Fundamentals of Japanese grammar : comprehensive acquisition 9780824831097, 9780824831769, 2007060450

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Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar C o m pr eh en siv e A cquisitio n

Y uk i Jo h n so n

University of H aw aii Press Honolulu

© 2008 University of H aw aii Press All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America 13 12 1 1 1 0 09 08

6 5 4 3 2 1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Johnson, Yuki. Fundamentals of Japanese grammar : comprehensive acquisition / Yuki Johnson, p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8248-3109-7 (hardcover : alk. paper) ISBN 978-0-8248-3176-9 (p bk.: alk. paper) 1 .Japanese language~Grammar. 2. Japanese language~Textbooks for foreign speakers— English. PL535.J54 2008 495.6’82421—dc22 2007060450

Camera-ready copy has been provided by the author University of H aw aii Press books are printed on acid-free paper and meet the guidelines for permanence and durability of the Council on Library Resources.

With M any Thanks to Dr. Susumu Kuno Emeritus Professor of Linguistics Harvard University

L

Contents

ce

H o w to Use This B8k

善 P

商^ Origin of The Hiragam Chart The Katakam Chart

OHAFTEF? 一

2

Japanese symbols and Their so§ ds Symbols bounds

Structural Features of the Japanese Language

Japanese as an S O V Language

Other Charactenstics of Japanese

Conjugation of Verbs,ノ一 Adjectives, and

Conjugation of Verbs

the copula

Conjugation ofsAdjecdves

Conjugation of the c o p u l a

Partides

rit

CH A P T刀 E

4-

CHA F T刀 E 3

刀 OHAFTE

rt

Contents

VIII

の から まで までに か ね cfc

でも

C hapter 5

C hapter 6

76 79 81 82 83 86 87 88

intransitive Verbs

90 93

Transitive Verbs: Ditransitive and Transitive

96

Verbs of Existence:あ る .い る

98

The Syntax and Semantics ot める and い。

98

Transitive vs. intransitive

'There Is a Dog in the Yard7' vs.

C hapter 7

'T he Dog Is in the Yard77

102

T en se:る • た in Subordinate Clauses Tense Forms in /rWhen,/Qauses

105 105 107

Dictionaiy/Plain Form Compounds

114

つもり

114

前に/前は

115

ところ

117

ため( に） 間に/間は

118 120

うちに/うちは

124

Stem Form Compounds

130

たぃ

130 132

Functions of Tense Forms

C hapter 8

C hapter 9

たがる (たい + がる）

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

CHAPTER 1 0

C h a p t e r 11

C h a pter 1 2

CHAPTER 1 3

IX

やすい/にくい

134

ながら

135

方

137

すぎる

138

に + Motion Verb

140

て Form Compounds

143

てください

143

てから

146

ている

148

てぉく

157

てある

159

てみる

162

てしまう

163

ていく/てくる

165

てほしい

168

た Form Compounds

172

た後で

172

たり〜たりする/たり〜たりだ

174

たことがある

176

たところ

178

たまま

180

おう Form Compounds and ましょう

181

おうと思う

181

おうとする

183

ましょう

184

Demonstrative Pronouns:こ • そ • あ . ど

187

The Non-anaphoric (Pointing) Use of

こ • そ • あ •ど

187

C ontents

X

The Anaphoric (Referencing) Use of

こ •t

C hapter 14

•あ

Conjunction Words and Linking Sentence

189 193

The T Form Linkage:

そ し て • それから • それで/だから

C hapter 15

C hapter 16

Paradoxical Linkage:で も • けれども•しかし

194 201

Additive Linkage:そ れ に • その上•しかも

204

Interrogative Pronouns and Interrogative Sentences

207

The Functions of か The Functions of Interroganve Pronouns

207 211

Change of State: す る •な る Constructions

216

Predicate + する/なる

216

Verb Dictionary Form/ない + ことにする/

C hapter 1 フ

C hapter 18

C hapter 19

ことになる

220

Modifying Constructions

223

Noun-Modifying Constructions

223

Modifying Verbs: Adverbs

235

Nominalizers:し と •の

243

こと

244

の

247

Modal Auxiliaries (Modals): Propositions and Modality Expressions Evidential Modals Suppositional Mcxlals Explanatory Modals

253 255 262 270

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

C

h ap ter 2 0

XI

Giving and Receiving

276

あ げ る •く れ る •も ら う

278

て あ げ る •て く れ る •て も ら う

282

て く れ る an d て も ら う Used in the

C

C

C

C

C

C

h ap ter 21

h a p ter 2 2

h ap ter 2 3

h a p ter 2 4

h ap ter 2 5

h ap ter 2 6

Request ^orm

289

Structures of Imperatives/Commands

292

しろ

292

なさい

294

Structures of Permission: The て も Form

2%

Permission and the ても Form

296

Structures of Prohibition: The て は Form

301

The Structure of Sentences of Prohibition

301

The て は Form with Another Main Clause

303

The て は Form in Casual Conversation

304

Structures of Obligation

306

な け れ ば な ら な い /な く て は い け な い

307

ないわけにはいかない

309

Temis of Respect Polite Affixes and Honorific and Humble Forms

312

丁 寧 語 : The Polite Affixes お and 御

312

Honorific Statements

314

Honorific Requests

320

Conditional Sentences:と • た ら • ぱ • な ら

323

と

325

たら

331

ば

336

なら

341

Contents

XII

C hapter 2 フ

C h a p te r 2 8

CHAPTER 2 9

C h a p te r 3 0

C h a p te r 3 1

Comparative Sentences

345

Creating a Question Sentence

345

Answering Question Sentences

346

Superlative Sentences

349

Creating and Answering a Question Sentence

349

Structures of Suggestions

352

たら/ば

352

方がいい

354

Potential Sentences

357

書ける

358

Verb Dictionary Form + ことができる

360

Passive Constructions

362

Formation of the Passive

362

Structure and Meaning ot the

C hapter 3 2

Passive Construction

363

Causative Constructions Structure and Meaning: "Make" vs. "Let7’

375 375 376

Causative-Passive Constructions

383

Formation

383

Formation

CHAPTER 3 3

Bibliography

387

Index

391

Preface Grammatical competence is among the most important components of language proficiency, especially for adult learners whose mother tongue exhibits a different word order from that of the target language. For example, English exhibits a Sub­ ject (S), Verb (V), and Object (O) order, and learning a language that is structured by a S-O V word order, such as Japanese, may be more difficult than learning a S-V-O language. If one wishes to improve his/her language competence at the highest levels, a thorough knowledge of grammar will definitely help not only in the areas of reading and writing, but also in speaking and listening. This book was written with strong hopes that it would help in the review and recognition of the depth and importance that grammar plays in language acquisition. This book is a compilation and further development of lectures on Japa­ nese grammar given by the author for students of elementary and intermediate Japanese at Harvard University, International Christian University, the Univer­ sity of Michigan, the University ot Bntish Columbia, and the University of Toronto. The original grammar lecture notes were written according to the order in which textbooks typically introduce grammar items in each lesson. In this book, however, as seen by the categorization of each chapter, grammar items are re­ organized in terms of specific grammatical categories, such as particles, fe-form compounds, passive constructions, conditional sentences, and so forth, and are not organized to accommcxlate a certain Japanese language textbook If used as a reference book with a regular language texftjook, it is recommended that the course instructor indicate the page number of grammatical items introduced m each chapter in the main textbook found in the index, and the page numbers should be indicated in the syllabus or term schedule. Thus, this book is intended for learners of Japanese who have already studied basic Japanese grammar, but wish to better organize and expand their knowledge in greater depth and at a higher level. Therefore, if you intend to use this book along with an elementary Japanese language textbook, you need not necessarily learn and understand everything in each chapter, as some

XIV

P reface

explanations may be too detailed for your dassroom activities; instead, concen­ trate on the main concepts of the grammar items. Looking back upon completion of this volume, I recognize a deep debt of gratitude owed to many individuals. First I would like to acknowledge my sincere thanks to my Ph.D. advisor, Dr. Wesley Jacobsen^ now Director of the Japanese Language Program at Harvard University. Since I was a first-year M A. student at the University of Minnesota, he demonstrated to me a love for research. I fondly remember the days when I attended all of his grammar lectures for elementary Japanese courses, took notes eagerly, and rehearsed many times in the attempt to mcxlel my grammar lectures after his. I would also like to acknowledge all the iasightful questions received from my graduate and undergraduate students at Harvard University, the University of Michigan, and the University of Toronto and instructors at the University of Michigan. I especially would like to thank my graduate students, Jotaro Arimori, Yuri Naito, and Asami Tsuda, as well as the students who took my course "'EAS293: Fundamentals of Japanese Grammar,/ at the University of Toronto for their thorough proofread and insightful comments. Because of their thoughtprovoking insights on Japanese grammar, I was inspired to keep writing. Sincere thanks also to Ms. Patricia Crosby and Ms. Ann Ludeman, Univer­ sity of Hawaii Press. Their extremely professional handling of the publication process helped this book to press with speed and effidenq^. Their thoughtful and timely assistance is gratefully acknowledged. My heartfelt gratitude goes to two great physicists in my life~m y father, Dr. Yuzo Endo, and my husband, Dr. Jeff Siewerdsen. Jeff is an exemplary model in every aspect of the personal and scholarly life, especially as to the dedication and diligence required of a researcher. He has been my guide through the pleas­ ures and perils of academia, a better half who shares and inspires a love for schol­ arly pursuit. To him go my deepest thanks for his unfailing support through all the ups and downs. Lastly, my deepest appreciation goes to Dr. Susumu Kuno, Emeritus Professor of Linguistics at Harvard University, whose countless original, signifi­ cant views on Japanese grammar provided constant constructive commentary on my work in linguistics. All of my research and writings are indebted to him and

XV

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

his books, especially The Structure o f the Japanese Language, published in 1973 by MTT Press. He is a beacon who has unerringly guided me through the most difficult linguistic challenges, and he continually gains my most heartfelt respect. Without his guidance and diligence in research, I would not have been able to complete this volume. For this reason, I dedicate this volume to him. I could never hope to exceed his contributions, but I look up to his work as a guide for my current and future research. I sincerely hope that this book will be a useful resource and guide for your understanding of Japanese grammar, that your knowledge about the language will improve, and that your knowledge of the language will deepen. Toronto, Ontario Yuki Johnson

■

■

How to Use This Book This book is intended primarily for educators and researchers in Japanese studies and the Japanese language, as well as for graduate students and undergraduate students who have already learned basic Japanese grammar through regular language courses. It is assumed that readers know hiragana and katakana, and the basic kanji introduced in two years of language instruction. The following comments cover a few particulars of which readers should be aware prior to us­ ing the book. 1 . Examples are all written in Japanese (combining kanji, katakana, and hira­ gana). Words that are normally expressed in kanji are written in kanji with a ruby in hiragana. When a kanji word appears for the first time on a page, it is always accompanied by the ruby, no matter how elementary it may seem, such as 白: ^ From the second appearance o a the ruby disappears if the usages are on the same page. 2.

Examples may be written in the plain or the formal form, assuming that the readers can recognize the forms.

3.

A sentence with an asterisk means that the sentence is either grammatically inappropriate or pragmatically awkward.

4.

Some examples may seem awkward trom the viewpoints of native speakers of Japanese if uttered without any context or any sentence-final partide. The purpose is to show a basic structure without too many frills, so even if the sentence may not be uttered as written, the learners should know that these J

わたし

ははおや

are j^iven for illustration purposes. A good example may be : 私は母親に

人参を食べさせられなかった 1 was not made to eat carrots by my mother," an example sentence appearing in the section on "Agglutination" in Chapter 2. The sentence alone may be awkward, and a native speaker of Japanese may understandably question its usage. However, if this utterance is used in a context wherein the speaker is talking about his/her childhcxKl, in wnich many Japanese parents force their children to eat carrots for nutri­ tional purposes, and such ^experience does not apply to the speaker, the speaker may say, 私は字供の時母親に人参を食べさせられなかったのよ

ねぇ。だから今でも入参が大!嫌 い で • • • ’"When I was a child, I was

XVII

XVIII

How to Use T his Book

not forced to eat carrots by my mother, so I hate carrots even now/' When a sentence is uttered in a certain context and with a certain intonatior^ nearly any sentence that may seem to be awkward becomes a possible utterance. Thus, please note that one purpose of this book is to provide an explanation of basic sentence structure, and absolute naturalness is sometimes not taken into consideration. 5.

Many sections feature reading material and exercises, though the pattern is not consistent throughout the book. Sample dialogues are provided to show how a given grammatical structure is used in context and the dialogues usually accompany English translation. Some sections indude short essays. They are usually presented without English translations and are given as ex­ ercises for the reader. In real situations, the ruby is not usually provided, but in this book it is given for the purpose of identifying kanji words. Some vocabulary may be new to readers, and it is recommended that readers use a dictionary when unknown words appear in the reading materials.

6.

In the examples throughout the textbook, as well as those in the ''sample dialogues" and "sample essays," names and characters of the speakers may or may not be given. Speakers are often identified simply by the letters UP^' //B//"〇!' and so forth and are followed by a colon. Examples:

本 田 ： どうしたんですか。 松 田 ： ええ、彼女にふられちゃつたんです• • • 。 A:

このA 、H ?

B:

ああ、この方は先生の御主人ですよ。

女 ： これ、食べてみて. ください。 男：

え、ああ、今食事したばかりだから

Lastly, scattered throughout the book are pieces ot a story concerning the (h〇f)efully amusing) love triangle between チビ, タヒ, and 夕マ. If y 〇u rearrange the dialogues in the nght order, the story should be dear. Find them and try!

Origin o f かんじ

ひ ら が な

漢 字 t o 平仮名 a—安->ぁ

i— >以— H、

u-»宇- ►う

e—衣-♦え

ka —加-^か

ki—幾— き

ku-♦久— く

ke ->計— け

sa — ♦左-♦さ

shi —之-►し

SU- ► 寸- >す

se—世-^せ

〇—於— お ko—己—こ

ta —太— た

chi ~>知-^ち

tsu-► 川- ► つ

te —天-►て

so —曽—そ to->ih— と

na -♦奈―>な

n K - ►に

nu - ► 奴-♦ぬ

ne —称—>ね

no - ♦乃-♦の

ha ->波-►は

hi —比— ひ

fu - ♦不~

he -♦部- >ぺ

ho

ma — >末—>ま

mi — >美— み

mu-♦武- >む

me - ♦女— め

m〇->毛— も |

ya —也— や

yu - ►由一》 ゆ

ra—艮-♦ら

ri—利— り

wa —和-♦わ

(wi —為->ゐ）

ru->留- >る

♦ほ

yo - ► 与-►よ re — >礼— れ (we ->恵—系）

r〇— ► 呂ー►ろ 丨 wo ■^逮—を n->无— ん

か た か な

漢 字 t o 片仮名 阿— ァ

伊— ィ

宇— ウ

江—エ

於-*ォ

己— コ

加— 力

幾— キ

久— ク

介— ケ

散— サ

之— シ

須— ス

世— セ

曽— ソ

多— 夕

千— チ ニ— ニ

川— ツ

天— テ

止— 卜

奴— ヌ 不— フ

称— ネ

乃— ノ

部—へ

保— ホ

牟— 厶 由-►ユ

女— メ

毛— モ

............. 礼— レ 恵—Z)

興— ヨ

奈— ナ ハ一>ハ 万—>マ

比— ヒ ミ— ミ

也-»ャ 良— ラ

利— リ

和— ヮ

井—4 )

流— ル

呂―ロ 乎— ヲ 无— ン

There are a total of 48 characters for kana (hiragana and katakana). Kana tor the sounds

,,vn ,n

"w u," and "w e" do not exist due to the assimilation of the semivowels into the vowels "i," ''u/'ancl

"q," respectively. Also, although the term tor the currency is spelled "'yen/- it is pro-

nounced " e n " ( 円)•Characters for "w i" and "w e" sounds are not used in m odem Japanese. This medns that a total of 46 characters are used in writing nowadays.

XIX

•asairedcf p j^ p u ^ s m a p o u i ui p9sn ^ou a jp ( x ) p u e (^r) sasaipuajred aip ux s ja p e jp i {3

oA

/

nA 7 eX

o

名

匚

d

ェ

A

i

ぐ

B

>

E/t

r 古

T/
l \ then the sentence means /yThis dog is scary/7Thus, the interpretation of the predicate depends on

the subject

1

.

おんがく

13If the sentenoe is in die form 〇£ a question^ then it would be たれ逆音楽が好きですか '"Who likes m u se グ ’ and if the sentenoe expresses an exhaustive~listing meanings then it would be 私力《 音楽； ^好き

です /xIt is I who like m usic" In either case, # isu sed . 14This assumption, however, ma^ be accepted differentiy &x>m individual to individual. Some may say that the use of に alone in 私に日本語がわかります '"I understand Japanese," for example, sounds awkward and that には in 私には日本語がわかります is much more acceptable. In general, the use of

には may be more common than the use of just に•However, in certain contexts,に is fine, and it is never ungrammatical.

51

Fundamentals of J apanese G rammar

# ける

（ 1 しは/私 に /私 に は )漢 字 が 書 け ま す 。

备 みたい

（ 私 は )お 緊 が 飲 み た い で す 。

I can write kanji.

I w ant to a n n k tea. For these com pound predicates, either が or を is possible because o f the partial involvem ent 〇£ the activity verb,書く and 叙 む . The involvem ent o f an activity verb m ay bring out the activity predicate bv em phasizing its verbal aspect as in /7I w ant to rfrzVifc coffee" and "John can

100 kanji." O n the other hand, が m ay

em phasize the m eaning expressed by the suffix, such as 7/I want to d rink coffee7' and ^John can w rite 100 kanji/7 H ow ever, this is a gram m atical distinction, and in daily conversation^ various factors affect the speaker^ im m ediate cnoice o f a partide. For other, purely stative predicates, how ever, only が is the proper gram m atical choice.

(21)

私 は 漢 字 が /を

書けます。

I can write kanji. Cf.

私 は テ ニ ス が /* を で き ま す 。 I can play tennis.

(22)

私 は お 茶 が /を

飲みたいです。

Izoant to annk tea. 3.

を

The fundam ental function o f the particle を is to m ark a noun or a noun phrase being acted upon b y the agent (perform er o f the action) o f the activity described by the predicate. This function is generally called "object marking/' and therefore を is an object m arker. '"Being acted upon" includes cases in w hich an agent direedy consum es the o b ject as in す し を 食 べ る " eat sushi" and コ ー ヒ ー を 飲 む /ydrink coffee/7 and cases in w hich an agent im k e s an approach to an object in som e w ay, as i n 本 を 読 む " read a b o o k / '木 を 切 る " cut a tree," a n d 映 画 を 見 る "see a m ovie." T h e objects in these sentences (m arked by を ） are a l l 咖 cted tmrf

involved in som e w ay by the perform er of the activity.

CHAPTER 4

52 1 .

厂をJ as an object m arker for transitive predicates (including stative-transitive predicates)

2 .

「を J as a place noun m arker w hen the predicates (volitional intransitive predicates) descnbe m otion

3.1

「を」 as an oDject marker

T h e m ost frequent use ot ^ is w ith an activity verb, that is, a transitive verb,15 to m ark an object. O bserve the follow ing examples.

⑴ 鈴 木 さ ん は 毎 日 直

k

語を施ぎ i

します。

M r. buzuKi studies Japanese everyday. ⑵

（私 は )昨 日 日 本 語 の 辞 晝 を 買 い ま し た 。 I bought a Japanese dictionary yesterday.

⑶ ( 私 は ) 豐田さんを 3 0 分待ちました。 I w aited for Nis. Tovota for 30 minutes. ⑷

この漢字を書いてくださt、 。 Please w n te this kanji.

(5)

毎 朝 シャワーを浴びます。 I take a show er every morning.

(6)

タクシーを_ びます。 I am going to call a taxi.

(7)

鈴木さんは豊田さんを 紹 介 し ま し た 。 M r. Suzuki introduced M s. Toyota (to som eone).

を can also m ark an object w hen the predicate is a stative-transitive predicate. See section 2.2, w hich describes

as an object marker.

(8)

私 は コ ー ヒ ー が /を 飲 み た い で す 。 I w ant to drink coffee.

(9)

ジ ョ ン は 漢 字 が /を 100 _ け ま す 。 Joh n can w rite 100 kanji.

15Stative predicates (such as い る "exist" ほ し い "w ant〃蘭こえる"can heaO and non-volitional intransitive verbs (such as 開く in ドアが開く"the door opens" andj& える in 電気が消える "the lights turn off〇do not invite an object

53

Fundamentals of J apanese G rammar

r をJ as a place noun marker indicating a "path’”6

32

A s m entioned previously, the fundam ental m eaning o f the partid e

is to m ark

a noun or the noun phrase acted upon by the agent of the action described b y the predicate. This function allow s som e m otion verbs (usually volitional intransitive verbs) to take a place noun ju st as if it w ere an object. This usage arises from the fact that the place, such as a stree t is actually acted upon b y the agent w alking on i t H ow ever, since m otion verbs are not considered transitive verbs, the を m arked place noun is

exactly the sam e as the object o f a transitive verb. W ith m o-

tion verbs, を is used to indicate that the m otion taking place covers the w hole dim ension or som e portion o f the place. The following diagram s (adapted from にほんごひょうげんぶんけいちゆう全ゆう

，

,

白 本 語 表 現 文 型 中 級 I [1983】） help illustrate w hich m otion verbs have this function. T h e d rd e represents the dim ension in w hich the m otion takes place, and the arrow represents the type or m otion perrorm ed b y the agent.

ぁる

みち

よくこの道を歩いた。 I often w alked along this street. I

る

i 1日 公 園 を 走 っ た 。 I ran through the park every dav. 富士山を登った。 I clim bed M t. Fuji.

f る

富士山を下った。 I clim bed d ow n M t. Fuji.

1 る

その橋を渡った。 I crossed the bridge.

装ぐ

川を泳いだ。 I sw am across the river.

桊ぶ

空を飛んだ。 I flew across the sky.

16This notion was first presented by Kuroda (1978) and has not yet been challenged.

54

CHAPTER 4

N ote that w hen the place noun is m arked by を, the arrow represents a m otion that goes through it. If the m otion takes place w ithin/inside the dim ension (as in

,r[ took a w alk in the park,/) or the m otion takes place from one point to another (as in " I clim bed up to the sum m it o f Mt. Fuji"), a different particle should be em ployed. Refer to sections 4 and 7, w here に and で are discussed, for further clarification.

fo 晶がる

公園の角を曲がった。 I turned the com er of the park.

回る

柱の周りを回った。

I cirded around the pillar.

I left hom e at 3 o dock. する去年大学を卒業した。 I graduated from college last year. 备 りる

バスを降りる。 I will get oft the bus.

i れる

緒が港を離れた。 A ship left the harbor.

备 める

昨日会社を辞めた。 I quit the com pany yesteraay.

を in the third figure com m unicates the notion of "fro m " in E nglisK and the equivalent から in Japanese m ay be able to replace を •H ow ever, if the m otion is depicted rather as an abstract m anner, then かり cannot reolace を 』 or exam ple,

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

举

55

する and 辞 め る represent abstract concepts; th erefo re, 大 学 # =ら卒業する

and ¥ 社 か ‘ 辞 め る w ould be inappropriate, w h ile バ ス か ら 降 り る 、船 が 港

か り 離 れ る are concrete, visualizable activities; therefore, the use o f から in these sentences is appropriate.

4.

に

The fundam ental concept o f に describes a MMirfzrecrionfl/ situation w ith a focus on the result or goal of the directional activity rather than on the process o f the activity. Therefore, に is often used to designate a single place or a specific tim e out of the w id er scope o f legation or time. Unidirectional m otion is at the root o f all the uses o f に•It allow s に to possess m any functions, such as m arking an indirect o b ject a location, the source of an action, and so on.

4.1

1.

「に」 m arking an indirect object

2.

「に」 m arking a place noun

3.

「に」 m arking a tim e noun and indicting frequency

4.

「に J m arking the source o f an action: "fro m " or '"by"'

5.

「にJ for listing noun phrases

「にJ marking an indirect object

Transitive verbs, such as 最 ベ る 、 1 る 、飲 む , take one o b ject and the object is specified as the direct object of these verbs. There are also transitive verbs called "ditransitive" that can take tw o o b je c ts ~ a direct object m arked b y を and an indirect object m arked b y |C. A n indirect object usually lets u s envision a recipi­ ent and/or a benefactor o f the action described by the verb. T h e re a p ie n t and/or benefactor o f an action is generally an anim ate entity that is capable o f receiving an action.17 Som e tests to check w hether a verb is transitive or ditransitive m ay be:

17This is, however, not absolute. Plants, for example, can be the recipients of water, as in 母は #

をあげた ’W y mother gave a plant water."

に¥

56____________________________________________________________________CHAPTER 4 a. b.

If the question "to whom / w hat?" is considered appropriate. If an English equivalent "'someone does someone somethingf, is applicable (as in /ym y father taught me English/')

お し _ う か Som e representative ditransitive verbs are 教 え る " teacl%" 売 る " sell,〃貸す

" le n d ," 見 せ る " show ," 買 ぅ '"buy," and 渡 す " hand in ." O bserve th e follow ing exam ples:

⑴ ゎ 4 しは1;

&に契き1 を 教 え ま し た 。

I taught m y sister English. ⑵

豊田さんは鈴木さんに車を売りました。 M r. l oyota sold M s. Suzuki a car.

⑶

先生は学生に本を貸しました。 T h e teacher lent a student a b o o k

⑷

豐田さんは鈴木さんに写真を見せました。 M r. Toyota show ed M s. Suzuki a picture.

(5)

私は妹におみやげを買いました。 I bought m y sister ^ souvenir.

(6)

学生は先生に宿題を渡しました。 Students handed the teacher their hom ew ork.

In the exam ples above, the reapients/benefactors o f the action described b y the verb are all m arked b y Id. Also, the activities described by the ditransitive verbs can be captured in term s ot the notion o f unidirectionality. Ju st like the exam ple in sentence (1), w here English instruction w ent from the speaker to his/her sister， m ovem ent o f som e entity from one place or person to another can b e easily envisioned. N ote that a causative sentence also involves an indirect object, such as i n 母 親 は 子 供 に に ん じ ん を 食 べ さ せ ま し た m ade m y son eat carrots." (Refer to Q ia p te r 32, Section 2 for m ore examples.) T h e indirect object m arked by に usually precedes the direct o b je ct b u t in conversation this gram m atical restriction is not strictly observed. A s long as a correct particle is used, the w ord order need not b e a concern. For exam ple, you m ay say:

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

(7)

57

車を本田さんは豊田さんにあげました。 M r. H ond a gave M r. Toyota a car.

