropods, probably brought into Ri , disch 330 km?

1980). , ;

the sea by river waters: Viviparus viviparus (L.), Litho- Preci tsen arse h , been?

glypus naticoides C. Pf., and Valvata pulchella Stud. Cl cipitation on the water atea ) km?

(Nevesskaya, 1965; Fedorov, 1978). acier waters —>D km"

In the deep part of the sea, paleontologic remains are 370 km®

represented by a microflora of cold-water diatoms, with a

predominance of a depleted freshwater complex of Sve- Loss:

bhanodiscus astraea, and others (Jousé and Mukhina, Evaporation 180 km? Ip cieher case, whether a semifreshwater or a brackish- Excess water with a volume of 190 km® (approximately water basin, salt differentiation of the water mass should equal to the present one) was discharged through the Bosnot have taken place, so that one can postulate the absence phorus into the Mediterranean. Thus, the balance calculaof the zone of hydrogen sulfide contamination and anade- =‘ "10S confirm the paleontologic data to the effect that durquate aeration of the entire water mass of the New Euxin- ‘8 the existence of the New Euxinian Basin the latter was ian Basin. This hypothesis is confirmed by the low content 2 flow-through basin irrespective of its level and that the of organic carbon and pyrite in the deep-sea sediments. watet was almost fresh. The climatic conditions and temperature regime at that

time were the most severe of the Pleistocene. Pollen spec- CASPIAN SEA: LATE KHVALYN tra of New Euxinian deposits from deep-sea boreholes and BRACKISH-WATER BASIN core samples reflect the development of periglacial vegeta- | In the Caspian depression, there existed at that time a late

tion and pine forests in the mountains. Artemzsia pollen Khvalyn isolated brackish-water basin with maximum is dominant, with much chenopod and some grass pollen; —_ strandlines at about present sea level (28 m above the prespine and birch pollen predominate among tree species __ ent level of the Caspian) and an area of about 600,000 km?

(Neprochnov, 1980). (1.5 times that of the present Caspian). When compared

The New Euxinian Basin was a special water ecosystem = with the preceding basin of Yenotayevka time (— 43 to that differed markedly in ecology from the present Black © —45 m) and the present level (— 28 m), this basin can be Sea. It was a flow-through lacustrine type of basin. Its size considered transgressive, but, when compared with other was almost 30% smaller, but the depths were only 100 m _ transgressions of the Caspian, the late Khvalyn transless and exceeded 2000 m in its central part. Its salinity ap- gression appears minor (Figure 23-2).

proached that of freshwater lakes but still amounted to The history of the late Khvalyn Basin (Figure 23-3) 3%oo to 7%. The presence of infrequent Didacna mori- shows up to four major transgressive-regressive stages bunda Andr. (Nevesskaya, 1965) may indicate phases of | marked by coastlines and terraces (Rychagov, 1977): a pre-

complete isolation of the New Euxinian Basin. Indeed, the maximum stage with strandlines slightly below 0 m discharge threshold in the Bosphorus has a strandline of (18,500 years ago), a maximum (Makhachkala) stage at a — 36 m; therefore, it can be postulated that, if the level height of 0 m (16,000 years ago), the Kuma stage at —5 had dropped below this mark, the New Euxinian Basin to —6 m (14,500 years ago), and the Sartas stage at —5 could have become completely isolated. However, the ma- to —6 m (12,000 years ago). jority of investigators believe that it was always a flow- The late Khvalyn Basin was settled by a rich fauna, parthrough basin (Fedorov, 1978; Shcherbakov et al., 1978; ticularly of brackish-water Didacna mollusks. The shallow

INLAND SEA BASINS 237 parts of the bottom were inhabited by Didacna subcatillus tinct directional drop from south to north; the mean anAndr. and D. praetrigonoides Nal., and deeper parts in nual temperatures in the area of the Korea Strait dropped the range of 70 to 110 m were occupied by D. protracta from 12°C to 4°C in the central part of the basin (Pletnev, Eichw., Adacna (Hipanis) plicata Eichw., and Dreissena 1979). rostriformis distincta Andr. (Lebedev and Glazunova, A distinct decrease in salinity from south to north is also

1972). apparent. In the southern and central parts of the basin,

The salinity of this basin was similar to that of the pres- __ the salinity was close to the normal marine value of 300 ent one, about 12% > to 13%» (Svitoch, 1976). Judging — to 35%, but in the northern part, in the region of Tatarfrom faunistic data, the water temperature was below the _ skiy Bay, it decreased considerably, probably because of present one. This conclusion is confirmed by isotopic data _ the freshening influence of the Amur and other rivers of

on the content of '80. In shells of the late Khvalyn mollusk this region. :

Didacna, the values of 5 '*O are 33% to 50% of the pres- The content of floating ice in the sea increased appreent values and amount to — 4% to —4.8%0 (Nikolayev _ ciably. On the basis of the extent of berg-rafted stones, and Popov, 1973), which may indicate an influence of gla- | one can conclude that a major portion of the water area cier waters. The size and level of the late Khvalyn Basin was covered by floating ice, the southern boundary of were determined by its water balance and climatic condi- | which ran much farther south of the present freezing tions. During the maximum cooling of the Late Valdai, —_line—to the region of the Yamato Seamount at a latitude under low-temperature and permafrost conditions over of about 39°-40°N (Pletnev, 1979). most of the drainage basin, the precipitation and volume Despite the increased isolation, the connection with the of evaporation from the water area were 1.5 times lower ocean through the West Korea Strait remained fairly wide. than at present (Kalinin et al., 1976). In addition, a vast —_Isotherms plotted on the basis of the foraminiferal fauna section of the Scandinavian ice sheet with an area of 1.2 and oxygen-isotope analysis make it possible to reconstruct million km? discharged into the Volga River basin, the the branch of the warm Kuroshio Current that entered the atmospheric precipitation being 100 mm per year (Kvasov, Sea of Japan. However, this warm current did not reach as

1975). far north as it does now; it ended at about 37°N, where Under these conditions, the water balance of the late it encountered a cold current coming from the northwest

Khvalyn Basin was as follows. (Pletnev, 1979). Gain:

River discharge 240 km? The Holocene Precipitation on the water area (120 mm) 72 km?

Glacial runoff 120 km? BLACK SEA: BLACK SEA SEMIMARINE BASIN 432 km* At the start of the Holocene, as a result of a glactoeustatic rise of the ocean level, the waters of the Mediterranean Sea

Loss: entered the Black Sea depression through the Bosphorus, Evaporation from the water area 426 km? and there they formed a semimarine sea that still exists to-

(710 mm) day (Figure 23-4). The oldest elements of marine fauna are

dated at 9000 to 7000 yr B.P. (Degens and Ross, 1972). In its initial stage, the transgression developed very rapidTHE SEA OF JAPAN SEMICLOSED MARINE BASIN ly; in 3500 years, the level rose by 18 m at an average rate During the epoch of maximum cooling 20,000 years ago, of 5 mm per year (Nevesskiy, 1967). At that time, relicts the level of the sea dropped to 130 m below present sea of a New Euxinian semifreshwater basin with a Caspian level (Pletnev, 1979). Correspondingly, the depths of the = fauna were still preserved in the shallow-water zone, sea decreased considerably, causing major changes in the |= whereas a major portion of the water area of the Black Sea outlines and external connections of the basin. The shal- — was occupied by a semimarine basin. The maximum rise low Tatarskiy, Laperouse, Tsugaru, and East Korea Strait in level occurred 4000 to 3500 years ago, in the Subboreal, completely emerged. The only connection with the ocean —_ when the level rose above the present one. At that time, was through the deeper West Korea Strait. The marginal —_a terrace 3 to 5 m high, known by the name Old Black Sea marine basin was converted into a semiclosed one. Consi- Terrace, was formed; it had the richest Holocene fauna of derable areas of the shallow shelf were converted into dry — mollusks. The absolute radiocarbon age of this terrace was

land. determined in the area of the city of Sochi: 5500+ 380 yr

The marginal sea basin, with a fairly wide connection _B.P. (LU-195) from a depth of 18 to 19 m, 4500+ 160 yr with the ocean, was converted into a semiisolated marine- B.P. (LU-199) from a depth of 13 to 14 m, and 4170+ 90 type basin with only one connection with the ocean, asin yr B.P. (LU-507) from a depth of 3 to 4 m in the area of the case of other semiisolated basins of the type of the — Pitsunda (Ostrovskiy, Izmaylov, Balabanov, et al., 1977). Black and Baltic Seas. This change was immediately re- In the Late Holocene, a rapid lowering of the sea level flected in the ecologic state of the basin. The water tem- __ to strandlines of 6 to 8 m below sea level occurred (Fanaperature dropped by 8°C to 10°C in comparison with the —_ gorian regression of Fedorov, 1978). At that time, ancient present one. The field of surface temperatures shows a dis- | Greek settlements appeared on the Old Black Sea Terrace,

238 CHEPALYGA 19000 18000 17D00 76000 15000 74000 73000 12000 71000 10000 9000

| 9|| sine toyan lT —_ m0 ."23 -—. ama J. |te, MN tt. . .

\1?\ “f !\ / 17

Late-Hvalynian Basin

-30 | i yy \ I | \ | \ |, 2 | 1? , l — | % \ | \ oy - ; CnotaevKa | \Mangyshlak regvesstve mi ini “T! regressive b>

Basin I Basin -20 HL Nt ra : | 22

|

__Recent| llevel_of Caspian sealc2aom) |) | | iN

~40

@ \ il 98 ©6| >

Wwia -60 V2 _

Figure 23-3. Fluctuations in the level of the Caspian Sea over the last 18,000 years. (Based on data from Varushchenko et al., 1980.) (Points dated according to the radiocarbon age of mollusks; horizontal and vertical lines indicate, respectively, the range of error in the radiocarbon determination and in the geomorphic data for the level.)

for example Olsia at the mouth of the Southern Bug River, A biocenosis of Chione gallina and Cerastoderma which existed in the seventh through first centuries B.C. g/awcum is characteristic of the sublittoral zone with a (Shilik, 1977). According to archaeological data, the be- sandy substrate. The shallow zone of the shelf ts inhabited ginning of the Fanagorian regression dates back to the _ to depths of 30 m by a “mytiloid ooze” biocenosis with a middle of the second millennium B.C. (about 3500 yeats predominance of Mytilus galloprovincialis. The deeper

ago). part of the shelf up to its very edge (at depths of 60 to 90

According to P. V. Fedorov, the following Nymphaean 1m) is inhabited by a “phaseoline ooze” biocenosis with transgression (Istrian according to M. Blyakh and Geme- shells of only one species, Modiolus phaseolinus, which tinian according to Nevesskaya, 1965) rose to 2 to 3 m__lives in comparatively cold and deep waters. above the present level. According to the data of Shilik In the Sea of Azov, where the salinity was considerably (1977), obtained from excavations in Olsia, this transgres- lower than in the Black Sea, a specific biocenosis, Cerastosion was short-lived and did not rise above 0.7 m below sea derma glaucum Poitr, was formed on the sandy substrates. level. After the Nymphaean transgression, a new lowering In the deep-sea zone, the bottom fauna was absent, but of the level to 3 m below sea level took place (Shilik, | the upper water mass was inhabited by a rich warm-water 1977), starting approximately in the 10th century A.D. microflora of oceanic-type diatoms with a predominance of

(Tsereteli’s [1966] Lazian transgression). euryhaline marine species: RAzzosolenia setigera, R. calThe Black Sea Holocene basin is a semimarine-type caravis Schul., R. alata Bright., Thalasstonema nitschiot-

basin. The molluscan fauna in the littoral zone on the es Grun., T. oestrupit (Ost.) Lav.-Pr., and others. shelf is very abundant but considerably poorer than the The latest detailed studies of the littoral zone of the Mediterranean fauna; shells of Chione gallina L., Cerasto- | Caucasian coast reveal a more complex pattern of fluctuaderma lamarcki, and Divaricella divaricata predominate tions in the level of the Black Sea (Ostrovskiy, Izmaylov,

there. Balabanov, et al., 1977). The transgressive rise in sea level

INLAND SEA BASINS 239 6000 7000 6000 5000 4000-3000 2000 soa Yr BP

NOvocas pian B as tn ~10

i TN 24) -20 35 \ 2 ‘£ i | ? -21 F : fa 7 zh g —ye0 |

22m?

