Prehistoric Cultures and Environments in the Late Quaternary of Africa 9780860545200, 9781407346854

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Series List
Table of Contents
Figures
Tables
Plates
List of Contributors
Preface
Chapter One: Holocene Nile Floods and Their Implications for Origins of Egyptian Agriculture
Chapter Two: Climatic Change and Man in the Sahara
Chapter Three: After the Deluge: The Neolithic Landscape in North Africa
Chapter Four: Neolithic Adaptations on the Central Nile
Chapter Five: Holocene Environments and Occupations in the Southern Atbai, Sudan: A Preliminary Formulation
Chapter Six: Evolution of Stone Age Food-Producing Cultures in East Africa
Chapter Seven: Environment and Culture in the Late Quaternary of Eastern Africa: A Critique of Some Correlations
Chapter Eight: Patterns of Environment Utilization by Late Prehistoric Cultures in the Southern Congo Basin
Chapter Nine: The Scale and Timing of Technological and Environmental Changes Over the Last 20,000 Yearsin the Southern Cape, South Africa
Chapter Ten: Human Adaptation in Southern Africa During the Last Glacial Maximum
Chapter Eleven: The Pleistocene/Holocene Transition in the Western Cape, South Africa: Observations from Verlorenvlei
Chapter Twelve: Puting the Wind Up the Smithfield: Seasons of Occupation Inferred for Sub-Recent Bushman Surface Sites

Citation preview

Prehistoric Cultures and Environments in the Late Quaternary of Africa edited by

John Bower and David Lubell

Cambridge Monographs in African Archaeology 26

BAR International Series 405

1988

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BA R S405,1988 : 'Prehistoric Cultures and Environments in the Late Quaternary of Africa' © Th8 Individual Authors, 1988 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860545200 paperback ISBN 9781407346854 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545200 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C AMBRIDGE M ONOGRAPHS I N A FRICAN A RCHAEOLOGY G eneral E ditor J ohn A lexander , M .A ., P h.D., F .S.A . S t. J ohn 's C ollege C ambridge C B2 1 TP , E ngland M anuscripts s hould b e s ubmitted t o D r . A lexander i n t he f irst i nstance. T itles a lready p ublished : 1 .

' The N iger D elta : Nwanna N zewunwa .

2 .

A spects

o f

i ts

'O 'ff-Site A rchaeology a nd H uman A daptation i n E astern A frica : b y R obert F oley. ' Later

C ultural

' Settlement P atterns

A daptations

7 .

i n

S udanese

N ubia '

i n t he I ron A ge o f Z ululand :

b y Y ousif

A n E cological

B AR-S119.

' The N eolithic P eriod i n t he S udan , M ohammed-Ali.

S outhern K enya '

B AR-S114.

I nterpretation ' b y M artin H all. 6 .

An

B AR-S97.

P leistocene

M ukhtar e l A min . 5 .

b y

B AR-S89.

A nalysis o f R egional A rtefact D ensity i n t he A mboseli ,

4 .

C ulture '

' Prehistoric I nvestigations i n t he R egion o f J enne , Mali ' b y S usan K eech M cIntosh a nd R oderick J . M cIntosh.

3 .

P rehistoric E conomy a nd

B AR-S75.

c .

6 000 -2500 B .C . ' b y Abbas S .

B AR-S139.

' History a nd E thnoarcbaeology i n E astern N igeria :

A S tudy o f I gbo-Igala

r elations w ith s pecial r eference t o t he A nambra Valley ' b y P hilip A digwe O guagha a nd A lex I kechukwu O kpoko . 8 .

B AR-5195.

' Meroitic S ettlement i n t he C entral S udan :

A n A nalysis o f

S ites i n t he

N ile V alley a nd t he W estern B utana ' b y K hidir A bdelkarim A hmed .

B AR-

S 197. 9 .

' Economy

a nd T echnology

C harles C able. 1 0.

' Frontiers :

i n

t he

L ate

S tone

A ge

o f

S outhern A frican A rchaeology T oday '

1 2.

B AR-5207.

' Archaeology a nd H istory i n S outhern N igeria : e arthworks ' The L atest

b y

e d . M . H all, G . A very ,

D .M . Avery , M .L . W ilson a nd A .J .B . Humphreys . 1.

S outhern N atal '

B AR-S201.

o f B enin a nd I shan ' b y P .J . D arling . S tone A ge

o f

S outhernmost A frica '

T he a ncient l inear

B AR-S215 . b y J anette D eacon .

B AR-

S 213. 1 3.

' Fisher-Hunters

a nd N eolithic P astoralists

J ohn W ebster B arthelme.

B AR-S254.

i n E ast T urkana ,

K enya ' b y

1 4.

' T he A rchaeology o f C entral D arfur ( Sudan ) i n t he i st M illennium A .D . ' b y I brahim M usa M ohammed .

1 5.

B AR-S285 .

Stable C arbon I sotopes a nd P rehistoric D iets i n t he S outh-Western C ape P rovince, S outh A frica ' b y J udith S ealy.

1 6.

' Va n r upestre p rghistorique d es m assifs c entraux s ahariens ' b y A lfred M uzzolini .

1 7.

Spheroids

B AR-S318 . a nd B attered S tones

A ge ' b y P amela R . W illoughby . 1 8. 1 9.

B AR-S338.

I le L ater S tone A ge o f t he D rakensberg R ange a nd i ts f oothills ' b y H . B AR-S339 .

' Socio-Economic H aaland.

2 1.

i n t he A frican E arly a nd M iddle S tone B AR-S321.

' The R oyal C rowns o f K ush ' b y L . T örök.

O pperman . 2 0.

B AR-S293.

D ifferentiation

i n

t he N eolithic

S udan '

" Later S tone A ge S ettlement P atterns i n t he S andveld o f t he S outhW estern C ape P rovince , S outh A frica ' b y A nthony Manhire .

2. 2

L 'art '

r upestre d u

Q uellec . 2 3 .

2 4.

b y R andi

B AR-S350.

F ezzan

( Libye)

b y

J ean-Lorc

l e

B AR-S365 .

' Archaeology a nd E nvironment B arich . B AR-S368 . ' T he

s eptentrional

B AR-5351.

i n t he L ibyan S ahara ' e dited b y B arbara E .

E arly F armers o f T ranskei ,

S outhern A frica '

b y J .M .

F reely .

B AR-

S 378. 2 5.

' L ater S tone A ge H unters a nd G atherers o f t he S outhern T ransvaal ' b y L yn W adley.

2 6.

R ARS380.

' Prehistoric C ultures a nd E nvvironments i n t he L ate Q uaternary o f A frica ' e dited b y J ohn B ower a nd D avid L ubell . B AR-S405 .

C on ten ts F igures

i v

T ab les

i v i

P lates

i i v i

L is t o f C on tr ibu tor s

i x

C hap t er

1

H o locene N i le F loods a nd T he ir I mp l ica t ions f o r t he O r ig ins o fE gyp t ian Ag r icu l ture , b y F . A . Hassan

1

2

C l ima t ic C hange a nd Man i n t he S ahara , b y N . P et itMa ire . 19

3

A f ter t he D e luge : T he N eo l i th ic L andscape i n N or th A f r ica , l b y M . A . J .W i l iams 4 3

4

N eo l ith ic A dapta t ions o n t he C en tra l N i le , b y A . Mohammed -A l i a nd E . E l -Anwar

6 1

5

Ho locene E nv ironmen ts a nd O ccupa t ions i n t he S ou thern A tba i , S udan , b yA . E . Marks a nd K . S adr

6 9

6

E vo lu t ion o fS tone A ge F ood -Produc ing Cu ltures i n E ast A f r ica , b y J . B ower

9 1

7

Env ironmen t a nd C u lture i n t he L a te Qua ternary o fE as tern A f r ica : AC r i t ique o fS ome C orre la t ions , b y P . R ober tshaw .15

8

terns o P at f Env ironmen tU t i l iza t ion B yL a te P reh is tor ic l Cu l tures i nt he S ou thern C ongo B as in , b y S . F . M i ler

9

T he S ca le a nd T im ing o fT echno log ica l a nd Env ironmen ta l Changes O ver t he L as t 2 0 ,000 Y ear s i nt he S ou thern C ape , S ou th A f r ica , b yJ .D eacon 1 45

1 0

1

1 2

1 27

Human A dapta t ions i n S ou th A f r ica Dur ing t he l L ast G la c ia l Max imum , b y P . M i tche l

1 63

T he P le is to cene /Ho locene T rans it ion i n t he Western C ape , S ou th A f r ica : O bserva t ions F rom V er lorenv le i , b yJ .P ark ing ton

1 97

ting t P ut he W ind Up t he Sm i th f ie ld : S easons o f O ccupa t ion I nf erred f o r S ub -Recen t Bushman S urf ace S i t es , b y G . S ampson

2 07

1 11

F igures 1 . 1

L oca t ion map o fB i rke t Qa run , t he F ayum , E gyp t

1 .2

C ha r ts how ing v a r ia t ion i nl a ke l e ve lo ft h e h i s to r ica l Moe r is l a ke a nd i t sa nces t ra l

1 6

p reh is to r ic l a kes

1 7

2 . 1

T h /U a nd

3 1

2 .2

R ad ioca rbon a ges ( G i f a nd U .Q . ) f o rt he H o locene o f ma l ian S aha ra

3 2

2 .3

H o locene l a kes a nd n or the rn i n te r io rd e l ta o ft he N ige r i nn or the rn Ma l i

3 3

2 .4

1 4

Ca ges f o rt he S ha t iv a ley l a ke l

R ad ioca rbon a ges f o rH o locene h uman p opu la t ions a l ong t he A t lan t ic c oas to ft he S aha ra

2 .5

3 4

L ong te rm c l ima t ic v a r ia t ions o ve rt he p as t4 00 ,000 y ea rs a nd p red ic t ions f o r t he f u tu re

3 5

2 .6

l A nnua l r a in fa l a nd mob i le q u inquenn ia l means a tT ombouc tou s i nce 1 927

3 6

3 . 1

l L oca t ion o fs i tes i us t ra ted i n3 .2 a nd 3 .3

5 5

3 .2

l T imes o fh i gh l a te Q ua te rna ry f l ood l e ve ls i nt he l owe rB lue a nd Wh i te N i le v a leys , respond c en t ra l S udan , a nd c or ing f l uc tua t ions i nl a ke l e ve ls i na nd a round t he N i le b as in

5 6

3 .3

L a te Q ua te rna ry h yd ro log ica l e ven ts a ts e lec ted l o ca l i t ies i nN or th A f r ica

5 7

3 .4

P resen t -day r a in fa l z ones i nN o r th A f r ica l

5 8

3 .5

P resen t -day v ege ta t ion z ones i nN o r th A f r ica

5 9

3 .6

F i rs t r eco rded a ppea rance o fc e r ta in d omes t ica ted p l an ts a nd a n ima ls a ts e lec ted s i tes i nN o r th A f r ica

6 0

4 . 1

N eo l i th ic s i tes i n the C en t ra l N i le

6 8

5 . 1

Map o f t he E as te rn S udan

8 5

5 .2

Geomo rpho log ica l Map o ft he S ou the rn A tba i ; s imp l ied f r om NASA L andsa t i magery ; w i th o u t l ine o fs urvey z one s upe r imposed

5 .3

S tages i nt he h yd rog raphy o ft he Gash R ive r ; h ypo the t ica l r econs t ruc t ion b ased p a r t ia ly o n i n fo rma t ion f r om NASA L andsa t i mager y l

5 .4

8 6

8 7

C or la t ion o ft he S ou the rn A tba i s equence w i th t ha to ft he C en t ra l S udan i nt he re K ha r toum a rea

8 8

5 .5

S i te d i s t r ibu t ion b y p hase , w i th in t he s urvey z one o ft he S ou the rn A tba i

8 9

5 .6

D is t r ibu t ion o fs i tes d u r ing t he L a te K assa la P hase b yG roup

9 0

9 . 1

Ac ompa r ison o ft he t i m ing o fc hanges i nv a r ious e nv i ronmen ta l a nd t echno log ica l p a rame te rs a tB oomp laas C ave ( BPA ) a nd N e lson B ay C ave ( NBC )

1 0 .1

1 61

D is t r ibu t ion o fa rchaeo log ica l s i tes d a ted t ot he U ppe rP l en ig lac ia l 2 5 ,00016 ,000 b p

1 92

i v

1 0 .2

D is t r ibu t ion o fa rchaeo log ica l s i tes d a ted t ot he L a te G lac ia l 1 6 ,00012 ,000 b p

1 92

1 0 .3

D is t r ibu t ion o fr ec en t L SA r e sea rch

1 93

1 0 .4

App rox ima te p os i t ion o ft he c oas tw i th a1 40 m d ep ress ion i n mean s ea l e ve l a t c a . 2 0 ,000 b p

1 0 .5

1 94

D is t r ibu t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l s i tes d a ted t ot he U ppe rP len ig lac ia l a nd t he L a te G lac ia l i nr e la t ion t op resen t mean a nnua ls ur face t empe ra tu re ( °C )

1 0 .6

1 95

D is t r ibu t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l s i tes d a ted t ot he U ppe rP len ig lac ia l a nd t he L a te G lac ia l i nr e la t ion t op resen t mean a nnua lp rec ip i ta t ion

1 96

1.1

Map o fE lands B ay

2 06

1 2 .1

T he w ea the rs t a t ion i sl o ca ted o n ly 2 9 k mf r om t he e as te rn r i mo ft he s t udy a rea , a nd 8 7 km f r om i t sw es te rn r i m

24 2

1 2 .2

W indshe l te rd a ta w e re g a the red d u r ing t wo s easons

24 2

1 2 .3

T he Mean A nnua lW ind rose r e f lec ts t he d u ra t ion o ft wo c l asses o fw ind v e loc i ty , a ve raged o ve r 5y ea rs

1 2 .4

25 2

Mean Mon th ly W ind roses s how N - WS W d om inan t i nl a te w in te r /ea r ly s p r ing , a nd S E E dom inan t i ns umme r

1 2 .5

26 2

D a i ly e x t remes o fw ind v e loc i ty a nd t empe ra tu re s how w indy d ays ( mos t ly NN W -W ) a re a ssoc ia ted w i th wa rme rt empe ra tu res . C a lme r ,c oo le rd ays a re a ssoc ia ted w i th s ou theas ter l ies

27 2

1 2 .6

H igh v e loc i ty w inds b l ow ma in ly f r om t he NN W - WS W v ec to rs

28 2

1 2 .7

Mean mon th ly d u ra t ion o fw inds f r om NN W - WN W v ec to rs c omb ined

28 2

1 2 .8

Con t ras ts b e tween d ay ( 07 18h rs ) a nd n i gh t ( 19 -06h rs ) w ind d i rec t ions

1 2 .9 1 2 .10

i n m idw in te r

29 2

Mean mon th ly d u ra t ion o fa or th w ind b l ow ing a tn i gh t ( 19 -06h rs ) d u r ing 1 978 l N

29 2

Mean d u ra t ion o f a inds b l ow ing i nd ays ( 0718h rs )w hen t he max imum lw t empe ra tu re f a i led t or i se a bove 1 0° C

2 30

1 2 .11

Mon th ly d i s t r ibu t ion o fc o ld d ays ( max imum t empe ra tu re b e low 1 0 °C )

2 30

1 2 .12

H our ly w indspeeds a nd t empe ra tures f o r May 1 ,1 978 ( l e f t ) a nd t wo d ays l a te r ( r igh t )

1 2 .13

H ou r ly w indspeeds a nd t empe ra tu res f o rO c tobe r 5( l e f t ) a nd S ep tembe r2 1 , 1 978 ( r igh t )

1 2 .14

2 31

2 31

H ou r ly w indspeeds a nd t empe ra tu res f o rt wo t y p ica l s umme rd ays : J anua ry 1 8 ( r igh t ) a nd 3 1 , 1 978 ( l e f t )

2 31

1 2 .15

Mos ts i tes a re p ro tec ted f r om 5v ec to rs

2 32

1 2 .16

V ec to rd i s t r ibu t ions o f 1 vec to r s i tes

-.2 32

1 2 .17

V ec to r d i s t r ibu t ion o f 3 -vec to r s i tes

2 33

1 2 .18

V ec to r d i s t r ibu t ion o f 4 -vec to r s i tes

2 34

1 2 .19

V ec to r d i s t r ibu t ion o f 5 -vec to r s i tes

2 35

v i

T ab les 1 . 1

D a tes , i nr ad ioca rbon y ea rs b e fo re p resen t ,f o rF ayum N eo l i th ic a nd L a te F ayum N eo l i th ic ( P redynas t ic ) s i tes

1 .2

5

R ad ioca rbon d a tes o nc ha rcoa l i nr ad ioca rbon y ea rs b pf o rp re -Neo l i th ic H o locene s i tes

8

5 . 1

R ad ioca rbon D a tes f r om t he S ou the rn A tba i

7 3

5 .2

S ou the rn A tba iS i te C ha rac te r is t ics b y P hase o rG roup

7 6

6 . 1 :

C u l tu ra l E n t i t ies i n th e E as tA f r ican P N

9 3

6 .2 :

V a r ia t ion i nL i th ic a nd C e ram ic D ens i t ies Among P N O ccur , rences K enya a nd T anzan ia

1 03

6 .3

Ma jo r F ea tu res o fP N E vo lu t ion

1 05

1 0 .1

A rchaeo log ica l a ssemb lages f r om S ou th A f r ica d a ted t ot he U ppe r P len ig lac ia l 2 5 ,00016 ,000 b p

1 0 .2

1 65

A rchaeo log ica l a ssemb lages f r om S ou th A f r ica d a ted t ot he L a te G lac ia l 1 6 ,00012 ,000 b p

1 67

1 0 .3

V a r ia t ion i ne co log ica ld i ve rs i ty w i th in s i te t e r i to r ies r

1 72

1 0 .4

L i s to fs i te n ames r e fer oi nF i g . 1 0 .1 a nd 1 0 .2 red t

1 76

1.1

C hanges i n the f r equency o fs ome i t ems i n the E l ands B ay C ave s equence

2 01

1.2

F requency o fb one a nd s he lt o ls a nd o ch re a tE lands B ay C ave l o

2 01

v i i

P la tes 2 . 1 :

T he L ake S ha t i mo l lusc t hana tocoenos is

3 7

2 . 1 Ia :

H o locene l a ke d epos i ts a t Wad i H a i jad

3 8

2 . 1 1b :

Mud -c racks l e ve l i nl a ke d epos i ts

3 8

2 . 1 1 Ia :

S ec t ion s how ing L a te P le is tocene e o l ian l a ye rs u nde r H o locene l a ke d epos i ts , S be i ta

3 9

2 . 1 1 lb :

L ake le t d epos i ts i ni n te rdune t r ough , Umm e lA sse l

3 9

2 . 1 1 Ic :

S ec t ion w i th s uccess ive s wamp , l a ke a nd c r us t l a ye rs , S be i ta

4 0

2 . 1 1 Id :

Swamp d epos i ts , T e l ig

4 0

2 . IVa :

B u r ia l , E rg me S akane

4 1

2 . IVb :

G r ind ing a r t i fac ts , E rg Jmeya

4 1

2 .Va :

F o ram in i fe ra a nd o s t racods i nl a ke s i l ts

4 2

2 .Vb :

Me lan ia t ube rcu la ta , B u l inus t r unca tus , a nd B iompha lar ia p fe ifenii nl a ke d epos i ts. 2 . . 4

2 .Vc :

C rocody lus n i lo t icus d e rm ic p l a tes , H ass i -e l -Ab iod

8 . 1 :

T yp ica lt e ra in o ft he s ou thern C ongo B as in r

1 35

8 . 1 : 1

T ransve rsa l a rowheads r

1 36

8 . 1 : 1 1

F o l ia te p o in ts

1 37

8 . IV :

AT sh i to l ian b l ade i ng räs p o lymo rphe

1 38

8 .V :

T sh i to l ian l a nceo la tes

1 39

8 .V I :

E xcava t ions a tC auma B r idge

1 40

8 .V I : I

Mwambumba , aT cho l me make ro fg un f l in ts , d emons t ra t ing t he i n d i rec tp unch

4 2

t echn ique w i th w h ich h e r ep l ica tes t he b l ades a nd f l ake -sca rp a te rns f o und i n many t T sh i to l ian a ssemb lages 8 .VI I I:

8 . IX :

1 41

P e t i ts t r anche ts f r om N d inga K i tu , i us t ra t ing t h ev a r ia t ions i ns i ze a nd f o rm f ound a t i l t h is f o res t s i te

1 42

C o re a xes f r om N d inga K i tu , s how ing ar a nge o fs i zes a nd f o rms i

1 43

v i i i

L is to fC on tr ibu tor s J ohn B ower D epar tmen t o fS oc io logy a nd An thropo logy I owa S ta te Un iver s i ty Ames , I A 5 0011 USA J anet eacon te D D epar t men t o fA rchaeo logy Un ivers ity o fS te lenbosch l S te lenbosch 7 600 S ou th A f r ica l E l -Sayed E l -Anwar D epartmen t o fA r chaeo logy Un ivers ity o fB ergen N orway F ekr i A . Hassan D epar tmen t o f An thropo logy Wash ing ton S ta te Un iver s ity P u lman , WA 9 9164 USA l Dav id Lube l l D epar tmen t o f An thropo logy Un ivers ity o fA lber ta E dmonton , C anada T 6G 2 14 1 An thony E . Marks D epar tmen t o f An thropo logy S ou thern Me thod is t Un ivers i ty Da las , TX 7 5275 USA l S hery l F . M i ler l P i tzer C o lege l 1 050 Nor th M i ls A venue l C lare mon t , CA 9 1711 USA P e ter M itche l l D ona ld B aden -Powe l Quaternary R esearch C en tre l 6 0B anbury R oad O xf ord , 0X2 6 PN , E ng land UK A bbas Mohammed -A l i D epar tmen t o fA rchaeo logy , F acu l ty o fA r ts Un ivers i ty o f Khar toum , Khar toum , S udan J ohn P ark ing ton D epartmen t o fA rchaeo logy Un ivers ity o fC ape T own R ondebosch , C ape P rov ince , S ou th A f r ica i x

J ohn P ark ing ton D epar tmen t o fA rchaeo logy Un iver s i ty o fC ape T own R ondebosch , C ape P rov ince , S ou th A f r ica N ico le P e t i t - Ma ire L abora to ire d e G eo log ie d u Qua terna ire CNRS , C a se 9 07 , L um iny , l 1 3288 Mar se i le C edex 9F rance P e ter R ober t shaw T he B r i t ish I ns t i tu te i n E as tern A f r ica P .0 . B ox 3 0710 , Na irob i ,K enya K ar im S adr D epar tmen t o f An thropo logy S ou thern Me thod is t Un iver s i ty l D a la s , TX 7 5275 USA G ar th S ampson D epar tmen t o f An thropo logy S ou thern Me thod is t Un iver s i ty l D a la s , TX 7 5275 USA l Mar t in A . J .W i l iam s D epar tmen t o fG eog raphy Monash Un ivers i ty C lay t on , V ic tor ia 3 168 Aus tra l ia

x

P reface T h is b ook b egan a s ac onver sa t ion i nt he a i rpor tb ar a t B angor , Ma ine , i n Augus t , 1 980 . We h ad b o th a t ended t he S ix th B ienn ia l Mee t ing o ft he t Amer ican Qua ternary A ssoc ia t ion , h e ld a t t he Un iver s i ty o f Ma ine i n O rono , a nd w ere d ue t o mee t a ga in t he f o low ing m on th i n P o land a t t he l f i rs t Dymaczewo c on f erence o n t he o r ig ins o f f ood p roduc t ion i n n or theastern A f r ica ( K rzyzan iak a nd K obus iew icz 1 984 ) . Wh i le w a i t ing f o r af l igh t , w e r ef lec ted o n at heme s hared b y t he t wo c onf erences , n ame ly , c u l tura l r espon ses t o l ong -term e nv ironmen ta l c hange . I t o ccurred t o u s t ha t , wh i le t he i sues r e la ted t o t h is t heme , s uch a s s a dapta t ion a nd m ig ra t ion , a re more o r l e ss u b iqu itous e l emen t s i n r esear ch o n A f r ican p r eh is tory , f ew a temp t s h ave b een made t o a ddress t t he t heme h o l is t ica ly o n ap an -Af r ican s ca le . Moreover , i ts eemed t ou s l t ha t w ork o n l a te p reh istor ic c u ltures a nd e nv ironmen ts i n s e lec ted r eg ion s o f t he c on t inen t h ad d eve loped t o t he p o in t where f a r -rang ing e xamp les o f h uman -env ironment i n terac t ion m igh t s erve a s b oth s t imu lus a nd c orrect ive f o r f u ture r esearch . T hus , w e b egan t o f ormu la te t he i dea o f as ympos ium , mode led o n t he e r s twh i le B urg l War tens te in meet ings , t ha t w ou ld f o cus o n q ues t ions o f c u lture a nd e nv ironmen t d ur ing l a ter p er iod s o fA f r ican p reh is tory . A lthough w e w ere u nab le t o o rgan ize t he " f ree -s tand ing " s ympos ium w e h ad e nv is ioned i n B angor , w e d id w ork o u t ar easonab ly c l ose a pprox ima t ion t o o ur o r ig ina l i dea o f b r ing ing t ogether , i n ar e laxed s et t ing , a sma l g roup o f s cho lars a c t ive ly p ur su ing r esear ch c en tered l o n t he t heme a t h and . T he c on tex t f o r o ur s ympos ium w a s a n a l -day , l s pec ia l s ess ion o f t he b ienn ia l meet ing s o f t he S oc iety o f A f r ican is t A rchaeo log is t s i n Am er ica ( SAAAM ) i n A pr i l , 1 984 , a t P or t land S ta te Un ivers i ty , P or t land , O regon . W i th s o me e xcep t ions , t he p apers r ead a t t he S AAAM s ympos ium a re t he o nes wh ich , i n r ev ised f o rm , c o mpr ise t h is v o lume . I nc luded among t he e xcep t ions a re p aper s r ead b y S teve B rand t , W i l iam F ar , D iane G if ord -Gonza lez a nd D av id L ube l b u t l r and f l n ot s ubm it o r p ub l i ca t ion , a nd p aper s n o t r ead a tt he s ympos ium b u t ted f s ubm it f terward s b y J anet eacon , P eter M itchel bbas t ed a te D l, A Mohammed -A l i a nd Mar t in W i l iams . A l p ar t ic ipan t s a g reed t ha t t he l l p apers s hou ld b e p ub l ished a s s ympos ium p roceed ings a nd t he o rgan izers o ft he s e ss ion w ere c harged w i th r espon s ib i l i ty f o r f i nd ing a p ub l isher a nd e d i t ing t he r ev ised p aper s . Wh i le t wo o ft he p ar t ic ipan t s i n t he s ympos ium ( Brandt a nd G if -Gonza lez ) who h ave n ot ford c on tr ibuted t o t h is v o lume w ere p reven ted f r om d o ing s o b y o ther c o mm itmen t s , t he a b sence o f p apers b y F arrand a nd L ube l r ef lec ts l s pec ia l c i rcum stances . F ar 's p aper w a s o n t he " Env ironmen ta l s e t ing o f C aps ian a nd r and t r e la ted o ccupa t ions i n t he h igh p la ins o f n or theas tern A lger ia , " wh i le

P ref ace l L ube l 's w as t i t led " Human -env ironmen ta l r e la t ion sh ips d ur ing t he H o locene i n t he Maghreb . " B o th w er e p re l im inary s ta te men t s b a sed o n r esearch c onduc ted i n A lger ia b e tween 1 973 a nd 1 980 . C hanges i n A lger ian g overnmen ta l p o l ic ies h ave p reven ted c on t inua t ion o f t h is l l r esear ch , a na ly ses o ft he d a ta c o lec ted h ave b een d e layed ( wh i le L ube l wa i ted i nt he v a in h ope o f ac hange i np o l icy ) a nd r esu l t s a re i n comp le te . l l C onsequen t ly , L ube l a nd h i s c o leagues h ave b een r e luc tan t t op ub l ish l l h ere e i ther r epe t i t ion o f ma t er ia l a l ready i np r in t( Lube l 1 984a ,b ;L ube l l e t a l . 1 982-83 ; L ube l e t a l . 1 984 ) o r s t a temen ts o n d a ta a s y e t l i ncomp le te ly u nders tood . Hav ing n ow g iven u p a l h ope o f c on t inu ing t he p ro jec t , t hey a re p repar ing a f i na l r epo r t u s ing t he d a ta a va i lab le , l a nd t h i s w i l b e p ub l ished i n d ue c our se a s am onog raph . Aw ord a bou t t he s c ope a nd i n ten t o ft he p resen t v o lume i si n o rder . T he c u l tura l g eog raphy o fA f r ica , w i th i t s e x t raord inar i ly v ar ied a rray o f l s oc iet ies a d jus ted t o a n e qua ly c omp lex mo sa ic o fe nv ironmen t s a nd i t s h is tory o f r epea ted s oc ia l c r ises b orn o f c l ima t ic d e ter iora t ion , i mp l ies t ha t e nv ironmen ti sn o t o n ly ap ower fu l b u t a l so a n o bv ious d e t erm inan t o f h uman h istory w i th in t he c on t inen t . S uch a p ercep t ion h as c u ndoub ted ly c on tr ibu ted t o t he f r equen t o currence o f t he c u lture e nv ironmen t t heme i n p reh is tor ic r esearch o n A f r ica . Wh i le r ecen t s tud ies o fi n tera c t ion b e tween c u l ture a nd e nv ironmen t i n l a ter p er iods l o f A f r ican p reh is tory h ave o f ten r evea led b road p ara le ls w i th modern c u l tura l g eography , t hey h ave a l so s hown t ha t t he r e la t ionsh ip may b e f s ub t le , e ven e lu s ive , a nd t ha t i t s e ec t s may b e o bservab le a t s ca les r ang ing f o rm t he c amp s i te t o t he r eg ion . T he p aper s i nc luded i n t h is v o lume a re i n tended t o e xpose s o me o ft he p o ten t ia l i t ies a nd l im i ta t ion s o f r esear ch o n p reh istor ic c u l tures a nd t he ir e nv ironmen t s t hrough a s er ies o fc a se s tud ies r epresen t ing w ork i n v ar ious p ar ts o fA f r ica . T he c oncern h ere i sw i th b read th r a ther t han d ep th ; t hu s , t he v o lume s hou ld b e v iewed a s as amp l ing o f c u l ture -env ir onmen t r esearch i n A f r ica , r a ther t han a n e xhaus t ive t r ea tmen t o ft he s ub jec t . A lthough w e h ave l t r ied t o r epresen t a l ma jor b iomes i n o ur s a mp le , w e w ere u nab le t o o b ta in i nf orma t ive ma ter ia l f r om w e t r eg ion s o f Wes t A f r ica , where p oor c ond i t ion s f o r o rgan ic p reserva t ion m i l ita t e a ga ins t s tud ies o f c u lture e nv ironmen t( c f . Nygaard a nd T a lbo t1 984 ) . t er Two mat s o f s ty le d eserve c o mmen t . Where d if erences e x is t b etween B r it ish a nd Amer ican o r thography , w e h ave a ccep ted t he l a u thor ' s c ho ice o fs pe l ing . A s r egard s r ad iocarbon d a tes , w e h ave u sed tt t he w ide ly a ccep ted c onven t ion o fu pper c ase l e er d es igna t ion s ( AD , BC ) f o r c a l ibra ted d a tes a nd l ower c ase d es igna t ions ( bp ) f o r u nca l ibra ted o nes . We h ad i n tended t o p repare t h is v o lume f o r p ub l ica t ion w ith in a y ear o f t he s ympos ium , b ut v ar ious p rof ess iona l a nd p ersona l c o mm i tmen ts h ave c onsp ired a ga ins t u s . D esp ite t he d e lay w e a re p leased t o s ee t ha t t he c on ten t o f t he p aper s p resen ted h ere i s b y n o i x i

J .B ower a nd D . L ube l l means o bso lete . Bu t t h is s hou ld n ot l ead u s t o b e c o mp lacen t . T here i s much y et t o l earn a bou t h uman -env ironmen ta l i n terac t ions d ur ing t he l a ter p reh istory o fA f r ica , a nd w e h ope t ha t t h is v o lume w i l h e lp i den t if y l u sefu l a venues o fi nves t iga t ion . —John B ower a nd D av id L ube l l Ref erences K ry zyan iak , L . a nd M . K obus iew icz ( eds . ) . 1 984 . O r ig in a nd Ear ly D eve lopmen t o fF ood P roduc ing C u l tur es i n Nor th -Eas tern A f r ica . P oznan : P o l ish A cademy o fS c iences a nd P oznan A rchaeo log ica l Museu m . Lube l , D . 1 984a . T he C aps ian p a laeoeconomy i n t he Mag rheb l ( abstract ) . I n , K ryzyan iak a nd K obus iew icz ( eds . ) , p p . 4 53-455 . Lube l , D . 1 984b . P a leoenv ironmen ts a nd E p i -Pa leo l ith ic e conom ies i n l t he Maghreb ( c a . 2 0 ,000 t o5 , 000 B .P . I nF rom Hun ter s t o F armer s : T he C auses a nd C onsequences o fF ood P roduc t ion i n A f r ica ( J . D . C la rk a nd S .A . B rand t , e ds . ) : p p . 4 1-56 . Lube l , D . , A . Gau t ier , E . L even tha l , M . T hompson , H . S chwarcz a nd M . l S k inner . 1 982-83 . T he p reh istor ic c u l tura l e co logy o fC aps ian e scargot ieres . P ar t I : R epor t o n i nvest iga t ions c onduc ted d ur ing 1 976 i nt he Bah iret T e l id jene ,T ebessa W i laya , A lger ia . L ibyca 3 03 1 :59142 . Lube l , D . , P . S heppard a nd M . J ackes . 1 984 . C on t inu ity i nt he l E p ipa laeo l ith ic o fn or thern A f r ica w ith a n emphas is o n t he Maghreb . Advances i n Wor ld A r chaeo logy 3 : 143191 . Nygaard , S . E . a nd M . R .T a lbo t . 1 984 . S tone a ge a r chaeo logy a nd e nv ironmen t o n t he s ou thern A ccra P la ins , Ghana . Norweg ian A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew 1 7 :19-38 .

Ho locene N i le F loods a nd The ir I mp l ica t ions f or O r ig ins o f Egypt ian Agr icu l ture B y F ekr i A . Hassan , D epar tmen t o f An thropo logy , Wash ing ton S ta te l an Un ivers i ty , P ulm , Wash ing ton . I n troduct ion l T he o r ig in o f a gr icu lture i n t he N i le Va ley h as b een o ne o f t he t horn iest p rob lems i n E gypt ian p reh istory ( C lark 1 971 , 1 980 ) . The p resen t e v idence s uggests t ha t a g r icu l ture emerged d ur ing t he M idd le lenn Ho locene , p resumab ly b y t he m idd le o f t he s eventh m il ium b p . However , t here i s ab reak i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord f r om a bou t 7 140 t o 6 400 b p , a nd t he H o locene s i tes p reda t ing t h is b reak d o n o t s eem t os hare t oo many t e chno log ica l s im i lar i t ies w i th t he N eo l i th ic /Predynast ic s i tes . l A l though u t i l iza t ion o fw i ld c erea ls i n t he N i le V a ley d a tes b ack t o t he t erm ina l P le istocene , t here i s n o e v idence o f d omes t ic p lan ts i n E gypt p r ior t ot he M idd le H o locene . I n my c on t inu ing s earch f o r as a t isf ac tory e xp lana t ion o ft he o r ig ins l o f a gr icu lture , I emphas ize , f o low ing t he e xamp le s et b y Huzayy in ( 1939 , 1 950 ) , P assarge ( 1940 ) , a nd Bu tzer ( 1959 ) , t he i mpor tance o f u nderstand ing t he c l ose l i nk b etween t he v ar iat ions i n N i le f l oods a nd l t he e conom ic e ndeavor s o ft he i nhab i tan t s o ft he V a ley o n t he o ne h and , a nd o n s et t lemen t l o ca t ion a nd p reserva t ion o n t he o ther . I ti sc l ear t o me t hat w e c anno t b eg in t o e va lua te t he n a ture o f t he e x ist ing a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , n ot t o ment ion e xp la in a gr icu ltura l o r ig ins , w ithout a n a ccura te r econstruct ion o f t he v ar iat ions i n N i le f l oods d ur ing t he Ho locene . I n t h is c hapter , Ip resen t my o bserva t ions o n t he v ar ia t ions i n Ho locene N i le f l oods f r om my w ork o n g eoarchaeo logy i n l t he w estern F ayum ( Hassan , n .d . ) . Iw i l a ttempt t o i n teg ra te t hese o bserva t ions w i th t ho se made b y Wendorf a nd S ch i ld ( 1976 ) , Bu tzer ( 1976 , l 1 984 ) , a nd o thers . Iw i l t hen d i scuss t he i mp l ica t ions o ft he N i le r ecord l f o r t he p rob lem o fa g r icu ltura l o r ig ins i n t he N i le V a ley . T he Ho locene H is tory o fN i le F loods R econstruct ion o fv ar ia t ions i n N i le f l ood h e igh ts d ur ing t he H o locene l t was i n it ia ly a temp ted f r om t he h istory o f N i le a ggradat ions u nder v ary ing a ssumpt ions a bou t t he l eve ls o f N i le f l oods a ssoc ia ted w ith a ggradat iona l p hases . My s tud ies ( Hassan 1 985a ) l ead me t o t h ink t ha t t he N i le t ends t o a ggrade r egard less o f t he h e igh t o f t he f l oods . I ti s d ur ing t he t rans it ion f r om l ow N i le t o h igh N i le e p isodes o r v i ce v ersa t hat d egradat ion p reva i ls . Th is e xp la ins i n p ar t t he s hor t t ime a ssoc iated w ith d eg rada t ions c o mpared w i th t he l onger t ime i nterva ls a ssoc iated w ith a ggrada t ions . F or t h is r eason , t he u t i l ity o f t he d epos it iona l h istory o f t he N i le a s ap roxy t o N i le f l ood h e igh ts i s 1

Ho locene N i le F loods d oubtfu l . L uck i ly , t he g eo log ica l r ecord o f H o locene N i le f l oods i s n ot r estr ic ted t o t he s uccess ion o f r i ver ine d epos i t s . I n t he F ayum Oas is , s i tua ted i n ad epress ion a ppended t o t he N i le V a ley , a lake h a s e x isted l d ur ing most o ft he Ho locene p er iod ( F ig . 1 . 1) , f i led a nnua ly b y a ni n f lux l l o f N i le f l oodwater . I t s l eve l h as t hus v ar ied w i th t he c hanges i n t he h e igh t o fN i le f l oods . A bou t 4 50 BC, H erodo tus i n at r ip t ot he F ayum c l a imed t ha th e s aw a t v ast l ake wh ich h e a tr ibu ted t o K ing Moer is . A ccord ing ly , t he h i s tor ica l l ake i s d ubbed a s Moer is L ake . I n t he e ar ly P to lema ic p er iod a l and f r ec la mat ion p ro ject c u t o f i t s n a tura l c onnect ion w ith t he N i le . T hereaf ter t he l eve l o f t he l ake was p rogress ive ly r educed f r om a bou t 2 0 m a bove s ea l eve l t oi t s p resen t l e ve l a t a bou t 4 5 m b e low s ea l e ve l i n AD 1 922 . The modern r e mnan t o f Moer is L ake i s B irket Q arun —a l s ha low b rack ish l ake t ha t c over s a bou t 2 00 km2. G eo log ica l i nvest iga t ions o f t he l ake b egan a round t he t urn o ft he l c en tury a nd l ed t o t he r ecogn i t ion o fs evera l a n c ien t s hore l ines ( Beadne l 1 905 ; B rown 1 892 ; S chwe infur th 1 886 ) . I t was n o t u n t i l t he 1 930s a f ter s ystema t ic i nvest iga t ions o f t hese a nc ien t s hor e l ines b y Thompson a nd l G ardner ( 1934 ) a nd S andf ord a nd A rke l ( 1929 ) , t ha t ad eta i led h i s tory o f l t he l ake b egan t o t ake s hape . I n 1 939 , B a l e va lua ted e x ist ing e v idence c a nd p resen ted a s yn thes is wh ich was w ide ly a cepted u n t i l more r ecen t i nvest igat ion s b y t he C omb ined P reh is tor ic E xped i t ion ( Sa id e ta l . 1 972a , 1 972b ; Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976 ) a nd b y aP o l ish m iss ion f r om t he l J age lon ian Un iver s ity ( Koz lowsk i 1 983 ) . I n 1 981 , Ib egan a s tudy o ft he l Quaternary g eo logy o f w estern F ayu m i n c o laborat ion w ith a n l Amer ican e xped i t ion l ed b yR ober t Wenke a nd Mary A len L ane . T he r esu l ts o fi nves t iga t ions b y t he C omb ined P reh istor ic E xped it ion p lace t he e ar l ies t H o locene l ake a t 9 000 b p . S evera l s uccess ive l akes a re led P r ecogn ized a nd c al a leo moer is ( 12 m ) , P re moer is ( 15-19 m ) , P rotomoer is ( 19-24 m ) , a nd Moer is l akes . T he r esu lts s uggest t hat t he l ake was r i s ing d ur ing t he N eo l ith ic o ccupa t ion a nd t ha ti ts t ood a ta bou t 2 3 m a s l d ur ing t he O ld K ingdom . My i nvest iga t ion s i n w estern F ayum c onf irm t he p resence o f d epos it s b e long ing t o t wo e ar ly H o locene l akes . T he d epos its a re a na logous t o t hose a ssoc iated w ith t he P a leo moer is , P remoer is a nd P rotomoer is l akes . D epos i ts o f am idd le Ho locene l ake ( t he Neo l ith ic /Predynast ic l ake ) , a nd a l a te Ho locene l ake ( h istor ica l l ake Moer is ) a re a lso r epresen ted . A ccord ing t o Wendorf a nd S ch i ld ( 1976 :222 ) , t he d epos its o f t he P a leomoer is L ake w ere s een o n ly i n o ne l o ca l ity a nd a re r epresen ted b y " f luv ia l " s and a nd d iatom ite . T hey e st ima te t he a ge o ft h is l ake s t age a t

2

F . A . Hassan a bou t 9 000 b p . T hey n ote d eep f o ss i l d es icca t ion c racks i n t he t op o ft he u pper d iatom ite u n it . The P o l ish m iss ion l o cated " l ake c ha lk a nd d ia tom ites" d ated a t o ne s i te t o 7 440 ± 6 0 b p ( B ln -Z336 ) a t a bou t 1 3 m a bove s ea l eve l . T hey a l so n oted d ry ing o ft he l ake a nd p rec ip ita t ion o f a nhydr ite s . I n w estern F ayum , Io bserved a s equence o f d iatomaceous d epos i ts w i th f o ss i l d es icca t ion c racks a t a bou t 1 1-12 m a s l . T he d ia tomaceous d epos i ts a re a ssoc ia ted w ith a lake b each d epos it . A Qarun ian s i te w as f ound o n t he s urface a nd i n terspersed w ith t he t op l ayer o f t he b each f ac ies . The d ates a ssoc iated w ith t h is s i te (Wenke , p ersona l c o mmun ica t ion ) a re : F S -2 F S -2 F S -2

T S -8 T S -12

L eve l2 L eve l4

8 220 ±1 05 b p 7 720 ±7 0b p 7 600 ±7 0b p

B e ta -4871 B e ta -4872 B e ta -4 180

Charcoa l Charcoa l Charcoa l

T he w e igh ted a verage o f t hese d a tes i s 7 715 ± 4 5 b p , u s ing L ong a nd R ippeteau 's ( 1974 ) me thod . T hese d iatomaceou s d epos its a re t hus s im i lar i n a ge t o t hose r epor ted b y t he P o l ish m iss ion a nd y ounger t han t hose p rev ious ly n oted b y Wendorf a nd S ch i ld ( 1976 ) . A t S ite E 29G1 , A rea F , Wendorf a nd S ch i ld o ( 1976 ) r epor t s and w ith i nterca la t ions o f d ark , g ray ish b rown , l ose , p owdery s ed imen ts o ver ly ing t he d es iccated s urface o ft he P a leomoer is d ia tomaceous d epos i t s . Ad a te o f8 100 ± 130 b p ( 1 -4128 ) o n c har coa l w as o b ta ined a t t hat s i te f r om a n o ccupat ion a t 1 5 m a s l c on temporaneous w i th amat o fs wampy d epos it . A t S i te E 29H1 , ad a te o f8 070 ±1 15 b p ( I 4 126 ) was o bta ined f r om a s im i lar l ayer ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976 :192 ) . Ano ther d a te o f7 500 ± 1 25 b p w as o bta ined f r om a term ina l P a leo l i th ic o ccupat ion i n ad ark l ayer a t S i te E 29G3 a t 1 2 .2 m a s l . Wendorf a nd S ch i ld a ss ign t hese d epos its t o t he P remoer is s tage a nd n ote t ha t t he s tage was f o lowed b y ad rop o f t he l ake t o b e low 1 2 m a s l . A f ter t h is l r ecess ion t he l ake r o se a ga in t o 1 9 m a s l a nd p oss ib ly 2 4 m a s 1 f o rm ing t he P roto moer is L ake . T he d epos i ts o ft h is l ake a re r epresen ted b y s and a nd s andy s i lt w ith i n terca la t ions o f s wampy d epos i ts ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976 :201) . T he d epos i ts a re s im i lar t ot hose o ft he P remoer is l ake , b u ta n u nconf orm ity s epara tes t he d epos i ts o ft he t wo l akes . One d a te o n b urn t s he l i sa ssoc ia ted w i th t he d epos i ts o ft he P ro to moer is l ake . T he l d a te i s7 140 ±b p( 1 -4129 ) . I t t hus a ppears t hat t he s equence c ons ists o f P a leomoer is d ia tomaceous d epos i t s p reda t ing 8 100 b p , f o lowed b y a Premoer is L ake l w e l d ated t o 8 100 b p . T he r ecess ion o f t he P re moer is L ake was l a ssoc iated w ith t he f o rma t ion o fd ia tomaceous d epos its s im i lar t o t hose o ft he P a leomoer is l ow l ake . T h is l ake s tage b etween t he P remoer is a nd

3

Ho locene N i le F loods l P rotmoer is l akes i s w e l d a ted t o a bou t 7 800 b p . T he d a te o f7 440 ±6 0 b pf r om t he t op o ft he d ia tomaceou s d epos i ts , a nd t he d a te o f7 500 ±1 25 b p o n s wampy d epos it s , s ugges ts t ha t t he t rans it ion f r om t he d ia toma ceous l ake t o t he s wampy c ond i t ions o ft he h igher P rotomoer is l ake o ccurred a round 7 450 b p . T he P rotomoer is l ake , g iven t he 7 140 ± 120 b p d a te , was f o l lowed b y a r ecess ion p reced ing t he r i se o f t he Neo l ith ic l ake . Q arun ian s i tes ( M0E2 , MOE2b , MOE2c ) a t 2m b e low s ea l eve l ( Mu ss i e t a l . 1 980 :F ig . l a ) p robab ly b e long t ot h is p hase o fl ake r ecess ion . T he d epos i ts o ft he N eo l i th ic l ake i n n or thern F ayum a re r ecorded a t S i te K o rn W ( E29H2 ) a nd c ons ist mos t ly o fp a le b rown s and (Wendor fa nd S ch i ld 1 976 :213 ) . T he d a tes a ssoc ia ted w i th t he N eo l i th ic o ccupa t ion a re 5 810 ±1 15 b p ( 1 -4172 ) f r om al e ve l a t1 7 ma s l , a nd 5 860 ±1 15 b p ( 1 -4131) a t 1 5 m a s l . I n w estern F ayum , N eo l i th ic l ake d epos its a re e ncoun tered a bou t2 .5 km s ou thwest o f Mad ien t Qu ta a nd c ons ist most ly o fp a le b rown s and . AN eo l ith ic b each f a c ies was a l so e ncoun tered i n a ssoc ia t ion w ith t he N eo l i th ic S i te F S -1 (Wenke e ta l . 1 983 ) . T he N eo l ith ic a rchaeo log ica l r e ma ins a re w ide ly d i sper sed a t t he s urface . H ear th s t ones , f i sh b ones , a nd a r t ifac ts w ere l o ca ted i n t he s and o ft he l ake . The s and i s med ium g ra ined , v ery p a le b rown ( 10YR 7 / 4 ) . B each d epo s i ts ( Sec t ion Qq54 ) o ft he h igh s tand o f t he l ake o ver l ie t he a r t ifac t -bear ing s and a nd c ons ist o f v ery c oarse -gra ined t o med ium -gra ined s and w ith f l a t , wel l-rounded s h ing le . I n a nother s ec t ion ( Qq55 ) , d epos its o f as wampy f ac ies w ere e xposed . L i th ic a r t ifac ts a nd c eram ics w ere f ound embedded i n v ery f i ne g ra ined s and u nder ly ing a d ark , c arbonaceous s i lt a t a nother l o ca l ity ( GS2 ) . S i te F S -1 i sd a ted t o5 160 ± 70 b p ( Beta -4181 ) o n c harcoa l ( Wenke p ersona l c o mmun ica t ion ) . T he l ake d epos i t s a re a t a bou t 2 0 m a s l . The r esu lts o f t he P o l ish m iss ion t o n or thern F ayu m s uggest a s epara t ion b etween a" wh i te s and " o fN eo l i th ic a ge a nd a" brown s and " o f Dynast ic a ge . T he r esu l ts f r om t he C o mb ined P reh istor ic E xped it ion a nd my o wn o bservat ions i nd icate t hat t he N eo l ith ic s ed i men ts a re p redom inant ly p a le b rown ( f ro m p a le y el o b rown ) s and w ith low t i n ter ca la t ion o fd ark c arbonaceous l ayers a nd wh i te s and . The t wo t ypes o fs and a re most p robab ly r e la ted t od if erences i nf a c ies r a ther t han a ge . T he d ates o bta ined b y t he P o l ish m iss ion ( Koz l owsk i 1 983 :119 ) i nd icate t ha tt he t op o fN eo l ith ic l ake d epos i t s s i tua ted a t2 0 m a s l a tS ite QS V /79 i sd a ted t o 6 075 ± 50 b p ( B ln -2335 ) a nd 5 990 ± 60 b p ( Gd -693 ) . T he e ar ly d ates n ow a va i lab le o n t he F ayum N eo l ith ic i nd ica te t ha t t he N eo l ith ic l ake p robab ly r ose b ef ore t he e nd o ft he s even th m i len ium b p a nd may l h ave c rested a s e ar ly a s 6 500 b p . Al i s t o fd a tes f o r t he F ayu m N eo l ith ic a nd t he l a te F ayum N eo l ith ic ( a lso r ef erred t o a s t he P redyna st ic ) i s g iven i n T ab le 1 . 1 i n r ad iocarbon y ear s b ef ore p resen t .

4

F . A . Hassan Tab le 1 . 1:

Da tes , i n r ad ioca rbon y ears b e fo re p resen t , f or F ayu m Neo l i th ic a nd L a te F ayu m Neo l i th ic ( Predynas t ic ) s i tes

S i te F ayu m

Da te bp

Lab

No .