「に」 marking a place noun

4.2

There are a num ber o f predicates that require a place noun to describe w here things are or w here activities take place. The representative ones are verbs o f existence and som e m otion verbs. O bserve the follow ing exam ples:

(8)

a

. 銀行の前に郵便局があります。 T h ere is a post office in front of the b a n k

b

教 室 に 学 生 が 50父 い ま す 。

.

T h ere are 50 students in the dassroom . c.

Ife年 か ら 日 本 に 4

みます。

I w ill live in Japan starting next year. (9)

a

. 川 崎 さ ん は 去 年 中 国 に #き ま し た 0 M s. K aw asaki w ent to Q iin a last year.

b_

i i

の大統韻が日本に枭 ました。

f h e U.S. o resiaen t visited Japan. c

. 本田さんはもう家に帰りました。 M r. H ond a has already gone home.

d

. 飛行機はもうすぐ成田に着きます。 T h e airplane will arrive at Narita shortly. まいにちだいがく

ある

I w alk to the university everyday. 侮 日 大 学 ま で 歩 き ま す or毎 日 大 学 に 歩 い て 行 き ま す ） * f . 川の反対側に誠ぎます。 I will sw im to the other side of the nver. (川 の 向 こ う ま で 泳 ぎ ま す or川 の 向 こ う に 泳 い で 行 き ま す ） In sentences (8) and (9),に m arks the specific so o t or location o f the su b je ct This function is also reflected in sentences w ith m otion verbs. The com patibility or

CHAPTER 4

58

incom patibility o f Iこ w ith m otion verbs is decided by how these verbs are perc e iv e d :f r く，来 る ， and 帰 る are perceived to include the idea o f a goal that the m otion reaches and therefore are com patible w ith a place noun m arked b y (C, w h ile 歩く and 泳 ぐ are process-oriented m otion verbs and are less com patible w ith place nouns m arked b y に.18 に w ith the verb 住 む " to live" in sentence (8c) can be considered a result o f the m otion o f settling into a place.

4.3

「に」 marking a time noun ana indicating frequency

に m arks a specific point relative to the broader concept o f time. For exam ple, January m ight b e considered a narrow er target w hen considering a yearlong tim e frame, w hile it m ay be considered a longer duration o f tim e com pared to Sunday. T h e concept o f "specific point in tim e' is therefore relative to the tim e fram e to きのう

き よう

あした

w hich the speaker is referring. N ote th a t昨 日 " y este rd a y ,"今 日 " today, " 明日 "to m o rro w ,"毎 日 "ev ery day7' 先 週 'la s t week/' etc., are not m arked b y に regardless o f h ow they com pare to the tim e fram e the speaker has in m ind. Also, a phrase that indicates frequency requires the use o f に （such as once a week^ tw ice a year, etc.). O bserve the following examples:

( 1 0 ) (私 は 海 日 朝 8 時に4 きます。 I get up at 8:00 A .M . every day. ( 1 1 ) (私 は ) 6 月 に 日 本 に 系 ま し た 。 I cam e to Japan in June. (12)

弟 は 2004年に4 まれました。 M y brother w as b o m in 2004.

( 1 3 ) 月曜日に才フィスに条てください。 Please com e to m y office on M onday. ( 1 4 ) (私 は )一 日 に 5 時 間 勉 強 し ま す 。 I study five hours a day. ( 1 5 ) 閏 年 は 4 年 に 1度 来 ま す 。 A leap year com es once every four years.lo loa more appropriate manner of describing the same situation is suggested in tiie parentheses. For example；まで, which means "as far as" involves the notion of process and is compatible with 歩く and 泳 、 . The equivalent o P g o on foot7’ or "go by swimming" are other alternatives*

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

4.4

59

「にJ m arking the source of an action: "fro m " or

Since に illustrates a unidirectional con cep t the source o f an action or event can also b e m arked b y Iこ•It is sim ilar to the use o f "fro m " and 'l? / , in the passive construction (refer to C hapter 3 1 , the passive con stru ctioa for further explanatio n ) . に in the form er function tends to occur w ith a verb that offers a f)assive なら

atm osphere and/or is beneficial to the receiver, such as 習 フ "to learn / ' 借りる "to borrow ," and も ら う ’'to receive." W hen a verb describes a situation that is considered active, aggressive, not necessarily beneficial to the receiver, such as /yto obtain som ething by fo r c e ," から is the only c h o ic e ; に cannot b e used. Sentences (16) to (20) are cases w here に and から are interchangeable, w hile sentences (21) and (22) are cases w here only から is used. (16)

( 私 は ) 川崎さんに / から 19白本虐を習います。 I will learn Japanese from M s. Kawasaki.

(17)

弟 は M に /から時計をもらいました。 M y brother received a w atch from his father.

(18)

友 達 に / から本を借りました。 (I) borrow ed a b ook from m y friend.

(19)

友達に / からひどい事を言われました。 ⑴ w as told a terrible thing b y m y friend.

(20)

友達に / から頼まれました。 (I) w as asked b y m y m end.

Sentences (19) and (20) are passive sentences :から is not alw ays m tercnangeable w ith に in the passive construction.

(21)

a.

強盗は老人からお金を盗んだ。 A robber stole m oney from an old man.

* b.

強盗は老人にお金を盗んだ。

19Since に offers the same function as "from /'から is also a choice, but に is more frequently used. Also, since に can also mark recipient of an actioi% whedier the use of に indicates the goal or the source of action/event depends on the meaning of the verb. For example, 先生に闉きました can be interpreted either " I asked the teacher (the teacher is the recipient of the question)" or "I heard from the teacher (the teacher is the source of information/’ In case of the latter,から should be used to darify the meaning.

60

_______________________________

(22)

a

. 山 田 さ ん か ら 小 包 み を .け っ た 。

b

. 山田さんに小包みを会け备 った。

______ CHAPTER 4

I received (obtained) a p ack ag e from M s. Yam ada. *

W h en the source o f an action or event is an inanim ate entity, that source cannot be m arked b y に •This restriction exhibits that に is strongly related to an anim ate entity w here the source o f an action/event is involved.

(23)

a.

図書館から本を借りました。 I checked out a bo o k from the libraiy. 図書館に本を借りました。

*b .

銀行からお金を借りました。

c.

I borrow ed m oney from the b a n k * d. (24)

銀 行 に お 金 を 借 り ま し た 。 2Q 大学から奨学金をもらいました。

a.

I received a scholarship from the University.

(25)

★ b.

大学に奨学金をもらいました。

a.

バ タ ー は ミルクから作られる。 Butter is m ad e from milk, ^passive sentence) バ タ ー は ミルクに作られる。

* b.

4.3

i |v.J for listing noun phrases

W h en more ftow

/terns are lis te d ,に m ay b e used to m ark noun phrases and

m ay seem sim ilar to the use o f the particle と.W hile と has a function that brings tw o noun phrases to co n n e ct に is used to sim ply single out noun phrases as a list o f items. L et us observe the following sentences to see die differences and similarities.

2) In our daily oonversatiorv this type of sentenoe may be heard. In such case, the given plaoe noun is used as a personification giving an impression that the place noun is representing a person who provides the object

Fundamentals of J apanese G rammar

(26)

a

61

. だれが学生ですか。 W h o is a student? ジョンとメリーと卜厶が学生です。

b

.

c

. ジョンにメリーにトムが学生です。

Johrv M aiy , and 丁om are students.

John, M ary lan d T o m are students. (27)

だれがb 婚しますか。

a.

W h o is getting m am ed ? b

.

ジョンとメリーが結婚します。 Joh n and M ary are getting married (m eaning Joh n and M ary are united as a legal couple).

c

. ジ ョ ン に メ リ ー が 結 婚 し ま す 。21

d

. ジョンにメリーに卜厶が結婚します。 johrv M ary, and T o m are getting m am ed (each person to a different partner).

e

. ジョンとメリーとトムが結婚します。 John, M ary, and T om are getting married. ひ る は ん

(28)

a.

な に た

^

^

お昼ご飯は、何を食べましたか。 Speaking o f lunch, w hat did you eat?

b

. すしとうなぎとうどんを食べました。 I ate sushi, eel, and noodles,

c

. すしにうなぎにうどんを食べました。 I ate sushi, eel, and noodles.

In a situation w here に and と are interchangeable,と usually prevails over k in daily co n v e rsatio n .丨こm ay b e m ore com m only seen in w riting. A l s o ,に gives an im pression th at the item s are listed on top o f the previous one, and conjunction w ords, such as そ れ か ら and そ れ に m ay be used m ore frequently than they are w ith と. 21 Since marriage is a mutual contract that requires two individuals, it is difficult for this sentence to re­ ceive an interpretation of listing two individuals, each of whom is getting married to a difiierient partner. The sentence should be ジョンと メリ一が結婚します’7 〇hn and

Mary are getting married." Sentence

(27d), on the other hand, may easily be c»nstrued as listing people who are getting married to different partners, sinc3e it lists more than two people

CHAPTER 4

62

( 2 9 ) す し に • • • う な ぎ に • • • 、そ れ か ら う ど ん を 备 ベ ま し た 。 W ell, let^s see w h at I ate. I ate su s h i. . . eel, and . . . oh yes, noodles.

In addition to these functions of Iこ， there are som e fixed expressions that u se に いちラと

ちち

に

as an indicator o t unidirectionality. Exam ples o f such^phrases a ^ e : 妹 は 父 ] ^ 似 て い る /7M y sister resem bles m y father, " 学 生 は 先 生 の 指 示 に 徒 う と い い _

りろん

ぶつり

"Students are advised to follow the teacher^ instructions," and こ の 理 論 は 物 理 学 の 理 論 ] ^ 基 づ い て い る ’T h is theory is (derived) based on the theory o f phys~ ics." In fa ct the concept o f unidirectionality is well reflected in the use o t に w ith these verbs. For exam ple, //resem ble,/ is a case w here one person or thing looks sim ilar to another. In this case, と can also be used if the speaker intends to say that tw o entities look like each other, though に is the prim ary u se•従 う " to fol-

\oWf also indicates a unidirectional a c t in this case b y abiding b y another person’s rule; the concept o f 基づく is to b e derived from som ething. T h e use o f Iこ in these exam ples m akes sense under the concept o f unidirectionality.

5.

へ

ニ〉

学校

The particle へ m arks a place noun and indicates a direction w here the place noun is located. It occurs only w ith

morion yerb. In this sense, に and へ are inter-

changeable: b o t h 学 校 へ 行 き ま す a n d 学 校 に 行 き ま す are interpreted as " I am going to school." The difference is th a t w hile the function o f に can b e boiled d ow n to point to the specific destination or tim e o f an ev e n t the ^

covers a

broader dim ension o f the place w here a m otion occurs. This is w hy ^ cannot be used to m ark a tim e nourv w hile に can. W h en へ is used in a sentence, に can replace ^ (w ithout changing the m eaning o f the sentence too m uch), b u t n ot vice versa. O bserve the follow ing examples: ( 1 ) a . 本田さんはもう家へ戻りました。 M r. H onda has already returned hom e.

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

b

63

. 本田さんはもう家に戻りました。 M r. H ond a has already returned hom e.

⑵

a

. ブッシュ氏が白本へ来ました。 M r. Bu sh cam e to Japan,

b

. ブッシュ氏が日本に来ました。 M r. Bu sh cam e to Japan.

⑶

a.

弟 は ア メ リ カ へ 旅 行 し ま す 。22 M y brother will travel to the United States,

b

. 弟はアメリカに旅行します。 M y brother will travel to the United States.

⑷

a

. 弟はアメリカにイ i み ま す 0 M y brother will live in the United States.

* b (5)

a

. 弟はアメリカへ住みます。 . この本は図書館にあります0 This bo o k is at the library.

* b (6)

. この本は図書館へあります。

a

. 毎 朝 6 時に4 きます。

* b

. 毎 朝 6 時へ起きます。

I get up at 6 o'clock every morning.

T h e function o f と is to bring states, activities, and events into a m utual and redp rocal position. The fundam ental m eaning o f と is bi~directional. In this sense, it is contrary to the function o f に that offers a unidirectional concept. T h e concept of

22If you travel covering a certain portion of the United States, the sentence should be アメリカを旅行し

衣す。 If you intend to say that you go to the United States and do some traveling there； you would say アメリカで旅行します〇The partide thus always plays a role in changing the meaning of the sentence.

CHAPTER 4

64

m utuality develops particularly and d early into tw o o f the follow ing three func­ tions.*23

1.

「と J indicating a m utual action: "w ith each other"’

2.

「と 」 linking m ultiple noun phrases: "a n d "

3.

「と J as quotation m a rk s : " t h a t - "

「と」 indicating a mutual action: "with each other7’

6.1

T h e use o f と d epends on the m eaning of the verb: som e verbs can b e perceived as an event m utually conducted betw een tw o entities and allow the u se o f と, w hile som e verbs are considered only a unilateral event. In the latter case, に is em ployed. Som e verbs can take either t . or |C, w hile som e verbs can em ploy only one particle. Verbs, su ch as 話 す " to speaks〃 会 う " to m e e t" and 相 談 す る "to consult7' can occur w ith either と or に indicating a slightly different m eaning. V erbs such as 交 換 す る " to e x c h a n g e ,"結 婚 す る " to get m arried," and 遊 ぶ " to plav7' are com patible only w ith と due to the m eaning o f the verb, w hile verbs such as

し か け る "to speak to " and 聞 く " to ask (a question)" are not com pati-

ble w ith と since they are perceived as unilateral com m unication. O bserve the follow ing exam ples: せんせい

⑴

a.

川崎さんは先生と話しました。 M s. K aw asaki spoke w ith the teacher.

b.

川崎さんは先生に話しました。 M s. K aw asaki spoke to the teacher.

⑵

a.

川崎さんは先生と会いました。 M s. K aw asaki m et w ith the teacher.

a.

川崎さんは先生に会いました。 M s. K aw asaki m et the teacher.

23 と also has the same function as the quotation marks in '"He said, "I will come,"’き or "th a r in /7He said he would come," followed by a verb, such as 言 う "to sa y ," 思 う "to think/’ 閎 く "

hear/#and so

o a The function of this と as "noun complementizer^ is similar to the function of と as linkage. See section 6.3 below.

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

⑶

a

65

. 川崎さんは先生と相談しました。 M s. Kaw asaki consulted w ith the teacher,

b

. 川崎さんは先生に相談しました。 M s. K aw asaki consulted the teacher.

⑷

a

. 本田さんは豊田さんと車を交換しました。 M s. H onda exchanged a car w ith M r. Toyota.

* b . 本田さんは豊田さんに車を交換しました。 (5)

a

. 本田さんは豊田さんと結婚しました。 M s. H ond a e o t m am ed to M r. Toyota. . 本田さんは豊田さんに結婚しました。

* b (6)

a . 本田さんは豊田さんと遊びました。 M s. H ond a played w ith Mr. Toyota. . 本田さんは豊田さんに遊びました。

* b

M s. H ond a played to M r. Toyota. (7 )

* a

. 学生は先生と話しかけました。 A student spoke to the teacher,

b

. 学生は先生に話しかけました。 A student spoke to the teacher.

(8)

* a

. 学生は先生とf t きました。 A stud ent asked (a question) w ith the teacher,

b

. 学生は先生に聞きました。 A student asked (a question) to the teacher.

6.2

「と」 linking multiple noun phrases:24"and"

と links n ou n phrases to create a unit. In EnglisK "a n d " is required only betw een the last tw o n ou n phrases, b u t in Japanese, と is required betw een each pair of noun phrases (unless they are on the list). O bserve the follow ing exam ples: (9)

レス卜ランで何を备 べましたか。 W h at did you eat at the restaurant? てんぶらとすしとうどんを食べました。 (I) ate tem pura, sushi, and noodles.

24 ihere are two more partdes,に and や, that connect noun phrases*

CHAPTER 4

66

( 1 0 ) 日本で、 どこへ持きましたか。 W here did you go in Japan? 東京と京都と大阪と奈良へ行きました。 (I) w en t to Tokyo, Kyoto, Osaka, and Nara. ( 1 1 ) どんなボールがいいですか。 W h at kind o f balls do you like? 大きいのときれいなのがいいです。 (I)like big ones and pretty ones. ( 1 2 ) 趣>

は何ですか。

W h at are (your) hobbies? & ベることとAることです。 M y hobbies are eating and sleeping.

R em em ber tnat と com es betw een noun phrases, and w h en parts o f speech other than nouns are linked by と,they have to b e in nom inalized

as in 大 き い の

'" b ig o n e ," き れ い な の "p r e tty o n e ," a n d 食 べ る こ と "eatin g ."

「と」

6.3

as quotation marks: "that

と has yet another function: it is used as quotation m arks or "that7' in "S h e said 〜

This function is called "sentence com plem entation• " と links a quotation

and a verb o f thinkings reportings and the like. In tms u s a g e ,と functions to link the verb w ith the content o f the action described b y the verb.

思う かんが

考える

Sentence

と

think

減 い す 言う 含 聞く

regard

?|ぇ る

convey

C

15 ろ く

Can also be a direct or indirect quotation

think/guess

報告する

say hear

report

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

は こ の が f

(13)

67

し い と う が 、友達は間違っていると备 う。

I think that this answ er is correct^ bu t m y friend says that it is wrong. ( 1 4 ) 每I I の 才 リ ン ピ ッ ク は バ ン ク ー バ ー で あ る と f t い た 。 I heard that the next O lym pics will b e held in V ancouver. 「来 週 編 入 試 験 を - け な さ い 」 と 先 生 に 备 わ れ た 。

(15)

I w as told by the teacher, 'T a k e the placem ent exam next w e e k ,/ 「に ほ ん ご 」 は 漢 字 で 「日 本 語 」 と 書 き ま す 。

(16)

Y ou w rite 'Jap a n e se language" as " 日 本 語 " in kanji.

で

7.

The fundam ental function o f T ' is to limit or restrict the range o f the targeted entity. It can be a lo ca tio a an activity, a reasoi% a time, or a quantity. W h en で m arks a place noun, it indicates that the activity designated b y the verb takes place w ithin the location. W h en T* m arks a noun phrase, it limits the possible range of entities to m ean ^using7' or 7/by m eans of/' a possible reason, or a possible tim e or quantity.

1

.

「 で 」 m arking a place noun w here an activity or event takes place

2.

「 で J m arking a noun phrase indicating an entity as a tool

3.

「 で 」 m arking a noun phrase indicating a cause o f the activity or event in the m ain d ause

4.

7.1

「 で 」 m arking a noun phrase indicating tim e or quantity

「 で J marking a place noun

で is used to indicate the location w here an activity is perform ed. "P lace noun + で ^ occurs only w ith a verb that is perceived as an activity. O bserve the follow ing paired sentences in w hich で is com pared to に . ( 1 ) a . 爰1 の i で¥ l l をかけます。 I will m ake a phone call at my friend's house.-> T h e activity takes place at the house of m y friend.

CHAPTER 4

68

b

. 友達の家に電話をかけます。 I will call m y friend's house. —>T h e destination o f the call is the house o f m y friend.

⑵

a

. ここで名前を备 いてください。 Please w rite y ou r nam e here.

Requests that an activity take place in

this place. b

. ここに名前を書いてください。 Please w rite your nam e here. ^ The final location o f you nam e is here (on this paper).

⑶

a

. 友達の家でパーティがありました。 There w as a party (held) at m y friend's house. —> A party took place at the house o f m y firiend.

* b

. 友達の家にパーティがありました。 A party existed at m y m end 's house.

⑷

a.

卜厶は日本で3 年住みました。 丄o m livea in Japan for three yearsパ T o m actively lived life for three years in japan.

b

. 卜厶は日本に3 年住みました。 T o m lived /stayed in Japan for three years.

A s clearly seerv the use o f で and に creates a different interpretation o f the sentence. In sentence ( 3 a ) ,め る is considered an activity verb m eaning "to hold (a party),/ and T is the appropriate particle in this case. W h en |C is used, it im plies that the partv is a static entity, so it is incom patible w ith the m eaning ol： the senfence. Th e verb 住 む is com patible w ith either で or に,though general preference is given to に w h en the sentence sim ply tells w here one lives• 日 本 で 住 む im­ plies the various activities that m ake up life, w hile 住 む in 日 本 に 住 む gives us a com posite picture o f living in general. Thus, not only the m eaning o f the verb, bu t also the abstract picture that the verb a e a te s affect the use o f the partid e and the m eaning o f the sentence.

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

69

「で」 marking a noun phrase indicating an entity as a

7.2

tool A noun phrase m arked b y で presents a "too l" through the m eaning "using/' ’"by m eans of," "w ith a tool," etc. O bserve the follow ing exam ples:

( 5 ) (私は)碧に日ちW で 关 拏 へ fflっ て い ま す が 、 為^はし自て会し< で 枭 ま し た 。 ⑴

(6)

com m u te to school b y car every day, bu t today I cam e b y bicycle.

鋈 え は 諮 #で 备 い て く だ さ い 。 日 記 は 日 本 語 で 書 い て く だ さ い 。 Please w rite answ ers using a pencil. Speaking o f the diary, please w rite it in Japanese.

(7)

すしは拳で； !ベ ま す が 、 ス パ ゲ テ ィ は フ ォ ー ク で 食 べ ま す 。 Speaking o f sushi, you eat (it) w ith your fingers, w hereas spaghetti you eat w ith a fork.

(8)

は )母 と 電 話 で 話 し ま し た 。 そ の 後 、 弟 と 英 語 で 話 し ま し た 。 ⑴ spoke w ith m y m other on the phone. A fter th a t (I) spoke w ith m y brother in English.

(9)

そのニュースは新聞で読みましたが、テレビでは見ませんでした。 Speaking o f that new s, (I) read it in the new spaper, b u t (I) did not see it on TV.

For a m ethod represented b y a verb, the T form o f the verb is used to link w ith the m ain verb.

( 1 0 ) 次の駅まで歩いて合きましょう。 Let’s w alk to the next station. ( 1 1 ) いえ、私は走って行きます。 No, I will run (to the next station).

In sentences (10) and (1 1 ),歩く "to w alk " and 走 る "to ru n " are the m ethod that the agent chcx^ses for going to a designated location. W h en com bining tw o verbs in this m anner, the first verb is m the T. form.

CHAPTER 4

70

7.3

「で 」 marking a noun phrase indicating a cause of the activity or event in the main clause

T h e English equivalent o f this phrase is ’"because o f ’ or "d u e to." ( 1 2 ) 事故でクラスに遅れました。 I w as late for class due to an accident. ( 1 3 ) かぜでクラスを休みました。 I m issed d ass d u e to a cold. ( 1 4 ) 雨で試合が中止になりました。 T h e gam e w as canceled because o f rain. (15)

急用で家へ帰らなくてはなりません。 I have to go h om e due to urgent business.

7.4

「 で J marking a noun phrase indicating time or quantity

T h e English equivalent of this phrase is usually "within/’ "in/' or the like. T h e use o f "C delim its the tim e fram e or the num ber of an entity.

( 1 6 ) こ の 論 文 は 3 日で* き± げ ま し た 。 I w rote up this term paper in three days. ( 1 7 ) 期 末 試 験 は 今 & の金曜で蠢わります。 T h e final exam will end on this rn d a y (after continuing from a d ay preced­ ing the Friday). ( 1 8 ) 导 钱 がー人で飛行機に燊 っていました。 (I saw ) a child w as riding an airplane alone. ( 1 9 ) みんなで一緒に勉強しませんか。 W h y d o n 't w e all study together?

8.

ち

T h e fundam ental function o f も is to indicate that the m arked item is given in relation to another phrase in term s o f their status. A nother phrase m ay b e im plied or stated, depending on the environm ent o f the com m unication. For exam ple, in 山 田 さ ん は す し を 食 べ ま し た 。 そ れ に 、 う ど ん も 食 べ ま し た " M s. Yam ada

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

71

ate sushi. O n top of th a t she ate a bow l of noodles, too, " う ど ん is presented as an object that is given in relation to す し （w hich is stated in this case)•す し and うど ん are in equal status in that both are eaten by 山 田 さ ん . T h e sam e observation applies to a negative predicate, as i n 山 田 さ ん は す し を 食 べ ま せ ん で し た 。 そ れ に 、 う ど ん も 食 べ ま せ ん で し た " Ms. Yam ada did not eat sushi. N ot only th a t she did not eat noodles, either.’’ follow ing a noun phrase or a verb stem form has various m eanings, such as "also ," 'IxDth A and B ," "neither A nor B ," "n o t even/' "a s m anv as/few er than へ" N ote that も can replace only the particles は, が , and を .も is added after the particle, as in で も ，にも, and か ら も •も is also used in the perm ission construction following a gerundive fom v a s in 行 っ て も い い " you m ay go/' Please refer to Chapter 22 on structure of p erm issio n .

1• N ou n phrase + 2. V erb stem +

「も」

「も」

い adjective or く /な adjective で +

3.

「も」

8.1 Noun phrase + 「も」 8 . 1 . 1 「も J ⑴

a

m e a n in g " a l s o , " A o t h A a n d

B/’ o r " n e i t h e r A

nor

B"

. 私 は 日 本 語 の 先 生 で す 。 田中さんも日本語の先生です。 I am a Japanese language teacher. M r. Tanaka is also a Japanese language teacher. (Mr. Tanaka is com pared to the speaker in term s o f his being a Japanese language teacher.)

b

. 田中さんも私も日本語の先生です。 B oth M r. Tanaka and I are Japanese. がくせい

田中さんも私も学生じゃあリません。 N either M r. Tanaka nor I is a student, ⑵

a

. 山下さんは台湾へ行きました。韓国へもいきました。 それから、香港へも行きました。 M s. Yam ashita w ent to Taiwan. She also w en t to Korea. And, she also w en t to H ong Kong. (Taiwan, Korea, and H ong K ong are com pared in term s o f M s. Y am ashita's visits to those places.)