\ \1375 / :“

FF ° a lan a) , ) ‘ A 190 im | PT all ll -30 ) ~a|| >\ | U

| \ \ //“37 If-375

1\ ! ol “44‘§

- ef fo | pt bb

\| 7

-50

~60

was complicated by at least six major regressive-transgres- 10,700 to 9700 years ago. At that time, the waters of the sive phases (Figure 23-1). These phases are reflected in the | Mediterranean penetrated through the Bosphorus. This 1s migration of sediments of beach facies and along beach _ indicated by the presence of larvae and young shells of the ridges, both in plan and in height within the confines of | marine mollusks Cerastoderma lamarckt, Chione galline, the upper part of the shelf, as well as in the phases of | and Spisula subtuncata in the region of Adler-Pitsunda, overdeepenings of river valleys. The phases have been where remains of this phase have several radiocarbon dates adequately dated by numerous radiocarbon analyses and _— ranging from 10,530+190 yr B.P. (LU-367) to 10,130+ archaeological data (remains of the Neolithic and of Greek 180 yr B.P. (Vsegingeo-11/124). The regression that re-

and Roman colonization). placed this phase led to a lowering of the sea level to

The first transgressive phase, with a maximum between _ depths of 65 to 70 m below sea level; it is possible that a 12,000 and 11,500 years ago, reached an isobath of 60m _ semifreshwater basin regime was reestablished at that below sea level, but it was not associated with a saliniza- _— time. tion of the waters, for it contained only a brackish-water The next transgressive phase occurred around 9200 to New Euxinian fauna of the mollusks Dreéssena poly- 8400 years ago and reached an isobath of 30 m below sea morpha, Glessiniola variabilis, Micronelania caspia, and _ level. The molluscan fauna in the Kerch’ Strait was repreMonodacna caspia. This was probably still a New Euxinian sented by a Bugaz complex with Cerastoderma lamarckt, semifreshwater basin that was backed up by waters of an Abra ovata, and similar species and at depths of 35 m or incipient late-glacial transgression. The regressive phase more below sea level by a fauna of “mytiloid ooze” with that followed later was associated with a drop in sea level Mytilus galloprovincialis. The regressive phase that te-

to isobaths of 80 to 85 m. placed this phase was associated with a drop to 55 to 60 m The first transgressive phase with the fauna of a semi- _ below sea level.

marine basin reached a level of 45 m_ below sea level The new transgressive phase (about 7900 to 6800 years

,\|Ji7)~70 40 \J@ -50 i

QO. va f_\_ x Oo ot 0

b+—____(1)—_| ,

\

7 \ H g [” \ Veil ~80 -20

Ave

30

| -60

oeN

IE| YrEE 5 BP x 10 \

\) B82 Jag# JoosggeaSeiiee sekthoo | 3 Hoots #4 # become pean ba oy Fea BSS "e22ot0| 83 & xm-

a8 gG282 gags ggeeeBES2S 2 5 sBbke 8g TM

233 333333 3333 333333333332333 23 333338 3 410

2 #1 40 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 ; o

Figure 23-4. Fluctuations in the level of the Black Sea in the Holocene. (Based on data from Ostrovskiy, Izmaylov, Balabanov et al., 1977.) (The interval back to 3000 yr B.P. is also supported by archaeological and historical dates.)

ago) came close to the present level (10 m below sea level) level (1 to 2 m above sea level). The faunal composition and was characterized by a Vityaz molluscan fauna in the and salinity were no different from those of the present Kerch’ Strait. On the Caucasian coast, the semimarine — Black Sea. In post-Nymphaean time, slight oscillations at basin was populated by biocenoses that were practically in- | about the present level are noted. A small (2- to 5-m) distinguishable from the present ones. Ecologic conditions | Medieval regression in the 14th and 15th centuries A.D. similar to the present ones were established at that time, — was followed by the start of a rise in the level of the Black

including the salinity and zone of hydrogen sulfide Sea that still continues at the present time.

contamination (Degens and Ross, 1972). Littoral deposits , of the Old Black Sea Terrace wete being formed on the CASPIAN SEA coast at that time (Fedorov, 1978). The regressive phase in . the interval of 4300 to 5800 wears ago led 0 a lowering of Mangyshlak Regressive Bastn the level to isobaths of 25 to 27 m below sea level. In the Caspian region, at the very beginning of the HoloThe maximum transgressive phase in the Holocene cene, about 10,000 years ago, a regression occurred where(5700 to 4000 years ago) reached levels of 3 to 4 m above in the level decreased to 50 to 60 m below sea level and sea level. It was accompanied by halts and even slight a major portion of the shallows in the northern part of the drops in level (of a few meters), when peat bogs were being _ basin was drained (Figure 23-3). At these depths, the relict formed. This was a period of maximum-width connection offshore bar “Derbent bank” was exposed, composed of with the Mediterranean, maximum salinity, and richest coarse-grained sediments with a fauna of the mollusks fauna with Mediterranean elements (Gemetinian com- Didacna barbotdemarnyi (Gtimm.), D. parallela (Bog.), plex). Sediments of Fedorov’s (1978) New Black Sea Ter- D. protracta novocaspia Glaz., D. baer (Gtimm.), and

race were being formed in the littoral zone. Dretssena alata Andr. (Mayev et al., 1977). The MangyshThe Fanagorian regression that followed led to a de- _ lak threshold was inhabited by mollusks of a shallow-water crease in level—of about 5 to 7 m (Fedorov, 1978) or 10 complex, freshened by Volga waters, with Didacna trigoto 15 m (Ostrovskiy, Izmaylov, Shcheglov, 1977). At that ozdes (Poll.), D. barbotdemarnyi (Grimm), Hypants plitime, the New Black Sea Terrace was settled by ancient cata Eichw., H. vttrea Eichw., and Dretssena polymorpha

Greeks in the seventh through fifth centuries B.C. Pall. (Artamonov, 1976). Judging from the fauna, the saThe last (Nymphaean) transgression occurred about _ linity of this basin as a whole has remained almost un2000 to 1000 years ago and scarcely exceeded the present changed. As in the course of other regressions, the contrast

INLAND SEA BASINS 241 in the salinity of different parts of the Caspian markedly _lated lacustrine-type basin with a one-way connection with increased. The mineralization of a major portion of the ba- the North Sea through central Sweden. Near the town of sin (central and southern Caspian) increased somewhat, __ Billingen, the ice sheet’s margin formed a dam that raised and the salinity of the northern Caspian dropped asa re- the level of the Baltic glacial lake to 20 to 30 m above sea sult of a decrease in water area and dilution by waters of level (Sauramo, 1958). Because the sea level at that time

the Volga (Rychagov, 1977). could have had a strandline of about 50 m below present

The Mangyshlak regression was caused by a sharp aridi- _ sea level, the actual level of the Baltic glacial lake was zation of the climate at the beginning of the Holocene and much lower than the present (possibly about —20 m). by the formation in the Caspian region of desert and semi- — Shore-terrace deposits of this basin now occur at stranddesert landscapes with eolian landforms, the so-called Baer _ lines of + 100 to +20 m in Finland, +70 m in northern knolls. The climatic conditions, nevertheless, remained Estonia, +35 m in southwestern Estonia, and at a depth severe, as evidenced by pebbles carried by floating ice of —60 m on the sea floor in the South Baltic (Kolp, found not only in the northern but also in the central Cas- 1974). pian up to the Apsheron threshold (Mayev et al., 1977). The waters of the Baltic glacial lake were inhabited only Bottom and suspension currents associated with high rates _ by cold-resistant arctic and boreoalpine species of a Me/o-

of sedimentation were intensified. stra flora of diatoms. However, the flora was rich, consist-

ing of about 90 taxa (Kessel and Pork, 1971; Sauramo,

New Caspian Brackish-water Basin 1958). Among planktonic species, Me/osira tslandica hel-

; ; vetica predominated (up to 45% of the specimens), along ig Mle Polen eve fh Caan Shonda tars (1%). ad epg Opephora . ticthediatoms were3threpresented by theBeh freshwater

formed. Its maximum level reached 20 m below sea level: marthi, Fragilaria inflata, and others. At the end of the that is, 8 to m above the present level, and the fluctua- basin’s existence, the marine species Thalasstostra balthica, tion amplitude of the level exceeded 20 m (Figure 23-3). Diplonets interrupta, Nitzschia navicularis, and others apSeveral transgressive stages separated by regressions have peared. There ate no reports of mollusk shells. been noted, as follows: first stage — 25 m (9000 years ago); The depths in the northern part of the Baltic glacial lake maximum stage —19 to —20 m (8000 years ago); third vere 100 m greater than present ones and amounted to stage, — 21 m (6500 to 5500 years ago), fourth stage, — 22 550 m or more in the Landshort depression. In the south- __ to — 23 m (3500 to 3000 years ago); and fifth stage, —24 bey part of the lake, however, they were much shallower to — 25 m (from the 14th century A.D. to the beginning (by 50 to 60 m) than present ones. of the 19th century) (Rychagov, 1977). The complete pic- The stratigraphic distribution of diatoms indicates that ture of Puemuations of the Caspian level is considerably initially the Baltic glacial lake was completely isolated from

an compicx eer 23-2). ; ; . the ocean as a fresh and through-flowing lake dammed by a seh Beeline rasp ian asin were im apited Py ice. Later, because of fluctuations of the glacier margin in

he Middle Holocene Cerast I ] 8 bi R ‘ central Sweden, the level of the lake twice dropped to the

the © LETASTORETING HAMATCRI KEEVE also contemporaneous sea level; these changes were associated appeals, but the foutes and causes of dispersal of this ma- with a brief inflow of saltwater (Sauramo, 1958). However, hack “P ol sn me ve toll re thus far unknown ; ae mo" on subsequent isolation, the increased salinity was probawk opr e lowng ibuon i dein; hy reseed onl nthe dep pe (vel, 197,

Grimm /Cerastoderma p marcki Reeve (5 to 20 m): he A tundra vegetation of the Younger Dryas phase existed complex of Didacna protracta protracta Eichw. (20 to 50 ature in Sweden did not rise above 10°C. The cold climatic m); and the complex of D. protracta submedia Andr -G0 conditions and influx of large masses of glacier waters to 80 m) crossing the complex of D. barbotdemarhyi/D. caused very low temperatures in the water masses of the protracta protracta on sandy soils (20 to 30 m) (Lebedev Baltic glacial lake, so that many groups of organisms (e.g., h d . azunova, rae ; Artamonov, 1976). Judging from mollusks) were unable to live in them. The Baltic glacial the fauna, the salinity and depths of the New Caspian jake basin was highly oligotrophic. Basin were close to the present ones (salinity, 12%o9 to

; ; in the surrounding dry land at that time. The July temper-

3 Yoo) Yoldia Sea: Semimarine Basin

13%o0).