5 540 5 555 5 645 5 650 5 810 5 860 5 990 6 075 6 095 6 290 6 290 6 39 1 6 380 6 480

Od 1140 B in -2333 B i n2334 Gd 1495 1 -4 172 1 -4 131 Gd -693 B in -2325 C -457 Gd -980 Gd -979 C -550 & 5 5 1 Gd 1499 Od -202 1

Reference

Neo l i th ic

1 / 79 1 /79 1 /79 V IE /8 1 K om K S i te R V /79 V /79 U ppe r K X /81-5 X /81-2 U ppe r K I X /81 X 1/81

± 7 0 ± 6 0 + 5 5 + 7 0 ±100 ±115 ± 6 0 ± 5 0 ±2 50 ±110 ±1 00 ±180 ± 6 0 ± 7 0

G in te r e t a t 1 982 G in te r e t a l . 1 982 G in te r e t a t 1 982 G in te r p e rsona l c ommun ica t ion Wendo r f a nd S ch i ld 1 976 Wendor f a nd S ch i ld 1 976 G in te r e t a t 1 982 G in te r o f a l . 1 982 L i bby 1 955 G in te r p e rsona l c ommun ica t ion G in te r p e rsona l c ommun ica t ion L i bby 1 955 G in te rp e rsona l c ommun ica t ion G in te rp e rsona l c ommun ica t ion

r ed t L a te F ayu m Neo l i th ic ( a lso r e fer o a s t he P redynas t ic ) V II A /80 I V IA /80 I V IA /80 A ve rage F S 1 F S -2 F S -2 A ve rage X -81 N .F ayum V ID /80

5 070 5 480 5 160 5 224 5 160 4 960 5 475 5 284 5 330 5 388 5 4 10

± 10 ± 10 ±1 20 ± 9 0 ± 7 0 ±1 60 ± 7 0 ±1 20 ±1 00 ± 4 5 ± 10

Gd -895 Gd -977 Gd -9 15

G in te r e t a t 1 982 G in te rp e rsona l c ommun ica t ion G in te r e t a t 1 982

B e ta -4 18 1 B e ta -4 182 B e ta -4874

Wenke p e rsona l c ommun ica t ion Wenke p e rsona l c ommun ica t ion Wenke p e rsona l c ommun ica t ion

Gd -978 BM -530 Gd -903

G in te rp e rsona l c ommun ica t ion B a rke ro f a t 1 97 1 G in te r e t a t 1 982

S i tes a nd a r t ifac ts a ssoc iated w ith t he L a te N eo l ith ic ( Predynast ic ) i nd ica te t ha t t he l ake w as s t i l h igh b y a bou t 5 160 b p a s i nd ica ted b yt he l r e ma ins a t S ite F S 1 ( Wenke e ta l . 1 983 ) . A f terwards t he l ake b egan t o s hr ink . Gardner ( i n C aton -Thompson a nd G ardner 1 934 :15 ) r ecogn ized s hore l ines a ssoc ia ted w i th t he s hr ink ing N eo l ith ic l ake a t 1 0 m a nd 4 m a s l I n w estern F ayum , Il o ca ted d ia tomaceous d epos its a t 1 5 m b e low s ea l eve l f o lowed b y p rog rada t ion t o a bou t 8m b e low s ea l e ve l i n a dra in a t l E zbe t G ebe l S aad . T he s equence c ons is ts o f1 .7 m o fd ia tomaceous e ar th o ver la id b y 3 . 5 m o fs i l t , wh ich a re i n t urn o ver la id b y 1 m o fc l ayey s i lt c apped b y 4m o fs i l t . T he s equence r epresen t s ac y c le b eg inn ing w ith t he s ha low l ake d epos i ts w ith g radua l c hange i n to d eeper b as in c ond it ions . l The s t rat igraph ic p os it ion o ft hese d epos its s t rong ly s uggests t ha t t hey b e long t o al ake s tage p redat ing t he O ld K ingdo m h igh s tand a nd p os tda t ing t he N eo l ith ic l ake . T he s hr ink ing o ft he N eo l ith ic l ake t hus s eems t o h ave r eached a n ad ir s o met ime d ur ing t he E ar ly Dynast ic ( A rcha ic ) p er iod . Bu t zer ( 1976 :28 ) , i n ad i scuss ion o ft he r esu lts o b ta ined b yB e l ( 1970 ) , s ugges t s t ha t t he r ecord o f6 3 a nnua l f l oods f r om t he e ar ly l 5

Ho locene N i le F loods d ynast ies i nd ica tes t hat f l ood l eve ls s how a g enera l d ec l ine t ha t was r most r ap id d ur ing t he f i rst a nd e ar ly s econd d ynasty ( about 3 000 BC o xper ienced o ne o ft he 4 350 b p ) . T he y ear 1 4 o fN ine t ier ( abou t 2 913 BC) e l owest f l oods ( Bu tzer 1 984 ) . T he e v idence o f l ake l e ve l d ur ing t he O ld K ingdom s ugges ts t ha t a f ter i t s d ras t ic r ecess ion t he l ake r ap id ly r ose t oa bou t2 4m a s lb y3 890 ± 4 5 b p ( about 2 460 B C /F if th Dynas ty ) . The a verage l ake l e ve l was a round 1 8-22 m d ur ing t he O ld K ingdo m ( Bu tzer 1 976 :36 ) . T he r ap id r i se o ft he O ld K ingdom l ake s eems t o h ave h appened a f ter t he F our th Dynas ty ( 2650-2500 BC o r4 050-3920 b p ) when t he l ake l e ve l s t ood a ta bou t 2m b e low s ea l eve l ( Ca ton -Thompson a nd G ardner 1 934 :15 ) . T he O ld K ingdom a rt ifac ts n oted b y C aton -Tho mpson a nd Gardner ( 1929 :46 ) b e low Qasr e l -Sagha T emp le a t 4a nd 1 3 m a s l p robab ly b e long t o t he r i s ing l eve l o f t he O ld K ingdo m l ake f r om i t s n ad ir d ur ing t he e ar ly d ynas t ies t oi t s max imum a f ter t he F our th Dynas ty . T here a re n o d a ted d epos i ts d a t ing t o t he F irs t I n termed ia te , b ut i ti s g enera ly b e l ieved t ha t t h is was a per iod o fl ow N i le f l oods . B e l ( 1971 , l l 1 975 ) e xam ined n umerous t exts f r om t hat p er iod a nd c onc luded t ha t s evera l c atastroph ica ly l ow N i le f l oods o ccurred b etween 2 250 a nd l p erhaps 1 950 BC ( 3730— ?3500 b p ) . B u tzer ( 1984 :107 ) a l so c onc luded f r om a n e va lua t ion o ft he h istor ica l d ocumen ts t ha t a t l east t wo e p isodes o f c a tastroph ic N i le f a i lures o ccur round 2 200 BC a nd 2 002 BC ( abou t r ed a 3 700 a nd 3 540 b p ) . L ake l e ve l d ur ing t he M idd le K ingdom was r e la t ive ly h igh . A ccord ing t o B a l ( 1939 :202-7 ) t he l ake l eve l s t ood a t a bou t 1 6 .5 m d ur ing t he l ow l r 3 535 -3510 b p . ) . N i le s eason a t t he t ime o f Amenmha t1 (19911961 BC o Bu tzer ( 1976 :37 ) s uggested t ha t t he l ake s t ood a t a bou t 1 5 m a s l w ith a l e ve l o fa bou t1 8 m d ur ing t he f l ood s eason . B u tzer ( 1984 :107 ) a l so n otes t hat N i le f l ood r ecords i nd icate t hat f l oods h igher t han a t p resen t o ccur r om 1 840 t o1 770 BC ( abou t 3 400 t o3 365 b p ) . But h e a l so n o tes red f ( i b id . ) t hat l ow f l oods o ccurred a t a bou t 1 200 BC ( abou t 2 925 ) . T he l ake l e ve l may t hus h ave b een l ow a tt ha tt ime . , H erodo tu s v i s ited t he F ayum a nd r epor ted av as t l ake . A round 4 50 BC B a l s uggested t ha t t he l ake o sc i lat ed s easona ly b etween 1 7 .8 a nd 2 0 m l l l a t t ha t t ime . I n 1 982 , Il o ca ted l ake s horef ace s ed imen ts u nder ly ing a f a len b lock f r om t he p edesta ls o f t he B iyahmu c o loss i w itnessed b y l H erodo tus ( he t hough t l ok ing f r om ad i stance t ha t t hey were p y ram ids ) . o T he s ed i men ts w ere a bove t he b ase o n wh ich t he p edesta ls w ere e rected a nd i nd ica te t ha t t he l ake must h ave r i sen t o a bou t 2 0 m f o low ing t he l c onstruc t ion o f t he c o loss i s uggest ing t hat t he l ake may h ave i ndeed 2325 b p ) when Herodotus w as i n t he s t ood a t a bou t 2 0m a s l a t 4 50 BC ( F ayum .

6

F . A . Hassan I n e ar ly P to lema ic t imes ar ec lama t ion p ro jec t c on tro led f r ee i n f lux o f l N i le f l oods i n to t he l ak e . B y2 80 BC t he l ake s t ood l e ss t han 5m b e low s ea ts t ood l e ss t han 7m b e low s ea l e ve l l eve l . Dur ing t he s e cond c en tury AD i a nd d ropped t o 1 5 m b e low s ea l eve l d ur ing t he n ex t c en tury ( Ba l l 1 939 :210 ; S ahaf e i 1 960 ) . B y AD 1 245 t he l ake d ropped t o3 0 mb e low s ea l eve l( Shaf e i1 960 :194 ,1 940 :32 ) , a nd t oi t sp resen tl e ve la ta bou t4 5mb e low s ea l e ve la t AD 1 922 ( Shaf e i1 960 :194 ) . Ar econstruct ion o f Ho locene v ar ia t ions i n t he l eve ls o f L ake Q arun f rom g eo log ica l o bservat ions i n c o mb ina t ion w ith h istor ica l d ata i s s hown o n F ig . 1 .2 . The M idd le Ho locene H ia tus l T he e ar ly a nd m idd le H o locene i ndustr ies i n t he N i le V a ley c ons is t o f t he A rk in ian , S hamark ian , Kab ian , a nd Q arun ian ( Hassan 1 980 ) . T he Qarun ian , a s n oted a bove i sk nown f r om t he F ayum Oas is . T he s i tes d a te f r om a bou t8 220 b pt o7 180 b p ( Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 976 ; Wenke e t a l . 1 983 ) . Abundant f i sh r e ma ins s uggest t hat f i sh ing was a n i mpor tan t s ubs istence a c t iv ity . B ones o fw i ld c at nd h ar tebeest a nd tle a m icro l ith ic g eometr ic s i nd ica te t he p rac t ice o fh un t ing . G r ind ing s t ones were p resen t a nd t hough w e may a ssume t hat t hey w ere u sed f o r p rocess ing p lan ts , t he re i sn o e v idence f o r d omest ica t ion . A t H ierakonpo l is , where P redynast ic s i tes ( Amra t ian t o G erzean ) a re l o ca ted ( Hofm 982 ) , t he e ar l ier s i tes i n t he r eg ion a re t hose o ft he f an 1 Kab ian i ndu stry ( Vermeer sch 1 978 ) . T he K ab ian , d a t ing a round 8 000 b p , d id n o tp rov ide a ny e v idence f o r d omest ica t ion . F ar ther s outh i n Nub ia , t he e ar ly Ho locene i ndustr ies i nc lude t he A rk in ian a nd t he S hamark ian . The A rk in ian ( Sch i ld e t a l . 1 968 ) i s k nown f r om t he Wad i Ha ifa a rea a nd d ates t o 1 0 ,700 b p . F ish a nd h ar tebeest b ones a nd g r ind ing s tones a re f ound a t t he s i tes . T he S hamark ian ( Sch i ld e ta l . 1 968 ) d a tes t o8 900 b p . F ish b ones ( La tes ) w ere r ecovered f r om o ne s i t e , b u t o ther a n ima l b ones a re r are t oa bsen t . T he r ad iocarbon d a tes f r om t hese p re -Neo l ith ic H o locene s i tes ( a l o n l c harcoa l ) i n r ad iocarbon y ear s b p a re g iven i nT ab le 1 .2 . T he e ar l iest d a ted " Neo l ith ic " s e t lemen ts i n t he N i le Va ley , E gypt , t l a re i n t he F ayum d epress ion . T he o ldest o f t hese s e t le ments i s w e l t l d a t ed t o6 350 ±5 0b p o r5 230 ±5 0 BC ( Hassan 1 985b )b ased o n d a tes f r om t hree s i tes ( IX , X , X 1 ) a t Q asr e lS agha ( G in ter e ta l . 1 982 ) . A t Mer imda t B en i S a lama , t he d a te s f r om e ar ly l e ve ls i nd ica te t ha t t he s e t lemen tw as e s tab l ished b eg inn ing a bou t 5 900 b p o r 4 800 BC ( Hassan 1 985b ) b ased o n s evera l d ates b y O lsson ( 1959 ) a nd more r ecent d eterm ina t ions k ind ly 7

Ho locene N i le F loods p rov ided t o me b y R . Kuper f r om t he r ecen t e xcavat ions b y t he G erman m iss ion . I n Upper E gypt , a gr icu ltura l c o mmun it ies f r o m Hemam ieh a re d a ted t oa bou t5 380 b p o r4 250 BC ( Hassan 1 984c ) . The o ldest i ndus try w ith c eram ics i n Upper E gypt i s a t E lTar if n ear L uxor ( G in ter e t a l . 1 982 ) a nd i sd a ted t o6 310 ±8 0 b p o r 5 185 ±1 20 BC. L a ter s i tes f r om t he Nagada Ip hase d a te t oa bou t5 000 b p o r3 800 BC ( Hassan 1 984b ) . I n t he S udan , t he e ar l ies t" Neo l i th ic " c o mmun i t ies a re d a ted t oa bout 5 900 b p o r 4 800 B Ca t Umm D ire iwa I( Haa land 1 979 ) a nd I s lang ( E l -Anwar 1 981) . T here i st hus c l ear ly ah ia tus i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord b etween t he Ho locene p re -Neo l ith ic s i tes a nd t he Neo l i th ic a nd P redynast ic s i tes . T he ma jor ity o ft he p re -Neo l i th ic H o locene s i tes d a te n o l a ter t han 7 400 b p ; t he y oungest d ate i s 7 140 b p . The o ldest d ate o n t he N eo l ith ic /Predynast ic s i tes o r P ost -Pa leo l ith ic s i tes w ith p ot n t he t ery i N i le Va ley i s6 350 b p . T here i st hus ah ia tus o f a t l east 8 00 y ear si nt he l r ecord o fr ad iocarbon d a tes . T ab le 1 .2 : Rad ioca rbon d a tes o n c harcoa l i nr ad iocarbon y ea rs b p f or p re -Neo l i th ic Ho locene s i tes I ndus try /S i te

Da te bp

L ab .

Reference

No .

A rk in lan 1 0 ,670

±110

SMU -58 1

Wendor f e t . a /1 979

8 860

± 9 0

SMU -582

Wendo r f e t . a ll 9 79

8 340

±1 60

L v -393

V e rmee rsch 1 978

7 990

±1 50

L v -464

V e rmee rsch 1 978

7 930

±1 60

L v -465

V e rmee rsch 1 978

8 095

± 7 5

G rN -7 188C

V e rmee rsch 1 978

7 885

± 5 0

G rN -7 190

V e rmee rsch 1 978

8 090

± 7 5

G rN -7 189C

V e rmee rsch 1 978

8 220

±1 05

B e ta -487 1

Wenke p e rsona l

F S -2

7 720

+

7 0

B e ta -4872

Wenke

p e rsona l c ommun ica t ionFS -2

7 600

±

7 0

B e ta -4 180

Wenke

±1 30

1 -4 128

Wendo r f a nd S ch i ld 1 976

D I WI Sha mark lan D I W5 1 Kab lan E lKab 1

E lKab 2 E lKab 3 Oarun lan F S -2 c ommun ica t ion

p e rsona l c ommun ica t ion E 29G IF

8 100

E 29G IE

7 140

±1 20

1 4 129

Wendo r f a nd S ch i ld 1 976

E l9H 1

8 070

± 15

1 -4 126

Wendo r f a nd S ch i ld 1 976

E 29G3

7 500

±1 25

1 -4 130

Wendo r f a nd S ch i ld 1 976

1 / 79

8 835

±8 90

Gd -709

1 /79

7 440

± 6 0

B ln -2336

8

K oz lowsk i K oz lowsk i

1 983 1 983

F . A . Hassan T h is h iatu s i s most l i ke ly ar esu lt o ft he d rop i n t he N i le l e ve l a t a bou t 7 000 b p a nd p erhaps a c en tury e ar l ier , s igna l ing a ma jor r ecess iona l e p isode t ha t may h ave l a sted u n t i l 6 500 b p . T he r ecord f r om t he F ayum Oas is d iscussed a bove s hows a drop o ft he l e ve l o ft he l ake f o low ing t he l P ro tomoer is s tage ( 7 140 b p ) . G iven ad a te f o r ah igh N i le l e ve l a t 7 060 ± 1 20 b p ( Y -1664 ) f r om Nub ia (Wend t1 966 ) , t he ma in d rop p robab ly b egan a bou t 7 000 b p . T he d rop was s uf i c ien t ly l ong t oa low ar edd ish p a leoso l l t o d eve lop o n t he l a custr ine d epos i ts o f e ar l ier l ake s tages t hat w ere e xposed u nder s ubaer ia l c ond it ions . T he p a leoso l was f i rst n oted b y Wendorf a nd S ch i ld ( 1976 :225 ) . Ir ecorded a p a leoso l i n as im i lar s t ra t igraph ic p os i t ion p os t -da t ing t he Qarun ian s i te a t F S -2 i n w estern F ayum . The d rop o ft he l ake was s o d rast ic t ha t Wendorf a nd S ch i ld ( 1976 :225 ) s uspec t t ha t t he l ake may h ave t o ta ly d r ied u p f r om 7 000 t o l 6 000 b p ! Deser tO r ig ins I ts hou ld b e n oted h ere t ha t a n i n terva l o fs evere a r id i ty o ccurred i n t he Western D eser to fE gyp ta ta bou t7 100-6900 /6500 ( Hassan 1 984c ) . T he s ynchron ism b etween t he l ow N i le f l oods a nd d ry c ond i t ions i n t he d eser t i s n ot s urpr is ing s in ce t he s ource o f r a in i n t he Western D eser t i s s upposed t o b e a n e x tens ion o ft he monsoona l r a in b e lt f r om wh ich t he N i le i sa l so f ed (Wendorf a nd S ch i ld 1 980 ) . A ccord ing ly , Ip ropose t ha t s i tes f r om a bou t 7 000 t o 6 500 b p w ere p laced c l ose t o t he c hanne l o ft he N i le i n r esponse t o t he w eak N i le f l oods . T hese s i tes a re l i ke ly t o h ave b een d estroyed b y t he h igher f l oods o ft he N i le d ur ing t he i n terva l f r om 6 500 t o 5 000 b p when t he N eo l ith ic l ake i n t he F ayum was e xpand ing . The h igh N i le f l oods most l i ke ly l ed p eop le t o p lace t he ir s e t le men ts i n t he d eser tb order ing t he f l ood p la in a nd o n t he l ow d eser t t t erraces o ver look ing t he f l ood p la in where a l o ft he k nown P redynas t ic l s i tes a re f ound a s a t H emam ih , Nagada , a nd H ierakonpo l is . T he d rop i n t he h e igh t o f N i le f l oods b y a bout 5 000 b p , s ynchronous w ith t he t ran s it ion f r om Nagada It o Nagada I i n Upper E gyp t , was a ssoc iat ed most l i ke ly w ith g reater emphas is o n a gr icu lture a nd l ed t o t he r e loca t ion o f s et t lemen ts c l oser t o t he c hanne l . T h is i s c l ear f r om t he d is tr ibut ion o f t he c eram ics i n t he H ierakonpo l is a rea ( M . Hofm , f an p er sona l c o mmun icat ion ) , a nd t he l a ck o fG erzean v i lages a nd h am le ts l i n t he Nagada r eg ion ( t he o n ly s et t lemen ts a re t he u rban o nes a t S ou th T own a nd North T own ) . T h is a l so e xp la ins t he e xtreme r ar ity o f t erm ina l P redynast ic ( Nagada I I ) s i tes i n E gyp t i mmed ia te ly p reced ing t he n ad ir o fN i le r ece ss ion d ur ing t he e ar ly d ynas t ies . T here i s a t p resent n o e v idence f or e i ther p lant o r a n ima l d omest icat ion i n t he N i le V a ley p r ior t o t he l a ter p ar t o f t he s even th l m i lenn ium b p . A lthough i t may b e s uspec ted t hat a gr icu lture m igh t l h ave b een d eve loped i ndependen t ly i n t he N i le V a ley d ur ing t he i n terva l l

9

Ho locene N i le F lood s o ft he h ia tus , t he p resen t s a mp le o fe ar ly H o locene s i tes s uggest s t ha tt he k nown s i tes f r om 1 0 ,670 t o 7 140 b p d o n o t h ave a ny e v idence f o r d omest ica t ion o f e i ther a n ima ls o r p lan ts . T he s ubs istence r eg i me i s l i ke ly t o h ave b een o ne o f f i sh ing , h un t ing , a nd p lan t g ather ing . I n s et t le men ts , s uch a s t hose a t wh ich t he Q arun ian h as b een f ound , f i sh ing m ight h ave b een t he p r imary s ubs istence a c t iv ity . Numerous h ear th a reas s ugges t t ha t f i sh w ere p robab ly d r ied a nd s t ored . There i s t hus s uf ient e v idence t o p rec lude a ssu m ing t ha t fic a gr icu lture o r f ood r a is ing was i ndependen t ly d eve loped i n t he N i le Va ley p r ior t o i t s i ncep t ion i n t he e astern S ahara . A lthough f u ture l e v idence may r evea l o therw ise ( C lark 1 980 ) , t he p resent d ata o n d eser t if ica t ion d ur ing t he e ar ly p ar t o ft he s even th m i lenn ium b p , a nd l i t s p robab le i mpac t o n t he d eser t N eo l ith ic p astora l ists i n a manner a na logous t o t hat af ec t ing t he S ahe l p eop le t oday , s t rong ly s uggest t ha t f ood p roduct ion was i ntroduced i nto t he N i le Val r om t he l ey f s urround ing d eser t r eg ions . T h is i s a lso s uggested b y s im i lar it ies b etween s o me Neo l ith ic S aharan a nd N i lot ic e l e men ts ( Hassan a nd Ho lmes 1 985 ) . I n a dd i t ion , t he k nown s i tes f r om t he t enth m i lenn ium l b p , i n t he p er iod p reda t ing t he a ppearance o fa g r icu lture , a re i n g enera l d if f erent i n t he ir t echno log ica l a nd t ypo log ica l t rad it ions f r om t he Neo l ith ic /Predynast ic a gr icu ltura l s i tes . T here i s a lso n o e v idence o f p ot r om t he p re -agr icu l tura l s i tes , e xcept a tE lTar if . tery f The m idd le Ho locene d ry p er iod mark ing t he b eg inn ing o f d eser t if ica t ion o ccurred a t a bou t 7 100-6900 /6600 b p ( c f . Hassan 1 984d ; Haynes , 1 982c , Wendorf a nd Hassan 1 980 ) . A tt ha t t ime , a tl eas ts o me o f t he i nhab itan t s o ft he Western D eser t o fE gyp tp ra c t ised h erd ing o fc at l e t a nd o v icapr ids , a s w e l a s c u l t iva t ion o f b ar ley ( C lark 1 980 :567 ; A . B . l Sm ith 1 980 , 1 984 ) . D omes t ica t ion , " managemen t , " o r " t am ing " o fc at tle d a t ing t o9 000 b p o re ven e ar l ier h as b een s ugg est ed ( C lose 1 984 ; Wendor f a nd S ch i ld 1 980 :266 ) . Cu l t iva t ion o fb ar ley i sd a ted a t Nabta t o8 100 b p ( S tem ler a nd F a lk 1 980 ) . The f ood p roduc ing c o mmun it ies o f t he Wes tern D eser t w ere mos t l i ke ly n omad ic a nd n ot u n l ike p resen t p astora l n o mads i n t he Wes t A f r ican S ahe l a nd t he Hoggar ( C lark 1 980 :567 ; S .E . Sm ith 1 980 ) . T h is mode o fl i f e was , a s i ti st oday , n ecess i ta ted b y t he g reat v ar iab i l ity o f r a inf a l f r om o ne y ear t o t he n ex t a nd t he u npred ic tab i l ity o f where g ood l p astures a nd wa ter a re l i ke ly t ob e f ound . I t was t he i mpac t o ft he m id -Ho locene d rough t s t ha t a re l i ke ly t oh ave l ed t o t he d i spersa l o f p as tora l S aharan f o lk , a l ready i n p ossess ion o f r ud i men tary a gr icu lture a nd p ot nto t he N i le Va ley a nd p robab ly tery i l s ou th o ft he S ahe l( Ha ssan 1 977 ,1 984a ,1 984b ) .

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F . A . Hassan

Acknow ledge ments I thank R obert Wenke a nd Mary A l lan L ane f o r t he o pportun ity t o c on tr ibute t o t he F ayyu m P ro ject , t he G eo log ica l S urvey o f Egypt f o r l og ist ic s upport i n t he f i e ld , J i l Kap lan f o r f i e ld a ss istance , a nd T . E l l D if tar a nd D . L . Ho l mes f o r p ar t ic ipa t ion i n t he e xcurs ion t o B iyahmu .

Ref erences Ba l ,J . 1 939 . C on tr ibu t ions t ot he G eography o f Egyp t . C a iro : E gypt l G overn men t P ress . Barker , H . , Bur le igh , R . a nd Meeks , N . 1 971 . B r it ish Museu m n atura l r ad iocarbon measure ments V 1 . Rad iocarbon 1 3 :166 . 1 B eadne l , H . J .L . 1 905 . T he T opography a nd G eo logy o f t he F ayum l P rov ince o f Egyp t . C a iro : E gypt S urvey D epar tment . B e l , B . 1 970 . The o ldest r ecords o ft he N i le f l oods . G eogr . J ourna l l 1 36 :569-73 . .1 971 . The d ark a ges i n a nc ient h istory . Amer . J . A rchaeo l . 7 5 :1-26 . . 1975 . C l i ma te a nd h istory o f Egypt : t he M idd le K ingdo m . Amer . J . Archaeo l . 7 9 :223-69 . B rown , R . 1 892 . T he F ayum a nd L ake Moer is . L ondon : Edward S andf ord . Bu tzer , K . W . 1 959 . Env ironmen t a nd h uman e co logy i n Egypt d ur ing p redynast ic a nd e ar ly d ynast ic t imes . Bul t in d e l aS oc ié té le G&graph ie d 'Egyp te 3 2 :43-87 . . 1976 . Ear ly Hydrau l ic C iv i l iza t ion i n Egyp t . Ch icago : The Un ivers ity o fC h icago P ress . .1 984 . L ong -ter m N i le f l ood v ar ia t ion a nd p o l it ica l d iscon t inu it ies i n P haraon ic Egypt . I n F rom Hun ters t o F armers ( eds J .D . C lark a nd S .A . B randt ) : p p . 1 02-12 . B erke ley : Un ivers ity o fC a l if orn ia P ress . C aton -Tho mpson , G . a nd Gardner , E . 1 929 . R ecent w ork o n t he p rob lem o fL ake Moer is . G eogr . J ourna l 7 3 :20-60 .

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Ho locene N i le F loods .1 934 . T he D eser t F ayu m . I nst itu te .

L ondon :

R oya l An thropo log ica l

C lark , J .D . 1 971 . Ar e -exam inat ion o ft he e v idence f o r a gr icu l tura l o r ig ins i n t he N i le Va l ley . P roceed ings o ft he P reh is tor ic S oc ie ty 3 7 :34-79 . .1 980 . Human p opu la t ions a nd c u ltura l a daptat ions i n t he S ahara a nd N i le d ur ing p reh istor ic t imes . I n T he S ahara a nd t he N i le ( eds M . A . J . Wi l l ia ms a nd H . F aure ) : p p . 5 27-82 . R ot t erdam : B a lke ma . C lose , A . E . 1 984 . Curren t r esearch a nd r ecen t r ad iocarbon d a tes f r om n or thern A f r ica I . J ourna l o f Af r ican H is tory 2 5 :1-24 . E l -Anwar , S . 1 981 . A rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions o n t he w est b ank o ft he R iver N i le i n t he Khar toum a rea . Nya me Aku ma 1 8 :42-5 . Gardner , E . W . 1 929 . The o r ig in o ft he F ayum D epress ion : a cr it ica l c o mmentary o n a new v iew o fi t s o r ig in . G eogr . J ourna l 7 4 :3718 3 . G inter , V . B . , K oz lowsk i , J .K . , P aw l ikowsk i , M . a nd S i lwa , J . 1 982 . E l T ar if u nd Qasr e l -Sagha , F orschungen z ur S ied lungsgesch ichte d es Neo l ith ikums , d er F rühpredynast ischen E poche u nd d es M it e iches . Mit i lung en d es D eu tschen A rchäo log ischen tleren R te I ns t i tu ts Ab te i lung Ka iro 3 8 :97-129 . Haa land , R . 1 978 . R epor t o nt he 1 979 s eason i nt he S udan . Nyame Aku ma 1 4 :62 . Hassan , F . A . 1 977 . Ho locene p a laeoc l i mate i n N orth A f r ica . P aper r ead a t t he 4 th meet ing o ft he S oc iety o fA f r ican ist A rchaeo log ists i n Amer ica , New O r leans . .1 980 . P reh istor ic s et t le ment s a long t he ma in N i le . I n T he S ahara a nd t he N i le . ( eds M .A . J . Wi l l iams a nd H . F aure ) : p p . 4 21-50 . R ot : B a lke ma . t erda m .1 984a . T oward a m ode l o fa gr icu ltura l d eve lop ment i n P redynast ic Egypt . I n P roceed ings o ft he i s t S ympos ium o n t he L a te P reh is tory o ft he N i le Bas in a nd t he S ahara ( eds L . K rzyzan iak a nd M . K obus iew icz ) . P oznan . .1 984b . Rad iocarbon c hrono logy o fP redynast ic Nagada s et t lements , Upper E gypt . C urr en t An thropo logy 2 5 :681-83 . .1 984c . Ar ad iocarbon d ate f r o m He mam ieh , Upper Egypt . Nyame Akuma 2 4 /25 .

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F . A . Hassan .1 984d . M id -Ho locene d eser t if i ca t ion a nd h uman r esponses i n t he Wes tern D eser to fE gyp t . P aper p resen ted a tt he 1 7th Annua l Chacmoo l C onf erence , C a lgary . .1 985a . F luv ia l s ystems a nd g eoarcheo logy i n a r id l ands : w ith e xamp les f r om N or th A f r ica , t he N ear E ast , a nd t he Amer ican S outhwest . I nA r chaeo log ica l S ed imen ts i n C on tex t ( eds J .K . S te in a nd W .R . F arrand ) : p p . 5 3-68 . O rono : C en ter f o rt he S tudy o f Ear ly Man . .1 985b . Rad iocarbon c hrono logy o fN eo l i th ic a nd P redynas t ic s i tes i n Upper E gypt a nd t he D e lta . T he A f r ican A r chaeo log ica l R ev iew 3 :95 -111 . .n .d . Quar tenary g eo logy o fw estern F ayum , E gyp t : A c on tr ibu t ion t ot he F ayyum A rchaeo log ica l P ro jec t . Ms . Hassan , F . A . a nd Ho lmes , D . L . 1 985 . T he a rchaeo logy o ft he Umm e l Dabad ib a rea , Kharga O as is , E gyp t . FRSU R esear ch P ro j ec t R epor t8 Z035 . C a iro : C a iro Un iver s i ty . Haynes , C . V . 1 982 . Quar tenary g eochrono logy o ft he Wes tern D eser t . I nF ir s t T hem . C onf . R emo te S ens ing o fA r id a nd S em i -Ar id L ands . : p p . 2 97-311 . C a iro . Hofm , M . 1 982 . T he P r edynas t ic o fH ierakonpo l is —An I n ter im f an R epor t . E gyp t ian S tud ies A ssoc ia t ion P ub . N o . 1 ,C a iro Un ivers i ty Herbar ium . O xf ord : T he A lden P ress . Huzayy in , S .A . 1 939 . S ome n ew l i gh to nt he b eg inn ing s o fE gyp t ian c i v i l iza t ion . Bu l e t in d e l aS oc ie te R oya le d e G eograph ie d 'Egyp te l 2 0 :203-73 . .1 950 . O r ig ins o fN eo l ith ic a nd s e t led l i f ei n E gyp t . Bu le t in d e l a t l S oc ie te R oya le d eG eograph ie d 'Egyp te 2 3 :175-81 . Koz lowsk i , J .K . 1 983 . Q asr e l -Sagha 1 890 . Warszawa -Krakow : P anstwowe Wydawn ic two Naukowe . L ibby ,W . F . 1 955 . Rad iocarbon Da tes . C h icago : Un iver s ity o f Ch icago P ress . L ong , A . a nd R ippeteau , R . 1 974 . T es t ing c on temporane ity a nd a verag ing r ad iocarbon d a tes . Amer ican An t iqu i ty 3 9 :20515 . Muss i , M . , C aneva , I .a nd Z arat i , A . 1 980 . More o n t he t erm ina l tin P a laeo l i th ic o ft he F ayyum D epress ion . P aper p resen ted a tt he I n terna t iona l S ympos ium o n t he O r ig in a nd Ear ly D eve lopmen t o f F ood -Produc ing C u l tur es i n Nor th -Eas tern A f r ica , P oznan .

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Ho locene N i le F loods O lsson , I . 1 959 . Uppsa la n a tura l r ad iocarbon measure men t s I . Rad iocarbon 1 : 87-102 . P assarge , S . 1 940 . D ie u r landschaf t Ägyptens u nd d ie l o ca l is ierung d er W iege d er A l täggyp t ischen Ku ltur . Nova A c ta L eopo ld ing 9 :771 52 . ton S a id , R . , A lbr it , C . , Wendorf , F . , S ch i ld , R . a nd K obus iew icz , M . 1 972a . R e marks o n t he H o locene g eo logy a nd a rchaeo logy o f N or thern F ayum D eser t . A rchaeo log ia P o Iona 1 3 :7-22 . .1 972b . Ap re l im inary r epor t o n t he H o locene g eo logy a nd a rchaeo logy o ft he n or thern F ayum D eser t . I nP laya L ake S ympos ium ( ed C . C . R eeves , J r . ) : p p . 4 1-61 . L ubbock : I cassa ls p ub l ica t ion n o . 4 . l S andf ord , K . S .a nd A rke l , W .J . 1 929 . P a leo l i th ic Man a nd t he N i le F a iyum D iv ide . C h icago : Un ivers ity o fC h icago P ress . O r ien ta l I ns t i tu te P ub l ica t ion 1 0 . S ch i ld , R , C hm ie lewsk i , M . a nd W ieckowska , H . 1 968 . The A rk in ian a nd S hamark ian I ndustr ies . I n T he P r eh is tor y o f Nub ia , V o l . 2 l ( ed F . Wendorf ) : p p . 6 51-767 . Da las : S ou thern Method is t Un ivers ity P ress . S chwe infur th , G . 1 886 . R e ise i n d as D epress ionsgeb iet i m Umkre ise d es F a jum i mJ anuar 1 886 . Z . G es . E rdk . 2 1 :96149 . r le S haf e i , A . 1 940 . F ayoum i r iga t ion a s d escr ibed b y Nabu ls i . B ul t in d e l aS oc ie te R oya le d e G eograph ie d 'Egyp te 2 0 :283-327 ; . 1960 . L ake Moer is a nd L ahun M i - Wer a nd R o -Hun : t he g rea t le N i le c on tro l p ro jec te xecu ted b yt he An c ien t Egyp t ians . B ul t in d e l aS oc ie te R oya le d e G eograph ie d 'Egyp te 3 3 :187-215 . t Sm ith , A . B . 1 980 . D omes t ica ted c a t le i n t he S ahara a nd t he ir i n troduc t ion i n to West A f r ica . I n T he S ahara a nd t he N i l e ( eds H . l t erdam A . J .W i l iams a nd H . F aure ) : p p . 4 89-501 . R ot : B a lkema . o 1 984 . T he o r ig ins o ff od p roduc t ion i n N or theast A f r ica . P a laeoco logy o fA f r ica 1 6 :317-24 . Sm ith , S .E . 1 980 . T he e nv ironmen ta l a dap ta t ion o fn omads i n West Amer ican S ahe l : ak ey t o u nderstand ing p reh istor ic p astora l is t s . l I n T he S ahara a nd t he N i le ( eds M . A . J .W i l iams a nd H . F aure ) : p terdam p . 4 67-87 . R ot : B a lkema . S te m ler , A . a nd F a lk . R . 1 980 . As cann ing e l ec tron m icroscope s tudy o f c erea l g ra ins f r om Nabta P laya . I n P r eh is tory o ft he E as tern

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F . A . Hassan S ahara ( eds F . Wendorf a nd R . S ch i ld ) : p p . 3 93-399 . N ew Y ork : A cade m ic P ress . V er meer sch , P .M . 1 978 . E lkab I , L 'E lKab ien , Ep ipa leo l i th ique d e l a lee d l V al u N i l E gyp t ien . B ruxe les : F onda t ion E gyp to log ique R e ine E l isabeth . Wendorf , F . a nd Hassan , F . 1 980 . Ho locene e co logy a nd p reh is tory i n t he Egyp t ian S aha ra . I n T he S ahara a nd t he N i le ( eds M . A . J . l terdam W i l iams a nd H . F aure ) : p p . 4 0719 . R ot : B a lkema . ley Wendorf , F . a nd S ch i ld , R . 1 976 . P reh is tory o ft he N i le V al . N ew Y ork : A cadem ic P ress . . 1980 . T he P r eh i s tory o ft he E as tern S ahara . A cade m ic P ress .

N ew Y ork :

Wendorf , F . , S ch i ld , R . , C lose , a nd Haas , H . 1 979 . An ew r ad iocarbon c hrono logy f o r p reh is tor ic s i tes i n Nub ia . J ourna l o fF ie ld A r chaeo logy 6 : 219 -23 . Wend t , W . E . 1 966 . Two p reh is tor ic a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i nE gyp t ian l Nub ia . P os t i la 1 02 :1-46 . Wenke , R . J . , Buck , P . , Han ley , J .R . , L ane , M . E . , L ong , J .a nd R edd ing , R . R . 1 983 . T he F ayyum a r chaeo log ica l p ro ject : p re l im inary r epor t o ft he 1 981 s eason . Amer ican R esear ch C en ter ter 1 i n Egyp tN ews let 22 :25-40 .

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r e la t ive t os ea l e ve l , h i s to r ica l a ccoun ts o fl a ke l e ve ls a nd N i le f l oods . C i rc les s how r ad ioca rbon d a tes o n l a ke d epos i ts ; h exagons s how s t ra t ig raph ic a ge e s t ima tes ; a nd r ec tanges , h i s to r ica l d a tes .

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P a leo l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic /P redynas t ic s i tes f r om n or the rn a nd s ou the rn E gyp t i s a l so s hown . T he c h rono logy o fd ynas t ic E gyp t i sb ased o n h i s to r ica ld a tes .

1 7

Ho locene N i le F loods

1 8

C l imat ic Change a nd Man i nt he S ahara B y N ico le P e t i t-Ma ir e , L abora to ir e d e GM log ie d u Qua t e rna ir e , CNRS , le Mar se il , F rance . I n troduc t ion Man b e ing v ery s en s i t ive t o e nv ironmen ta l v ar ia t ions , t he e qu i l ibr ium fer o f o ur s oc iet ies i s p ar t icu lar ly f rag i le i n t hose a reas wh ich s uf f r equen t a nd s evere a l tera t ions o ft he ir b iotope ; t he S aharo -Sahe l ian b e l ts b e long t o t hese u ns tab le z ones d ue t o t he h igh v ar iab i l i ty o f monsoon o r s ub trop ica l p rec ip ita t ion ( Rognon 1 976 ; Ma ley 1 983 ) . I n t he l a st t en l y ear s , a n i ncreas ing n umber o fo bserva t ions h as a lowed t he c orre la t ion o f t he ir c l i ma t ic e vo lu t ion w i th t he g loba l c hanges r ecorded i n o cean ic l c ores , a s we l a s w i th t he d ynam ics o fh uman p opu la t ions a nd c u ltures . l T h is c hap ter w i l p rov ide s o me d ata f r om r esearch i n t he F ezzan , l w est ern S ahara , a nd t he T aoudenn i B as in , t hat h ave b een c o lect ed s i nce t he s yn thes is b yD esm ond C lark ( 1980 ) . The C l i ma t ic Opt imum a tc a .1 25 ,000 b pa nd t he End o ft he A cheu l ian T he r ap id r i se o fs ea l eve l ( Eem ian ) a nd t empera tures wh ich b egan a t c a . 1 40 ,000 b p , c u lm ina ted a tc a . 1 25 ,000 b p( Shack le ton 1 981 , 1 982 ;L or ius e ta l . 1 985 )w i th amarked i ncrease i ni n so la t ion ( Berger 1 979 , 1 981 ,1984 ) . I n t he c entra l S ahara , t h is c l ima t ic o pt i mum c o inc ided w ith a ma jor l acus tr ine d eve lopmen t . T o t he n or th o ft he Murzuk s andsea , i n ar eg ion where t oday t he a nnua l r a infa l amoun ts t o o n ly 3 0 mm , al ake f ed b y l a qu if er r i se a nd l o ca l r unof xtended o ver 2 000 km 2 a t 2 7°30 'N . T h is fe l ake e x isted c on t inua ly f o r more t han 1 00 ,000 y ears ( Gaven e ta l . 1 980 , l 19 82 :F ig . 1 ) w ith s a l in it ies v ary ing f r om 3 t o 1 09 00 a nd d ep ths v ary ing f r om 4 0t o5 0m( Pe t i tMa ire 1 979 ;P et i tMa ire e ta l . 1 980 ,1 982 ) . S urface a rchaeo log ica l s i tes a re f ound t hroughou t t h is a rea i n Ma l i ( Aumass ip a nd P et i tMa ire 1 982 ) : t er m ina l A cheu l ian o n t he s ubs tructura l f l ats a bove t he v a l ley ; sma l l (

, 1 1 11 1 1 I I I I I I I I I 19 11 1k I0

E qua to r

Deser t a nd s em id eser t s crub a nd g rass land

V. V . %Savanna thornscrub 1 1 1 1

F i g . 3 . 5 :

L ow land f o res t

[ 1 ] Montane vegetation

S avanna wood land

I •• , Med i ter r anean s teppe a nd f ores t

Wood land a nd d e ter iora ted f o res t

-- -S ou thern l im i t o ff i xed d unes

P resen t -day v ege ta t ion z ones i nN o r th A f r ica ( f rom A t las o fA f r ica 1 973 ) . T he b e l t o ff i xed l a te P l e is tocene d unes l i es i nt he p resen t -day s avannah t ho rnsc rub a nd s avanna wood land z ones o ft he S ahe l a nd t he S udan ( f rom Ma ingue t e ta L 1 980 ) .

5 9

Af ter t he D e lug e : T h e N eo l i th ic L and scape i n Nor th A f r ica

C C at tle S S orghum

5oo woo 1 5 00

M Mi l le t

B B ar ley

K i lome tres

W Whea t

N i le V a l ley C 6. 5 B &W 6 . 5

T rop ic o fC ance r

• t T i ch it C 3 . 5 M 3 . 0

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N ab ta C 9 5 — B> 8 .0

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K ha r toum C 5 . 5

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T oma t C 2 . 0 S 2 . 0

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F i g . 3 .6 :

F i rs t r e co rded a ppea rance o fc e r ta in d omes t ica ted p l an ts a nd a n ima ls a ts e lec ted s i tes i nN o r th A f r ica ( a f te rW i l iams 1 985b ) . l

6 0

Neo l i th ic Adap tat ions o nt he C en tra lN i le B y Abbas Mohammed -A l i , D epar tmen t o f A r chaeo logy , Un ivers i ty o f Khar tou m , a nd E l -Sayed E l -Anwar , D epar tmen t o f A rchaeo logy , Un ivers i ty o fB erg en , Norway . A s a resu l t o fr ecen t a rchaeo log ica l i nvest iga t ions a l ong t he e ast b ank o f t he N i le i n Khar toum P rov ince , S udan ( F ig . 4 . 1) , ah ypothes is was d eve loped t o e xp la in N eo l ith ic a daptat ions a long t he C en tra l N i le ( Haa land 1 978 , 1 981a , 1 981b ) . I n t he a rea s urveyed , f our e ar ly c eram ic s i tes ( Kadero I , Um D ire iwa I , Um D ire iwa I , a nd Z ak iab I )( F ig . 4 . 1) w ere l o cated a nd w ere t e s t e xcava ted . Af i f th s i te ( Kadero I ) , wh ich was t hen u ndergo ing e xcava t ions ( Krzyzan iak 1 975 ) , was a l so c ons idered when t he mode l was f o rmu la ted , a s w ere t he r esu l ts f r om ab r ief s urvey l w e l b ack f r om t he N i le . I t was o bserved t ha tf our o ft hese s i tes ( Kadero Ia nd I , Um D ire iwa I a nd I ) , s hared c er ta in f eatures . T hey a re l arge , o ccupy ing a reas o f b e tween 1 0 ,000 m 2 a nd 3 0 ,000 m 2e ach , a nd t hey a re s i tua ted , o na verage , a bou t 7 km f r om t he p resent r i ver . E xcavat ions r evea led a bundan t t ery a tery p q uan t it ies o fp ot nd i mp lemen ts a ssoc ia ted w ith p ot roduc t ion l s u ch a s b urn ishers , r ed o chre , a nd s erra ted s he ls , wh ich w ere t hough t tery manufactur t o r ef lect o n -s ite p ot ing . T he s i tes w ere a l so r i ch i n g r ind ing i mp lement s a nd l i th ic a r t ifac ts a nd h ad b ur ia ls a ssoc ia ted l t w i th t he m . T he f i f th s i te , Z ak iab I , is as ma l s e t lemen t , o n ly 2 000 m 2 i n a rea , a nd i ti sl o ca ted o n ly 3 k m f r om t he p resen t r i ver . I t was r i ch i n l i th ic d eb i tage a nd h ad n umerous f i sh b ones , wh i le f i sh ing t oo ls s uch a s t ery manufac f i sh h ooks w ere a l so p resen t . P ot tur ing i mp lement s a nd g r ind ing t oo ls w ere l e ss f r equen t t han a t t he o ther s i tes ( Haa land 1 981 ; E l -Mah i 1 981) . L ook ing f o r r a iny s eason h erd ing c amps , Haa land ( 1981) a l so c onduc ted as urvey f ar ther i n land , t ot he e as t , b u tt h is r esu lted i nn o s ign if ican t f i nds . On t he b as is o f t he d i str ibu t ion o f t hese s i tes a nd t he ir c u ltura l tlemen tern man if esta t ions , i t wa s p ostu la ted t ha t t hey r ef lec ted a set tp at l r e la ted t o s easona ly s pec if ic a c t iv it ies . T he f our l a rge s i tes w ere s een a s p ermanent b ase c a mps where emphas is was p laced u pon t he e xp lo ita t ion o f p lan t s , s orghum c u lt iva t ion , a nd t he manufac tur ing o f p ot . The sma l s i te ( Zak iab I ) was i n terpre ted a s a dry s eason c a mp tery l where h erd ing a nd f i sh ing w ere p rac t iced . I t was t emporar i ly o ccup ied a nd was a l so s een a s ap lace where l i th ic a r t if acts w ere manufac tured . T he mode l p roposed t ha t al a rge c o mmun i ty o ccup ied ab ase c amp when c ond it ions w ere f avourab le f o r c u l t iva t ion . Dur ing t he d ry s eason , t he i nhab itan t s o fe ach b ase c amp w ou ld s p l it i n to s ma ler b ands a nd o ccupy l f i sh ing a nd h erd ing c amps a long t he N i le where c ond it ions w ou ld b e

6 1

N eo l i th ic Adap ta t ions o n t he C en tra lN i le o pt ima l f o r t hese a c t iv i t ies . A f ter t he r a ins , e qu iva len t h erd ing c amps w ou ld b e s e tu pi nt he g rass lands o ft he Bu tana f a r ther t ot he e a st . Haa land 's mode l , t hough b ased o n l im ited d ata , s eems r easonab le . We t hough t o f t est ing i tw ith in t he s ame g enera l a rea b ut w ith s i tes f ound o nt he w es tb ank o ft he N i le ( F ig . 4 . 1) . I n a survey c onduc ted a l ong t he w es tb ank o ft he N i le ( Mohammed -A l i l 1 984 ) , an umber o f e ar ly c eram ic s i tes w ere l o ca ted , a l o f wh ich w ere c onf ined t o a1km s t r ip a l ong t he r i ver . I n s p i t e o fs ys tema t ic s urvey , n o s i tes w ere l o ca ted i n t he 5km s t r ip f a r ther t o t he w est . Two o ft he s i tes , l NOF I ,l o cated a t t he v i lage o fN ofa lab , a nd I SG I ,s i tuated a t I s lang l v i lage , b oth a bou t 2 5 km n or th o f Omdurman ( F ig . 4 . 1) w ere s e lec ted f o r e xcava t ion s ( E l -Anwar 1 981 , 1 982 ) . T he r eason b eh ind t h is s e lec t ion was t hat o ne o f t he m , NOF , I was c o mparab le i n s i ze t o Kadero I ( Krzyzan iak , 1 975 ) a nd Um D ire iwa Ia nd I ( Haa land , 1 981a ) , l arge s i tes wh ich w ou ld b e c l ass if ied a s b ase c amps u nder Haa land 's mode l , l wh i le t he o ther , I SG I , was sma l a nd a ccord ing t o Haa land 's c r iter ia m igh th ave b een t hough t o fa s a dry s eason c amp . T he c u ltura l mater ia l o n t he s urface o fb oth s i tes was s een t o b e c on temporary ; t ha t i s , t he l c eram ics w ere t yp ica l o f t hose f a l ing w ith in t he Khar tou m N eo l ith ic l ( Arke l1 953 ) . T he NOF Is i te ( l a t . 1 5-59 N . , l ong . 3 2-32 E . ) i sl o ca ted o n t he w est b ank o ft he N i le R iver a bou t 2 3 km n or th o f Omdurman ( F ig . 4 . 1 ) . I ti s s i tua ted o n ag rave l r i dge wh ich i sb e l ieved t ob ea n o ld t er race o ft he N i le l ( Arke l 1 953 :1 ; E l -Anwar 1 982 :911) . B ecause o ft he meander ing c our se o ft he r i ver , t h is g rave l r i dge i s , a t p resen t , 7 50 m away f r om t he r i ver . T he e l eva t ion o f NOF Ii sa bou t 7m a bove t he p resen tf l ood p la in . On t he b as is o ft he d i s tr ibu t ion o ft he ma ter ia l o n t he s urface a nd i n t he e xcavat ed t e s tp i ts , i ti se s t ima ted t ha t NOF Io ccup ies a n a rea o f1 80 , mak ing i t o ne o f t he l arger Khartoum m x1 70 m ( ca . 3 0 ,600 m 2) N eo l i th ic s i tes . T he e xcava t ions a t NOF Ir evea led v ar iab le d ep ths o ft he c u ltura l d epos it , b etween 4 0 cm a nd 8 0 cm . Aw ide r ange o f ma ter ia l c u lture was r ecovered , i nc lud ing a bundant l i th ic a r t ifacts , c eram ics , a nd f l ora l a nd f auna l r e ma ins . However , n o e v idence was f ound f o r a n e ar l ier Khar toum Meso l ith ic o ccupa t ion . The r esu lt o ft he s tudy made o n t he l i th ic a r t if act s s hows u t i l iza t ion o f r aw mater ia ls wh ich w ere e i ther o bta ined l o cal r b rough t f ro m ly o f ar ther n or th . B e ing l o ca ly a va i lab le , q uar tz was t he most f r equen t ly l u sed r aw mater ia l i n t oo l p roduc t ion , c ons t i tu t ing 9 6 .3% o fa l a r t ifac ts . l b u t o n ly 6 2 .7% o ft he t oo ls . P etr if ied w ood a nd s andstone were u sed f o r h ammer s t ones a nd g r ind ing i mp lemen ts . Rhyo l ite , b asa lt , a nd o ther v o lcan ic r ocks u nava i lab le i n t he v i c in i ty o ft he s i te w ere i mpor ted f r om

6 2

A . Mohammed -A l i a nd E . E l -Anwar t he S aba loca G orge s ome 4 7 km t ot he n or th ( F ig . 4 . 1) a nd w ere u sed f o r c h ipped s t one t oo ls . T he t e chno logy i sd om ina ted b y t he p rodu c t ion o fm icro l i th ic f l akes . Whe ther t he p roduc t ion o fm icro l i ths w as a c u l tura l p ref erence o r w as d eterm ined b yt he s i ze o ft he l o ca ly a va i lab le q uar tz p ebb les i sd i ff i cu l tt o l k now . T he o curren ce o fr hyo l i te d eb i tage a t t he s i te f avour s t he f o rmer c i n terpre ta t ion . L arg e n odu les o fr hyo l i te mu s t h ave b een b rough t i n to t he s i te a nd u sed l o ca ly f o r t he manuf ac ture o fl a rger i mp lemen t s . l T he c eram ics f r om NOF Ir esemb le t hose r ecorded b y A rke l ( 1953 ) l f r om S hahe inab . T hey a re t h in -wa l led a nd made o f f i ne -g ra ined c l ay w ith q uar tz i nc lus ion s . N o c o mp le te p o ts w ere f ound t o a low f o r t he l d eterm ina t ion o fv esse l f o rm s , a nd n o i mp lemen t s w ere r e covered t ha t tery manuf c ou ld b e i n terpre ted a s e v iden ce f o r p ot ac ture . T he ma jor i ty o ft he s herds a re b urn i shed a nd o n s ome o ft hem ar ed s l ip w a s a pp l ied . Among t he d ecora ted s herds , t he t e chn iques emp loyed w ere i nc is ing t ed z a nd r ocker s tamp ing . T he mo t if s i nc lude d ot i gzag , c on t inuous t s tra igh t l i nes , a nd b ands o f t r iang les , a nd " vees ." T he l a ter e xh ib i t l c ons iderab le v ar ia t ion b u t a re a lway s w e l made . t T he macrobotan ica l r ema ins a tes tt ot he p resen ce o f an umber o ft axa b ut s how n o e v iden ce o f a ny d omes t ic p lan ts wh ich m igh t h ave b een e u t i l ized . S eed s o fZ izyphus s p . a nd a bundan t s eds o fC e l t is i n t egr if o l ia , l L am . w ere f ound . S herds f r om t h is s i te w ere c arefu ly e xam ined f o r p lan t i mpress ions . On ly o ne s eed i mpress ion o fC e l t is i n tegr if o l ia L am . sion o lif a nd o ne s eed i mpres fS orghum v er t ic il lorum w ere i den t if i ed . T he i den t if ied o s teo log ica l r e ma ins f r om NOF Is i te e xh ib i t aw ide l v ar ie ty o fr i ver ine a nd t e rres tr ia l s pec ies . T hese i nc lude : s he ls o fP i la liaud w erne i ,L an is t es c ar ina tus a nd L im ico lar ia c a il i wh ich a re v ery l f r equen t ; C leopa tra b u l imo id es a nd E i ther ia e l ip t ica a re a l so p resen t ( A l - Mah i , p ersona l c o mmun ica t ion ) . Aquat ic mamma ls a nd f i sh r e ma ins o f d if eren t s pec ies w ere f ound i n c ons iderab le a bundance , C lar ias s p . ( ca tf ish ) b e ing t he most n umerous ; r e ma ins o f H ippopo tamus amph ib ius w ere a l so f ound . T he t erres tr ia l s pec ies l i nc lude a v ar iety o f w i ld f o rm s s uch a s a n te lope , a s w e l a s d omes t ic t a n ima ls s uch a s c a t le ( Bos t aurus ) , s heep ( Ov is a r ies ) , a nd g oa t ( Capra h ir cus ) . I n f a c t , t he ma jor i ty o ft he i den t if ied b ones a re f r om d omes t ic a n ima ls . T he N eo l i th ic s i te o fI s lang ( La t . 1 5-53 N . , L ong . 3 2-32E . )i sl o ca ted o n a c rest o f a n e roded s andstone r i dge r i s ing a bou t 9m a bove t he l s urround ing p la in a nd a bou t 1 k m n or th o ft he v i lage o fI s lang a nd 2 5 km n or th o f Omdurman ( F ig . 4 . 1 ) . I tl i es 0 . 85 km f r om t he p resen t w es t b ank o ft he N i le .