CHAPTER 4

72

. 山 下 さ ん は 台 湾 へ も 韓 国 へ も 、（ そ れ か ら ）香 港 へ も 合 き ま し た 。

b

M s. Yam ashita w en t to Taiw an and Korea, as well as H ong Kong. 山下さんは台湾と韓国と香港へ行きました。

Cf. ⑶

. 電話は一階にはありません。二階にもありません。

a

bpeaking o f the telephone, it is not on tne first tlcx>r. It is not on the second floor, either. (The l sl floor arid 2nd floors are com pared in terms o f not having a telepnone.) . 電話は一階にも、二階にもありません。

b

Speaking o f the telephone, it is neither on the first nor the second floor.

8.1.2 ⑷

I

m eaning of "as m any/few er than," "n o t even"

a

. 若 者 が コ ン サ ー ト に 5 ,0 0 0 人 来 ま し た 。

b

. 若 者 が コ ン サ ー ト に 5 ,0 0 0 人 も 来 ま し た 。

5,000 young people cam e to the concert,

A s m any as 5,000 young people cam e to the concert. (5)

a

. 学生は試験を会けませんでした。 Speaking o f the students, they did not take the exam ,

b

. 学 生 は 1 0 人も試験を受けませんでした。 Speaking o f the students, not even ten students took the exam (out of 40, for exam ple).

(6)

a

. 最近 の 碧 い A は漢字が备 けません。 Speaking of present-day young people, they cannot w rite kanji.

b

. 最近の若い人は漢字も書けません。 Speaking o f present-day young people, they cannot even w rite kanji.

Som etim es the com pared entity is greater or less than the given or im pliea item. For exam ple, the difference b e t w e e n 若 者 が コ ン サ ー ト に 5,00 0 人 来 ま し た "5,000 young people cam e to the concert^ and 若 者 が コ ン サ ー ト に 5,000 人 も 来 ま し た " A s m any as 5,000 young people cam e to the concert7' in sentence (4) is that the form er presents a sim ple fact w ithout any im plication, w hile the latter im plies that the speaker^ orieinal expectation w as fess f/w" 5,000 u.ev an im plied,

73

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

com pared item) and tends to express a feeling of unexpectedness (either favorable or unfavorable). T h e sam e is true of sentence (5b), w here a negative predicate is used. T h e speaker in this sentence expected that m any students w ould turn out (implied expectation com pared to the actual num ber o f students w ho turned out), but the result w as fewer tlmi 10 against the speaker's original expectation. Sen­ tence (6b) im plies that the speaker has som e other com pared item in m ind; it di­ rectly follow s an additional item that young people cannot do, such as m aking proper use o f honorific form s to older people. (See C hapter 17, Section 2.7 on し力、

〜ない.）

8.1.3 interrogative noun + も + negative predicate indicating "n o 〜 " も can follow an interrogative noun indicating "nothing/’ "n o one,” and "no~ w here. T h e follow ing are the basic interrogative nouns that occur w ith も to express these m eanings. N ote that a particle m av be required betw een the mterrogative noun and も to explicate the m eaning of a sentence.25

何誰 どど

none/ nothing こ

も

+ negative predicate

つ

(7)

no one now here nothing

a

. 诘 か食べましたか。 D id you eat som ething?

b

. 何も食べませんでした。 I did n ot eat anything.

(8)

a

. 誰 か と 1諸 し ま し た か 。 D id you sp eak w ith som eone?

b•

誰とも話しませんでした。 I did not speak w ith anyone. If と is forgotter% the m eaning of the sentence changes to:

* c

. 誰も話しませんでした。 N o one spoke.

25Note that いつも"always" is not used in this patterrL

CHAPTER 4

74 (9)

. どこかへ合きましたか。

a

Did you go anywhere? b

. ど こ (へ ) も 行 き ま せ ん で し た 。 I did not go anywhere. (*Note that the use of ^ is grammatical and desirable, but in conversation, as long as the meaning is clear, it m ay be omitted.)

a . 財布はどこかにありましたか。

(10)

Speaking of the wallet, w as it somewhere? b

. どこにもありませんでした。 It w as not anywhere. . ど こ も あ り ま せ ん で し た 。 26

* c

N ow here existed. (11)

a

. どうかしましたか。 Did something w rong happen?

b

. どうもしませんでした。 Nothing w rong happened.

8.2

Verb stem + 「もJ

Verb phrases can also serve as additional entities. If the entity is an affirmative addition^ す る follows the stem form of a verb with も，as in 骨 を 食 べ も す る "(he) even eats bones." If the f n t i y i s a negative addition^ す ^) follows the stem form of a verb with も, as in 水 を 飲 み も し な い " (he) does not even drink w ater." The following are som e examples:

(1 2 )

う ち の 犬 は こ の 3 日間、 ご 飯 を 見 も し な い 。 dop; has not even looked at food for three days.

(13)

私は逃げも隠れもしないつもりだ。 I intend to neither escape nor hide.

( 1 4 ) 彼 は 手 紙 を 蠢 み も し な い で 、A て た 。 H e threw the letter aw ay without even reading it.

26 としもas an individual word means "everywhere," and can be used in a sentence like どこもセ一ル をしています"A sale is going on everywhere.〃

75

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

( 1 5 ) 山田さんは^

! を蠢む。 それに# きもする。

M s. Y am ada reads English. In addition, she w rites English.

8.3

い adjective く o r な adjectiveで + 「も」

A n い /な adjective phrase can serve as an entity w ith も, as in " it is not even delicious." In su ch cases, the く form o f an い adjective and the て form o f a な adjective precedes も•The following are som e exam ples:

(16)

魚 は 嫌 い だ 。i たくもない。 I dislike fish. I d o not even w ant to see it.

(17)

忙 し く も な い の に 、 いつも疲れている。 T hough not even busy, I am alw ays tired.

( 1 8 ) 彼はじようずでもないのに、 ゴルフができることを自慢する。 H e brags about being able toj^lay golf even though he is not gcxxi. ( 1 9 ) おもしろくもないのに、専攻のため毎日クラスに出なければならな いのは苦痛だ。 It is painful to attend d ass every day because o f m y m ajor, and the d ass is not even interesting.

9.

や

The particle や, like と and に, is used to list nouns. T he difference is that や refers to partial lists, im plying the existence of m ore item s. For exam ple, in the picture below , saying '"B や G " im plies the existence o f the rest o f the item s in the d rd e; hence the m eaning '"B and G, and so forth."や can b e replaced b y と力、 in collo~ quial conversation (though と力、 cannot alw ays be replaced b y や ).27

27Note that when you list th p u y o u did (described bv a verb), the たり〜たり construction should be used (see Chapter 1 1 ).E g v 白本で旅 1ラしたりを ‘

に蠢ったりしました "I did activities, such as

traveling and meeting a friend in Japan." Also,や may appear at the end of a sentence as a sentence final partide like よ，ね, and か asin まあ、いいや '"W ell,ifs okay. ..." No explanation of this function is provided in this book.

CHAPTER 4

76

⑴

a

. レス卜ランで椅を备 ベましたか。 W h at did you eat at the restaurant?

b

. すきやきやてんぷらを备 べました。 I ate food, such as sukiyaki and tem pura.

⑵

a

. 日本ではどこを旅行しましたか。 W h ere did you travel in Japan?

b

. 京都や奈良や大阪を旅行しました。 I traveled to places such as Kyoto, N ara, and Osaka.

10. の 1.

厂のJ linking noun phrases

2.

I の J m arking a subject in a relative clause

「の 」 linKing noun pftrases 1 0 .1 .1 「 の」 expressing a possessive relationsnip

10.1

(D links m ultiple noun phrases and identifies the relationship o f the phrases. O ne o f the m ost frequently observed functions is "p ossession" — the phrase follow ing

(0 belongs to the preceding noun phrase. O bserve the follow ing exam ples and com pare to English to see how the relationship is represented in a structurally consistent m anner in Japanese. (See also noun-m odifying constructions in C hapter 17.)

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

77

A d e scrib esB

B belongs to A わたし

ともだち

⑴ m y friend, a friend o f m ine b•友 達 の 写 真 pictures of a friend, a friend's picture c

. 私の友達の写真 a picture o f m y m end, m y m end 's picture

d

. アメリカのミシガン M ichigan in Am erica

e

アメリカのミシガンの大学

.

a university in M ichigan in Am erica せんせい

f . アメリカのミシガンの大学の先生 a teacher a t a university in M ichigan in A m erica g

. アメリカのミシガンの大学の日本語の先生 a Japanese language teacher at a university in M ichigan in Am erica

N ou n phrases linked b y (D becom e a longer noun phrase w hich can b e a topic; su b ject direct o b ject or indirect object.

⑵ 丨 私 の 友 達 |は [ ア メ リ カ の ミ シ ガ ン の 大 学 ] へ 行 き ま し た 。 NP

NP

M y friend w en t to a university in M ichigan in Am erica.

⑶

Lアメリカのミシガンの大学の日本語の先生] に嘉いました。 I m et a Japanese language teacher at a university in M ichigan in Am erica.

CHAPTER 4

78

1 0 .1 .2 「 の J expressing an appositional relationship W h en tw o phrases are o f equal status rather than standing in a hierarchical order, the relationship betw een the phrases is said to b e appositional. In English, a com m a is usually used betw een such phrases. In Japanese, (D is used to describe the appositional relationship. In this case, 0) is not connecting tw o n ou n phrases so that the first noun phrase is m odifying the second, b u t is sim ply linking them in a parallel m anner. R em em ber that the m ain noun is alw ays stated a t the end o f all the phrases w h en (D is used to link noun phrases. (The m ain noun in the follow ing exam ples w ith (〇 is underlined.)

⑷

a.

t

し の 遐 @

ジ ョ ン は 碟 踩

へ # きます。

M y m end Joh n is going to jap an next year. b

. 私の友達、 ジョンは来年日本へ行きます。 M v fnend Joh n is going to Japan next year,

(5)

a

. 社 長 （ ^

) 田中逢がホワイトハウスでブッシュ隹に会った。

President Tanaka m et M r. Bush at the W hite House. b

. 田中社長がホワイ卜ハウスでブッシュ氏に会った。 President Tanaka m et M r. Bush at the W hite House.

(6)

a

.

日 本 人 私 左 专 も お 米 を よ く ： ！ベ ま す 。 W e, ^who are) Japanese people, eat nee a lo t too.

b

.

私たち、 日本人もお米をよく食べます。 W e Japanese people eat rice a lo t too.

(7)

a

. アメリカ人@

ジョンも日本人と一緒に行きました。

John, ^who is) an A m encan, w ent w ith Japanese people. b

.

アメリカ人、ジョンも日本人と一緒に行きました。 A n Am erican, Joh n w ent w ith Japanese people.

10.2

「の J marking a subject in a relative clause (RC>

T h e particle の can m ark a subject only in a relative clause•の and 力《 are in this case interchangeable. O bserve the following exam ples:

79

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar か

(8)

くるま

ラんてん

鈴 木 さ ん は [本 田 さ ん が /の 買 っ た 】[豐 田 の 車 】を 運 転 し た 。

M s. Suzuki drove [a Toyota car]28 that [Mr. H onda purchased].

( 9 ) ( 私 は ) [ あ な た が /の i ■う】[事 ] が 信 用 で き ま せ ん 。 I cannot trust [what] [you say]. [あ な た が /の 各 き な 】[人 】に こ の プ レ ゼ ン ト を あ げ て く だ さ い 。

(1 0 )

Please give this present to [a person] [w hom you like]. [木 村 さ ん が /の 昨 日 行 っ た 】[ レ ス 卜 ラ ン 】で 食 事 を し ま し よ う 。

(1 1 )

L e fs have a m eal at [the restaurant] w here [Mr. K im ura w en t yesterday].

ii■

から

ゆ

T h e fundam ental m eaning o f か ら is to indicate the source or beginning point of an event physically, tem porally, and spatially.から indicates the point w here an event takes place, b u t it also refers to the notion o f the continuation o f the event. から expresses various meanings, such as "from /' "since,” and "after." T he m eanings //since,/ and ,/after,/ are usually expressed b y the u se o f the T form o f a verb. O bserve the follow ing examples:

⑴

a

. 会議は1 0 時からM まります。 T h e m eeting runs from 10 o 'd o ck (im plies that the m eeting goes u n til12 o’clock^ for example).

b

. 会 議 は 1 0 時に始まります。 T h e m eeting starts at 10 o'clock*

⑵

a

. 飛 行 機 は 成 田 か ら & ます。 T h e airplane leaves from Narita (goes som ew here else).

28aA Toyota cai/, in this sentence functions as a '"head noun (H N )/' A head noun is a noun or a noun phrase that is modified by a relative dause. For furdier discussion, see Chapter 17, Section 1.4.

CHAPTER 4

80 b

. 飛 行 機 は 成 田 を &ま す 。 T h e airplane 丨 eaves N anta.

W

⑶

の命屋から音楽が聞こえます。

I can hear m usic from the next room . ⑷

茭 は

K

張から戻りました。

M y father returned from the business trip. ノ \夕 一 は ミ ル ク か ら 作 ら れ ま す 。

(5)

Butter is m ad e from milk. a . 松 田 さ ん か ら う ゎ さ を ftきました。

(6)

I heard the rum or from M s. M atsuda. b

. 松田さんにうわさを聞きました。 I heard the ru m or from M s. M atsuda.

(7)

a

. 大学から奨学金をもらいました。 I received a scholarship from the university.

* b (8)

a

. 大学に奨学会を专 らいました。 . 図書館から本を借りました。 I checked out a bo o k from the library.

* b

. 図書館に本を借りました。

N ote that w h en the source o f an event is not an anim ate entity, only T)^b can be used. (Refer to section 4 in this chapter about i%-.;

1白ほ:表に枭 て か ら 1冗 5犖 に な り ま す 。

(9)

It has been 20 years since I cam e to Japan. (10)

コ ッ プ に 一 杯 水 を 飲 ん で か ら i ます。 I go to bed after I d rink a glass of water.

b can also b e used as a sentence-final conjunction m eaning '"and so./r Refer to C hapter 14> Section 1.1.3.

Fundamentals of J apanese G rammar

81

12• ま で Starting point (from)

Ending point (to)

O ccurrence or non-occurrence o f an event The particle ^ C is used to indicate that the occurrence or non-occurrence o f an event continues up to a certain p o in t and not beyond that p o in t It em phasizes the continuation o f the event rather than goal (usually indicated by に) . It is often used w ith から to indicate the source o f an event. W hen か ら does not occur, it is usually im plied.

⑴

高^ は ％ か ら 5 旧 ま で 关 拏 で の 誤 辕 が あ り ま す 。 Today, I have a chem istry exam from 10 to 12 at the university.

⑵ 成 田 か ら デ 卜 ロ イ 卜 ま で 飛 行 機 で 約 1 2 時間かかります。 It takes approxim ately 12 hours from Narita to D etroit b y airplane. (3)

7 月 か ら 9 月まで雨がぜんぜん_ りませんでした。 It did not rain at all from July to Septem ber.

(4)

あなたの_ まで車で送ってさしあげましょう。 I shall give you a ride to your home.

(5)

ここまで去ればもう大丈夫でしょう。 Since w e have com e this far, w e will b e O K (w e will no longer need to w orry).

(6)

あなたがそこまで言うなら、 私も一言言いましょう。 If you speak up to tliat p o in t I will say a word, too.

In certain co n tex t ま で is used to em phasize the m eaning o f "even/’ w hich is sim ilar to も. This use o f ま で is derived from the concept "until/' in that som e state has been reached to influence som eone or som ething to b e or act in a certain w ay. O bserve the follow ing examples:

CHAPTER 4

82 (7)

a

. あ な た ま で そ ん な _ を# う の で す か 。

Even you com e to say things like that? b

. あなた土そんな事を言うのですか。 Y ou too com e to say things like that?

(8)

a

. あの建物まで壊されてしまいます。

Even that building will unfortunately be dem olished, b

. あの建物土壊されてしまいます。 T h at building too w ill unfortunately b e dem olished.

13. までに

An event cannot go beyond this pointy but be realized anytime before this point

ま で に , a com bination o f ま で and Iこ, generally follow s a tim e n o u a indicating that an event ought to b e realized before the point described by the tim e noun•に in ま で に indicates the specific tim e before w hich the event is supposed to be realized, and ま で indicates a duration of tim e to w hich the event m ay extend. ょ じ き > For ex am p le,4 時 ま で に 来 て く だ さ い m eans that a speaker is requesting the listener to visit the speaker anytim e before 4 o'dock, b u t not beyond. 3 ; c(v_ is used to indicate that an event is to b e realized either "in tim e" or "o n tim e." O bserve the follow ing exam ples:

⑴

7 時までに家へ帰らなければなりません。 I have to go hom e b y 7 o'clock*

⑵

6 月 1 5 日 ま で に 日 本 へ 合 く こ と に な っ て い ま す が 、 ま だ 1刀> 1 を 夤 っていません。 I am supposed to go to Japan by Ju ne 15th, b u t I have not y et purchased a ticket.

(3)

何時までに電話をすればいいですか。 B y w hat tim e shall I call you?

Fundamentals of J apanese G rammar

83

14. か T h e sentence-final partide A ' has three m ain functions, listed below .

1 . S e n te n c e -fin a l「 か 」 as a question m arker 2 • 「か 」 indicating "or"’ 「 力、 」

3.

14.1

w ith an interrogative noun creating a w ord: "so m e

S e n te n c e -f in a l 「 か J as a question m arker

Instead o f using a question mark, Japanese uses tion.29

⑴

to m ark a sentence as a ques­

m ay appear at the end o f a sentence or in an em bedded sentence.

a

. あ の 労 は 1白 本 人 で す か 。 Is that person Japanese?

b

.

ハーバード大学はどこにありますか。 W here is Harvard University located?

c

. 試験の結果はどうでしたか。 W h at w as the result o f the exam ?

d• 明 日 も 雨 が 高 る で し ょ う か 。 I w onder if it w ill rain tom orrow, too. T h e following are cases w here

appears in an em bedded sentence. W h en a

question becom es em bedded, ^ remains to m aintain the interrogative status o f the onginal, b u t follow s a plain form o f the predicate, bentences (2a) and (2b) in­ d u d e an interrogative. ⑵

a

. 鈴木さんの誕生日はいつですか。教えてください。 W hen is M s. Suzuki's birthday? Please let m e know .

I 鈴 木 さ ん の 誕 生 日 は いつか教えてください。 Please let m e know w hen Ms. buzuKi's birthday is. 29See also Chapter 15, Section 1.3.

CHAPTER 4

84 b

. 豊田さんはど ん な 車 が & きですか。岛 っていますか。 W h at kind of ca r does M r. Toyota like? D o you know ?

豊田さんはどんな車が好きか知っていますか。 D o you know w hat kind of car M r. Toyota likes ( If the original sentence is m terro gativ e,力、 とつ力、 is used, as show n in the follow ing exam ples: ⑶

本田さんは来月日本へ帰りますか。聞いてみてください。 Is M s. H onda returning to Japan n ext m ontn? Please ask and find out. I 本田さんは来月日本へ帰るかどうか聞いてみてください。 Please ask M s. H onda and tm d out if she is returning to Japan n ext m onth.

⑷ こ の 電 話 は 接 え ま す か 。試してください。 Is this phone usable? Please trv.

1 この電話は使えるかどうか試してください。 Please try to see if this phone is usable.

14.2 「 か 」 indicating "o f’ t)^ can also be used to express the m eaning

^ or/7 It follow s a phrase o r sentence.

The equivalent of "A o r B " is "A か B か •" W hen か is used w ith tw o noun phrases, it seldom follow s the second noun phrase.

(5)

a

. す し か て ん ぷ ら (か )を 注 文 し ま し よ う 。 Let7s order either sushi or tem pura. 土 曜 日 か 日 曜 日 (か ) に 、 釣 り か ハ イ キ ン グ (か ) に 行 き ま せ ん か 。

b.

W ould n 't you like to go fishing or hiking on either Saturday or Sunday? c

. 行けるか行けないか、 まだわかりません。 I do not know y et if I can go or not.

d

.

部屋がきれいかきたないかはここでは問題ではありません。 The room ’s being clean or not is not an issue here.

Fundamentals of J apanese G rammar

(6)

a

85

. こ れ は 本 田 さ ん の 車 で す か 、（ そ れ と も )30鈴 木 さ ん の で す か 。 Is this M r. H onda's car or M r. Suzuki's?

b

. こ の ド レ ス は 日 本 製 で す か 、（ そ れ と も ）韓 国 製 で す か 。 W as this dress m ade in Japan or in Korea?

14.3

「 か 」 with an interrogative noun creating a word: "some

だれ 4_ なに W h en 力、 is added to an interrogative word, such as 誰 、 と し 、 何 , and so orv the

w ord is no longer an interrogative. It instead expresses a "so m e ノ’ m eaning.

誰

、

’ 誰か

いつ

someone/ anyone

いっか

som etim e

何か

som ething/anything

どこか

somewhere/ anvw here

どラ

どうか

som ewhat/ in som e w ay

どうして

どうしてか

som e reason

なぜか

som e reason

何 どこ

>

なぜ

(7)

か べ

ノ

k

A : 今日は誰かに备 いましたか。 D id you m eet anyone (particular) tcxiay? B

: いいえ、誰にも 会 い ま せ ん で し た 。 No, I did n ot m eet anyone.

(8)

A

: いっか一縫に韓国へ馘耔しませんか。 W o n 't you go on a trip w ith m e to Korea som etim e?

B

: ええ、い つ か _ • Yes, som etim e—

(9)

この問題はどうか（ なんとか） しなければならない。 Speaking o f this problem , w e m ust do it in som e w ay/ w e m u st do som ething about it.

( 1 0 ) なぜか彼は最近静かだ。 For som e reason, he has been quiet recently. 30The conjunction そ れ と も "o , is often used after か.

CHAPTER 4

86

15. ね is used m ost com m only in casual/colloquial speech and com m unication. It ocxurs at the end o f a phrase or a sentence w hen the speaker is looking for agreem ent from the listener.31

has m any variations in intonation. D epending

on the proscxly, it can create various nuances. There is also interaction betw een the intonation and the pragm atics o f ね and other sentence particles, such as よ ね and ね え . The m ain use o f ね ，however, is as a tag questioi% such as in 'T h e food w as delicious, zuasn't it?,f w here the speaker is confirm ing the appropriateness of the sentence w ith the listener. The strategy o f

is certainly that the speaker is

trying to involve the listener in the conversation, bu t if the speaker w ants to elicit agreem ent from the listener, the cfcta pattern m ay b e m ore com m only used. T he よ ね pattern offers the sp e a k e rs idea^ belief, opinior% know ledge, and so fortl% then aw aits the listener^ agreem ent and/or confirm ation. T h e particle ね , on the other hand, m ay sim ply seek the listener's agreem ent and/or confirm ation

⑴

a

. 暑いですね。 It’s h o t isn’t it?

b•

暑いですよね。 I feel hot. D o n 't you feel so too?

⑵

a

. 試験は難しかったですね。

b

. 試験は難しかったですよね。

T h e exam w as hard, w asn’t it?

I think that the exam w as hard. D on 't you think so too? ⑶

a

. 会 議 は 1 0 時に始まりますね。 T h e m eeting will start at 10:00, right?

b• 会 議 は 1 0 時に始まりますよね。 I believe that the meeting starts at 10:00, bu t am I right? ⑷

a

. 昨日は欠席でしたね。

b

. 昨日は欠席でしたよね。

Y ou w ere absent yesterday, right?

I thought that you w ere absent yesterday. Isn't that correct?

31Q . Kamio (1990,1994> 1997b).

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

⑶

87

試験、すごく難しかったよねえ。 T h e exam w as extrem ely difficult w asn't it?

In ね え ， the v o w e l" e 〃in "n e 〃is prolonged and pronounced "n ee ." This m ay create a fem inine sound, as it is often used by fem ale language speakers.ね is also used to indicate a speaker's statem ent as confirmatiorv su ch as //O .K ./, or '"all right" as show n in the follow ing examples: く ぎ の に A をつけてね。

(6)

Please drive safely, O.K. 元気でね。

(7)

Please take care, O.K. 私は键 の意見には反対ですね。

(8)

I tell you that I disagree w ith his opinion.

Sample dialogue ひどいわよねえ 洋子：

ねえ、ちょっと聞いてよ。 bav, listen.

友子：

どうしたの？ W h at happened?

洋子：

彼ったら、ひどいのよ。 「 君 、 最 近 太 っ た ？」 な ん て 言 う の よ ！ M y bovm end is terrible. H e savs, '"Did you gain w eight lately?''

友子：

そんなこと言ったの？それはひどいわねえ。 D id he say that? That's terrible, isn't it!

洋子

友子：

そ う よ ね 。 ひ ど い わ よ ね え 。普 通 は そ う い う こ と 言 わ な い わ よ ね 。 I think so too. I t s terrible. People usually d o n 't say things like th a t d o n 't you think. ね え ！ They don’t do they!

16. よ よ m ay b e used to state a sentence assertively and/or to soften the tone o f the voice. English equivalents m ay be, "y ou know "an d " I’m telling y o u ," b u t these equivalents m ay not b e applicable in a l l よ sentences. The nuance created b y よ is

CHAPTER 4

88

subtle and d epends on the environm ent of the com m unication. In general, ju st like 枚 よ is often used to involve the listener in the com m unication or to respond to the speaker^ invitation to com m unication. For this reasorv よ often occurs in response to questions. The sentences in parentheses in the follow ing exam ples are given to show the difference in w hat

⑴

A : 契? [ ですが、

sentences m ay imply.

1白ほ未の労ですか。

Excuse me, b u t are you Japanese? B••ええ、そうですよ。 Yes, I am (but w hat can 1 do for you?). A

: こ の日本語、英 語 に 訳 せ ま す か 。 C an you translate this Japanese into English?

B

: ええ、できますよ。 Yes, I can (so do you w ant m e to do it?).

⑵

A : 昨日の会議に出ませんでしたよね。 I believe that you did not attend yesterday^ m eeting. Isn't that correct? B

: いいえ、出ましたよ。 Y ou r statem ent is w rong; I attended the meeting, you know .

⑶

A : あ、そ こ は 危 な い で す よ 。 W ow , that place is dangerous, you know. B

: そうなんですか。 Is that right?

A:

そうですよ。気をつけてくださいよ。 Yes, Tm telling you. Please be careful, O.K.