BALTIC SEA As the climate warmed, the glacier receded and the ocean

, , , level rose; a free exchange opened through the Central Baltic Glaciat Lake: A Freshwater Basin Sweden Strait, and a semimarine basin of “he Yoldia Sea A single basin in the Baltic depression first appeared dur- _—_ was formed. Its northern coast was bounded at the begin-

ing the late-glacial about 12,000 years ago (Figure 23-5 — ning of the stage by the margin of the Scandinavian ice and Table 23-2). Up to that time, a system of disconnected _ sheet along the Uppsala-Pori-Oslofjord line. The waters of ice-dammed proglacial lakes had existed there. The Baltic this basin flooded southern Finland, the coast of the Gulf glacial lake developed at the edge of the Scandinavian ice of Finland, and western Estonia, as well as considerable sheet, south of the Stockholm-Turku line. This was an iso- areas of central and southern Sweden.

242 CHEPALYGA Table 23-2. Basins and Coastlines of the Baltic Sea in Estonia (Kessel, 1975)

cls Coastline Correlation with pollen zones of

S = G continental organic deposits and 'C

& i Fea] age of zones i 2)

Pine and birch SA 2 = Limnaea V (Lim V) wen en nee e cee nee nn ne eee nnn eeeeeenenenneeee 1100

> € Upper spruce SA 1°

& = Limnaea IV (Lim IV) paneeenenenenceseennecccceeennnneccoeeee= 1700

es Limnaea III (Lim III) Birch and alder SA 1°

Lower spruce SB 2

& Limnaea II (Lim II) ween e enn n eee ee enn n eee n enn nnnneennnnnnnees 2800

= —| Oak SBI

Limnaea I (Lim J) wenn ween nee e eee ene e nee cee eeenneeeneen=+ 3700

=| 3 Littorina IV (L IV) seneeceeeseeenseneeseescesceeeseeeeeesee+-4800

; 2 | @| Littorina II (L IH)

S$ | S| | Littorina IP (L I) Linden AT 2 ~| g Littorina [I* (L II*) wane nee eeeneen ee nnn nnn n eee eeeeeeeenn==9=- 6600

“ Littorina | Elm AT 1

| Mastogloian (M)

< Hazel BO 2

Ancylus If (A III) won n enna nee e een ence eee e ence enn en nese n= 7800

~ 3 | Ancylus I (A I) sacencceseeeeesecerecenesesseeeseeeesse=-8100

= g Ancylus I (A I) Pine BO 1

v Echeneisian (E) _ eee eeneeeeeenetD Lt) Sie “a | Yoldia 1(Y 1) Birch PB 10,200

Au 10,800

e|a| 2/5] 3

= . =) Baltic II] (B III) Younger Dryas DR 3

The level of the Yoldia Sea was the same as that of the species. This complex is characteristic of the central portion ocean at that time, that is 40 to 50 m below present sea _ of the basin, which is affected by saltwater. Near the Gulf level. Coastal landforms (terraces, scarps, coastal dunes) of Finland, the Gulf of Riga, and other gulfs, a different are located at a height of 40 m above sea level in Tallinn complex diatoms is notable, with a predominance of

and at a depth of 60 m in the southern Baltic. Deforma- Melostra baltica, Stephanodiscus astraea, and other tion of the coastline in central Sweden reached 200 m. __ species. Sediments of deeper parts of the sea (Gdansk depression) The depth of the sea in the northern part exceeded the are represented by varved clays with interlayers of carbon- —_ present depth by 100 m or more and could have reached

ate clays (Kessel et al., 1973). 600 m in the Landshort depression. In the southern part, The fauna and flora also included arctic and boreal-arc- the depths were less than the present ones, and the coasttic species. Molluscan fauna with Yo/dia islandica, Ceras- line ran along a 60-m isobath (Kolp, 1974). The salinity

toderma lamarcki, Mytilus edulus, Hydrobia ulvae, H. in the central part of the Yoldia Sea was 5°%oo to 15%o0, the ventrosa, and others is known in central Sweden and the maximum salinzation being observed in the Central Swe-

Bornholm depression. den Strait (up to 15%o). In the remaining water area, the

The diatom flora is poorer than in the Baltic glacial lake — salinity was much lower and did not exceed 5%. (72 taxa), with a predominance of marine benthic species: The existence of the Yoldia Sea coincides with a marked Diplonets smithit (35% of the specimens) and the postglacial warming of the Preboreal (10,500 to 9000 years brackish-water Nitzschta navicularis, as well as freshwater ago), when birch forests appeared on its shores and the

A C ; 4. Kypu m 5 2. Narva

INLAND SEA BASINS ! 243

Palanga m

\ie x 40 = 80 4-5 on—ra)& .205St-Ss . 0 3 ~ ir) EYe A, 3

~12 -10 -8 -6 -ly -2 BL. fy p as " 20 By K

+ — av \ Ly 1 nn YrBP x 10° 30 V4 m, 8d, rBP x 40 Vj 50 40Bq Bol, entsp 20 Riga . Babine Suit Ane Lim 4 , |

Ey £ = \ ! us Se O“A 10 f (\* Lit, Lit, ‘1 Lim, net L NN [_N aac | iW =“, bap

mm VY °1 Lgl Yol_fch Ane} Lit Lim a

D

J \ 10 nN ~ ils

B t Bata,

40 Bol O ,, aol Lit nb IC.

Yol Anc \- ~ Lim

[AL[DR,]PBB | OAT | sB [ sa | TALTDR bal B TAT rsp T sa |

Figure 23-5. Curves of vertical displacement of the coastline within the confines of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. (Based on data by V. K. Gudelis, Kh. Ya. Kessel, and M. A. Veynbergs [Gudelis, 1975].) (Abbreviations: Lgl, local glacial lakes, Bgl, Baltic glacial lake; Yol, Yoldia Sea; Ech, Echeneisian Basin; Anc, Ancylus Sea; Lit, Littorina Sea; Lim, Limnaea Sea; Mya, Mya Sea; Al, Alleréd; DR3, Younger Dryas; PB, Preboreal; B, Boreal; AT, Atlantic; SB, Subboreal; SA, Sub-Atlantic.

average July temperature in Sweden rose to 16°C. How- __ Baltic, particularly in the Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland ever, the temperature of the water masses remained very and in eastern Sweden. Almost all the islands, including low because of the influence of the melting Scandinavian the Moosund Archipelago, were under water. In central ice sheet. The basin of the Yoldia Sea remained oligotro- | Sweden, a one-way connection with the North Sea existed

phic. through the basin of Lakes Vattern and Vanern. The narrowest part of this connection, the so-called Svea River,

Lake Ancylus: A Semifreshwater Basin about 3 km wide, ran past the foot of Mount Billingen.

y i The level of Lake Ancylus was 20 m higher than the

About 9300 years ago, as a result of an isostatic uplift of | ocean level, and, since the latter was about 65 to 70 m bethe Earth’s crust in central Sweden and a simultaneous __low present sea level at that time, the strandlines of Lake lowering of the world ocean level, the two-way connection Ancylus amounted to about 45 to 50 m below sea level.

with the North Sea through the Central Sweden Strait The coastline of Lake Ancylus is presently located at

gradually ended. A freshening of the sea began, as reflect- _ strandlines that are 90 m above sea level (Degerfors), +50

ed in the appearance of the diatom Campilodiscus m (Helsinki), +40 m to +45 m (northern Estonia), and echenets, typical of the early (Echeneisian) stage of Lake © —20 m to —30 m (southern Baltic region). Ancylus. By that time, the ice sheet had almost completely The molluscan fauna is represented by freshwater and disappeared from Scandinavia, and the littoral deposits of slightly brackish-water species: Amcy/us fluviatilis, BzLake Ancylus extended far from the present shores of the ¢hynia tentaculata, Lymnaea ovata, Valvata piscinalis, V.

244 CHEPALYGA cristata, Bathtompalus contortus, Hydrobia, and others. A __ basin from the Denmark Straits to Aland Islands and the

complex with Unio tumidus has been observed at the Gulf of Finland was 6% to 10% higher than the present mouths of rivers and freshened portions of the Gulfs of one. For the first time, a sharp gradient of decreasing salin-

Finland and Riga (Kessel et al., 1973). ity from south to north is noted: from 25% in the Den-

, The diatom flora is represented by freshwater species mark Straits to 15%» in the region of Aland Islands and with a predominance of Me/osira arenaria (dominant), down to 8%po in the northern part of the Gulf of Bothnia Stephanodiscus astraea, and others. The low temperatures _(Jarvekiilg, 1979). In the large gulfs, the salinity reached and the poor fauna and flora kept the lake oligotrophic. 10%, and the salinity of deep waters was much higher The depth of Lake Ancylus in the northern and central _ than at the surface. One can, therefore, postulate a wider parts of the basin was 50 to 200 m greater than at the pres- development of the zone of hydrogen sulfide contaminaent time and reached 530 m in the Landshort depression _ tion in the deep-sea zone of the basin, particularly in the and more than 400 m (central part) and 300 m (northern Gotland and other depressions of the central Baltic region

part) in the Gulf of Bothnia. _and possibly also in the Gulf of Finland.