6 3

N eo l i th ic Adap ta t ions o n t h e C en tra lN i l e T he s i te w as b ad ly d i s turbed b y Mero i t ic b ur ia ls wh ich c u t t h rough i t s s t ra t ig raphy b u t e nough w as l e f t t o a l low t e s t e xcava t ions i n to p r imary c on tex t d epos it s . I tw a s e s t ima ted t oh ave o r ig ina l ly o c cup ied 6 8 i n x6 6 m ( c a . 4 488 m 2 ) c ompa rab le t o as easona l c amp u nder Haa land 's mode l . I SG I r evea led t wo c u ltura l c o mponen ts t ha t a re s t ra t ig raph ica l ly p os i t ioned . T he l ower c o mponen t p roduced a " Khar toum Meso l ith ic " a ssemb lage w ith wavy l ine p ot t ery , wh i le t he u pper c o mponent i s l s im i lar t ot ha t r ecovered b yA rke l ( 1953 ) a tS hahe inab , w ide ly k nown a s " Khar toum N eo l i th ic . " Our c on cern h ere l i es w i th t he l a t t er . T he N eo l i th ic c u l tura l d epos i t s a tI SG Iv ary f r om 2 0 t o3 0 c mi n d ep th . T he d a ta r e covered f r om t he s i te i n c luded l i th ic a r t if ac t s , p o t sherds , a nd f auna l a nd f l ora l r ema ins . T he r aw ma ter ia ls u t i l ized among t he l i th ic a r t ifac ts a re most ly a va i lab le i n t he v i c in i ty o ft he s i te . Quar tz i sb y f a r t he mo s t c o mmon among t he f l aked a r t if a c t s ; r hyo l i te a nd b asa l t w ere a l so u sed . P e tr if i ed w ood a nd s and stone w ere r a ther f avoured among p ound ing /gr ind ing i mp lemen t s . A par t f r om r hyo l i te a nd b asa l t , w h ich a re b e l ieved t o h ave b een b rough tf r om t he S aba loca G orge o ft he S ix th C a tarac t ( F ig . 4 . 1) , a l l t he o ther r ock t ypes a re o fl o ca l o r ig in . Quar t z c oun t s f o r 9 2% o ft he r aw ma ter ia ls u sed a tI SG Ib u ti td rops t o6 7% among t he t oo ls , g iv ing way t o r hyo l i te a nd b a sa l t . T he c eram ic c o mponen t f r om I SG Ia l so r e ca ls t ha t o fS hahe inab . I t l i s d om ina ted b y f abr ics w ith f i ne -g ra ined q uar tz i n c lus ions a nd b y a h igh p ercen tage o f b urn ished s herds wh ich a re s o met imes s l ipped . H ere , c omb ing , i nc is ing , a nd r ocker s tamp ing w ere t he ma in t e chn iques emp loyed , wh i le t r iang les w ere t he mos t c ommon mo t if . One b ad ly f r agmen ted s eed o fC e l t is i n teg r if o l ia L am , was r e covered . When t he s herd s w ere e xam ined f o r p lan t i mpress ions , n o e v idence w as f ound . Ap re l im inary s tudy o ft he f auna l r ema in s f r om t he I s lang s i t e a tes t s t t o t he p resen ce o fd if eren t s pec ies , many o f wh ich a re a ssoc ia ted w i th r i ver ine h ab i ta t s . T hese i nc lude g as tropod s s u ch a s P i la w er en i , a nd L im ico lor ia c a il i , d if eren t s pec ies o ff i sh s uch a s C lar ias s p . a nd liaud L a tes n i lo t icus , t oge ther w i th r ep t i les s u ch a s C rocody lus n i lo t icus a nd V aranus n i lo t icus . A l t hese p rov ide c l ear e v idence f o r r iver ine l e xp lo ita t ion . T he i den t if i ca t ion o f t he mamma l ian f auna i s n ot y e t c omp le te , b u t d omes t ic a n ima ls a re e xpec ted . T he a va i lab le f l ora l a nd f auna l e v iden ce f r om t he NOF Is i te i nd ica tes t ha t w et l ima t ic c ond i t ion s p reva i led d ur ing t he N eo l ith ic o cupa t ion ter c c c o mpared w i th t he c urren t a r id c ond i t ions . T he p resence o fa bundan t s eed s o fC e l t is i n tegr if o l ia a t t he s i te s uppor ts t h is i n terpre ta t ion , s i n ce 6 4

A . Mohammed -A l i a nd E . E l -Anwar t h is s pec ies r equ ires a m in imum r a infa l o f4 00-500 mm . I n a dd it ion , l t he p resence o f s wamp a nd s em i -aqua t ic g as tropod s pec ies a t t he s i te , s uch a s C leopa tra b u l i mo ides ,L an is tes c ar ina tus , P i la w erne i , a nd L im ico lar ia c a il i p rov ide f ur ther e v idence f o r w et l ima te t han liaud t er c t ha to ft he p resen td ay . T he f auna l a nd f l ora l r e ma ins f ound a t NOF Ii nd ica te at ype o fm ixed s ubs istence e conomy b ased o n d omest ica ted a n ima ls ( c at , s heep , a nd tle g oa ts ) ; f i sh ing was c l ear ly o ne o f t he ma jor f od q uest a c t iv it ies , wh i le o h unt ing o f w i ld g ame , s uch a s a n te lopes , s eemed t o h ave b een a s upp le men tary s ource o f f od . T he e xp lo itat ion o f p lan ts i s a l so i n o e v idence a s t he p resence o fs eeds o fZ izyphus s p . a nd C e l t is i n tegr if o l ia i nd icate t he c o lec t ion o ft he ir e d ib le f ru its . l T he f ragmented s eed o f C . i n tegr if o l ia f ound i n I SG Imay b e t oo meager e v idence b yi t se lf t o a low ar econstruc t ion o ft he c l ima t ic a nd /or l e nv iron men ta l c ond i t ions d ur ing t he o ccupa t ion o ft he s i te . Y et , among t he a bundan t f auna l mater ia l t ha t was r ecovered , s o me was a ssoc ia ted w ith a r iver ine e nv iron men t . S ince t h is s i te i s a t l east p ar t ly c on te mporary w ith NOF I ,i t may , h owever , b e p oss ib le t o p ostu la te a t en ta t ive c l i mat ic r econs truc t ion . T he r esu lts o b ta ined f r om t he a na lys is o f t he f l ora l a nd f auna l r e ma ins s o f ar i nd ica te t hat t he o ccupan ts o f I SG Im ight h ave k ep t d omest ica ted a n ima ls , b u t a l so p rac t iced a ri ver ine a dapta t ion b ased o n t he e xp lo ita t ion o fa qua t ic r esources . However , u n l ike t he s i tes o n t he e as t b ank , c o mpar ison o f ma ter ia ls f r om I SG Ia nd NOF In e i ther s hows c l ear d if erences i n a c t iv it ies n or r e f lec ts e v idence o f s pec if i c s easona l a dap tat ions . T he r ad iocarbon d a t es o b ta ined f r om NOF 1 (5290 b p± 100 ,T -3700 ; 5 520 b p ± 130 , T -3701) a re c l ose t ot hose o b ta ined f r om Kadero 1 (5500 b p ± 70 , KN2821 ; 5 260 b p ± 90 , T -2188 ; a nd Z ak iab , 5 660 b p ± 80 , T -3050 ) . No r ad iocarbon d a te wa s o bta ined f r om t he N eo l i th ic c omponen ta t I SG Ib u t ad a te o f5 870 b p± 110 ( T -3880 ) was o bta ined f r om t he Meso l ith ic l e ve lj us t b e low i t . T h is w ou ld g ive t he N eo l i th ic c omponen to fI SG Iap os t -5800 b p d a te . The d a tes f r om Kadero I , Um D ire iwa Ia nd I ( Haa land 1 981 :556 )a l so c lus ter b etween 5 500-5000 b p . T he c eram ic a ssemb lages f r om a l l o f t hose s i tes e xh ib i t c l ose s im i lar i t ies w ith in t he Khar toum N eo l ith ic t rad it ion . T here a re r easons t o b e l ieve t ha t o n t he N i le t he Khar toum N eo l ith ic was a s hor t l ived t rad i t ion a nd t ha t a l s i tes r epresen t ing i ta re a t l eas t l p ar t ly c ontemporary ( Mohammed -A l i 1 987 ) . Thus , t he v ar ia t ions i n f auna l a nd a r t ifac t s i te i nven tor ies c annot r ef lec t d iachron ic c hange b u t must r e late t o t he d if eren t b ehav iora l p at ich m igh t e i ther t erns wh

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N eo l i th ic Adap ta t ions o n t he C en tra lN i l e r e f lec t s easona l d i f erences o r m icroenv ironmen ta l a dapta t ion s . Our f e v idence s uggest s t ha t t he l a ter may h ave g rea ter s i gn i f ican ce t han t r ea l ized t od a t e . A c lue f o r t h is may l i e i n t he f a c t t ha t t he r i ver d iv ides t he a rea t opog raph ica ly i n to t wo d i s t in c t r eg ion s . T he e as t b ank wh ich p rov ided l t he d a ta f o r Haa land ' s mode l i sa fl a t s t eppe wh ich marks t he w estern e dge o f t he Bu tana p la in . I ti s c overed b y B u tana c l ay s a nd G eze ira a luv ia l d epos i ts . T he w es tern b ank , where o ur s i tes a re l o cated , l c ons ists , a par t f r om a n arrow s t r ip o f f l ood p la in , o f s andstone f o rmat ions a nd o ther l i tho log ica l o utcrops . C ons ider ing t hese t opog raph ic a nd g eo log ica l d if eren ces , i t may w e l b e t ha t e a ch s i de o f l t he r i ver s aw d if eren tp at s o fs e t lemen t . tern t Wh i le t he s i t es o n t he e as t b ank a re s cat n a n a rea e x t end ing 7 tered i km i n land f r om t he r i ver , t hose o n t he w es t b ank a re c l ose t o t he r i ver . T he s e t lemen t p at n t he w es t b ank d oes n o t s uggest o cupat ion t tern o c b ack f r om t he r i ver a si st he c a se o ft he e as tb ank . I ti se xpec ted t ha t t he t opog raph ica l d if eren ces b e tween t he t wo b ank s mu st h ave af ec ted l o ca l a dap ta t ions . T he f l a t a luv ia l c l ay s o ft he e a s t b ank w i th t he ir N i le -f ed l s wamps a nd p onds w ou ld a low c u l t iva t ion t o b e p rac t iced a nd w ou ld l s uppor t a ri ch p as ture w i th a th ick c over o fv eg eta t ion a nd s h rubs . On t he o ther h and , t he e roded s andstone a nd p ebb le c ong lo mera t es o f t he w est b ank w ou ld n o t p erm it a gr icu lture , a nd t he ir s tony s urfaces s uppor t r e la t ive ly l i t le g rass e ven a f ter t he r a iny s ea son . I ft he N i le t wa ters w ere a t l eas t 3 -5 m h igher d ur ing t he N eo l i th ic t han t he ir p resen t l eve l ( Arke l 1 953 ) , i tw ou ld mean t ha t t he n arrow s t r ip o ft he l f l ood p la in , c ur t ly u sed f o r c u l t iva t ion , w ou ld h ave b een u nder wa ter . ren A t l eas t o n t he w est b ank t he s i tes s eem t o h ave b een o cup ied c p ermanen t ly r a ther t han s easona ly , s ugges t ing t ha t t he r i ch a nd v ar ied l r i ver ine e nv ironmen t was c apab le o f p rov id ing s tab le s ources o f s ubs is tence f o r t he i nhab i tan t s . Ou r t wo s i tes r evea l s im i lar p er cen tages o f g r ind ing s t ones a nd s c rapers , a nd t hey d o n ot s how a ny c l ear d if erences i n t he u t i l iza t ion o ff i sh o r d omes t ic a n ima ls . T he f a c t t ha t t he ir s i zes a re d if eren t d oes n o t s eem t o r ef l ec t d if er en t a dap ta t ion o r e ven d if eren to n -s it e a c t iv i ty p at s . B o th s em t or ef l ec t aw ide r ange tern e o fa c t iv i t ies wh ich a re s pa t ia ly d i scret e o nt he e a s t s i de o ft he N i le . l T ak ing t he s i tua t ion a s i t s tands o n t he w est b ank a nd t he i napp l icab i l i ty o f Haa land 's mode l , w e t hough t o f ar eversed p at o tern t t ha t p roposed b y Haa land . T h is mode l a ssumes t ha t , s ince t he l arge s i t es a re l o ca ted c l ose t ot he r i ver , t hese s i tes m igh t h ave s erved a s b ase c amps , d ense ly p opu la ted d ur ing t he d ry s eason . When c ond it ion s i mproved i n t he h in ter lands , d ur ing t he r a iny s eason , p ar t o f t he p opu la t ion m igh t h ave s p l i t i n to s ma l g roups a nd o cup ied s ma ler s i tes l c l

6

A . Mohammed -A l i a nd E . E l -Anwar i n t hose a reas . T he e v idence a va i lab le f r om t he r eg ion t oday d oes n ot y e t c onf ir m t h is . However , t he q uest ion s hou ld b e l e f t o pen , awa it ing s urveys i n t he a reas e ven f ur ther w es t . S hou ld t hese s urveys t urn u p e phe mera l i n land s i tes , t hen i t m igh t b e i nd ica ted t ha t t wo q u ite d i f erent s et t lemen t s ystems e x isted o n t he o ppos ite b anks o f t he N i le f R iver d ur ing t he Khar toum N eo l i th ic . R ef er ences A rke l , A . J . 1 953 . S hahe inab . L ondon : O xf ord Un ivers i ty P ress . l E l -Anwar , E . 1 981 . A rchaeo log ica l e xcava t ions o nt he w est b ank o ft he r iver N i le i nt he Khar toum a rea . Nyame A kuma 1 8 :43-45 . . 1982 . T he Khar toum N eo l i th ic i n t he l i gh t o f a rchaeo e thnobo tany : Ac ase s tudy f r om t he Nof a lab a nd t he I s lang s i tes . ( Unpub l ished M .A . t hes is , Un ivers ity o f Kha rtoum ) . E l -Mah i , A . T . 1 981 . T he i n terpre ta t ion o ft he e ar l ies te v idence o f l ung-f l i sh P ro top t erus s p . i n t he N i le Va ley -E l -Zak iab s i te , C en tra l S udan . Norweg ian A r cha eo log ica l R ev iew 1 4 (1) :60-65 . tery Haa land , R . 1 978 . E thnog raph ica l o bserva t ion o fp ot - mak ing i n Darfur , Wes tern S udan , w i th s ome r ef lec t ion o n a rchaeo log ica l i nterpreta t ion s . I nN ew D ir ec t ions i n S cand inav ian A r chaeo logy l ( eds K . K r is t iansen a nd P . Mu ler ) : p p . 4 7-61 . C openhagen . .1 981a . M igra tory h erdsmen a nd c u l t iva t ing w omen : T he s truc tur e o fN eo l i th ic s easona l a dap ta t ion i n t he Khar toum N i l e e nv ironmen t . B ergen . . 1981b . S easona l ity a nd d iv is ion o fl abor : Ac ase s tudy f r om Neo l i th ic s i tes i n t he Khar toum N i le e nv ironmen t . Norweg ian Ar chaeo log ica lR ev iew 1 4 (1) :44-50 . K rzyzan iak , L . 1 975 . P o l ish e xcava t ion s a t Kadero . Nyame A kuma 7 :45-6 . Moha mmed -A l i , A . 1 984 . S orourab -I : AN eo l ith ic s i te i n Khar toum P rov ince , S udan . C urr en t An thropo logy 2 5 ( 1 ) :11719 . Moham med -A l i , A . 1 987 . T he N eo l ith ic o fC en tra l S udan : a r econs idera t ion . I nP r eh is tor y o fA r id Nor th A f r ica ( cd A . C lose ) : p l p . 1 23 -36 . D a las : S ou thern Me thod ist Un iver s i ty P ress .

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N eo l i th ic Adap ta t ions o n t h e C en tra l N i l e

.S ho c io c iA

F i g . 4 . 1 :

N eo l i th ic s i tes i nt he C en t ra l N i le .

Ho locene Env ironment sa nd Occupa t ions i nt he S ou thern A tba i , S udan : AP re l im inary F ormu la t ion B y A n thony E . Marks a nd Kar im S adr , S ou th ern Me thod is t U n iver s i ty , Da las , T exas . l I n troduc t ion S in ce 1 979 , i n tens ive a r chaeo log ica l s urvey s a nd t e s t e x cava t ion s h ave b een i n p rogress i n t he f ar e as tern S ahe l , i n t he a rea b e tween t he E th iop ian b order a nd t he A tbara R iver ( F ig . 5 . 1) . T h is w ork h as b een c ar u t b y t wo a r chaeo log ica l p ro jec ts : t he J o in t Un ivers i ty o f ried o Khar tou m /Sou thern Method ist Un ivers i ty Butana A rchaeo log ica l P ro je c t ( Mark s e ta l . 1 980 , 1 982 ; Marks 1 984 ; Mohammed -Al i a nd Marks 1 984 )a nd t he I t a l ian M iss ion t oK assa la ( Co l tor t ie ta l . 1 984 ; C ons tan t in i e ta l . 1 982 , 1 983 ; Duran te , F at ich a nd P iperno 1 980 ; F at ich a nd tov tov P iperno 1 981) . A l though f i e ld w ork i sn ow g o ing o n a nd p robab ly w i l l c on t inue i n t he y ear s t o c o me , i t i s p oss ib le t o p resen t at en tat ive f o rmu la t ion o ft he r e la t ion sh ips b e tween c hang ing s e t lemen t p at , t terns c hanges i n r eg iona l a nd l o ca l e nv ironmen ta l c ond i t ion s , a nd a pparen t l s h if t s i n e conom ic a dap ta t ions . T he t empora l s c ope o ft h is p aper w i l b e n t i l s ome t ime d ur ing t he l im i ted t o t he H o locene f r om a bou t 7 000 BC u he o ccupa t ion wh ich p ostda tes t he f i rst f i rst m il ium AD. T l enn m i lenn iu m AD, c a led t he G ergaf G roup , h as a l ready s een p re l im inary l l p ub l ica t ion ( Sadr 1 984 )a nd n eed n o tb er epea ted h ere . Dur ing t he p a st d ecade , an umber o r s tud ies h ave b een made wh ich t hrow l i gh t o n p as t c l ima t ic c hanges i n t he C en tra l S udan ( e .g . , G rove ren 1 l 1 973 ; G rove a nd G oud ie 1 971 ; War 970 ;W icken s1 975 ,1 982 ;W i l iams 1 974 ) . A lthough t here a re m inor d i screpanc ies i n t he d e ta i ls o f t he ir c onc lus ions , t here i s g enera l a greemen t t ha t af ew , b road c l i ma t ic p er iods c an b e r ecogn ized . I n t he b roadest t erms , t hese p er iods d ocumen t as l ow d ry ing t r end f r om a n E ar ly H o locene b ase wh ich was t er t mu ch w et han t oday ( Grove 1 973 ) , t hrough a n i n termed ia te p er iod d ur ing t he M idd le H o locene ( c a . 6 000 b p t o 3 000 b p ) when c l imat ic ter t c ond i t ions w ere w et han t oday a nd v egeta t iona l b e l t s w ere s o me 1 00 r en 1 km n or th o ft he ir p r esen tp os i t ion ( War 970 ) , t o af i na l p er iod w ith a c l ima t ic r eg ime l i ke t ha to ft he p resen td ay ( W icken s1 975 , 1 982 ) . T oday , t he S ou thern A tba i r e ce ives s omewha t o ver 3 00 mm o fa nnua l l p rec ip itat ion wh ich f a ls d ur ing t he s ummer mon ths ( Barbour 1 964 ) . l T he S ou thern A tba i i sc l a ss if ied v ege ta t iona ly a s a thorn s avanna a nd s crub r eg ion . S ince t he s o i ls a re ma in ly c l ay , t he ma jor v egeta t ion i s lif A cac ia mel era w i th a n umber o f a nnua l g rasses ( W ickens 1 982 ) . Under e ar ly H o locene c ond it ions , t he a rea h as b een p os tu la ted t o h ave 6 9

c upa Ho lo c en e Env ironm en t s a nd Oc t ions i n t h e S ou th ern A tba i b een c overed w ith a d ec iduous s avanna w ood land , t he ma jor t r ees o f wh ich w ou ld h ave b een C ombr e tum h ar tmann ianum a nd Anoge issus l e iocarpus . T h is t ype o fs avanna i sp resen t t oday a l ong t he E th iop ian b order s o me 1 75 km t ot he s ou th o f Kassa la ( W icken s 1 975 :52 ) . Dur ing t he M idd le H o locene i ta ppear s t ha t n o g rea t c hange t ook p la ce i n t he v egeta t ion o ft he S ou thern A tba i , a l though t here wa s a n a pparen t d rop i n p rec ip ita t ion ( W ickens 1 975 ) . T he ma jor c hange i n e nv ironmen t , t ha t tern wh ich b rough t a bou t a si gn if i can t s h if ti n f l o ra l p at s , t ook p lace o n ly a f t er 3 000 b p . I n t h is r egard , t he r eg iona l c l ima t ic h is tory o f t he S ou thern A tba i p rov ides o n ly t he f l i ms iest o f b ackdrops o n to wh ich t he c hang ing terns o t p at fh uman s e t lemen t a nd a dap ta t ion may b e p ro jec ted . T hese l r eg iona l r econs truc t ions , b y t he ir v ery n a tu re , c anno t d ea l r ea l is t ica ly w i th l o ca l c ond i t ions ; t hose af ec ted a rea s l i ke t he S ou thern A tba i c over p erhaps n o more t han af ew t en s o ft hou sand s o fs quare k i lome ters . I ti s t t hese l a ter , l o ca l e nv ironmen ta l c ond i t ions a nd t he ir f l u c tuat ion s wh ich , i n t h is c ase , a ppear t o h ave h ad ma jor i mpac t o n t he h i story o f t terns H o locene s e t lemen tp at . I n o rder t o u nders tand wha t h appened i n t he S ou thern A tba i d ur ing t he Ho locene , i t i s n ecessary t o r ea l ize t ha t a ma jor p or t ion o f i t s l mo isture c o mes f r om r i ver s , t he w a ter s o f wh i ch o r ig ina te w e l t o t he s ou th , o u t s ide t he c l ima t ic z one o ft he C en t ra l S udan . Two r i vers p ar t ly d ef ine t he a rea : t he A tbara R iver f o rm s t he w estern b order o ft he S ou thern A tba i a nd t he G a sh R iver f l ows c l ose t oi t s e as tern e dge ( F ig . 5 . 1) . T he A tbara d er ives mos t o fi t s wa ter f r om m onsoona l r a ins i n t he a rea o fL ake T ana i n E th iop ia . T he r i ver i sd eep ly i nc ised i n to t he s t eppe t hrough wh ich i tr uns a nd , a l though i th as a very h igh t s easona l l oad d ur ing t he r a iny s eason , t h is h as l i t le ef ec t o n i t s s urround ing t er ra in . Aq u ite d if eren t s i tua t ion p er ta ins t o t he Gash . fE th iop ian h i l s l opes wh ich , e ven l I t s c a tchmen t i s s ome 2 1 ,000 km 2 o t oday , r ece ive o ver 5 00 mm o fr a in d ur ing t he s ummer mon th s ( Barbou r 1 964 :219 ) . F rom t he G a sh R iver , t he S ou thern A tba i r ece ives mass ive f l oods b e tween J une a nd S ep tember . T oday , a nd p robab ly s i nce t he M idd le H o lo cene , t h is w a ter h as n o o u t le t , f o rm ing i nstead a n i n land d e l ta wh ich h as b een e x t ens ive ly d eve loped f o r a g r icu l ture I n f a c t , mo s t o ft he e a s tern h a lf o ft he S ou thern A tba i i s made u p o fa n c ien t d e lta ic d epos i t s o ft he G a sh R iver ( Duran te e ta l . 1 980 ) . I n a dd i t ion t o t he r i ver ine h ydro logy , s om e 3 20 mm o fr a in f a ls e ach l s ummer i n t he u pper G a sh D e l ta , w i th o n ly ab i t l e ss f a l ing t ot he w es t l n ear t he A tbara . T hus , e ven t oday , t he S ou thern A tba i h as c on s iderab le wa ter , t oo much , i n f a c t , d ur ing t he s ummer m on ths , w i th t he g rea tes t

7 0

A. E. Marks and K. Sadr amount on the eastern edge, along the Gash, and the least on the Western edge, just east of the deeply cut Atbara valley. It is quite clear that the Holocene geomorphic history of the Southern Atbai has been one of a slow northeasterly movement of the Gash Delta (Durante et al. 1980). It appears that during the Terminal Pleistocene or, more likely, the Early Holocene, the Gash flowed into the Atbara a bit north of Khashm el Girba (Barbour 1964). Having a very shallow bed, however, and alternating from dry to massive flooding, the Gash has been characterized by much meandering and enormous lateral overbank inundation. This regime has also brought down from Ethiopia large quantities of sands and silts which are more permeable than the Pleistocene clays of the western half of the Southern Atbai (Fig. 5.2). This has the effect of retaining the seasonal flood waters in the eastern part of the Southern Atbai, while the western half tends to see rapid evaporation of the local precipitation, as well as heavy erosion within the Atbara valley. Projecting this situation back into the Early Holocene with a different main channel for the Gash (Fig. 5.3), it is clear that seasonal inundation would have reached far to the west, almost to the Atbara. The increased inclination of the river as it flowed into the Atbara valley, however, would have resulted in downcutting and the prevention of significant overbank flooding. As the Gash Delta silted up and moved toward its present north-northwesterly course, the area of seasonal inundation would have moved with it and local induncation between the Atbara and the Gash would have depended more on the amount of precipitation and the degree of soil permeability than on overbank flooding of the Gash. While these changes would not have had major regional impact, they appear to have had significant local effects. It is these local changes, affecting hundreds of square kilometers, which help to explain the changing Holocene settlement patterns in the Southern Atbai.

Cultural Sequence During most of the Holocene, the Southern Atbai was occupied by various human groups. While these cannot be tied directly to any archaeological cultures already defined for the adjacent areas of the Nile valley (Adams 1977) or the Ethiopian Plateau (Fattovich 1982), it has been possible to construct a local culture historic sequence based mainly on a combination of comparative ceramic assemblages and a series of radiocarbon dates (Fattovich, Marks, and Mohammed-Ali 1984; Marks 1984; Marks and Fattovich, in press). This sequence recognizes both phases and geographic facies of a single ceramic tradition, the Atbai Tradition, which spans much of the Holocene. For the purposes of this chapter, however, usually only the phases need be considered (Fig. 5.4),

71

Holocene Environments and Occupations in the Southern Atbai since the concern is with diachronic change and broad adaptive and settlement patterns, rather than with local stylistic variability. The earliest Holocene occupation is limited to the Atbara River edge and consists of pre-ceramic, Late Paleolithic hunters who exploited larger mammals such as hippo, giraffe, and wild cattle. Throughout the Early Holocene, these groups were present and it is only with the beginning of the Middle Holocene that ceramic-bearing groups appear. Although it has yet to be documented fully, it seems that the whole of the Southern Atbai ceramic-bearing occupation belongs within a single cultural tradition and that the phases seen are, one way or another, essentially developmental, as well as being sequential. The earliest ceramic occupation is the Pre-Saroba, characterized by ceramics similar to those of the Khartoum Mesolithic in the Nile valley of the Central Sudan (Arkell 1949). However, the similarities are only general and there are elements totally lacking in the Nile valley (Fattovich, Marks, and Mohammed-Ali 1984). The second phase, the Saroba, still exhibits traits similar to those of the Khartoum Mesolithic but, again, they tend to be general rather than specific. The seeming similarities between the Southern Atbai materials and the Khartoum Complex is reinforced by general contemporaneity (Fig. 5.4). The Saroba Phase passes into the Kassala Phase through a transitional phase which would date in the Nile valley to the very end of the Khartoum Neolithic, Fig. 5.4). Beginning with this transition, what few similarities existed in the material cultures of the Nile valley and the Southern Atbai disappear. From the fourth millennium BC on, the Southern Atbai saw a rich cultural development quite distinct from that in any portion of the Nile valley. The Kassala Phase, particularly its early part, saw the rise of a complex and rich ceramic inventory, the production of and trade for exotic luxury items such as basalts from the Red Sea Hills, and the use of a wide range of ground and polished stone artifacts. Even the chipped stone assemblages are unlike any others in that they remain rich and varied at such a late date. The Kassala Phase, as now recognized, lasts a long time, from about the beginning of the fourth millennium BC until the beginning of the first millennium BC (Table 5.1). During this phase there is a slow shift in ceramic production from a wide range of decorated wares to a preponderance .of simple ceramics and a paucity of fine, decorated wares. In addition, there appears to be a lessening of the amount of luxury items found, although some new forms, such as stone bracelets and disc-shaped mace heads, replace older forms such as pointed mace heads and polished axes. In addition, the later Kassala Phase (post-2000 BC) seems to include a wider range of cultural variability, in that more than two geographic facies can be defined (Fattovich, Marks, and 72

A . E . Marks a nd K S adr Moha mmed -A l i 1 984 ) . B y t he b eg inn ing o f t he f i r st m i lenn ium BC, l h owever , t h is r i ch v ar iab i l ity s eems t o h ave d i sappeared , l eav ing a s i ng le r ather mundane c u l tura l e xpress ion d ur ing t he J ebe l T aka P hase . T h is p ha se c on ta in s s i tes wh ich s how c onnec t ions , s l igh t t hough t hey b e , w i th p re -Axum i te ma ter ia ls f r om E th iop ia a nd , p erhaps , e ven tov w i th t he Mero i t ic o n t he N i le ( Fat ich i n p ress a ) . B ecause o ft hese e l emen ts , ma in ly c e ram ic , t he p hase h a s b een d a ted a ccord ing ly a nd t he s l a semb lag es s t i l a wa i ti ndependen t c onf irma t ion o ft he ir a ge . T he J ebe l l l T aka Phase may w e l l a s t i n to t he f i r s t m i lenn ium A D when i ts eem s a s l i f the S ou thern A tba i w a s e i ther a bandoned o r t he p opu la t ion f e l s ol ow t ha t w e w ere u nab le t of i nd many a ssemb lages w h ich m igh t f i t b e tween t he J ebe l T aka P ha se a nd t he n ear h is tor ic G ergaf G roup . T he o n ly e v idence f o r a n o cupa t ion d ur ing t h is o vera l h ia tu s c o mes f r om a few c l b ur ia ls i n t he e x tr eme n or thea s t c orner o ft he s urvey z one , a round t he b a se o fJ ebe l K ama la ( Fat ich i np ress b ) . tov T ab le 5 . 1: R ad ioca rbon D a tes f r om t he S ou the rn A tba i

P hase L a te K assa la

E a r ly K assa la

S a roba /Kassa la

D ate

MASCA

L ab

b p

C a l ibra ted

N umber

B u tana ( KG96A )

2 755 ± 1 07

9 84 B C

SMU 187

J ebe l M ok ram ( KG20 )

3 050 ± 90

1 350 B C

T X4 46

Gash G roup ( K 1 I )

3 860 ± 6 0

2 180 B C

n .d .

B u tane ( KG7 )

4 421 ± 9 3

3 163 B C

SMU 156

B u tane ( KG7 )

4 569 ± 6 8

3 351 B C

SMU 15 1

B u tane ( KG23 )

4 5 19 ± 6 7

3 283 B C

SMU 188

B u tana ( KG23 )

4 542 ± 2 53

3 319 B C

SMU 155

G roup a nd S i te

B u tana ( KG23 )

4 727± 1 54

3 544 B C

SMU 1 20 1

B u tane ( N 125 )

4 4 10 ± 9 0

3 152 B C

T X4 45

( KG28 )

5 168 ± 6 7

4 0 18 B C

SMU1193

T rans i t ion S a roba

P re -Sa roba P rece ram ic

Ma law iya ( KG94 )

5 632 ± 6 6

4 540 B C

SMU 1 285

Ma law iya ( KG 10 )

5 644 ± 7 0

4 552 B C

SMU 181

( KG 14 )

6 2 15 ± 7 5

5 120 B C

SMU 139

( KG15A )

1 0 ,228 ± 2 73

7 3

SMU 149

c upa Ho loc en e Env ironm en ts a nd Oc t ions i n t h e S ou thern A tba i E conom ic Adap ta t ions A l though t he ma ter ia l c u l ture o ft he v ar iou s g roups w ith in t he A tba i l t T rad i t ion p hases t e l u s r e la t ive ly l i t le a bou t t he a r t icu la t ion b e tween t terns e nv ironmen t , s e t lemen t p at , a nd e conom ic a dap ta t ions , o th er d a ta a re much more i ns t ruc t ive . T he f auna l ma t er ia ls , c o mb ined w i th s i te l o ca t ion , a nd s i te t ype , a re , f o r t he mos t p ar t , u nders tandab le i n t he l c on tex t o f t he l o ca ly c hang ing l andscape . T ha t i sn o t t o s ay t ha t t he l c hanges i n t he l andscape b rough t a bou t a l c hanges i n s et t lemen t l o ca t ion o r i n e conom ic a dap ta t ion ; r a ther t hey p rov ided a c hang ing b ackground i n to wh ich c u l tura l a nd e conom ic f a c tor s h ad t o b e f i ted t r a t iona ly . l E xam ina t ion o fs i te l o ca t ion b y p hase ( F ig . 5 . 5 ) , c l ear ly s hows a sh if t i n s i t e l o ca t ion a nd d ens i ty f r om t he w es t t oward t he e a s t : t ha ti s , f r om t he a rea o ft he A tbara v a ley a nd t he w es tern s t eppe t ot he modern Gash l D e lta a nd i t s w es tern e dge . I n t h is r egard , t here m igh t b e as imp le c orre la t ion b etween t he movemen t o f t he G a sh t o t he n or th -nor theas t a nd a m ovemen t o fs i te l o ca t ion s t o s t ay c l ose t o t ha t r i ver . A s w i l b e l s hown , h owever , t he s i tua t ion i s more c omp l i ca ted . l Dur ing t he P re -Saroba P hase , t he t wo k nown s i tes c ons is t o f sma l c amps s i tuat ed a l ong e i ther t he A tbara R iver o ra tt he e dge o f ap oss ib le l l ake , w e l t o t he n or th o f t he p resen t G ash D e l ta , n ear E r iba S ta t ion . E conom ic a dap ta t ion was c l ear ly r i ver ine o r ien ted , w i th a n e mphas is o n , f i sh ing a nd t he e xp lo ita t ion o f r i ver e dge a n ima ls s uch a s h ippo , t ur t le , a nd c rocod i le . An ima ls f r om w ooded s avanna r eg ions , s uch a s monkey , w ar thog , d u iker , o r ib i , a nd a f ew o ft he l a rger a n te lopes w ere a l so h un ted . At ran s i t ion t ot he S aroba P hase i sn o t y e t k now , s i n ce t here a ppear s t t oh ave b een a sudden s h if ti n s e t lemen t l o ca t ion f r om t he r i ver e dge t o t he c en ter o f t he s t eppe b e tween t he A tbara a nd t he Gash ( F ig . 5 .5 ) . l A l though i ti sc e r ta in t ha t t he P re -Saroba f o lk h un ted , a s we l a s f i shed , t here i s n o i mmed ia te ly o bv ious r eason why t he r i ver e nv ir onmen t s hou ld h ave b een a bandoned a nd t he f o cus o fo c cupa t ion s h if ted t o t he l s t eppe . I n t he s t eppe , t he S aroba s i tes r e ma ined sma l a nd , i fd epth o f c c u ltura l d epos i t s a re a ny i nd ica t ion ( Tab le 5 . 2 ) , e ach s i te was o cup ied n e i ther l ong n or i n tens ive ly . Dur ing t h is p ha se , t he e cono m ic b ase was l t he h un t ing o f ma in ly s ma l w ooded s avanna a n te lopes , d ik -d ik , d u iker l a nd o r ib i , a s w e l a s war thog , mon i tor l i zard , a nd a n o ccas iona l med ium -s ized b ov id , s uch a s k ob o r r eedbu ck . N ot a s ing le r i ver ine l f auna l e l emen t h a s b een r ecovered f r om a S a roba s i te . I n a dd i t ion , a l l t he S aroba s i t es h ave q uan t i t ies o fP i la w er en i s he l p resen t . Un l ike t he i n terpre ta t ion o ft he ir p resen ce a t s i tes n ear t he N i le ( Ada mson , C lark , l a nd W i l iams 1 974 ) , h ere i ta ppear s t ha t t hey w ere n o t e a ten r egu lar ly b u t c a me t o t he s i tes o f t he ir o wn a ccord d ur ing p er iods o f s easona l 7 4

A . E . Marks a nd K S ad r i nunda t ion . I n a l c ase s , t he p i les o fs he ls s how many i nd iv idua ls w i th l l o per cu lu m i n p lace , as ure s i gn t ha t t hey w ere r ea c t ing t o ad ry ing h ab i ta t . T hus , l o ca l c ond i t ions d ur ing t he S aroba o ccupa t ion a t l ea s t w er e s easona ly v ery w e t a nd t he s i tes t ended t ob e o n s l igh t r i ses a bove l t he o therw ise f l a t s t eppe . T hroughou t t he S aroba w e h ave n o e v idence f o r s i gn if ican t p lan t e xp lo i ta t ion ; g round s t one i sv ery r are a nd s i ck le b lades a re a bsen t . O ne mus t , h owever , r ecogn ize t ha t t h in m idden d epo s i ts a t S aroba s i te s a re p oor ly s u i ted f o r t he p reserva t ion o fp lan t r e ma ins . I t w ou ld s em t ha t t he s i te l o ca t ions o f t he S aroba P hase e p eop les w ere l e ss t han o p t ima l . A t l e as t s o me w ere c er ta in ly i nunda ted s ea sona ly b u t , a tb e s t , t hey a ppear t oh ave b een more o r l e ss t emporary l c amp s . Wha t s eem s t oh ave d rawn p eop le t o t h is p ar t icu lar a rea w i th in t he S ou thern A tba i w a s t he r i ch f auna l i v ing i nt he w e t , w ooded s avanna t ha tw ou ld h ave d eve loped a l ong t he b anks o ft he G a sh a nd f ur ther f r om i ti nt he o lder meander c hanne ls i tl e f ta s i t moved t ot he n or thea s t . T he g eog raph ic r ang e o ft he S aroba p eop les i su nknown ; whe ther t hey a lway s i nhab i ted s uch s easona ly w et e nv ironmen ts i s s t i l t o b e l l e s tab l i shed . H owever , t hey a ppa ren t ly w ere w e la dap t ed b ecause b y4 000 l BC , t he ir s i t es i ncrea se i n s i ze a nd a r t if ac tua l d ens i ty , a nd n ew f o rms o f c eram ics a ppear , i n c lud ing l a rge u t i l ity v esse ls a nd f i ne r ipp le -ware b eaker s . A lso , s o me l uxury i t ems s uch a s l i p p lug s a nd e gg she l b ead s l a re f ound . S i te l o ca t ion r e ma in s t he s ame b u t as i gn if i can t n umber o f g r ind ing s t ones o ccur , a l though t here a re s t i l n o p lan t r e ma ins . I n l s p i t e o f t hese c hanges , m idden a ccumu la t ion i s o n ly s l igh t ly g reater ( Tab le 5 . 2 ) a nd t here i sn o e v iden ce f o rp ermanen t o cupa t ion . c E cono m ic a dap ta t ion w as s t i l b ased o n t he h un t ing o f s ma l w ooded l l s avanna f orm s ; af ew l a rg er a n ima ls , i nc lud ing e l ephan t s , w ere t aken . Mound s o fP i la w er en i s he l a test t o t he c on t inued s ea sona l i nunda t ion l t o ft he c entra l s t eppe , b e tween t he p resen tA tbara a nd G a sh R iver v a ley s . l A l though t here i ss t i l a5 00 -year h ia tus i n o ur a bso lu te c hrono logy l b e tween t he S aroba /Ka ssa la T rans i t iona l P hase a nd t he E ar ly K assa la Pha se d at ing t oc a . 3 500 BC , t here i sn o d oub t a s t ot he d eve lopmen ta l n a tu r e o ft he c hange . C eram ica l ly , a t l ea st , t here i s marked c on t inu ity . Y e tr ad ica l c hanges t ak ep lace i n s i t e l o ca t ion , s i te t ype , a nd s i te s i ze . P erhaps t he mos t s t r ik ing c hange i si n s e t t lemen t p at tern s ; s i te s a re l n ow f ound b o th i n t h e A tbara R iver v a ley a nd i n t he s t eppe t ot he e as t ( F ig . 5 . 5 ) . A lso , t here a re t wo v ery d i s t inc t s i te s i zes : t he ma jor ity a re l r a ther sma l , n o l a rg er t han a hec tare ( 10 ,000 m 2 ) , wh i le t hree s i tes a re b e tween 8 and 1 0 h ec ta r es . T he d if erence e xceeds s i ze a l one ( Tab le 5 . 2 ) . M idden a ccumu la t ion s a tt he s ma l ler s i tes a re s ha l low , t he d eepes t w i th o n ly c a . 3 5 c m o f c u l tu ra l d epos it . T he l a rge s i tes , o n t he o ther h and , l h av e c u ltura l ma ter ia ls t o ad ep th o f 2m o r more . On t he s ma ler s i tes ,

7 5

Ho locene Env ironmen ts a nd O ccupa t ions i n t h e S ou thern A tba i c eram ics a re s parse a nd l i th ic ma ter ia ls h ave o n ly a modera te d ens i ty . A t t he l a rger s i tes , t he d ens ity o fc eram ics i si mpress ive a nd t here i sa h igh f r equency o fl i th ic a r t ifac ts . T he l i th ic ma ter ia ls i nc lude n umerous g r ind ing s t ones , p o l ished s t one a r t ifacts ( axes , a dzes , p o in t ed mace h eads , a ga te l i p p lugs ) , a l f o rms wh ich a lm os t n ever o ccur a t t he sma l l l s i tes . On ly c h ipped s t one p icks o ccur a t b oth t he l a rge s i tes a nd t he sma ler o nes n ear t he A tbara . I n f a c t , o ne o ft he A tbara s i tes a ppears t o l h ave s pec ia l ized i n t he p roduc t ion o ft hese p i ck s . T hus , n ot o n ly i st here ar ad ica l c hange i n s i te l o cat ion a nd s i te c onten t , b ut a l so i n s i te v ar iab i l ity f r om t he S aroba t o t he E ar ly Kas la P hase . Th is s uggest s a sa n ew s oc ia l o rgan izat ion , an ew way o f d ea l ing w ith t he e nv iron men t , a nd more c o mp lex f o rms o fa dap ta t ion . H owever , o n ar eg iona l l eve l , n o marked c hange i n c l ima t ic c ond i t ions o ccurr ed a t t h is t ime . T he M idd le Ho locene c l ima te w as f i rm ly i n p lace ; i t was s omewha t d r ier t han b ef ore b u t t here h ad b een n o s i gn if icant c hange i n e i ther t he l o ca l f l ora o r f auna . T ab le 5 .2 : S ou the rn A tba iS i te C ha rac te r is t ics b y P hase o rG roup P hase

N umbe r o f S i tes

S i te A reas

D ep th o f D epos i ts

J ebe l T aka H ag iz

2 7 2

0 -4 h a

0 -10

c m

6 12 h a

0 -10

c m

L a te K assa la J ebe l Mok ram

c a . 6 0

. 1-6 h a

0 -50

c m

Gash

c a . 2 5

. 1-3 h a

0 -10

c m

2

8 11 h a

1 00-250

c m

3

. 3-2 h a

0 -10

c m

2

4 -8 h a

5 0150

c m

B u tana

E ar ly K assa la B u tana

S aroba /Kassa la S aroba P re -Saroba

T rans i t ion

8

0 -4 h a

0 -35

c m

4

9 11 h a

1 00-260

c m

1

1 . 5 h a

c a . 3 0

c m

. 2 -1 h a

0 -30

c m

. 1.3 h a

0 -30

c m

1 4 2

7 6

A . E . Marks a nd K S adr T he d i str ibu t ion o f s i tes , p ar t icu lar ly t he l a rg er o nes , i nd ica tes t ha t l o cat ion n ear a si ng le ma jor r esour ce , s uch a s w a ter , w a s n ot a concern . c T he l arge s i tes o cur o n t he A tbara , i nt he d r ier c l ay p or t ion o ft he s t eppe ter a a nd , o n t he e as tern e dge o ft he ir d i s tr ibu t ion , n ear t he w et rea o ft he G a sh c hanne ls , t h e S hurab e lG ash . T he s i ze o ft he l a rges t s i tes a nd t he d ep th o ft he ir d epos i t s i nd ica te e i ther p ermanen t h ab i ta t ion o r r egu lar , r epea ted o ccupa t ions wh ich l a s ted a si gn if i can t p or t ion o fe ach y ear . l l T he s ma ler s i t es , w i th t he ir s ha low d epos i t s a nd t he p over ty o ft he ir ma ter ia l r e ma ins , i nd ica te v ery e phemera l c amps wh ich mus t h ave l b een s tru c tura ly r e la ted t o t he f ew l a rge s i tes . T here a ppears t o h ave l l b een t wo k ind s o f s ma l s i tes : sma l c amps , p erhaps , r e la ted t o t r ans i tory l o ca l e xp lo i ta t ion a way f r om t he l a rger s i tes a nd t hose i n t he l l l A tbara R iver v a ley wh ich may h ave b een s ma l v i lages t ha t s pec ia l ized l i nt he e xp lo ita t ion o ft he l i th ic r esour ces r eg iona ly a va i lab le o n ly i n t ha t l r i ver v a ley ( cher t , a ga te , g reens tone , e t c . ) . An u nder s tand ing o f wha t l t he sma ler s i tes s i gn if y d epends t o al a rge e x ten t u pon t he ir d at ing , s i n ce d ur ing t he E ar ly Ka ssa la P hase , t here i sa n a pparen t b roaden ing o fa dap t ive s t ra teg ies . We s ugges t t ha t t he o nse t o ft he K assa la P ha se wa s b rough t a bou t b y a n i ncreas ing ly c omp lex a dap t ive s t ra tegy a nd t ha t t he s urv iva l a nd p rosper i ty o ft h is p ha se w as r e la ted t o a no ther i ncrease i n c omp lex ity o f t he e conom ic b a se . T he s h if tt ot he K assa la P hase , t hrough t he t ran s i t iona l p er iod , s hows o n ly o ne s i gn if i can t c hange i n ma ter ia l r e ma in s : a m arked i n crease i n t he n umber o fg r ind ing s t ones a t t he S aroba /Kassa la T rans i t iona l s i te , a s c o mpared w ith t he e ar l ier S aroba s i tes . H owever , b y t he b asa l l K a ssa la P hase , a l t he s i tes a re n o t o n ly r i ch i ng round s t one b u t e xh ib i t t he ma ter ia l c omp lex i ty a l ready d escr ibed . W i th in t he C en tra l S udan , l enn s o ne where a n ima l t he p er iod o f t he f our th m il ium BC i l l d omest icat ion i s w e l k nown i n t he N i le v a ley ( Haa land 1 981 ; K rzyzan iak 1 977 ) a nd f o r wh ich many a ssump t ion s h ave b een made l a bout s orghum a nd m i le t c u l t iva t ion ( Haa land 1 981 , 1 984 ) . T hus , i t w ou ld n o t b e u nr easonab le t o p os tu la te t ha t t he r ad ica l c hanges i n s i te s i ze , s i te l o ca t ion , a nd ma ter ia l c u l ture a re r e la ted t o t he a dop t ion o f d omest ic p lan ts a nd a n ima ls i n to t he l o ca l e conomy . Y e t , t he a va i lab le d a ta p rec lude s u ch a n i nc lus ive i n terpr eta t ion . I ns tead , i ti sp o stu la ted t ha t o n ly i n tens ive p lan t e xp lo i ta t ion was i n troduced a t t ha t t ime . Whether o rn o ti t invo lved t he i n trodu c t ion o fd omes t ica t es c anno tn ow b e d eterm ined . H owever , i t i s p oss ib le t o e xc lude t he i n troduc t ion o f d omest ic a n ima ls a s af a c tor i n t he c hange i n s e t lemen t p at , s i te t tern s i ze , o r s i te c omp lex i ty .