17. でも で も , m eaning

or som ething/som eone," is used w hen a speaker is not neces-

sarily particular about the preceding noun. It can replace various partides, such as を, へ と ，に •For e x a m p le ,お 案 を 敎 み ま せ ん か m eans that the speaker is ask­ ing the interlocutor w hether or not s/he is interested in having som e te^ w hile in お 茶 で も 飲 み ま せ ん か , the drink can b e som ething other than tea. T h e focus is

89

Fundamentals of J apanese G rammar

on the activity, and n ot on the noun. T ' B is often used in invitation structures, such a s ま せ ん か , ま し よ う ，ま し よ う か -

す しを蠢ベませんか

すしでも食べませんか。 W ould vou like to eat sushi or som ething?

喫茶店へ行きましょうか。

喫茶店へでも行きましょうか。 Shall w e go to a coffee shop or som ething?

公園で話しましようか。

公園ででも話しましょうか。 Shall w e talk at a park or som ew here?

SamDle dialogues デ一卜に誘うときは チビ： タマ：

あのう、タマさん、ちょっとミルクでも飲みませんか。 あ な た ね え 、 も う ち ょ っ と 気 の 利 い た 誘 い 方 で き な い の ？ (Can y o u b e a b itm o r e ta c tfu l? )そ う い う の 、 「 決まリ文句」 っていうの よ。 （ Th at's called "a fixed phrase.”）

チビ：

そ う で す か 。 す み ま せ ん 。 あ の 、 じゃあ、 鳥 で も 見 ま せ ん か 。

夕マ：

それも同じ。

チビ：

あ 、そ う • • • 。 じゃ、 「 木でも藝りませんか」はどうですか。

夕マ：

それも同じでしょう。 あのねえ、 「 〜 で も 」 を 使 う と 真 矣 f 味に 欠 け る の よ ね え 。 （L ack o f seriousness w hen y ou use でも.）

チビ：

. . .。

何 も で き な い ,日 男：

¥ 日 は 綽 Mで も す る か 。 （と # ^) て 落 、 羅 を 齒 け る ）

t

あ ^ I、 何 も な い • • ■ 。 じや、 買 い 物 に で も 行 く か 。 （と 言 っ て 財 布 を開ける） ^ 1 、cお 金 が な い 。 じ や 、 ま ず お 金 で も お ろ し に 行 く か 。 （と 言 っ て 車に乗る） あ れ 、 ガ ソ リ ン が な い 。 し か た な い 、 i で テ レ ビ で も 炱 る か 。 （と言 つてテレビをつける） ていでん

あれ？

停 電 だ。（ p o w e ro u ta g e )も う • • • 。

何 も で き な い じ や な い か 。 じや 、 邊 よ う 〜 っ と 。

CHAPTER 5

Transitive vs. Intransitive

Describing verbs as transitive or intransitive is one o f the m ost basic and com m on w ays to characterize them . /Transitive,/ refers to a verb that takes an o b ject w hile //intransitive,/ refers to verbs that d o not. In other w ords, the transitive structure is SO V, w hile the intransitive structure is SV . In English, m anv verbs can serve both as transitive verbs (v.t.) and intransitive verbs (v.i.), for exam ple, "o p e n " in " I open the door", vs. "th e door opens," or "chan g e" in " I changed the ru le" vs. "the rule changed/7 This distinction is m arked m orphologically in Japanese, and dif­ ferent verbs are used to express transitivity and intransiuvity. T h e Q iin e s e char­ acters used to transcribe the verbs m ay b e the sam e and pronundation o f the verbs m ay be similar, b u t there is no single rule for the form ation o f transitive and intransitive verbs (see Jacobsen, 1992). T h e follow ing exam ples exhibit the basic structures o f transitive and intransitive verbs:

Intransitive Structure

Transitive Structure

S

O

を

S

V.T.

が

V.I.

先 生 が ク ラ ス を 始 め る 。

ク ラ ス が 始 ま る 。

The teacher starts class.

T h e d ass starts.

open

ドアを閉める

d ose

i t める

車を止める

つ 14 け る 消す

-> -> ->

野菜を腐らす+ 名前を変える< 時計を壊す

a m ajor is d e a d e d upon

ベル卜をゆるめる

->

ベル卜がゆるむ

loosen belt

->

belt becom es loose

身体を休める

>

身体が休まる

rest one’s bod y

>

the bod y becom es rested

f e を矗ぜる

->

色が混ざる

m ix w ith colors

colors becom e m ixed w ith

サイズを縮める

サイズが縮まる

reduce size

size shrinks

風船を飛ばす

風船が飛ぶ

let balloons fly

balloons fly

A sem antic feature com m only seen in transitive verbs is that the subject (agent) is m ost often an anim ate entity w hich operates and controls the situation, activity, or event described b y the verb b y its ow n volition. Contrarily, w h en a situation is described b y an intransitive verb, the situation is usually on e that is not under the control o f an anim ate entity; rather, it describes w hat happens to the subject. Therefore, an intransitive verb tends to express a situation that results from the 1Refer to Q iapter 4 for explanations of the usage of each partide

CHAPTER 5

92

action o f an anim ate entity, bu t indicating a resultative state. For exam ple, in ドア を 開 け た 1 opened the d o o f versus ド ア が 開 い た " the door op ened / it is envisioned that the d oor opened as a result o f som eone’s having opened the door. A n anim ate entity^ volitional control tends to b e behind the generation o f a sentence w ith an intransitive verb.2 A m ong events descnbed b y intransitive verbs, how ever, there are m any that an anim ate entity can control b y its ow n will. These are called ^volitionalintransitive verbs^ in this book.3 Also, am ong transitive verbs, there are verbs called "d itransitve" and "stative-transitive." Ditransitive verbs can take both direct and indirect objects. Stative-transitive verbs are not volitionally controllable, b u t can take an object. The figure show s the categories o f these verbs and w here they belong.

かぜ

&

2 N atu ral p h en o m e n a are excep tion s sin ce th ey are n o t caused b y an an im a te entity, su ch as 風が吹く "th e w in d b lo w s " an d 雨 が 降 る " th e rain falls*" 3T h e d assification o f intran sitiv e v erb s u sed h ere (intransitive v erb s and volitional-intransitive verbs) is b ased o n tw o categories: un accu sativ es an d un ergatives (as op p o sed to accu sativ es fo r transitive verbs). T h is linguistic d a s a fica tio n is covered, e g v in Perlm utter (1978), Levin an d R ap p ap o rt H a v o v (1995), and Jo h n so n (2 0 0 1 ,2002).

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

1. 1.1

93

Intransitive Verbs Volitional-intransitive verbs

1.1.1 Standard volitional-intransitive verbs that take the partide 「を

」

ぁる

はし

Let us tirst look at som e standard verbs, such as 歩 く " to walk/’ 走 る "to run/’ 飛 ぶ〃to f ly ," 泳 ぐ 〃 to s w im / '渡 る " to c r o s s ," 曲 が る " to turn the corner^4 in addition to m otion verbs, such as 行 く " to g o ," 来 る " to com e," and 帰 る " to go hom e./, These volitional-intransitive verbs norm ally d o not take an o b ject b u t are often used for a m ovem ent from one place to another. In this case, the place noun in w hich the m ovem ent occurs is m arked by the partide を, as if the verb is transitive. The use o f the partide を m these contexts is not exactly the sam e as its usage w hen used w ith a transitive verb, such as す し を 食 べ る " I eat su shi," b u t it is similar, in that the place m arked by を w ith volitional-intransitive verbs is acted upon by an a g e n t either conceptually or physically.5 L et us look a t the following examples: ⑴

a

. サリーは公園まで歩いた。 Sally w alked as for as the p a rk (公園 is the goal o f the motion.)

b

. サリーは公園を歩いた。 Sally w alked the park* Sally took a w alk in the park•(公園 is the place w here the m otion "to w alk " occurred.)

M*he transitive cou n terp arts fo r th ese v erbs ;

歩かす , 走らす , 飛ばす , 泳がす , 键 す , a n d 晶げる，

respectivelv.

一 T h e d ijfcren oe b etw ee n th e ob】ect m ark er を and th e を th at m a rk s th e p ath is identified whei% tor exam ple, th e pred icate acco m p an ies th e desiderative form たい •W h en を in 山 を i tain " is chan ged to が in th e desiderative sentence 山 が 登 り た い " I w a n t

る "d

d im b a m o u n tairv " th e

ch an g e creates an aw k w ard expressioi% w h ile th e object m a rk e r を in 7长 を 飲 む " d rin k water^’ ca n be chan ged to が in th e desiderative sen tence 水 が 飲 み た い ’"I w a n t to d rin k water^ w ith o u t cau sin g an y a w k w a rd n e ss T h e d eg ree o f acceptability for sentences like 山が登りたい，川が泳ぎたい /7I w a n t to sw im in th e riv er," an d 空 が 飛 び た い " I w an t to fly th rou gh th e s k , m a y b e d ifferent d ep en d in g o n context an d from ind ividu al to individual, b u t the tend en cy is fo r を to prevail o v e r 力f in th e desiderative constru ction an d th e u se o f 力《to b e consid ered inappropriate. Fo r a re v iew o f th e p a rtid e を， refer to C h ap ter 4> Section 3.

94

CHAPTER 5 C.

サリーはてんぷらを备 ベた。 Sally ate tem p u ra.(て ん ぶ ら is an object upon w hich the a g e n t/ subject acted.)

⑵

a.

卜厶はキャンパスに尚かって走った。 Tom ran tow ard the cam pus•(キ ャ ン パ ス is the goal of the m otion.)

b.

卜厶はキャンパスを走った。 T om ran through the cam pus .(キャンパス is the p lace w here the m otion "to ru n " occurred.)

⑶

a.

ジ ェ リ ー は I'llで 泳 い だ 。 Jerry sw am in the river. (The activity 泳 ぐ took place in the river.)

b.

ジェリーは川を泳いだ。 Jeriy sw am through the river (and w ent to the other side of the river.) (J11 is the place Jerry acted upon.)

⑷

a.

シルベスターは富士山に登った。 Sylvester clim bed M t. Fuji (and reached a certain location on the m ountain.)

b.

シルベス夕一は富士山を登った。 Sylvester clim bed M t. Fuji. ( S i l i l is the place w here the climDing

took place.) The verbs in sentences (a) in ( 1 ) through (4) are used to express intransitivity w ithout an accom panying object. O n the other hand, the sam e verbs in sentences (b) in ( 1 ) through (4) are used to express a different m eaning. In these exam ples, the places linked to the verbs are all acted upon and affected by the agent. For exam ple, to the unidirectional use of the particle に，畐 士 山 に 登 な indicates that the agent reached the sum m it of the m ountairv w hile 富 士 山 を 登 る indicates that the clim bing itself is the fcxus of com m unication. The follow ing are cases that do not have different interpretation^ O nlg を m arks the place noun in a w ay that m akes sense, since one can n ot say 空 で 飛 ん だ，for exam ple, because 空 is an unlim ited dim ension. The sam e applies for 橋 で

渡る , since 渡る itself describes a crossing activity, and not an activity occurring inside a lim ited dim ension.

F undamentals of Japanese G rammar

(5)

95

卜ゥイティは空を飛んだ。 Tw eety flew through the sky•(空 is the place w here the flying took place.)

(6)

ジェフは橋を渡った。 Je ff crossed the bridge, ( fe is the place w here the crossing took place.)

1.L 2 V erbs o f leaving

pぎよう

で

そ

はな

V e rb s o f leavings such as 出 る " to get o u t " 卒 業 す る " to graduate/' and 離 れ る /yto leave/' can b e represented b y this schem atic:

They are also considered

volitional-intransitive verbs6 w hen som e kind o f an entity causes the event. The place noun the agent leaves is m arked b y を，though agaiiv the tunction o f 化 is not exactly the sam e as that o f the を that m arks the object o f a transitive verb; it is the sam e as for standard volitional-intransitive verbs.

(7)

花 # は3 時 に 家 を 出 た 。 H anako left hom e at 3 o'clock*

(8)

太郎は去年大学を卒業した。 Taro graduated from college last year•(か ら is not appropriate, even thoygh it is the norn^al equivalent to "from /')

(9)

智子は結婚して、実家を離れた。 Tom oko g o t m arried and left her parents7 hom e.

1.1.3

V erbs o f non-voluntaiy physical events

There are verbs that express spontaneous, non-voluntary physical events, such as ' snore/7 //yaw n/,/ and ' sneeze/' In English these verbs are considered intransitive verbs that do not take an object. In Japanese, how ever, //y aw n/, and //sneeze,/ can be expressed by either a transitive or an intransitive verb (あ く び を す る /あ く び が 出 る and く し ゃ み を す る / く し ゃ み が 出 る ，respectively). "Snore/' on the other hand, is expressed only b y a transitive verb, as in い び き を か く . W hen such events are expressed b y an intransitive verb, they are presented as non­ voluntary physical events, w hile transitive verbs give an im pression that the events are caused by the subject’s voluntary acts. See the follow ing exam ples.

6 S e e C h ap te r 4> Sectio n 3 ab o u t th e p article

させる, an d

f i t す, re ^ e ctiv e ly .

を. TTie transitive cou n terp arts o f th ese v erb s are 出す,卒業

CHAPTER 5

96 (1 0 ) 貨 は ご ¥ Because (11)

a

¥

いびきをかくので、1

は

な

ん

で

す

。

husband snores all n ig h t I cannot g et enough sleep.

. 授 業 中 に あ く び を す る の は だ 。 It is rude to y aw n during dass.

b

. あの先生の講義はあくびが由る。 T h at professor's lectures m ake m e yawn.

(12)

a.

くしゃみをしたら、すっきりした。 W h en I sneezed, I felt good,

b

. 胡 椒 が 鼻 に 入 っ て 、 くしやみが出た。 Pepper got into m y nose, and a sneeze cam e out.

2. 2.1

rransitive Verbs: Ditransitive and Iransibve Ditransitive verbs

V erbs that take both direct and indirect objects are called ''ditransitive verbs/' and this ability plays a crucial role for som e gram m atical categories, su ch as て く れ る , て あ げ る , and て も ら う ， w hich express giving and receiving o f an activity. The indirect object is usually the recipient o f an event described by the verb. If a ques­ tion /yw h at and to w hom ?,/ can b e formed, the verb is usually ditransitive.

(1)

田中さんは

田中さんは Indirect Obj.

⑵ そ の 両 親 は 子 供 に い い お 手 本 を k せた。 i’hose parents show ed a gooa exam ple to their children. (Those parents w ere good roie models.) ⑶ 私 は お 世 話 に な っ た 先 生 に 手 紙 を 4 いたI w rote a letter to m y teacher to w hom I am indebted. ⑷

す み ま せ ん 、 (私 に )塩 を 渡 し て く だ さ い ま せ ん か 。 Excuse me, please pass m e the sa lt w on 't you?

(5)

友 達 に ( お 金 を )1,000円 貸 し ま し た が 、結 局 返 し て も ら え ま せ ん で し た 。 I lent 1,000 ven to m v friend, bu t did not g et it b ack after all.

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97

Stative-transitive predicates (some verbs and い/な adjectives)

2.2

Since stative-transitive verbs (as proposed by K uno 1973), ind u d ing l \ and fj ： adjectives, are stative predicates, they are not supposed to take a n o b ject H ow ­ ever, there are a handful o f stative predicates that behave like transitive verbs and do take an object. These predicates are usually related to a state o f m ind or an ability, and the subject is usually an anim ate entity. A n object o f these stative predicates is m arked b y カ义 O nly w hen the predicate is a com pound involving an activity verb, such as 書 け る (書 く + で き る ） " can w rite," m ay を also b e an option. See the follow ing exam ples.

ジ ェ リ 一 さ ん は 白 本 l l が わ か り ま す 。 (わ か る is a stative verb.)

(6)

Jerry understands Japanese. 卜 厶 さ ん は テ ニ ス が で き ま す 。 (で き る is a stative verb.)

(7)

i om can play tennis. 太 郎 は 花 子 が 好 き だ 。 (好 き is a な adjective.)

(8)

1 aro likes Hanako.

i k が 犬 が 怖 い 。 (怖 い is a n い adjective.)

(9)

I am scared o f dogs. ( 1 0 ) 私 は 新 車 が 欲 し い 。 (欲 し い is a n い adjective.) I w ant a new car. ( 1 1 ) 私 は す し と て ん ぶ ら が / を お も い き リ 备 ベ た い 。 ( 食 べ た い is a com pound verbal predicate from 食 べ る " to e a f, and the desiderative form た い " w a n t") I w ant to eat sushi and tem pura to m y h e a if s content. ( 1 2 )

ト ム さ ん は 漢 字 が /を 1， 0 0 0 字 書 け ま す 。 (書 け る is a com pound verb

T om can w n te 1,000 Chinese characters. (晉ける is form ed from the activity verb 書く "to w rite" and the potential m orphem e 〜e-m "can .")

CHAPTER 6

Verbs o f Existence: S S

m

In Japanese, there are tw o verbs, ある and い る , w hose approxim ate equivalent is "to exist7' in English.あ る alternates w ith いる depending on w hether the existing entity is anim ate or inanim ate. In general, w h en the entity is anim ate, いる is used; w h en the entity is inanim ate, ある is used. N ote that verbs o f existence are inherently engaged w ith a place or a substance to w hich the entity belongs. T he place or the substance that the entity belongs to is m arked b y the particle に （ は m ay follow in order to create a contrastive m eaning or to m ention the noun m arked b y に as a topic). F irst let^s observe how ある and いる sentences are constructed.

1 . The Syntax and Semantics of ある and いる There is Y located in/belongs to X: いる（ anim ateentity) X

に

公園に子供がいる。 There are children in the park.

Y ある（ inanim ateentity)

公園にベンチがある。 There is a bench in the park

W h en num bers need to b e referenced, they are placed in front o f the verb like adverbs, as in the following:

⑴

a

. 公園に子供が3 人いる。 There are three children in the park.

* b . 公園に子供が3 人ある。 c

. 公園にベンチが3 つある。 There are three benches in the park.

* d . 公園にベンチが3 ついる。

98

Fundamentals of J apanese G rammar

99

Sentences (la ) and (lc ) represent very basic form ations o f いる and あ る sentences. W h en w h at exists is childrer% いる is used to m ean ’’children [anim ate entity】exist/’ w hile if the entity is a bend% め る is used m eaning '"bench [inanimate] exists." N ow let"s observe som e m ore examples:

⑵

a.

私にはポルシェがある0 There is a Porsche that belongs to me. = I have a Porsche.

* b . 私にはポルシェがいる。 c

. 私には子供が3 人いる。 There are three children that belong to me. = I have three children,

d • 私 に は 子 fit、 が 3 人ある。 1

1 Mere are three children that belong to me. = I have three children.

In sentences (2a) and (2b), w here an inanim ate entity is the entity o f existence, onlv あ る is appropriate. Sentence (2c) offers a standard use o f い る ，b u t あ る is also applicable for an anim ate entity u nder certain circum stances. In day-to-day communicatior^ preference m ay be given to い る , b u t m ore form al settings m ay privilege あ る . This m eans that the anim ate-inanim ate dichotom y o f ある and い

4) does not necessarily apply to a situation w here the subject o f the sentence is itself an anim ate entity. In such cases, if the person ow ns the entity, the m eaning is equivalent to ,f\ have/ow n

The subject o f both sentences (2c) and (2d) is fA,

w ho ow ns three ch ild re a and the interpretation o f these sentences is /rl have three cM dren/' In this case, the anim ate nature o f the ow ned entity does not al­ w ays dem and the use of T h e follow ing figure illustrates the use o f いる and あ る •Som e exam ples are given as well.

1The validity of the use of ある for a sentence involving an animate entity can also be supported by the use of honorific forms of the verbある. One may say either絮 生 に は お ^ I が 3 人おありになります o r先 生 にはお子様が 3 人いらっしゃいます.

CHAPTER 6

100

いる a.

公園に子供がいる。 (Children exist in the paric;

に

Place

ある

公園にベンチがある。 (A bench exists in the park.)

A C Subject

b.

Person

に

)

(d e d ic a te

)

い る /あ る （I toye children.)

anim ate entity が inanim ate entity

ある

C Predicate ⑶

_______ _

__

さんにん

駐 車 場 に 人 が 3 人いる。

a.

There are three people in the parKing lot. 駐 車 場 に は 車 が 3 台ある。

b.

There are three cars in the parking lot. 隣 の 家 に 猫 が 3 匹いる。

c.

There are three cats at the neighbor's house, d• 隣 の 家 に プールがあ る 。 There is a pool in the neighbor's yard,

⑷

a.

メ リ ー に は 兄 弟 が 3 人いる。

b.

メリーには兄弟が3 人ある。

M ary has three siblings,

M ary has three siblings. メリーには車が3 台ある。

c.

M ary has three cars. d

.

e

.

隣 の 家 に 猫 が 3 匹いる。 M y neighbor has three cats. 隣の家にプールがある0 M y neighbor has a pool.

（I toye children.)

Fundamentals of J apanese G rammar

101

A s is evident from exam ple sentences (3a) and (3b), w hen an anim ate/inanim ate entity is located in a place, the sentence is concerned w ith the existence o f the enちそうしゃじょう

ひと

tity at the location; therefore， the interpretation for sentence (3a) 駐 車 場 に 人 が さa/にん

3 人 い る , for exam ple, is "three people exist in the parking lot/’ and "three peo~ p ie" becom es the subject o f the sentence. Accordingly, 人 が い る and 車 が あ る m ean " a person exists" and "a car exists," respectively. O n the other hand, as can be seen in sentences (4a)-(4c)/ w hen a noun m arked by fこ is an anim ate entity, the noun cannot b e interpreted as a location. Instead it becom es an entity that ow ns the が m arked o b ject For exam ple, メ リ 一 in sentence (4a), メ リ 一 に は 兄 弟 が 3 人 い る ，

b e considered a location^

b u t am b e considered the su b ject w ho has three siblings. Therefore, this sentence consists o f the subject (メ リ ー ) , the object (兄 弟 ) , and the predicate ( い る ) . The nature o f the に m arked noun phrase exhibits different characteristics in term s of the interpretation of the syntax and sem antics o f the sentence. r となり うち Regarding sentences (3c), (3d) and (4d), (4e) , 隣 の 家 can b e view ed as a place noun (the neighbor's house) or as a person (the neighbor), and depending on the speaker^ intention^ the sentence can be interpreted either w ay. T h is is w hy these sentences are repeated as examples. There are m any m ore exam ples like these in daily situations. A nother point is that あ る is not unique in dem onstrating inconsistency in terms o f its agreem ent w ith an anim ate or inanim ate entity. T h e verb t

also

exhibits inconsistent usage depending on the perception o f the speaker. Su ch is the case w hen an entity is m oving or m oved b y hum an control. See the following examples:

⑶

ぁ、あそこにタクシーが い る 。每ぼぅ。 Look^ there is a taxi over there. Let: s call him.

(6)

エ レ べ 一 夕 はまたntrastive m eaning, respectively. This difference created b y the use o f partides is due to the fundam ental m eaning o f [C, w hich points to a specific fx)int in place/tim e. W h en a predicate is a stative predicate involving a duration o f time, it becom es incom patible w ith a spedfic time, and w ith に•目り iv«, therefore, does not occur w ith a stative predicate.

Fundamentals of J apanese G rammar

3.

117

ところ

と し O is used to indicate a specific point in tim e or space. W h en follow ing the various form s o f verbs, it show s the point at w hich the event or action is about to happen^ is happenings or has ju st happened. For exam ple, る と こ う m eans that the activity is going to happen right at the tim e o f speech; て い る と こ ろ m eans that the activity is continuing a t the time o f speed% and た と し ろ m eans that the activity has ju st been com pleted.1

( 1 ) これから食事をするところです。 Tm about to have a m eal now. 、⑵ 今 食 事 を し て い る と こ ろ で す 。 Tm in the m iddle of having a m eal now . (on-going) (3)

父 が アメリカへ秦 て い る ところです。 M y father is at the point w here he has visited A m erica. = M y father is in Am erica, (resultative)

⑷ 今 ち ょ う ど 友 達 の 家 へ 由 か け る と こ ろ な ん で す 。 また後で電話して ください。 I am about to leave for m y friend's house, so please call us later. (5)

クラスへ# くところです。 I am on the w ay to dass.

(6)

今試験を会けるところです。 I am about to take the exam now.

Although と こ ろ generally follow s a verb, you m ay notice that som e adjectives m ay also be used, for e x a m p le ,こ の 映 i i j 、 今 お も し ろ い と こ ろ な の よ ’T h is movie is right m the m iddle o f being interesting." In this case, the attriDute お も し 〇 t ' is captured as expressing a tim e expanse, and the speaker recognizes a point within that tim e expanse. と し ろ ongm allv m eans "p lace" or "spot/’ and it can also be used in a variety of w ays to indicate physical location. H ere are som e exam ples: *

For たところ, see Chapter 11,Section4*

118

CHAPTER 8 こ こ に お 所 と お ぎ 爺 を # いてください。

(7)

Please w rite y ou r address and nam e here. 先生の所でパーティをしましょう。

(8)

L e fs have a party a t the teacher^s place. (9)

わからないところがあったらf t いてください。 A sk m e if there are any places you d o n o t understand.

( 1 0 ) 黒 板 の 所 に 先 生 が :し っ て い ま す 。 T h e teacher is standing at the blackboard. (黒 板 ]^先 生 が 立 っ て い ま す m eans that the teacher is standing on the blackboard.)

Sample dialogue iifg が悪いので、 また键 で達！ !し て く だ さ い チビ：

t

もしもし、 夕マさん、 もしよかったら、 ちょっと紅へ出て喿な い ？星 (sta rs)が と っ て も き れ い な ん だ 。

夕マ：

まあ、それはロマンチックね。でも今だめなの。

チビ：

どうして？

夕マ：

映画を見るところなのよ。

チビ：

そんなの、 ビデ才にとっておいて' M で見ればいいじやないか。

タマ：

それだけじやないの。洗濯もしているところなの。

チヒ：

そ ん な の 機 械 に 任 せ れ ば い い じ や な い か 。 （You should le tth e m achine take care ot it.)

夕マ：

あ 、そ れ に ね 、今 ち ょ う ど 父 が 条 た と こ ろ な の よ 。

チビ：

え、お父さんが？

タマ：

悪い け ど 、そうしてね。

4.