The salinity of the central part of Lake Ancylus was 1% The climate of the Atlantic optimum was warmer than to 3% po; it reached 3% » only in central Sweden; the peri- —_‘ the present one in central Sweden. The average July tem-

pheral parts of the area were freshwater (up to 1%). It | perature rose as high as 18°C. However, the maximum of should be noted that, during the short period of the lake’s _ the Littorina transgression does not coincide with the Atexistence (about 500 years), its deep layers were not fresh- —_ lantic climatic optimum but was shifted to the Subboreal. ened as much during the existence of this basin; this could

have been responsible for the lake’s mineralization. . oo, Limnaea Sea: Semimarine Basin.

ar Lo, . This last stage in the history of the Baltic region (the last

Littorina Sea: Semimarine Basin 4200 years) is associated with a regression, a shoaling of the The transgression of the Littorina Sea took place under _ straits, and a freshening of the basin. The coastline of the conditions of the postglacial Atlantic interval of maximum _ basin was already close to the present outline; the level was warmth, the rise in sea level, the isostatic uplift of central close to the present one, with slight variations. Thus, a reSweden, and the compensation submergence inthe region _ gression is noted during phase III of the Limnaea Sea. A of the Denmark Straits. This set of factors led to the final stable two-way connection with the North Sea existed closing of the Central Sweden Strait and to the opening of — through the Denmark Straits. a connection with the North Sea in the south through the Littoral terrace deposits (up to five steps of coastlines in

Eresunn and Great Belt Straits. , Estonia) occur in Sweden at a height of 0 m to 30 m, in The level of this sea approached the present one, anda _—‘ Finland from 2 m to 16 m, in Estonia from 2 m to 13 m, maximum rise in level by 2 to 3 m above the present level and in the southern Baltic region at the present sea level. is noted for the interval of 5000 to 4000 years ago. The lit- | On the level of step III (2500 to 2000 years ago), a slight toral deposits of the Littorina Sea are considerably de- regression of the sea, 2 to 3 m, is observed.

formed. In the northern part of the Gulf of Bothnia the A weakening of the connection with the ocean and a uplift was 100 m; in northern Estonia, 25 m; in south- freshening caused significant changes in faunal composiwestern Estonia, 12 m. The deposits were almost unde- tion. The most polyhaline marine species were forced out, formed in Latvia, and in the southern Baltic region the and of marine mollusks only Cerastoderma lamarcki

submergence was 13 m below sea level. (Reeve), Mytilus edulus (L.), and Macoma baltica L. reThe molluscan fauna in the central and southern parts mained. Freshwater mollusks of the genus Lymnaea (L. of the Littorina Sea is represented by euryhaline marine ovata, L. peregra, and L. stagnalis), as well as brackishspecies, which penetrated from the North Sea through the water Theodoxus fluviatilis (L.), Hydrobia, and others, Denmark Straits: Littorina littorea, L. rudis, L. saxatilts, came to replace the marine mollusks. The marine species Macoma balthica L., Cerastoderma lamarcki Reeve, My- Mya arenaria appeared about 500 years ago. tilus edulus L., Rissoa inconspicua (Alder), and others. The complex of diatoms is similar to that of the Littorina Brackish-water species inhabited the freshened portions: | complex, but it contains more freshwater species and has Theodoxus fluviatilis £. baltica, Hydrobia ventrosa,andso —_—no oceanic elements. Thus, in bottom deposits, the con-

on. tent of freshwater species reached 65%, that of brackish-

The diatom flora contains the most saline and oceanic —_ water species was as high as 25%, and that of marine speelements, pafticularly abundant in the southern part of cies was 30%. The ecologic conditions of the Limnaea Sea the basin: Grammatophora oceanica, Terpsinoe ameri- were similar to th epresent ones. The depths remained cana, Campelodiscus clpaeus, and Mastogloia schmidti. practically unchanged. The salinity field reflected a disFor the first time in the postglacial history of the Baltic tinct gradient of decreasing salinity from south to north,

region, its basin became eutrophic. from 15% in the Denmark Straits to 2%po to 3%0 in the The depths of the Littorina Sea differed insignificantly | upper parts of bays. In the central part, a salinity of less from the present ones, with the exception of the Gulf of — than 12°%o9 was preserved. In the deep-sea zone, it was pos-

Bothnia, where they exceeded the present ones by 100 m, _ sible for the conditions of contamination with hydrogen amounting to 350 m. The salinity of the central part ofthe sulfide to be preserved.

INLAND SEA BASINS 245 The climatic conditions worsened somewhat in compari- semimarine basins occurred to a level 8 to 10 m above sea son with the optimum, but they were favorable, and the __level, and a rise in salinity to 20% to 30°00, which was ac-

basin remained eutrophic. companied by the stratification of the water mass and the The last phase of development of the Limnaea Sea oc- —_ appearance of a zone of hydrogen sulfide contamination of

curred under the influence of anthropogenic action. Ini- | deep waters. tially, it consisted in the introduction of immigrants due Third, during the glacial epochs, semiisolated seas reto the increase in navigation, for example, the mollusk __ gressed, lost their connection with the ocean, were transMya arenaria 1. (Hessland, 1946). In recent years, con- formed into isolated basins of brackish-water and semitamination and anthropogenic eutrophication of the freshwater types, and developed according to climate and

waters have been observed. water balance, that is, in the manner of closed drainage basins. In regions with a passive water balance, as the level

SEA OF JAPAN: MARGINAL SEA BASIN dropped below the threshold in the connecting straits, the In the Middle Holocene, the level of the Sea of Japan ap- _—_ basins became completely isolated (Old Euxinian Basin). proached the present one, and a wide connection with the _In the case of an active water balance, the level of such a ocean was restored through the Tatarskiy, Laperouse, basin decreased after the drop in ocean level, and a perTsugaru, and Vostochno-Tsusimskiy Straits. A branch of | manent discharge freshened the sea, converting it into a the warm Kuroshio Current penetrated far north, up to = through-flowing basin with a semifreshwater lake (New latitude 43°-44°N (Pletnev, 1979). The temperature of | Euxinian Basin). the surface waters was higher than the present one by 2°C Fourth, basins of glacial and periglacial regions are a to 3°C in the south, and by as much as 3°C to 4°C in the _ special type of semiisolated sea, for example, the Baltic central portion of the sea; it amounted to 13°C to 14°C. | and White Seas in Europe and Hudson Bay in North The arrival of large masses of warm ocean waters caused an America. Their regime was additionally complicated by equalization of salinity over almost the entire water area at __‘!sostatic uplifts of deglaciated areas and by compensation 30%0 to 35%, and an appreciable dilution is observed | downwarping of the periglacial regions. Immediately after only in the northern part of the Tarazy Strait. Forthe same __ the glacier left, the bottom of the sea was 200 to 300 m reason, the ice content of the sea decreased, and the boun- _ below the present level, and its depths and area were cordary of floating ice moved to the region of the Tatarskiy respondingly greater than the present depths. Connecting Strait up to latitude 49°N, that is, 2° north of the present __ Straits disappeared in some places and appeared in others, boundary and 9° to 10° north of the boundary of floating depending on the isostatic movements of the Earth’s crust.

ice 20,000 years ago (Pletnev, 1979). Thus, the Central Swedish Strait of the Yoldia Sea closed

at the end of the Ancylus phase, and the Denmark Straits

Conclusions opened when the Littorina Sea began. The fluctuations in

the level of these seas were superimposed on the isostatic The above discussion suggests that different types of basins | movements and differed markedly in different parts of the

and their modifications reacted differently during the basin (Figure 23-5).

interglacial and glacial epochs. Fifth and finally, the regime of isolated inland basins of First, in marginal seas during the glacial epochs, the the Caspian Sea type was independent of fluctuations in

level dropped by 100 to 130 m; they lost their wide con- _ ocean level and completely determined by the climate and

nection with the ocean and were converted into intracon- water balance in the drainage basin and water area. tinental semiisolated basins. For example, in the Sea of — Fluctuations in their level (with an amplitude up to 100 m Japan, only one strait (the West Korea Strait) connects it | or more) and their salinity occurred out of phase with the with the ocean, and the ecologic characteristics were typical fluctuations of the ocean and associated seas (Figure 23-3). of intracontinental basins: a sharp salinity and tempera- ‘The transgressive phases of the Caspian are confined to the

ture gradient, starting from the strait northward, and a glacial epochs, particularly to their early cryohygrotic marked freshening of the peripheral parts of the sea. Mat- —_ phases, when as a result of a marked drop in temperature ginal shelf seas (Laptev, East Siberian, Chukchi, and Azov) evaporation from the water area decreased. At the same were partially or completely drained during regressive time, the atmospheric precipitation decreased somewhat,

| phases. but the discharge volume from the drainage basin Second, intracontinental semiisolated basins reacted to _— increased as a result of a decrease in evaporation and a climatic fluctuations with sharper changes in level, salini- blocking of groundwaters by permafrost. An example of ty, faunal composition, and other ecologic indexes. Parti- such a situation is the early Khvalyn transgression in the cularly pronounced changes in conditions were observed in _—_ Early Valdai.

semuisolated basins of the Black Sea type, with shallow Regressions of isolated basins of the Caspian occurred in connecting straits whose depth was less than the amplitude the interglacial epochs, particularly in thermoxerotic of glacioeustatic regressions. Over the course of the inter- | phases, when a substantial rise in temperature led to an inglacial-glacial climatic cycle, an alternation of several types crease in evaporation so great that it was not offset by the of basins took place, namely, marine, semimarine, semi- _ increase in atmospheric precipitation. As a result, the level freshwater, and brackish-water basins (Figure 23-1). Dur- _ of the basins dropped by tens of meters until a new equiliing the interglacial epochs, transgressions of marine and _ brium of the water balance was reached.

246 CHEPALYGA References central Caspian Sea. Bulletin of the Commission on the Study of the Quaternary 39, 65-75. Andreyeva, S. M. (1980). The North Siberian Lowland in Karginskiy Mayev, Ye. G., Lebedev, L. I., and Artamonov, V. I. (1977). Certain featime: Paleogeography, radiocarbon chronology. J” “Chronology of the tures of the paleogeography of the Caspian Sea in the Upper QuaterQuaternary” (J. K. Ivanova and N. V. Kind, eds.), pp. 183-90. Nauka nary based on data from a geologic-stratigraphic study of sediments.

Press, Moscow. In “Paleogeography and Deposits of the Pleistocene of Southern Seas

Artamonov, V. I. (1976). Late Quaternary regressions of the Caspian Sea of the USSR” (P. A. Kaplin and F. A. Shcherbakov, eds.), pp: 78-84.

based on biostratigraphic and geomorphic studies of the Dagestan Nauka Press, Moscow. : Shelf of the central Caspian. Author’s abstract of dissertation, Moscow Neprochnov, Yu. P. (ed.) (1980). “Geological History of the Black Sea

State University, Moscow. from Results of Deep-Sea Drilling,” pp. 52-77. Nauka Press, Moscow. Chebotareva, N. A., and Makarycheva, I. A. (1974). “The Last Ice Nevesskaya, L. A. (1965). “Late Quaternary Bivalve Mollusks of the Black

Sheet.” Nauka Press, Moscow. Sea: Their Systematics and Ecology.” Nauka Press, Moscow.

Chepalyga, A. L. (1980). Paleogeography and paleoecology of the Black Nevesskaya, L. A. (1970). Contribution to the classification of ancient and Caspian Seas (Ponto-Caspian) in the Pliopleistocene. Author's ab- closed and semiclosed bodies of water on the basis of the character of stract of dissertation, USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Geog- their fauna. I” “Modern Problems in Paleontology” (D. V. Obruchev

raphy, Moscow. and V. N. Shimansky, eds.), pp. 258-78. Nauka Press, Moscow.

Degens, E. T., and Ross, D. A. (1972). Chronology of the Black Sea over Nevesskiy, Y. N. (1967). “Sedimentation Processes in the Littoral Zone

the last 25,000 years. Chemezcal Geology 10, 1-16. of the Sea.” Nauka Press, Moscow. Degens, E. T., and Ross, D. A. (1974). “The Black Sea: Geology, Chem- Nikolayev, S. D., and Popov, S. V. (1973). Use of the oxygen isotope istry, and Biology.” American Association of Petroleum Geologists, method in the study of closed and semiclosed basins (of the type of the

Tulsa, Oklahoma. Black and Caspian Seas). In “Paleogeography and Deposits of the Pleis-

Fedorov, P. V. (1978). “The Pleistocene of the Ponto-Caspian.” Nauka tocene of the Southern Seas of the USSR” (P. A. Kaplin and F. A.