7

c upa Ho lo c en e Env ironmen ts a nd Oc t ions i n t he S ou th ern A tba i tern o A t t he ma jor E ar ly K assa la P ha se s i tes , t he p at ff auna l r e covery w as s tandard ; t he l ower h a lf o fe a ch s i t e p rodu c ed f auna l a ssemb lages o f l who ly w i ld a n ima ls . I n f a c t , t hese a ssemb lages a re n o t s ign if i can t ly d if eren t f r om t hose o ft he S aroba s i tes wh ich p receded t hem . H owever , tle a bou t h a lfway u p t he s t ra t ig raph ic c o lumn , t he b ones o fd omes t i c c at l l a nd sma l l i ves tock a ppear i n sma l n umber s . A t t hese s i tes , t he t r ad iocarbon d a tes s how l i t le s pread ( Tab le 5 . 1 ) , a nd i ts eems a s i ft he o a ppearance o fd omes t ic a n ima ls t ok p la ce d ur ing t he l a s t q uar ter o ft he hus , t he p at fs i t e l o ca t ion , s i te s i ze , a nd l tern o f our th m i lenn ium BC. T s i te c omp lex i ty w as a l ready w e l e s tab l ished p r ior t o t he i n trodu c t ion o f l d omes t ic a n ima ls . I ti s a l so i mpor tan t t o n o te t ha t , o n ce i n troduced , t hey t ook q u i te s ome t ime t ob ecome an umer ica ly i mpor tan t e l emen t i n l t he f auna l a ssemb lages . On t he b as is o f t he p resen t e v idence , t he e conom ic b ase wh ich s uppor ted t he E ar ly Ka ssa la P hase f l orescence i n t he S ou thern A tba i n i t ia ly w a s o ne o fh un t ing , w i th a n i n tens ive u t i l iza t ion o fp lan t f ods , i l o q u i te p oss ib ly a ssoc ia ted w i th c u l t iva t ion o fc erea ls . On ly i n as omewha t l a ter s tage d id d omes t ic a n ima ls p lay a ny r o le . The a rgumen t f or c u l t iva t ion c an b e made o n t he b as is o f s i te l o ca t ion . T he l arge E ar ly K assa la P hase s i tes a re f ound i n t he w es tern , o r d r ier p or t ion o ft he S ou thern A tba i . A l though s ma l n umber s o fP i la w ere f ound a t t hese l s i tes , t hey w ere i nd iv idua ly c o lec ted a nd t h ere i s n o e v iden ce f or l l s easona l i nunda t ion . T hu s , b y t he m idd le o ft he f our th m i lenn ium BC, l t he G ash h ad moved s uf i c ien t ly t ot he e a s tt ot ak e t he c en t ra l s t eppe o u t o f t he a rea af ec ted b y o verbank f l ood ing . T h is l e f t o n ly t he a nnua l s ummer r a ins a s as ource o fw a ter . E ven t oday , w ith o n ly 3 00 mm o f r a in y ear ly , t he w es tern s t eppe i s h eav i ly f armed a f ter t he s ummer r a in s . A s o ne moves e as tward i n to t he S harub e lG ash — the a rea o ft he r a in p oo ls —f arm ing i s much l e ss e x ten s ive , a nd t ends t o b e l im i ted t o t he o lder h igh l e vees o ft he a nc ien t G ash . I tw ou ld s eem , t heref or e , t ha t t he l o ca t ion o f t hese l a rge E ar ly Kassa la P ha se s i tes w as p ar t ia ly l d e term ined b y a va i lab le a rab le l and . T h is s eems t o h o ld t rue f o r t he l a rge s i t e a l ong t he A tbara a s w e l . I to cur s i n o ne o ft he v ery f ew a reas l c where t he f l ood p la in b ecomes w ide . S o , i n t h is c ase , i ti s a mat f ter o l and d ry ing s uf i c ien t ly t o p rov ide g ood c u l t iva t ion , r a ther t han g e t ing t s u ff i c ien t mo is ture . A lthough t he i n troduc t ion o f d omest ic a n ima ls h ad l i t le i n i t ia l t i mpac t , b y t he m idd le o ft he t h ird m i lenn ium B C t hey h ad b egun t op lay l a ma jor r o le i n t he e conom ic b ase a t s ome s i te s . N o t o n ly a re t he ir r e ma ins v ery c ommon , b u t t he a bso lu te n umber o fw i ld a n ima ls h un ted d rops s harp ly . T h is i s mos t n o t iceab le f o r t he a n t e lopes , wh i le s i te s n ear t he r i ver c on t inued t oy i e ld s ubstan t ia l q uan t i t ies o fc r ocod i le , h ippo , a nd w ar thog b ones . T hese K assa la P hase s i tes r e ta in t he ir c omp lex i ty a nd

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A . E . Marks a nd K S adr s i ze a nd , j udg ing f r om t he n umber o f g r ind ing s t ones , i tw ou ld s eem t ha t c u l t iva t ion c on t inued t ob e ama jor a c t iv i ty . B y t he L a te K a ssa la P hase , p erhaps b eg inn ing d ur ing t he e nd o ft he l t t h ird m i lenn ium BC, a s h if t i n g enera l s e t lemen t l o ca t ion i s c l ear ly v i s ib le t oward t he e as t , i n t he d i r ec t ion o ft he p resen t G ash D e l ta ( F ig . 5 . 5 ) . T he ma jor c l us ter o ccurs i n t ha t a rea wh ich r e ta ins mo is ture t he l o ngest t oday — the S hu rab e lG a sh a nd Ma law iya r a in p oo ls . Most o ft he l a rge s i t es ( c ompa rab le t ot hose o ft he E ar ly Kassa la P ha se ) h ave moved e ven f ur ther e as tward t oa l ong t he G a sh i t se lf . T h is s uggest s t ha tb yt he l e nd o ft he t h ird m i lenn ium BC t he G a sh h ad r eached i t s p resen tb ed a nd l t he l o ca l p rec ip ita t ion h ad , p erhaps , f a len s uf i c ient ly t o make t he w es tern s t eppe h ab itab le o n ly d ur ing a nd a f t er t he s ummer r a ins . S i te l d i s tr ibu t ions make s ense i n t hose t e rms ; sma l , e phemera l s i tes w ith s urf ic ia l c u l tura l d epos i t s a re f ound o ver t he who le s t eppe a nd e ven i n to l l l t he r i ver v a ley s ,b u t s ma l t ol a rge v i lages a re f ound o n ly o n t he e as tern h a lf o ft he s t eppe a nd d i r ec t ly a round t he G a sh . On ly t he p auc i ty o fs i tes l l w i th in t he A tbara v a ley p oses ap rob lem . H ere , h owever , t he f a ct or w e l may h ave b een t he l im i ted a rab le l and a nd a sh if tt og rea ter d if eren t ia l l l s easona l f l ow a s t he r a inf a l t o t he s ou th b ecame more s easona ly rence r e s tr ic ted . T he r e su lt ing f l ash f l oods , ac o mmon h istor ic o ccur , c w ou ld h ave made t he A tbara e dge u n inv i t ing f o r p ermanen t o cupa t ion . T he L a te Ka ssa la P ha se i sc omp lex f o r a n umber o fr eason s . Un l ike e ar l ier p er iods , t here w ere t hree d i st inc t c u ltura l man if estat ions p resen t : o ne c on t inued t he c u l ture s een i n t he E ar ly K assa la P hase ( t he B u tana G roup ) ; o n e a ppears t o h ave b een a n e as tern , r eg iona l v ar ian t t hereof ( t he Gash G roup ) ; a th ird , t he J ebe l Mokram G roup , may h ave b een i n trus ive i n to t he S outhern A tba i b u t , b ased o n c eram ic l a sse mb lages , s t i l b e longed w i th in t he A tba i T rad i t ion . N o t o n ly a re l t hese g roups s o mewha t d if eren t c eram ica ly , t he ir s i te l o ca t ions , s i te l t ypes , a nd s i t e c omp lex i ty a re t os ome e x ten t d if eren t a s w e l ( Fa tt ov ich , Marks , a nd Mohammed -A l i 1 984 ) . T he c on t inua t ion o ft he E ar ly K a ssa la P hase s i t es t akes p lace ma in ly o n t he e astern f r inge o f t he c en tra l s t eppe , a s i f t here w as s o me l r e lu c tance t ol eave t he a rea . S i tes a re s t i l l a rge , a bou t 5 to 6h ec tares , l b u t o n ly h a lf t he s i ze o fa mi lenn ium e ar l ier . I n o ther w ay s , h owever , t hey r eta in t he ir i d en t i ty , a l though t he ir c eram ics b ecome a b i t more mundane . T he Gash G roup i sf ound ma in ly a t t he e a stern e dge o ft he S ou thern A tba i a nd i ti s t he se s i tes wh ich p ara l le l t he B u tana G roup 's mass ive v i l lages a nd t he ir r i ch ma ter ia l c u lture . T hese a re a l so l i ke t he e ar ly B u tana G roup i n t h e w es tern s t eppe ; t here a re a f ew sma l l s i tes o ft he G a sh G roup a cross t he e a s tern p or t ion o ft he s t eppe . T he ir a bsen ce i n

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c upa Ho lo c ene Env ironmen t s a nd Oc t ions i n t h e S ou th ern A tba i t he w es tern s t eppe s ugges t s t ha t r a ther marked t er r i tor ia l ity p er ta ined a tt ha tt ime . T he t h ird g roup , t he J ebe l Mokram , h as t he g rea tes t n umber o fs i tes , t he v as t ma jor i ty o f wh ich a re i n t he c en tra l p or t ion o f t he s t eppe , a l though s i tes o f t h is g roup a re f ound f r om t he e astern e dge o f t he l A tbara v a ley t ot he e a st ern s i de o ft he G a sh R iv er ( F ig . 5 . 6 ) . T he se s i tes , l wh i le t hey c an c over s o me c on s iderab le a rea ( Tab le 5 . 2 ) , u sua ly h ave l ow m l, d s hal idden d epos its , o f ten c ons ist ing o f smal i screte l c on cen t ra t ions o fa r t if ac t s . T he c eram ic s f a l w i th in t he A tba i T rad it ion b u t s t and o u t f r om t hose o ft he o ther g roups b y v i r tue o fs pec ia l d es ign mo t if s a nd al im i ted r ange o fs ur f a ce t r ea tmen t s . c T hus , t hree i den t if iab ly d if eren t g roups o cup ied t he S ou thern A tba i n t i l a bou t 1 000 BC . Wh i le a t a bou t t he s ame t ime —f rom c a . 3 000 BC u t he ir s i te d i s tr ibu t ions o ver lap t o s ome e x ten t ( F ig . 5 .6 ) , e ach t ends t o h ave ad if eren t s e t lemen tp at . I ti ss ugges ted t ha t t hese d if er en ces t tern c an b e u nder stood i n t e rm s o fh is tor ic a nd e conom ic c on s idera t ions , a s t hey r e la te t ol o ca l c ond i t ion s . A t t he L a te Kassa la P hase Bu tana G roup s i tes , d omest ic a n ima ls w ere k nown a nd u sed b u t h un t ing s t i l r e ta ined t he d om inan t e c onom ic l p os it ion . Wh i le n o ma crobo tan ica l r e ma ins h ave b een r ecovered , t he i mpor tance o f c u l t iva t ion i s s hown b y t he p resence o f n umerous l g r ind ing s t ones a nd l a rge n umbers o f p ot sherds f r om t h ick -wa led , l a rge s t orage v esse ls . l T he f auna f r om t he v i lages o ft he G a sh G roup , s i tuat ed ma in ly a l ong l t he G ash R iver , c on ta ined a sma l n umber o f d omest ic a n ima ls . However , h ere , t oo , h un t ing s eems t o h ave b een d om inan t ( Geraads 1 983 ) a nd f i sh ing c o mmon . F lora l ma ter ia ls i n c lude w i ld f o rm s s u ch a s l Z izyphus a nd s o me L egu minosae , a s w e l a s s o me Horde um t ern a ( Con stan t in i e ta l . 1 982 ) . T hus , t he e conom ic p at ppear s t oh ave l b een a mixed e conomy w i th d omes t ic a n ima ls p lay ing a re la t ive ly s ma l r o le a nd t he e xp lo ita t ion o f w i ld p lan ts a nd a n i ma ls b e ing most i mpor tan t . I n t h is s en se , t he e conomy o ft he G ash G roup i sc o mparab le t o t ha t o ft he L a te Bu tana G roup , w i th t he a dd i t ion o ff i sh ing a nd t he h un t ing o fr i ver ine a n ima ls . I ti sw i th in t he J ebe l Mokram G roup t ha t an ew e conom ic p at an tern c b e d ocumen ted . A lthough f auna l p reserva t ion i s p oor , o w ing t o t he s ha low d ep th o fm idden d epos i t s , a l t he b one s s o f ar r ecovered c an b e l l a tr ibu ted t o d omes t ic c a t le . I n a dd i t ion , i mp ress ions o fb o th d omes t ic t t s orghum a nd m i le t h ave b een f ound o n t h ick u ndecora ted s herd s a nd l a c tua l g ra ins o fd omes t ic m i le t h ave b een r ecovered f r om s o me s herds l ( Constan t in i , p ersona l c o mmun ica t ion ) . T hus , t he J ebe l Mokram

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A . E . Marks a nd K S adr G roup w ou ld a ppear t o h ave a m ixed c a t le h erd ing , f arm ing e conomy , t v ery much l i ke t ha to fs ome o ft he p resen t -day i nhab i tan t s o ft he s t eppe o f t he S ou thern A tba i ( Barbour 1 964 ) . On ly t he p resence o ft wo p oss ib le v i lages o n t he e as tern e dge o f t he a rea s uggest s as o mewha t more l s t ab le r es idency f o rt he J ebe l Mokram G roup t han f o r l a t er p eop les . S in ce s o f ew o ft he s i tes h ave b een d a ted b y r ad iocarbon , s even o u t o f o ver 2 00 ,i t is d if i cu l tt of u ly a pprec ia t e t he f a te o ft he t hree g roups o ft he l L a te Kassa la P ha se . T he g enera l t r end s ugges t s t ha t v i lage l i f e was l g iv ing way t o s em i -nomad ic p at s d omest ic a n ima ls b ecame more terns a i mpor tant a nd a s t he c en tra l s t eppe b ecame d r ier . I t s eems c l ear , h owever , t ha t a l ong t he e as tern e dge o ft he S ou thern A tba i , a d ja cen t t o t he G ash , v i lage l i f e r ema ined v iab le . l T here i ss ome th ing o f ag ap b e tween t he L a t e K assa la P hase a nd t he J ebe l T aka P hase wh i ch f o lows i t . T he l a ter i sn o t y et s ecure ly d a ted l t b u to n t he b as is o fs ome c e ram ic t r a i ts i t has b een p laced b e tween 5 00 BC tov s b a nd 3 00 AD ( Fat ich i np res ) . l T he d is tr ibu t ion o fJ ebe l T aka P hase s i tes i sa s g eog raph ica ly w ide a s f o r a ny g roup . T he h ighes t d en s i ty l i es n ear t he Ma law iya r a in p oo ls , a n l a rea wh ich p rov ides w a ter w e l i n to t he d ry s eason ( F ig . 5 . 5 ) . Mos t s i tes l t a r e s ma l b u t e ven t he l a rger o nes c on s is t o fl i t le more t han a n e ven , ter o s par se s cat fc u l tura l ma ter ia ls . N o e conom ic d ata a re a va i lab le b u t t tern t he s e t lemen tp at , t he s i t e c ond i t ion s , a nd t he p auc i ty o fa r t if ac t s a t l t he s i tes a l s ugges t t ha t e conom ic a dapta t ion c en tered ma in ly o n l h erd ing w i th a s ma l amoun t o fc u l t iva t ion o n t he s t eppe a f t er t he r a iny s ea son . T he d ry s ea son w ou ld p robab ly h ave b een s pen t n ear t he A tbara c a nd G ash R iver s , a coun t ing f o r t he s omewha t more s ubs tan t ia l s i tes i n t hose a rea s . l I t s ee ms t hat t he J ebe l T aka P hase i s f o lowed b y ah ia tus i n c l o cupat ion wh ich l a st s u n t i l a f ter t he f i rst m i lenn ium AD. Wh i le i t m igh t b e n i ce t oc or r e la te t h is w i th i n crea s ing d ess ica t ion , more l i ke ly i t l r e la tes t o aw e l -documen t ed p un i t ive e xped i t ion i n to t he S ou thern A tba i Kob ishchanov b y t he Axum i te K ing E xana Ii n t he f our th c en tury AD ( 1 979 :65 ) . S ummary a nd C onc lus ions R econstru c t ions o fr eg iona l p a leoenv ironmen t s f o r t he C en tra l S udan s how a g radua l d ry ing t r end s ince t he E ar ly Ho locene . T he r econstruc t ion o f c u l ture c hange a nd c on t inu ity i n t he S ou thern A tba i , o n t he o ther h and , s hows n o s uch g radua l ism . I nstead , t here a re l t p er iods o f r ap id c hange e spec ia ly i n s e t lemen t s y s tems a nd a dap t ive s t ra teg ies . On p resen t e v iden ce , t hese c hanges c an b e r e la ted t o t wo f a c tor s : r e la t ive ly d rast ic c hanges i n t he l o ca l e nv ironmen t o f t he 8 1

Ho lo c en e Env ironmen ts a nd Oc t ions i n t h e S ou th ern A tba i c upa S ou thern A tba i b rough t a bou t b y c hanges i n t he r i ver ine h ydrog raphy a nd , s econd ly , b y a dd i t ions t ot he e conom ic b a se o ft he i nhab i tan t s o ft he S ou thern A tba i , i n c lud ing t he i n trodu c t ion o fd omes t ica ted p lan t s a nd a n ima ls p robab ly f r om o u t s ide t he a rea . F our ma jor p er iods o fc hange c an b e i s o la ted i n t he H o locene c u ltura l s equence o ft he S ou thern A tba i . F ir s t , a change i n s e t lemen t p at t terns f r om t he r i ver ine -or ien ted P re -Saroba P hase t o aw ooded s avanna o r ien ted S aroba P hase , a l l w i th in a h un t ing /ga ther ing e conom i c b ase . S econd , ar ad ica l c hange i n s e t lemen t o rgan iza t ion , a nd p resumab ly t s oc ia l c o mp lex ity , b e tween t he S aroba P hase a nd t he Ear ly K assa la P hase , p oss ib ly r e la ted t o a dd i t ions t o t he e c onom ic b a se , i n c lud ing a s h if t t o t he i n ten s ive c u l t iva t ion o f d omes t icated p lants . T h ird , a d ivers if ica t ion i n c u ltura l e xpress ions a nd a dapt ive s tra teg ies , a ccompan ied b y ama jor p opu la t ion i n crea se i n t he L a te Kassa la P hase . T h is c hange i s r e la ted , a t l e as t p ar t ia ly , t o a n i ncrea se i n h erd ing o f l d omes t ica ted a n ima ls . F ina ly , ac hange f r om t he a g ro -pas tora l is t l a dapta t ion s i n t he L a te K assa la P hase , t o a ma in ly p astora l is t a nd p oss ib ly n omad ic , a dap ta t ion i n t he J ebe l T aka P ha se , a co mpan ied b y a c d ec l ine i n c u ltura l v ar iab i l i ty a nd p opu la t ion l eve ls . Overa l , e ven l t hough t he c hanges i n t he l o ca l h ydrography e l ic i t c l ear ly v i s ib le c hanges i n g enera l s e t lemen t p at s ( a s h if t ing s i te d ens i ty f r om t he t tern w es tern t o t he e astern s t eppe ) , o n ly a f ew o f t he i ns tances o f ma jor c u l tura l c hange c an b e d i re c t ly l i nked t ot hese e nv ironmen ta l c hanges .

A cknow ledgemen t s T he f i e ld w ork i n t he c en t ra l a nd w es tern p a r t s o ft he S ou thern A tba i h as b een f unded b y t wo Na t iona l S c ience F ounda t ion G ran t s t o t he S en ior a u thor w i th a dd i t iona l s uppor t f r om t he Un iver s i ty o f Khar toum . F ie ld w ork i n t ha ta rea w a s u nder t he d i rec t ion o ft he S en ior a u th or a nd D r . A bba s Mohammed -A l i , D epar tmen t o f A r chaeo logy , Un iver s i ty o f Khar toum . F auna l i den t if i ca t ions , u n less o therw ise r ef erenced , w ere made b y Mr . J ur is P et er s , G eo log isch I n s t i tuu t , Un iver s i ty o fG en t .

R ef er ences A dam s , W . Y . 1 977 . Nub ia : C or oA f r ica . A ld ine P ress . ridor t A damson , D . , C lark , J .D . a nd W i l iams , M . A . J . 1 974 . B arbed b one l p o in t s f r om C en tra l S udan a nd t he a ge o ft he E ar ly Khar toum t rad i t ion . Na tur e 2 49 :120-23 . l A rke l , A . J . 1 949 . E ar ly Khar toum . L ondon : O xf ord Un ivers i ty P ress . 8 2

A . E . Marks a nd K S adr Barbour , K . M . 1 964 . T h eR epub l ic o ft he S udan : AR eg iona l G eography . L ondon : Un ivers i ty o fL ondon P ress . tov C o l tor t i , M . , D 'A lessandro , A . , F at ich , R . , L enob le , P . a nd S adr , K . 1 984 . G ash D e lta A rchaeo log ica l P ro jec t , 1 984 f i e ld s eason . Nyame A kuma 2 4 /25 :20-3 . C on s tan t in i , L . , F a tt ov i ch , R . , P ard in i , E . a nd P iperno , M . 1 982 . P re l im inary r epor t o fa r chaeo log ica l i nvest iga t ions a t t he s i te o f Maha l T eg l inos ( Kassa la ) , N ovember , 1 981 . Nyame A kuma 2 1 :30 3 . . ,F a ttov ich , R . , P iperno , M . a nd S adr , K . 1 983 . Gash D e lta A rchaeo log ica l P ro jec t , 1 982 f i e ld s eason . Nyame A kuma 2 3 :171 9 . t ov Du ran te , S . , F at ich , R . a nd P iperno , M . 1 980 . A rchaeo log ica l s urvey o ft he G ash D e l ta , Kassa la P rov ince . Nyame Akuma 1 7 :64-71 . tov F at ich , R . I np ress a . T he l a t e p reh istory o ft he Gash D e lta , S udan . 2 nd I n terna t iona l s ympos ium o n t he l a te p reh is tory o ft he N i le B as in a nd t he S ahara , P oznan , 1 984 . .I n p ress b . T he G ash D e l ta b e tween 1 ,000 B .C . a nd 1 ,000 A .D . 5 th I n terna t iona l C onf erence f o r Mero it ic S tud ies , R ome , 1 984 . .1 982 . T he p rob lem o fS udanese -Eth iop ian c on tac ts i n a n t iqu ity : ren s tatus q uest ions a nd c ur t t r ends o fr esear ch . I n Nub ian S tud ies ( ed J .P lum ley ) : p p . 7 6-86 . tov F at ich , R . a nd Marks , A . E . , a nd Mohammed -A l i , A . 1 984 . T he a rchaeo logy o ft he e astern S ahe l , S udan : P re l im inary r esu lt s . T he Af r ican A r chaeo log ica l R ev iew 2 : 173-88 . tov F at ich , R . a nd P iperno , M . 1 981 . S urvey o ft he Gash D e l ta ( November 1 980 ) . Nyame A kuma 1 9 :26-31 . G eraads , D . 1 983 . F auna l r e ma ins f r om a r chaeo log ica l s i tes i n t he Gash D e lta , S udan . Nyame A kuma 2 3 :22 . G rove , A . T . 1 973 . D e ser t if ica t ion i n t he A f r ican e nv ironmen t . I n R epor ts o n t he 1 973 S ympo s ium , Drough t i nA f r ica ( D . Da lby a nd R . J . Harr ison -Chur ch , e ds . ) . Un iver s ity o fL ondon , S choo l o f O r ien ta l a nd A f r ican S tud ies . G r ove ,A . T . a nd G oud ie , A . S . 1 971 . L a te Qua ternary l ake l eve ls i n t he l R if tv a ley o fs ou thern E th iop ia a nd e l sewhere i n t r op ica l A f r ica . Na tur e 2 34 :403-5 .

8 3

Ho locene Env ironmen ts a nd O ccupa t ions i n t h e S ou thern A tba i Haa land , R 1 981 . M igra tory h erdsmen a nd c u l t iva t ing w omen . T he s t ruc tur e o fN eo l i th ic s easona l a dap ta t ion i n t he Khar toum M ile e nv iron men t . B ergen . • 1984 . C on t inu i ty a nd d i scon t inu i ty . H ow t o a ccount f o r at wo t housand -year g ap i n t he c u l tura l h is to ry o ft he Khar t ,oum N i le e nv ironmen t . Norweg ian A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew 1 7 (1) :39-52 . K ob ishchanov , Y . M . 1 979 . A xum . P ennsy lvan ia S ta te Un iver s i ty P ress . o K rzyzan iak , L . 1 977 . N ew l i gh to ne ar ly f od p roduc t ion i n t he c en tra l S udan . J ourna lo f Af r ican H is tor y 1 9 (2 ) :159-72 . Marks , A . E . 1 984 . Bu tana A rchaeo log ica l P r o jec t , 1 983-84 . N yame Akuma 2 4 /25 :32-33 . tov Marks , A . E . a nd F at ich , R . I n p ress . T he l a ter p reh istory o ft he E as tern S udan : Ap re l im inary v iew . I n terna t iona l s ympo s iu m o n t he l a te p reh is tory o ft he N i le B as in a nd t he S ahara , P oznan , 1 984 . Mohammed -A l i , A . , a nd Marks , A . E . 1 984 . T he p reh istory o fS haqadud i n t he w estern Bu tana , c en tra l S udan : Ap re l im inary r epor t . Norweg ian A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew 1 7 (1 ) :52-62 ) . S adr , K . 1 984 . T he G erga t G roup : T he l a tes ta r chaeo log ica l p ha se i n t he s ou thern A tba i , e ast c en tra l S udan . N yame A ku ma 2 4 /25 :335 Warren , A . 1 970 . Dune t r ends a nd t he ir i mp l ica t ions i n t he c en t ra l S udan . Z e i t . G eomorph . , S upp l . 1 0 :154-80 . W ickens , G . E . 1 975 . Changes i nt he c l imate a nd v ege ta t ion o ft he S udan s ince 2 0 ,000 B .P . B o iss iera 2 4 :43-65 . W ickens , G . E . 1 982 . P a leobo tan ica l s pecu la t ions a nd Qua ternary e nv ironmen ts i n t he S udan . I nAL and b e tween Two N i l es : Qua terna ry G eo logy a nd B io logy o ft h e C en tra l S udan ( ed sM . A . l terdam J .W i l iams a nd D . A . A damson ) : p p . 2 3-51 . R ot : A . A . Ba lke ma . l W i l iam s , M . A . J .a nd A damson , D . A . 1 974 . L a te P le is tocene d ess ica t ion a l ong t he Wh ite N i le . Na tur e 2 48 :584-585 .

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E vo lut ion o fS tone Age F ood -Produc ing Cu l tures i n Eas tA f r ica B y J ohn B ower , D epar tm en t o fS o c io logy a nd An thropo logy , I owa S ta te U n iver s i ty , Am es , I owa . " The mos t t ha t c an b e s a id o f ma jor c hang es i n s ubs is tence p rac t ices , e conom ic a c t iv i ty a nd s oc io -po l i t ica l o rgan iza t ion i s t ha t , o nc e t hey a r e t r igg er ed , t he ir g en era l c our se may d epend o n e ndog enous c ond i t ions a s much a s , o r mor e t han , i td o es o n t h e n a tur e o fs ome o u t s id e s t imu lus ." ( To l s toy 1 987 ) T h is c hap ter d ea l s w i th H o locene c u l tures i n K enya , T anzan ia a nd l Uganda wh ich , t hough p ossess ing d omes t ica tes , l a cked meta lurgy . S u ch c u ltures h ave b een a ss igned t o t he P astora l N eo l ith ic ( PN ) , a r eg iona l d eve lopmen ta l s t age t ha ti sp ar t icu lar ly r e levan tt ot he t heme o f t h is v o lume s ince i te n compa sses ma jor t ran sf orma t ion s i n b o th h uman l i f e -ways a nd t he h ab ita t s where t hey w ere p ra c t iced . T he p aper b eg in s w i th a r ev iew o f t he l o re r egard ing t he n a ture a nd h istory o f t he PN , c on t inues w i th a d i s cu ss ion o fn ew e v idence c oncern ing PN t axonomy , c hrono logy a nd g eog raphy a nd c on c ludes w i th a r e in terpre ta t ion o ft he e vo lu t ionary s i gn if i can ce o ft he PN b a sed , i n p ar t , o n c ompar ison s w i th t he h i stor ies o fb road ly s im i lar s t ages i n o ther p ar t s o fA f r ica . P as tora l Neo l i th ic L ore T he c ur t s ta te o fo p in ion r egard ing PN t axonomy , c hrono logy a nd ren g eog raphy ( by wh ich Imean n ot o n ly t he s pa t ia l d i s tr ibu t ion o f PN e n t it ies b u t a l so t he ir s ubs istence p at , s et t lement s yste ms , t erns p opu la t ion d ens i t ies , e t c .— in a w ord , t he ir e co logy ) i st o s ay t he l e as t , u nset tled ( Ph i l l ipson 1 982 ) . T h is i sp ar t ly b ecause d a ta c oncern ing t he l morpho logy a nd s pa t iotempora l d i s tr ibu t ion o f PN a r t ifa c ts , a s w e l a s tlemen ty e v iden ce o f PN s ubs i s tence -set t b ehav ior , a re e xceed ing ly s pot ( c f . P h i l l ipson 1 977 ; Ambrose 1 984a . ) I ti sa l so p ar t ly a consequence o f l l t t wo r ecent , w e l in ten t ioned b u t e ssen t ia ly p rema ture a temp ts t o s y s tema t ize t he PN , t he o u t comes o f wh ich a re l a rge ly a t o dds w i th e ach o ther , t hus i n ten s if y ing t he c onfu s ion t ha t s ur r ound s PN s tud ies . I n l t h is s e c t ion , Is ha l b r ief ly s urvey t he d eve lopmen t o f c on temporary PN l l o r e w i th av i ew t owa rd i den t if y ing a r eas o fb road a g reemen t , a s w e l a s l s s t rong ly d iverg en t v i ews . T he d i scuss ion w i l f o cus o n t wo b as ic i sues : t he c u l ture -h is tor ica l f r amework f o r t he PN a nd t he ma jor f ea tures o f t he e vo lu t ion o f PN c u l tures . T he e x istence o f a" neo l i th ic " s tage i n E as t A f r ican p reh is tory w as r e cogn ized b y L ou is L eakey a s e ar ly a s t he 1 930s ( L . S .B . L eakey 1 931) , b u t t he e stab l ishmen t o f ac omprehens ive i den t i ty f o r t he s tage h ad t o l a wa i t t he r esu l ts o f Mary L eakey 's i nves t iga t ions a t Hyrax H i l ( M . D . L eakey 1 945 ) , where n umerous s t one b ow ls w ere r ecovered . T he 9 1

E vo lu t ion o fS ton eA g e F ood -Produc ing C u l tur e s i nE as t Af r ica o ccurrence o f s uch b ow ls i n v ar ious a ssemb lages w ith f l aked t oo ls o f L a ter S tone A ge ( LSA ) t ype a nd d iverse c e ram ic t rad it ion s l e d t o t he r ecogn it ion o f t he " S tone B ow l C u l tures " a s af o rma l " neo l i th ic " e n t i ty ( Co le 1 963 ) . T hu s , u n t i l a bou tt he m id 1 970s ," neo l i th ic " r esea r ch i n E a s t A f r ica c en tered l a rge ly o n d e term in ing t he n a ture o f t he " S tone B ow l C u l tu res "( c f . C ohen 1 970 ; Odner 1 972 ; B ower 1 973 ) . H owever , a s " neo l i th ic " d a ta a ccumu la ted , i tb ecame a ppa ren t t ha t s o me o ccurrences wh ich ma tched o ne o r more " Stone B ow l " s i tes i n tery a p ot nd /or f l aked s t one t ypo logy l a cked t he c u l ture ' sf o ss i l e d i r ec t eur , af o rm c l ose ly i den t if ied w i th mor tuary r i tua l a nd , p erhaps f o r t h is r eason , r e la t ive ly u n common i nh ab i ta t ion d ebr is . A tt he s ame t ime t ha t t t he t axonom ic s i gn if i can ce o f s t one b ow ls w as d ec l in ing , a ten t ion w as b e ing i n creas ing ly d i rec ted t oward t he f auna f r om t he " S tone B ow l " s i t es , p ar t icu lar ly t he d omes t ic l i ves tock ( Gram ly 1 975 ; Onyango -Abu je 1 977 ) . ling d Among t he more c o mpel eve lopmen ts b eh ind t h is s h if t i n tle p erspec t ive w ere t he r ecogn i t ion t ha t t he d omes t ic f auna ( c at , s heep c r ence o o a nd g oa t s ) r epresen ted t he e ar l ies t o cur ff od p roduc t ion i n E a s t A f r ica , t ha t t he c u l tures wh ich r a ised t hem c ou ld t heref ore b e r egarded a s " neo l ith ic " i n t he e conom ic s ense o f t he w ord a nd t ha t t he E as t A f r ican " Neo l ith ic " m ight , i n s o me measure , c onst itute a n a u toch thonou s d eve lopmen t w or thy o f c o mpar ison w ith o ther , more o r l e ss i ndependen t " neo l i th ics " i n d if eren t p ar t s o f A f r ica a nd e ven i n o ther c on t inen ts . T h is t r end was g iven f o rma l r ecogn it ion i n t he l a te 1 970s b y t he a bandonmen t o f t he " S tone B ow l Cu l tures" a s a n e n t i ty a nd t he l e s tab l ishmen t o f ad eve lopmen ta l s tage c a led t he P astora l N eo l ith ic ( Bower e ta l . 1 977 :119 ) . S ince t he mean ing o ft he t e rm P astora l N eo l i th ic s eem s t o v ary d epend ing u pon who i su s ing i t , l e t me q uote i t s o r ig ina l d ef in i t ion : " Pas tora l ' Neo l i th ic ' ( PN ) i su sed t or ef er t o s oc ie t ie s w i th a n L SA t echno logy a nd a p as tora l e conom ic b ase r e ly ing h eav i ly o n t sion t d omes t ic c a t le a nd / or o v icapr ids . " T he d i scus ha t a ccompan ied t he d ef in it ion ( Bower e ta l . 1 977 :119 ) made i tc l ea r t ha t t he PN w as t o b e r egarded a s a n e vo lu t ionary s tage i n termed ia te b etween t he L SA , l a ck ing d omest icates , a nd t he P as tora l I r on A ge ( PIA ) , i n wh ich a l r e l iance u pon d omes t ic l i ves tock c o -occur s w i th m eta lurgy . Two p o in t s d eserve s pec ia l empha s is : 1 )t he d ef in ing c ha ra c ter is t ic o ft he PN i st he c omb ina t ion o fd omes t ica ted f auna a nd s t one a g e t e chno logy , s ot ha t t he tery p resence o r a bsen ce o fs t one b ow ls , p ot , s t one a xes , e t c . i si n c iden ta l ; l l 2 )t he PN i sc oncep tua ly p ara le l t oL SA , MSA , e t c . a nd d oes n o tr ef er t o ac u l tura l e n t i ty , s u ch a s a ni ndu s try ( c f . B ishop a nd C lark 1 967 :879-901 ; C lark e ta l . 1 966 ) . A s ar esu l to ft he i n t en s if i ca t ion o f PN f i e ld s tud ies d ur ing t he 1 970s , i t t wa s a pparen t b y t he l a ter p ar t o ft he d ecade t ha t t he s tage c on ta ined 9 2

J . B ower s evera l , p erhaps many , marked ly d i f eren t c eram ic s ty les w ith v ar ied , f t hough o f ten p oor ly d ef ined , s pa t io tempora l d i s tr ibu t ions , s o me o f wh ich o ver lapped o n e i ther t he s pa t ia l o r t he t empora l d imens ion b u t u sua ly l n ot b oth . S ince t h ese c eram ic v ar ian ts ( o r wares t o u se t he c o loqu ia l l t e rm ) s eemed t o p o in t t oward t he e x istence o f d i st inc t c u ltura l e n t it ies w i th in t he PN s tage , t he wares w ere f o rma ly d ef ined b y Wand ibba ( 1977 ; l s e a lso B ower e t a l . 1 977 ) w ith t he i dea t hat t hey m igh t s erve a s a e f oundat ion f o r a PN t axonomy . A t o ta l o f s i x wares was r ecogn ized : Nder it , Narosura , R emnan t , Ak ira , Mar ing ishu a nd Kansyore ( s ee T ab le 6 . 1) . Each o ft hese i sn ot o n ly t ypo log ica ly d i st inc t b u t ( w i th t he l e xcept ion o f Kan syore ) a l so o ccup ies a r easonab ly d iscrete p os it ion i n s pace a nd /or t ime , a s w i l b e s hown l a ter . T hus , o n b o th t ypo log ica l a nd l d i str ibu t iona l g rounds , t he wares s eemed t o p rov ide a s ound b as is f o r d e l inea t ing PN e n t i t ies . T ab le 6 . 1: C u l tura l E n t i t ies i nt he E as t A f r ican PN Wand ibba

l tt/Rober Cole tsha w

Ambrose

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E lmen te i tan

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ran S PN /Ebur

K ansyo re

O l tome

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O lma lenge

ran S PN /Ebur

N o te : E n t i t ies l i s ted u nde r Wand ibba a re i nc h rono log ica l o rde r , f r om o l des t -younges t r ead ing u p , a l though N a rosu ra , E lmen te i tan a nd Ma r ing ishu w a res m ay b e p enecon tempo raneous ; s ee t e x t f o r a l t d i scuss ion o ft he c h rono logy . E n t i t ies u nde r C o le t /Robe r tshaw a nd Amb rose a re a l igned w i th t he i r r c o re la tes i n Wand ibba 's c l a ss i f ica t ion .

I n s ummary , b yt he e nd o ft he 1 970s , t he c u l ture -h istor ica l f r amework o f o r t he s tudy o f s t one -age f od p roduc t ion i n E ast A f r ica c ons is ted o f a l d eve lopmen ta l s tage , c a led t he P astora l N eo l i th ic , t hat c on ta ined s i x l m ore o r l e ss w e l d ef ined c u ltura l e n t i t ies ( c eram ic wares ) a nd , g iven tiness o t he s pot f PN d a ta , a dm itted t he p oss ib i l ity o f d iscover ing a dd it iona l t axa t hrough f u ture i nvest igat ions . However , t he v a l id i ty o f l t h is f ramework was s er ious ly c ha lenged i n t he e ar ly 1 980s ( Ambrose l t a l t 1 1 984a , b ; C o let nd R ober tshaw 1 983 ; R ober tshaw a nd C o let 983a ) . t T hough t he a tacks f r om d if eren t s our ces y ie lded d if eren t r esu l ts , t he ir i n i t ia l t arge ts f o r c r i t ic is m w ere t he s a me : 1 )t he v a l id ity o ft he PN a sa ne n t i ty a nd l 2 )t he c r ed ib i l i ty o fi t s a leged s ubd iv is ions ( c eram ic wares ) .

9 3

E vo lu t ion o fS ton eA g e F ood -P roduc ing C u l tur e s i nE as tA f r ica T he f i r st c r i t ic ism i st he e a s ies t t o d ea l w i th b ecause i ts tem s f r om a b as ic c oncep tua l m isunder stand ing o ft he PN . A s Ih ave s hown e ar l ier , t he PN was d ef ined a s ar eg iona l d eve lopm en ta l s tag e , i nterm ed ia te b etween t he L SA a nd t he P IA . S in ce i tw as o bv ious ly n ever i n tended t o b e t r ea ted a s a cu l tura l e n t i ty , i ts hou ld n o tb e c r i t ic ized f o r wha ti t was n o t s upposed t ob e . One c an , h owever , a sk wh e ther t he PN 's s t a tu s a s a d eve lopmen ta l s tage i sw arran ted ; t h is q ues t ion was n o t c on s ide red i n t he c i ted c r i t iques , b u tw i l p resen t ly b e a ddres . l s ed G iven t ha t t he PN i sn o t ac u l tura l e n t i ty , t he a tack o n i t s p r e sumed t " subd iv is ions " i s a l so , t o s o me e x ten t , s pur iou s . However , s i n ce t he c r it ic ism was u lt ima te ly c oncerned w ith t he e n t i t ies d ef ined b y Wand ibba ( 1977 ) q ua e n t i t ies , Iw i l r espond t oi to nt h is l e ve l . T ha ti s , I l w i l l d i scuss t he c r i t ique o f Wand ibba 's PN w ares a nd t he a l t erna t ive t axonom ies p roposed b y Ambrose a nd C o l let t/Rober tshaw . T he v iews o f t he l a ter w ere p ub l ished e a r l ier , s o Iw i l b eg in w ith t l t hem . Among t he more s ign if icant o f D av id C o let a nd P eter l R ober t shaw 's c o mmen t s o n PN t axonomy a r e t hose wh ich r ef er t o t he n a ture o ft he c u l tura l e n t i t ies a nd t hose wh ich r e la te t ot he d a ta u sed i n c ons truc t ing t hem . A s r egards t he n a ture o ft he e n t i t ies , wh i le C o let l t a nd R ober t shaw ( 1983 ) a g ree t ha t v ar ia t ion i n c eram ic " s ty le , " wh ich t hey d ef ine a s s tand ing " i n c on tras t t of un c t ion , " i sa n a ppropr ia t e b as is f o r c on s tru c t ing c u l tura l e n t i t ies , t hey o b jec t t ol i nk ing s uch e n t i t ies t o " wares ," wh ich t hey c l a im a re " someth ing m idway b etween a n a ssemb lage a nd a t ype ." A s r egards t he d a ta u sed i n c ons truc t ing e nt it ies , t hese a u thors p o in t t o p rob lems o f s amp le s i ze a nd c hrono log ica l c on tro l . I n p ar t icu lar , t hey n ote t hat many PN a ssemb lages c on ta in meager c o lec t ion s o fp ot ich c anno tb e d a ted l tery wh r e la t ive t o o ne a no ther ( i .e . , s t ra t ig raph ica l ly ) a nd a re i nadequa te ly d a ted o n c hronome tr ic g rounds . l t/Rober T he r e medy p roposed b yC o let t shaw ( 1 983 )f o rd ea l ing w i th t he p er ce ived d ef ic ienc ies i n t he PN t axonomy c on s is ted o fe rec t ing u n it s o n t t he b as is o f a n a verage l ink c luster a na ly s is o f s e lec ted a tr ibutes ( decora t ive mot if a nd t e chn ique , v esse l f o rm , e t c . ) o n at ota l o f 7 08 r econstruc t ib le v esse ls f r om 1 6 s i tes . T he u n its s o i dent if ied w ere l l c l a imed t ob e c on cep tua ly c omparab le w i th t he k ind o fe n t ity t ha tW i ley l a nd P h i l ips ( 1958 ) d escr ibe a s at rad i t ion , a nd f our s uch u n i t s w ere l n amed : E lmen te i tan , O lma lenge , O l tome a nd O ld ish i . A l b u t o ne o f t he " t rad i t ion " n ames ( E lmen te itan ) a re " nonsense n ames w i th a n l t a A f r ican f l avour " ( Co let nd R ober t shaw 1 983 :121 ) . I ti sn o tewor thy t ha t , w ith t wo e xcep t ion s , t he " t rad i t ions" e r e c ted b y l t/Rober C o let tshaw c or respond w i th Wand ibba ' s w ares ( Tab le 6 . 1 ) . One o f t he e xcep t ions , Wand ibba 's Ak ira w are , w as u nrepresen ted i n t he

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J . B ower C o let t shaw a na lys is , wh ich i n c luded n o s herd s f r om a ny o f t he l t/Rober A k ira o ccurr ences . T he o ther e xcep t ion , Wand ibba 's Mar ing ishu ware , i s s ubsu med w ith in C o let tshaw 's O lma lenge " t rad it ion ." I l t/Rober b e l ieve t h is i s ac on sequence o f t he ir h av ing t r ea ted t he Hy rax H i l l a ssemb lage ( M . D . L eakey 1 945 ) a s as ing le c o mponen t o ccurren ce , whereas t he c o lec t ion c l ear ly c on ta ins a t l eas t t wo marked ly d if eren t l c e ram ic s ty les ( c f . Ambrose 1 984b :142 ) . One o ft hese i so bv ious ly r e la ted t o Mar ing ishu ware , e xh ib it ing a h igh ly d ist inct ive Mar ing ishu d eco ra t ive mo t if ( Bow er e ta l . 1 977 :F ig . 2 ,f and g ) , a nd a no ther i sc l ose ly c omparab le w ith Nder it ware . T hus , t he O lma lenge " t rad it ion " i s a r e su l t o fc onf la t ing d i s t inc t c eram ic wares . I n g enera l , Ia g ree w ith C o l let t/Rober tshaw 's c o mmen ts r egard ing d ef i c ienc ies i n t he d a ta u pon wh ich Wand ibba 's wares a re b ased a nd I a l so s hare , i n p ar t , t he ir v iews a bou t c onceptua l p rob lems i n t he a pp l i ca t ion o ft he t e rm w are t o PN c eram ic s . H owever , If a i l t os ee h ow a ny o f t hese d if i cu l t ies c an b e o vercome b y a pp ly ing a n e labora te l tery i s ta t i s t ica l a na lys is t o av ery sma l a gg rega te o f p ot n o rder t o l e s tab l ish a n ew t axonomy t ha t i sc on cep tua ly d er ived f r om N ew Wor ld a r chaeo logy . I t s eems t o me t ha t t he mos t u sefu l a nd c onv inc ing l t/R o u t c ome o ft he C o let ober t shaw s tudy i si t s g enera l c onf irma t ion ( w i th t he e x cep t ions n o ted e ar l ier ) o f t he e n t i t ies r ecogn ized b y Wand ibba . l l l F ina ly , wh i le Ia g ree t he w are o r ig ina ly c a led R emnan t ( wh ich r ef er s t o ap erson ) s hou ld b e r enamed E lmen te i tan ( wh ich r ef er s t o a place ) , I s ee n o a dvan tage i n s ubs t i tu t ing " non sense " l abe ls f o r e n t i ty n ames ( e .g . , Nder i t , Narosura , e t c . ) t ha t a re n o t o n ly d eep ly e n trenched i n t he PN l i t era ture b u t a l so r ef er t ot ype l o ca l i t ies . I n f a c t , s uch s ubst i tu t ion c an o n ly a dd t o t he c onfu s ion t ha t i sw ide ly r ecogn ized a s t he b ane o f PN s tud ies . It urn n ex t t ot he v i ew s o fS tan ley Ambrose whose s yn theses o fs t one o a g e f od p roduc t ion i nE as tA f r ica ( Ambrose 1 984a , b )a re b yf a rt he mos t l e xhau st ive a nd c arefu ly d eve loped s ta temen ts o n t he s ub jec t s o f ar s p ub l i shed . On t axonom ic i sues , Ambrose t akes t he p os i t ion t ha t e n t i t ies s h ou ld b e d ef ined o nt he b as is o fv ar ia t ion i n t he c hara c ter is t ic s o ff l aked s t on e t oo l a ssemb lage s . ( He c l a ims t o emp loy a p o ly the t ic a pproa ch t o t axonomy , b u t h is p r imary s our ce o fd ef in i t ion i sc l ear ly l i th ic ma ter ia l . I ndeed , s o s t rong i sh i s c o mm i tmen t t o t he " l ith ic s tandard " t ha t h e i s f o r ced t o e xp la in a way c on trad ic tory e v idence f r om c eram ic ma ter ia ls , l a s w i l p resen t ly b e s hown . ) C h ief ly o n t he b as is o f d if erences i n t o manuf actur ing t e chn ique a nd morphome tr ic a tr ibu tes o f f o rma l t o ls , Amb rose h as c rea ted t hree t axa ( o r i ndus tr ies ) r e levan t t o t he p resen t d i scu ss ion : t he E burran ( wh ich h as i t s o r ig in s i n t he L SA , b u t o ver lap s t he PN s tage ) , t he S avanna P astora l Neo l ith ic ( SPN ) a nd t he E lmen te itan .