そ う 、 じや、 またi l l す る よ 。

ため

T h e w ord た め alone m eans '"benefit/usefulness" as i n i め に な る 話 '"benefiaal/ useful story/' Eventually it cam e to be used to express ""for the purpose of w ith the underlying m eaning o f bringing one a benefit•た め follow s the dictionary form o f the verb, or a noun that often indicates the purpose or benefit. B u t w hen an event preceding た め influences negatively, the interpretation o f the

Fundamentals of J apanese Grammar

119

w hole sentence た め m ay be interpreted as expressing "c a u se " or "reaso n .〃O bserve the follow ing exam ples:

V erb る N ou n の

た め （に)

コンテス卜に出るために、 練 習 す る 。 Practice in order to attend the contest. コンテス卜のために、練習する。 Practice for the contest. たばこを吸いすぎるため、医者に禁煙命令を出された。 D u e to too m u ch sm oking, I w as told not to sm oke b y the doctor. 雨 の た め 、試 合 が 中 止 に な っ た 。 D ue to rain, the gam e w as cancelled.

⑴

A

: 私 は 生 き る た め に :！ベ ま す 。

1 eat m order to live. B

: 私は食べるために生きます。 I live m order to eat.

⑵

日本へ行くためにパスポートを取りました。 I obtained a passport in order to go to japan.

⑶

毎月貯金するために、無駄使いを歳らしています。 I am restraining m y im pulse to bu y in order to save m oney every m onth.

⑷

あなたのために作ったんですから、食べてください。 I m ade this for (the Denefit of) vou, so please eat i t

(5)

日本語ができないため、M ってもらえなかった。 Because I cannot com m unicate in Japanese, I could n ot get hired.

(6)

洪水のため、家 を 失 っ た 。 D ue to the flood, I lost m v house.

120

CHAPTER 8

Sample dialogue あなたのためなら犄でもします 夕 ビ ：夕 マ さ ん 、 こ れ 、 双 眼 鏡 （ b in o c u la r s )で す 。 鳥 を 見 る の （bird w a t c ^ ig )。 に 使 て く だ さ い 。 こ れ 、 ぬ い ぐ る み (stu ffed a n im a l)で す。 夜 一 緒 に 寝 て ください。 t

し こ れ は ま ぐ ろ の か ん づ め （a can

o f tu n a )で す 。 おな力)が す い た 時 に 食 べ て く だ さ い 。 そ れ か ら 、 こ れ 、 新 し い お 皿 (d ish )で す 。 使 っ て く だ さ い 。 夕 マ ：ま あ • • • 、 タ ピ さ ん • • • 。 こ れ 、 み ん な 私 に ？ 夕 ビ ：え え 、 み ん な あ な た の た め に 見 つ け て 来 た ん で す 。 あなたに好きになってもらうためなら、僕 、何でもします。 夕 マ ：私 贈 り 物 に 弱 い の よ ね え (I have a w eak spot for presents) • • • 。 ありがとう、 夕ビさん。 あなたってやさしいのね

5.

間 に /間 は

T h e m orphem e 間 literallv m eans "a n interval," "duration/’ o r "tim e expanse." It follow s the non-past form o f a Dreaicate and governs a subordinate clause. (The tense o t the w hole sentence is identmed by the tense ot the predicate in the m ain clause.)間 can also occur w ith the affirm ative or the negative form o f the non-past. Since 間 m eans "d uration o f tim e," it com m only occurs w ith on-going て い る and stative predicates, su ch as い and な adjectives, w hich also involve an expanse of tim e either physically or conceptually. W ith respect to particles, 間 can take either に or は， depending on the nature o f the predicate in the m ain clause. に tends to b e used w it h 『 日 1 w h en the predicate in the m ain d au se is an action predicate that can b e contrasted as a single occurrence (or sequence o f single occurrences). O n the other hand, は tends to follow 間 to create a contrastive im plication w hen the predicate in the m ain dau se m ay be construed as expressing state o f being represented by, for exam ple, an l ' /^j：adjective, stative verb, and so forth. This arises from the nature o f the predi­ cate in the m ain dause. Because it expresses a duration o t time, it cannot be recon­ ciled w ith the fundam ental m eaning o f |C, that is, to designate a specific point in tim e/place. If no partide follows, then the event in the m ain predicate m ight be perceived as if the event w ere continuing during the tim e expressed b y 間 •H ere are som e exam ples:

Fundamentals of J apanese G rammar

⑴

121

となりに安売りのM が あ る 間 は 、 うちの店はもうからない。 2 W hile a discount shop is next to us, our shop w ould n ot d o w ell (im plying that the shop w ould d o well if the discount shop w ere gone).

⑵ ガ ソ リ ン が 高 い 間 は 、あまり車に乗らなかった。 W hile gas w as expensive, I did not drive the car very often (im plying that I drove regularly w h en gas w as not expensive). (3)

テレビをi ている間に何回も勧誘電話がかかってきた。 W hile I am / w as w atching TV, I received m any phone calls firom tele marketers.

⑷ 仕 事 が 暇 な 間 に 、旅行の計画を立てておいた。 W hile w ork w as not busy, I m ade plans for the trip. (5)

僕 が 勉 強 し て い る 間 、彼女はずっと電話で話していた。 W hile I w as studying, m y girlfriend w as talking on the phone throughout the entire time.

A nother unique feature o f 間 is that the translation o f 間 is "w h ile," w hich is the sam e as the な か b construction (see C hapter 9). B u t the な が b construction re~ quires that the subject o f the subordinate d au se and the m ain d au se b e identical, whereas (5)

does not. This observation is supported b y the exam ples ( 1 ) through

above. D iagram s (6) and (7) capture the essence of 間 .

を教えていた

Diagram (6) represents a situation in w hich the speaker carried out several activ­ ities while in Japan. Exam ples are: 2T h e negativ e fo rm o f a pred icate is m oq^hologically a n l ' adjective; w h ic h is a stative predicate.

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122

a

.

b

.

日 本 に い る 間 に 、富士山に壟った。 3 W hile I w as in Japai\ I clim bed M t Fuji. 日本にいる間に、 うなぎを备 ベた。 W hile I w as in Japan, I ate eel.

c

.

日本にいる間に、友達と旅行した。 W hile I w as in Japan, I traveled w ith m y friends.

d

.

日 本 に い る 間 (は )、 英 語 を 教 え て い た 。 W hile I w as in Japan, I w as teaching English.

W hile the use of |こis appropriate for sentences (6a) through (6c), it is not for (6d). W hen the predicate in the m ain d au se is stative, then [ i becom es optional and has the sense of expressing a contrasting m eaning. D iagram (7) below is a case w here the subjects of the subordinate d au se and the m ain d au se are not identical.

The diagram above describes both a situation w here the speaker carried out several activities and the state of a period during w hich the cM d w as aw ay for school. Exam ples are: a

. 与 被 が 擎钱 に荇っている7日 f に、 M い 裼 を し た 。 W hile m y child w as a t sch oo l,I did shopping.

b

. 子供が学校に行っている間に、友達と話した。 W hile m y cM d w as at sch oo l,I spoke w ith m y friend.

3S o m e p eo p le m ig h t sa y

日本にいた間, u sin g th e p a st fo rm o f いる•T en se is decid ed b y th e p red icate in

th e m ain s e n te n c e an d th e past ten se fo rm is n o t cDnsidered appropriate. u sed w ith th e p a st tense.

o n th e oth er hand , m a y b e

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123

C . 子供が学校に# っ て い る 間 に 、そうじした。 W hile m y d iild w as at school,I deaned. d

. 子 供 が 学 校 に 行 っ て い る 間 (は ) 、 静 か だ っ た 。 W hile m y chiia w as at school, it w as auiet.

Agaii\ action predicates m m ain clauses are com patible w ith the particle に m subordinate clauses, w hile the stative predicate 静 か " q u ie r is n o t S n c e 静 か does not pinpoint a tim e/place, either no particle or は is m ore appropriate. 間 に / 間 は is used to place focus on an expanse o f tim e during w hich a certain situation is m aintained. This em phasis on the duration is the difference とき

にほん

betw een 時 and 間 subordinate clauses•日 本 に い る 時 , for exam ple, m eans "汾 t e rtme I w as in Jap a n " w hile 日 本 に い る 間 m eans

这 加

I w as in

Japan." The form er looks at the speaker^ stay in Japan as a single tem poral p o in t w hereas the latter focuses on the internal situation o f the expanse o f tim e. Also, the tense form used in the B# d ause varies, affecting the interpretation o f the sentence, bu t for the 間 construction the gram m atical form is uniform ly non-past. A nother possible point o f confusion for learners m ay lie in the u se o f 間 に / 間 は and う ち に /う ち は (which is discussed in section 6, im m ediately below ). う ち に /う ち は is used to express m eanings equivalent to "w h ile" and '"before." W hen a "w h ile" m eaning is intended, the sentence can m ake u se o f either the 間 に / 間 は or t h e う ち に /う ち は construction. T h e う ち に /う ち は construction tends to prevail over 間 に /間 は w hen the negative form o f a predicate is used in the subordinate clause. This is attributed to the fact that な い う ち に carries a sense of urgency that the situation is going to change shortly to the state described in the corresponding affirm ative form and com m unicates the //before,/ m eaning. In the following exam ples, (8a) and (8b) are both equally appropriate; (9b) m ay be m ore com m only used than (9a); (10b) sounds m ore natural than (10a). B u t again, the preference is u p to the individual.

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a

. 日照りが続く間は、作物が育ちにくい。 W hile hot sunny days continue, crops are not easy to grow,

b

. 日照りが続くうちは、作物が育ちにくい。 W hile hot sunny days continue, crops are not easy to grow.

124 (9)

CHAPTER 8 a

. 釦 ら な ぃ ，日 f に、 1 が 高 り 搭 め て ぃ た 。 W hile I w as unaw are, it had started to rain. 知らないうちに、雨が降り始めいた。

b

.

a

. 歯 医 者 に 為 か な い 間 に 、歯 が ど ん ど ん 蓮 く な っ て い っ た 。

W hile I w as unaw are/Before I realized i t it had started to rain. (10)

W hile I w as avoiding the dentist, m y teeth g ot w orse and w orse, b• 歯 医 者 に 行 か な い う ち に 、歯 が ど ん ど ん 悪 く な っ て い っ た 。 W hile I w as avoiding the dentist, m y teeth got w orse and w orse. 間 m ay share som e m eanings w ith 時 and うち subordinate clauses, b u t the use o f 間 specifically focuses on the tim e duration. T h e duration m ay b e described by the sim ultaneous occurrence o f an event or m av be given as the tim e fram e for the occurrence o f a certain event.

6 . うちに/うちは4 T h e subordinate clause pattern うち，w hen it occurs w ith the particle に or は，as a w hole m eans "w h ile" (i.e., "w h ile som ething is in a particular state") or '" b e fore" (i.e., '"before som ething h a p p e n s " ) .う ち

can follow som e different

w ords/form s, such as て い る ，な い , or the plairv non-past form o f a stative predicate. It creates a subtle shade o f m eaning for "w h ile" and '"before/’ F irs t let^s observe a few exam ples: ( 1 ) て い る + う ち に /う ち は a

. 晴れているうちに、買い物に合っておこう。 I should go shopping w hile the w eather is sunny,

b

晴 れ て い る う ち は 、 み ん な が #で 日 光 浴 を し て い た 。 Everyone w as tanning outside w hile it w as sunny.

c

. 怖い映画を

iて い る う ち に 、 だ ん だ ん 気 分 が 悪 く な っ て き た 。

W hile I w as w atching a scary m ovie, I started to feel sick. d• 怖 い 映 画 を 見 て い る う ち は 、 トイレにも行けなかった。 W hile I w as w atciung a scary movie, I could not even go to the bath­ room .

4 S e e Jo h n so n (1 9 9 8 ^ 2004a, an d 2004b) fo r fu rth er discussion.

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125

い / な adjective + う ち に /う ち は a

1

. 天 気 が い い う ち に 、 くぎを

ってしまおう。

I should w ash the car w hile the w eather is gcxxi. b

. 天気がいいうちは、出店のものもよく奏れた。 Things at the kiosk sold well while the w eather w as good.

c

. 有名なうちに、たくさん稼いで貯金しておくといい。 Y ou should m ake lots of m oney and save w hile you are popular,

d• 有 名 な う ち は 、毎 日 カ メ ラ マ ン に つ き ま と わ れ た 。 I w as stalked by cam eram en every day w hile I w as popular. ⑶

な い + う ち に /う ち は a

. 雨が6 らないうちに、買い物に合っておこう。

b

. 雨 が 降 ら な い う ち は 、バ ーベキューができる。

Before it starts raining, I should go shopping.

Before it rains, w e can barbecue. c

. クラスに行かないうちに、落ちこぼれてしまった。 W hile I w as absent from class, l fell behind.

? d

. クラスに行かないうちは、家 で 勉 強 し て い た 。 W hile I w as absent from class, I w as studying at hom e.

⑷

N oun + の + う ち に /う ち は a

.

1 ヶ月のうちに、仕 上 げ て し ま わ な け れ ば な ら な い 。 I have to nnish it u p within a month.

b

.

1 ヶ月のうちは、特に何の問題も起こらなかった。 5 N o particular problem occurred in a month.

The difference in the use o f the particles に and は is sim ilar to that o f に and は ぁぃだ _ w ith 間 . Ju st like 間 は ,う ち は is com patible w ith a stative predicate in the m ain dause. T h e situation described b y the stative predicate holds in concert w ith the situation described b y the う ち は subordinate clause. Also, ju st like 間 に ，う ち に is com patible w ith non-stative, action predicates in the m ain d ause, since the fundamental function of に is to designate a specific point in tim e/place.

5 B oth sen tences (3d) an d (^>) are m u ch m o re acceptable w ith H .

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126

A s m ay be seen from the English equivalents of the exam ples a b o v e ,うち に /う ち は sentences are generally interpreted in three different w ays, depending on the preceding p re d ica te .う ち に /う ち は following て い る and an い adjective in sentences (la ) through (Id ) and (2a) and (2b) em phasize ''d u rin g the period that som ething is in a particular situation" and receives a "w h ile" interpretation. W hen a noun occurs w ith う ち に /う ち は in sentences (4a) and (4b), the う ち に /

フちは clause becom es an adverbial phrase w ith a m eaning such as x during a certain period of tim e /' O nly w hen う ち に /う ち は follows the negative suffix な い in sentences (3a) through (3d), does it em phasize '"before som ething happens" o r '"before the situation ch an ges/7 In these cases, it receives either a //w hile,/ or a '^before" interpretation. W h at then is the difference in m eaning betw een //w hile/, and //before,/ as expressed by う ち に sentences? Sentences (la ) and (3a) have the sam e m ain clause; their difference lies in the use of て い る and な い in the う ち に subordi­ nate dau se. There is a psychological m otivation for choosing one expression over the other. W hile sentence ( l a ) ,晴 れ て い る "to be su n n y /’ has a situation that is already realized and is Deing m aintained, sentence (3a) d oes not. Instead it im plies w hat the situation is like before a certain event is realized. This is w hy the sentence is interpreted as '"before/' This //be£ore,/ m eans that the situation has not yet entered a different state, but it is very d ose to entering it. Sentence (3a) im plies th a t at any m o m en t the given situation will change into the situation expressed by the affirm ative forir^ 雨 が 降 る " it rains•〃ないうちに sentences are thus often used to suggest som e kind of w arning in preparation for a change in a situation. The content of the change is dearly indicated in the corresponding affirm ative form of the predicate. H ow ever, as m ay be seen in exam ple (3c), there are cases w here な い う ち に expresses a "w h ile" m eaning. In this case, the m ain sentence usually describes a situation in w hich a change takes place in the m ain clause in tem poral concert w ith an interval o t tim e defined by the subordinate dause. A s for て い る う ち に in sentence (la ), it does n ot im ply that any m ajor u rgent change is expected, especially in com parison to a negative form com bined w ith う ち に •晴 れ て い る う ち に im plies, w ith a sense of urgency, that the situa­ tion will change from a sunny to a non-sunny w eather pattern. This could be any

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

127

type of w eather: d ou d y , snow y, w indy, o r rainy— as long as it is not sunny.6 Hft l て い る う ち に is n ot as d ear a s 陰 ら な い う ち に in term s of w h at kind of change m ay be approaching a situation. W here 晴 れ て い る う ち に im plies som e change, but n ot any particular ch a n g e ,降 ら な い う ち に additionally im plies a particular resu lt in this case that the situation will change from not raining to raining. H ow ever, as m ay be seen in exam ple ( 3 c ) ク ラ ス に 行 か な い う ち に 、 落 ち こ ぼ れ て し ま っ た '"W hile I w as absent from class, I fell behind," there are cases w here な い う ち に expresses a "w hile" m eaning. In this case, the m ain sentence usually describes a situation in w hich a change takes place in the m ain d au se alone w ith an interval ol:tim e defined bv the suboram ate clause.

⑶

て い る つ ち に has tw o different m eanings depending on the m ain clause: a .学 生 が 期 末 試 験 を 会 け て い る う ち に 宿 題 の 採 点 を し て し ま っ た 。 W hile students w ere taking the final exam , I finished grading their hom ew ork. D uring a situation described by the subordinate d au se, a one-tim e 、 event occurs in the m ain clause. b

ノ

. 毎日コーヒーを飲んでいるちにだんだん& が黄色くなってきた。 W hile I w as drinking coffee every day, m y teeth gradually becam e vellow . W ithin a passage of tim e occurring in a situation aescribed by the subordinate dau se, the change expressed m the m ain d au se takes

、 place. (6)

J

な い う ち に also expresses tw o m eanings w hich differ depending on the m ain d au se: a

. 子供が產 きないうちに自分の仕事を备 ませた。 Before the child w oke up, I nnished m y ow n w ork. Before a change occurs in the suborainate dau se, the one-tim e event ^ of the m am clause occurs.

6The opposite of a given negative form is generally CDnsidered its affirmative；but the opposite of a given affirmative is not necessarily the corresponding negative. An affirmative form is certainly more likely to have a greater number or viable opposites.

128

CHAPTER 8 b

. しばらく 4 わ な い う ち に / 間 に ず い ぶ ん 关 き く な っ た ね 。 W hile I w as not seeing you, you grew up a lo t d id n 't you? l’ne second m eaning is the sam e as the second m eaning of てい ^)

つ b Iこ： a change takes place in the m ain clause during an interval V denned by the subordinate dause.

Thus, w hile て い る つ ち に subordinate clauses are generally interpreted as expressing a "w h ile" meanings な い う ち に subordinate clauses carry a '"before" m eaning. H o w ev er,な い う ち に sentences can also be interpreted as expressing a "w h ile" m eaning in certain circu m stan ces.て い る う ち は and う ち は following い /な adjectives are generally interpreted as expressing a "w h ile" m eaning. L a st since う ち に shares the m eaning "w hile" w ith 間 に and the m eaning '"before" w ith 目りに som e confusion m ay exist about the appropriate use of these constructions. Sentences (7) through (9) offer cases w here

vt>lZ

can be re-

phrased w ith 間 に , and sentences (10) and (11) present cases w here う ち に can be rephrased 刖 に.

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岛 ら な い う ち に /間 に 、 と な り の ‘关 が う ち の 犬 と ?I よ く な っ て い た 。 W hile I w as unaw are, m v neighbor's dog becam e on good term s w ith m y o g , おんが < き ねむ ク ラ シ ッ ク 音 楽 を 聞 い て い る う ち に /間 に 、 眠 く な っ た 。

d

(8)

W hile I w as ustening to classical m usic, I becam e sleepy. (9)

明 る い う ち に /間 に 、 ド ラ キ ュ ラ の 城 に 着 い た 。 W hile it w as ught outside, w e arrived at C ount D racula's castle.

N ote that none of the above exam ples indicates a sense of urgency. Both 間 に and う ち に are appropriate, and the choice is up to the speaker.

( 1 0 ) 台 風 が 来 な い う ち /来 る 前 に 、 ド ア を 補 強 し て お こ う 。 Before a typhoon com es, w e should board up the doors. (1 1 )

映 画 が 終 わ ら な い う ち に /終 わ る 前 に 、 ポ ッ プ コ ー ン を 夤 っ た 。 Before the m ovie ended, I bought popcorn.

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

129

Although both う ち に and 前 に in the exam ples above express a 'iDefore" m eaning^ う ち に certainly indicates urgency and gives an im pression that the speaker is rushing to d o the activity described in the m ain d a u se before the situation changes•前 に does not create such a sense o f urgency; rather■前Iこ describes the sequential events indicated in the subordinate and m ain d a u se objectively.

CHAPTER 9

Stem Form Compounds

l.

たぃ

た い is an adjectival suffix w hicK w hen attached to the stem form o f an activity verb, expresses first-person desire. For ex am p le,飲 み た い '1 w an t to d rin k " is considered a com pound い adjective (verb stem 飲 み + suffix た い )， and it conjugates the sam e w ay as an l ' adjective.

私

は

私は

V erb stem + た い で す

[ O b je c t]

コーラ

I w ant to drink cola.

が /を

飲みたいです。

い adjective

In the desiderative construction, an object can b e m arked either b y 1fi or b y due to the syntactic features o f the / z U form (a stative predicate that takes an object). In theory, the noun phrase m arked w ith t)^ is related to the f c l ' part of the sentence (I want to d rink cola), nutting m ore em phasis on the speaker's desire (state o f m ind), w hereas the noun phrase m arked w ith

is related to the

part of the sentence, putting m ore em phasis on the activity (I w ant to drink)} W h en the sentence is negated, は is often used, as it creates a contrastive im plication. R em em ber that the た い form cannot b e used to express third-

person desire. Also, a た い で す 力 、 question addressed to a second or third person^1

1Also, を may be preferred over 力《 if there are more phrases between the grammatical object and the た いj)hrase. For example:す し が 食 べ た い で す /yI wan to eat sushi" vs•すしをおなかがくるしくなるま で 遠 い き り 食 べ た い で す want to eat sushi to my heart's c»ntent and until my stomach feels com­

pletely stufiied/'

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131

such a s 先 生 、 パ ー テ ィ へ 行 き た い で す か "Professor, w ould you like to go to the party r,7 should not b e used as an invitation to a su penor or person w h o is older than you are. If it is an invitatioi%パ 一 テ ィ へ い ら つ し や い ま せ ん か is the m ost approonate expression.2

备 ベたいです。

⑴ わたし

私は

す し （ が /を 〉ベ

I w ant to eat sushi. 食べたかったです。 I w anted to eat sushi. 食べたくありません。

私 は す し @

I d o not w ant to eat sushi. 食べたくありませんでした。 ^ I did not w an t to eat sushi.

Note that only an object is m arked by either が or を •For other noun phrases, the partide is the sam e as the one used in the dedarative sentence. ⑵ 僕 は 来 年 日 本 へ ありたいです。 I w ant to go b ack to Japan next vear. ⑶ 私 は ア メ リ カ に いたいです。 I w ant to stay in Am erica. ⑷

日本にいる友達に会いたいです。 I w an t to see m y friend in Japan. = I m iss m y friend in lapan.

(5)

一度京都を旅行したいです。 I w ant to travel in K yoto once.

(6)

カリブ海で泳いでみたいです。 I w ant to sw im in the Caribbean and see how it is.

(7)

もっと早く手紙が暴きたかったです。 I w anted to w rite a letter m uch sooner.

2If you want to ask what your teacher wants, for example, you may use a ~ たい sentence in the honorific form E g .,先 生 、 日本へお帰りになりたいですか "Professor, do you want to go back to JapanT This is not an invitation, but the speaker is asking the protesso^s desire.

132 (8)

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_

CHAPTER 9

怖 い 映 画 は | た く な か っ た の で す が • • •〇 I d ia n ot w an t to see a scarv movie, b u t . . .

Sam ple essay3 葉 子 さ ん 、 お 元 気 で す か 。 御 家 族 の み な さ ん も お 元 気 で す か 。 もっと卓く メ ー ル を 出 し た か っ た ん で す が 、今 日 ま で 毎 日 試 験 が あ っ て 、 時間があり ま せ ん で し た 。 ご め ん な さ い 。 1 2 ^ 1 6 日にクラスが^ わ り ま す か ら 、 その 後 、 1 8 日 か ら 日 本 へ 行 , た い と 思 っ て い ま す 。 も し よ か っ た ら 、 1こ 縫 に 京都を旅行しませんか。取り急ぎ御連絡まで。 またメールします。 ジェーン

2.

たがる（ たい + がる）

V erb stem . た い " I w ant to do 〜 " is exclusively used for first-person desire and cannot oe used to express a second or third p a rt/ s desire. In ord er to express a desire that is not tnat of the speaker, the suffix か ^) is attached to the desiderative adjective 欲 し い or the desiderative suffix た い to form 欲 し が る or た が る 。 が る is a verbal suffix that m akes the entire predicate into a verb. It usually expresses a habitual or general desire o f a second or third person. If the desire is a cu rren t が

situ a tio a て い る is attached. For exam ple, the equivalent of

'Jo h n w ants to eat sushi right now 7' i s ジ ョ ン は す し を 食 べ た が っ て い る 。 O bserve the follow ing sentences:

⑴

姉のジェーンは日本へ# きたがっている。 M y sister Jane w ants to go to Japan.

⑵

妹 は よ く バービーを欲 し が っ た 。 M y sister used to w ant to have a Barbie doll.

⑶

日本の若い女の孕たちはブランド物を夤いたがる。 Y ou ng Ja p a n e ^ g irls w ant to bu y brand-nam e stuff.

⑷

弟 は 英 語 を 1諸 し た が ら な い 。 M y brother does not w ant to speak English. = H e resists speaking English.

3This sample essay is an email message Rubies are provided in order to assist learners, although they are not likely to be used so extensively in reality.

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

今の子供たちはK でi

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133

びたがらなぃ。

Y oung kids now adays d o not like to play outside.

Although た が る is usually understood as a gram m atical device to express som eone else's desire, n ot that o f the speaker, pragm atically it can often b e used to describe things that people in general w ant, or at least the desire o f people w ho belong to the speaker^ group (Johnson 2007).4 In daily co m m u n ication た か る m ay not b e used or m ay b e inappropriate to describe the desire o f people w ho

J

ノ

せ ん せ い に ほ ん か え

have a hierarchical relationship w ith the speaker. For exam ple,先 生 は 日 本 へ 帰 り た が っ て い る '"The teacher w ants to go back to Jap an " m ay b e considered less appropriate or polite if you are his/her student. E ven if

is em ployed to

describe another person's state o f mind, it is still necessary to m odity a statem ent about som eone w ho has a psychological distance from the speaker. T h e best w ay to do this m ay b e b y using a m odal or the like at the end o f the statem ent. For example: (6)

先生は日本へ帰りたいそうだ。 I hear that the teacher w ants to go b ack to Japan.