Press, Moscow. Shcherbakov, eds.). Nauka Press, Moscow.

Gudelis, V. K. (1975). Some pressing problems of the chronostratigraphy Ostrovskiy, A. B., Izmaylov, Ya. A., Balabanov, I. P., Skiba, S. L., and paleogeography of the Baltic Sea. Iv “Information Bulletin 3” (V. Skryabina, N. G., Arslanov, S. A., Gey, N. A., and Suprunova, N. K. Gudelis, ed.), pp. 25-35. Coordination Center of Member Coun- I. (1977). New data on the paleohydrological regime of the Black Sea tries of the Council for Economic and Mutual Assistance, Moscow. in the Upper Pleistocene and Holocene. In “Paleogeography and DeGudina, V. I. (1976). “Foraminifers, Stratigraphy, and Paleozoogeo- posits of the Pleistocene of the Southern Seas of the USSR” (P. A. Kapgraphy of the Marine Pleistocene of the North of the USSR.” Nauka lin and I. A. Shcherbakov, eds.), pp. 131-41. Nauka Press, Moscow.

Press, Novosibirsk. Ostrovskiy, A. B., Izmaylov, Ya. A., Shcheglov, A. P., Arslanov, Kh.

Hessland, J. (1946). On the Quaternary Mya period in Europe. Arkiv fir A., Tretichnyy, N. I., Gey, N. A., Piotrovskaya, T. Yu., Muratov, V.

Zoologi 37A (8). M., Shchelinskiy, V. Ye., Balabanov, I. P., and Skiba, S. I. (1977). Press, Moscow. terraces of the Black Sea coast, Caucasus, and Kerch-Taman region. In

Il’ina, L. B. (1965). “History of Gastropods in the Black Sea.” Nauka New data on the stratigraphy and geochronology of Pleistocene marine Jarvekiilg, F. A. (1979). “The Bottom Fauna of the Eastern Part of the “Paleogeography and Deposits of the Pleistocene of the Southern Seas

Baltic Sea.” Valgus Press, Tallinn. of the USSR” (P. A. Kaplin and I. A. Shcherbakov, eds.), pp. 61-69. Jousé, A. P., and Mukhina, V. V. (1980). Stratigraphy of Late Cenozoic Nauka Press, Moscow. deposits based on diatoms. I” “Geological History of the Black Sea Pazyuk, L. I., Rychkovskaya, N. I., Samsonov, A. I., Tkachenko, G. G., Based on Results of Deep-Sea Drilling” (Yu. P. Neprochnov, ed.), pp. and Yatsko, I. Ya. (1974). History of the northwestern margin of the

52-64. Nauka Press, Moscow. Black Sea in light of new data on the stratigraphy and lithology of PlioKalinin, G. P., Klige, R. K., Leont’yev, O. K., and Shleynikov, V. A. Pleistocene bottom rocks in the area of Karkinitskiy Bay. Ba/trka 5,

(1976). Analysis of the change in the level of the Caspian Sea as one 86-92. Vil’nyus. .

of the indices of global water exchange. I” “Problems of Paleohy- Pletnev, S. P. (1979). Dissection of bottom sediments and paleogeo-

drology.” Nauka Press, Moscow. graphic stages of development of the Sea of Japan in the Late PleistoKessel, H. J. (1975). A brief survey of the stratigraphy of Baltic Sea de- cene-Holocene (based on planktonic foraminifers). Author’s abstract of posits in Estonia. “Information Bulletin 3” (V. K. Gudelis, ed.). Co- dissertation, Moscow State University, Moscow. ordination Center of Member Countries of the Council for Economic Popov, G. I., and Zubakov, V. A. (1975). Age of the Surozh transgres-

and Mutual Assistance, Moscow. sion of the Black Sea region. I “Fluctuations in the level of the World Kessel, H. J., Davydova, N. N., and Blashchizhin, A. I. (1973). Pollen Ocean in the Pleistocene,’ pp. 115-28. Proceedings of the Twentyand diatoms from deep-sea depressions of the Baltic. Estontan Aca- Third Session of the International Geographical Congress, Leningrad.

demy of Sciences, Izvestiya, Chemistry and Geology 4. Rychagov, G. I. (1977). The Pleistocene history of the Caspian Sea. Kessel, H. J., and Pork, M. I. (1971). Stratigraphy of bottom sediments Author’s abstract of dissertation, Moscow State University Press, Mosof the Baltic within the confines of Estonia. I” “Palynological Studies cow. in the Baltic Region” (T. D. Bartosh, ed.), pp. 93-110. Zinatne Press, Sauramo, M. (1958). Die Geschichte der Ostsee. Annales Academiae

Riga. Scientiarum Fennicae A.3: Geologica-geographica 51.

Kolp, O. (1974). Submarine Uferterrassen in der siidlichen Ost und Shchetbakov, F. A., Kuprin, P. N., Potapova, L. I., Polyakov, A. S., Nordsee als Marken eines stufenweise erforlgten Holozinen Meeres— Zabelina, E. K., and Sorokin, V. M. (1978). “Sedimentation on the

ansfiggers. Ba/tzka 5. Vil’nyus. Continental Shelf of the Black Sea.” Nauka Press, Moscow. Koreneva, E. V. (1980). Palynological studies of Late Cenozoic deposits. Shilik, K. K. (1977). Changes in the level of the Black Sea in the Late In “Geological History of the Black Sea from Results of Deep-Sea Drill- Holocene, and paleotopography of archeological remains of the

ing” (Yu. P. Nepruchnov, ed.), pp. 65-70. Nauka Press, Moscow. northern Black Sea region of antiquity. Jz “Paleogeography and DeKvasov, D. D. (1975). “Late Quaternary History of Major Lakes and In- posits of the Pleistocene of Southern Seas of the USSR” (P. A. Kaplin

land Seas of Eastern Europe.” Nauka Press, Leningrad. and I. A. Shcherbakov, eds.), pp. 158-63. Nauka Press, Moscow. Lebedev, L. I., and Glazunova, K. N. (1972). Stratigraphy and faunistic Shnyukov, Ye. F., Orlovskiy, G. N., Usenko, V. P., et al. (1974). “Geo-

complexes of Late Quaternary deposits of the eastern shelf of the logy of the Sea of Azov.” Naukova Dumka Press, Kiev.

INLAND SEA BASINS 247 Shnyukov, Ye. F., and Trashchuk, N. N. (1976). A new region of occur- Troistkiy, $. L. (1979). “The Marine Pleistocene of Siberian Plains.” rence of Karangatian deposits on the southeastern slope of the Kerch Nauka Press, Novosibirisk. Peninsula. Ukrainian Academy of Sciences, Doklady B 12, 1078-80. Tsereteli, D. V. (1966). “Pleistocene Deposits of Georgia.” Mitsniyereba Shumenko, S. I., and Ushakova, M. G. (1980). Limestone nannofossils Press, Tbilisi. in deep-sea drill cores. In “Geological History of the Black Sea Based Usher, J. L., and Sepko, P. (eds.) (1978). “Initial Reports of the Deep-Sea on Results of Deep-Sea Drilling” (Yu. P. Neprochnov, ed.), pp. 71-72. Drilling Project,” Vol. 42 (2). National Science Foundation, Wash-

Nauka Press, Moscow. ington, D.C.

Svitoch, A. A. (1976). Salinity of the Caspian Sea in the Pleistocene Varushchenko, A. I., Varushchenko, S. I., and Klige, R. K. (1980). (based on data from a study of the mollusk Didacna Eichwald). In Change in the level of the Caspian Sea in the Late Pleistocene-Holo“Problems in Paleohydrology,” pp. 223-28. Nauka Press, Moscow. cene. Jw “Variations in the Moisture Supply of the Aral-Caspian Region Trashchuk, N. N. (1974). “Marine Pleistocene Sediments of the Black Sea in the Holocene” (B. A. Andrianov, L. V. Zorin, and R. V. NikolaRegion in the Ukrainian SSR,” pp. 699-701. Naukova Dumka Press, yeva, eds.), pp. 74-90. Nauka Press, Moscow.

Kiev. Velichko, A. A. (1973). “The Natural Process in the Pleistocene.” Nauka

Trashchuk, N. N., and Boltivets, V. A. (1978). A new area of occurrence Press, Moscow. of Karangatian deposits on the NW coast of the Black Sea. Ukrainian Zubakov, V. A. (ed.) (1974). “Geochronology of the USSR,” Vol. 30, pp.

Academy of Sciences, Doklady B 8. 111-24, 134-45. Nedra Press, Leningrad.

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Paleoclhimatic Reconstructions

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CHAPTER ) Z

Methods and Results of Late Pleistocene Paleoclimatic Reconstructions V. P Gnchuk, Ye. Ye. Gurtovaya, E. M. Zeltkson, and O. K. Borisova

As was shown by V. P. Grichuk in the chapter on vegeta- Chenopodium album L., Corylus avellanaL., Lycopodium tion (Chapter 17), three types of flora occur in the USSR: _—se/ago L., Nuphar luteum (L.) Smith, N. pumilum migration, orthoselection, and relict. The formation and (Hoffm.) D.C., Nymphaea alba L., Picea abies Karst., evolution of these floras took place differently, and their Pixus silvestris L., Polygonum amphibium L., Quercus reactions to environmental change were also dissimilar. petraea (Matt.) Liebl., QO. robur L., Salvinia natans (L.) Therefore, it is necessary to use a different approach tothe _—All., Tia cordata Mill., T. platyphyllos Scop., Typha anpaleoclimatic interpretation of fossil-plant data for each = gustifolia L., T. latifolia L., T. minima Funk., and U/mus

type of flora in question. campestris L.