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E vo lu t ion o fS ton e Ag e F ood -P roduc ing C u l tur es i nE as t Af r ica T here a re t wo ma jor p rob lems w i th t h is s cheme , o ne t heo re t ica l a nd t he o ther emp ir ica l . A s r egards t he f o rmer , t he c u ltura l s i gn if i cance o f l i th ic t axonom ies i s u nderm ined b y t he a s y e t u nreso lved t heore t ica l t 1 p rob lem o f r ecogn iz ing " s ty le " i n l i th ic a r t ifac ts ( Sacket 982 ) . B y c ompar ison , t he c u l tura l s i gn if icance o f c eram ic v ar ia t ion i sr e la t ive ly s t ra igh tf orward . T he mos t d amag ing emp ir ica l p rob lem w ith t he Ambrose s cheme i s t ha t , a s T ab le 6 . 1 s hows , e a ch o f h is t axa embraces s evera l marked ly d if eren t c eram ic wares , t he o n ly e xcept ion b e ing t he E lmente i tan i ndus try . Ambrose , h i mse lf , i sa t l e as t i nd irec t ly v exed b y t h is p rob lem t when h e f i nds i nord ina te c eram ic v ar ie ty a t as i te h e a tr ibu tes t o a tery t s i ng le l i th ic i ndu s t ry . T hus , f o re xamp le : " The d iver s i ty o fp ot ype s l i a t Hyrax H il s i ntr igu ing , a nd s ugges ts t o me t ha t E burran p opu la t ion s , i n t he p rocess o f a dop t ing a p as tora l l i f esty le , i n terac t ed w i th a var ie ty o fS avanna P a s tora l N eo l ith i c g roups , p erhaps a c t ing a s o m idd lemen a nd e n trepreneur s , i n o rder t og a in af o tho ld i n t he p as tora l e conomy " ( Ambrose 1 984b :316 ) . N ot o n ly d oes t h is s ta temen t i mp ly r ecogn i t ion o f t he c u ltura l s i gn if icance o f c eram ic v ar ia t ion , i t a l so s t r ikes me a s ar a ther l abored i n terpreta t ion o f what , o n c u ltura l , s t ra t igraph ic a nd c hrono log ica l g rounds ( c f . Ambrose 1 984b :143 ) , a ppear s t ob e amu l t ip le c omponen t s i te w i th l ow r a tes o fs ed imen ta t ion . s I f Is eem t oh ave d evo ted ag rea t d ea l o fs pa ce t o PN t axonom i c i su es , i ti s b ecause t h is i s t he d oma in o f i nqu iry a bou t wh ich t her e i s t he g rea tes t amoun t o f d i sagreemen t . T urn ing t o q ues t ions r ega rd ing t he o r ig in a nd s pread o ft he PN , o ne f i nd s a rea sonab ly s t rong c on sensus o n c mos t p o in t s , w i th a n o cas iona l s harp ly d ive rgen t m inor ity o p in ion . F or e xamp le , mos t w orkers s eem t oa g ree t ha t t h e PN o r ig ina ted i nn or thern p or t ion s o f E as t A f r ica a t a bou t 4 000 b p , p resumab ly a s ar esu lt o f l d ifus ion f r om e i ther t he S udan o r s ou thwes tern E th iop ia ( c f . P h i l ipson 1 977 , 1 982 ) . However , a few d i ssen ter s a rgue f o r a m uch e ar l ier o r ig in , p erhaps i ne x cess o f7 000 b p ( c f . B ower a nd N e lson 1 978 ) . I ta l so a ppear s c t ob eb road ly a cep ted t ha t , wha tever t he u l t ima t e s our ce o f PN l i vesto ck m igh t h ave b een , t he p rocess whereby t hey w ere i n troduced t o E as t A f r ica i nvo lved l im ited h uman i mm ig ra t ion , s ince t here i s s ub stan t ia l e v idence o fc u l tura l c on t inu i ty b etween t he r eg iona l L SA a nd PN s tag es t a nd l i t le e v idence o fc u l tura l t i es w i th a reas t ot he n or th . l T he p reva i l ing v i ew o f t he s pread o f t he PN , t hough g enera ly n o t e xp l ic i t ly f o rmu la ted , s eems t o e n ta i l as ou thward f l ow ing " b ow wave " l mode l ( c f . W i l iams , c hap ter 3 )i n wh ich t he " wave 's " r a te o ft r ave l i sa t l l eas t p ar t ia ly d eterm ined b y t he m id la te H o locene s hr inkag e o f t he G regory R if tl akes ( Bu tzer e ta l . 1 972 ; R ichardson a nd R ichard s on 1 972 ) , e xpos ing v ast a reas o f p rev ious ly i nunda ted g raz ing l and . S uch a n e co log ica l p erspec t ive i sa l so e v iden t i n Ambrose 's v iews r ega rd ing t he 9 6

J . B ower r an E bur , S PN a nd E lmen te i tan i ndu s tr ies , e ach o f wh ich i s s hown t o h ave a s o mewha t d if eren t d istr ibu t ion w ith r espec t t o e l eva t ion ( Ambrose 1 984a :F ig . 5 ) a nd s uggested t o r epresen t a dapta t ions t o d if eren t t ypes o f h ab ita t ( 1984a :228-9 ) . Wh i le t h is may b e t rue o f Ambr ose 's l i th ic " i ndu s tr ies , " t hus u nder scor ing t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t t hey may b e a t l eas t p ar t ly s haped b y f unc t ion r a ther t han s t y le , Wand ibba 's c eram ic wares e xh ib it n o s uch g eograph ic c orre lat ion , o ccurr ing i ns tead i n ar emarkab ly w ide r ange o fe cozones ( Bower 1 978 ; 1 984a ,b ) . AF re sh P erspec t ive o nP as tora lN eo l i th ic Cu l ture H is tory l f I n t h is s ec t ion , Is ha l o er a r ev ised v iew o f P as tora l N eo l ith ic c u l tur e h istory a nd g eog raphy , t ak ing i n to a ccoun tb o th e x is t ing l o re a nd n ew d a ta f r om r ecen t w ork i n t he S erenget i p la ins , T anzan ia , a nd e l sewhere . T urn ing f i rst t o t he PN 's s ta tus a s ad eve lopmen ta l s tage i n termed ia te b etween t he L a ter S tone A ge a nd t he P as tora l I r on A ge , i t l s eems t o me t ha t t h is r e ma ins a n e ssen t ia ly s ound a nd u sefu l e vo lu t ionary c ons tru c t . H owever , i n l i gh t o fr ecen t e v idence o f marked f v ar ia t ion i n t he i nc idence o f d o mest ic f auna a t PN s i tes ( G if ord G onza lez a nd K imeng ich 1 984 ) a nd t he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t d omes t ica ted l g ra in , a s w e l a s l i ves t ock , w ere u sed , Ip ropose mod if y ing t he d ef in i t ion l a s f o lows : " Pastora l N eo l ith ic r ef ers t o s oc iet ies w ith a n L SA t echno logy , d o mest ic l i vestock , a nd a w ide v ar iety o f s ubs istence r eg imes ." F ur ther mod if i ca t ion may b e n ecessary i n f u ture , b u t t h is d ef in it ion p rov ides c ommon g round f o r d iscuss ing a n i mpor tan t s egmen t o fE a s t A f r i ca ' s c u l ture h is tory , wh ich i sa bou t t he b es t o ne c an e xpe c t o fa ny s u ch c on s tru c t . I n as im i lar v e in , Iw ou ld a rgue t ha t , d esp i te t he s hor t com ing s o ft he f d a ta f r om wh ich Wand ibba 's c eram ic w ares a re d er ived , t he wares o er t he b es t a va i lab le f r amework f o r d ef in ing PN c u l tura l e n t i t ies . N o t o n ly d o t hey s tand u p t o i ndependen t s ta t is t ica l t e s t ing , a s s hown b y t he l t/Rober o u t come o f t he C o let t shaw a na ly s is d i scu ssed e ar l ier , b u t t hey l a lso a ppear t o h ave e ssen t ia ly n on -over lapp ing b oundar ies i n s pace l a nd / or t ime . I ts eems c l ear t ha t a dd i t iona l w ares w i l b e r ecogn ized i n f u ture ; a t l eas t t wo , S a lasun a nd I l ere t w ares , h ave a l ready a ppeared i n t he l i t erature ( Ambrose 1 984b ; B ar the lme 1 985 ) a nd r ecen t f i nds i n t he S ereng et i ( Bower a nd Chadderdon 1 986 ; B ower a nd Sma le n .d . ) may y ie ld o thers . S o f a r , h owever , n ew d a ta h ave r equ ired e l abora t ion , b u t n ot r ep lacemen t o f Wand ibba 's s cheme . T he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween Wand ibba 's wares a nd Ambrose 's l i th ic i ndu s tr ies i s , i n my o p in ion , p rob lema t ic . A lthough Ambrose ( 1984a , b ; s ee a l so T ab le 6 . 1) s eems t ob e l ieve t ha t h e h as w orked t h is o u t , my o wn a s y e t i ncomp lete i nves t iga t ions p o in t t oward c onc lus ions t hat a re c ons iderab ly a t o dds w i th h i s . F or e xamp le , Iam i n c l ined t o s ee ac l o se

9 7

E vo lu t ion o fS ton e Ag e F ood -P roduc ing C u l tur e s i n E as t Af r ica l i nk b etween Narosura ( poss ib ly a l so Ak ira ) w are a nd t he E lmen te i tan i ndustry ( c f . Meh l man 1 977 :113-115 ) , t hough I a gree t hat t he E lmen te i tan i ndu s try , a l one , i s a ssoc iated w i th E lmente i tan ware . I a l so f ee l t ha t Mar ing ishu a nd Nder it wa res may s hare a c o mmon i ndus try q u i te d if eren t f r om t ha t a ssoc ia ted w i th a ny o f t he o ther PN w ares . H owever , s i nce t he p resen t s ta te o f my r esear ch d oe s n o t p erm i t l s me t o d emonstra te s uch r e lat ionsh ips , Iw il imp ly r eg is ter my r eserva t ion s c on cern ing Ambrose ' s r esu lt s a nd a dm i t t ha t Ih ave n o t y e t f g o t a ny th ing d ef en s ib le t oo er i nt he ir p la ce . l t's ( C on trary t o R ober t shaw a nd C o let 1983a :293 ) p ess im is t ic o u t look o n PN c hrono logy , t here a re n umerous r easonab ly u sefu l l i nes o f e v idence f r om wh ich b o th r e la t ive a nd a bso lu te t empora l i n f orma t ion c an b e d er ived . T hus , f o r e xamp le , s t ra t igraph ic r e la t ionsh ips a t l mu l t ip le c omponen t s i tes o nL ukenya H i l ( GvJm44 ; B ower e ta l . 1 977 ) , a t t he S eron era G ame L odge ( Bower 1 973 ) a nd a tt he G o lK op jes ( Bower a nd C hadderdon 1 986 ; B ower a nd Sma le n .d . ) , s uggest t ha t Nder i t ware i s o lder t han Kansyore , Narosura a nd Ak ira wares . Moreover , R ober tshaw a nd C o l let t's t enden cy t o r e jec t s ummar i ly a ny r ad iocarbon d eterm ina t ion b a sed o n b one a pa t i te wh i le i n s is t ing t ha t c ha r coa l d a tes p rov ide t he o n ly s u itab le b as is f o r c hronometry i gnores b oth t he c onvergen ce o fe v idence i n s uppor t o fa pa t i te d a tes a nd t he ir o wn c avea t c oncern ing c harcoa l d a tes ( 1983a :294 ) : " There r e ma ins a lways t he q uest ion o ft he v a l id i ty o ft he a ssoc ia t ion b e tween t he c har coa l s amp le a nd t he a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l t o wh ich t h e d a te i sb e l ieved t o r ef er . " T h is c au t ionary n ote i s p ar t icu lar ly g ermane t o c o mm inu ted c har coa l s amp les f r om p oor ly c onso l ida ted s ed imen t s s u ch a s f r equen t ly o ccur a t PN s i tes . I n v i ew o fs uch p rob lem s , Ib e l iev e i ti sn ecessary t oe va lua t e l l a l c hronome tr ic i n f orma t ion c arefu ly , r a the r t han s imp ly t or e jec t b one c a pa t i te d a tes a nd a cep tt hose b ased o n c har coa l . l T he t empora l p o s it ion o fs evera l PN ware s h as b een r easonab ly w e l e s tab l ished , wh i le o ther s a re more t enuous ly d ated . Thu s , N arosura w are s eems t o o ccupy mos t o f t he t h ird m i lenn ium b p ( Odner 1 972 ) , l wh i le E l mente itan ware i s c onf ined t o t he l ast h a lf o f t he s ame m il lenn ium ( Bower e t a l . 1 977 ; Ambrose 1 984a ) a nd A k ira ware a pparen t ly s pan s t he i n terva lb e tween a bou t 2 000 a nd 1 300 b p . ( Bower e t a l . 1 977 ) . Mar ing ishu w are i sr epresen ted b yb u to ne r ad ioca rbon d a te o f 1 695 ± 105 b p ( GX -4466A ) t ha t s ugges ts t empora l o ver lap w i th Ak ira ware . C hronome tr ic d a ta f o r Kansyore w are a re b oth s parse a nd l t a i n secure ( Co let nd R ober t shaw 1 980 ; R ober t shaw e ta l . 1 983 ) ; h owever , a va i lab le e st ima tes s ugges t at ime s pan f r om a bou t 5 000 t o 2 600 b p l ( Meh lman 1 977 ,1979 ; S oper a nd G o lden 1 969 ) . F ina ly Nder i t w are h a s a ssoc iat ed r ad iocarbon d a tes r ang ing f r om a bou t4 000 b p a t t he n or thern l im i t o fi t s k nown g eog raph ic d i s tr ibu t ion ( Ba r the lme 1 984 ) t oa bou t7 000 c rence i b p a ti t s s ou thernmos t o cur n t he S erenge t i P la ins . A l though t he 9 8

J . B ower l at ter d a te i s b ased o n b one a pa t i te d e term ina t ions , s evera l l i nes o f e v iden ce t end t o s uppo r t i t( Bower a nd C hadderdon 1 986 ; B ower a nd Sma le n .d . ) . T hus , Ib e l ieve t he d a te s hou ld b e t en ta t ive ly a ccep ted , p end ing a dd i t iona l c h ronome tr ic i n f orma t ion o n Nder i t w are . l T he s pat ia l b oundar ie s o ft he PN wares a re p erhaps r a ther l e ss w e l d ef ined t han t he ir t empora l l im i t s , b u t i ti sa t l ea st p oss ib le t o d escr ibe t he g eograph ic d i s tr ibu t ion o f mos t o f t hem i n g enera l t e rms . Nder i t c ware o cup ies a v ast e xpanse o f l and i n K enya a nd T anzan ia , w ith a n or th -sou th a x is more o r l e ss c en tered o n t he G regory R if t , r each ing a t l eas t a s f ar n or th a s L ake T urkana a nd a s f a r s ou th a s t he S erenget i l P la in . On t he e as t , t he e n t i ty s t re t ches a t l ea st a s f a r a s L ukenya H i l , a bou t 5 0 km e as t o f N a irob i , a nd , o n t he w es t , a t l ea s t a s f a r a s t he n or thwest c orner o f t h e S erenge t i Na t iona l P ark , i n t he L ake Nyanza ( f orm er ly V ic tor ia ) b as in . W i th o ne e xcep t ion , t h is i sb y f a r t he mos t e x ten s ive PN a rea i n E as t A f r ica ; o n ly Ak ira ware i sd i s tr ibu ted o ver a more o rl e ss c omparab le amoun t o fl and . rences o Mos t k nown o ccur f K ansyore w are a re l im ited t o t he L ake Nyanza b as in , b oth e a s t a nd w es t o ft he l ake . H owever , t he w are h as l a lso b een i den t if ied a t as i te i n t he T ana R iver V a ley a l ong t he e a s tern f l ank o f Mt . K enya ( M er r ick a nd S oper , n .d . ) . T hus , a s i s t rue o f i t s t e mpora l p os it ion , t he g eog raph ic r ange o f Kansyore ware r e ma ins p oor ly d ef ined , b u t may b e c ons iderab ly more e x tens ive t han h as l t a p rev ious ly b een r ecogn ized ( Co let nd R ober t shaw 1 980 ; R ober t shaw l t 1 a nd C o let 983a ) . N arosura t he G r egory Eya s i b as in e as te rn a nd

l i sb as ica ly a s ou thern e n t i ty , o ccurr ing w i th in a nd a l ong R if t f r om t he L ake Na ivasha b a s in i n t he n or th t ot he L ake i n t he s ou th , a nd e x tend ing u p t o a bou t 8 0 km b eyond t he w es tern marg ins o ft he R i f t .

T he s outhern l im i t o f Mar ing ishu ware more o r l e ss c o in c ides w ith t he n or thern b ounda ry o f Narosura ware . F rom t here Mar ing ishu w are c e xt end s n or thward i nt he G regory R if t , o cupy ing a t l e as t p or t ion s o ft he L ake Nakuru b as in a nd t he s ou thern e nd o ft he L ake B ogor ia ( f ormer ly Hann ing ton ) b as in . T he g eog raph ic r e la t ionsh ip b etween Mar ing ishu c a nd N arosura w ares l e ads me t o s uspec t t ha t t he t wo e n t it ies o cup ied l mu tua ly e xc lus ive a reas a t a bou t t he s ame t ime , b u t c onf irma t ion o f t h is must awa i t a dd i t iona l i nf orma t ion o n b oth t he c hrono logy a nd s pa t ia l d istr ibu t ion o f Mar ing ishu ware . E lmente itan ware i s c onf ined t o t he r eg ion b e tween t he Mau E sca rpmen t , o n t he w e st ern marg in o ft he G regory R if t , a nd t he e a s tern l s hor e o fL ake Nyanza . I tt hu s l i es b as ica ly w es t o ft he Mar ing ishu a rea a nd n or thwes t o ft he N arosura a rea .

9 0

E vo lu t ion o fS tone Ag e F ood -P roduc ing C u l tur es i nE as t Af r ica A s w as men t ioned e ar l ier , A k ira ware i sv ery w ide ly d i s tr ibuted i n E as t A f r ica , w i th in a s pread t ha t i s , i fa ny th ing , more e x ten s ive t han c rences a t ha t o f Nder i t w are . S i tes w i th Ak ira o cur re f ound i nt he L ake T urkana b as in ( R obb in s 1 980 ) , o n t he L a ik ip ia H igh lands a bou t 1 00 km i l n or thwes t o f Mt K enya ( S ir ia inen 1 977 ) , a tL ukenya H i l , ( Bower e ta l . 1 977 ) a nd i n t he S erenge t i P la in ( Bower 1 973 , B ower a nd C hadderd on 1 986 ) . The E vo lu t ion o fP as tora lN eo l i th ic Cu l ture s l I n s h if t ing f r om a n e ssen t ia ly s ta t ic t o ad ynam ic p erspec t ive o n PN c u l tures , o ne may b eg in b y c ons ider ing e nv ironmen ta l f ac tor s t hat may h ave c hanne led t he ir e vo lu t ion . T he mos t f undamen ta l o f t hese , a nd s p robab ly t he mos t i nf luen t ia l i n t he p rocess a t i sue , i sc l ima te c hange , p ar t icu lar ly i ncreas ing a r id i ty d ur ing t he e ar ly H o locene , w h ich may h ave h ad t he ef ec t o f f o rc ing p astora l ism o u t o f t he S ahara a nd t a tra c t ing i ti n to p rev iou s ly f l ooded p or t ions o ft he G regory R if t . A l so r e levan t t o t h is p rocess was t he d ry ing o u t o f s wampy a reas i n liams 1 i n terven ing l ands , s u ch a s t he c en tra l S udan ( c f . W il 984 :83 ) . s ed h T hus t he p a leoenv ironmen ta l q ues t ion t ha t n eeds t o b e a ddr es er e i s , wha ti st he c h rono logy o fH o locene mo is tur e r eg imes i n t he r eg ion s o f i n t eres t ? T he S aharan r ecord o f H o locene c l ima te s i sc o mp l icated b y t he f a c t t ha t p roxy d a ta f o r w e t /dry c y c les s o me t ime s e xh ib i t p oor c hr ono log ica l a l ignmen t i n d if eren t p ar t s o f t he r eg ion , p erhaps b ecause t he c yc les l w ere t ime -transg ress ive (W i l iams , t h is v o lume ) a nd a lso , n o d oub t , b ecause o f c hronome tr ic e rrors . N ever the less , t he g enera l p i c ture i s r ea sonab ly c l ear . Mo is tc ond i t ions p reva i led f r om a bou t1 1 ,000 t o4 500 b p , e xcep t f o r p erhaps t hree b r ief e p isodes o f a r id ity l a st ing o n ly a f ew h undred y ear s e ach a nd c en tered r espec t ive ly a ta bou t 8 000 b p , 7 500 b p a nd 6 500 b p ( Mc In tosh a nd Mc In tosh 1 981 ; Wendorf e ta l . 1 984 :36-40 ; l c red a W i l iams 1 984 ) . Wh i le a dd i t iona l mo is t p er i od s may h ave o cur f ter l 4 500 b p , t he o vera l t r end w as a pparen t ly i n t he d i rec t ion o f modern tern f h yperar id c ond it ions . T he g enera l p at or t he S ahara w as l l e ssen t ia ly p ara le led i n t he c l ima te h is tory o f E th iop ia a nd S o ma l ia , r upted b where mo is t c ond it ions d ur ing t he e ar ly H o locene w ere i n ter y a n e p isode ( o r e p isodes? ) o fa r id i ty b e tween a bou t 8 500 a nd 6 500 b p a nd t he t r end t oward a m odern c l ima t ic r eg ime w as e stab l ished s ome t im e b e tween 5 000 a nd 4 000 b p( Brand ta nd B rook 1 984 ; B rand t1 986 ;G asse e t a l . 1 980 ) . I n E ast A f r ica t he e ar ly H o locene w as a l so a t ime o f marked ly i ncreased mo is ture , s uch a s t o r a ise l e ve ls o fl akes i n t he G reg ory R if t , i n s ome c ases u p t on ear ly 2 00 m a bove t he ir p resen t p os it ion ( Bu tzer e t a l . 1 972 ) . A lthough l and s u i tab le f o r l i ves to ck h erd ing may h ave b een

1 00

J . B ower a va i lab le i n p ar ts o f t he R if t t ha t r e ma ined d ry , a s w e l a s i n a reas l o u t s ide t he R if t , much o f wha ti st oday p r ime g raz ing l and i n E a s tA f r ica w as i nunda ted d ur ing l a rge s egmen t s o f Ho locene t ime . T hu s , ak ey p a leonv ironmenta l p rob le m r egard ing t he r eg iona l h istory o f p a s tora l ism i st o d e t erm ine t he c hrono logy o fa r id p er iods t ha t r e su l ted i n ma jor r educ t ion o fl ake v o lume . D esp it e t he a va i lab i l i ty o fe v idence f o r r e la t ive ly d ry e p isode s a f ter a bou t 7 000 b p , t he e ven t s a re n e i ther c l ear ly c or re lated w i th a r id p er iods t o t he n or th n or d o t hey n ecessar i ly i mp ly s ub s tan t ia l e xposu re o ff l ooded p or t ions o ft he R if t . I nf a c t , i ti sn o tu n t i l a bou t 4 000 b p t ha t l imno log ica l e v iden ce s ugges t s ag enera l r e trea t o f E a s t A f r ican l ake l e ve ls t o t he ir p resen t p os it ion ( R ichardson a nd R ichardson 1 972 ; R ober tshaw , c hap ter 7 ) . T h is i s f o lowed a f ew l h undred y ears l a te r b y h igh e l evat ion p a lyno log ica l e v idence o f a t ran s i t ion f r om a r e la t ive ly mo is t c l ima te t o ar eg ime r esemb l ing t he modern o ne ( Ham i l ton 1 982 ) . A l though d ates f o r t he e ar l ies t o ccur ce o f d omes t ic l i ves tock i n r en A f r i ca a re d i spu ted ( c f . Sm i th 1 986 ) , t here i sa t l ea st t enuous e v idence t ha td omes t ic c at ere p resen ti nt he e a s tern S ahara b y8 000 b p( Bank s tle w 1 984 ; Wendorf e ta l . 1 984 ) . S ince n o w i ld p rogen i tor s f o r d omes t ic c a t le t ( o r , f o r t ha t mat , c apr ines ) e x is t i n c on temporary o r e x t in c t E as t ter A f r ican f aunas w e may a ssume t ha t t he r eg ion 's e ar l ies t d omes t ica tes w ere i n trodu ced f r om t he n or th s ome t ime a f t er 8 000 b p . Wh i le P et i t Ma ire 's e v idence ( t h is v o lume ) f r om t he Western S aharan s uggests t here may b e ac on s iderab le t ime l ag b etween t he o nset o f c l imat ic c ond i t ions f avor ing h uman o ccupa t ion o f marg ina l ly h ab itab le r eg ions a nd t he a ppearan ce o f s ubstan t ia l t races o f ah uman p resen ce , o ne w ou ld e xpec t t ha t ma jor c l ima t ic d e ter iora t ion i n s uch a reas w ou ld p rovoke r ap id e va cuat ion . T hus , o n p a leoenv ironmen ta l g rounds t he mos tl i ke ly d a tes f o r l a rge -sca le w i thdrawa l o fp as tora l c u l tures f r om t he S aha ra w ere a bou t8 000 , 7 500 ,6 500 a nd 4 500 b p . ( I ti sn o tewor thy t ha t ,o f t he t hree e ar l ier a r id e p isodes , t he o ne a t 7 500 b p a ppear s t oh ave b een t he most i n tense ) . H owever , t he e ar l ies t d a te f o r t he e s tab l ishmen t o f l i ves tock h erd ing a s a ma jor s ubs is ten ce r eg ime i n E ast A f r ica w as p robab ly s ome t ime a f t er 4 000 b p . V ar ious w orker s h ave c a led a ten t ion t o p ronoun ced v ar ia t ion i n l t s ubs istence e v idence among PN s i tes , whose f auna l a ssemb lages c on ta in p ropor t ion s o fd omes t ic e l emen t s t ha t r ange f r om a lmos t n i l t o p redo m inan t ( G if rd e t a l . 1 980 ; G if -Gonza lez 1 984 ; G if ord fo ford f G onza lez a nd K imeng ich 1 984 ; N e lson a nd K imeng ich 1 984 ) . E qua ly l h e t erogeneous a r e t h e d a ta r egard ing t he n a ture o f PN s e t lemen t s , w i th t v ar iab les t ha t r e la te t o s i ze , i n tens ity a nd d ura t ion o f o ccupa t ion a l l r ang ing w ide ly ( Bow er 1 978 ; 1 984a , b ) . Much o f t he d ivers ity i n PN s ubs istence a nd s e t lement e v idence i s p robab ly g eograph ical t ly d e term ined , t ha t i s , i t may r ef lec t f unc t iona l d if erences among s i tes 1 0 1

E vo lu t ion o fS ton e Ag e F ood -P roduc ing C u l tur es i nE as tA f r ica c tle men o cup ied b y t he s ame g roup o r d i s t in c t s ubs i s t en ce -set t s yste ms p rac t iced b y d iver se g roups wh ich , t hough b e l ong ing t ot he s ame g enera l c u ltura l e n t i ty , o ccup ied w ide ly s epara ted a nd marked ly d if eren t e cosys tems . B o th p oss ib i l i t ies may b e r ef lec ted i n T ab le 6 . 2 . F un c t iona l d i st inc t ions a re i mp l ied b y ma jor d if eren ces i n l i th ic a nd c eram ic c d ens i t ies b e tween t wo Nder i t o curren ces i n t he S erenge t i Na t iona l P ark ( HcJel a nd HbJd1) t ha t , a l though s epara ted b y o n ly 4 0 km , a re l g eog raph ica ly d i ss im i lar . H cJel i s s i tuat ed i n s hor t -grass p la ins , a l ong t he r ou te o ft he a nnua l w i ldebees te m ig ra t ion , b u t d istan t f r om a p ermanen t s ource o f wa ter , wh i le HbJd 1 i s l o ca ted i n w ood land s n ear f t he S eronera R iver , ap ermanen t s t ream . D if er ing f r om b oth H cJel a nd HbJd1 a re t he d ens i ty d a ta f r om G aJ i4 , a n Nd er i t o ccurr ence o n t he e as t s i de o fL ake T u rkana , more t han 5 00 km n or th o ft he S erenge t i s i tes i n a l g enera ly more a r id e nv ironmen t . H owever , i ti s b eco m ing i ncreas ing ly e v iden t t ha t v ar ia t ion i n PN t l s ubs is ten ce a nd s e t lemen t p rac t ices may b e af unc t ion o ft im e , a s w e l c rences a a s g eog raphy . T hus , f o r e xamp le , Nder i t o cur t ag iven l o ca t ion c t end t o e xh ib i t much l ower a r t if ac t d ens i t ies t han l a ter PN o cupa t ion s rences a a t t he s ame s i tes ( c ompare , e . g . , t he N eder it a nd Ak ira o ccur t H cJel a nd HbJd1 , T ab le 6 . 2 ) . Moreover , s i t es r epresen t ing t he more l r ecen t e n t i t ies g enera ly c on ta in more d iver se i nven tor ies o f mater ia l c u l ture , i n c lud ing v ar ious r e la t ive ly h eavy i t em s ( e .g . , s t one b ow l s ) , t han a re f ound a t Nder i t s i tes . T h is i s p ar t icu la r ly t rue o f Narosura a nd E l mente itan o ccurrences , s o me o f wh ich a l so c on ta in e v idence o f r e lat ive ly p ers istent o ccupat ion , s uch a s s ubstant ia l m idden a ccumu la t ions a nd p ost mo lds ( r epresent ing h ouses? ) . I t i s a lso n otewor thy t ha t t he s t ep -w ise e laborat ion o f ma ter ia l c u l ture a nd t e l i n ten s if i ca t ion o fs e t lemen ti nl a ter PN c u l tur es s em t ob e p ara le led b y ma jor s oc ia l t ran sf orma t ions a s i nd ica ted b y t he a ppearance o fe v idence l f o r c o mp lex mor tuary r i tua l d ur ing t he t h ird m i lenn ium b p ( M . D . i L eakey 1 945 ,1 966 ;L eakey a nd L eakey 1 950 ;S i r ia inen 1 977 ) . T hese d eve lopmen t s i n c u l tura l p rac t ices w e re a pparen t ly ma t ched b y c hanges i n s ubs is ten ce b ehav ior , f o r t he Nder i t f auna l a sse mb lag es a re l p redom inan t ly w i ld w ith a s ma l f r ac t ion o f d omest ica tes ( a t H cJel , ford e xc lus ive ly B os t aurus : G if -Gonza lez p er sona l c o m mun icat ion ; B ower a nd Sma le n .d . ) , wh i le t he a ssemb lage s f r om s i tes r epresen t ing more r ecen t e n t i t ies t end t ob e d om ina ted b y d omes t ica tes . T h is t r end w as b y n o mean s l i near , s i nce t he f auna s o f a r a na lyzed f r om Ak ira s i tes , r epresen t ing t he mos t r ecen t PN e n t ity , i s p redo m inan t ly w i ld ford ( G if -Gonza lez a nd K imeng ich 1 984 ; B ower a nd Sma le n .d . ) . Moreover , a s Ih ave i nd ica ted e ar l ier , PN s ub s is tence b ehav ior ( a long l w i th o ther a spec t s o f c u lture ) e xh ib i t s marked g eograph ic , a s w e l a s t empora l , v ar ia t ion . N ever the less , p resen t e v idence s uggest s a ma jor i n tens if i ca t ion o ft he r o le o fd omest ic l i ves tock i n PN s ubs ist en ce r eg i mes 1 02

J . B ower l l d ur ing t he t h ird m i lenn ium b p , f o lowed b y a dec l ine i n c onsump t ion o f l t he f l esh o fd omes t ic a n ima ls d ur ing t he s econd m i lenn ium b p ( p oss ib ly i nvo lv ing a sh if t t oward d a iry p a s tora l ism ? ) . T ab le 6 . 2 :

V a r ia t ion i nL i th ic a nd C e ram ic D ens i t ies Among P N O ccur rences , K enya a nd T anzan ia HcJe1

HbJd1

HbJd1

GaJ I4 3

S ites

H cJe1

L eve ls

( Nde r i t )

( Ak i ra )

( Nde r i t )

( Ak i ra )

( Nde r i t )

L i th ic a r t lfac ts /m3

1 4 ,949

2 0 ,942

4 , 118

5 623

2 23

Sherds/ m3

3 9

1 5 1

2 00

8 60

4 4

L i th ics :sherd

3 87 : 1

1 38 :1

2 1:1

7 : 1

5 : 1

1

1

2

2

N o te 1 : G o t K op jes s i te , S e renge t i ( Bowe ra nd C hadde rdon 1 986 ) . D a ta f r om l e ve ls i nw h ich N de r i tw a re i s abundan t ( 20 -40 c m b . s . ) a nd l e ve ls d om ina ted b y A k i ra w a re ( 10 -15 c m b . s . ) . No te 2 : S e rone ra Game L odge s i te ( Bowe r 1 973 ) . D a ta f r om a rea SE -2 , l e ve ls 3( Nde r i t ) a nd 2( Ak i ra ) . N o te 3 : D a ta f r om B a r the lme ( 1985 ) . V a lues b ased o n a n a ve rage o f max imum a nd m in imum d ens i t ies i n a depos i t w hose t h ickness v a r ies f r om 5t o4 5 cm .

C onc lus ions D e sp i te t he i nadequac ies o fd a ta r egard ing t he P as tora l N eo l i th ic , i t s eem s c l ear t ha t ( a ) a deve lopmen ta l s t age c on s is ten t w i th i t s ( r ev ised ) d ef in i t ion c an b e r e cogn ized i n E as t A f r ica 's a rchaeo log ica l r ecord a nd ( b ) Wand ibba 's ( 1977 ) c eram ic wares p rov ide a r easonab ly s ecure f ramework f o r d escr ib ing t he c u lture h is tory o f t he s tage . I t s eems e qua ly c l ear t ha t , g i ven t he marked v ar iab i l i ty o f PN s ubs istence l s et t lemen t p rac t ices a nd o ur l im i ted k now ledge o f t hem , i nf erences c oncern ing e co log ica l a dap ta t ion a nd e ndogenous c hange i n PN c u l tures c an o n ly b e d rawn i n t he mos t g enera l t e rm s . I n c l os ing t h is a r t ic le , I wou ld l i ke t o d e l inea t e b road p at n t he e vo lu t ion o f t he PN a nd terns i b r ief ly c o mpare t hem w i th t hose e v iden t i n c er ta in o ther n eo l ith ic h is tor ies i n s ub -Saharan A f r ica . T he East A f r ican PN a ppears t o p a ss t hrough t wo s ub -stages ( s ee T ab le 6 . 3 ) , t he f i r s t o fw h ich w as i n i t ia ted s ome t ime e ar l ier t han 4 000 b p , p oss ib ly a s e ar ly a s 7 000 b p , i ft he S erenget i d a tes a re c orrec t . T he e ar l ies t e n t ity i n t h is s ub -s tage s eems t o b e Nder i t w are , ac eram ic t rad i t ion t ha t i sv ery w ide ly d i s tr ibu ted i n E as t A f r ica b u t h as n o t y e t r evea led a ny c onnec t ion w ith c eram ics f r om o ther r eg ions . B y a bou t 4 000 b p , s evera l a dd i t iona l p ot ares a re e v iden t i n s i tes s cat tery w tered t hroughou t t he g eograph ic r ange o f t he PN . A lthough l i t le i sk nown t 1 03

E vo lu t ion o fS ton e Ag e F ood -P roduc ing C u l tur es i nE as t Af r ica a bou t t he s pa t io tempora l d i str ibu t ions , f auna l a ssoc iat ion s o r a n te c eden ts o f most o f t hese e n t it ies , K ansyo re ware i s a ssoc ia ted w ith d omes t ic a n ima ls i n a t l eas t o ne a ssemb lage a nd i st he o n ly PN w are c l s a id t oo cur w e l t ot he n or th o fK enya a nd U ganda , i n s ou thern S udan . t I n g enera l , a par tf r om t he p resence o fd ome s t i c l i ves to ck , t here i sl i t le t o d i s t ingu ish t he f i r s t s ub -s tage o ft he PN f r om t he L SA , i n wh ich i ts eem s t ob er oo ted . T he s econd s ub -s tage c on ta in s t wo p hases , t he f i r s t o f wh i ch s pans t he t h ird m il lenn ium b p , a nd i s b est r epr esented b y Narosura a nd E lmen te i tan w ares , t hough o ther e n t it ies a re l i ke ly t o b e r ec ogn ized i n f u ture ( c f . H iverne l 1 983 ) . T here i sn o e v iden ce o ft ypo log ica l c on t inu i ty b e tween w ares o f t h is p hase a nd a ny o f t he f i rst s ub -s tage wares . A lthough t here a re n o p ub l ished c l a im s o f n or ther ly c onnec t ions f o r wares r epresen t ing t he e ar ly p hase o ft he s e cond s ub -stage , Ih ave s e en s herds f r om Qu iha r ock she l ter ( C lark 1 954 ) n ear L ake T ana ( E th iop ia ) , t ha t c l ose ly r esemb le Narosura w are . H owever , a dd i t iona l e v idence i s r equ ired t oc onf i rm t h is l i nk . T he e ar ly p ha se o ft he s econd s ub -s tag e i s c l ear ly a n e vo lved N eo l ith ic , whose c u l tures r e l ied h eav i ly u pon d o mest icates a nd e xh ib ited a h igh d eg r ee o f t echn ica l a nd s oc ia l e l abora t ion . T he l a te p hase o ft he s e cond s ub -s tage w a sr e la t ive ly b r ief , l a s t ing o n ly a pprox ima te ly 6 00 y ear s , f r om a bou t1 900 t o1 300 b p . I ti sr epre sen ted b y Ak ira ware —poss ib ly a l so Mar ing ishu w are , t hough t he t e mpora l t p os i t ion o ft he l a ter e n t i ty i su nc lear . Wh i le t he f i r s t s ub -s tag e a nd t he e ar ly p hase o ft he s e cond a re s harp ly d i s t ingu i shed f r om o ne a nother b y f o rma l a nd c hrono log ica l b oundar ies , t he t wo p hases o ft he s e cond s ub l l s tage t end t o merge t ypo log ica ly a nd o ver lap t e mpora ly . T hus , a s v ar ious o bservers h ave n o ted , t here a re c l ose r esemb lances i n d ecora t ive l mo t if a nd /or t e chn ique b e tween A k ira a nd N arosura wares , a s w e l a s t b e tween t he l a ter a nd Mar ing ishu ware ( Bower e ta l . 1 977 ; Wand ibba l t a 1 977 ; C o let nd R ober t shaw 1 983 ) . H oweve r , t he s ubs is ten ce r eg i mes o f l t he t wo p hases s eem t od if er s ubs tan t ia ly ( Tab le 6 . 3 ) . T hree a spec ts o f t he s equence o u t l ined a bove a re p art icu lar ly n ot ewor thy : t he a pparen t i ner t ia o ft he f i r st s ub -s tage , t he c on s iderab le e v idence o f d i scon t inu ity b e tween t he f i r st a nd s econd s ubs tages a nd n on l inear t r ends i n s ubs is tence r eg ime . L e t me c o mmen t b r ief ly o n e ach o ft hese . T he s ta t ic c harac ter o f t he f i rst PN s ub -s tage d epends o n t wo c ons idera t ions : t he s ub -s tage 's d ura t ion a nd t he d egree o f c u lture t c hange i te xh ib i ts . A s t ot he l a t er , t he o n ly n ew t ra i t o fc on sequence i n t ery may h e ar ly PN c u ltures i s d omes t ic a n ima ls , s in ce p ot ave b een lipson made i n E as t A f r ica b ef ore l i ves tock w ere i n troduced ( e .g . , P h il

1 0 4

J . B ower 1 985 :141 ; R obb ins 1 972 ) . I ti s , o f c our se , p oss ib le t ha t ma jor c u l tura l t ran sf orma t ions o ccurred w ithou t l eav ing a r ecogn izab le a rchaeo log ica l e xpress ion . However , t he i nf erence o fs tas is i ss t reng thened b y e v idence o f c on t inu ity i n l i th ic t rad i t ions w ith t he p reced ing L SA , a s n oted b y Ambrose ( 1984 ) a nd a l so a pparent i n t he S erenge t i s equence ( persona l o bserva t ion ) . T ab le 6 .3 : Ma jo r F ea tures o f PN E vo lu t ion Sub

S tages

S econd

Da tes

( bp )

Wares

Mea t

Consu mp t ion

S ub -S tage ,

l a te p hase

1 300

( o the rs? )

W i ld f auna , s ome d omes t ic a n ima ls

Ma r ing ishu ( ? ) 1 900

S econd

A k i ra

S ub -S tage ,

e a r ly p hase

( o the rs? )

P redom inan t ly d omes t ic a n ima ls

E lmen te i tan 3 000

F i rs t

S ub -S tage

N a rosu ra

( o the rs? )

W i ld f auna , s ome d omes t ic a n ima ls

I l e re t S a lasun K ansyo re 7 000 ( ? )

N de r i t

T he q uest ion a s t o h ow l ong t he f i rst s ub -s tage l asted i s v exed b y d if er ing v iews a s t ot he e ar l iest d a tes f o r Nder i t ware , wh ich r ange f r om s omewha te ar l ier t han 7 000 b p ( a s a rgued h ere )t oa pprox imate ly 4 000 b p ( c f . P h i l l ipson 1 977 , 1 982 ; B ar the lme 1 985 ) . Bu t , e ven i ft he c onven t iona l ( i .e . , s hor t ) c hrono logy f o r Nder it ware s hou ld p rove c orrec t , w e a re s t i l l l enn l e f t w ith a s i tua t ion i n wh ich , f or u pwards o f a m il ium , t he t f p resence o fd o mest ic a n ima ls i n E as t A f r ica h ad l i t le a pprec iab le e ec t o n c u ltures o f t he r eg ion . S uch a s i tua t ion c r ies o ut f o r c o mpara t ive s tudy . T he d iscont inu ity i n c eram ic t ypo logy b etween t he f i rst a nd s econd s ub -s tages o ft he PN s ugges ts c u l tura l r ep lacemen t , p erhaps a s a resu lt terns o fi mm ig ra t ion f r om t he n or th , wh i le t he marked s h if t i n b road p at o fs ubs istence b ehav ior b etween t he s ub -stages i mp l ies ab as ic c hange i n a dap t ive s t ra tegy . I n f a c t , t he i n terpreta t ion o ft he s econd s ub -s tage a s a n ew a dapta t ion t o r eg iona l g eography may b e v a l id r egard less o f

1 05

E vo lu t ion o fS ton eA g e F ood -P roduc ing C u l tur es i nE as tA f r ica whe ther t he a dap ta t ion i nvo lved a ut och thonou s d eve lopmen t o rc u ltura l r ep lacemen t . H owever , o ne i mpor tan t d if i cu l ty w ith t h is i n terpreta t ion i st ha t t he c u l tura l c hanges i mp l ied b y t he o n se t o ft he s econd s ub -stag e d o n ot c o inc ide w ith a ny ma jor e nv ironmen ta l t ran sf orma t ion s o f a r r e cogn ized i n t he l a te H o locene o fE as t A f r ica . I ndeed , t he s e cond s ub s t age s eems t oh ave b egun more o r l e ss 1 000 y ear s a f t er t he l akes o ft he G regory R if t h ad s hrunk t o a bou t t he ir modern l eve ls . I f t h is p a leoenv ironmen ta l d eve lopmen t w as , n ever the less , o ne o ft he c auses o f t he c hange i n a dap t ive s t ra tegy t ha t c harac t er izes t he s econd s ub -s tage , t he a pparen t l ag b e tween e nv ironmen ta l s h if t a nd c u ltura l r esponse may p ara le l t he o ne o bserved b yP e t i tMa ire ( t h is v o lume )i nt he w estern l S ahara . A lthough t he d if eren ce i n s ubs is ten ce r eg ime b etween t he e ar ly a nd l a te p hases o ft he PN ' s s e cond s ub -s tage e v iden ti nT ab le 6 . 3 a r eb ased o n f auna l d a ta f r om av ery l im i ted n umber o fs i te s ,i ts eems l i ke ly t hat s ome k ind o f c hange i n a dapt ive s t ra tegy s eparat e s t he t wo p hases . Th is i s i mp l ied b y d if eren ces i n e qu ipmen t a nd s e t lemen t ; f o r e xamp le , Ak ira t p ot eems more s pec ia l ized t han e ar l ier wares , i s a ssoc ia ted w i th tery s f ewer h eavy g round s t one o b jec t s , s u ch a s s t one b ow ls a nd p lat s , a nd ter o ccurs a t s i tes t ha t l a ck e v idence o f h ou se c onstruct ion , s uch a s p os tmo lds . Bu t t he c hanges i n a dap t ive s t rategy i n t h is c a se s ee m t o i nd ica te a n a u toch thonou s d eve lopmen t , s i nc e t he c eram ic wa res o f t he t wo p hases a re l i nked b y s im i lar i t ies i n d ecora t ive t e chn ique a nd mot if . S et s ide t he q ues t ion a s t o t he mechan is m f o r PN c u ltura l ting a t ransf orma t ions ( whether b y a u toch thonous d eve lopment , s t i mu lus d ifus ion o r m ig ra t ion ) , i ti sc l ear t ha t , f r om a n e conom ic p o in t o fv iew , t he e vo lu t ion o ft he PN i sd i s t inc t ly n on l inear . T ha t i s , t he h i s tory o f s ubs is tence r eg imes d oes n ot r ef lec t ap rogress ive " neo l i th izat ion , " i nvo lv ing a st ead i ly i ncrea s ing r e l ian ce u pon l i vest ock . I nstead , t here i s a st ep -w ise s h if t t oward t he c on sump t ion o fd omes t ic f auna i n t he e ar ly p hase o ft he s econd s ubs tage , f o lowed b y ar e tu rn t o ag rea ter e mphas i s l o n w i ld mea t i n t he l a te p hase . T hese a re , o fc ourse , v ery b road a nd r a ther t enuous g enera l iza t ions t ha t i gnore e v idence o f s ubs tant ia l t erns a v ar ia t ion i n PN s ubs is tence p at t a ny g iven t ime . T ak ing t he g enera l iza t ions a tf a ce v a lue , h owever , o ne may a rgue t ha t e i ther o rb oth t erns o s ubs istence p at f t he s econd s ubstage c onst itute e co log ica l a dap ta t ions . Bu t i ti s d if i cu l t t o s ee a ny a dap t ive s i gn if ican ce i n t he meager p resen ce o fd omes t ic l i vestock d ur ing t he f i rs t s ub -s tage o f t he PN . A ssum ing t ha t t he b road c harac ter is t ics o ft he PN d i scussed i n t he l a s t f ew p arag raphs a re s ubs tan t ia ted b y f u ture r esearch , t he " bow o l w ave "i mage o ft he s pread o ff od p rodu c t ion i n to E as tA f r ica w i l n eed t o b e r ep laced b y amore c omp lex mode l . I n t h is c onnec t ion , i ti su sefu l t o 1 06

J . B ower l l ook a t n eo l ith ic h is tor i es i n o ther r eg ions , p ar t icu lar ly t he N i le V a ley a nd We s t A f r ica . T he Khar toum N eo l i th ic , a s r epresen ted a t s i tes s uch a s Kadero ( Krzy zan iak 1 978 ) , s eem s t oh ave emerged w i th in a t mos t af ew c en tur ies o a s ah igh ly e vo lved , e ar ly f od -produc ing c u ltura l s tage , w ith a n tery a a bundan t ma ter ia l i nven tory ( e .g . , v a s t q uan t i t ies o fp ot nd g round s tone i mp le men ts ) , e l abora te mor tuary r i tua l , l arge q uan t it ies o f d o mes t ic a n ima ls , i n t ens ive ly o ccup ied s i tes , e t c . S uch e xp los ive d eve lopmen t w as e v iden t ly c harac ter is t ic o ft he n eo l i th ic t hroughou t t he l N i le V a ley , f r om Khar t oum t ot he d e l ta b etween a bou t6 000 a nd 5 500 b p . s an 1 ( Has 986 ) . T h is s i tua t ion , wh ich s t and s i n marked c on t ras t w i th t he v ery s l ow d eve lopmen t o f t he E as t A f r ican PN , may r ef lec t ad i rec t r espon se t o e co log ica l p ressures i n n ea rby r eg ions . S in ce l i vestock , wh ich a re t he s ine q ua n on o f t he PN , w ere d o mes t icated i n a rea s r emo te f r om E as t A f r ica , t he o r ig ins o ft he s t age l mus t i n s o me mea sure , b e c onnec ted w ith p rocesses t ha t u nf o lded w e l o ver 1 000 k i lometer s t o t he n or th . T he c ha in o fe ven t s t ha t l ed t o t he t i ntroduc t ion o f l i vestock i n E ast A f r ica was a tenua ted n o t o n ly b y l d istan ce b u t a l so b y h av ing p assed t hrough s u ch e co log ica ly s t ressfu l r eg ion s a s s ou thern S udan a nd E th iop ia , wh ich may h ave b een t s e tse f i nf es t ed , ( c f . Sm ith 1 984 ) a nd t he f i l ter ing e ec t o f z ones o f c on tac t b etween f ood -producers a nd h unter -ga therers ( c f . B oguck i 1 987 ) , f p erhap s n ot a l toge ther d if eren t f r om t he e ec t s o fn a t iona l b oundar ies u pon d rough t r efugees i n c on temporary A f r ica . A l though t he d a ta n eeded f o r t r ac ing t h is l ong a nd c omp l ica ted c ha in o f e ven ts a re p resen t ly u nava i lab le , i ti s d if i cu l t t o i mag ine t ha t t he l p ro cess w i l t urn o u t t oh ave c on s is ted mere ly o fa sou thward m ig ra t ion l o f p astora l ists r espond ing t o t he p ush -pu l o f e nv ironmen ta l d eter iorat ion i n t he n or th a nd t he e xpans ion o f g rass lands i n E as t A f r i ca . T o r e turn t o a p hy s ica l me taphor , i ts eems much more l i ke ly t ha t t he p rocess c an b es t b e d escr ibed i n t e rm s o f" t r ick le a nd s p lash " r a ther t han a" bow w ave " o fa dvan c ing p as tora l ism . S u ch a" t r ick le a nd s p la sh " mode l s eem s t ob e p ar t icu lar ly w e l s u i ted t ot he f i r s t s t ag e o ft he l Ea s t A f r ican PN , wh ich i sa lmos t c er ta in ly u l t ima te ly c onnect ed w i th a n e ar ly -m id Ho locene e p isode o fa r id i ty i n t he S ahara . P resen t e v idence f r om t he S erenge t i s ugges t s t ha t t he a r id p er iod i nvo lved may h ave b een t he o ne c en ter ing a ta bou t 7 500 b p . I ta l so s ugges t s t ha t t he e ar l ies t PN c u l tu ra l e n t i t ies c a ta ly zed b y t he " t r ick le a nd s p la sh " o fl i ves tock i n to Ea s t A f r ica may h ave s pread f r om s ou th t on or th , a s a pparen t ly w a s t he c ase w ith t he e ar ly f od -produ c ing K im tampo c u l ture o f Wes t A f r ica o ( S tah l1 985 ) .

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E vo lu t ion o fS ton e Ag e F ood -P roduc ing C u l tur e s i nE as t Af r ica A s r egards t he e vo lu t ion o ft he PN , wh i le i t is l i ke ly t ha t t he d ec l ine o f t he G regory R if t l akes a t a bou t 4 000 b p p r ov ided o ppor tun i t ies f or t he e xpans ion o fh erd ing c u l tures , n o d i rec t c au sa l l i nk c an b e e s tab l ished b e tween t he d ry ing -up o ft he l akes a nd t he o n set o ft he s econd PN s ub s tage , s in ce t he t wo e ven t s w ere t empora l ly s epara ted b y a bou t 1 000 y ears . I n t he p resen t s t a te o fk now ledge , i tw ou ld b e p rema tu r e t o r u le o u t a n e co log ica l e xp lana t ion f o r t he emergence o f t he ma ture PN . H owever , a s R ober tshaw h as s uggested ( t h is v o lume ) , i t i s a l so n ecessary t o c on s ider t he p oss ib i l ity t ha t s o c ia l p rocesses may h ave p layed a ni mpor tan tr o le i nt he d eve lopmen to f ap a st ora l l i f e -way i n E a s t A f r ica . A t a more g enera l l e ve l , i ts eems l i ke ly t o me t ha t t he e n t ire h is tory o f t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween h uman c u ltures a nd d o mest ic l i ves tock i n t he r eg ion h as b een s haped l a rge ly b y s oc ia l f a c tors u pon wh ich e nv ironmen ta l o ppor tun i t ies a nd c on s tra in t s h ave h ad c omp lex , f s ub t le a nd s ome t imes n eg l ig ib le e ec t s .

A cknow ledgemen t s R esearch r esu l ts r epor ted i n t h is c hapter w ere o b ta ined w ith t he s uppor t o fg ran t s a warded t o t he a u thor b y t he I owa S tate Un ivers i ty R esearch F ounda t ion , t he L . S . B . L eakey F ounda t ion , a nd t he N a t iona l l S c ience F ounda t ion ( g ran t # BNS 8 2 -19416 ) . A l r esear ch a ccomp l ished l i n T anzan ia was d one i n c o labora t ion w i th t he T anzan ia A n t iqu it ies l D iv is ion , whose c on tr ibu t ions a re g ra tefu ly a cknow ledged .

R ef er ences Ambrose , S .H . 1 984a . T he i n t rodu c t ion o fp a s tora l a dap ta t ion st ot he h igh lands o fE as t A f r ica . I nF r om Hun t er s t oF armers ( e d s J . D . C lark a nd S .A . B rand t ) : p p . 2 12-239 . B erke ley : Un iver s i ty o f C a l if orn ia P ress . Ambrose , S .H . 1 984b . Ho lo c en e e nv ironm en t s a nd h uman a dap ta t ions l i n t h e c en tra lR if t V a l ey , K enya . ( Ph .D . t hes is , Un ivers i ty o f C a l if orn ia , B erke ley ) . tl B anks , K . M . 1 984 . C l ima t es , C u l tur es a nd C at e : T he Ho lo c en e l A r cha eo logy o ft he E as t ern S ahara . Da la s : D epar tmen to f An thropo logy , I ns t i tu te f o rt he S tudy o fE ar th a nd Man , S ou thern Me thod is t Un ivers i ty . .1 984 . E ar ly e v iden ce f o r a n ima l d ome s t i ca t ion i n e ast ern A f r ica . I nF rom Hun t er s t oF armer s ( e d s J .D . C lark a nd S .A . s. B rand t ) : p p . 2 00-5 . B erke ley : Un iver s i ty o fC a l if orn ia P r es 1 0 8

J . B ower B ar the l me , J .W . 1 985 . F ish er -hun t ers a nd N eo l i th ic P as tora l is ts i n Eas t T urkana , K enya . Ox f ord : B .A .R . I n terna t iona l S er ies 2 54 ( Cambr idge Monographs i n A f r ican A rchaeo logy 1 3 ) . B ishop , W . W . a nd C lark ,J .D . ( eds ) 1 967 . Ba ckground t oE vo lu t ion i n Af r ica . Ch icago : T he Un ivers i ty o fC h icago P ress . B oguck i , P . 1 987 . T he e s tab l ishmen t o fa g rar ian c o mmun i t ies o n t he Nor th European P la in . C urr en t An thropo logy 2 8 (1) :1-24 . B ower ,J . 1 973 . S eronera : e xcava t ions a t aS tone B ow ls i te i nt he S erenget i Na t iona l P ark , T anzan ia . A zan ia 8 : 71104 . .1 978 . Cu lture , e nv ironmen t a nd t echno logy : p re l im inary r esu l ts o fa n a r chaeo log ica l s tudy i n K enya . P roc . I a . A cad . S c i . 8 5 (2 ) :41-44 . tlemen . 1984a . S et tb ehav ior o fp ast ora l c u l tures i n E as t A f r ica . I nF rom Hun ter s t oF armer s ( eds J .D . C lark a nd S .A . B rand t ) : p p . 2 52-260 . B erke ley : Un ivers i ty o fC a l if orn ia P ress . tlemen . 1984b . S ubs is tence -set t s y stem s o ft he P as tora l N eo l i th ic i n Eas tA f r ica . I n O r ig in a nd E ar ly D eve lopmen t o fF ood P roduc ing C u l tur es i n Nor th -Eas t ern A f r ica ( eds L . K rzyzan iak a nd M . K obu s iew icz ) : p p . 4 73-480 . P oznan : P o l ish A cademy o f S c iences a nd P oznan A r chaeo log ica l Museum . . ,a nd Chadderdon , T . J . 1 986 . E xcava t ion o fP as tora l N eo l ith ic s i tes i n t he S erenget i Na t iona l P ark , T anzan ia . A zan ia ( i n p ress ) . . ,Ne lson , C . M . , Wa ibe l , A . F . a nd Wand ibba , S . 1 977 . T he ts Un iver s ity o f Massachuset ' L a ter S tone Age /Past ora l N eo l ith ic c o mpara t ive s tudy i nc en tra l K enya : a no verv iew . A zan ia 1 2 :1194 6 . tery a .a nd N e lson , C . M . 1 978 . E ar ly p ot nd p as tora l c u l tures o f l t he c en tra l R if t Va ley , K enya . Man 1 3 ( n .s . ) : 5 54-66 . .a nd Sma le , W . I n p repara t ion . Emergence o ft he P astora l Neo l ith ic i n t he S erenge t i P la ins , T anzan ia . B rand t , S .A . 1 986 . T he Upper P le is tocene a nd H o locene p reh ist ory o ft he Horn o fA f r ica . Af r ican A r cha eo log ica l R ev iew 4 :41-82 . .a nd B rook , G . A . 1 984 . A r chaeo log ica l a nd p a leoenv ironmen ta l r esear ch i n n or thern S oma l ia . C urr en t An thropo logy 2 5 :119-21 . Bu tzer , K . W . , I saac , G . L l . , R ichardson , J . L . a nd Washbourn -Kamau , C . 1 972 . R ad iocarbon d a t ing o fE ast A f r ican l ake l eve ls . S c ienc e 1 75 :1069-76 .