(7)

お隣の奥さんは息子さんをハーバード大学へ义 れたぃようだ。 It looks like m v neighbor's w ite w ants to send her son to H arvard University.

(8)

社 長 は た ば こ を 辞めたいと言っている。 O ur president is saying that he w ants to quit sm oking.

(9)

課長は会社を辞めたがっているらしい。 I hear that our section chief w ants to quit the com pany.

4The ''speakers group77 means the territory or domain for which the speaker feels a sense of belonging. This group may include the speakers fomily, the plaoe the speaker works, some social assembly to which tne speaker belongs, or the country in which the speaker was bom* When one recognizes his/her group, that group is considered as "in-group," and it is distinguished from the "out-group." This distinction depends on how strongly the speaker feels that s/he is a member of the group. This notion is especially important in grammatical patterns of //giving//and //reoeiving//which are discussed in Chapter 20. De­ tailed discussion of the oonoepts of in- and out-group is found in Makino (1992).

CHAPTER 9

134 ( 1 0 ) 本田さんはレス卜ランへは合 き た が ら な い と ぃ て ぃ る 。

I heard/learned that M s. H ond a does not liKe to g o to a restaurant.

3.

やすい/にくい

W h en som ething or som eone is easy or difficult to handle physically or mentally, or som ething happens easily or w ith difficulty, the い adjectives や 1 い /に く い are used as auxiliaries to describe the situation. For exam ple, w h en one finds a pen easy to handle physically, こ の ペ ン は 書 き や す い is used to express that circum stance. Also, the target o f being easy or difficult can b e a person, as w hen one indicates that he/she is easy to talk to, for exam ple•や す い and に く い funclion in this w ay only w h en they are used as auxiliaries. W h en an answ er is re~ quested, the w hole phrase has to b e repeated. O bserve the follow ing exam ples: ( 1 ) A : そのくつは装きやすぃですか。 Is that pair o f shoes easy to w alk in? B

: いいえ、歩きやすくありませんよ。 N o, they are not easy to w alk in.

*C

(ぃ ぃ -え「 や す く あ り 求 -せ ん 。 ) N o, it is n ot cheap.

⑵ 箸 は 、慣 れ る と 使 い や す い で す 。 C hopsticks are easy to use once you becom e accustom ed to them . ⑶

カクテルは甘くて备 みやすいので、ついたくさん飲んでしまいます。 C ocktails are sw eet and easy to drink, so I often overdrink unintentionally.

⑷

こ の チ ー ズ は け や す い の で 、 ピザには最適です。 This cheese is easy to m e lt so it is best suited for pizza.

⑶

こ の 本 は ひ ら が な ば か り で 、南 み に く い で す 。 This b o o k contains nothing bu t hiragana and is difficult to read.

(6)

本田さんはとても話しやすいけど、豐田さんは近づきにくいです。 M r. H ond a is easy to talk to, b u t M r. Toyota is difficult to get d o se to.

(7)

松田さんのI I はブラピに似ているので、覚えやすいですよ。 M r. M atsu d a's fece resem bles Brad Pitts' and is easy to rem em ber.

Fundamentals of J apanese G rammar

4.

135

ながら いもラと

はな

( 妹 は )で 話 し な が ら ---buoordinate d au se

(妹 は )運 転 し ま す 、

ン

M ain d au se

M y sister drives w hile she talks on the phone.

Sam e subject

The fundam ental m eaning o f な が ら is that one person does tw o different activities sim ultaneously or alternately during the sam e period of: tim e, so な か り is not alw ays the sam e as "w h ile" in English. Also, although な が ら is used to de~ scribe tw o activities engaged in b y the sam e subject (perform er of the event) at the sam e time, since it is a subordinate dause, the m ain event cx>mes at the end o f the sentence. For e x a m p le ,小 泉 さ ん は 運 転 し な が ら 煙 章 を 吸 う " M r. K oizum i sm okes w hile he d n yes7' is pragm atically aw kw ard as it gives an im pression that the person is putting m ore em phasis on sm oking than on driving. A n appropriate expression should b e 煙 草 を 吸 い な が ら 運 転 す る ，w h e r e 運 転 す る is con­ sidered the m ain activity. T h e l:0110w ing are som e examDles o f cases w here な が is used.

( 1 ) a . 本田さんはテレビを堯ながら勉強します。 M r. H ond a w atches T V w hile he studies. b

. 松 田 さんは音楽を_ きながら勉強します。

c

.

M s. M atsuda listens to m usic w hile she studies. 私は勉強しながら食べます。 I eat w hile I study. ⑵朝はコーヒーを备 みながらパンを食べる。 In the m orning, I d rink coftee and eat bread. ⑶

a

. 日本では電話で話しながら運転すると、罰金を备 られます。 In Japan, it you talk on the phone wrule you dnve, you w ill b e fined.

b

. 日 本 で は 煙 草 を 吸 い な が ら 道 を 歩 く と 、罰 金 を 取 ら れ ま す 。 In Japan, if you sm oke w hile you w alk on the stree t you w ill b e fined.

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CHAPTER 9

⑷

アメリカの大学生はたいていアルバイ卜をしながら大学で勉強しま す が 、 g 本 の 大 学 生 は 大 学 で 勉 強 し な が ら ア ル バ イ ト を し て 、 よく 海外旅行をします。 Students in A m erica usually study at university and have a p art-tim e job, but students in Japan have a part-tim e job w hile tney are at university and often travel abroad.

A lthough な が ら is usually translated as "w hile" in EnglisH as is the case for 間 ( に / は) , 間 （ に /は ) does not require the subject (the perform er of the event) of the subordinate and the m ain sentence to be id e n tical.間 （ にハi ) m eans "w hile a certain situation is m aintained// and tw o different entities can be em ployed as the subject of the subordinate and m ain sentence. C om pare the follow ing exam ples:

(5)

a.

_ が f t い 親 を し て い る 間 に 、 フ ッ ト ボ ー ル の fef善 を 炱 た 。 W hile m y w ife w as shopping, I w atched a football gam e.

* b

. 妻が買い物をしながら、 フットボールの試合を見た。 W hile m y w ife w as shopping, she w atched a football gam e.

(6)

a

. 子 供 が 寝 て い る 間 は 、部 屋 は 静 か だ っ た 。 W hile the child w as sleeping, the room w as quiet.

* b (7)

a.

. 子供が寝ながら、部屋は静かだった。 l l れている間に、洗濯をしてしまおう。 L e t s do the laundry w hile it is sunnv.

*

b

. 晴 れ な が ら 、洗濯 を し て し ま お う 。

A s m ay be seen from the unacceptability o t the sentences that use な か b , w hen tne suoject o f events in the subordinate and the m ain d au se is not the sam e, b creates either a different interpretation, as seen in (5b), o r a nonsensical m eanm g •丄he subject perform ing the action in the subordinate d au se and the m ain d au se m ust be iden tical This restriction applies strictly to the use of な力すら. A nother point to note about な が ら is that it has a different function that ip^licates the sam e m eaningtas け れ ど も "th ou gh ." It is used in sentences such as 貧 し い な が ら も 、 寨 し い 我 が 家 'T h ou g h poor, m y fem ily is cheerful" a n d だ

137

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

め た と 命 り な が ら も 、 錢 し て み た 'T h o u g h I knew that it w ould not work^ I tried anyw ay." It usually accom panies も, b u t も is optional. かた

かた

ほう丨多う

The suffix 为 is derived from the w ord 方 $去 "m eth o d " and m eans the w ay things are done. W h en attached to the stem form o f a verb, the w hole phrase be­ comes a noun. A ny verb that can be described as turning into a m ethod can be accom panied by 73 . かた

覚え方

how to m em orize

=

食べ方

how to eat

方

=

行き方

how to g et there

+

方

=

作り方

how to m ake

+

方

=

考え方

a w ay o f thinking

1 ぇる

+

蚤べる

+

方

行く

+

?4る

い

かんが

考える

⑴

漢字のいい覚え方を知っていますか。 D o you know a gocxl w ay to m em orize kanji?

⑵

みそ汁の作り方は母に教えてもらいました。 I had m y m other teach m e how to m ake miso soup.

⑶

お 宅 へ 伺 い た い ん で す が 、行き方を教えてくださいますか。 I w ould like to visit you. Could you tell m e how to get to your hom e? 人に迷惑をかけない死に方がいいです。 D ying in a w ay that does not cause a problem to others w ould b e good.

Sam ple dialogues 主 婦 1 : 近 ご ろ の 日 本 の 親 た ち は 、子 供 を 全 然 叱 り ま せ ん ね 。 ど う し て な んでしよう。 R ecent Japanese parents do not scold their kids at a ll.I w onder w hy. 主 婦 2 : 叱 ら な い と い う よ り 、 叱り方を^ ]らない の か も し れ ま せ ん ね 。 Rather than the fact that they don 't scold, they m av not k now how to scold (their kids). 小 学 校 に 3Cれ ば 、 学 校 で し つ け を し て く れ る と つ て い る の か も しれません。 They m ay think that the school will discipline their kids once they get in.

138

CHAPTER 9

主 婦 1••私 達 の こ ろ と は 育 て 方 が ず い ぶ ん Mい ま す ね 。 The w ay they raise their children is quite different from the w ay w e had. 主 婦 2:

!$： 当に。 Indeed.

食べ方は知りませんが、 においでわかります 男 ：

わ 、なっとうだ。 W ow , natto, isn’t it!

女 ：

そ ん な い や な 顔 し て • • • 。 食べ方、知 っ て る の ？ D on 't be disgusted. D o you know how to eat it?

男：

知らない。 I don’t know .

女：

じゃあどんな鞋かわからないでしょう。 W ell, then you d on 't know w hat it tastes like, d o you?

男：

食べなくても、 においでわかる。 I can tell by the sm ell w ithout tasting it.

6 . すぎる す ぎ る suffixed to the stem form of a v e rb ,い adjective, o r な adjective m eans "to exceed ," and the situation described by the preceding predicate has passed som e standard lim it. F o r exam ple, "w en t too far", is 行 き す ぎ た ,w here the activity "to go7' passed the expected boundary.

食べすぎる

V erb (stem )

あま

い A djective ( P ) > な adjective

きすぎる

ノ

+ すぎる

eat too m uch

甘すぎる

too sw eet

つ、 f l すさ勺

too inconvenient

w ork too hard

& きすぎる

go too far

¥ すぎる

too earlv

i i

すぎる

too fast

すぎる

have too m uch free tim e

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

139

重すきて持てない

too heavy to carry

疲れすきて動けない

too tired to m ove

( コ ー ヒ ー を )飲 み す ぎ て 眠 れ な い

drink too m u ch (coffee) to sleep

⑴ 蠢 べ k 題の店でおすしを食べすぎた。 おなかが苦しくて泰にそうだ。

I ate too m u ch a t an aU-you-can-eat restau rant Im so stuffed and feel like I m going to die. ⑵

カレーはおいしいけど、 私に は か ら す ぎ て 、あまりたくさん食べら れない。

I

C urry is tasty, bu t it is too spicy for m e and cannot eat very m uch. ⑶ 松 田 さ ん は 元 気 す ぎ て 、一清にいると疲れる。 M s. M atsu d a is too lively (talks too m uch, etc.) and

I get tired w h en I am

w ith her. ⑷ う ち の 子 は 朝 起 き る の が M すぎて、 いつも学:^ に遅刻する。 M y child gets up too late, therefore is alw ays late for school. (5)

東 京 は 物 価 が 高 す ぎ て 、 ■&み に く い 。 T h e price o f things is too high in Tokyo and it is difficult to live there.

Sampledialogue きのう飲みすぎたので A:

おかしいなぁ■

B:

k

. . 。先生の家、 この辺なんだけどなぁ。

所は？

A:

230。

B:

こ こ は 280だよ。 ちょっと来すぎたんだ。（ W e've com e too 6ar.)

A:

そうか、 じや戻ろう。

B:

こ こ は 180。 あ れ 、 今 度 は g y す ぎ た 。 な んだよ、 しっかり番地を見ろよ。

A:

ご め ん 、 き の う ビ ー ル を 飲 み す ぎ て 、 二 日 酔 い (h a n g o v e r)な ん だ 。 あ 、 あ っ た ！こ こ だ 。

せんせい

先生： 午くせい

学生：

ふた

《 J

まあ、二人ともいらっしゃい。 おそ

ほか

き

すみません、遅くなって。他の学生はもう来ていますか。

140

CHAPTER 9

先生：

え え 、 と っ く に (long tim e ago)。 だ か ら 、 食 べ る も の 、 も う な い

わよ• • . 〇 学生：

7.

やっぱり蓮すぎたか

に + Motion Verb

The v em s 打 、

"to g o " and 来 る " to com e" are used in a w ay that is alw ays

speaKer-centered. W h en a n activity or tem poral pnenom enon is going aw ay from tne speaker,

is used, w hile 釆 る is used w hen an activity or tem poral phe-

nom enon is approaching the speaker. W hen a person com es or goes w ith the purpose o f engaging in som e kind o f activity, the verb (follow ing the stem form o f the activity verb) is followed b y に .There are also som e other m otion verbs that か又

で

ある

can b e used in this constructioiv such as 帰 る " to return■〃 出 か け る " to leave," 歩

uし

く〃to walk/' and 走 る " to ru n." O bserve the following exam ples: U " は罾謹に荇きました。 —

purpose

—

， 奪 し 裼 を M ける

4 私は警察に落とし物を届けに行きました。 I w en t to a ooiice station to turn in lost property.

⑴

松田さんは私の所へ書類を备 リに条ました。 M r. M atsuda cam e to m y place to pick up som e docum ents.

⑵

アメリカの大統領が首相と会談をしに日本へ条ました。 i'he A m en can president cam e to Japan to confer w ith th e prir

： m inister

o f Japan.

⑶

今晩韓国料理を蠢べに行きませんか。 W ould you like to

⑷

eat K orean food tonight?

あなたに嘉いにお宅まで行きます。 I will com e to your hom e to see you.

(5)

新 し い 本 が 図 書 館 に 入 り ま し た か ら 、借 U に 行 き ま し ょ う 。 N ew books arrived in the library, so let7s go borrow them .

(6)

大 学 の 才 フ ィ ス に 忘 れ 物 を 最 リ に 1墓 っ た 。 I ran to the university office to g et the stuff I forgot to pick up.

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

141

W hen a noun that can accom pany す る ，thereby changing into a verb, is used w ith に 来 ま す o r に 行 き ま す , th e n す る is not needed, a n d に 来 ま す 〇 r に行 き ます can follow the noun im m ediately. Som e exam ples a r e :負い 姑) " shop p in g/, — 事 " eatin g /' k 汚 " trav el/’ 観 先 "sigh t-seein g/’ テ ニ ス " playing tennis," and

ゴルフ " golfing."

(7)

妻 は 今 食 事 に 行 っ て い ま す 。子 供 は 買 い 物 に 出 か け て い ま す 。" は 一人です。 M y w ife has gone to eat. M y kid has gone shopping. I am alone.

(8)

先週妹夫婦がアメリカへ旅行に来ました。 今週はコロラドへスキ 一に行っています。 Last w eek, m y sister and her husband cam e to A m erica (w here I am ) to travel. They have gone to C olorado to ski tnis w eek.

Sam ple d ialogues 財布は空でした 松 田 ：や あ 、 本 田 さ ん 、 ど ち ら へ ？ M r. H onda, w here are you going f 本 田 ：ち ょ っ と 近 く の 交 番 (policestation)ま で 行 く ん で す よ 。 I am going to a pouce stauon nearby. 松 田 ：え 、 私 も で す よ 。 で も 、 ま た ど う し て ？ M e too. B u t w hy? 本 田 ：い え ね 、 き の う あ の あ た り で 、 財 布 を 落 と し た か ら 、 届 い て い な い か なと思って• • • 。 I lost m v w allet in that area yesterday, and w as w ondering if it m ay have been turned in. 松 田 ：え 、 財 布 ？財 布 っ て も し か し て こ れ で す か ？ W allet? Is this it by any chance? 本 田 ：え 一 ？

そ う そ う 、 これですよ。 ど う し て 松 田 さ ん が ？

Yes, this is it. W hy do you have this?

1

CHAPTER 9

142 松 田 ：き の う I I っ た ん で す 1^•ど 、 だ : ^ の か わ か ら な い で し よ う 。 そ れ で 交 番 に 1 けに# こうと1 っ て • •

I found it yesterday, b u t d on 't know w hose it is, so I thought that I should tu rn it in to the police. 本 田 ：松 田 さ ん が 拾 っ て く だ さ っ た ん で す か 。 な ん て 偶 然 な ん だ 。 どうもありがとう！ Y ou found it? W h at a coincidence! T hank y ou so m uch. 松 田 ：よ か っ た で す ね え 、 中 が I I か ら (em p ty )で • … 。 Y ou are lucky since it w as em pty. 本 田 ：え • • • ？え え 、 ま あ • • • 。 W hat? A h . . . y e a h ___

口座にお金を入れておいてください 男 ：

あ の う • • • す み ま せ ん 。 お 金 を お ろ し に 来 た ん で す け ど 、機 械 がキャッシュカードを読めないようなんです Excuse m e. I cam e to w ithdraw som e cash, b u t the m acnine does not

ぎんこういん

銀行員:

seem to b e able to read the card. そうですか。 ちょっとカードをお貸しください。 Is that so? M a^ I have your card, please ( ああ、お 客 様 の 口 座 に は 現 在 5 0 円しかござ^ ません。ですから、 1,000 円 は お ろ せ な い の で す 。 お 金 を 入 れ に 条 て い た だ け ま す か 。 W ell, vour acrou nt has only 50 ven now . So, vou cannot w ithdraw 1,000 yen. C ou ia you please com e deposit som e m oney?

男:

あ、そ う • • • 。 どうもすみませんでした。 Is that s o ? .. . I am sorry.

CHAPTER 10

てForm Compounds

T h e て fo rm as in 蠢 ベ て ，お も し ろ く て ，き れ い で , a n d 学 生 で , does not by itself assign an y particular m eaning.1 The T form of these parts of speech is used to com bine sentences; in this usage, it expresses the m eanings //a n d // "'and then/,/ ゃす

or "and so.’"1 2 F or exam ple, w hen com bining tw o adjectival phrases, such as 安 い で す "ch eap " and お い し い で す "d elid ou s," the first い adjective has to alter its form into t h e て form to com bine w it h お い し い で す • 安 く ' お い し い で す m eans "ch eap and delicious." Verbal phrases, as for exam ple 遅 く な る " to be late" and す み ま せ ん ，m ay also be com bined using the て form to create a sentence like 遅 く な つ て す み ま せ ん 'T m late, so rm sorry, i.e., r m sorry for being late/7 A nother type of exam ple concerns tw o activities that o ccu r one after み

the o th e r:お 風 呂 に 入 っ て 、 テ レ ビ を 見 た " I took a batK then w atched TV ." In addition to its function as a sen ten ce/ph rase linkage, the T

form is

com m only used w ith a variety of auxiliaries to constitute com pound predicates, as in て か ら ，て お く ，て あ る ，and て い る •The attached auxiliary usually gives the m eaning of the phrase. The constructions discussed in this chapter are basic ones in Japanese.

i.

てください

く だ さ い is used w hen a speaker requests the listener to give h im /h e r som ething. お 水 を くださ t ' f o r exam ple, m eans "please give m e (a glass of) w ater." Re­ questing somethings how ever, is not limited m erely to entities, b u t it also extends to an activity as in "'please give m e som ething, that is, to teach m e Jap an ese/' ^

Tz

さい still plays a role in this construction by following the て form of a verb:

1Except when it is used as a casual form of てください, such as これ、食 べ て "Eat 出is*" 2For explanation 〇£the T form, refer to Qiapter 14, section 1.

143

CHAPTER 10

144 に ほ ん _ご

おし

_

日 本 語 を 教 え て く だ さ い " Please teach m e Japanese. 〃In this construction^ how ­ ever, the m eaning in Dractice com m unicates the concept o f "com m an d ," and it can be rude, especially w hen used to an older inaividuaL For ex a m p le ,先 玍 、 こ こ に 漢 字 を 書 い て く だ さ い " Professor, please write the kanji h ere" is pragm ati­ cally the sam e as "w rite the kanji here" (though som etim es the tone o f voice m ay rectify the im pression that the speaker is giving) and m u ch less appropriate than the polite eq u iv a le n tこ こ に 漢 字 を 書 い て く だ さ い ま せ ん か " Could you please w rite the kanji here?" A l s o ,て く だ さ い is often seen on signs at various places and is heard in public announcem ents. ( 1 ) お年よりに席をゆずってください。 Please offer you r seat to an elder. ⑵

ゴミはくずかごに捨ててください。 Please p u t garbage in the trash can.

⑶

ここに名前と住所を書いてください。 Please w rite your nam e and address here.

⑷猿にえさをやらないでください。 Please do n ot feed (give food to) the monkeys. (5)

すみません、お水を_ つてきてください。 Excuse m e. Please bring m e (a glass of) water.

(6)

皆さん、一列に並んでください。 Everyone, please form a line.

(7)

ドアによりかからないでください。 Please d o n ot lean against the door.

In order to m ak e a request polite and socially acceptable, ま す か or ま せ ん か m ay b e added to て く だ さ い 。 （ For degrees o f politeness in requests, see section 9 in this chapter.) 89 (8)

先生、 宿題を見てくださいませんか。 Professor, could you please check m y hom ew ork?

(9)

こちらに座ってくださいますか。 C ould you have a seat here?

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

145

Sample dialogue ^

が# っ た ケ ー キ Y ど うぞ

ぎ 字 ：あ の 、 こ れ 、 ： ! ベてください。 Please eat this. トム：え 、 ?奇 で す か 、 こ れ 。 W h at is this? 友 子 ：私 が 作 っ た ケ ー キ で す 。 その彳I で こ れ を 飲 ん で く だ さ い 。 It"s a cake I m ade. A fter eating i t please take this. トム：え 、 こ れ は 何 で す か 。 W h at is this? 友 子 ：胃 の 薬 で す 。 This is stom ach m ed ian e. トム：え 、 や だ な あ 。 食 べ ま せ ん よ 、 そ ん な ケ ー キ ！ There is no w ay Tm going to eat such a cake! W h y is l o m refusing to eat the cake?

弟 ：お 姉 ち や ん 、 ぼ く に も ホ ッ ト ド ッ グ ち よ う だ い よ 。 3 Sis, give m e a h ot dog, too. 姉：

だめよ。

弟：

N o. どうして？

かぁ

か

お母さんがぼくたちに買ってくれたんだよ。

W hy not? M o m bought them for us. 姉:

だめよ。 ほら、あそこのサインを見てちようだい。 N o. Look, see the sign. 「 サルにえさをやらないでください」 つて臺いてあるでしよ。 It says 'IDo not feed the monkeys/' right?

弟•

お か あ さ 〜 ん ！お 姉 ち や ん が い じ め る う M om ! Sis bullies me! W hv does the little brother think that his sister is bullying him ?

3 ちょうだい is a casual/informal equivalent of ください。Therefore, same meaning a s 見てください。

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CHAPTER 10

てから

2.

W h en tw o sequential activities need to b e m entioned, て か ら m ay b e used to com bine tw o sentences into one sentence. A lthough the て form o f the verb can itself express the sequential activity "an d then/’ w hen か ら is added, the sequentiality is strongly em phasized, indicating that one activity com es first then is follow ed b y a second. T h e m eaning is sim ilar to that o f た 後 で .て か ら can also be used to express ''since/7 as in 'T ifteen years have already passed since I cam e to A m erica./, In this sentence too, tw o ordered events are described, though the em phasis is n ot o n their sequentiality. Tense is alw ays identified in th e m ain verb.

晩ご飯を食べてから、お風呂に入ります。 O bserve the follow ing examples: ⑴

ぎ : 去 へ #つ て か ら 、 自

を

i

います。

I g o to Japan, then will learn Japanese. ( 2 ) ひ ら か 'な を 学 ん で か ら 、 カ タ カ ナ を 学 び ま し た 。 I learned hiragana first then learned katakana. ⑶

a

. 映画を見てから食事をしましょう。 Let"s see a m ovie first, then have a meal,

b

. 映画を見た後で、食事をしましょう。 Let^s have a m eal after seein多 a movie.

⑷

a

. ア メ リ カ に 条 て か ら 15年 過 ぎ ま し た 。 Fifteen years have passed since I cam e to Am erica.

* b

. ア メ リカに来た後で15年過ぎました。 Fifteen years passed after I cam e to Am erica.

Sentence ⑴ o f the above exam ples m ay norm ally b e presented 日 本 へ 行 っ て 、 日 本 語 を 習 い ま す " I go to Japan and learn Japanese." W h en て か ら is used, the sentence em phasizes the order in w hich the actions occur. Sentence ( 1 ) thus im­ plies that the speaker does not have any intention o f learning Japanese before going to Japan.

147

Fundamentals of J apanese G rammar

Since て か ら em phasizes the sequentiality o f e v e n ts ,て か ら and た 後 で are usually interchangeable w hen tw o activities occur one after the other. H ow ever, as (4a) d em o n strates,て か ら can invite a phrase that is not controlled b y the s p e a k e r:15 年 過 ぎ た " fifteen years have passed•"た 後 で is appropriate only w hen tw o events occur that are under the volitional control of an agent. T h e inappropriateness o f sentence (4b) is attributed to the fact that

さ 末 し た cannot

be a volitionally controlled event. N ote that w h en sequential activities are considered norm al occurrences in daily life, the use o f て か ら m ay becom e aw kw ard. For exam ple, people brush their teeth after they g et up (not w hile they are in bed). T he activities expressed in 朝 起 き ま す 。 そ れ か ら 、 歯 を 磨 き ま す " I g et up in the m orning. T hen I brush my teeth,/ are understood as norm al sequences, and there is no need to em phasize their sequentiality using て か ら • The て form m ay b e used alone in such cases:朝 起 き て 、 歯 を 磨 き ま す 'I g e tu p in th e m o m in g a n d b r u s h m y te e th ."