The method of reconstructing climate from fossil-plant It is apparent that this list reflects the species of zonal data was developed by Grichuk (1969, 1973), who used __ plant formations. The region currently inhabited by the concepts from Szafer (1946) and Iversen (1944). This listed species, determined cartographically by superimposmethod consists of determining the limiting climatic val- ing their ranges (Grichuk, 1978), lies in the Sudetes, beues that allow for the existence of all the species of plants | tween the headwaters of the Oder and Elbe Rivers (Figure determined in the composition of a given fossil flora. | 24-2). Because climate is a key factor restricting the range These values are attained either by identifying a region _ of plants, the climatic indexes at the time when these spewhere all the species grow at the present time or by deter- _ cies grew together in the Desna Basin are identical to the mining the climatic ranges of each species and combining _ present indexes of the region. them to establish common climatic fields. It is important Another method of paleoclimatic reconstruction consists to consider only those plants that really existed simulta- of adding together the present climatic ranges (climagrams neously in an area, so only those pollen spectra from a _— of taxa found in the fossil assemblage (Iversen, 1944). single section or from rigorously correlated sections are | Superimposed climagrams of seven selected species from

used. the Posudichi section are used to define the minimum limMigration floras are richer in number of species than or- _its of temperature for the complex as a whole (Figure 24thoselection floras and are ecologically more diverse. Eco- 3). The climagrams show that simultaneous growth of the logic differences among species can usually be determined — complex is possible at mean July temperatures of 19°C or through pollen analysis. The climatic indexes that define 20°C and mean January temperatures between 0°C and an entire group, therefore, are usually narrow, and the re- © —4°C. The maximum January temperature is determined gion where they all grow at the present time is compara- __ by spruce, but all other values are defined by two or three

tively small. species with similar climatic ranges. Total annual precipiAs an example of paleoclimatic reconstructions based on _ tation and duration of the frost-free period are determined the analysis of fossil migration floras, we cite data froma _—in the same manner.

section near the village of Posudichi (Figure 24-1, point Climatic reconstructions obtained from other areas in 20) (Gurtovaya and Faustova, 1977). The following species | the European USSR by the two methods are very similar were identified in two samples from the thermoxerotic to (Table 24-1). the thermohygrotic phase of the Mikulino Interglaciation: Paleoclimatic reconstructions can be determined by orAlnus glutinosa (L.), Gaertn., A. incana (L.) Moench., thoselection floras that extend from Siberia to the plains Atriplex patula .., Betula pubescens Ehth., B. pendula of Central Asia. This range lacks major refugia, where Roth., Botrychium lunaria (L.) Sw., Carpinus betulus L., plants could have survived glacial epochs, so species that — 251

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= ¢ x OS of u 0 t O Cane | FE a ab gow de om oft éCS CEaur’ se ~and anrange ies "Siberia. show thet ultan neous ¢ecies of occul Ot speci S b empe how. ygo: aEws cc ZSsON— ae) OR 1rangge€ enere 51 doan xaal leo chnd limafrost. ran olle P. © X taBre suion. ic toleran ira 3 ry ™ ‘Ss cOom [ Ww : a E o flora, a plex c oad-le g Abies g E = : nus comp seabr ‘had i ng wit Heation, ané Free

Se oe ony + & cS = hese stem for t 4) . sum FLOW € sp r Bae og rae iCa ; apr inocswhere fai hernge fat innice ime 32% AAT ened lino thmn SOF ee C rio ozy lyiguisect rve sou m-

22voFla freeO ft cur wo of a uc‘eg Mo Ss 5um O oc noare insth limatl he lim ct 0 fasm Str ners iS bpetcs 3 can nta ec con be eeee ; 1tio 1za 2 Sees c 2 5 = ¥ £3 g 3 ‘S ¢imilar = species values ¢ ion of the © ,ortCSS "recise - IY may cli-

s 238 Ee oe: sos x Sima i eee1less ndomnes hhough Halas ae t to a al wee, 2628 . OE 0 ie es spe ina be d ca ra if 4 ne oa. — spec hes ; tor tain nd ine ° lex ast vs §Hb208 9 S @ 2 -5 ses “4 ” ese ro) AN aus, sup its camour grew esults t of ton| onlyccan f; t, alt elim ae species vain cause bed

pene n th ica cer ea rm mp ing p

: ; ons, bec he assem may be nat ypes of Quat con:

intunfav erslimi OItheir e. a:uOns, ssible amet Ssora Maybe arisein types of t hang 0 Poss: pa ost Iso th esu. tic ve rs s ndi clim lica as. lea litt nts in s e Go So t . om ict d ized p Nc ca gtae c~ os > ws 7,re) E5 S wl >C o. 20 s atic ions tic ions fa as lim at l > \o c d, C lic e ze ose rre Be 3 m tions 1 atic tio O St ittle c that ma ‘> — ~ en! er m C C . 4 O re e=e iS i te fto floras chara “rigid their all a o S Ss $5 clima relict gions ed as spite nd sm 9 S 2 P2823 ¢~ ‘fy imit e u ICC a 3B Hs ¢ £ os fas, ro fe defin es de ‘S) a ee co he p flor the by la e us Ww 6 S os sy flo nt ) p bita a Ea cas A eme 1937 ecoty ha x ° Ite tain re hang teriz ” th ccu as. & 5 & Lede &§ on 2.8 gee82 alan et of table as = ~~ ”) nN so u d S vo Cfa MOst I a ll at a ha | a 3 Sy ss x — s H e sf a Gas : populations. ‘= 2 te NFg22oe: 3 é § s § Go ay& 5SDSPaha Su ate = v o os on ~ 5 S Sse aes XN 8 Va = upsc2

SUH 2 HOE P Ss Ha opula Ss et _ Ss im - ae x 3 8 a ~

- s CB) bot wo) ° °— ~ a ) SOS ¢ iar P-—" ire S aN aN a poeLs TTedSN S g-— fe ~ NON BOTN sy. ~ 4 SSN \ 6-7 ~~ LU --~

254 GRICHUK, GURTOVAYA, ZELIKSON, AND BORISOVA

7 000

Opell J. ™ SAS

f 0 . = ~~ VAG NGL Ie, 0 Ce TT) DD r\ ¢ oo /|

SJ \‘CB \ ras / a (7----Vvi (7atlZ—sao / /yo Te, f [_A4NCrr---_ ON Yi ° ZX | o>? ber \ /ASN eee ) o° ( Nf cy NV fo } { Vy ty NI TORE Vey, Le “ ohetl . roee OZ” ~—a ~~ 2?—7 Re ) o-— “Se ,

9kSL Re Go INUY i 7 (E> eGo a,

3f~ | he | \ cr g

Figure 24-2. Location of the center of present-day concentration of species of the Posudichi fossil flora. (The square denotes the location of the section; numbers indicate the number of species.)

t/ Vl j—.—.— Carpinus befulue

39 9— — — Lycopedium selago iS 3—________ Picea abies s 2 4—-—-——-— Tilia cordata

i 2 5—— — — Tilia platyphyllos

- of 6~ ~~ ~ Typha minima

A { 7== == = Ulmus campestris

i| AaIc as~~ . SS. geSa es A5

oe eeSEM ee Se =~\ a (7 fe (ow @ xy \

LY OS BEES S[k nee rn es Sel = _—¥ | SS wae eee -----A =. a Lo” a !7 . |. ea (20° Te a d / ‘eo ~\ . \,Tae aeVee \. °mS tr 7| "eran 27 fean we 16 NZ ss e 400°. y whe Oe ee ee ee ome ? N* -aan __ a 7 | meee _— — Se *. ; “NR “«-—~--4-x . N. _— 12 \ ‘> 200

4 0 -4 -8 “12 -16 -20 I___~ 60 100 Frost-free 140 180 days Abies sibirica Tost eeee J—-*—-+—+— Pinus silvestris

Alnus incana avuvnnnm 6—-----~-—-- Quercus Picea Sect. Eupicea 3-- + + + + ?7——-——--—— Ulmus Pinus Sibirica 4

Figure 24-4. Climagrams of species whose pollen was identified in the Kozyulino section. Region of overlap is shown by shaded pattern. Axes on left diagram are for January (I) and July (VII) mean temperatures (°C). Right diagram shows total mean annual precipitation (mm) and number of frost-free days.

1966, 1979). Pollen contained in the marine deposits of — the third marine terrace (30 m) on the Chukotskiy Peninthe Bol’shaya Rassokha section definitely indicate the pres- sula and correlate with the Sangamon-age Pelukskiy beds ence of northern open forests in an area presently occupied —_ in Alaska on the basis of the molluscan fauna (Merklin et

by shrub-tundra (Nikol’skaya, 1980). al., 1964). Pollen data (Muratova, 1973) indicate a forestDespite compositional differences in the fossil floras tundra vegetation and a climate similar to those of today. from the Marre-Sale and Bol’shaya Rassokha sections, they Mikulino deposits in the non-Arctic European USSR are had similar ecologic-cenotypic components and similar exposed in river terraces and ancient lake basins. Pollen principal climatic indexes (Table 24-1). This similarity spectra in the forest zone can be distinguished from other contrasts with the significant differences in average January interglacial assemblages (Grichuk, 1961). Climatic recontemperatures that now occur on the Yamal and Taimyr structions from the broad-leaved and coniferous/broad-

Peninsulas (— 24°C and — 34°C, respectively). leaved forests of eastern Europe are based on floristic maFarther east, in the lower Indigirka River, the alass-lake terials from a large number of sections (Figure 24-1, points deposits of the Omukseenskty section (Lavrushin and Gi- 9-13, 18-20). In the southern European USSR, the Miroterman, 1961) date back to the Kazantsevo Interglaciation novka section is a buried soil near the Sea of Azov, in the on the basis of stratigraphic position between deposits of | Artemsia-fescue-feathergrass formation. Pollen data show the Vorontsovskiy suite (Taz or Middle Pleistocene glacia- that broad-leaved forests of oak, hornbeam, and hazel extion) and deposits containing the remains of a later type —_—isted along with steppe in that area (Artyushenko, 1970). of mammoth (Zyryanka Glaciation). Climatic reconstruc- The Lia section, located in the Kolkhida Lowland (Figtions were derived from pollen data of an interglacial sec- ure 24-1, point 22) characterizes the vegetation of the tion from the Berelekh River (Giterman, 1963) (Figure western Caucasus, which at present is represented by a 24-1, point 4), which shows that during the climatic op- mixed broad-leaved forest. The age of the sediments is detimum a shrub-forest-tundra of larch and tree birch grew termined by their location on the second terrace of the In-

in the region of present-day moss-tundra. guri River and by palynologic data that correlate with KarPetrov (1966) assigned to the last interglaciation the ma- angatian deposits, dated by mollusks. Similar to other rine Val’katlenskiy and alluvial and lacustrine Konner- interglacial sections from the Kolkhida Lowland, the Lia ginskiy deposits on the northern coast of the Chukotskiy section contains pollen and spores of species that also grow Peninsula, which now has a moss and cotton-grass tundra. in the region today (Mamatsashvili, 1975), and one cannot They are associated with Middle Pleistocene glacial out- postulate any significant differences betwee the interglawash and are overlain by Late Pleistocene glacial and gla- cial climate and that of today. ciofluvial sediments. Val’katlenskiy deposits are found on In the middle Ob’ River basin of western Siberia, allu-

||=

LATE PLEISTOCENE PALEOCLIMATIC RECONSTRUCTIONS 257

Table 24-2.