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E vo lu t ion o fS tone Ag e F ood -Produc ing C u l tur es i n Eas t Af r ica C lark , J .D . 1 954 . T he P r eh is tor ic C u l tur es o ft he Horn o f Af r ica . C ambr idge : C ambr idge Un ivers i ty P ress . . ,C o le , G . H . , I saac , G . L . a nd K le ind ien st , M . R . 1 966 . P rec is ion a nd d ef in it ion i n A f r ican a rchaeo logy . S .A f r . A r chaeo l . B ul l. 2 1 :114121 . C ohen , M . 1 970 . Ar e -assessmen to ft he S tone B ow l Cu ltures o ft he R if t Va ley , K enya . A zan ia 5 : 27-38 . l C o le , S . 1 963 . T he P r eh is tory o f Eas tA f r ica N ew Y ork : Men tor B ooks . C o let . P . a nd R ober tshaw , P .T . 1 980 . E ar ly I r on Age a nd K ansyore l t, D P ot : f i nds f r om G ogo F a ls , S ou th Nyanza . A zan ia 1 5 :133-145 . tery l 1 983 . P ot rad i t ions o fe ar ly p as tora l c o mmun it ies i n K enya . tery t A zan ia 1 8 :107126 . G asse , F . , R ognon , R . a nd S tree t , F .A . 1 980 . Qua ternary h istory o ft he A f ar a nd E th iop ian R if tl akes . I n T he S ahara a nd t he N i l e ( eds M . A . J .W i l iams a nd H . F aure ) : p p . 3 61-400 . R ot : A . A . l t erda m Ba lke ma . G if ord , D . P . , I saac , G . L . a nd N e lson , C . M . 1 980 . E v idence f o r f p reda t ion a nd p as tora l ism a tP ro longed D r if t : aP astora l N eo l ith ic s i te i nK enya . A zan ia 1 5 : 5 7108 . G if ord -Gonza lez , D . P . 1 984 . I mp l ica t ions o f af auna l a sse mb lage f r om f aP astora l N eo l i th ic s i t e i n K enya : f i nd ing s a nd ap erspec t ive o n r esearch . I nF rom Hun ter s t oF armer s ( eds J .D . C lark a nd S . A . B rand t ) : p p . 2 40-251 . B erke ley : Un iver s ity o fC a l if orn ia P r ess . G if ord -Gonza lez , D . P . a nd K imeng ich , J . 1 984 . F auna l e v idence f o r f e ar ly s t ock -keep ing i nt he C en tra l R if to fK enya : p re l im inary f i nd ing s . I n O r ig in a nd E ar ly D eve lopm en t o fF ood -Produc ing C u l tur es i n Nor th -Eas t ern A f r ica ( eds L . K rzyzan iak a nd M . K obus iew icz ) : p p . 4 57-471 . P oznan : P o l ish A cademy o fS c iences a nd P oznan A rchaeo log ica l Museum . G ram ly , R . M . 1 975 . P as tora l is ts a nd h un ters : r e cen tp r eh is to ry i n S ou thern K enya a nd Nor thern T anzan ia . ( Ph .D . t hes is , Harvard Un ivers i ty ) . Ham i l ton , A . C . 1 982 . Env ironmen ta lH is to ry o fE as tA f r ica . A cadem ic P ress .

L ondon :

Hassan , F . A . 1 986 . C hrono logy o ft he Khar toum "Meso l i th ic " a nd " Neo l ith ic " a nd r e la ted s i tes i n t he S udan : s ta t ist ica l a na ly s is a nd c o mpar isons w ith E gypt . A f r ican A r cha eo log ica l R ev iew 4 : 831 02 . 10

J . B ower H iverne l , F . 1 983 . E xcava t ions a t Ngenyn ( Bar ingo D is tr ic t , K enya ) . A zan ia 1 8 :45-79 . K rzyzan iak , L . 1 978 . N ew l i gh to ne ar ly f od -produ c t ion i nt he c en tra l o S udan . J ourna lo f Af r ican H is to ry 1 9 :159-72 . L eakey , L . S .B . 1 931 . T he S tone -Ag e C u l tur es o fK enya C o lony . C ambr idge : C ambr idge Un ivers i ty P ress . L eakey , M . D . 1 945 . R epor to nt he e xcava t ions o f Hy rax H i l , Nakuru , l K enya C o lony ,1 937-38 . T rans . R oy . S oc . S .A f r . 3 0 (4 ) :271-409 . .1 966 . E xcava t ion o fb ur ia l mounds i n Ngorongoro C ra ter . T anzan ia No te s a nd R ecords 6 6 :113 . L eakey ,M . D . a nd L eakey , L . S .B . 1 950 . E xcava t ions a tN joro R iver C ave . Oxf ord : O xf ord Un ivers ity P ress . Mc In tosh , S .K . a nd Mc In tosh , R . J . 1 981 . Wes t A f r ican p reh istory . Amer ican S c ien t is t 6 9 :60213 . Meh lman , M . J . 1 977 . E xcava t ions a t Nasera R ock , T anzan ia . A zan ia 1 2 :11118 . Me lman , M . J .1 979 . Mumba -Hoh le r ev is ited : t he r e levance o fa f o rgot xcava t ion t o s o me c urren t i sues i n E ast A f r ican ten e s p reh istory . Wor ld A r cha eo logy 1 1 :80-94 . Merr ick , H . V . , a nd S oper , R . n .d . K iambere Hydro -E lec tr ic P ower P ro jec t P re -Cons truc t ion Env ironmen ta l I mpac t S tudy ( unpub l ished r epor t ) . N e lson , C . M . , a nd K imeng ich , J . 1 984 . E ar ly p hases o fp as tora l a dap ta t ion i n t he c en tra l h igh lands o fK enya . I n O r ig in a nd E ar ly D eve lopmen t o fF ood -Produc ing C u l tur es i n Nor th -Eas t ern A f r ica ( eds L . K rzyzan iak a nd M . K obus iew icz ) : p p . 4 81-487 . P oznan : P o l ish A cademy o fS c iences a nd P oznan A rchaeo log ica l Museum . Odner , K . 1 972 . E xcava t ions a t Narosura , as t one b ow l s i t ei nt he s ou thern K enya h igh lands . A zan ia 7 : 25-92 . Onyango -Abu je , J .C . 1 977 . Ac on tr ibu t ion t ot h e s tudy o ft he N eo l i th ic i n Eas tA f r ica w i th p ar t icu lar r ef er ence t o t he Na ivasha - Nakuru Bas in . ( Ph .D . t hes is , Un ivers ity o fC a l if orn ia , B erke ley ) . P h i l ipson , D . W . 1 977 . T h eL a t er P r eh is tor y o f Eas t ern a nd S ou thern l Af r ica . L ondon : He inemann .

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E vo lu t ion o fS tone Age F ood -Produc ing C u l tures i n Eas tA f r ica l o P h i l ipson , D . W . 1 982 . E ar ly f od p roduc t ion i n s ub -Saharan A f r ica . I n T he C ambr idg e H is tory o fA f r ica , V o lume 1 (ed J .D . C lark ) : p p . 7 70-829 . C ambr idge : C ambr idge Un iver s ity P ress . l P h i l ipson , D . W . 1 985 . A f r ican A r chaeo logy . C ambr idge : Un ivers ity P ress .

C ambr idge

R ichardson , J .L . a nd R ichardson , A . E . 1 972 . H istory o fa n A f r ican r i f t l ake a nd i t s c l ima t ic i mp l ica t ions . E co log ica l Monographs 4 2 :4495 34 . R obb ins , L . H . 1 972 . A r chaeo logy i nT urkana D istr ic t , K enya . S c ience 1 76 :359-366 . .1 980 . L opoy : a La te S tone -Ag e F ish ing a nd P as tora l is t tlemen S et t i n t he L ake T urkana B as in , K enya . M ich igan S ta te Un iver s ity , An thropo log ica l S er ies , V o lume 3 ,N o . 1 . f an R obb ins , L . H . , McFar l in , S .A . , B rower , J .L . a nd Hofm , A . E . 1 977 . R ang i : AL a te S tone A ge s i te i n Karamo ja D istr ic t , Uganda . A zan ia 1 2 :209-233 . l t, D R ober t shaw , P . a nd C o let . 1 983a . An ew f r amework f o rt he s tudy o f e ar ly p astora l c o mmun it ies i n E ast A f r ica . J ourna l o fA f r ican H is tor y 2 4 :289-301 . l t, D R ober t shaw , P . a nd C o let . 1 983b . T he i den t if ica t ion o fp a stora l p eop les i n t he a r chaeo log ica l r ecord : a n e xamp le f r om E ast A f r ica . Wor ld A r chaeo logy 1 5 :67-78 . l t, D f l R ober t shaw , P . , C o let . , G if ord , D . a nd Mbae , N . B . 1 983 . S he l m iddens o n t he s hores o fL ake V ictor ia . A zan ia 1 8 :1-43 . t, J S acket .R . 1 982 . A pproaches t os ty le i nl i th ic a rchaeo logy . J ourna l o f An thropo log ica l A r chaeo logy 1 :59112 . i S ir ia inen , A . 1 977 . L a ter S tone A ge i n t he L a ik ip ia H igh lands . A zan ia 1 2 :161-86 . Sm ith , A . B . 1 984 . Env ironmen ta l l im ita t ion s o n p reh is tor ic p astora l ism i n A f r ica . A f r ican A rchaeo log ica l R ev iew 2 :99-111 . tle d Sm ith , A . B . 1 986 . C at omes t ica t ion i n N or th A f r ica . A f r ican A r chaeo log ica l R ev iew 4 : 197-203 . S oper , R . C . a nd G o lden , B . 1 969 . An a r chaeo log ica l s urvey o f Mwanza r eg ion , T anzan ia . A zan ia 4 : 15-79 . T o ls toy , P . 1 987 . T ranspac if ic e choes a nd r esonances . Quar ter ly R ev iew o fA r chaeo logy 7 (3-4 ) .

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J . B ower S tah l , A . B . 1 985 . R e inves t iga t ion o fK intampo 6r ock s he l ter , Ghana : i mp l ica t ions f o r t he n a ture o fc u l ture c hange . A f r ican A r chaeo log ica l R ev iew 3 : 117-50 . t Wand ibba , S .1 977 . A na tr ibu t e a na lys is o ft h e c eram ic so ft he Ear ly ley P as tora l is t P er iod f r om t he S ou thern R if t V al , K enya . ( M . A . t hes is , Un ivers i ty o f Na irob i ) . tl Wendorf , F . S ch i ld , R . a nd C lose , A . E . 1 984 . C at e -K eeper s o ft he l Eas tern S ahara : T he N eo l i th ic o fB ir K is e iba . D a las : D epar tmen to f An thropo logy , I n st itu te f o rt he S tudy o fE ar th a nd Man , S ou thern Me thod ist Un ivers i ty . l l Wi ley , G . R . a nd P h i l ips , P . 1 958 . Me thod a nd T h eor y i n Amer ican A rchaeo logy . C h icago : Un ivers ity o f Ch icago P ress . l Wi l iams , M . A . J . 1 984 . L a te Qua ternary p reh is tor ic e nv ironmen ts i n t he S ahara . I nF rom Hun t er s t oF armer s ( eds J .D . C lark a nd S . A . B rand t ) : p p . 7 4-83 . B erke ley : Un ivers ity o fC a l if orn ia P ress .

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E vo lu t ion o fS tone A g e F ood -P roduc ing C u l tur e s i nE as tA f r ica

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Env ironmen t a nd Cu l ture i nt he L a te Qua ternary o f Eas tern A f r ica : AC r i t ique o f S ome C orre la t ions B y P e ter Rober tshaw , B r i t ish I ns t i tu te i nE as tern A f r ica , Na irob i . T he l ast t wo d ecades h ave s een ac ons iderab le amoun t o fr esear ch i n to t he e nv ironmen ta l h is t ory o ft he l a te Quaternary o fE ast A f r ica . S tud ies l o fl ake l eve ls ( e .g . , Bu tzer e ta l . 1 972 ; G asse 1 980 ) , p o len ( e .g . , C oe tzee 1 967 ; Ha m i l ton 1 982 ) , a nd t he f o rmer e x ten ts o fg lac iers ( e .g . , O smas ton 1 975 ) h ave p rov ided a rchaeo log ists w ith a r i ch , i f c o mp lex a nd n ot a lways e nt ire ly c ons istent , b ody o f p a leoenv ironmen ta l i nf ormat ion a ga inst wh ich t o c ons ider t he r esu lts o f e xcava t ions . I ndeed t here h as b een a c l ose l i nk b e tween r econstruct ions o f p reh istory a nd p ast e nv iron men ts s ince a rchaeo logy b egan i n East A f r ica ; f or e xamp le , L eakey ( 1931) l i nked t he p reh istor ic c u l tures t hat h e i dent if ied t o a s equence o f c l i mat ic e p isodes , a nd a rgued t hat h un ter -gatherer t terns w s e t lemen t p at ou ld h ave v ar ied b e tween p luv ia l a nd i n terp luv ia l p er iods . However , i ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t much o fL eakey 's c oncern w ith p reh istor ic c l ima tes i n E ast A f r ica was a imed a t t he e stab l ishmen t o f c or re la t ions w ith t he s equence o f European i c e a ges " so t o l earn much c on cern ing t he c o mpara t ive d at ing o f t he v ar ious S tone Ages i n t hese t wo c on t inen t s " ( Leakey 1 931 :8 ; s ee a l so Way land 1 924 ) . I n r ecent y ears , a r chaeo log is ts w ork ing a t t he s ynchron ic l eve l h ave t ended t o c orre la te t he ir a rchaeo log ica l f i nd ings w ith p a leoenv iron men ta l d ata ; f o r e xamp le , e v idence f o r f i sh ing a t 9 000 b p h as b een c or re lated w ith h igh l ake l eve ls . On t he d iachron ic l eve l c hanges o bserved i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord h ave b een " e xp la ined" b y r ef erence t o e nv ironmenta l c hanges . The s ynchron ic c orre lat ion b etween l e nv iron ment a nd c u l ture i sg enera ly r eached t hrough t he med ia t ion o f t he c oncept o fa dap ta t ion . F or e xamp le , w e m igh t r ead i n a lmost a ny work o f p reh istory t hat " dur ing t he X c o ld p er iod t he A p eop le w ere a dap ted t o t he h un t ing o ft he l a rge g ame a n ima ls wh ich r oamed t he v as t g rass p la ins ." Thus " adap ta t ion " i mp l ies o r i nvo lves s ubs istence wh ich t erns i n t urn may b e l i nked t o t echno logy , s et t lemen t p at , a nd a who le h os t o f o ther t ra its , s u ch a s h igh l ake l eve ls , f i sh ing , h arpoons , s em i p ermanent s ett lemen ts , e ga l itar ian ism , monogamy , e tc . However , l c or re la t ing e nv ironmen t a nd c u lture b y i nvok ing a dapta t ion d oes n o t t e l u s a ny th ing a bout h ow o r why a ny p ar t icu lar c u ltura l man if estat ion c ame i nto b e ing . A s h as b een s a id b ef ore , " the c oncept o f a dap ta t ion , l u n less c o mb ined w ith a d emonstrab le p r inc ip le o f s e lec t ion , l o ses a l s ign if icance : w ithou t i t , a ny th ing t ha t e x ists a nd t heref ore f unc t ions i s , i p so f ac to , a dapted " ( Gode l ier 1 972 :xxx iv , c i ted b y I ngo ld 1 983 :14 ) . T hus , t o m ove f r om t he d oma in o fd escr ip t ion t o t he d oma in o fe xp lanat ion w e mu s t s w itch o ur f o cus f r om t he s ynchron ic t o t he d iachron ic .

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Env ironmen t a nd C u l tur e i n t h e L a t e Q ua t ernary o fE as tern A f r ica C u ltura l c hange i n A f r ican p reh istory h as b oth o f ten , a nd i ndeed l g enera ly , b een c ons idered t o b e c aused u l t ima te ly b y e nv ir onmen ta l c hange . Why t h is s hou ld b e s o l i es o u ts ide t he s cope o f t he p resen t c hapter a nd r equ ires d eta i led h istor iog raph ica l t r eatmen t . T he a rgumen t f o r t he e nv ironmen ta l c ausa t ion o f c u l tura l c hange r un s l r ough ly a s f o lows : v eg eta t ion c hanges r esu l t ing f r om a c l ima t ic s h if t l e ad t o ar educ t ion i n t he a bundance a nd a va i lab i l i ty o f t he r e sour ce s e xp lo ited b y a preh is tor ic g roup w i th t he r e su l t t ha t t oa vo id s t arva t ion t a nd p opu la t ion d ec l ine t he g roup mus t s h if t i t s a tent ion t o o ther r esources o r move e l sewhere . I f t he f i r st o p t ion i s c hosen , t hen a dapta t ion t o t he n ew c onf igura t ion o f r e sour ces i s l i ke ly t o i nvo lve t terns c hanges i n t e chno logy , s ub s is tence s t ra teg ies , s e t lemen t p at , a nd p robab ly o ther v ar iab les , wh ich i n s um c ompr ise c u l tura l c hange a s u nderstood b y most a r chaeo log is ts . I f t he s econd o pt ion , t ha t o f movemen t e l sewhere , i sc hosen , c u l tura l c hange i s a l so l i ke ly t o r esu l t f r om a dap ta t ion t o s l igh t ly d if f eren t s urround ing s i nc lud ing t he t p reex is t ing h uman p opu la t ion o ft he n ew ly s e t led r eg ion . I n b o th c a ses t hen t he u l t ima te c ause o f c u l tura l c hang e i s s een a s e nv ironmen ta l c hange . I fw e r ever se t he s equen ce o ft he a rgumen t a nd p erhap s s ta te i t t he way most a rchaeo log ists m igh t i mp l ic it ly c once ive i t , t hen a ny c u l tura l c hange n o ted i n t he a r chaeo log ica l r e cord i sa ssumed t ob e t he r e su l t o f ac hang ing a dap ta t ion , a nd f o r a ny a dap t ive s h if t t her e mus t b e t a n e nv ironmen ta l c hange t op rec ip i ta t e i t . S ta ted t h is l a ter w ay w e h ave a rr ived a t a n e xp lana t ion o f c u lture c hange wh ich v erges o n e nv ironmen ta l d e term in ism . T h is d e term in is t ic a pproa ch t o c u l ture c hange f a i ls t o c on s id er o ther l n onenv ironmen ta l v ar iab les wh ich m igh t e qua ly a ccount f o r c hanges o bserved i n t he a r chaeo log ica l r e cord . I ndeed o ne c an p erhap s d i scern t a n a t itude among s o me a rchaeo log is ts t ha t e xp lana t ions o f c u lture c hange wh ich d o n o t i nvoke e nv ironmen ta l c hange a re i n s o me manner n onfa ls if iab le o r e ven n onsc ien t if ic . T he r ema inder o f t h is c hap ter e xam ines t wo c ase s tud ies f r om t he l a t er p r eh is tory o fE astern A f r ica i n wh ich e nv ironmen ta l -cu l tura l c orre la t ions a nd e xp lana t ions h ave b een t a tempted . T he d e ta i ls o f t he e nv ironmen ta l -cu ltura l c orre la t ions a re s hown t o b e p rob lema t ic a nd p oss ib ly m iscons trued i n e ach c a se . T he r easons f o r t h is i nc lude f a i lure t o c ons ider s amp l ing b iase s i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , m isread ings , o r m isunderstand ing s o f t he l e nv ironmen ta l e v iden ce , a nd more g enera ly t he p au c i ty o ft he a va i lab le a rchaeo log ica l i nf orma t ion . A l terna t ive e xp lana t ions i nvo lv ing b oth e nv ironmen ta l a nd o ther v ar iab les a re t en ta t ive ly o u t l ined . T he e xerc ise h as t wo p urposes : f i rs t , t o s how t ha t a rchaeo log is t s n eed t o b e b o th r i gorous a nd c au t ious i n t he ir a pp l ica t ion o fp a leoenv ironmen ta l d ata t o a r chaeo log ica l p rob lem s , wh i le r emember ing t he l im ita t ions o ft he d a ta t f r om t he ir o wn d i sc ip l ine ; a nd , s econd , t o d raw a ten t ion t o t he

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P . R ober tshaw e xp lanatory p o ten t ia l o f ered b y c arefu l c ons iderat ion o f f a c tors wh ich may b ear n o d i rec tr e la t ion t oe nv ironmen ta l v ar iab les . C ase 1 : The D eve lopmen ta nd S pread o fM icro l i th ic T echno logy I th as b een a rgued t ha t " the a dop t ion o fb acked m icro l ith ic t e chno logy i n many a reas ( not o n ly i n s ub -Saharan A f r ica b u t a l so i n much o f Euras ia ) was i n it ia l ly l i nked t o t he d eve lop ment o f n ew h un t ing t echn iques t o p erm it t he e xp lo itat ion o f more d ense ly v egetated e nv iron men ts" ( Ph i l ipson 1 980a :15 ) . T hus i t i s s uggested t hat l a dap tat ion t o a n e nv ironmen ta l s h if t t owards a n i ncreased d ens ity o f v egetat iona l c over i nvo lved a n i ncreased r e l iance o n t he b ow a nd m icro l ith -t ipped a row , wh ich w ere p ar t icu lar ly e ec t ive f o r h un t ing t he r f sma l s o l itary g ame o f t he e xpand ing w ood lands ( Ph i l ipson 1 977 :31 ; l l 1 976 :201) . However , s ince m icro l ith ic i ndustr ies a re n ot f ound e xc lus ive ly i n w ooded e nv ironmen ts , t he u se o f t he b ow a nd a rrow i s t hought t o h ave s pread l a ter i n to d if eren t e nv ironmen ts f r om t ha t i n wh ich i t d eve loped ( Ph i l ipson 1 980b :230 ) . Ph i l ipson 's h ypothes is i s l l c o mpr ised o f t wo a rgumen ts : 1 ) t ha t b acked m icro l iths , b ut n ot n ecessar i ly a l o ft hem , w ere h af ted t of o rm t he b arbs o fp o in t s o fa rrows ; l 2 ) t hat t he a ppearan ce o fm icro l i th ic t e chno logy c an b e c orre lated w i th a n e nv ironmen ta l c hange t o more w ooded v egeta t ion , d ue p resumab ly t o aw armer a nd w et l ima te t han e x is ted p rev ious ly . ter c T he s uggest ion t hat s o me m icro l iths w ere h af ted i n a rrows r ece ives s omewhat t en ta t ive s uppor t f r om t he s tudy o ft races o f mast ic f ound o n s pec imens i n e astern Z amb ia ( Ph i l ipson 1 976 ) . H istor ic s ources s how l t ha t m icro l iths w ere c er ta in ly u sed i n a rows i n t he p er iod o f European r c on tact i n S ou thern A f r ica ( C lark 1 977 ; Rudner 1 979 ) . However , t he m icro l iths=hun t ing s t ereotype h as b een c r i t ic ised b y Dav id C larke ( 1976 ) , who h as s hown t ha t aw ide v ar ie ty o fc ompos i te t oo ls w ith l a rge n umbers o fm icro l iths a re d ocumen ted e thnog raph ica ly a s b e ing u sed i n p lan t l g a ther ing , h arvest ing , a nd a g rea t n umber o f p rocess ing a ct iv it ies . F ur thermore , m icro l ith ic i ndustr ies a re f ound i n Austra l ia , where t here i s n o e v idence f r om e thnography o f A bor ig ina l u se o f b ows a nd a rows . S tud ies o f u se -wear c o mb ined w ith e xper i men ta l w ork h ave r i nd icated t ha t L a ter S tone A ge m icro l iths e xcavated i n E th iop ia may h ave b een u sed i n p rocess ing p lan t ma ter ia ls , i nc lud ing g rass -cut ting ( C lark a nd P r ince 1 978 ) . T heref ore , o ne c ou ld a rgue , c ontrary t o P h i l ipson , t hat t he a dop t ion o fm icro l i th ic t e chno logy was l i nked t o t he l i ncreased i mpor tance o ft he e xp lo ita t ion o fp lan t ma ter ia ls f o r b oth f od o a nd a rtefac ts . T he u se o f m icro l iths i n a rrows may h ave b een o f s ubs id iary i mpor tance a nd may h ave o ccurred much l a ter . T he m icro l iths=p lan t p rocess ing c or re la t ion c er ta in ly a ccoun ts b et o r t he ter f p resence o f n onbacked m icro l iths s uch a s s crapers a nd a dzes , i n a dd it ion t o b acked m icro l iths , i n t he e ar l iest m icro l ith ic i ndustr ies ;

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Env ironmen t a nd C u l tur e i n t he L a te Qua terna ry o fE as tern A f r ica t hese t oo l t ypes c ou ld n ot p oss ib ly h ave f o rmed t he b arbs o r p o ints o f l a rrows . However , a s P ark ing ton h as p o in ted o u t , t here i sa bas ic f a lacy i n b oth t he m icro l iths=hun t ing a nd m icro l i th s=ga ther ing c or re lat ions when t hey a re e x tended t ob ecome e nv ironmen ta l c orre la tes . F or i ti sn o t m icro l ith ic t echno logy wh ich h as e nv ironmenta l c orre lates , b u t i n terassemb lage d if erences w ith in t he t e chno logy . T he t echno logy i t se lf i s s imp ly " a p oo l o f t echno log ica l a nd t ypo log ica l r esources i n to wh ich p reh is tor ic p eop le . .. d ipped i n o rder t o c arry o u t t asks o fv ar ious s or t s " ( Park ing ton 1 979 :74 ) . Ear ly m icro l ith ic i ndustr ies i n E astern A f r ica h ave b een f ound a t Ma tup i i n n or theastern Z a ire c a . 4 0 ,000 b p ( Van N oten 1 982 ) , a t L ake l B esaka i nE th iop ia ( Brand t1 982 )c a . 2 2 ,000 b p , a t Lukenya H i li n Kenya l c a . 2 0 ,000 b p ( Merr ick 1 975 ; G ram ly 1 976 ; M i ler 1 979 ) , a t Nasera i n T anzan ia c a . 2 1 ,500 b p ( Meh lman p er sona l c ommun ica t ion ) , a tK isese i n T anzan ia c a . 1 9 ,000 b p ( I nskeep 1 962 ) , a tO lduva ic a . 1 7 ,000 b p( Leakey e t a l . 1 972 ) , a t Munyama o n L ake V ic tor ia e a . 1 6 ,000 b p ( Van N o ten 1 971 ) , l a nd i n v ar ious " Nach ikufan I "s i tes i n Z amb ia c a . 1 7 ,000 b p ( Ph i l ipson 1 976 ) . Unf or tunate ly , f auna l r e ma ins a re p reserved i n f ew s i tes , a nd r are ly r epor ted i n t he l i t era ture . T he a rgumen tf o r as h if tt o t he h un t ing o fa n ima ls f r om a m ore w ooded e nv ironmen t i sb are ly s uppor ted b y t he t i ny s amp le o ff auna l r e ma ins f r om t he Nach ikuf an Il eve ls a t Ka le mba i n wh ich z ebra a nd w i ldebeest a re s t il l r epresented ( Ph il lipson 1 976 :Tab le 5 1) . S im i lar ly , t he p resen ce o fh a r tebeest , g azel le , a nd z ebra i n t he L ukenya H i l l f auna i nd ica tes o pen s avanna ( M i l ler 1 979 :31) . On ly a t L ake B esaka a nd Ma tup i d oes t here a ppear t o b e g ood e v idence f o r r e la t ive ly c l osed v egeta t ion , b u te ven t he l a ter s i te was p robab ly s i tua ted t i n s avanna w ith c l osed f o rest n earby ( Van N o ten 1 982 :32 ) . I n a dd it ion , much o f t he e v idence f r om l ake l eve ls a nd p o len c ores i nd ica tes c o ld , l d ry , o pen c oun try c ond i t ion sf r om c a . 2 0 ,000 t oc a . 1 2 ,000 b p , t hough L ake Mobu tu may h ave h ad h igh l e ve ls b e tween 1 8 ,000 a nd 1 4 ,000 b p a nd t he l eve l o fL ake Manyara was s o mewha t h igher b e tween 1 9 ,500 a nd 1 6 ,500 b p( Gasse 1 980 ) . Thus t he a rchaeo log ica l a nd p a leoenv ironmenta l e v idence f r om Eastern A f r ica i n s upport o f Ph il 's h ypothes is i s e qu ivoca l . lipson However , i n t he S outhern C ape t he f i rst m icro l ith ic i ndustry , t he R obberg , i sa ssoc ia ted w i th af auna i nd ica t ive o fo pen g rass land ( Deacon 1 980 ) . G iven t hese d ata a nd t he c r it ique o f t he m icro l ith s=hunt ing c orre la t ion , i ts eems c l ear t ha t t he h ypothes is l i nk ing t he a ppearance o f b acked m icro l iths w ith t he e xp lo itat ion o f d ense ly v egetated e nv ironment s i sl i ke ly t ob e r e jec ted , a tl eas ti ni t s a pp l ica t ion t o much o f s ub -Saharan A f r ica . Two a l ternat ive h ypotheses , wh ich may b e i n terdependen t , c an b e s uggested a nd t here a re n o d oubt many o ther h ypo theses t ha t c ou ld b e f o rmu la ted .

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P . R ober t shaw T he f i rst a l terna t ive h as b een moo ted b y P ark ing ton ( 1979 :74 ) : " the . . n ea r u n iversa l i ty o f . [m icro l i th ic i ndus tr ies ] i n t he t erm ina l P le ist ocene . . a nd H o locene .sugges t s t ha t t he d i spers ion h as more t o d o w ith a n i ncrea sed awareness o f t e chno log ica l p oss ib i l it ies t han w ith s im i lar a dap ta t ions t o e nv ironmen ta l c hange ." T hus P ark ing ton 's h ypo thes is r es t s o n t he i dea o f am en ta l o r c on cep tua l b reak through b y p reh is tor ic p eop le si n t he l a te P le is tocene . T he s econd a l terna t ive h ypo thes is , wh ich i sn o t i ncompa t ib le w i th t he f i rs t , i s t ha t t he d eve lopmen t o f m icro l i th ic t echno logy o ccurred i n o c on jun c t ion w i th a n e xpan s ion o ft he f od b ase . I n p ar t icu lar , t here may o h ave b een i ncreas ing emphas is o n p lan t f ods , t he g ather ing a nd p rocess ing o f wh ich m icro l ith ic t oo ls a nd t echno logy may h ave f ac i l i ta t ed . W iden ing o ft he r ange o fe xp lo i ted r esour ces i n E as tern a nd S ou th ern A f r ica may b e p ar t o f o r a na logous t o t he " broad s pec trum l r evo lu t ion " o r ig ina ly p roposed b y F lannery ( 1969 ) f o r t he N ear E a s t . I n t he N ear E ast a nd E urope , t h is " r evo lu t ion " r esu lted i n i ncreased l empha s is o n s ubs is ten ce f r om a qua t ic r esources , sma l g ame , a nd p lan t f oods . The s ame s h if t i n s ubs is ten ce may a l so h ave o ccurred i n s ub o S aharan A f r ica ; h owever , f od r e ma ins o ther t han mamma l ian b ones r are ly s urv ive f r om t h is p er iod . N ever the less , o ne may n ote t he l d iscov ery o f s he l m iddens a t Mumba -Höh le a ssoc ia ted w ith a s t one a r tef a c t a ssemb lage w i th c harac ter is t ics t rans it iona l f r om t he MSA t o t he L SA ( Meh lman 1 979 ) . B roaden ing o ft he s ubs is tence b a se may h ave b een a r esponse t o i ncreased h uman p opu lat ion d ens i ty c aus ing a " squeeze " i n s o me r eg ions o n t he a va i lab i l ity o f l arger g ame ( B inf ord 1 983 :2 12-3 ) . T heref ore , m icro l i th ic t e chno logy may h ave b een d eve loped i n E as tern A f r ica t o p rov ide t he v ar ie ty o f t oo ls n ecessary f o r t he e xp lo i ta t ion o f a mu ch g rea ter r ange o fr esour ces t han was p rev ious ly t a temp t ed . T h is d i e tary c hange may h ave b een a n a d jus tmen t t oh uman ry p opu la t ion d ens it ies i n s o me r eg ions r each ing t he c ar ing c apac i ty ted b p erm it y t he h un t ing o f l a rger g ame . N o e nv ironmen ta l c hange n eed st ob ep os i ted . l c S cep t ics m igh t w e l make t he a cu sa t ion t ha t t h is s econd a l terna t ive h ypo thes is s imp ly r ep resen t s as ubs t i tu t ion o f af o rm o f d emog raph ic d eterm in ism i n p lace o f t he e nv ironmen ta l c ausa t ion t ha t h as b een c r i t ic i sed a bove . Wh i le t h is c harge may c on ta in a n e l emen t o ft ru th , i t d oe sn o tr edu ce t he p o t en t ia l e xp lana to ry v a lue o ft he h ypo thes is n or d oes l i t d e t rac t f r om t he g enera l p o in t t ha t n o t a l c u l tura l c hange n eed b e l l i nked t o e nv ironmen ta l c hange . A l t he mode ls d i scussed h ere a re i n f ac t p robab ly s imp l is t ic ; i ft he d a ta i nd ica te a ny th ing i t i s t ha t t he a ppea rance o f m icro l i th ic t e chno logy i s ac o mp lex p henomenon f o r wh ich a ny s i ng le f a c tor e xp lana t ion i sl i ke ly t o p rove i nadequa te . I ti s , f or e xamp le , r e la t ive ly c l ear t ha t t he manuf ac ture o f t he f i r st b acked m ic ro l i ths i n E as tern A f r ica i sp receded b y a per iod , p robab ly o fs evera l 19

Env ironmen t a nd C u l tur e i n t h e L a t e Q ua t erna ry o fE as tern A f r ica l m i lenn ia o r more , i n wh ich m icro l i th ic t e chno logy was u sed f o r t he mak ing o fo u t i ls &a ilA l , s ma l l s c raper s , b ur ins , a nd o ther t o o l f o rm s . t o T h is i sa t est ed n o to n ly b yt he t o ls t hem se lves b u ta l so b yt h ep r esen ce o f b ipo lar c ores a nd f l ak ing d ebr is . F ur therm ore , t he o r ig ins o fm icro l i th ic t e chno logy i n s ub -Saharan A f r ica c anno t b e a scr ibed t o am ovemen t o f p eop le o r d ifus ion o fi dea s f r om n or th o ft he S ahara . R a the ri ta ppea r s t ha t i t s r oo t s l i e i n t he l o ca l M idd le S tone A g e a nd t hat f o r m ost o ft h e r eg ion t here i s n o i nterven ing p er iod c or respond ing w ith t he b lade i ndus tr ies o ft he E uropean Upper P a leo l i th ic . T h is i s , h owever , n o t t o d eny t ha t s o me d ifus ion o ft he k now ledge o fm icro l i th ic t echn o logy a nd b acked m icro l i th manuf ac ture may h ave o c curred w i th in s ub -Saharan A f r ica ; i ndeed t he d a t ing o ft he e ar l iest b acked m icro l i ths a t m any s i tes i nE as tern A f r ica t oa round 2 0 ,000 b p i ss ugges t ive o ft h is p ro ce ss . C ase 2 : The s pread o fp as tora l ism t ot he E as tA f r ican H igh lands V ar iou s h ypotheses r ang ing f r om i ndependen t d omest ica t ion i n E as t l A f r ica , t hrough d ifus ion , t o sma l -sca le o r l arge -sca le p opu lat ion movemen ts h ave b een s ugge s ted t o e xp la in h ow p a s tora l ism s pread t o . l t he h igh land a reas o f E ast A f r ica , i e . , t he C en tra l R if t V a ley a nd n earby s avanna g rass lands . T he most r ecen t h ypothes is i n wh ich c l ima t ic a nd e nv ironmen ta l c hanges p lay i mpor tan t r o les h a s b een p u t f o rward b y Ambrose ( 1984a ; 1 982 ) . I t i s s uggested t ha t p opu la t ion p ressure among m ixed f armer s i n S ou thern E th iop ia c aused v ar iou s f b g roups t o b ud o etween 5 000 a nd 4 500 b p i n to t he n or th ern K enya l ow lands where t he a r id c ond it ions f avoured p as tora l s ubs istence . H owever , p astora l is ts w ere u nab le t o s et t le i n c en tra l K enya u n t i l a round 3 000 b p . T he r eason f o rt h is i sa n a r id c l ima te p hase i nt he E a s t A f r ican h igh lands f r om 5 600 t o3 000 b p i n wh ich t he v egeta t ion s h if t ed t owards a r id b ush , p oss ib ly h arbour ing t s e t se f l y . Thus o n ly w i th c l ima t ic ame l iora t ion t oward s modern c ond i t ion s a round 3 000 b p w ere p as tora l is ts a b le t o move s ou th ( Ambrose 1 982 :138 ; 1 984a :228 , 2 35-6 ) . B ef ore d i scuss ing t h is h ypo thes is i ts hou ld i mmed ia te ly b e n o ted t ha t l r e levan t a r chaeo log ica l o bserva t ion s a re g en era ly f ew a nd f a r b etween . T hus , a lmos t n o th ing i sk nown o ft he p reh ist ory o fS ou thern E th iop ia o r o ft he r eg ion b e tween L ake T urkana a nd t he C en tra l R if t . E v en w i th in l t he h igh lands e x cava t ions h ave t ended t ob e s ma l s ca le a nd p ub l ica t ion rence b eyond t he l eve l o f p re l im inary r epor t s ar are o ccur . T heref ore , e very h ypo thes is c oncern ing t he s pread o f p as tora l ism i s l i ke ly t o b e s pecu la t ive t o ac ons iderab le d egree ; a dequa te t est ing o f c ompet ing l h ypo theses w i l r equ ire ag rea t d ea l more f i e ld w ork a nd a na ly s i s . T hu s , n o c l a ims o fv erac i ty a re made f o r t he p re l im inary a nd t enta t ive s c enar io o ft he s pread o fp a s tora l ism o u t l ined b e low . T he p urpo se o ft he e xerc ise t i s more t o d raw a tent ion t o p oss ib le s amp l ing b iases i n t he a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a leoenv ironmen ta l r ecord a nd t o i nd ica te where

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P . R ober tshaw p a leoenv ironmen ta l e v idence may h ave b een m isread t han t o i mp ly t ha t t he a l terna t ive mode l p roposed i sc orrec t . T he s uggest ion o fa n a r id c l imat ic p hase i n t he C entra l R if t b etween 5 , 600 a nd 3 , 000 b pi sb ased o nt he e v idence o b ta ined f r om c ores d r i led i n l L ake Na ivasha ( R ichardson a nd R ichardson 1 972 ) . However , t he i n terpreta t ion o f t h is e v idence wh ich w ou ld a rgue t hat t he c l i mate " beca me more a r id t han a t p resen t " t urn ing " the o pen s avanna i n to t set se inf ested b ush " ( Ambrose 1 982 :138 ) may b e a n e xaggera t ion .1 R ichardson a nd R ichardson ( 1972 :529-530 ) w rot e t ha t d ur ing t he p er iod 5 650 -4000 b p t he l ake " f e l t o l eve ls s im i lar t o t oday 's " a nd d ur ing t h is l d ec l ine " the c l i ma te o f t he Na ivasha b as in may h ave b een s o mewha t d r ier t han a t p resent ; h owever , t her e i s n o w ay t o b e s ur e o f t h is" ( emphas is a dded ) . T he c l i ma te b etween 4 000 a nd 3 000 b p was " ra ther s t ab le ," t hough t he p ar to ft he l ake t ha tw as c ored d r ied o u t a ta bou t3 000 b pf o rl e ss t han ah undred y ear s . H owever , " we d oubt i f year ly r a inf a l a t l t ha t t ime [ 3000 b p ] was marked ly d if eren t f r om t oday 's " ( R ichardson a nd R ichardson 1 972 :530 ) . T empera tures may h ave b een s l igh t ly h igher t han t hose o f t oday a nd a more s easona l p at f p rec ip ita t ion may tern o h ave p ers isted u n t i l a bou t 2 000 b p . T hus i ti s f ar f r om c l ear whether t hese s l igh t c l ima t ic c hanges w ou ld h ave a ny p ronounced e ec t o n t he f v ege tat ion o ft he r eg ion . C er ta in ly p astora l is ts l i ve t oday a nd h ave d one s o i n t he p ast i n r eg ions f ar more a r id t han t he C en tra l R if t ; t hus t hey c an o n ly h ave b een e xc luded f r om t he l a ter r eg ion b ef ore 3 000 b p b y a t v ery e xten s ive t s e t se f l yb e l t . Most o ft he C en tra l R if ti st s e tse f r ee t oday a nd s ee m s t , oh ave b een s o t hroughou t t he h istor ic p er iod ( Survey o f K enya 1 970 ) . F l ies o f t he mors itans -g roup a re g enera ly f ound i n a reas w ith t e mperatures l b e tween 2 0 ° a nd 2 8 ° C , r e la t ive h um id ity b e tween 5 0 a nd 8 0 p ercen t , a nd r a infa l b e tween 2 5 a nd 6 0 i nches ( Lambrech t 1 964 :10 ) . Na ivasha t oday l i s c l ose t o t he l ower r a infa l l im it ; t hus a ny t endency t owards l e ss l r a infal nd h igher t emperatures r educ ing h um id ity w ou ld make t he l a r eg ion e ven more marg ina l f o r t s et se . T heref ore , t hough f l ies may h ave b een a b le t os urv ive a nd s pread i nt he r a iny s eason i nt he p er iod b e tween 4 000 a nd 3 ,000 b p , t he l ong d ry s eason w ou ld p robab ly h ave r es tr ic ted t he ir r ange t o h eav i ly v egeta ted wa ter c our ses . S uch a pat sf ound tern i i n p ar ts o fs ou thwes tern K enya t oday . T hu s , i ti sd if i cu lt t ob e l ieve t ha t

1D ur ing

t he d i scu ss ion a t t he s ympos ium w h ich f o l lowed t he p resentat ion o f t h is

p aper S tan ley Amb rose k ind ly p resented a spec ts o fh is r e cons t ruc t ion o ft he H o locene e nv iron ment s o f t he C en tra l R if t w h ich a re m ore c omp lex a nd s upersede h is e ar l ier p ub l ished s t a temen ts ( s ee a l so Ambrose 1 984b :33-4 ) . I th as n ot b een p oss ib le t o t ake a c count o ft h is n ew i n f orma t ion h ere .

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Env ironmen t a nd C u l tur e i n t he L a te Qua ternar y o fE as tern A f r ica t rypanosom ias is w ou ld h ave b een ab arr ier t o t he s pread o fp as tora l ist s i n to t he C en tra lR if t . Wh i le t h is c r i t ique o f t he c l i mat ic a nd p a leoenv ironmenta l s cenar io t hat h as b een s uggested f o r t he C en tra l R if t i s n ot n ecessar i ly more a ccurate t han t he o r ig ina l v ers ion , i t d oes s how t hat p a leoc l i mat ic e v idence i sa s o pen t o r econs idera t ion a s a rchaeo log ica l d a ta . H owever , r ather more d i sturb ing a re t he r esu lts f r om a c ore d r il l ed i n L ake Na ivasha more r ecen t ly . T hese i nd ica te t hat t he ma jor w et p hase c on t inued u n t i l 4 145 b p when c ond i t ions l i ke t hose o ft he p resen t s ee m t o h ave b een r ap id ly e stab l ished ( R ichardson c i ted p ersona l c o mmun ica t ion i n Kamau 1 973 ) . T he e v iden ce f r om t h is n ew c o re w ou ld s eem t o ma tch b et han t he e ar l ier c ores t he g eomorpho log ica l r esu l t s ter t f r om L ake Nakuru ( Bu tzer e t a l . 1 972 ) . P o len s pec tra c o lected i n l l v ar ious moun ta ins a l so d ocumen t as h if t f r om w et ond it ion s t o d ry ter c c ond i t ion s s im i lar t ot hose o ft he p resen ta round 3 700 b p ( Ham i l t on 1 982 ) . T heref ore , t he h ypo thes is o f ac l ima t ic e p isode more a r id t han t ha t o ft he p resen t b etween 5 600 a nd 3 000 b p i n t he C en t ra l R if t r eg ion i so pen t o r eeva lua t ion , A c arefu l r ev iew o f t he d at ing e v idence f r om t he Turkana Bas in i nd ica tes t hat t he p resence o f p astora l ists i sn o t c er ta in ly e s tab l ished u n t i l a bou t 4 ,000 b p . ( Co let nd R ober tshaw 1 983a ) . G iven t he c l ose l t a s im i lar i ty b e tween t he p ot r om t he s i tes d a ted t o 4 000 b p i n t he tery f T urkana r eg ion a nd p ot r om u nda ted s i t es l i ke S tab le 's D r if t i n t he tery f C entra l R if t ( Co let nd R ober tshaw 1 983b ) , i t s eems r easonab le t o l t a s uggest t ha t e v idence f o rp astora l is ts i n t he l a tt er r eg ion s oon a f ter 4 000 b p w i l e ventua ly b e f o r thcom ing . T hus , t here may h ave b een n o l ong l l h ia tus b etween p astora l ist o ccupa t ion o f t he T urkana b as in a nd t he ir e xpans ion i nto t he C en tra l R if t r eg ion . Whe ther t h is e xpans ion may b e l i nked t o t he e v iden ce f o r c l ima t ic c hange s ugges ted a round 3 700 b p i sa mat o r f ur ther r esear ch . t er f E xam inat ion o f t he p ot sse mb lages o f t he e ar ly p as tora l ist t ery a c o mmun i t ies o fK enya ( Co let nd R ober tshaw 1 983b ) a l so i nd ica tes t ha t l t a t here may h ave b een a t l east t hree e xpans ions o fp astora l ist s i n to t he E ast A f r ican h igh lands , t he l ast t wo o f wh ich c annot , i t s eems , b e c orre lated w ith a ny c l imat ic s h if ts . However , o ur k now ledge o f t he e ar l ier p ar ts o ft he p ot equences i si nadequa te , a nd w e c annot r u le tery s o u t t he p oss ib i l i ty o fc eram ic t rad i t ions d iverg ing w ith in t he h igh lands ( s ee B ower , c hap ter 6 ) . C onc lus ion Th is c hapter h as e xam ined b r ief ly t he w ay i n Wh ich A f r ican is t a rchaeo log ists o f ten p er ce ive t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween e nv ironmen t a nd c u lture a nd h ow e nv ironmen ta l e v idence h as b een u sed t o e xp la in 1 22

P . R ober tshaw c u l tura l c hange . At endency t owards d eterm in is t ic e xp lana t ions r ooted i n t he c oncept o f " adap ta t ion " h as b een n oted . Two c ase s tud ies h ave i l lustrated s o me o f t he p rob le ms i nvo lved i n t he marr iage o f a rchaeo log ica l a nd p a leoenv ironmenta l e v idence ; many o f t hese p rob lems s t em f r om t he p auc ity o f d ata a nd s amp l ing b iases f ound i n b oth d i sc ip l ines . C lear ly a rchaeo log is ts must b e c au t ious i n t he ir u se o f p a leoenv ironmen ta l i nf orma t ion , t hough t h is o f c ourse i s ac avea t t hat a pp l ies t o a l l i n terd isc ip l inary e ndeavours . On a more p os it ive n ote , a rchaeo log ists s hou ld s t r ive t owards a broader v iew o f c u l tura l c hange i n wh ich e nv ironmen t may b e o n ly o ne c ausa t ive v ar iab le among many . A s S a lz man ( 1978 :635 ) h as i nd ica ted , " cu l ture c annot c onstruc t r ea l i ty , b u t i td ef ines s i gn if icance , a nd i ti s i n t erms o f s i gn if icance t ha t men a c t . " S im i lar ly , I ngo ld ( 1983 :14 ) h as w r it ten t ha t" the c r iter ia o fs e lect ion a re n ot g iven b y t he e nv ironmen t a l one b u t d epend u pon wha t members o ft he s ub jec t p opu la t ion a re s eek ing t o d o i n i t . I ft he s oc ia l d oma in i s t he s ource o ft he ir p urpose , i tf o lows l og ica ly t ha t s oc ie ty c anno t e vo lve l l t hrough a p rocess o f a dapta t ion ." Theref ore , s oc ia l p urposes a nd c u l tura l c oncerns may s t eer a c u ltura l s ystem a long a p ar t icu lar p a th among t he many p a ths wh ich e nv ironmen ta l , e co log ica l , d emograph ic , h is tor ica l , a nd o ther v ar iab les m ight make a va i lab le . T o a pproach p rob lems o fc hange f r om t h is b roader a nd more c o mp lex p erspec t ive i s t he c ha lenge t ha t f a ces a r chaeo log is ts . l R ef erence s Ambrose , S . H . 1 982 . A rchaeo logy a nd l i ngu ist ic r econstruc t ions o f h istory i n E ast A f r ica . I n T he A rchaeo log ica l a nd L ingu is t ic R econstruc t ion o f Af r ican H is tory ( eds C . Ehret a nd M . P osansky ) : p p . 1 04-57 . L os Ange les : Un ivers ity o f C a l if orn ia P ress . 1 984a . The i n troduct ion o f p astora l a daptat ions t o t he H igh lands o fE ast A f r ica . I nF rom Hun ters t oF armer s ( eds J .D . C lark a nd S .A . B rand t ) : p p . 2 12-39 . L os Ange les : Un ivers i ty o f C a l if orn ia P ress . .1 984b . Ho locene e nv ironmen ts a nd h uman a dap ta t ions i n t he C en tra l R if t V a ley , K enya . ( Unpub l ished P h .D . t hes is , Un ivers i ty l o fC a l if orn ia , B erke ley ) . B inf ord , L . R . 1 983 . I n P ur su i t o ft he P as t : D ecod ing t he A r chaeo log ica l R ecord . L ondon : T hames a nd L ondon . B rand t , S . A . 1 982 . Al a te Qua ternary c u l tura l/env ironmen ta l s equence f rom L ake B e saka , S ou thern A f ar , E th iop ia . ( Unpub l ished P h .D . t hes is , Un iver s i ty o fC a l if orn ia , B erke ley ) .