Sam ple dialogue ふ う ふ

か い わ

ある夫婦の会^^ 女 ： あ な た 、今 日 は M をしましようか。 Honey, w h at snail w e do today? お とこ

男 ： フットボールを見るんだ。それから、 シャワーを浴びて、テレビ。 Tm going to w atch a football game. Then, take a show er, and (w atch) TV. 女：

そ う •••フ ッ ト ボ ー ル を 見てからまたテレビ W ell, after w atching the football game, then (I) w atch T V a g a in . .. 自分の好きなことばかりね。 N othing bu t you r fiavorite activities.

男：

君はどうするの？ H ow about you? W hat are you going to do?

女：

私 は 買 い 物 に 行 っ て か ら 食 事 し て 、そ れ か ら ぼ 画 を 見 る の 。 Tm going to go shopping, then eat, then w atch a m ovie.

男：

ぇ、m と ? H ah? W ith w hom ?

女：

さあね• • • 。 N one o f your business.

148

3.

CHAPTER 10

ている

て い is called an "aspectual form/' and it is used to express the continuation of a situation either in a dynam ic or a static state. It expresses a situation that involves a duration o f tim e expressed in sentences, like "is/ has been 〜in g " and "is/have 〜ed ." The form er expresses an on戈oznざstofe; the latter, a resw/toto state in w hich som ething has been done, and the result o f that action rem ains u n­ changed; som ething is in the state o f having com e to an end. A n on-going state involves a period

ot tim e in w hich an activity is in a dynam ic situation (is ~ing). A

resultative state involves a situation w herein the activity is com pleted b y the ani­ m ate entity and the state resulting from the com pletion o f the activity rem ains as static (have ~ed)•て い る can be interpreted as expressing "~ in g " or "h a v e 〜ed " in E n g lish and therefore is not exactly an equivalent to the English " 〜in g " construction (see Johnson 2004). A lthough it is true that て い る in general can be used to express either an on-going m eaning or a resultative meaning, there are som e verbs that can express either m eaning depending on the environm ent w hile other verbs w ith て い る m ay b e able to yield only a resultative m eaning. For ex a m p le,見て い く ） can be interpreted as expressing either y/I am w atching/, or /7I have w atched/7 w hereas 宛 ん で い る can only m ean "(som ething) is dead (= in the state o f having died )" and cannot m ean "'(something) is dying/' unlike in English. T h e m eaning o f

Tt'

る sentences depends on the type of verb, and there is quite a difference the w ay that て い る is used com pared to the English progressive

in g " form . Therefore,

as m entioned, a て い る sentence does not im m ediately translate into an English progressive ('しin g ") sentence. In Japanese, activities that are controlled by a anim ate entity's volition can often b e perceived as repetitive activities, either conceptually or concretely. For exam ple, for som e activities, such a s 歩 い て い る "w alk in g " and 食 べ て い る //eating,,/ the notion o f repetition is visualizable, and the action can b e m ore con­ cretely recognized as a repetitive action (alternating legs m oving ahead and bringing food to m outh to eat, respectively). Som e actions, how ever, m ay be conceptual and ab stract such as 買 っ て い る " is b u yin g" and 聞 い て い る " is listen­ ing." H ow ever, there is a com m onality in these activities, that is, the constant

149

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

energy input required from the anim ate entity to m aintain the situation. In other words:

If the attribute o f a verb is perceived as satisfying 'V olitionally controllable," "visually or conceptually repeti­ tive," and ノor "requires energy input to m aintain the situation/' then the て い る phrase expresses either an on-going state or a resultative state.

Let's do a test using the follow ing verbs: Table 1 Volitional

Repetition

Energy input

control ✓

✓

揉ぐ

✓

a
c^Resultative

ジ

As mentioned above, one-tim e events are perceived as events or situations that cxrur once and only once to bring about a physical and situational change in the subject. Also, the change is not realized by the repetition o f the sam e event. For example, reaching the point o f arrival m ay b e realized b y a gradual progression, but not by repeating the arrival itself. Events described b y non-volitional intransi-

154

CHAPTER 10

tive verbs are m ostly perceived as one-tim e events. These verbs, w hen attached to て い る express

口resw/tofiue meamVig. They d o not express a n on-going m ean-

ing as, for exam ple, in "a n airplane is arriving" in English.— い て い る in Japane~ se exhibits only a resultative m eaning that is equivalent to /xan airplane has arrived (is in the state o f having arrived at the airport)." This is an im portant difference found betw een English and Japanese. "A n airplane is arriving" is then expressed sim ply b y the non-past form 着 き ま す " will arrive" or som e different sentence patterns, su ch as 着く と こ ろ で す " is about to arrive." C om p are the difference betw een the use o f て い る w ith a repetitive event and a one~time event

(10)

6 :00 P.M .

8 :0 0 P .M

A rriv e at th e airport

N ow

T h e airp lan e is arriving.

Typical verbs that describe one-tim e events are:

(11)

死ぬ M eaning:

あ、 リスが死んでいる！ A squirrel is in the state resulting from having died. Look, a squirrel is dead!

(12)

知る M eaning:

私はジョンを知っている。 I am in the state resulting from having com e to know John. I know John.

(13)

持つ M eaning:

本田さんはトヨタの車を持っている。 M r. H onda is m the state resulting from having ow ned a Toyota car.

English expression:

Mr. H onda has a Toyota car.

F U N D A M E N T A L S O F JA P A N E S E G R A M M A R

する

(14)

155

先生は結婚している。

M eaning:

The teacher is in the state resulting from having gotten married.

English expression: 荇く

(15)

The teacher is married. 田中さんは日本へ行っている。

M eaning:

Mr. Tanaka is in the state resulting from having gone to Japan.

English expression:

gone to Japan.

< 来る

(16)

Mr. Tanaka is in Japan./M r. T anaka has

4 が日本から来ている。

M eaning:

M y m other is in the state resulting from having com e from Japan.

English expression:

M y m other has arrived from Japan. /M y m other is here.

The verbs 行く and 来 る w ith て い る are perhaps am ong the m ost difficult to comprehend in term s o f w h y 行 つ て い る and 来 て い る are used to express only a resultative m eaning. M ost learners o f Japanese im m ediately construe 行 っ て い る as "som eon e is going" w hich m eans "som eone is on the w ay to som ew here" (if not expressing a habitual m eaning)6 and 来 て い な as "so m eo n e is on the w ay here•〃行 < and 来 る in Japanese are not perceived as "w alking/’ b u t are strongly associated w ith the notion o f //achievem ent// that can be treated in the sam e w ay as 着 く " to arrive." They are in fact perceived as one-tim e events. The follow ing are som e m ore exam ples o f verbs that express only a resultative m eaning w h en て い る is attached.

商く

ドアが開いている。

南える

電気が消えている。

T h e door is open.

T h e light is turned off. .

* v Mw 〇

.

If a habitual m e a n i n g s m ea n t to b e oonveyert. (5)

雨がi んだところです。 It has just stopped raining.

(6)

魚が备 けたところへ猫がやって条た。 A cat cam e over at the tim e w hen the fish w as grilled.

Although と こ ろ in the above cases is not a place noun that indicates an actual location, it is still considered a point in space w here an activity has been com pleted. W hen the predicate o t the m ain d au se contains a m otion v e r b , と し づ is marked by へ バ こ , as in exam ple sentences ⑴ and (6). W hen て い た is used for an activity verb , て い た と こ ろ refers to a point during w hich the event w as in progress.

(7)

その禅についてはちょうど先生と相談していたところです。 Regarding that issue, I w as right in the m iddle of consulting m y teacher.

CHAPTER 11

180 (8)

電 車 が 韻 に j t まってい た と こ ろ へ く ； I まがぶつかって来た。 A car cam e rushing into the streetcar w hen the streetcar w as in the middle o f staying at the station.

5.

たまま

まま is a depend ent m orphem e m eaning "a s it is" and "a s it stands." W h en follow ing a verb in the f c form, the phrase m eans that an activity w hich previously took place rem ains unchanged w hile the sam e person does som ething else. For exam ple, an individual turns a light on, then falls asleep w ithout turning off the light; the Ii|ht rem ains on. The situation can b e described by the

3;

construc-

tion as 電 気 を つ け た ま ま 寝 た " I fell asleep w ith the lights on.〃 ま ま can also occur w ith the im perfective form o f a verb or a norn% as in 人 の 目 つ ま ま に な る "d o w hatever one tells you to d o " and 意 の ま ま " as one pleases," respectively. There are also som e fixed phrases that include まま,su ch as そ の ま ま " as it is."

( 1 ) 時計をしたままお風呂にはいってしまった。 I entered the bathtub w ith m y w atch on. ⑵

日本では、 くつをはいたまま家へ入ってはいけません。 In Japan, you should not go inside the house w ith your shoes on.

⑶

め が 'ね を か け た ま ま i て し ま っ た 。 I fell asleep w ith m y glasses on.

⑷

電気をつけたまま家を由た。 I left hom e w ith the lights on.

(5)

ftいたままのことをお話ししましよう。 I will tell you exactly w hat I heard.

(6)

A : 窓を南めしょうか。 Shall I d o se the w indow ? B

: いいえ、商けたままでいいです。 N o, it is O .K . w ith it open.

◦ い い え 、そのままでけっこうです。 N o, leave it as it is (m eaning that you d o n 't have to d o se the w indow ).

CHAPTER 12

おラForm Compounds a n d ましよラ The おう form is a plain form o f ま し よ う •B oth form s are used to m ean '"L e fs" when a speaker tries to have an interlocutor do som e activity w ith him / her such as ね え 、 テ ニ ス し よ う ’ ’ Say, le ts play tennis (casual situation)" and 食 事 し ま し よ う "L et's have a m eal together (rather formal situation)." T h e おう form is き よ う な に

also used in situations w here a speaker m ight m um ble, saying 今 日 は 何 を し よ う(かな)'"W hat shall I do to d a y ... ? " In addition^ the おう form is also used w ith other phrases, such as と思う and とする to create patterns that express 'T m thinking o f doing 〜

and ’1 am about to do

respectively. In this chapter, these

two constructions are introduced, followed by a discussion o f the u se o f 本 し よ う in com parison w ith ませんか.

i.

おうと思う

The おつ form follow ed b y the verb 思つ creates a sentence pattern m eaning 'T m thinxing o f doing 〜

Since it is used to express a sp eaker s m te n tio a there is

no reference to the realization of the event. If the sentence describes a past e v e n t it usually expresses a counterfactual meaning. ⑴今年は日本語を泰ろうと思っている。 Tm thinking o f taking Japanese this year. ⑵母に手紙を备 こうと思った。 I thought o f w riting a letter to m y mother. ⑶ 大 学 に 進 学 し よ う と 思 っ た が 、 お金がなくて、できなかった。 I w as thinking o f going to college, bu t I couldn't d o so d u e to lack o f m oney. ⑷

a . 来 年 は 結 婚 し よ う と 思 っ て い る が 、相 手 が い な い 。 Tm thinking of getting m arned next year, bu t I d o n 't have a partner.

181

182

CHAPTER 12 b

. 来 年 は 結 婚 し た い と M つ て い る が 、 ま だ 編 '#が い な い 。 Tm hoping to get m arried next year, b u t I d o n 't have a partner yet.

The difference between (4a) and (4b) is that た い と 思 う is used to describe a de» sire which the speaker may not carry out while the お う と 思 う construction conveys the speaker's relatively strong intention o f realizing the event described b y the preceding dause.

Sample dialogue 返そうとは思っているんです 本 田 ••お 父 さ ん 、 新 し い 車 を

I

お う と 思 っ ;r い る ん だ け ど ね 、 ち ょ っ と

予算がi り な く て ■ ••。よかったら1 0 万円くらい会してもらえな いかなって思ってるんだけど D ad, I am thinking o f buying a new car, b u t l don 't have enough m oney. If it is O.K., Tm hoping to have you lend m e som e m oney, about 100,000 v e n .. . 父：

な ん だ 、1 0 万 円 で い い の か 。 O h, only 100,000 will do?

本 田 ：う ん ！ 貸 し て も ら え る の ？ Yes! C an I borrow (it)? 父：

貸してあげようと思ったけど、やっぱりやめた。 I thought o f lending i t bu t decided not to.

本 田 ：ど う し て ！？ H o w com e!? 父：

だ っ て 、 結 局 は 「あ げ る 」 こ と に な る か ら さ 。 Because after all the m oney is to give (not to lend).

本 囲 え 、そんなことないよ。 必 ず返そうと思ってるんだから。 N o, that is not the case. I am thinking o f returning the m oney w ithout fail. 父：

ほら、 「 返 す よ 」 じやなくて、 「 返 そ う と 思 っ て る J だろ 。 それって 返すかどうかわからないっていう意味なんだよ。 See. Y ou d o n 't say " I will return/' but say T m thinking o f returning." That show s vou d o n 't know if you are really going to return the m oney .

Fundamentals O f J apanese G rammar

183

本 田 ：お 父 さ ん 。 必 ず 返 し ま す ！ D ad, I wiU return the m oney w ithout fail! 父：

さあ、 どうしようかなあ W e ll. . . W h at shall w e d o ...?

人間と結婚しようと思っています

I

々子：

私 、結 婚 し よ うと思ってるの。

虹

ア レ ッ ク ス ： え 、 結 婚 ？そ れ 、 そ れ は よ か っ た 。 で 、 何 と ？ 美々子：

「 何 と ？J ま 、 失 礼 ね ！人 間 と に 決 ま っ て る で し よ 。 O f course w ith a hum an being!

アレックス： あ 、 ごめん。 また間 違 え ち や っ た 。

2 . おうとする おうと す る m eans "a b o u t to d o " or "try to" and is used w h en som eone is/was nght at the m om ent of carrying out or trying to do an activity, it does n ot indicate that the event w as carried out b y the soeaker; it usually expresses that the sneaker failed to carrv o u t an activity at som e p o in t eso eaallv w h en it is used in a past context The form o f す る can be either the aspectual form し て い る /た or the past tense form した.

⑴ 私 は い つ も た ば こ を や め よ う と す る の だ が 、何 回 試 し て も で き な い 。 I alw ays try to quit smoking, but no matter how m any tim es I try, I fail. ⑵ 福 が 金 魚 を 4 ろうとしていたので、あわてて止めた。 M y cat w as trying to catch a gold fish, so I quickly stopped him. ⑶ 中 国 語 を 勉 強 し よ う と し た が 、クラスはもういっぱいだった。 I w as going to study Chinese, but the d ass w as already full. ⑷

i

を出ようとしたところに電話がかかってきた。

W hen I w as about to leave, the phone rang. (5)

夕飯を备 ベようとした所へ友達が条て、結局一緒に食べることに した。 M y friend cam e over w hen I w as about to eat dinner, and I invited him to join m e after all.

1 8 4 _______________________________________________________________ CHAPTER 12 (6)

S

がゴルフをしようとするところへいつも_ が高り’ 結めるんだ。

W h en I am about to play golf, it starts to rain w ithout fail.

W h en the pattern お う と す る is com bined w ith と こ ろ へ indicating that the speaker is about to do som eth in g と こ ろ can take に or へ ,as is show n above in sentences (4) - (6).

Sample essay

g

は1 0 年前からb 康的な生活をしようとしている。一つは肥満の問題だ。 も何度痩せようとしたか、わからない。 マクドナルド7 行かないで

家 で 料 理 を し て み た が 、 た く さ ん 作 っ て し ま う の で 、# み ん な : ! ベ て し ま う 。 それで、食 事 の 量 を 愈 ら そ う と し て 、小さいお皿をAってみたが、 結 局 何 回 も お か わ り を し て し ま う 。 甘 い も の を 食 べ な い よ う に し た が 、 フライ ドボテ卜をたくさん食べてしまう。 たばこもやめようとした。 コーヒーも減 らそうとした。 でも、 どうしてもできない。 ほんとうに泣きたくなってしま う。 だ れ か 、 助 け て く だ さ い ！

この人は健康的な生活をするために、 どんなことを試しましたか。

3.

ましよう

ま し よ う is the form al version o f the おう form and the equivalent o f " L e t s " in English w h en a speaker tnes to involve an mterlcxnjtor in an activity. Therefore, only an action verb can occur in the ま し よ う fo r m .お う /ま し よ う can also be used in a question w ith the m eaning "Shall 1/w e 〜 ? " w hen the speaker w onders about the activity or offers som ething to som eone. A lthough it is used to involve som eone in an activity, w h en used as an invitation, it m ay give an im pression that the interlocutor^ intention has already been confirm ed. If a n invitation is in ten d e d ,〜 な い ？w ith a rising intonation or ま せ ん か ’ "Won’t you like to do 〜?" m ay b e preferred, since these form s are used to sound out w hether or not the interlocutor is interested in the activity. O bserve the following exam ples, which m ake use o f these forms:

pU N DA M EN TA LS

( 1 )

a

〇F

J A P A N E S E G R A M M A R _______________________________________________ 1 8 5

. 今日からまじめに宿題をしよう。 Starting today, I shall do m y hom ew ork seriously.

b

成 績 が C だったら、 どうしよう。

.

W h at shall I d o if I receive a C grade? c

図書館まで一緒に歩こうか。

.

Shall w e w alk to the library together? W h y d o n 't w e w alk to the library together? d

図書館まで一緒に歩かない？

.

W ould you like to w alk to the library w ith m e? (2)

1ニ _ に S 綠 の 試 合 を 炱 に 荇 き ま し ょ う 。

a.

L et's go to see a baseball gam e together. b

—緒に野球の試合を見に行きましようか。

.

Shall w e go to see a baseball gam e together? c

. 一緒に野球の試合を見に行きませんか。 W ould you like to go see a baseball gam e w ith m e? &私 た ち 、 こ れ か ら 先 ど う し ま し よ う か 。

d.

W h at shall w e do from now on?

The appropriateness o f the use o f these torm s depends on the relationship be~ tween the speaker and the interlocutor, and the environm ent they are in. T h e 家 せ ん か form is m ost com m only used for invitatioa although the E nglish equivalent '"Would you like to do 〜 ?"た い で す か is not considered appropriate, espe~ dally w hen the speaker is inviting som eone w h o is older than s/ he is. (See Chapter 9, Section 1.)

Sample dialogues

H

椅をぁ!て

一,び

^

リサ：明 日 は 太 郎 の 誕 生 日 ね 。 何 か プ レ セ ン ト し な い ？ 次 郎 ：そ う だ ね 。 何 を あ げ よ う か 。 リサ：ポ ル シ ェ は ど う ？ 次 郎 ：え 、 ポ ル シ ェ ！？ リサ： う ん 、 ほ ら 、 モ デ ル カ ー で ポ ル シ ェ が # る じ や な い 。 次 郎 ：あ 、 モ デ ル カ ー ね • ■ • 。 そ れ な ら 大 丈 夫 だ 。

186

CHAPTER 12

リ甘：本 当 の 車 だ と 思 っ た の ？ 次 郎 ：い や 、 別 に . … 。

■*-

お丄キ

いっしよ

男J

あさ

はん

た

あ の う • • . • 。 もし本かったら、一 緒 に 朝 ご 飯 を 食 べ ま せ ん か 。

女 ： あ、あ の う • • • 、結構です 男：

• • •〇

謹

sgis

卜ランへ行きましょう おなかがすきましたね。

ええ私も。 お簋ご飯、一緒に食べませんか。 ええ、そうしましょう。でもどこで食べましょうか。 「 一 番 」 はどうですか。 あ そ こ に は い い 定食がありますよ。

いいですね。そうしましょう。

あ、 ちょ っ と 待 っ て く だ さ い • • • 。 あ、私お財布忘れてしまいま

た。

あ、そうですか。 いいですよ。私が立て替えておきますから。 そ う で す か v す み ま せ ん ね え 、 い つ も • ■ • 。 じや、 行 き ま し よ う 。

I t 生、召し上がりませんか 先生：

あ あ 、 トムさん、 ジ ョ ン さ ん 、 い ら っ し ゃ い 。 ど う し た ん で す か 。

トム： ジョン：

先生、 これ僕が作ったんですけど、食べたいですか。 （ W h is p e rin g to T o m )ち ょ っ と 、 先 生 は 目 上 の 人 だ か ら 、 その言い方は失礼だよ。

トム：

あ、そうだった。 ありがとう。 先 生 、 これ、 いただきたいですか。

ジョン:

だ〜めだ、 こ り ゃ • • •。

CHAPTER 13

Demonstrative Pronouns :こ • そ • あ • ど

Japanese has four types of dem onstratives that start w ith こ • そ • あ • ど . These dem onstratives can be used in tw o w ays: non-anaphoric (deictic) and anaphoric. The deictic use of こ • そ • あ • ど refers to direct pointing to concrete， visible entities in relation to the speaker^ location. The anaphoric use of し • そ • め • と indicates an abstract distance betw een the speaker and the listener. First w e consider the basic non-anaphoric use of the こ • そ • あ • ど pronouns, then the anaphoric use of these し • そ • め • ど pronouns.

1 . The Non-anaphoric (Pointing) Use of こ • そ • あ • と Look at the Dicture below, which represents the very basic usages o t し • そ . め • こ . Note that the entity is referred

trom the speaker s viewpoint.

187

CHAPTER 13

188 こ：

d o ser to the speaker; usually used in a non-anaphoric w ay ノ

そ：

d oser to the listener than to the speaker.

あ：

at a distance both from the speaker and the listener.

ど：

w hidv w hat type of, w here, etc.: location o r attribute unknow n to both the speaker and the listener.

こ series dem onstratives are used w hen an entity is d ose to the speaker or in the

speaker^ h a n d s;そ , w hen it is d ose to the listen er;あ , w hen the distance from the speaker and the listener is com parable; and

ii ,w h e n

the location or attribute is

unknow n to both the speaker and the listener. See the following ch art for various usages.

t h in g s

w a v 123

p la c e

p erso n

or

p la c e

p e rso n ‘

d ir e c tio n 4

th in g s

k in d

e x te n t

s o r t k in d

こ

これ

この

こう

>— < —

こちら

こんな

こんなに

こういう

そ

それ

その

そう

そこ

そちら

そんな

そんなに

そういう

あ

あれ

あの

ああ

あそこ

あちら

あんな

あんなに

ああいラ

ど

どれ

どの

どラ

どこ

どちら

どんな

どんなに

どういう

W hen the speaker and the listener are next to each other and are pointing to an entity d ose to the listener, the speaker m ay use

to refer to the entity. Thus,

the use of こ and そ m ay som etim es vary depending on the perception and the location of the speaker and the listener. Follow ing are som e exam ples:

1 //N o n -a n a p h o r iC ,/ m e a n s t h a t t h e s p e a k e r is a c tu a lly p in p o in tin g a n e n tity v is ib le t o b o t h s p e a k e r a n d lis te n e r. W h e n a s p e a k e r ta lk s a b o u t a n e n tity tiia t is n o t p h y s ic a lly p r e s e n t b u t is r e f e r e n c in g it, th e u s a g e でんわ

is c a lle d ^ a n a p h o r ic ''

2 この、そ没、あの、 どの a r e a

l w a y s b y

m e ) , " そ の 本 "t h e b o o k ( d o s e t o y o u ) , " あ

3こう、そう、 ああ、 どう

a n o th e r n o u n s u c h a s

の 車 "th a t c a r o v e r t h e r e ,"

and

この震声5 " t h is どの人〃w h ic h

a r e a ls o u s u a lly fo llo w e d b y a w o r d . T h e ty p ic a l o n e is

w h ic h is o f t e n u s e d in c a s u a l c o m m u n ic a tio r v s u c h a s

どうやって条たの ？ ’" H o w

p h o n e ( d o s e to p erso n ?"

ど う や っ て '"h o w ,"

d id y o u g e t h e re ?"'

4 T h e r e a r e c o llo q u ia l e q u iv a le n ts o f th e s e t e r m s : し っ ち , で っ ち , あ っ ち , a n d ど っ ち .

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

(1)

(2)

189

T w o p e o g lf „ i t t i n g together and pointing to a person in a picture: A

: しの人

B

: ああ、 この方は先生の御主人ですよ。

、

ftよ

せ

ん

せ

、

ごし• じん

The listener has a nice bag in her hand, and a nice car is parked on the street at a visible distance from both the speaker and the listener. A : そのかばん、ブランドは何？ W h a t brand is the bag you have? B

: これ？

グッチ。

This one? I f s Gucxn. A

: じや、 あ の 車 は ？ (pointing to the car) H ow about that car over there?

B

: あれ？

あれはベンツ。

T h at is a (M ercedes) Benz. A : すごいわね。そんなものf t うお金、 ど う や っ て 稼 い だ の ？ A m azing. H ow did you earn m oney to bu y things like those? B:

宝くじに当たったのよ！ I w on a lottery ticket!

2.

The Anaphoric (Referencing) Use of し• て■あ

The dem onstratives し, そ , and あ are used not only to refer to visible entities, but also to indicate the m etaphorical distance o f an entity from the speaker and the listener. W h en こ，i r , and あ are used anaphorically, the series still m aintains its fundamental behavior, though a concrete entity is not visible in front o f the speaker/listener. O f these four, そ and あ are the m ain dem onstratives used in conversation;

あ

is used m uch less often.

used to refer to inform ation (at a distance either in tim e or space) that both the speaker and the listener are aw are of.5

5 あ may be used where the speaker does not involve an interiocutor, i_&, the speaker does nc{£ieoessarily share the same information with the listener. For example, a speaker may say あれ、荷だったっ け • • • "what was that".?"' when the speaker tries to recall something s/h e had in mind•あれ can be used in this isolated communication situatiorv since the information the speaker is trying to recover is not in his/her mind and there is a spatio-temporal distance from him /her. It is as if the speaker is pointing to the information at a distance, marked by a question mark.

CHAPTER 13

190 そ

used to refer to inform ation that is not know n to either the speaker or the listener or has not been part o f their shared experience.

し

used to indicate inform ation as if it w ere visible to both the speaker and the listener during the conversation; it im parts vividness to the conversation.

2 . 1 あ an d そ (1)

Both the speaker and the listener know f t 于 •T h e listener uses あ の to indicate that he also know s Hanako. A:

き の う 花 子 っ て い う 女 の 字 に 4 ったよ。 1 m et a girl called Hanako.

B

: あ あ 、 襲 も あ の 子 よ く 奋 1っ て る よ 。 Yeah, I know that girl well.