Reconstructed Values of Principal Climatic Indexes of the Epoch of the Glacial Maximum

January July Temperature Annual Frost-Free

(°C) (°C) (°C) (mm) (days) from from from from from haee| Se foe bee e beed Ea Temperature Temperature Amplitude Precipitation Period

Sites of Fossil Reconstructed] Present |Reconstructed| Present |Reconstructed| Present }Reconstructed| Present |Reconstructed) Present

Floras Values Values Values Values Values Values Values Values Values Values

I. Puchka River —21 — 9 +11 —7 32 + 2 550 — 30 70 — 60 II. Mega ~29 ~ 5 +17 0 46 +5 285 ~ 165 90 — 30 III. Khudzhakh River — 35 + 1 + 10 0 45 — 1 350 + 125 60 0

IV. Boyanichi —21 —15 +14 —5 35 +10 350 — 250 60 — 105 V. Khotylevo — 18 — 10 +17 —1 35 +10 — — — — VI. Kargopolovo — 25 — 6 +18 —1 43 + 5 350 — 30 95 — 25

VIII. Chernaya River — =—24 —10 +19 —2 43 + 8 600 + 30 135 —50 vial and lacustrine plains developed during Kazantsevo _At present, both spruce and fir survive on the peninsula time (Arkhipov, Votakh, and Levina, 1973). The best sec- only in isolated areas. tion is at Kozyulino (Figure 24-1, point 14) in the middle The Nakhodkinskiy section, correlated with the Kazanttaiga, where flat divides and river valleys are covered by _ sevo Interglaciation, is a deposit with marine, lagoonal, aldark fir-spruce-cedar forests dominated by Siberian cedar. _luvial, and continental facies in the littoral zone of the Pollen spectra of this section show a period of spruce-fir | southern Maritime Territory. Paleobotanic data from the forests and mixed coniferous forests of spruce, oak, and fir. best-studied sections, in particular the sections at TumanLate Pleistocene interglacial deposits in Kazakhstan are gan (Figure 24-1, point 24) (Alekseyev and Golubeva, confined to the alluvium of the first floodplain terraces. At 1980) and Vostok Bay (Figure 24-1, point 25) (Korotkty et present, Kazakhstan is an area of Artemisia-grass steppe _al., 1980), show a mixed Manchurian-type forest, identical and semidesert, but the Kaktas section from the Ishim Riv- _ in composition to the present one during the interglacial er valley (Figure 24-1, point 23) shows a penetration of | optimum. Consequently, the climatic indexes for this rebroad-leaved trees into this region during the last intergla- gion are identical to the present ones. ciation. Judging from the present vegetation, steppe was

widespread there as well (Chupina, 1978). . ati In eastern Siberia, in the central North Baikal Upland, Maximum of Late Pleistocene Glaciation

Kazantsevo interglacial sediments exposed in the upper _—_ Few well-dated pollen spectra in the USSR span the Valdai

part of the third terrace are mainly alluvial-lacustrine in | (Sartan, Late Varyanka) glacial maximum of 20,000 to origin. Pollen spectra from a section along the Chaya River 18,000 yr B.P. Paleoclimatic reconstructions are further (Figure 24-1, point 15) show the development of dark fir- | complicated in that only fossil floras that are representative spruce-cedar forests in an area presently occupied by larch = of major geographic regions are used in this discussion. taiga (Rindzyunskaya and Pakhomov, 1977). The intergla- | The principal climatic elements for the glacial maximum cial climate of southwestern Okhotsk was determined from _are based on seven fossil floras and encompass the transipaleofloristic data from a section near Nikolay Bay (Figure tion from the cryohygrotic to the cryoxerotic stage of gla24-1, point 16) (Karevskaya et al., 1981). On the Kam- ciation (Table 24-2). chatka Peninsula near the Central Kamchatka Depression, The Puchka section (Figure 24-1, point 1) ts located near Late Pleistocene Kazantsevo interglacial deposits at Krutoy | Lake Kubenskiy, 20 to 30 km north of the Valdai glacial Ravine are underlain by Middle Pleistocene tills and flu- | maximum. A layer of plant detritus provided radiocarbon vioglacial sediments and are overlain by a thick (up to dates of 21,410+ 150 yr B.P. (LU-18V) and 21,8804 110 20-m) unit containing an Upper Paleolithic mammalian yr B.P. (LU-18A) (Arslanov et al., 1971). A palynologic fauna (Kuprina, 1970). The Krutoy Ravine Interglaciation study by V. P. Grichuk, M. Kh. Monoszon, and E. M. Zeof Kamchatka correlates with the Val’katlenskiy and Kon- _likson revealed a predominance of herbaceous pollen, as nerginskiy Interglaciation of Chukotka (Petrov and Khor- well as pollen of Betula nana, B. humilis, pine, spruce, eva, 1968; Khoreva, 1974) on the basis of mollusks, for- | and larch. The pollen composition reflects the end of the aminifers, and diatoms. Interglacial pollen spectra from = cryohygrotic stage and the beginning of the cryoxerotic the Central Kamchatka Depression, including the type stage. Spores, pollen, and plant macrofossils (Kolesnikova section of Krutoy Ravine (Figure 24-1, point 17), show a = and Khomutova, 1971) from the layer of vegetative detriwide distribution of spruce, fir, and birch (Skiba, 1975). tus contained 28 species, which at present are concentrated

258 GRICHUK, GURTOVAYA, ZELIKSON, AND BORISOVA in the polar Urals and the Khamar-Daban Range of Trans- 1974), although 28 plant taxa were identified. The presbaikalia. In both regions, they grow mainly in the mon- __ ent-day distribution is the Altay. The principal climatic intane forest-tundra belt. The average January and July tem- = dexes suggest an appreciable lowering of winter temperaperatures, the duration of the frost-free period, and the _ ture compared with the present, but summer temperatures total annual precipitation within this vegetation belt are — were similar to the present values. The Khotylevo II campvery similar in the two regions, although they lie at differ- site does not date back to the maximum stage of glaciation

ent altitudes. but rather to the preceding interval, that is, the transition The Mega section (Figure 24-1, point II) isa set of peat from the Bryansk Interval to the Late Valdai proper. lenses dated at about 21,900 yr B.P. (SOAN-324) and lo- The Kargopolovo section (Figure 24-1, point VI) ts located on a 20-m terrace of the Ob’ River. This section is cated in southwestern Siberia, on a 25- to 27-m alluvial lined with cryoturbated loams dated at 33,100+2300 yr terrace of the Ob’ River dated at 33,450+ 550 yr B.P. PolB.P. (MGU SOAN-132) and covered by loams with tree _—_len analysis by M. R. Votakh (Panychev, 1979), paleoflor-

stumps dated at about 10,650 yr B.P. (SOAN-323) (Le- istic data, and climatic reconstructions suggest that the vina, 1979). Pollen spectra from the peat show a predomi- = sandy loam encompasses the transition from the cryohynance of herbaceous pollen taxa, in particular Ephedra, a _grotic to the cryoxerotic climatic stage of Sartan Glaciation, xerophilic pioneer plant that now grows from south of the _ that is, the maximum phase. Six species are now found steppe zone to the steppe of central of Yakutiya. The ar- _ near Lake Baikal. As in regions of western Siberia farther boreal pollen includes tree birch, Betula sect. Nanae, and _— north, the greatest differences between glacial-age and

an appreciable amount of spruce pollen. Nine taxa have present-day climate are in the total annual precipitation been identified in the spectra. Thus, periglacial forest- | and the duration of the frost-free period. steppe developed in this region approximately 20,000 The section on the Chernaya River of the southeastern years ago, similar to that growing in northeastern Trans- | Maritime Territory (Figure 24-1, point VII) contains a layer baikalia today. Total annual precipitation was 165mm less _ of peat dated at 22,500 + 240 yr B.P. (SOAN-551) from a than present values, and the frost-free period was shorter. 3- to 4-m terrace (Korotkiy et al., 1980). Pollen spectra The Khudzhakh section (Figure 24-1, point III), located = show mainly boreal types (Pecea sect. Eupicea, Larix) and in the Kolyma River basin, has a fossil flora contained in microtherms (Betuloa sect. Nanae, Alnaster fruticosus). deposits along the 10- to 15-m terrace of the Khudzhakh Nine taxa were identified. Pollen of Tertiary relicts and River (Grichuk et al., 1975). The age has been clearly es- | broad-leaved taxa characteristic of temperate and interglatablished from the stratigraphy and the paleoflora, but it cial intervals were not noted. The spectra suggest less fais the only flora without radiocarbon dating. Nevertheless, | vorable conditions than at present, for today these plants it is included because of the scarcity of detailed paleofloris- | grow much farther north, in the lower Amur River region. tic data from this region. The 10 species of plants identi- | The reconstructed climate in the southern Far East differs fied all grow in the southern Anyuyskiy Range, aconsider- from present conditions mainly by having lower winter able distance northeast of the site. Thus, the January and _— temperatures and a frost-free period a month and a half July temperatures and the duration of the frost-free period — shorter than today’s. were close to the present ones, but the total annual precip-

itation was much higher. References The Boyanichi section, located in the northern Volyn-

skaya Upland (Figure 24-1, point IV), is a gyttjalike depos- — Alekseyev, M. N., and Golubeva, L. V. (1980). Stratigraphy and paleo-

it, with a date of 22,5004 400 yr B.P. (IGAN-113) (Gur- geography of the Upper Pleistocene of the southern Maritime Territovaya, 1981). Pollen of the microthermic shrubs Betu/g tory. Bulletin of the Commission on the Study of the Quaternary 50,

nana, B. humilis, and Alnaster fruticosus dominate, and 96-107. . . a total of 16 species was identified. Cold-tolerant species, Ariskina, N. P., and Zakirova, N. F. (1963). Mictopaleobotanical studies

; , _ ; of buried peat bogs from the basin of the B. Aranets River (middle Pe-

in p articular Selag inelba selag tnoides and Botrychium bor- chora). In “Uchenye Zapiski Kazanskogo Gosudarstvennogo Universieale, are especially conspicuous. Most of these species grow teta 123,” Book Il, pp. 128-38. Kazan’ University, Kazan’. in the northern Ural Mountains in the golets and subgolets -Arkhipov, S. A., Votakh, M. R., and Levina, T. P. (1973). Palynological altitudinal belts at present, and the climatic parameters are characterization of Riss-Wiirm (Kazantsevo) and lower-middle-Wiirm nearly identical to those from the Boyanchi section, which deposits of the middle Ob’ Valley. Jz “The Pleistocene of Siberia and were determined from climagrams. Characteristically ; July Adjacent Regions” (V. N. Saks, ed.), pp. 143-50. Nauka Press, Mos-

temperatures differed little from present ones, but January cow. temperatures were lower by 15°C. Arslanov, Kh. A., and Kurenkova, Ye. I. (1975). Radiocarbon datings of The Khotylevo Late Paleolithic campsite (Figure 24-1, certain Late Paleolithic campsites of the Desna Basin. Bulletin of the | point V) is located in the middle Desna River basin. It is Commission on the Study of the Quaternary 44, 165-66. confined the marginal part of a plateau and underlain Apianoy, A., Auslender, V. G., V. I., et al. (1971). Pa. , to, eogeographical characteristics andKh.absolute age ofGromova, the maximum stage by Middle Pleistocene fluvioglacial sands. The age of the of Valdai Glaciation in the area of Lake Kubenskoye. USSR Academy

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Ivanova, N. G. (1973). Experience with the dating of alluvial deposits of Pleshivtseva, E. S. (1972). Palynological characterization of a key section the Vyatka River and reconstructions of vegetation from palynofloristic of sediments of the boreal transgression in the northwest of Arkhandata. I” “Palynology of the Pleistocene and Pliocene” (V. P. Grichuk, gel’sk Province (region of Severo-Dvinskaya depression). I” “Palyno-

ed.), pp. 64-69. Nauka Press, Moscow. logy of the Pleistocene” (V. P. Grichuk, ed.), pp. 93-104. USSR AcaIversen, J. (1944). Viscum, Hedera, and I/ex as climate indicators. Geo/o- demy of Sciences, Institute of Geography, Moscow.

giska Foreningens i Stockholm Férhandlingar 66, 463-83. Rindzyunskaya, N. M., and Pakhomov, M. M. (1977). Stratigraphy of Karevskaya, I. A., Boyarskaya, T. D., Grichuk, M. P., and Makhova, Yu. Quaternary deposits of the North Baikal Highland. USSR Academy of V. (1981). Provincial characteristics of Late Pleistocene vegetation in Sciences, Izvestiya, seria geologicheskaya 4, 146-49. the Amur Basin. J “Transactions of the Third Interdepartmental Con- Skiba, L. A. (1975). History of the development of Kamchatka’s vegetaference on Palynological Studies in the Far East” (M. P. Grichuk and tion in the Late Cenozoic. USSR Academy of Sciences, Geological In-

A. M. Korotkiy, eds.). Far East Geological Institute, Vladivostok. stitute, Trudy 276, 1-72. Khoreva, I. M. (1974). Stratigraphy and foraminifers of marine Quater- Szafer, W. (1946). Pliocene flora from Kroszenek on the Dunajec. Polska naty deposits of the west coast of the Bering Sea. USSR Academy of Akademia umiesetnoscit, Wydzial matematyczno-prayredniczy 72 (B).