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Env ironmen t a nd C u l tur e i n t he L a te Qua t ernary o fE as tern A f r ica Bu tzer , K . W . , I saac , G . L . , R ichardson , J . L . a nd Washbourn -Kamau , C . 1 972 . R ad iocarbon d a t ing o fE as tA f r ican l ake l eve ls . S c ience 1 75 :1069-76 . C lark , J . D . 1 977 . P reh istor ic a rrow f o rms i n A f r ica a s s hown b y s urv iv ing e xamp les o ft he t rad it iona l a rrows o ft he S an B ushmen . P aMor ien t 3 : 127-50 . C lark , J . D . a nd P r ince , G . R . 1 978 . U se -wear o n L a te S tone A ge m icro l iths f r om L aga Oda , Haragh i , E th iop ia , a nd p oss ib le f unc t iona l i n terpreta t ion s . A zan ia 1 3 :10110 . C larke , D . L . 1 976 . Meso l i th ic Europe : t he e conom ic b as is . I nP rob lems i n E conom ic a nd S oc ia l A rchaeo logy ( eds G . S ievek ing , I .H . L ongwor th a nd K . E . W i lson ) : p p . 4 49 -81 . L ondon : Duckworth . l C oetzee , J . A . 1 967 . P o len a na ly t ica l s tud ies i n E ast a nd S outhern A f r ica . P a laeoeco logy o fA f r ica 3 : 1 -146 . l t, D C o let . a nd R ober tshaw , P . T . 1 983a . P rob lems i n t he i n terpreta t ion o fr ad iocarbon d a tes : t he P as tora l N eo l i th ic o fE ast A f r ica . Af r . A r chaeo l . R ev . 1 :57-74 . t ery t 1 983b . P ot rad it ions o f e ar ly p astora l c o mmun it ies i n K enya . A zan ia 1 8 :107 -25 . D eacon . H . J . 1 980 . L a te P le istocene a nd H o locene i ndus tr ies i n t he s ou thern C ape a nd w ider c orre la t ions . I n P roceed ings o ft he 8 th P anaf r ican C ongress o fP r eh is tor y a nd Q ua terna ry S tud ie s ( eds R . E . L eakey a nd B . A . Ogo t ) : p p . 2 31-4 . Na irob i . F lannery , K . V . 1 969 . O r ig ins a nd e co log ica l ef ec ts o f e ar ly d omest icat ion i n I ran a nd t he N ear E ast . I n T he Domes t ica t ion a nd E xp lo i ta t ion o fP lan ts a nd An ima ls ( eds P . J .U cko a nd G . W . D imb leby ) : p p . 7 3100 . L ondon : Duckwor th . Gasse , F . 1 980 . L ate Quaternary c hanges i n l ake leve ls a nd d iatom a sse mb lages o n t he s outheastern marg in o f t he S ahara . P a laeoeco logy o fA f r ica 1 2 :333-50 . G ode l ier , M . 1 972 . Ra t iona l i ty a nd I ra t iona l i ty i n E conom ic s . L ondon : r NLB . G ram ly , R . M . 1 976 . Upper P le istocene a r chaeo log ica l o ccurrences a t l s i te G vJm /22 , L ukenya H i l , K enya . Man ( n .s . ) 1 1 :319-44 . Ham i lton , A . C . 1 982 . Env ironmen ta lH is tor yo f Eas tA f r ica : AS tudy o f t he Qua ternary . L ondon : A cadem ic P ress .

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P . R ober tshaw I ng o ld , T . 1 983 . T he a rch i tec t a nd t he b ee : a n i ma ls a nd men . Man ( n .s . ) 1 8 :1-20 .

r ef lec t ions o n t he w ork o f

I n skeep , R . R . 1 962 . T he a ge o ft he K ondoa r ock p a in t ing s i n t he l i gh to f r ecen t e xcava t ions a t K isese I r ock s he lter . I n A c tes d u 4 e le C ongrs P anaf r ica in d e P r eh is to ir e , L eopo ldv il , 1 959 ( eds G . Mor te lmans a nd J . N enqu in ) . T ervuren . Kamau , C . 1 973 . L ak e l e ve ls i n t he R if t V al ley . ( Unpub l ished S em inar p aper , D ept o fH istory , Un iver s i ty o f Na irob i ) . L ambrecht , F . L . 1 964 . A spec ts o fe vo lu t ion a nd e co logy o ft setse f l ies a nd t rypanosom ias is i n p reh istor ic A f r ican e nv ironmen t . J . A f r . H is t . 5 : 1-24 . L eakey , L . S . B . 1 931 . Ca mbr idge .

T he S tone Age Cu l tures o f K enya C o lony .

L eakey , M . D . , Hay , R . L . , T hurber , D . L . , P rotsch , R . a nd B erger , R . 1 972 . S trat igraphy , a rchaeo logy a nd a ge o f t he Ndutu a nd Na is ius iu b eds , O lduva i G orge , T anzan ia . Wor ld A rchaeo logy 3 :328-41 . Meh lman , M . J . 1 979 . Mumba -Höh le r ev is ited : t he r e levance o f a f orgotten e xcavat ion t o s o me c urrent i s sues i n E ast A f r ican p reh istory . Wor ld A r chaeo logy 1 1 :80-94 . Merr ick , H . V . 1 975 . C hange i n L a te P le is tocene l i th ic i ndus tr ies i n Eas tern A f r ica . ( Ph .D . t hes is , Un iver s i ty o fC a l if orn ia , B erke ley ) . Ann A rbor : Un ivers ity M icrof i lms I n terna t iona l . l l M i ler , S . F . 1 979 . L ukenya H i l , GvJm 4 6 , e xcava t ion r epor t . Nya me Akuma 1 4 :31-4 . O sma ston , H . A . 1 975 . Mode ls f o r t he e s t ima t ion o ff i rn l ines o fp resen t a nd P le istocene g lac iers . I n P rocesses i n P hys ica l a nd Human G eography . B r is to l E ssays ( eds R . F . P ee l e t a l .) : p p . 2 18-45 . L ondon : H e inemann . l P ark ing ton , J . 1 979 . R ev iew o fD . W . P h i l ipson , T he l a ter p reh is tory o f l. 3 Eastern a nd S ou thern A f r ica . S .A f r . A r chaeo l . Bul 4 :73-74 . l Ph i l ipson , D . W . B IEA .

1 976 .

T he P r eh is tory o f Eas tern Z amb ia . Na irob i :

1 977 . T he L a ter P r eh is tory o f Eas tern a nd S ou thern A f r ica . L ondon : H e inemann . _ . 1 980a . T echno log ica l d ispar ity , o r t he c on te mporane ity o f d iver se i ndus tr ie s . I n P roceed ing s o ft he 8 th P anaf r ican C ongr ess

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Env ironmen t a nd C u l tur e i n t he L a te Qua ternar y o fE as tern Af r ica o n P reh is tory a nd Qua ternary S tud ies ( ed s R . E . L eakey a nd B . A . O go t ) : p p . 1 5 -6 . Na irob i . .1 980b . S ome s pecu la t ions o n t he b eg inn ings o fb acked -m icro l ith maufac ture . I n P roceed ings o f t he 1 8 th P anaf r ican C ongr ess o n P reh is tory a nd Qua ternary S tud ies ( eds R . L . L eakey a nd B . A . Ogo t ) : p p . 2 29 -30 . Na irob i . R ichardson , J .L . a nd R ichardson , A . E . 1 972 . H is tory o fa n A f r ican R if t l ake a nd i t s c l ima t ic i mp l ica t ions . E co log ica l Monograph s 4 2 :4995 34 . Rudner , J . 1 979 . T he u se o f s t one a r tefac t s a nd p ot he tery among t Kho isan p eop les i n h istor ic a nd p rotoh istor ic t imes . S . Af r . A r chaeo l . Bul 4 :317 . l. 3 S a lzman , P . C . 1 978 . I deo logy a nd c hange i n M idd le Eastern t r iba l s oc ie t ies . Man ( n .s . ) 1 3 :618-37 . S urvey o fK enya . 1 970 . Na t iona lA t las o fK enya . Na irob i . Van No ten , F . 1 971 . E xcava t ions a t Munyama c ave . An t iqu i ty 4 5 :56-8 . .1 982 . T he A rchaeo logy o f C en tra l A f r ica . D ruck .

G raz :

Akadem ische

Way land , E . J . 1 924 . P a laeo l ith ic t ypes o fi mp lemen ts i n r e la t ion t o t he P le is tocene d epos i ts o f Uganda . Man 2 4 :124 .

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Pat tern so f Env iron men tU t i l iza t ion b yL a te P reh is tor ic Cu l tures i nt he S ou thern C ongo Bas in B y S hery l F . M il ler , P i tz er C o l leg e . T he s ou thern C ongo B as in i s ag eograph ica l u n it c o mpr is ing t he d ra inage o f t he Kwango a nd Kasa i R iver s ystems , wh ich f l ow most ly n or thward f r om t he ir h eadwaters i n Ango la a nd Z a ire , e ventua ly l s weep ing w es t t oj o in t he Z a ire ( f ormer ly C ongo ) R iver . Much o ft he a rea i s a sl op ing p la teau , w i th more h i ly t erra in t o t he s ou th , i n t he L unda l r eg ion o f Ango la , a nd e ast o ft he Kasa i R iver , where i ts epara tes Ango la f r om Z a ire . I n g enera l , t he a l t i tude i s5 001000 meters . T he p la teau i s c apped w ith s ands a nd s andstones i n s o me p laces a s much a s 2 00 me ter s t h ick ( Haughton 1 963 ) . Where e ros ion h as c ut t hrough t h is l ayer , t he u nder ly ing metamorph ic r ocks o f t he Kasa i S h ie ld a nd t he D ibaya C o mp lex a re r evea led ( Cahen a nd S ne l ing 1 966 ) . T he p resen t l r iver p attern was e stab l ished i n t he Upper P l iocene , w ith e ros ion o ccu rr ing t hrough mos t o f t he Qua ternary . Much o f t he r eg ion i s h ot a nd h um id , w ith t empera tures a fa ir ly c onstan t 2 6 ° Cn ear t he e qua tor . The a verage a nnua l r a infa l i s 1 200 t o 1 600 mm t hrough much o f t he l a rea , c om ing i n t wo r a iny s easons p er y ear . T he s o i l c he m istry i n t h is e nv ironment i s n ot c onduc ive t o t he p reservat ion o f o rgan ic mater ia ls ; t hus a rchaeo log ists must r e ly s t rong ly o n t he a r t if ac t s t hemse lves a nd t he ir g eo log ica l c on tex t f o r c l ues t o p reh istor ic h u man c u ltura l -env ironmenta l r e lat ionsh ips i n t he r eg ion . A t t he t ime o f t he l a st g lac ia l max imum t here was a n e p isode o f s ign if ican t a r id ity i n t he s ou thern C ongo B as in ( C lark 1 968 ) . T h is may h ave b een d ue t o c hang ing w ea ther p at , a long w ith a n or thward t erns s h if t o ft he c o ld B engue la Curren t i n t he A t lan t ic wh ich c reates a r a in s hadow a cross Ango la a nd p ar t o ft he C ongo B as in . Dur ing t h is t ime s ands f r om t he Ka lahar i D eser t w ere r ed istr ibu ted b y w ind n or thward i nt o t he C ongo B as in , e ven r each ing n or th o f t he r i ver i n B as -Congo . Th i s e p isode o f s and d epos it ion c reated e nv ironmenta l c hanges wh ich o u t la s ted t he p er iod o fa r id i ty i t se lf . T he i n it ia l e nv ironmen ta l e ec t o f f t h is d ry , c oo l p er iod w as a r educt ion i n t he e x tent o f C ongo lese r a in f ores t , a nd a n e xpans ion o f s avanna -wood land a nd o pen g rass land a reas . Even a f ter t he r eturn o f more mo ist c ond it ions , t he d ra inage s ys tem s trugg led t o c l ear t he b lanket o fs and . Where t h is r ed istr ibu ted s and a nd e ar l ier s ands tones s t i l t op t he i n terf luv ia l p la teau , t hey h inder l t he e s tab l ishmen t o ft r ee c over , a s t he ir p oros ity a nd t h ickness p reven t t ree r oots f r om r each ing wa ter d ur ing t he d ry s eason . IV c on trast , t he v a ley s ides p lunge s t eep ly ; where t he u nder ly ing b asemen t r ocks a re l r evea led t here i s an a rrow b and o f d ec iduous w ood land , b u t t he ma in 1 27

P at fE nv ironmen t U t i l iza t ion b y L a t e P r eh is tor i c C u l tur e s terns o v egeta t ion p at ft he v a ley b ot s ah eavy f o res t g row th . T he se tern o l tom i t wo ma in z ones —f orested r i ver v a leys a nd i n terf luv ia l p lateau l g rass lands — in terf inger a brup t ly a nd f o rm a n e nv iron men ta l mosa ic . I n t he more b roken , h i l ly u p lands t h is e nv ironmen ta l mosa i c i s l e ss s t r ik ing , b u t t here , t o o , aw arm p os t -P le isto cene c l ima te h as e n couraged ad en se b and o f r i ver ine f o rest w ith o pen w ood land o r g ras se s o n t he i n terf luves . T he modern i nd igenous i nhab itan t s o ft h e s ou thern C ongo B as in a re p r imar i ly h or t icu l tura l is t s , b u t t hey make r egu lar u se o f t he f i sh a nd g ame i n t he ir e nv ironmen t , a nd s upp lemen t t he ir d i e t w ith av ar iety o f o w i ld p lan t f ods . T hey a re a ware o f t he r e sources a va i lab le i n b o th f o res ts a nd g rass lands , a nd e x tra c t t hem b y d if eren t means . Hun t ing , f i n p ar t icu lar , mos t e ec t ive ly u t i l izes d if er en t s t ra teg ies . I n t h e f o res t , l ag roup o f h un ter s may c oopera te t o d r ive t he g enera ly s o l itary , n oc turna l g ame i n to n e ts where e i ther t he b ow a nd a rrow o r s hor t s t abb ing s pear c an b e u sed . R if les a re n ow f avored w eapon s f o r t hose l who c an a cqu ire t hem , b u t o lder men r eca l t he e ar l ier h un t ing t e chn iques . A l though t here a re l a rge a n ima ls s uch a s t he f o rest h og l a nd e ven e l ephan t a va i lab le , t he mos t c omm on k i l i sp robab ly t he much l e ss d angerous d u iker . T here a re a n umber o f f o res t d u iker s pec ies , c as l r ang ing u p t o5 0 k gp er a du l t a n ima l . Oc iona ly a ni nd iv idua l h un ter among t he B aYaka p eop le o fZ a ire may g o i n to t he f o r est w i th h i s b ow , s hoo t ing monkey o r e ven b ongo . I n L unda , d ur ing t he d ry s eason , i nd iv idua ls a l so s eek p rey i n t he o pen g ra ss land where a B aChokwe h un ter may h ide b y ag ame t r a i l w i th h i s w eapon p o ised . T hese C ongo B as in p eop les u se a w ide v ar iety o f s pec ia l p urpose p ro jec t i le p o in ts , n owaday s made o f i r on . T ransver se a rrowh eads a re h eavy a nd c ar ry o n ly as hor t d i s tan ce , b u tl e ave as t rong b lood s p oor t ha t l c an b e e as i ly f o lowed i n t he d en se f o res t . I n o pen g rass land , o n t he o ther h and , a rrows t i pped w i th l i gh ter f o l ia te o r t anged p o in t s c arry r f a r ther w i th a ccura cy . I n b o th t e ra in s , t he l an ceo la te t ipped s p ear may b e u sed f o r t hrow ing s hor t d i s tances , o rf o r s t abb ing t rapped g am e . I ti s n o t d if i cu l t t o b e l ieve t ha t t he e nv ironmen ta l c hang es i n t he s ou thern C ongo B a s in d ur ing t he l a s t g lac ia l max imum a nd a f t erward m igh t h ave h ad s i gn if i can t i mpa ct o n h uman c u l tures . I t m ay h ave b een a t t h is t ime t hat a C ongo lese l i th i c i ndus try k nown a s t he l L upemban g ave w ay t o ac o mp lex n ow c a led t he T sh i to l ian . A t r ans i t iona l " Lupembo -T sh i to l ian "p roposed i nt he l i tera ture ( C la rk 1 963 ) i si nc luded h ere a s t he e ar l ies t T sh it o l ian p ha se . T he L upemban h as b een d escr ibed ( C lark 1 963 ) a s p r imar i ly af o res t i ndu stry , c o mpr is ing s uch t oo ls a s h eavy c o re a xes , p icks , a nd c ore s c raper s a l ong w i th l ong , t h ick l anceo la tes . I ti sb eyond t he s c ope o ft h is

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S .F . M il ler However , t here s eems t o h ave b een a s i gn if ican t amoun t o f c u l tura l c on t inu ity b e tween i t a nd t he s ubsequen t T sh i to l ian . T heref ore , i t a ppears t ha t t he T sh i to l ian w a s a lo ca l c u l tura l d eve lopmen t , r e ta in ing many o f t he o ld w ay s b u t a dd ing s o me n ew t oo ls a nd t e chno log ies . A ma jor t echno log ica l d eve lopmen t was t he mod if ica t ion o f a n e ar l ier p repared c ore i n to a c ore f o r b lade p roduct ion ; t hese b lades w ere r e tou ched i n to a new , t h inner s ty le o fl an ceo la te , a nd w ere a l so u t i l ized i n t he manufac ture o f an ew t ransverse p ro jec t i le p o in t : t he p et it l t ranchet . O ther s ma l p ro jec t i le p o in t t ypes a l so a ppear i n t he T sh i to l ian , i nc lud ing a f o l ia te f o rm a nd a nother t ha t i s w inged a nd t anged . T hese a re c us tomar i ly i n terpreted a s a rrowheads , i mp ly ing t ha t t he b ow was a n i nnova t ion i n l o ca l h un t ing t echno logy wh ich c o in c ided w i th t he a dven t o ft he T sh i to l ian . T he T sh i to l ian a l so i n c ludes an ew i nd irec t p un ch t e chn ique a s ameans o fp r imary b lade p roduc t ion , l l a s w e l a s f o r t he d e l ica te , c on tro led r e touch ing o f s uch t oo ls a s f l a t l anceo lates . l I n t he h i ly u p land c oun try , T sh i to l ian s i tes a re f r equen t ly a ssoc ia ted w i th h eavy s and d epos its . Two s i te t ypes a re r epresen ted h ere : l t emporary c a mps wh ere a s ma l g roup s t opped b r ie f ly t o u t i l ize s pec ia l r esou r ces , a nd l a rger a reas o fd en se a r t if ac t d i s tr ibu t ion wh ich a ppear t o i nd icate r epea ted , p oss ib ly l ong -term o ccupa t ion . I n n or theas t l Ango la , L unda d i s tr ic t p rov ides n umerou s i nstances where a s ha low c l en s o fa rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l o curs i n o therw ise s t er i le s and s ( C lark l 1 963 ) . One s uch s i te , a tC auma B r idge , l i e s i n av a ley where at r ibu tary s t ream j o in s t he C h iumbe R iver . E x cava t ion s Ic onduct ed t here i n 1 968 , a s p a r t o f ar esear ch p rog ram c oord ina ted b y J . D . C lark , i nd ica te t ha t T sh i to l ian t oo lmaker s c ame t o g a ther a nd w ork t he g rs p o lymorphe l t hey u t i l ized f o r n ear ly a l t he ir l i th ic i mp lemen t s . T h is r aw mat er ia l i s l f ound i n t he r i ver g rave ls a nd was p ref eren t ia ly s e lec ted b y b o th L upemban a nd T sh i to l ian c raf tsmen . E xper imen ts a nd i n terv iews c ondu c ted i n 1 968 w ith Mwambumba , al o ca l maker o fg unf l in ts f o r t he l f l in t lock r i f les s t i l i n u se , r evea led t ha t r aw mater ia l wh ich h as r e ma ined d amp w ork s more r e l iab ly t han t he s ame g rs p o lymorphe o l a f t er i t h as d r ied o u t . P reh is tor ic t o lmaker s may w e l h ave n o t iced t h is c hara ct er is t ic o ft he s t one , a nd i fs o w ou ld h ave c ome t o u se t he c obb le d epo s i t s a long w a ter c our ses s uch a s t he C auma B r idge s i te . A t C auma B r idge t he g rave ls t hemse lves i ncorpora te a r ange o f a r t if ac ts f r om l e ar l ier p reh is tor ic p er iods , a s w e l a s s ome a pparen t ly f r esh T sh i to l ian t ered t ma ter ia ls . O ther T sh ito l ian p ieces o ccur s cat hrough s ands i mmed iate ly a bove t he g rave ls . T he ir d i s tr ibu t ion s ugges t s t ha t t he t oo lmakers may h ave s a t o n t he b ank o f t he s lugg ish , s and -choked s t ream t ow ork . S and d epos i ts s evera l m e ter s t h ick s ubsequen t ly c overed a nd p ro tec ted t he s i t e .

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P at terns o f Env ironmen t U t i l iza t ion b y L a t e P r eh is tor ic C u l tur es l A lso i n t he h i ly L unda a rea o fn or thea s t A ngo la a re more i n tens ive ly u t i l ized s i t es . One i s Mba laba la , n ear t he t own o f Dundo , where ar i dge t er o o ver look ing t he L uach imo R iver h as a den se s urf ace s cat fa r t ifa c t s e x tend ing a pprox ima te ly a mi le a l ong t he r i ver . E xcava t ion s c onduc ted h ere i n 1 968 b yJ .D . C lark y i e lded ah or izon o fe ar ly T sh ito l ian a r t if ac t s wh ich h ad n o t y et b een d i s turbed b y e ros ion . T h is a ssemb lag e i n c luded s uch p ieces a s f i ne , t h in l anceo la tes a nd o ther T sh ito l ian ma ter ia ls . l T h is o pen h i ls lope s i te i sp r imar i ly c overed w i th c oar se g rass a nd a few l s c rubby t r ees . I th as a g ood v iew o f t he r i ver where h ippos s t i l a re l f ound , a nd o ft he n arrow s t r ip o fr i ver ine f o re s t . T hese v a ley r e sour ces w ou ld b e r ead i ly a ccess ib le t o ab and o f h un ter -ga therers l i v ing f r om t ime t o t ime o n t he Mba laba la r i dge . C lark ( 1963 ) h a s s ugg es ted t ha t h uman induced a nnua l b urn ing may h ave ma in ta ined t he o pen c harac ter o f s uch g rassy s l opes f r om T sh i to l ian t imes o r e ven s l igh t ly e ar l ier , a nd t ha t p reh is tor ic h un ter s m igh t h ave e xp lo i ted t he a va i lab le l l l a rge b iomass o fe l ephan t a nd h ippo a s w e l a s s ma ler g ame . F ar ther n or th , i n t he m idd le r eaches o ft he C ongo R iver t r ibutar ies where t he g eog raph ica l r e l ief a nd e nv ironmen ta l z ones a re more c l ea r ly d ef ined , as harper f o cus o n t he c harac ter a nd d i s tr ibu t ion o fT sh ito l ian o ccurren ces i sp oss ib le . S i tes h ere a re o ft wo b a s ic v ar iet ies : t hose o n l t he g rassy p la teau , a nd t hose d own i nt he f o re s ted r i ver v a ley s . T he T sh i to l ian t ype -s ite , o n t he P la teau o ft he B ena T sh i to lo i n t he Kasa i , r epresen t s a n o pen g rass land o ccurrence . I n 1 970 a nd 1 971 , I s tud ied a r t if ac ts f r om t h is s i te a nd o ther s h oused a t t he R oya l C en t ra l A f r ican Museum i n T ervuren , B e lg ium . Charac ter is t ic a r t if a c ts f r om l t hese p la teau s i tes c o mpr ise sma l c ore a xes , s ome f l a t l anceo la tes , a nd ar ange o f f o l ia te a nd t anged p ro jec t i le p o in ts . P e t i ts t ranche ts a re a bsen t f r om t hese a ssemb lages . I n t he e a r ly 1 970s , I wa s a b le t o i n terv iew t he R everend V . A . Ander son a bou t h is d i scovery o f t he l T sh i to l ian t ype -s i te i n t he 1 930s ( Breu i l 1 944 ) ; h e r e ca led o bserv ing t ha t s im i lar s i tes w ere o n ly f ound a bove a c er ta in a l t i tude , o n t he p la teau . S uch p la teau s i tes a ppear r i ch i n i mp lemen t s , a nd a bundan t d eb i tage t h as b een r epor ted ( M . B equaer t , f i e ld n otes ) a l though l i t le e x is t s i n t he l museum c o lec t ions s tud ied . T heref ore , i tw ou ld s eem t ha t t hese s i tes w ere n o t s imp ly s ing le -func t ion c amps , b u t r epresen t a reas where a v ar ie ty o f a c t iv i t ies w ere c onduc ted b y g roup s who may h ave r e turned a ga in a nd a ga in t ot he s ame p la ce . An e qua l i n tens i ty o f o ccupa t ion i s s ugges ted b y t he r i ver ine f o res t i T sh ito l ian o ccurrences . One s uch a rea i s f ound a t Nd inga K i tu ( f ormer ly Nd inga S t . P ierre ) j us t a bove t he c onf luence o f t he S angunu l l w i th t he Kwango R iver a nd w e l w i th in t he p re sen t v a ley f o res t z one . Maur ice B equaer t ( 1952 ) e x cava ted a t Nd inga a nd o ther Kwang o s i t es i n l t he 1 930s , a nd Is tud ied h i s c o lec t ion s i n 1 970 a nd 1 971 i n T ervuren . A t 1 30

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S . F . M i l er l t ha t t ime M . B equaer t g enerous ly s hared w ith me h is f i e ld n otes a nd p ho tog raphs o fh is r e sear ch . E xcava t ions c ondu c ted a t Nd inga i n 1 973 b y aP itzer C o lege t eam , i nv ited b y t he Na t iona l Museum o f Z a ire , l v er if ied B equaer t ' s f i nd ing s . T he Nd inga a ssemb lage was r i ch i n c ore a xes , a l ong w i th s ome o ther c o re t o ls . T he l i gh ter c omponen t o ft he t o l o o k i ti n c luded s o me l an ceo lat e p ro jec t i le p o in ts , b u t w as d om ina ted b y t he p e t i t t r anch e t ; n o s ma l f o l ia te o r t anged p o in t s w ere f ound i n t h is f o res t l T sh i to l ian s i te . T here was a t r emendous w ea l th o f d eb itage i n t he Nd inga o ccur r ence , a nd i ti sp robab le t ha t t oo lmak ing was o ne o f t he many f unc t ions u nder taken i n t he v a l ley , where g r6 s p o lymorph e c ou ld b e f ound . T he a bundance o fc ore a xes i n a var ie ty o fs hapes a nd s i zes a l so s ugges t s t ha t w oodwork ing was a ma jor v a l ley t ask where t r ees w ere r ead i ly a ccess ib le . C lark ( 1963 ) h as c ondu c ted e xper imen ta t ion i n Ango la f rom wh ich h e i nf erred a w oodwork ing f unc t ion , i n a dze f a sh ion , f o r t he c ore a xe . My o wn o bserva t ion s o n e dge -wear s uppor t t ha ti n terpre ta t ion . l T hu s t he a rchaeo log ica l d a ta s peak f o r t he p resence a t a la rge v a ley s i t e s u ch a s Nd inga o fs evera l t ypes o fr e sour ce e x trac t ion : h un t ing w i th t he b ow a nd a rrow t i pped w ith t he p e t it t ranchet , t he o ccas iona l u t i l iza t ion o f al anceo la te t ipped s pear , manuf ac ture o fw ooden w eapon l p ar t s a nd p erhaps o ther w ooden u tens i ls a s w e l , a nd t he mak ing o f s t one i mp lemen ts f r om t he l o ca l g rs p o lymorphe . T he T sh i to l ian f o rager s may a l so h ave e xp lo i ted r esources u sed a t p resen t b y t he o B aYaka , i n c lud ing s u ch f od s a s w i ld f ru i ts , r oo t s , g reens , mushrooms , l a nd c a terp i lars , a l ong w i th v ar ious f i ber a nd med ic ina l p roduc t s . T he a r chaeo log ica l r ecord , h owever , i s mu te a bou t h uman u se o f s uch r esources . I t s hou ld n ot b e s urpr is ing t hat d if f eren t r esource u t i l iza t ion o t e chn iques , r ef lec ted i n d if eren t t o l k i t s , w ou ld h ave b een emp loyed i n t he d if eren t e nv ironmen ts o ft he s ou thern C ongo B a s in . S ome q ues t ions o f c u l tura l d ynam ics n ever the less c annot b e a nswered a t t h is t ime . Were t he s ame p eop le u t i l iz ing b o th p la teau g rass land a nd r i ver ine l f o r es t e nv ironmen t s , p erhaps s easona ly , a s i nd igenous p eop le d o t oday ? O rw ere t here t wo d if eren t , c on t emporaneou s p eop les i n t he t wo h ab i ta t s a s B equaer t a nd Mor te lman s ( 1955 ) h ave s ugges ted ? Was t here ab a s ic c hrono log ica l d if eren ce , w ith t he h eav ier i mp lemen ts o f as upposed ly l l e ar l ier v a ley o ccupa t ion e vo lv ing i n to t he sma ler p la teau f o rm s? N o mu l t ico mponen t s t ra t if ied s i te w ith b o th c u l tura l f ac ies i n p r imary l c on tex t h as y e t b een e xcava ted , a nd t here a re s t i l t oo f ew r ad io carbon d a tes f r om t h is r eg ion t oe s tab l ish ad e ta i led c u l tura l c hrono logy . I td oes a ppear , h owever , t ha t t he T sh i to l ian s ucceeded t he L upemban a t o r s hor t ly af ter t he t ime o ft he l a st g lac ia l max imum . T he e ar l ies t d a ted T sh i to l ian ma ter ia l i s1 4 ,500 ±5 60 b p , i n n or theas t Ango la ( C lark 1 968 ) .

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P at f Env ironm en t U t i l iza t ion b y L a t e P r eh is tor ic C u l tur es terns o T h is f i ts w i th t he g eo log ica l e v idence f o r t he T sh ito l ian o curr ing i n c c on jun c t ion w ith t he a ccumu la t ion o fr ed is tr ibu ted Ka lahar i s ands . Were t he c u l tura l i nnovat ions o bservab le i n t he T sh i to l ian a n a utochthonous d eve lopment , p oss ib ly a l o ca l r esponse t o n ew e nv ironmen ta l c i r cums tances? O r w ere t hey i n troduced b y m ovemen t s o fp eop les a nd i deas , p erhaps t r igg ered b yt he s h if t ing e cosy st em s ? Many e l emen ts o ft he T sh i to l ian f i r s t a ppeared i n t he s ou thern C ong o B as in c o inc iden t w i th t he e nv ironmen ta l c hange t ha t b rough t i n crea sed g rass land t ot he p la teau a rea s . B lade t e chno logy a nd t he i nd ir ec t p un ch t e chn ique h ad b een u sed e ar l ier i n o ther p ar t s o fA f r ica , f r om w h ich t he i dea may h ave s pread t o t he C ongo B as in . T h is i nnova t ion e nab led T sh i to l ian t oo lmakers t of o rm t he t h inner , b if ac ia l p ieces wh ich r ep la ced h eavy L upemban l an ceo la te s pear p o in t s . N ew f od p rocuremen t s y s tems p robab ly a l so c ame i nto t he r eg ion o w i th t he a dvanc ing g rass land . Mos t e v iden t i st he i n t rodu c t ion o fb ow a nd a row h un t ing , wh ich w as u sed e ar l ier b y t he Nach ikuf an i n o pen r w ood land j ust s ou th o f t he C ongo B as in ( M il 971) . H owever , ler 1 Nach ikuf an m icro l i th ic t e chno logy a nd p o in ted b acked b lade le t s w ere d eve loped i n a n i ndustry l a rge ly made o n q uar tz , wh i le T sh ito l ian t oo lmaker s h ad a va i lab le t he f l in t l ike g r ds p o lymorphe . T he i d ea o fa s t one a rrowhead may h ave e n tered t he ir a rea w i th t he n ew g rass land h un t ing s ty le , b u t T sh i to l ian t oo lmaker s u sed t he ir o wn r aw mater ia l a nd c u ltura l t rad it ions when t hey c rea ted t he b ifac ia l f o l ia te a rrow p o in t s , l i ke m in ia ture l anceo la tes , f ound i n t he g rass land f ac ies . T he t rue i nven t ion o ft he T sh it o l ian was t he p e t i t t r anche t . A dap t ing b ow a nd a rrow h un t ing t o t he ir f o res t s , t hey r e touched t h in p unched b lades i n to t h is n ew a rowhead s t y le . N o e v idence i sp resen t ly k nown f o r r t he o ccurrence o f t he p e t i t t ranche t p r ior t o t he T sh ito l ian . Many s pec imens f r om Nd inga a re i regu lar a nd v ar ied i n f o rm , a nd t hus r a ppear t o b e e ar ly a temp t s ; t hey c on tras t w i th o ther p e t i ts t r anch e ts t r egu lar ly made f r om b lades w i th t he e nd s s napped o nd t he e dges f a b a cked . T hus e v idence s ugges ts t ha t t he p eop le who u sed T sh ito l ian l i th ics r e ta ined f r om t he L upemban a trad i t iona l f o r es t -re la ted t oo l k i t o fc ore a xes a nd o ther h eavy i mp lemen t s . T hey a dop ted n ew b lade -pro cess ing t e chno logy a nd n ew b ow -hunt ing t e chn iques when c l i ma te c hange e x tended g rass land i n to t he ir t e rr i tory . T hey a dap ted t hese t ot he ir o wn c u l tura l t e rms , a nd made t he s i gn if i can t i nven t ion o ft he p e t i t t r anch e t wh ich e nab led t hem t o u se t he b ow e ec t ive ly i n f o res t h un t ing . T he f p eop le o ft he T sh ito l ian t hu s h ad ad ua l r esou r ce b ase a va i lab le i nf o res t a nd g rass land , a long w ith a n i mproved t e chno logy f or r esource

1 32

S . F . M il ler e xtrac t ion . T hey w ere p robab ly s uccessfu l h unter -gatherers i n t he r eg ion u n t i l t he i n troduc t ion o ff arm ing i n t he s ou thern C ongo B as in . I f t hese p roposa ls meet t he t est o f f ur ther i nvest igat ion , more e nv ironmen ta l i nf orma t ion , a nd a dd it iona l d ates , t hen t he a dven t a nd c harac ter o f t he T sh i to l ian w i l h ave b een s hown t o r esu lt f r om a l c omb ina t ion o fe nv ironmen ta l a nd c u ltura l f a ctors .

Acknow ledgements T hanks f o r mak ing t h is r esearch p oss ib le a re d ue t o many p eop le a nd i ns t itu t ions . F oremost among t hese a re D r . J . D es mond C lark , who i nsp ired t he r esearch , a nd my h usband , D r . S tephen A . M i ler , who l a ss isted i n i t . Iam a l so g ra tefu l t o my s tudents a nd w orkers f o r t he ir h e lp i n e xcava t ion , a nd t o c o leagues f o r t he ir c oopera t ion , e spec ia ly D r . l l F ranc is Van N oten a nd t he l a te Maur ice B equaer t i n B e lg ium . F or t he ir f i nanc ia l a nd o ther s uppor t , g ra t itude i s a l so e xpressed t o t he F ord F oundat ion , t he R oya l C entra l A f r ican Museu m i n B e lg ium , t he Na t iona l Museum o fZ a ire , a nd t oP itzer C o lege . l

Ref erences B equaer t , M . 1 952 . F ou i les aD inga ( Congo b e lge ) . A c t es d u C ongr es l P anaf r ica in d e P r eh is to ir e , A lg er : p p . 3 47-53 . .a nd Morte lmans , G . 1 955 . L e T sh i to l ien d ans l eB ass in d u C ongo . A cad em ie R oya le d es S c iences C o lon ia les , Memo ir es i n 8 ° Nouve l e s er ie 3 0( 2 ) :1-39 . l B reu i l , l ' Abbe H . 1 944 . L e P a leo l i th ique a u C ongo B e lge d ' apres l e s r echerches d u D oc teur C abu . T ransac t ions o ft he R oya lS oc ie ty o f S ou th A f r ica 3 0( 2 )143160 . l C ahen , L . a nd S ne l ing ,N . J . 1 966 . T he G eochrono logy o f Equa tor ia l l Af r ica . Amsterdam : Nor th Ho land P ub l ish ing C o . C lark , J .D . 1 963 . P reh is tor ic c u ltures o fn or theas t Ango la a nd t he ir s ign if icance i n t r op ica l A f r ica . D iamang , P ub l icacoes C u l tura is n ° 6 2 . L isboa . .1 968 . F ur ther p a laeo -an thropo log ica l s tud ies i n N or thern Lunda . D iamang , P ub l icaco es C u l tura is n ° 7 8 . L isboa . Haugh ton , S .H . 1 963 . T he S tra t igraph ic H is tory o fA f r ica S ou th o ft he S ahara . L ondon : O l iver a nd B oyd . 1 33

P at terns o f Env ironmen t U t i l iza t ion b y L a te P r eh is tor ic C u l tur es M i l ler , S . F . 1 971 . The a ge o f Nach ikufan I ndustr ies i n Z amb ia . S ou th Af r ican Archaeo log ica l Bul le t in 2 6 :1143-46 . . 1972 . An ew l o ok a t t he T sh ito l ian . Af r ica -T ervur en 1 3 ( 3 /4 ) :869 .

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The S ca le a nd T im ing o fT echno log ica la nd Env iron men ta l Changes o ver t he Las t2 0 ,000 Y ears i nt he S ou thern C ape ,S ou th A f r ica te D By J anet eacon , D epar tment of A rchaeo logy , lenbosch S tel , S ou th A f r ica .

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I n troduc t ion T here h as b een n o d e ta i led i nvest iga t ion i n s ou thern A f r ica o ft he w ay l l p eop le h ave r esponded c u ltura ly a nd t e chno log ica ly t o t he s ca le o f e nv ironmen ta l c hange t ha t t ook p lace b etween g lac ia l a nd i n terg lac ia l c ond it ions . Much o f t he d iscuss ion o f t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween e nv ironment a nd t echno logy h as b een s ynchron ic , d escr ib ing t he c on temporary d istr ibu t ion o f f o rma l t oo ls a nd c o mpar ing t h is w ith t he d ist r ibu t ion o fp art icu la r r esour ces . E xamp les a re t he e xp lana t ion o ft he d istr ibu t ion o f S angoan p icks a s ar esponse t o w ood land e nv ironment s l ( C lark 1 959 ) , t he c orre la t ion o ft he d i str ibu t ion o fL a ter S tone Age s ma l c onvex s crapers a nd e thnog raph ic r ecords o f l ea ther c l oth ing ( Deacon a nd D eacon 1 980 ) a nd t he d i s tr ibu t ion o fl a te Ho locene a dze -dom ina ted a ssemb lages t hat a re a ssumed t o r e late t o w oodwork ing a nd t he manuf ac ture o fd igg ing s t icks ( Maze ! a nd P ark ing ton 1 978 ) . D iachron ic c hange h as b een n oted i n s equences d at ing t o t he l a st 2 0 ,000 y ears i n t he s ou thern a nd e as tern C ape P rov ince i n S ou th A f r ica . I t s hows a r e la t ive ly r ap id s h if t i n b o th t echno logy a nd l a rger mamma l r e ma ins a t o ccupa t ion s i tes d a t ing t o a bou t 1 2 ,000 b p a nd as e cond s er ies o ft e chno log ica l c hanges b etween 8 000 a nd 6 000 b p ( H . J .D eacon 1 969 , 1 972 ; K le in 1 972a , b ) . These w ere i nterpreted a s r esponses t o e nv ironmen ta l c hanges t ha t t ook p lace a t t he e nd o f t he L ast G lac ia l Max imum ( LG M ) a nd a t a bou t t he t ime o f t he m id -Ho locene " c l ima t ic o pt imum " ( H . J . D eacon 1 972 ; K le in 1 974 ) . The r eason ing was t ha t i f t echno log ica l c hange i sa n a dapt ive d ev ice t o c ope w ith c hanges i n t he e nv ironmen t , t hen w e s hou ld e xpect t hat i f c l i mat ic s h if ts a l tered r esources , n ew t oo ls a nd t echno log ies w ou ld b e d ev ised t o a d just t o t he n ew c i rcumstances . A nother r eason t o e xpect c hange i st hat t he k inds o fe nv ironmen ts i n e x ist ence d ur ing t he LG M h ave n o modern a na logue , ting s a nd t he f ood -get t ra teg ies t ha tw ere p rac t ised a tt ha tt ime b yh un ter g a thers wou ld n ot h ave b een p oss ib le i n t he l a ter Ho locene b ecau se p lan t a nd a n i ma l c o mmun it ies c hanged s o s i gn if ican t ly . T o t est i n d eta i l t he r e lat ionsh ip b etween t echno log ica l a nd l e nv iron men ta l c hange , t wo w e l -dated , l ong -sequence L a ter S tone A ge s i tes i n t he s ou thern C ape P rov ince , N e lson B ay C ave o n t he c oast a nd B oomp laas C ave 8 0 km i n land , w ere s e lected f o r s tudy . E ssen t ia l t o t he s u ccess o f t he p ro jec t was t he a ssoc iat ion o f an umber o f d if f eren t e nv iron menta l i nd icators , b oth b io log ica l a nd g eo log ica l , a nd t he 1 45

S ca le a nd T im ing o fT echno log ica l a nd Env ironmen ta l Chang es o ccur fs im i lar s t one a r tefac t s equences a t b o th s i tes . P r ior t o t he rence o e xcava t ion o ft hese s i tes , t he q ua l ity o fe nv ironmen ta l d ata a va i lab le i n t he 1 960s a nd e ar ly 1 970s w as n ot g ood e nough t o t e st t he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween e nv ironmen ta l a nd t e chno log ica l c hange a dequate ly , a l though v ar iou s mode ls w ere s ugges ted ( H . J .D eacon 1 976 ; J .D eacon 1 978 ) . A n e xcavat ion p rogra mme a t B oomp laas C ave was b egun i n 1 974 s pec if i ca ly t o i nvest igate t he r e la t ionsh ip ( H . J . D eacon 1 979 ) . T he l r esear ch h as s hown t ha t t he s ca le a nd t im ing o fe nv iron men ta l c hanges h ave b een c o mp lex a nd t ha t t echno log ica l c hanges r ef lect a s s t rong a s ty l is t ic a s a func t iona l c o mponen t . I ti si mpor tan tt o t est t he e nv ironmen ta l mode l b ecause t he t ime s ca le i nvo lved p rec ludes t he u se o f e thnograph ic a na log ies f or s u ch a dapt ive b ehav iour . Where h is tor ica l d a ta o n c l i ma t ic a nd t e chno log ica l c hange h ave b een a na lysed i n t he M idd le E ast , n o c ausa l r e lat ionsh ip c ou ld b e f ound ( Bowden e t a l . 1 981 :489 ) a nd t he i n teract ing v ar iab les were s o c o mp lex t hat t he e xact i mpor tance o f p ar t icu lar f actors i nvo lved i n d emog raph ic a nd t echno log ica l c hange c ou ld n ot b e d eterm ined . L a ter S tone A ge p eop le u ndoub ted ly l i ved al e ss c omp lex l i f e t han t he ir M idd le E ast c ounterpar ts 4 000 y ear s a go , b u tt he e nv ironmen ta l mode l i sa tb es t s imp l is t ic a nd a t w orst u ntrue a nd n eeds t o b e r igorous ly e xa m ined b ef ore i tc an b e r eta ined a s av iab le e xp lana t ion f o r t e chno log ica l c hange . T he p er iod s e lec ted f o r c ompar ing t he s ca le a nd t im ing o fc hanges a t t he t wo s i tes i st he l a st 2 0 ,000 y ear s , c over ing t he L as tG lac ia l Max imum ( LG M ) when t e mpera tures w ere a bou t 5 -6 ° Cc oo ler t han a t p resen t , t he t erm ina l P le istocene when t e mpera tures b ecame warmer a nd r a inf a l l i ncreased , a nd t he Ho locene wh ich s aw t he w armest c ond it ions o f t he l a st 1 20 ,000 y ears . The c u ltura l r ecord i n c ludes t he b eg inn ing o f t he L a ter S tone Age , t he d eve lopmen t o ft h is t e chno log ica l t rad it ion d ur ing t he Ho locene , a nd t he i n troduc t ion o fd omes t ica ted s t ock w i th in t he l a s t 2 000 y ears . Thus , w ith s i gn if i can t a nd mea surab le c hanges t ak ing p la ce i n b oth t he e nv ironmen ta l a nd c u ltura l / techno log ica l s pheres , w e c an e xpec t t ha t i ft here w ere i ndeed a dapt ive r esponses t o e nv ironmen ta l c hanges , t hese s hou ld b e i den t if iab le i nt he e xcava ted mater ia ls f r om t he t wo s i tes a nd t he t im ing o f t hese c hanges s hou ld c o inc ide i n t he t wo s equences . The Env iron men t s B o th B oomp laas C ave ( BPA ) a nd N e lson B ay C ave ( NBC ) a re s i tua ted i n t he s outhern C ape , at emperate r eg ion w ith a l -year r a infa l a nd l l p eaks i n s pr ing a nd a u tumn , b u t whereas t he a nnua l r a infa l i n t he l v i c in i ty o f NBC i sb e tween 6 00 a nd 7 00 mm ,i ti so n ly 4 00 m m a t BPA . N e lson B ay C ave i s al a rge c ave o n ar ocky s hore a nd was e x cava ted i n t he 1 960s a nd 1 970s b y I nskeep ( 1966 , 1 972 ) a nd K le in ( 1972a ; J .D eacon 1 46

J . D eacon 1 984a ) . As equence o fd epos its d at ing f r om t he M idd le S tone Age ( MSA ) t hrough t he L a ter S tone A ge ( LSA ) was f ound . T he d a ta u sed h ere a re f r om t he p ost - MSA l e ve ls i n K le in 's e xcava t ions a nd d ate t o b etween 1 8 ,000 a nd 5 000 b p . Env ironmen ta l i nf orma t ion h as b een d rawn f r om t he s ed i men ts ( Bu tzer 1 973 , 1 984 ) , f r om t he l arge mamma ls h un ted b y p eop le o ccupy ing t he c ave ( K le in 1 972a , b ) , f r om m icromamma ls e a ten b y o w ls ( Avery 1 982 ) , a nd f r om mar ine s he ls c o lec ted f o r f od b y t he L SA l l o i nhab i tan ts ( K le in 1 972a ; S hack le ton 1 973 ) . T he l arger mamma ls i nd icate t hat b etween 1 8 ,000-12 ,000 b p g rass land v egeta t ion p redom ina ted i n t he v i c in ity o ft he c ave i n c on tras t t o t he c oasta l f ynbos a round t he s i te a t p resent . G rass land was e ncouraged b oth b y t he l ower t e mperatures a t t he L ast G lac ia l Max imu m ( LG M ) a nd b y t he e xposure o f af l a t c oasta l p la in s ou th o f NBC , where l ower s ea l eve ls a ssoc iated w ith t he LG M moved t he c oas t l ine s o me 8 0 km s ou th o fi t s p resen t p os it ion . T he f auna i nc ludes l arge g regar ious g razers s uch a s t he e xt inct g ian t b uf lo , P e lorov is fa a n t iquus , t he e x t inct g ian t C ape h orse , E quus c apens is , a n e x t inc t g ian t h ar tebeest , Mega lo tragus p r iscus , a s w e l a s s pr ingbok a nd o ther e xtan t l g ra ss land s pec ies . M icromamma l ian r e ma ins i n t he d epos its d a ted t o b etween 1 8 ,000 a nd 1 6 ,000 b p a l ow a m o r e d e t a i l e d r e c o n s t r u c t i o n l s uggest ing t ha t t he LG M i n t he a rea was n ot o n ly c o ld , b u t a l so d ry , a l though Bu tzer ( 1973 , 1 984 ) h as c onc luded f r om t he s ed imen to log ica l a na lys is t ha t t he e nv ironmen t a round t he c ave was w et r a ther t han d ry . T h is i sc on trary t oo ther e v iden ce f r om b o th N e lson B ay a nd B oomp laas . B y 1 2 ,000 b p t he s ea l e ve l h ad r i sen s uf i c ien t ly t o make i tw or thwh i le t o e xp lo it s he lf i sh f r om t he s i te , a l though t he s pec ies c o mpos i t ion o ft he l s he l m idden s hows t ha t s ea t e mpera tures w ere s t i l c oo ler t han a t l l p resen t . Da ted l i tora l s he ls d redged o shore f r om C ape S t . F ranc is t o t l f t he e ast o fN e lson B ay g ive s o me i dea o ft he s peed a nd d a t ing o ft he r i s ing s ea l eve l a long t he s outhern C ape c oas t ( D ing le a nd R ogers 1 972 ) ( F ig . 9 . 1) . The l arger mamma ls s how t he t rans it ion f r om g rass land t o b ush ier v egetat ion b etween 1 2 ,000 a nd 1 0 ,000 b p a nd b y 8 000 b p t he a ssemb lage i s d om ina ted b y sma l n ongregar ious b rowsers s uch a s l b ushbuck a nd g rysbok , w ith s i gn if ican t n umbers o f s ea l , a nd l arge q uan t i t ies o f f i sh a nd s he lf ish ( K le in 1 972a ) . T he s ame s pec ies c arry l t hrough t o t he e nd o ft he H o locene w ith o n ly m inor v ar ia t ions i n r e la t ive f r equenc ies . B oomp laas C ave i ss i tua ted i n ab and o fl imestone i n a sma l v a ley l l w i th a p ermanen t s t ream o n t he s outh -fac ing s l opes o f t he Swar tberg r ange . The l imestone h as h e lped t op reserve b one i n t he d epos it a nd t he r ap id a ccumu la t ion o f s t er i le u n it s h as b een u sefu l i n s eparat ing t hose b u i l t u p b y h uman a nd n onhuman o ccupa t ion . E xcavat ions f r om 1 9741 979 were d es igned t o r ecover a r ange o f d if f erent e nv ironmen ta l 1 47

S ca le a nd T im ing o fT echno log ica l a nd Env ironmen ta l C hanges i nd ica tors ( H . J . D eacon 1 979 ; D eacon e ta l . 1 984 ) . T he s equence d a tes w ith in t he l a st 8 0 ,000 y ears , b u t t he d epos i ts d i scussed h ere d a te f r om 2 1 ,000 b p t o 1 500 b p . Ana lyses h ave b een c o mp leted o n t he l arge mamma l f auna ( K le in 1 978 ; V on d en D r iesch a nd D eacon 1 985 ) , t he m icro mamma l ian r e ma ins ( Avery 1 982 ) , c harcoa l l ef t i n h earths ( Deacon e ta l . 1 983 ) , p o len b lown i n to t he c ave ( S cho ltz i np rep . ) , t he c ave l s ed imen ts (Web ley 1 978 ) , a nd t he o xygen i s o tope r at io s equence i n a s pe leothem f r om t he n earby C ango C aves ( Voge l 1 983 ) . A s a t NBC , t he d epos it s d a t ing b etween 2 1 ,000 a nd 1 2 ,000 h ave l arge mamma l r e ma ins c harac ter ist ic o f ag rass land v egeta t ion i nc lud ing t he e x t inct s pec ies a l so p resen t a t NBC . T he r e la t ive a bundance o fb rowsers i s t heref ore l ow ( F ig . 9 . 1 ) . T he m icromamma l ian r e ma ins h ave b een p ar t icu lar ly i nf ormat ive a t BPA b ecause t hey w ere r ecovered i n s i gn if ican t q uan t it ies f r om most o ft he s t ra t ig raph ic u n its . Ana lys is o f t he c o mmun ity c o mpos it ion o f s amp les i n t h is t ime r ange c onf irms t he c onc lus ions d rawn f r om t he l a rger mamma ls , n ame ly t hat c ond i t ions a t t he L ast G lac ia l Max imum ( 25 ,00016 ,000 b p ) w ere c o ld a nd d ry , b u t s how a l so t hat a ma jor c hange t o l e ss h arsh c ond it ions t ook p lace b etween 1 6 ,000 a nd 1 4 ,000 b p( Avery 1 982 ) , a tl e a s t2 000 y ears e ar l ier t han a pparen t i n t he l a rger mamma l r ecord . T he t im ing o f c hange i n t he c o mmun ity c o mpos it ion o f m icromamma ls i s s im i lar t o c hanges i n t he s i ze o fi nd iv idua ls o ft he r ed musk s hrew , C roc idura f l avescens , wh ich a re s i gn if icant ly l arger a t t he LG M t han u nder warmer c ond it ions ( Avery 1 982 ) . F actor a na lys is o f t he f r equenc ies o f m icromamma l ian t axa i n e ach e xcavated u n it h as g rouped c erta in s pec ies t hat a re r e lat ive ly c o mmon i n Ho locene d epos its . T hese t axa , h av ing h igh l oad ing s o n F ac tor 1 , c on trast w ith a no ther g roup o fs pec ies wh ich h ave l ow l oad ings o n t he s ame f actor a nd wh ich a re t oday d istr ibuted i n r e la t ive ly c oo ler r eg ions o ft he s ubcon t inen t . V a lues f r om 1 t o 1 00 h ave b een c a lcu la ted f r om t he f a c tor s cores t o d raw t he h is togra m i n F ig . 9 .1 . I ti sn ot a n a bso lu te measure o ft empera ture c hange , b u t g ives a ni dea o f t he s ca le a nd t im ing o f c hange l i nked t o t e mperature a nd o ther e nv ironmen ta l f eatures t ha t c harac ter ized t he H o locene a s o pposed t o t he L a te P le istocene . T he l owest d ivers i ty i n t he m icro mamma ls i s a t 1 8 ,000 i nd ica t ing t he h ar shest c ond it ions a t t he LG M . F actor a na ly s is o f t he B oomp laas m icrofauna i nd ica tes t ha t t h is p er iod was a lso r e lat ive ly d ry ( Deacon e ta l . 1 984 ) . F ur ther c onf irmat ion t hat c ond it ions a t t he l a st G lac ia l Max i mum w ere c o ld a nd d ry a t B oo mp laas i s s hown i n t he s pec ies c o mpos it ion o f c harcoa l s a mp les f r om h ear ths d a ted b etween 2 1 ,000 a nd 1 8 ,000 b p . T he r ange o f t axa i s sma l a nd t here a re f ew t r ees r epresented i n s a mp les l t hat a re d om inated b y C o mpos itae i nc lud ing t he smal s hrub l r enosterbos , E ly tropappus r h inocero t is ( F ig . 9 .1 ) . D e ta i led a na lys is o f t he a natomy o f t he c harcoa led w ood b y S cho ltz ( i n p rep . ) f urther 1 48

J . D eacon i nd icates t he e nv ironmenta l s t ress o f p lant c o mmun it ies o f t he LG M r e lat ive t o t he Ho locene . T he d om inance o f E lytropappus i n t he rored i l v egetat ion s urround ing t he s i te i sm ir n t he p o len f r om t he s ame l e ve ls ( Deacon e ta l . 1 983 ) . T he c har coa l a nd m icromamma l d a ta a re i n c o mp lete a greemen t , a nd t here i s marked ame l iorat ion o f c ond it ions b racketed b etween 1 6 ,000 a nd 1 4 ,000 b p t ha t i nc ludes n ot o n ly warmer t empera tures , b u t a l so h igher r a infa l i n t he C ango Va ley . l l R oof s pa ls a re more c o mmon i n t he LP Member d a t ing t o 2 1 ,000 b p l t han t hey a re i n o ther s t ra t igraph ic u n i ts a nd a l though c l ast -suppor ted c l as t ic r ubb le o r t rue Mou l is s ec was n ot f o rm ing ( poss ib ly b ecause w in ter d rough t r educed t he c hance o f f r ost w ea ther ing ) , t here was a g rea ter i nc idence o f s pa l ing a t t h is t ime t han a t a ny o ther . C o ld l t emperatures a re a l so i nd icated b y t he o xygen i s o tope r a t io v a lues i n a s pe leothem f r om t he n earby C ango C aves where t he s amp les d a ted t o b e tween 2 0 ,000 a nd 1 8 ,000 b pi nd ica te t he c o ldes tt empera tures o ft he p a st 3 5 ,000 y ears e st ima ted a t5 ° Cc oo ler t han a tp resen t( Voge l 1 983 ) ( F ig . 9 . 1 ) . A s i n t he m icrofauna , c hanges t ook p lace i n t he c har coa l , p o len , a nd l c ave s ed iments b e tween a bou t 1 8 ,000 a nd 1 4 ,000 b p a nd b y 1 4 ,000 b p i nd icat ions a re t hat c ond it ions i n t he v i c in ity w ere much w et nd t er a s o mewhat warmer . Woody t axa s uch a s Rhus s p . a nd O l ea s p . d om ina te t he c harcoa l s amp les ( F ig . 9 . 1 ) s uggest ing e ven more ef ec t ive p rec ip itat ion t han a t p resent . The o xygen i s otope v a lues i n t he s pe leothem f r om C ango s how a r i se i n t empera ture a t a bout 1 5 ,000 b p a nd t hereaf ter t he s pe leothem s t opped g row ing , a s d id a s ta lagm ite i n B oomp laas C ave t ha t was a c t ive f r om t he b ase o f t he d epos it a t a bou t 8 0 ,000 b p t ot he b a se o ft he CL u n it d a ted t o1 4 ,200 b p . T he s pe leothems s tar ted g row ing a ga in i n t he m id -Ho locene . T he e xp lanat ion may l i e i n t he f act t hat t he s pe leothem r ecord i so n ly i n p ar t t empera ture r e la ted a nd may r ef lec t c hanges i n r a infa l p at . I n t h is s ense i t may b e a l terns s ynop t ic c l ima te i nd ica tor . T he r i se i n t empera ture b ef ore 1 4 ,200 b pi si n t une w ith e v idence i n o ther s ou thern h em isphere c ont inents f o r a g enera l p ost -g lac ia l max imum warm ing wh ich p receded t hat i n t he n or thern h em isphere b y s evera l t hou sand y ear s ( Sa l inger 1 981) . T he l arger mamma l f auna s how n o a pprec iab le c hange b etween 1 8 ,000 a nd 1 4 ,200 b p ,b u tt here i s ama rked s h if tf r om g razer st ob rowser s b e tween 1 2 ,000 a nd 1 0 ,000 b p t ha ti ss im i lar t ot he o ne o bserved a t NBC ( F ig . 9 . 1 ) . Thereaf ter t he H o locene s amp les a re d om ina ted b y sma l l n ong regar ious b rowser s a nd , a f ter a bou t 1 800 b p , b y d omest icat ed s heep . T here a re s o me c hanges i n s pec ies c o mpos it ion o f c harcoa l a nd m icro mamma l s amp les d ur ing t he H o locene , b u t t hese a re n ot a t t he s ame s ca le a s t hose o bserved b etween t he LG M a nd t he p ost -G lac ia l . T he c harcoa l s hows d r ier c ond it ions a t b oth 1 0 ,000 a nd 6 400 b p . T he 1 49

S ca le a nd T im ing o fT echno log ica l a nd Env ironmen ta l C hange s l a ter i s t he o n ly m id -Ho locene o ccupa t ion u n i t a nd b oth t he c harcoa l t a nd t he m icrofauna i nd ica te t he warmest c ond it ions o f t he who le s equence . S l igh t ly c oo ler t empera tures p reva i led i n t he o ver ly ing u n it s d a t ing w i th in t he l a s t 2 000 y ear s ( Deacon e ta l . 1 984 ) . I ti so n ly i n t hese p ost -6500 b p d epos its t ha t modern p lan t a nd a n ima l c o m mun it ies a re r e f lected i n t he f l ora l a nd f auna l r e ma ins . The p a leoenv ironmen ta l r ecord f r om b oth s i tes t heref ore c onf irms t ha t t he LG M was c o ld a nd d ry . T hereaf ter , t he C ango s pe leothem , t he m icro mam ma ls , t he c harcoa l , a nd t he p ol l en r ecords s how a n ame l iora t ion o f t e mpera ture b etween 1 6 ,000 a nd 1 4 ,200 b p t ha t was a ccompan ied , o n t he e v idence f r om BPA , b y much w et t er c ond it ions t han t hose o f t oday . A lways a ssum ing t ha t t he r e la t ive f r equency o f b rowser s a nd g razer s i n t he l a rger mamma l f auna r ef lec ts t he ir r e lat ive a bundance i n t he v i c in ity o f t he s i tes , t he l a rger mam ma ls d id n ot r espond t o t hese t empera ture a nd r a infa l c hanges u n t i l a f ter 1 2 ,000 b p l when s evera l g ian t s pec ies b ecame e x t inc t . K le in ( 1984 ) s ees t hese e x t inc t ions a s t he r esu lt o f ac o mb ina t ion o f e nv ironmen ta l s t ress a nd i mproved h un t ing t e chno logy , a nd i ndeed t he l a te r esponse o ft he l arger ma mma ls i s more a r e f lect ion o f h uman s e lect ion t han o f t he ir a bundance i n t he l andscape . A f ter 1 2 ,000 b p r a inf a l d ecreased a nd l t empera tures c on t inued t or i se t o ap eak i n t he e ar ly m id -Ho locene . L a te H o locene t empera tures a nd r a inf a l r anges may h ave b een s im i lar t o t he l p resen t b u t s ynop t ic c l ima tes w ere n o t n ecessar i ly modern . T here i sn ot t he s ame c on t inu ity o f o bserva t ions a nd c o mp lementary l i nes o fe v idence f r om a ny o ther s i tes i n t he c oun try a nd t hese s outhern C ape d a ta s erve a s amode l a ga ins t wh ich t ot e s t o bservat ions e l sewhere . I nsofar a s i t h as b een t ested ( Tusen ius 1 986 ) , t he mo ister e nd P le istocene , d r ier e ar ly Ho locene , a nd s yn thes is o f modern p lan t a nd a n ima l c o mmun it ies i n t he l a st 5 000 y ears i s c onf irmed f r om Eas t G r iqua land i n t he s ummer r a inf a l r eg ion a bou t 5 00 km t ot he n or theast . l We s hou ld t heref ore e xpec t t o s ee t echno log ica l c hange a t p er iods o f g reatest e nv ironmenta l c hange , i . e . , b etween 1 6 ,000 a nd 1 4 ,000 b p , p oss ib ly w i th t he d em ise o ft he g ian tb ov ids b e tween 1 2 ,000 a nd 1 0 ,000 b p , a nd p oss ib ly a f ter t he m id -Ho locene when p lant a nd a n i ma l c o mmun i t ies t ook o n a m odern c harac ter . The Ar tefac ts The s t one a r tefac t a na lys is was d es igned s pec if ica ly t o h igh l igh t l c hanges t ha tt ook p lace t hrough t ime i n t he h ab it s a nd t rad it ion s o fs t one t oo l manufacture . A spects a na lysed i nc luded t he c ho ice o f r aw ma ter ia l , t he f l ak ing method u sed , t he p ieces s e lec ted f o r u t i l iza t ion , t he r ange o ff o rma l t o ls made a nd t he ir c haracter is t ics , a nd t he p at f o tern o d i scard . A ssemb lage c haracter ist ics w ere measured b oth b y r e la t ive

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J .D eacon f r equenc ies o f s t one a r tef ac ts i n v ar ious c l asses a nd c a tegor ies , a nd b y m e tr ic a tr ibu tes o fu n tr immed f l akes among t he i nf orma l t oo ls , a nd o f t s c rapers a nd a dzes among t he f o rma l t o ls ( f or d e ta i ls s ee J . D ea con o 1 984a ) . T he r ange o f t asks f o r wh ich t he s t one t oo ls w ere d es igned d id n o t c hange r ad ica ly o ver t he p er iod o ft ime c oncerned . T he t oo lk i t w as f o r l t he m ost p ar t u nspec ia l ized a nd mos t s t one t o ls a re p resumed t o h ave o b een made f o r t he manufac ture a nd ma in tenance o f i t ems made f r om o ther r aw ma ter ia ls s uch a s w ood , s k in , a nd b one . T he t ypo logy i n g enera l u se i n s ou thern A f r ica p laces g rea ter emphas is o n f o rma l t oo ls t han i t d oes o n u n tr immed a nd u t i l ized p ieces b ecause t he f o rma l c omponen t r epresen ts t he mos t e as i ly r ecogn izab le p at terned b ehav iour . I n f a c t , t he f o rma l s t one t oo ls , w i th a f ew e xcept ions , w ere n o t u sed o d i rec t ly i n t he f od q ues t a nd a re t heref ore p robab ly p oor ly c orre la ted w i th e nv ironmen ta l c hange . T hose t ha t w ere l i nked t o h un t ing a nd g a ther ing , s u ch a s b ored s t one d igg ing s t ick w e igh t s , u pper a nd l ower g r ind s tones , a nd p ar t s o fb ows a nd a rrow s , a re r e la t ive ly r are i n r ock s he l t er d epos i ts a nd h ave n ot b een measured f o r c hange t hrough t ime . o More d eta i led i nf orma t ion o n t he u se o fs t one t o ls f o r p lan t a nd a n ima l o f ods c ou ld b e o bta ined i fa r tef ac t s tud ies i n c luded b oth m icrowear a nd r es idue a na ly ses . M i crowear a na lys is o fb acked t oo ls w as l im i ted , b u t ting t w e a ssume t hey w ere u sed a s i nser t s i n c ut oo ls a nd a s i n ser t s f o r s pear s o r a rrows , i n wh ich c ase t hey a re t he a r tef ac t s most c l ose ly o l i nked t ot he f od q u es t . C ompar ison o f m icrowear o n o ther L SA a r tefac ts a nd r ep l icas ( B inneman 1 984 ) h a s c onf irmed t ha t s crapers , t he most i mpor tan t l f o rma l s tone t oo l n umer ica ly , w ere emp loyed p r imar i ly f o r w ork ing s k in s u sed f o r c l o th ing a nd b ag s . A s s u ch , s c raper s a re r e la ted t o d ress s ty les ( Deacon a nd D eacon 1 980 ) a nd t he s i ze a nd s ty le o f manuf a c ture l may w e l h ave s ymbo l ic s oc ia l o ver tones . A dzes w ere u sed f o r w ork ing w ood f o r d igg ing s t icks , b ows , a nd p ar t s o ft r ap s . C hange h as t aken p lace a t t wo l e ve ls : i nnova t ion s i n wh ich n ew i t ems a ppear i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , a nd p os t innova t ion c hanges i n c wh ich mod if i ca t ions o cur i n t he f r equency , s i ze , a nd s hape o fa r tef ac t s a f ter t hey h ave b een i ntroduced . U s ing a p ure ly f unc t iona l i n t erpreta t ion , w e w ou ld e xpec t t ha t i nnova t ions w ou ld r epresen t n ew s o lu t ions t o o l d t ask s , o r n ew t ask s a l toge ther , whereas p ost innova t ion l c hanges w ou ld r epresen t s ma ler s ca le a d jus tmen ts t o t he o r ig ina l f mode l e i ther t o i mprove e f ic iency o r t o a d just t o c hang ing c i r cums tances . I n modern t e chno log ica l c hange , E ls ter ( 1983 :93 ) makes a s im i lar d i st inc t ion b etween i nnova t ion a nd s ubst itu t ion , where s ubs t i tut ion i s a c hange i n t he p roduc t ion p rocess u s ing e x ist ing t e chn i ca l k now ledge . 1 5 1

S ca l e a nd T im ing o fT echno log ica l a nd Env ironmen ta l C hang e s When t he s equences f r om NBC a nd B PA a nd o ther s i t es s uch a s K angkara , W i lton , Me lkhou tboom , O akhur st , a nd Mat jes R iver a re c o mpared , mos t o f t he ma jor c hanges i n r e la t ive f r equency a nd me tr i c a tr ibu tes ( where k nown ) o ccur w i th in l e ss t han a m il ium a t a l t lenn l s i tes , b u t i nd iv idua l a tr ibu tes , i nc lud ing b o th i nnovat ion s a nd p os t t i nnova t ion c hanges , a l ter a t d if f eren t r a tes t hrough t ime . These a d jus tmen t s o ccurred o n ar eg iona l s ca le i n t he s ou thern C ape a nd may b e more w idespread . T hey a re n o t s i te s pe c if i c s o t he s t i mu l i f o r c hang e mu st b e s ough t o n a reg iona l o r b roader s ca le . T he f a c t t ha t i nd iv idua l a tr ibu tes d o n o t a lway s c hange i n t andem w ou ld s uggest t ha t an umber t o fd if eren t s t imu l i i n i t ia ted t he c hanges . T he s h if t f r om MSA t o L SA t o lmak ing t rad it ions i s e sen t ia ly a o s l c hange c harac ter ized b y t he a ppearance o fa range o fi nnova t ion s . T he n ew i t em s d o n o t a l a ppear a t o n ce , n or a re t hey n e cessar i ly a l f ound i n l l e very a ssemb lage , b u t t hey w ere a l i t ems t ha t w ere s t i l b e ing made b y l l L SA S an a nd Kho ikho in p eop le a t t he t ime o fE uropean c on ta c t . T hey t heref ore r epresen t t he t o ls o f wha t G oodw in a nd V an R ie t L owe ( 1929 ) o r ef erred t o a s " Neoan throp ic Man ." T he i nnova t ions i nc lude d ecora t ive i t ems s uch a s o str ich e gg she l b eads , s he l p endan t s a nd b ead s , p a in ted l l a nd e ngraved s t ones , t or to iseshe l b ow ls , o str ich e gg she l wa ter l l c on ta iners ( s ome d ecora ted w ith i nc ised l i nes ) , p o l ished b one p o in ts , b ored s t ones , g rooved s t ones , a nd h af ted m icro l i th ic s t one t o ls . T he o c r i ter ion f o r i den t ify ing c hange a t t h is ma c ro leve l o fi nnova t ion i s t he d a t ing o ft he i n it ia l p resen ce o ft hese i t em s i n l ong s equence d epos i t s . Once t hey h ave a ppeared i n t he s equen ce , s ubsequent c hanges i n c f r equen cy o r d es ign may o cur b u t t hese a re n o t c on s idered t ob e p ar t o f t he p henomenon o fi nnova t ion . Ag ood e xamp le i s t he i n t roduc t ion o f l w orked o s tr ich e ggshe l i n t he f o rm o fb eads , p endan ts , a nd d ecora ted f r agmen t s o fw a ter f l ask s . D a ta f o r BPA a r e g iven i n F ig . 9 . 1u s ing t he c n umber o fp i eces p er b ucket o fd epos i t e xcava ted . T he f i rst p i e ces o cur i n u n i ts d a ted t o1 4 ,200 b p a nd t hereaf ter t he f r equen cy f l u c tua tes . T he t im ing o f t he i nnova t ion i sa ssumed t o h ave b een b e tween 1 7 ,000 a nd 1 4 ,000 b pb ecause af ew b ead sw ere f ound a t NBC d a t ing t ob e tw een 1 8 ,000 t ery i a nd 1 6 ,000 b p . Ano ther e xamp le i st he i n trodu c t ion o fp ot nt he l a s t 2 000 y ear s . I nt h is i n s tance t he s peed a nd d i re c t ion o ft he i nn ova t ion c an t ery b e t raced . R ad iocarbon d ates f o r t he f i rs t a ppearance o f p ot t hroughou t A f r ica s how t ha t i tf i l tered s l ow ly f r om N or th A f r ica t o t he l l e qua tor o ver a t l e as t f our m i lenn ia , b u t t hereaf ter a ppeared v i r tua ly s imu l taneous ly f r om t he C ongo t o t he s ou th ernmost t i p o ft he c on t inen t w ith in a f ew h undred y ears ( Deacon 1 984a , b ) . T h is t ype o f r ap id d i ssem inat ion h as a l so b een n oted i n m odern t e chno logy a nd i s c harac ter ized b yp eop le mov ing w i th t he i nnova t ion ( Hodgen 1 974 ) . o T he h igh i nc idence o ff o rma l t o ls may b e a n i nnova t ion o f ad if eren t k ind —poss ib ly i n t he me thod o fh af t ing r a ther t han i n t he c omponen t s o f 1 52

J . D eacon t he h af ted t oo ls t hem se lves . I n t h is i nstance t he r ad iocarbon d a tes f o r t he e ar l iest a ppearance o f m icro l iths i n q uant ity i n Ho locene a ssemb lages s how a much more g radua l s pread . I ft he d ates c an b e t aken a t f ace v a lue , i tt ook n ear ly 4 000 y ears f o r t he t yp ica l Wi l ton -type a ssemb lage t o s pread f r om Z i mbabwe t ot he s ou thern C ape c oast ( Deacon 1 984a ) . The mechan ism f o r t he i n troduc t ion o ft h is i nnova t ion i s more l i ke ly t o h ave b een b y g radua l d ifus ion a long t rade a nd c o mmun ica t ion n e tworks t han b y p eop le t hemse lves mov ing s ou thwards . A t BPA a nd NBC t here i s amarked i ncrease i n t he i nc idence o ff o rma l t oo ls b etween 7 000 a nd 6 000 b p ( F ig . 9 .1 ) . T he f a ct t ha t h igh f o rma l t oo l f r equenc ies s tar t a t d if f erent t imes i n d if f eren t a reas i n S outh A f r ica makes i t d if i cu lt t o b e l ieve t hat t he i ntroduc t ion was t r iggered b y c l i ma t ic o r e nv iron men ta l f ac tor s . H igh f o rma l t oo l f r equenc ies c orre la te w ith a d im inut ion i n t he s i ze o fu n tr immed f l akes a nd w i th a sl ight i ncrease i n t he n u mber o f b lade let c ores a t BPA a nd NBC ( F ig . 9 . 1 ) , b u t a re i ndependen t o f r aw mater ia l c hanges . N o c orre la t ion c ou ld b e f ound b e tween t he i nc idence o ff o rma l t oo ls a nd t he i nc idence o fp ar t icu lar r aw ma ter ia ls ( Deacon 1 984a ) . T h is p ar t icu lar p henomenon w ou ld t heref ore b e t he r esu l t o fd ifus ion a nd b orrow ing . T he d im inu t ion i n t he s i ze o fs t one a r tefac ts t hrough t ime i s af ea ture c o mmon t o many t e chno log ica l s ystems , i nc lud ing modern o nes . Van Wyk ( 1979 ) h as i dent if ied f our e vo lut ionary t rends i n modern t echno log ica l s ystems : i ncreas ing c o mp lex ity , i ncreas ing ef i c iency , i mproved s i ze c harac ter ist ics , a nd i mproved t ime c haracter ist ics . T hese c an b ei den t if ied i n L SA t e chno logy i n t he h af t ing o ff o rma l t o ls ( g rea ter o c o mp lex ity ) , i n t he s tandard iza t ion o f a rtefact d es ign ( i ncreased e ff i c iency ) a nd i n t he t rend t owards sma ler a r tef acts ( improved s i ze l c hara cter ist ics ) . I mproved t ime c harac ter ist ics a re more d iff icu lt t o d emonstra te i n t he s t one a ge r ecord a nd must b e a ssumed . T he s t one a ge d ata c over a much l onger t ime s pan t han t hose o f modern t echno logy , h owever , a nd s how s o me i n terest ing c ontrasts . A l though t here i s i ndeed a l ong -term t r end t owards sma ler t oo ls , c hange i sn ot l r egu lar . The i ncrease i n a r tef ac t s i ze b etween 1 2 ,000 a nd 8 000 b p a nd a ga in a t s o me p laces w ith in t he l a st 2 000 y ears i s c oun ter t o t he l ong t erm t rend s ugges t ing t hat f ac tors o ther t han e vo lut ionary o nes a re i nvo lved . The most l i ke ly e xp lana t ion i s s ty l ist ic v ar iat ion t hat i s r ef lec ted i n c yc l ic s h if ts i n t he l eng th o ff l akes t hroughou t t he s t one a ge ( Beaumon t1 978 ;J .D eacon 1 984a ) . F lak ing t echn ique i s a n a spec t o f s t one t oo l manufac ture t ha t w e w ou ld e xpec t t o s ee c hang ing a t t he p ost innovat ion l eve l i n t erms o f E ls ter 's d ef in i t ion o f" subst itu t ion ." C hanges i n t he f r equency o fb lade le ts a t B oomp laas a nd N e lson B ay a re i tra ted i n F ig . 9 . 1a nd s how t ha t lus t he h eyday o fb lade le t manu f ac ture w as f r om a bou t1 8 ,000 t oa bou t1 2 ,000 b p , a l though t hey w ere made b oth b ef ore a nd a f ter t h is t ime . Wha t 1 53

S ca le a nd T im ing o fT echno log ica l a nd Env ironmen ta l C hang e s l d i st ingu ishes t hem f r om t hose made a t o ther t imes i st he ir e xcep t iona ly h igh f r equency , n ot s imp ly t he ir p resence ( J . D eacon 1 984a ) . Whereas t he ir f i rst a ppearance i n t he LSA s equence h as n o a pparent e nv ironmen ta l c orre la te , t he ir s udden a nd a lmos t t o ta l d i sappearance a t l a bou t1 2 ,000 b p may w e lb el i nked t ot he c hange i nh un t ing p ra c t ice w ith l er b t he e x t inc t ion o f t he g iant b ov ids a nd t he c hange t o smal rows ing a n te lope . Wha t i t may r ef lec t i s ac hange i n h un t ing w eapon s a t t h is t ime . Changes i n t he p roduct ion p rocess c an a l so b e s een i n t he mean l eng th o fu n tr immed f l akes , a ga in i o r b oth BPA a nd NBC i n lustrated f F ig . 9 .1 . T h is i ncreases marked ly b e tween 1 2 ,000 a nd a bout 8 000 b p a t b oth s i tes a nd i sr ef lec ted t oo i n c hanges i n t he mean l eng th o fs c rapers o ver t he s ame t ime . I t w ou ld s eem t hat f l akes w ere made l arger d e l ibera te ly a nd s u itab le r aw ma ter ia ls w ere s e lected f o r t h is p urpose . I n al i near r eg ress ion t est b e tween t he l eng th o fu n tr immed f l akes a nd t he p er cen tage o fq uar tz ite i n a samp le , P =. 0 1 i n t he NBC s amp les a nd P =. 0 1— .001 i n t he BPA s amp les , t he l onger f l akes c orre la t ing w ith h igher p er cen tages o fq uar tz i te ( J . D eacon 1 984a :113 ) . T he d im inu t ion i n f l ake l eng th f r om t he m id -Ho locene i s s im i lar ly c orre lated w i th r aw mater ia ls , t h is t ime w ith t hose t ha t o ccur i n sma ler n odu les s uch a s l q uar tz a nd c ha lcedon ies . Summary a nd Conc lus ions I ft e chno log ica l c hange was t r iggered b y e nv ironmen ta l s h if t s , t hen a ma jor c hange s hou ld h ave o ccurred b etween 1 6 ,000 a nd 1 4 ,000 b p a nd more m inor a d justmen ts s hou ld b e d i scern ib le a round t he m id -Ho locene c l i mat ic o pt i mum . Worked o str ich e ggshel n e xa mp le o f a n l, a i nnova t ion , a ppears a t a bou t 1 6 ,000 b p a t NBC a nd a t1 4 ,200 b p a t BPA , a nd t he i ncrease i n f o rma l t oo ls j ust b ef ore t he m id -Ho locene c ou ld a lso b e s i gn if ican t . On t he o ther h and , p ot , a no ther i nnova t ion , a ppeared tery i ndependen t ly o f marked e nv ironmen ta l c hang e a bou t1 800 b p . S een i n a b roader s ubcont inen ta l p erspect ive , t he f a ct t hat t he i ncrease i n m icro l ith ic f orma l t oo ls o ccurs n ear ly 4 000 y ears e ar l ier i n Z imbabwe a nd n ear ly 2 000 y ears e ar l ier i n t he n or thern C ape t han i td oes i n t he s outhern C ape ( J . D eacon 1 984a , b ) makes t he a pparen t e nv ir onmen ta l c orre la t ion i n t he s ou thern C ape l e ss c onv inc ing . T he a ppearan ce o ft he W i l ton t e chno logy i n t ha t r eg ion d ur ing t he m id -Ho locene was r a ther t he e nd o fa long r ou te o fd ifus ion a l ong e stab l ished s oc ia l n etwork s a nd i t s c orre la t ion w ith m id -Ho locene warm ing i sl arge ly c o inc identa l . I n t he c ase o f p ost innovat ive o r s ubst itut ion c hanges , b lade lets i ncrease i n f r equency b etween 1 8 ,000 a nd 1 2 ,000 , a nd u ntr i mmed f l ake a nd s craper l eng ths i n crease b etween 1 2 ,000 a nd 8 000 b p . These c hanges a re p ar t o f t he s ame c on t inuum f r om sma ler t o l arger f l akes i n t he l

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J .D eacon l t erm ina l P le is tocene a nd a s ubsequen t r e turn t o s ma ler o nes i n t he H o locene . A l though i t may b e a rgued t ha t t he i ncrease i n s c raper a nd u n tr immed f l ake l eng th a nd i n t he a ssoc ia ted r aw ma ter ia l c hanges a t 1 2 ,000 b p s i gna l ad e layed r e spon se i n t he a r tef ac t s t ha t c o rre la tes w i th l t he d em ise o ft he g ian tb ov ids , t he r e turn t os ma ler a r tef ac ts a f ter 8 000 b p h as n o s im i lar c orre la te ; n e i ther d oes t he i n i t ia l o nset o f b lade le t manuf ac ture a round 2 0 ,000 b p . T he c hange i n t he l e ng ths o ff l akes c l ear ly p os t -da tes b y a t l e a s t 2 000 l y ears t empera ture , r a infa l , a nd v egeta t ion s h if t s a ssoc ia ted w i th t he e nd o ft he L as t G lac ia l Max imum . T he l ag may s i gn if y t ha t c hanges i n h un t ing a nd g a ther ing p rac t ices , a nd t he a ssoc ia ted s o c ia l a d ju s tmen t s , c ou ld h ave b een p rec ip i ta ted b y e ar l ier e nv ironmen ta l s h if t s ( H . J . D ea con 1 976 ; J . D ea con 1 978 ) b u t i fe nv ironmen t w as i ndeed a p r ime mover t hen i tw orked i n as l ow a nd d ev ious w ay . T echno logy d oes n o t c hange o n ly a s a resu l t o fe nv ironmen ta l s t imu l i , a nd h ere t he m id a nd l a te H o locene a d jus tmen t s a re c a ses i n p o in t . T he l i nk b etween c l ima t ic c hange a nd c hanges i n s t one a ge t e chno logy s hows t ha t e nv ironmen t i s n o t a n i n it ia tor o ft e chno log ica l c hange , b u t i sr a ther a con s tra in t o n t he d i str ibu t ion a nd d ens i t ies o fh uman p opu la t ions ( J . D ea con 1 974 ; D eacon l a nd T ha ckeray 1 984 ) . H ow t hey r e spond t e chno log ica ly i sd e term ined b y w idespread c u ltura l n orms . T he d i str ibu t ion o f i ndustr ies r e f lec ts whe ther t he r ange o f s t ra teg ies a ssoc ia ted w i th t he a r tef ac t t rad it ion w ere a ppropr ia te t ot he e nv ironmen t a t ap ar t icu lar t ime o rp lace . I ft he t e chno logy was i nappr opr ia te f o r a par t icu lar p la ce , p eop le d id n o t l i ve t here . When t he e nv ironmen ta l c ons tra in ts c hanged o r i nnova t ions w ere i n t roduced t ot he a r tef ac t s ys tem , t hen d i s tr ibu t ions o fp eop le c ou ld c hange a ccord ing ly . t T he s outhern C ape s equences s how t ha t t here i s l i t le e v idence t o s uppor t a ny h ypothes is t ha t e nv ironmen t d e term ines t e chno logy o r t ha t e nv ironmenta l c hange s t imu la tes t e chno log ica l c hange i n a ny d i rec t way . T he r e la t ionsh ip i sc omp lex a nd t here i sn o c ons is ten t c onnec t ion b e tween t he t wo . T he d i rec t ion t ha t t e chno log ica l c hange t akes h as a s much t o d o w ith t he o pt ions o pen a t a ny p ar t icu lar t ime a s w ith t he o i nven t iveness a nd r e cep t iveness o ft he t o lmaker s . F rom t he s tudy o f modern t e chno log ica l c hange , t he more r ap id t he a ss im i la t ion o fa new i t em , t he more l i ke ly i ti s t ha t i tw as i n troduced b y i t ineran t p eop le . l S lower c hanges a re m ore l i ke ly t o h ave b een p assed o n g radua ly b y row d ifu s ion a nd b or ing ( Hodgen 1 974 ) . Whereas t he emphas is h a s b een o n t rac ing i nf luences t ha t may h ave c hanged t e chno logy f r om o u ts ide t he s y s tem , i ti st ime n ow t o e xp lore t he i n terre la t ionsh ips o fs t one a ge s oc ia l s ystems a nd t e chno logy , a nd t he f a c tor s t ha t a re c o mmon t o p reh is tor ic a nd modern t e chno logy .

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S ca l e a nd T im ing o fT echno log ica l a nd Env ironmen ta l C hang e s T he p rob lem a r ises when o ne t r ies t o p u t s uch a n i n te lec tua l l r eco mmenda t ion i n to o perat ion . S outhern A f r ican s t one a ge a rchaeo log is t s h ave b een c a s t iga ted f o r n o t d raw ing h ypo theses f r om t he e thnography t o i n terpre t s t one a r tef ac t a ssemb lages i n t erm s o f s oc ia l a nd r i tua l b ehav iour ( Lew is -W i l iams 1 984 , u npub l . ) . T he modern l e thnog raphy h as b een i nva luab le i ni n terpret ing t he r o ck a r t a nd a spec t s o ft he d i e t a nd d emog raphy o fL SA p eop le , b u t t here c e r ta in ly h as b een a g u lf i n u nder stand ing b e tween modern a nd p reh is tor ic S an t e chno logy t ha t d eserves t o b e n ar . Unf or tuna te ly , t he S an i n terv iewed b y r owed t wen t ie th -cen tury e thnog rapher s h ave n ot made s t one t oo ls f o r a t l eas t 1 00 y ear s . S tone t oo lmakers who w ere i nt erv iewed i n t he n ine teen th c en tury g ave v ery l i t le d i rec t i nf orma t ion a nd a ny h ypothe ses w e may t s e t u p w i l o fn ecess ity b e b a sed o n c on jec ture , p ar t icu lar ly a s r egard s l d ia chron ic c hange . S ynchron ic a spec t s may b e more e as i ly i n terpre ted b ecause t here a re r ef erences t o i n ter -group d i f erences i n a r tefac t f manuf ac ture made b y t he S an i nf orman ts o f B leek a nd L loyd ( 1911 , u npub l . ) t ha t c ou ld b ei nves t iga t ed i nt he f i e ld . T he f a c tors t ha t a re c ommon t o modern a nd p reh is tor ic t e chno log ica l s y s tem s a re p erhaps more e as i ly t r a ced , b u t a re p rob lema t ic t oi n terpr e t . l ti s d if i cu l t t o a ccep t t he c oncept t ha t t e chno log ica l s y stem s h ave a momen tum o ft he ir o wn a nd many o b jec t t ot he u se o f mode ls t ha t d raw p ara le ls b e tween b i o log ica l a nd t e chno log ica l e vo lu t ion . T h is i sb ecau se l n e i ther c on cep t i sc apab le o fe xp la in ing t he s c a le a nd t im ing o fc hang es ; t hey mere ly d escr ibe t hem . E ven a na lys ts o f modern t e chno log ica l c hange , where t here i sf a r g rea ter p o ten t ia l f o r t r ac ing c au se a nd e ec t , f h ave d iff icu l ty i n e xp la in ing f u ly t he r eason s why s o me i nnovat ions l s u cceed a nd o ther s d o n o t ( E ls ter 1 983 ) . T heor ies t ha td raw o nh i s tor ica l me thodo logy may b e more a ppropr ia te f o r t he s tudy o fd iachron ic c hange i n s t one a ge t e chno log ica l s y s tems t han t he t e s t ing o fc au se a nd e f f ec t u s ing h ypo theses d rawn f r om a n e thnograph ic r e cord t ha t c on ta in s o n ly af ew t an ta l iz ing c l ues .

A cknow ledgemen t s Iam g ra tefu l t oH . J .D eacon f o r d i scuss ion s a nd c ommen t s o n d raf t s o ft h is p aper . R esear ch a t B oomp laas C ave w as f unded b y t he Human S c iences R esear ch C ounc i l , P re tor ia , i n g ran ts a warded t o H . J .D eacon f r om 1 974 t o 1 979 . R esear ch a t N e lson B ay C ave w as f unded b y NSF G ran t GS -3013 a warded t oR . G . K le in . Iam g ra t efu l f o r t he ir f i nan c ia l s uppor t .

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J . D eacon Ref erences A very , D . M . 1 982 . M icro ma mma ls a s p a laeoenv ironmen ta l i nd icators a nd a ni nterpretat ion o ft he l a te Qua ternary i n t he s ou thern C ape P rov ince , S ou th A f r ica . Anna ls o ft he S ou th A f r ican Museum 8 5 :183-374 . B eau mon t , P . B . 1 978 . B order C ave . ( Unpub l ished M .A . t hes is , Un ivers ity o fC ape T own ) . B inne man , J . 1 984 . Mapp ing a nd i nterpret ing w ear t races o n s t one imp le men ts : a case s tudy f r om B oo mp laas C ave . I n F ron t ier s : l S ou thern A f r ican A rchaeo logy T oday ( eds M . J . Ha l , G . A very , D . M . Avery , M . L .W i lson a nd A . J .B . Hu mphreys ) : p p . 1 43-151 . Oxf ord : BAR I n terna t iona l S er ies 2 07 . B owden , M . J . , Kates , R . W . , Kay , P . A . , R iesbank , W . E . , Warr ick , R . A . , J ohnson , D . L . , G ou ld , H . A . a nd We iner , D . 1 981 . T he ef ec t o fc l i mate f l uc tua t ions o n h uman p opu lat ions : t wo h ypotheses . I n C l ima te a nd H is tory : S tud ies i n P as t C l ima tes a nd t he ir Impac t o n Man ( eds T . M . L . Wig ley , M . J . I ng ra m , a nd G . Farmer ) : p p . 4 79-513 . C ambr idge : C ambr idge Un ivers ity P ress . Bu tzer , K . W . 1 973 . G eo logy o f Ne lson B ay C ave ,R obberg , S ou th le A f r ica . S ou th A f r ican A rchaeo log ica l Bul t in 2 8 :97-110 . Bu tzer , K . W . 1 984 . L a te Qua ternary e nv ironmen ti n S ou th A f r ica . I n La te C a inozo ic P a laeoc l ima tes o ft he S ou thern Hem ispher e ( ed J . C . V oge l ) : p p . 2 35-264 . R otterdam : B a lke ma . C lark , J . D . 1 959 . T he P r eh is tory o fS ou thern Af r ica P engu in .

Harmondswor th :

D eacon , H . J . 1 969 . Me lkhou tboo m C ave , A lexandr ia D istr ict , C ape P rov ince : ar epor t o n t he 1 967 i nvest igat ion . Anna ls o ft he C ape P rov inc ia l Museums 6 : 141169 . 1 972 . Ar ev iew o ft he p ost -P le istocene i n S ou th A f r ica . S outh Af r ican A rchaeo log ica l S oc ie ty G oodw in S er ies 1 :26 4 5 . .1 976 . Where Hun ters Ga thered : A S tudy o f Ho locene S tone Ag e P eop le i n t he Eas tern C ape . C lare mont : S outh A f r ican A rchaeo log ica l S oc iety Monograph 1 . .1 979 . E xcava t ions a t B oo mp laas C ave —a s equence t hrough t he Upper P le istocene a nd Ho locene i n S ou th A f r ica . Wor ld Archaeo logy 1 0 :241-257 . .a nd D eacon , J . 1 980 . The h af t ing , f unct ion a nd d i str ibu t ion o f l sma l c onvex s c rapers w ith a n e xa mp le f r om B oo mp laas C ave . le S ou th Af r ican A r chaeo log ica l Bul t in 3 5 :31-37 . 1 57

S ca le a nd T im ing o fT echno log ica l a nd Env ironmen ta l C hang es . ,D eacon , J . , S cho ltz , A . , T hackeray , J .F . , B r ink , J . S . a nd V oge l , J .C . 1 984 . C orre la t ion o fp a laeoenv ironmen ta l d a ta f r om t he L a te P le is tocene a nd H o locene d epo s i ts a tB oomp laas C ave , S ou th A f r ica . I nL a te C a inozo ic P a laeoc l ima t es o ft he S ou thern terda m Hem ispher e ( ed J .C . V oge l ) : p p . 3 39-352 . R ot : B a lke ma . .a nd T hackeray , J .F . 1 984 . L a te P le is tocene e nv ironmen ta l c hanges a nd i mp l ica t ions f o r t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord i n s ou thern A f r ica . I nL a t e C a inozo ic P a laeoc l ima tes o ft he terdam S ou thern H em ispher e ( ed J .C . V oge l ) . R ot : Ba lkema . . ,S cho ltz , A . a nd Da itz , L . D . 1 983 . F oss i l c harcoa l a s a source o f p a laeoeco log ica l i nf orma t ion i n t he f ynbos r eg ion . I nF ynbos P a laeo eco logy : AP r e l im ina ry S yn thes is ( eds H . J . Deacon , Q . B . Hendey a nd J .J .N . L ambrech ts ) : p p . 1 74-82 . P re tor ia : Na t iona l S c ien t if ic P rog rammes R epor t 7 5 . tern D eacon ,J . 1 974 . P at ing i nt he r ad iocarbon d at es f o rt he Wi l ton /Sm ithf ie ld c o mp lex i n s ou thern A f r ica . S ou th A f r ican le A r chaeo log ica l Bul t in 2 9 :318 . terns i .1 978 . C hang ing p at n t he l a te P le is tocene /ear ly H o locene p reh is tory o fs ou thern A f r ica a s s een f r om t he N e lson B ay C ave s t one a r t ifac t s equence . Qua ternary R esear ch ( NY ) 1 0 :84111 . . 1984a . T he L a t er S tone Ag e o fS ou th ernmos t A f r ica . O xf ord : BAR I nterna t iona l S er ies 2 13 . .1 984b . L at er S tone Age p eop le a nd t he ir d escendan ts i n s ou thern A f r ica . I n S ou thern A f r ican P r eh is tory a nd t erdam P a l eo env ironmen t s ( ed R . G . K le in ) : p p . 2 21-328 . R ot : B a lke ma . D ing le , R . V . a nd R ogers , J . 1 972 . P le is tocene p a laeogeography o ft he Agu lhas B ank . T ransac t ions o ft he R oya l S oc ie ty o fS ou th A f r ica 4 0 :155165 . E lster , J . 1 983 . E xp la in ing T echn ica l C hang e . C ambr idge : C ambr idge Un ivers i ty P ress . G oodw in , A . J .H . a nd Van R iet L owe , C . 1 929 . T he S tone Age c u l tures o fS ou th A f r ica . Anna ls o ft he S ou th A f r ican Museum 2 7 :1-289 . H odgen , M . T . 1 974 . An thropo logy , h is tory a nd c u l tura l c hange . V ik ing F und P ub l ica t ions i n An thropo logy 5 2 :1108 . tenberg I nskeep , R . R . 1 966 . Un iver s i ty o fC ape T own e xcava t ions a tP let B ay . S c ien t if ic S ou th A f r ica 2 : 575-577 .

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J .D eacon .1 972 . N e lson 's B ay C ave , R obberg P en insu la , P lett enberg B ay . P a laeo eco logy o fA f r ica 6 :247-248 . K le in , R . G . 1 972a . P re l im inary r epor to n t he J u ly t hrough S eptember 1 970 e xcava t ions a tN e lson B ay C ave ,P let tenberg B ay ( Cape P rov ince , S ou th A f r ica ) . P a laeo eco logy o fA f r ica 6 : 177-208 . .1 972b . The l a te Qua ternary mamma l ian f auna o fN e lson B ay C ave ( Cape P rov ince , S ou th A f r ica ) : i t s i mp l ica t ions f o r megaf auna l e x t inct ions a nd e nv ironmen ta l a nd c u l tura l c hange . Qua ternary R esear ch ( NY ) 2 : 135-42 . 1 974 . Env ironmen t a nd s ubs istence o fp reh is tor ic man i n t he s outhern C ape P rov ince , S ou th A f r ica . Wor ld A rchaeo logy 5 : 2498 4 . .1 978 . Ap re l im inary r epor t o n t he l arger mamma ls f r om t he B oo mp laas S tone Age c ave s i te , C ango Va ley , Oud tshoorn l D istr ic t , S ou th A f r ica . S ou th A f r ican A r chaeo log ica l Bul t in le 3 :66-75 . 3 .1 984 . Mamma l ian e x t inc t ions a nd S tone Age p eop le i n A f r ica . I n Qua t ernar y E x t inc t ions : AP r eh is tor ic R evo lu t ion ( eds P . S . Mar t in a nd R . G . K le in ) : p p . 5 53-73 . T ucson : Un iver s i ty o f A r izona P ress . L ew is -W il ims , J .D . 1 984 . I deo log ica l c on t inu i t ies i n p reh is tor ic la s outhern A f r ica : t he e v idence o fr ock a r t . I nP as t a nd P r esen t i n Hun ter G a ther er S tud ies ( ed C . S chr ire ) : 2 25 -252 . O r lando : A cadem ic P ress . Maze lA . a nd P ark ing t on , J .1 978 . S andy B ay r ev is ited : v ar iab i l i ty among L a te S tone Age t oo ls . S ou th A f r ican J ourna l o fS c ience 7 4 :381 -382 . S a l inger , M . J . 1 981 . P a laeoc l ima tes n or th a nd s ou th . Na tur e 2 91 :106-7 . S hack le ton , N . J . 1 973 . O xygen i s o tope a na ly s is a s ameans o f d eterm in ing s ea son o fo ccupa t ion o fp reh istor ic m idden s i tes . A rchaeome try 1 5 :133-41 . S prat . A . 1 982 . T he a na lys is o fi nnova t ion p rocesses . J ourna lo f t, D A rchaeo log ica l S c ienc e 9 :79-94 . Tusen ius , M . 1 986 . As tudy o fc har coa ls f rom s ome a r chaeo log ica l c on tex ts i n S ou th A f r ica . ( Unpub l ished M .A . d i sser ta t ion , Un ivers ity o fS t e lenbosch ) . l

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S ca le a nd T im ing o fT echno log ica l a nd Env ironmen ta l Chang es Van Wyk R . 1 979 . T echno log ica l c hange : amacro p erspect ive . T echno log ica l F or ecas t ing a nd S oc ia l C hange 1 5 :281-96 . V oge l , J .C . 1 983 . I s o top ic e v idence f o rp ast c l i ma tes a nd v egeta t ion o f S ou th A f r ica . B o tha l ia 1 4 :391-394 . V on d en D r iesch , A . a nd D eacon , H . J . 1 985 . S heep r e ma ins f r om B oomp laas C ave , S ou th A f r ica . S ou th A f r ican A rchaeo log ica l le Bul t in 4 0 :39-44 . Web ley , L . 1 978 . S ed imen ta na lys is o fB oomp laas C ave . ( Unpub l ished l B .A . Hons . t hes is : Un ivers ity o fS te lenbosch ) .

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o xygen i s o tope r e co rd a f te r V oge l ( 1983 ) ; s ou the rn C ape s ea l e ve ls a f te r D ing le a nd R oge rs ( 1 972 ) ; B PA m ic ro fauna a f te rA ve ry ( 1982 ) a nd D eacon e ta l . ( 1984 ) ; B PA c ha rcoa l a f te r D eacon e ta l . ( 1983 ) ; NBC l a rge rf a una a f te r K le in ( 1972a , b ) ; l o B PA l a rge r f auna a f ter K le in ( 1978 ) ; a the r d a ta f r om J . D eacon ( 1984a ) . T r iang les ma rk t imes o f mos t o bv ious c hange .

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S ca l e a nd T im ing o fT echno log ica l a nd E nv ironmen ta l C hang e s

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Human Adap tat ion i nS ou thern A f r ica Dur ing t he L as tG lac ia l Max i mu m l, Dona l Qua B y P e ter M i tchel ld Baden -Powel ternary R esearch C en tr e , O xf ord , Eng land . I n troduc t ion ried o R esearch c ar u ti n 1 971 b y P . C ar ter a t t he s i te o fS ehonghong i n t he D rakensberg moun ta ins o fE as tern L eso tho h as s hown t ha t t h is a rea was o ccup ied b y L a ter S tone A ge ( LSA ) h un ter -gatherers d ur ing a nd a f ter t he L ast G lac ia l Max imum ( LG M ) . R ad iocarbon d a tes f r om t he s i te b racket a n e ar ly m icro l ith ic a ssemb lage s im i lar t o t he R obberg I ndustry o f t he S ou thern C ape P rov ince ( J . D eacon 1 978 , 1 984a , b ) b etween 1 7 ,820 ± 2 70 b p a nd 1 3 ,000 ± 1 40 b p ( Car ter a nd V oge l 1 974 ; l C ar ter 1 978 ) . T oday t he D rakensberg e xper ience a s easona ly h arsh l c l imate w ith c o ld w in ters a ccompan ied b y e x tens ive f r os ts a s w e l a s b y l s now ( Stap les a nd Hudson 1 938 ; K i l ick 1 978 ) . P a leoeco log ica l d ata l d ocument a g enera ly c o lder a nd more s evere c l ima te t han a t p resent l o ver most , i f n ot a l , o f S outh A f r ica d ur ing t he LG M ( J . D eacon ; t 1 L an caster a nd S cot 984 ) a nd s tab le i s otope a na ly s is o fe qu id t ee th f r om a no ther Eastern L eso tho s i te ( Me l ikane ) p rov ides l o ca l c onf irmat ion o f t h is ( Voge l 1 983 ) . T h is c hapter s ets o u t t o d eve lop a mode l wh ich c an a ccount f or t he h uman o ccupa t ion o f s uch a n a rea i n t erms o f t he b roader d istr ibu t ion o fs i tes w i th in S ou th A f r ica a s a w ho le . The o r ig in l o fe ar ly m icro l ith ic a ssemb lages w i l a l so b e d i scussed a nd s uggest ions made a s t o why t h is s hou ld s eem t oc o inc ide w ith t he o nse t o ft he LGM . Ear ly Micro l i th ic A sse mb lages —Nature a nd D istr ibu t ion A rchaeo log ica l r esearch i n s ou thern A f r ica d ur ing t he l a st t wen ty y ear s h as g reat ly a l ter ed e ar l ier c oncep t ions o ft he a n t iqu i ty o ft he L SA . A s r ecent ly a s f i f teen y ears a go , C lark ( 1970 ) c ou ld i mp ly a c or respondence b etween t he b eg inn ing o ft he Ho locene a nd t he o r ig in o f t he L SA , b u ti ti sn ow c l ear t ha t L SA i ndustr ies e xt end f ar b ack i n to t he L a te P le istocene . R ad iocarbon d a tes h ave b een r epor ted r ang ing f r om 3 3 ,000 t o 1 2 ,000 b p f o r e ar ly m icro l ith ic LSA a ssemb lages ( J . D eacon 1 984a :309 ) , a l though t he v a l id i ty o fc l a ims made f o r v ery e ar ly d ates a t t he s i tes o fB order C ave ( Beaumon t 1 978 ) , Heun ingneskrans ( Beaumon t t age C 1 981) , a nd R ose C ot ave ( Voge l a nd B eaumont 1 972 ) c an b e d ispu ted . T he c h ief d ist ingu ish ing f ea ture o f t hese a ssemb lages , w ith t he e xcept ion o f t hose f r om B order C ave a nd Heun ingneskrans where l b lade lets a re v ery f ew , i s " the s y stema t ic p roduc t ion o f sma l b lade lets f r om s tandard ized s i ng le -p la tf orm b lade le t c ores " ( J . D eacon 1 984a :310 ) l u s ing q uar tz , s i lcre te , a nd c ryp to -crysta l ine s i l icas s uch a s c ha lcedony 1 6 3

Human Adap ta t ion i n S ou thern A f r ica Dur ing t he LG M a nd a ga te . V ery f ew o f t hese b lade lets s how e v idence o f r e touch o r o f macroscop ic u t i l izat ion a nd t he f r equency o f f o rma ly r etouched t oo ls l ( e .g . , b acked m icro l iths , s crapers , a dzes ) i s e xtre me ly l ow (