Sciences, Trudy 225, 1-152. Troitskiy, S. L. (1966). “Quaternary Deposits and Topography of the Flat Kolesnikova, T. D., and Khomutova, V. I. (1971). New data on the his- Shores of Yenisey Bay and Adjacent Area of Byrranga Mountains.” tory of the development of vegetation of the Valdai ice age on the terri- Nauka Press, Moscow.

260 GRICHUK, GURTOVAYA, ZELIKSON, AND BORISOVA Troitskiy, S. L. (1979). The marine Pleistocene of the Siberian plains: Zelikson, E. M., and Monoszon, M. Kh. (1974). Conditions of human Stratigraphy. USSR Academy of Sciences, Siberian Branch, Institute of habitation at the Khotylevo II campsite based on palynological data.

Geology and Geophysics, Trudy 430. In “Primitive Man: His Material Culture and Environment in the PleisYevzerov, V. Ya. (1970). The question of the age of Kola Peninsula’s in- tocene and Holocene” (I. P. Gerasimov, ed.), pp. 137-43. USSR Aca-

terglacial deposits. Iv “Proceedings of a Scientific Session of the Kola demy of Sciences, Institute of Geography, Moscow. Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Geology” (V. G. Zerov, D. K. (1946). Fossil peat moss in the vicinity of the village of Zagorodny, ed.), pp. 88-93. USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Semikhody in the lower course of the Pripyat’ River. Ukrainian Aca-

Geology, Moscow. demy of Sciences, Botanichesky Zhurnal 3 (1-2).

CHAPTER ) 5 Late Pleistocene Spatial Paleoclimatic Reconstructions A. A. Velichko

Optimum of the Mikulino Interglaciation the present time the local January temperature is — 38°C.

Temperature departures were minimal and possibly negaAs is evident from the preceding chapter, through the use _ tive (toward cooling) in the far-eastern Arctic near the Paof indicator paleofloristics it is possible to determine past — cific Ocean.

climatic conditions for 25 localities. Despite the relatively The warming south to latitude 50°N in the intracontsmall number of “weather stations of the past,” the 25 _ nental regions was less than along the eastern Siberian Atcpoints are representative of their geographic locations and _ tic coast. In the western European USSR, the January temare scattered more or less uniformly across the main re- _ peratures were 4°C to 6°C higher, close to 0°C. The eastern gions, except for Central Asia, which has almost no points. | European part was substantially warmer. On the left bank Fourteen of the sites are concentrated in the European part of the Volga, the temperatures rose by 11°C, to —4°C. of the USSR. The points encompass almost all the present- | Temperatures in central western Siberia were 7°C higher day climatic zones, including arctic tundra, temperate for- _ than today, and in southern central Siberia 8°C higher. A est, steppe, subtropics (Lia), and desert (Kaktas). In addi- |= marked warming of 10°C occurred at these latitudes even tion, the points cover regions influenced by diverse air | on the Okhotsk coast. Only on Kamchatka were no deparmasses. The West is affected primarily by maritime Atlan- —_ tures from present noted.

tic air masses, most of Siberia by continental air masses, South of latitude 50°N, temperature deviations were and the East by alternating maritime and continental air slight. In the southern Russian Plain, a slight warming of masses. Thus, the climatic characteristics of the pastcan be —-1°C is estimated. Still farther south, temperatures were sicompared with present conditions in these regions. Finally, milar to present values in the Black Sea subtropics. In the

the accuracy of reconstructed temperature and precipita- | northern Kazakhstan-Central Asia region, temperatures tion is established by the relationship between vegetation | might have dropped by 1°C, but no deviations from presand climate (Budyko, 1971) and by the rough similarity | ent temperatures have been established for the coastal rebetween interglacial vegetation and that of the present gions of the Far East.

day. These are the relations reconstructed in a latitudinal diJANUARY TEMPERATURE rection. In a meridional direction (Figure 25-1) it is appar-

ent that in the European USSR positive deviations gradualIn most regions, the temperature of the coldest month dif- _ ly increase from the Arctic to the central part of the plain fered markedly from that of the present. North of latitude | and then decrease again. A similar trend is noted in west50°N, temperatures were higher, particularly in the Arctic — ern Siberia. However, if one follows the deviation in a sub(Figure 25-1). In the western Arctic along the Barents Sea = meridional direction (from Taimyr through the Middle coast of the Kola Peninsula, the warming was only 2°C —_ Ob’ in the Balkhash area), the greatest positive deviations

above today, and the average monthly temperature was are noted in the North and decline southward with the close to —7°C. A temperature rise of 3°C is reconstructed — exception of the coast along the Sea of Okhotsk (Figure 25-

for the Yamal Peninsula. In contrast, a marked warming 2). of the Arctic coast took place in eastern Siberia. On the On the whole, the pattern of January isotherms for the Taimyr, the temperatures rose by 13°C to a value of | Mikulino Interglaciation resembles the present one (Figure — 21°C. Farther east, in the lower course of the Indigirka 25-3), except for the more latitudinal position of the isoRiver, a temperature of — 26°C was established, whereas at_ — therms in the Northwest and the higher isotherm values. 261

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LATE PLEISTOCENE SPATIAL PALEOCLIMATIC RECONSTRUCTIONS 265 JULY TEMPERATURES on the Pacific coast (Anadyrskiy Bay) it increased as a result July temperatures were more similar to present values than of warmer ein th rs and p robably slightly ‘i; Ider the on January temperatures are, and their distribution over the Elsewhere - "le en the b © d between | h, ye mae Cie country was fairly simple. The greatest positive anomalies mate was Mostly “Css. In the band between ‘ ¥ Nh -

are recorded for the northernmost Arctic latitudinal belt cle an d latitude 50°N, the nL. dectea sf “he ¥ ", .

(Figures 25-4 and 25-5), and the smallest in the western P articularly on the ar Plain, C “6 r © z, 54 Barents Sea sector of the Arctic. Increased temperatures (— 10°C), and in western era oni ). Only on Kammainly affected a part of the Arctic coast east from Yamal chatka were the ranges simular to the p whe t Ones.

to Taimyr, where the temperatures were 8°C above the The decreased temperature ono Oly € past aL i

present ones. Toward the Yana-Indigirka Lowland and noted in regions that Now have a sharply continental CitChukotka, the deviations decreased to +2°C and +1°C. "4tE (south of latitude 50°N). During the optimum v f Farther south, July temperatures differed very little from the Mikulino Interglactation, ran ene BI reduced by ; A present one. Within a broad band between the Arctic and ™ the present steppe tegion neat the Diack sea, an he latitude 50°N, no deviation is recorded in most regions. 2°C in the Balkhash ed it m . southetm Far Ean di 4 re Only in the eastern European sector was the July tempera- pack Sea subtropics ana in the southern Far Last dic’ not ture 1°C higher. Temperatures were 3°C to 4°C higher in cnangethe Baikal region and along the Sea of Okhotsk.

South of latitude 50°N, decreased temperatures occur- FROST-FREE PERIOD

red in the steppe regions of the European USSR and the ‘ad i steppe and semidesert regions of northern Kazakhstan. The duration of the frost-free p eri0d ie crease“ ‘k any Temperatures were — 1°C less in the West and — 3°C less everywhere except along me i south “ F, "Ey . d a in Kazakhstan. No changes in temperature have been re- subtrop iS, O08 ue ee oT ‘ i sion of he froct. free .

corded in the extreme Southwest (Black Sea subtropics) or Hod ch eed t “Yeas _ ile 50% | " the extreme Southeast (shore of Petra Velikogo Bay). pod Changed most dramanca'y (up to onsen) nh .

The July isotherm pattern was similar to the present one Siberian Arctic. El sewhere it was 20% to 50'0 Tonger than

actoss a latge part of the USSR (Figure 25-6). How- the present duration. A 60% increase in the Batkal region ever, in the Arctic belt, summer was appreciably warmer may reflect local conditions. An insignificant value was ob-

than at present, and temperatures were more similar in the tained for the Balkhash region.

western and eastern Arctic than they are today. A + 14°C ,

isotherm paralleled most of the Arctic coast during the op- TOTAL ANNUAL PRECIPITATION

at slong the same band (fom +6 to +120). An. felon was mote uno, hana he preset me once P an be the of warming, although one not Sea of creased precipitation occurred both in northern regions,

Okhotsk. However, the climate cannot be reconstructed Soe ay enudrof late de 50° N). where the an

recisely because of the complex topography and the scar- ararear

city of data points for that region, For example. the Chaya cipitation is scant at presen. Naturally, the abso ute values section north of Lake Baikal reflects only the local climatic of increased precipitation cannot characterize ¢ le o 6a,

parameters of the intermontane basin. ence on the water balance of an area. For example, a or Isotherms in the steppe and semidesert from the Black nase oy Present total annual Poe the ce . |

Sea Miklino region to theTnerlaation, Balkhash regionwhereas were possibly somewhat represent an 8 of , mnencast “e P “he Acetic, r ¢ Siberia imum of the 3 Fe The giuibavon precipitation during the Miklino In lower. On the Pacific coast, a distinct warming occurred regions and a 70% increase tor the Arctic CR th, one.

only in the north, adjacent to the Bering Sea. _ In the middle belt of the European USSR, the increase

in precipitation was insignificant, about 7% to 8% from

600 mm per year to 650 mm per year. In the Smolensk fe-

ANNUAL TEMPERATURE RANGE gion, the total precipitation was similar to the present It is well known that a rise in winter temperatures for tem- = amount. perate and polar regions signifies a decrease in the annual Somewhat greater was the 15% to 23% increase in pretemperature range, which is a measure of climatic conti- _ cipitation from 570 to 700 mm in Karelia and from 650 nentality. Despite the climatic warming during both warm to 750 mm on the Kola Peninsula. There was a sharp 70% and cold seasons, the annual temperature range differed increase in total precipitation ftom 250 to 450 mm on the throughout the country during the Mikulino Interglacia- Arctic coast of western and central Siberia. There was also tion. In the Arctic, the range decreased by 1°C in the Bat- _—an increase in precipitation in areas that at the present ents Sea sector, but farther east on the Yamal Peninsula it — time are marked by the greatest aridity. increased by 5°C. This reflects the greater local tempera- The Yana-Indigirka Lowland in the Northeast, the flat-

ture increase in summer than in winter. On Taimyrandin land of Central Asia, and southern Kazakhstan in the the Yana-Indigirka lowland the range decreased, whereas Southwest have the lowest annual precipitation today.

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