(2)

B oth the speaker and the listener know M s. Endo. A ••昨 日 遠 藤 さ ん に 会 い ま し た よ 。 あ の 人 、 す て き で す ね 。 I m et M s. Endo yesterday. She is a nice person, d o n 't vou think so, too? B

: ええ、本当に。 fe s, indeed.

The use o f ね " don’t you think so, too?" in the speaker^ sentence show s that he/she know s that the listener also know s M s. Endo.

⑶

A : き の ラ ジ エ フ と い う ア ;^ リカ人に会ったんですよ。 そ の 人 、 日本語がわからなくて困っていたので、通訳してあげたんです。

1 m et an A m erican called Jeff. T h at m an (he) w as at a loss not knowing Japanese, so I translated for rum. B

: そうですか。それは親切ですね。 Is that so? That7s nice o f you.

T h e speaker uses

assum ing that the listener does not know the A m erican

called Jeff. T h e use o f dem onstratives in reference to things, events, places, time, and m anner also show s the sam e characteristics.

Fundamentals of J apanese G rammar

⑷

191

A : きのうダウンタウンで火事があってねえ。 その火事で又がt 艾赤 んだんですよ。 There w as a nre dow ntow n yesterday. Four people died in that fire. B

: あ 、 そ の /あ の 火 事 な ら 、 ち ょ う ど ダ ウ ン タ ウ ン に い た も の で す か ら 、見 ま し た よ 。 A h, if you are talking about that fire, I w itnessed it since I w as d ow ntow n a t that time.

At the tim e o t sp e ech the speaker does not know if the listener shares the sam e information regarding the fire and uses そ の . i’ne listener m ay u se i r の until ne confirms that if they are talking about the sam e inform ation, or since the listener witnessed the fire, he m ay use あ の in order to let the speaker k now that they share the sam e inform ation•こ の is aw kw ard. (See この in Section 2.2 below .)

(5)

きのう あかさ か に ほ ん y よう丨j て ん い 昨 日 「赤 坂 」 と い う 日 本 料 理 店 へ 行 っ て き ま し た 。

A:

I w en t to a Japanese restaurant called A kasaka yesterday. B

: そ こ は ど う で す か 。値 段 は 安 い で す か 。 H ow did you like it? Is the price affordable?

A : ええ、まあまあです。 「 一番」よりは安いですよ。 Yeal^ it is so~so. It is cheaper than Ichiban. B

: あ、あそこは高いですからねえ! That restaurant is expensive, isn't it!

The listener first uses -fr indicating that he has never been to A kasaka, bu t uses do informing the speaker that he also know s Ichiban. Thus, the use or そ or あ de~ pends on the know ledge the speaker and the listener m ay share.

2.2

こ

W hen the こ series is used anaphorically, it can be used tor indicating som ething as if it w ere visible to both the speaker and the listener at the tim e o f the conversa­ tion, and thus it im parts vividness to the conversation. This use is often seen where the speaker w ants to em phasize som e attribute o f the entity.

192 (6)

CHAPTER 13 T h e speaker refers to M r. Sasaki using こ as if he w ere present. A : 昨 日 佐 々 木 と い う 又 に 备 っ た ん だ け ど 、 このぉ耸、 2 メ ー ト ル もあるんだ！ I m et a m an called Sasaki yesterday, b u t this m an is tw o m eters tall! B:

2 メ ー ト ル ？そ れ は す ご い 。 T w o m eters? T h a fs unbelievable.

(7)

T w o people are in a d assroom waiting for the d ass to start. T he speaker brings o u t the placem ent test he has taken recently. A

: こ の 間 日 本 語 3 年の編入試験を会たんだけど、 この試験、 超 むずかしくて全然できなかったんだ。 I took a placem ent test for third-year Japanese the other day, b u t this exam w as extrem ely difficult and I could not handle it a t all.

B

: あ 、 あ の 試 験 ？僕 も 受 け た け ど 、 全 然 で き な か っ た 。 T hat exam ? I also took it, bu t I couldn^ d o well at all.

A : だから僕たちこのクラスにいるのか。 T h af s w h y w e are both in this dass, isn't it?

T h e speaker refers to the placem ent exam using

as it it w ere present in tront ot

him . T h e listener uses あ, since he also took the sam e exam and shares the sam e intorm ation as the speaker. T h u s ,め の 試 験 is appropriate in sentence (7B). u n c e an understanding about shared inform ation is established betw een the speaker and the listener, the speaker can no longer use the こ series in referring to the sam e inform ation.

CHAPTER 14

Conjugation Words and Linking Sentences

The fundam ental function o f conjunction w ords is to link w ords, phrases, and sentences in a w ay that facilitates coherent and logical com m unication. C onjunctions m ay appear as independent w ords located betw een sentences, or they m ay be dependent conjunctions a t the end o f a sentence and follow ea by a com m a and another sentence. F or example:

あのレス卜ランのすしは高かった。

⑴

S1

r

でも、 1 け れ ど も 、>- ま ず か っ た 。

L

しかし、

J

S2

Sushi a t that restaurant w as expensive. H ow ever, it w as b a d .= あのレス卜ランのすしは翯かった逆、 まずかった。 Though sushi at that restaurant w as expensive, it w a s bad. The following are exam ples o f basic independent and depend ent conjunction words that are used そして それから

to com bine sentences.

、 >

and and then

て

それで だから

and so

ン

そ れ で •だ か ら けれども でも

and so の で 、 から

and so

、

b u t although

卜 が 、 けど、の に 、 けれど、 けれども

but

しかし

一

how ever

それに

、

w h a fs m o r e

その上 しかち

卜 し

on top o f that

ン

w h a fs m o r e

193

194

CHAPTER 14

In this chapter, the functions o f basic conjunction w ords and the w ay sentences are joined are explained, starting w ith the T form linkage.

1 . Th e て Form Linkage:そ し て • そ れ か ら • それで /

だから T h e C form o f a part o f speech itseir does not assign anv sp e a tic m eaning, bu t it does express a m eaning w hen it is used to link w ords, phrases, and sentences. The m eaning o f the て form is determ ined by the relationship betw een the phrases and/or co n te x t.i he 1 . form creates the following m eanings d epending on the type o f the predicate: W ith verbs

そして

"a n d "

sim ple parallel activities

それから

"an d then"

sequential activities

そ れ で /だ か ら

"an d so "

gives a reason or an explanation

W ith い adjectives,な adjectives, and nouns

そして

Y "a n d "

そ れ で /だ か ら 」

" and so "

sim ple parallel activities gives a reason or an explanation

W h en the て form o f fl stoffwe predzazfe (い adjectives, な adjectives, or nouns) is used in a sentence, そ れ か ら becom es inapplicable. Since stative predicates are not used to indicate events in tim e sequence, the T form carries only the two m eanin gsg iv en ab o v e. N ote that m ore than tw o sentences m ay b e com bined using the T form. The use o f several com m as m ay create a run-on sentence in English, bu t in Japanese, such parataxis is considered acceptable. A lthough the て form is a re p la c e merit o f a conjunction w ord, w hen sentences becx)me long due to the m ultiple use o f the T form, the conjunction w ord m ay b e used after the T form , especially in

Fundamentals of J apanese G rammar

195

speaking. In writings if a sentence becom es long^ because o f the use o f m ore than three T form s in one sentence, it m ay be considered aw kw ard.

I.1 Theて formof verbs:そして •それから•それで/だから II. 1 そして"and"

今 朝 は !^一 ス 卜 を 食 べ て 、 コ ー ヒ ー を 飲 み ま し た 。 This m orning, I ate toast and drank coffee.

⑵ 豊 田 さ ん は 天 ぷ ら を 注 文 し ま し た 。そして、本田さんはすしを注文 しました。 M r. Toyota ordered tem pura. And M s. H ond a ordered sushi. i 豊 田 さ ん は 天 ぶ ら を 注 文 し て 、本 田 さ ん は す し を 注 文 し ま し た 。 M r. T oyota ordered tem pura, and M s. H onda ordered sushi.

⑶ 知 の 自 は と お 緊 を ！!:みまし在。 そ し て 、 高 ^ は メ リ ー と お 1 ご 餘 を

j

ベます。それから、明日は由紀子と動物園へ& きます。

I had tea w ith Sachiko yesterday. A nd I had lunch w ith M ary today. Then, tom orrow , I w ill go to a zoo w ith Yukiko. I am bu sy every day! 1 昨 日 は 幸 子 と お 茶 を 飲 ん で 、 今 日 は メ リ ー と お 昼 ご 飯 を 食 べ て 、 明日 は甶紀子と動物園へ行きます。 I had tea w ith Sachiko yesterday, lunch w ith M a iy today, and will go to a zoo w ith \ ukiko tom orrow .i am busy every day!

CHAPTER 14

196

1丄2 それから" and then"

F irs t I will g o to the post ojffice; then I will study a t the library.

I took a bus, then a car, then an airplane.

1.1.3 それで"and so" N ote that if the verbs in both the first sentence and the second sentence are action verbs, the て form m ay not ca n y the m eaning "and so ." T h e て form often carries this m eaning w hen the predicate is not active, bu t stative. Besides the use o f the T form o f a predicate, a d epend ent conjunction w ord の で or か ら m ay also b e used to indicate an "a n d s o " m eaning. W hen の で or か ら is used, the im plied relationship betw een the tw o sentences is causal. W h en the T form is used, this m ay not b e the case. (DX%m ay b e considered a little m ore polite than か ら ， b u t there is no difference in term s o f tneir functions. A n explanation o f the difference betw een て / か ら

and の で

follow s the

exam ples. ( 6 ) 丨 家 の 前 に は 自 動 販 売 機 が あ り ま す 。 |( だ か ら 、 ジ I とても便利です。 S I (cause) a

so

S 2 (effect)

. 家の前には自動販売機があって、 とても便利です。 i nere is a ven ain g m achine in front o f m y house, and so it is very convenient.

b

.

家の前には自動販売機があるので、 とても便利です。 Since tnere is a vending m achine in front o f m y house, it is verv convenient.

197

Fundamentals of J apanese G rammar C.

家の前には自動販売機があるから、 と て も で す 。 Because there is a ven ain g m achine in front o f m y house, it is very convenient.

(7)

|日 本 語 の ク ラ ス に は い い 先 生 が い ま す 。1(だ か ら J 1 しぃです。 丨

There are good teachers m the Japanese class. Therefore, i f s enjoyable. 'I

a

. 日 本 語 の ク ラ ス に は い Lヽ先生がいて、 楽 し い で す 。 Tnere are good teachers in the Japanese dass, and so it is enjoyable.

b

.

日 本 語 の ク ラ ス に は い t ヽ先生が い る の で 、楽 し い で す 。 Since there are gocxl teachers in the Japanese dass, it is enjoyable.

c

. 日本語のクラスにはいい先生がいるから、楽 し い で す 。 Because there are gocxi teachers in the Japanese dass, it is enjoyable.

(8)

|遅 く な り ま し た 。 | Q

i t

、ら )

| すみません。

Tm late. So, I am sorry. (This sentence is aw kw ard in actual use.)

a . 遅くな っ て 、すみません0 I am sorry for being late.

? b . 遅 く なったので、すみません。 Since I am late, I am sorry.

? c . 遅くなったから、すみません。 Because I am late, I am sorry.

The reason for something can be expressed by the use of て, ので, or か ら， as in the above sentences. The て form simply connects two sentences to indicate the "and so" meanings while ので and から are used to form subordinate clauses indicating the causal relationship between the subordinate dause and the main clause. The use of の で and から is awkward for combining sentences in (8)， as 遅 くなった and す み ま せ ん are not exactly tied w ith the notion of cause and effect. However, if the sentence is restated as遅 く な っ た の で 、 試 験 が 受 け ら れ な か っ た "Since I was late, I could not take the exam/’ the causal relationship is logically expressed: the reason for not being able to take the exam was due to the speaker^ lateness. Thus, から and ので in combining sentences indicate a strong causal

198

CHAPTER 14

relationship betw een tw o sentences, w hile T m ay also invite an expression that is considered a com m ent on the first sentence. There are tw o differences betw een から and の で , one structural and the other pragm atic. In 每^m m ar, から can follow either the plain or the form al form o f a predicate, as i n 嫌 い で す か ら 、 食 べ ま せ ん で し た a n d 嫌 い だ か ら 、 食 べ ま せ ん で し た •B oth m ean "Since I d o not like i t I did not eat it.〃O n the other hand, の で norm ally follow s the plain form o f a predicate, such as 嫌 い な の で 、 食 べ ま せ ん で し た ， and this is the pattern that is usually introduced as basic Japanese gram m ar. H ow ever, there are som e variations in the use o f (7)"C, and s o m e m a j^ h e a r 嫌 い で す の で 、 食 べ ま せ ん で し た a n d 予 算 が た り ま せ ん で し た の で 、 買 え ま せ ん で し た " Since I did not have enough (m oney in m y) b u d g et I could not bu y it/' and so on. This use of の で is often considered a device to m ake the sentence sound m ore polite. The second difference is often considered a pragm atic one— that の で is m ore polite than か ら . Betw een the sentences 嫌 い な の で 、 食 べ ま せ ん で し た a n d 嫌 い だ か ら 、 食 べ ま せ ん で し た ， m o st native speakers identify the form er sentence as m ore polite than the latter. It m u st be mentioned, how ever, that an individual preference is alw ays seen in the use o f ^ ら andので. A nother characteristic that から and の で possess is the fact that they also function to soften the tone o f the sentence w hen they are added a t the end. In this case, the m eaning //because,/ or //smce,/ either w eakens or disappears. U sually the rest o f the sentence is unstated, instead being left im plied. For exam ple, observe the follow ing sentences, both o f w hich m ean /rl w ill visit y ou r office a t 3 o'd o ck tom orrow •" の で in this function can follow a form al form as seen in (9a) and sounds m ore polite than (9b).

(9)

a

. 明 日 3 時に笑军 の才フィスにぅ丨|が い ま す の で • •

b

. 明 日 3 時に先生の才フィスに伺いますから

The sentence that m ay fill in the unstated part varies. It m ay b e that the speaker w ants to convey that the hstener snould not forget the appointm ent or rem ind him /ner that a recom m endation letter should b e readv b y that tim e, and so 〇a d epenaing o n context. In fa ct in day-to-dav com m unication, unstated elem ents

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

199

contain a significant am ount o f information. Som etim es people avoid stating everything^ choosing rather to im ply everything. The use o f か ら and の で a t the end of the sentence in this fashion is one of m any devices that let the listener infer w hat the speaker intends to convey, avoiding bluntness o f a direct statem ent.

1.2

The て form of nouns, I 、adjectives, and な adjectives:

そ し て •そ れ で 1 *2 1 そして"and" Note that the interpretation o f sentences m ay differ depending o n the attribute of the w ord and the speaker or listener's understanding o f the situation. For nouns, usually the て form is interpreted as expressing an "a n d " meanings b u t for い /な adjectives, it also generates a " w h a fs m ore" or "n o t only"' m eaning. For exam ple, 安 く て お い し い a n d き れ い で 頭 も い い m ay b e interpreted as expressing "cheap and, w h a fs m ore, delicious"1 and "n o t only beautiful, b u t also smart/' respectively. (10)

k

達 の お 父 さ ん は 奋 護 士 で す 。 そ し て 、 おi さ ん は 医 者 で す 。

M y friend's father is a lawyer. A nd his m other is a doctor. 丄 友達のお父さんは弁護士で、 お母さんは医者です。 M v friend's father is a lawyer, and his m other is a doctor. (11)

あの店のすしは安いです。 そして、 おいしいです。 Sushi at that restaurant is cheap. It tastes good. あの店のすしは安くて、おいしいです。 ^>ushi at that restaurant is cheap and tasty.

( 1 2 ) 友 達 の 御 主 人 は ハ ン サ ム で す 。 そ し て 、背 が 高 い で す 。 M y friend's husband is handsom e. H e is tall too. 友 達 の 御 主 人 は ハ ン サ ム で 、背が 高 い で す 。 M y friend's husband is handsom e and tall.*

There are some other ways to express the same meanin佐 such as 安いし、おいしい and きれいだし、 頭もいい. Fbr these linkage patterns, refer to Section 3 in this chapter.

L

CHAPTER 14

200

1丄2 それで"and so" 気分が悪いんです。それで、 %1 は 授 業 に 由 ら れ ま せ ん 。

(1 3 )

I am not feeling well. So I cannot attend d ass today.

a

. 気 分 が悪くて、今日は授業に出られません。 I am not feeling well, and so I cannot attend d ass today.

b

.

気 分 が 悪いので、今日は授業に出られません。 Since I am not feeling w ell,I cannot attend d a ss today.

c

. 気 分 が悪いから、今日は授業に出られません。 Because I am not feeling w e ll,I cannot attend d ass today.

母 が 病 気 で す 。 そ れ で 、 国へI I ら な く て は な り ま せ ん 。

(1 4 )

M y m other is ill in bed. So I have to go back to m y hom e country. i a

. 母 が病気で、国へ帰らなくてはなりません。 M y m other is ill in bed, and so I have to go b ack to m y hom e country.

母 が病気なので、 国へ帰らなくてはなりません。

b

.

c

. 母 が病気だから、 国へ帰らなくてはなりません。

Since m y m other is ill in bed, I have to go b a ck to m y h om e country.

Because m y m other is ill in bed, I have to go back to m y h om e country.

( 1 5 ) 試 験 が だ め で し た 。 そ れ で 、成 績 が D だ っ た ん で す 。 I did bad ly on the exam . So I received a D grade.

4 a

. 試 験 が だ め で 、成 績 が D だ っ た ん で す 。

b

.

I received a D grade because I did badly on the exam .

試 験 が だ め だ っ た の で 、成 績 が D だ っ た ん で す 。 Since I did badly on the exam , I received a D grade.

c

. 試 験 が だ め だ っ た か ら 、成 績 が D だ っ た ん で す 。 Because I did badly on the exam , I received a D grade.

201

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

2.

Paradoxical Linkage:で も • けれども•しかし

でも，け れ ど も ，and し か し function as independent conjunction w ord s that contradict the m eaning expressed in the m ain clause•で も is used in colloquial conversation very freq u en tly ;け れ ど も is as well, b u t not quite so often as でも. し力、し is usually used in w ritin g b u t m ay also be used in con versation often by male-language speakers. T h e equivalent dependent conjunction w ord s are ^t)^f 〜 け ど ，〜 け れ ど (も ),and の に . Independent conjunctions com e betw een sentences, and depend ent ones are attached at the end o f a sentence and serve to form subordinate clauses.

でも、 1 ベ けれども、

SI

L

しかし、

に ほ ん い

⑴

日本に行きました。

j

f

S2

J 1

にほんご

じようたつ

けれども、f 日 本 語 は 上 達 し ま せ ん で し た 。

L しかし、 」

I w ent to Japan. B u t m y Japanese aid not im prove.

a

. 日本に行きました逆、 日本語は上達しませんでした。

b

.

c

. 日 本 に 行 っ た けれど(も)、 日 本 語 は 上 達 し ま せ ん で し た 。

d

. 日本に行ったのに、 日本語は上達しませんでした。

日本に行ったけど、 日本語は上達しませんでした。

A lthough I liv ea in Jaoan as long as 10 years, m y Japanese did not im prove. There are cases w here で も and けと d o not exacdv have paradoxical linkage. They can be used n ot only Detween sentences, but also added a t the end o f a sentence to soften the tone, as in the following exam ples. In these cases, it does not carry the onginal paradoxical m eaning. ⑵

もしも し 、佐 藤 さ ん で す か 。 ジ ョ ン ソ ン で す け ど ••■ 。 あ 、 お久し ぶりです。 Hello, is this M s. Sato? This is Johnson speaking. Long tim e no hear.

CHAPTER 14

202

⑶

てんぷらとうなぎをお願いしたいんですけど、 Fd like to order tem pura and eel.

⑷

東 京 大 学 へ の 交 換 留 学 生 で ジ ョ ン ソ ン と 申 し ま す が 、 よろしくお 願いします。 Tm Johnson, w ho cam e to study as an exchange student a t the University o f Tokyo. Pleased to m eet you.

(5)

コ レ ス テ ロ ー ル で す けど、健 康 な 人 だ と ど の く ら い で す か 。 Speaking o f cholesterol, w hat is the right level for a norm al healthy person?

2.1

The difference between けれども and のに

T h e difference betw een these conjunction w ords is the involvem ent o f the speaker^ em pathy. L et us com pare the follow ing sentences.

(6)

a

. せっかく作ったのに、誰も蠢ベてくれませんでした。 どう し て ？ そんなにまずいですか。 A lthough I m ade a great effort to m ake this, no on e ate it. W hy? Is it that bad?

b

. 頑 張 っ て 作 っ た け れ ど も 、誰も食べてくれませんでした。 しかたありません。後 で 私 が 一 人 で 全 部 食 べ ま し ょ う 。 A lthough I m ade a great effort to m ake this, no one ate it. It cannot be helped. I will eat it later.

(7)

a

. 何度も説明を聞いているのに、まだわからないんです。 どうしてわからないんでしょうか。 A lthough I am explaining it m any times, I still d on 't seem to under­ stand. I d o n 't understand w h y I d o n 't understand,

b

. 何 度 も 説 明 し て い る け れ ど も 、 ま だ わ か ら な い よ う で す 。 どうす ればわかってもらえるでしょうか。 A lthough I am explaining it m any times, they still d o n 't seem to understand. H ow can I have them understand?

203

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

(8)

a

. 昨 日 の パ ー テ ィ 、鋈 し か っ た よ 。 碧 も 去 れ ば よ か っ た の に 、 どうして吾なかったの？ Yesterday's party w as fun. You should have com e. W h y d id n 't you com e?

* b . 昨日のパーティ、楽しかったよ。君も来ればよかったけれども、 どうして来なかったの？ Y esterday's party w as fun. Although it w as good if you cam e, w hy d id n 't you com e? The difference betw een け れ ど も and の に is subtle. D epending on the prosody and the environm ent ot the sentence, both w ords can convev the sam e shades of meaning. H o w e v e r ,の に tends to generate a strong feeling o f disappointm ent regarding the outcom e of the event. It often im plies that the speaker is/ w as not satisfied w ith the w ay things turn/turned out. Therefore, it is frequently used in a counterfactual situatiorv as can b e seen from sentence (6 a ).け れ ど も is aw kw ard in this type o f situation, since it is best used to describe a paradoxical situation rather objectively b y the speaker. The equivalent o f both け れ ど も and の に is "although/’ b u t け れ ど も is used to describe a factual event w ithou t involving too m uch o f the speaker^ emotior^ w hile の に involves the speaker^ em otion to a great ex ten t especially w hen an event does not turn o u t the w ay the speaker expects it to.

Sample dialogue こんなに愛しているのに• • • チビ：

タマさん、 _ j 業はあなたを愛しています。i

ll

してください。

たくさん子供を作りませんか。 タマ：

まあ 、チ ビ さ ん 、私 が あ な た と ？

とんでもない。

私 、 デ ブ (b lim p )は 好 き じ ゃ な い の チビ：

え 、僕 そ ん な に 太 っ て い ま す か 。

タマ：

ええ。 鏡 を 見 た こ と な い の ？ しよ

m the English translation, if a different partid e is used to answer the q u e stio a the m eaning will be changed. The partid e が in だ れ が is used to find o u t new inform ation, w hile (3： is used to present shared or old inform a­ tion. Even though correct inform ation has been provided, its form jars w ith the question sentence. So do not change the partide in answ ering a question.

2.2

Formation of a noun phrase using an interrogative pronoun 「 か (som e〜 ) + affirm ative predicate Interrogative noun

ベ

も (any〜 ) + negative predicate

L で も + い い /か ま わ な い etc.

As the English equivalent w ith "so m e " or "any"' indicates, w h en 力、 is attached to an interrogative pronoun, the interrogative noun loses its original m eaning as a question w ord; it becom es an indefinite noun such as "som ething/’ 〃som ewhere/7 and //someone//For exam ple, the equivalent o f '"Did you go somewhereT, i s ど こ か へ 行 き ま し た か , and '"Did you see so m e o W i s だ れ か を 見 ま し た か . In answ ering such questions, if the answ er is negative, su ch as ''now here/' and "n o one," the interrogative follows a negative predicate. N ote that the partides に、 で 、 と 、 へ 、 か ら 、 ま で are not dropped, depending on the type o f verb used and the m eaning o f the sentence.

CHAPTER 15

214

Som e/any 〜

⑴

N o〜

a . 何か蠢ベましたか。 D id you eat som ething? b

. い い え 、何 も 食 べ ま せ ん で し た 。

a

. どこかへ行きましたか0

N o, I did not eat anything. ⑵

D id you go som ew here? b

. いいえ、 どこへも行きませんでした。 N o, I did not go anyw here.

⑶

a

. 誰かに嘉いましたか。 D id you m eet som eone?

b

. い い え 、誰にも 会 い ま せ ん で し た 。 N o, I did not m eet anyone.

* c

. い い え 、誰 も 会 い ま せ ん で し た 。 N o, no one met.

⑷

a

. どこかにありましたか。 W a s it som ew here?

b

. いいえ、 どこにもありませんでした。 N o, it w as (found) now here.

* c

. いいえ、 どこもありませんでした。 N o, it existed now here.

(5)

a . 誰からかきましたか。 D id you hear (this) from som eone? b

. い い え 、誰 か ら も 聞 き ま せんでした。 N o, I did not hear (this) from anyone.

* c

. い い え 、誰 も き き ま せ ん で し た 。 N o, no one heard.

215

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

なん

^

いつ

anvum e is fine

どこ

anyw here is fine >

だれ

でもいい3

anyone is fine

どれ

w hichever is fine

ど ちら

w hichever is fine

どんなの

(6)

anything is nne

a

^

any kind is fine

. 椅が备 みたいですか。 W h at w ould you like to drink?

b

. 犄でもいいです。 A nything w ould be fine.

(7)

a

. いつ合きたいですか0 W h en w ould you like to go?

b

. いつでもいいです。 A nytim e is fine.

(8)

a

. 誰と結婚したいですか。 T o w h o m w ould you like to get married?

b

. 誰とでもいいです！ A nyone is fine!

(9)

a

. どこでピクニックがしたいですか0 W h ere w ould you like to have a picnicr

b

. どこでも才ーケー。 A nyw here is okay.

(10)

a

. どんな形がいいですか。 W h at kind o f shape w ould you like?

b

. どんなのでもかまいません。 A n y shape is fine w ith me.

3In addition to い い "fine/’ predicates such as か ま い ま せ ん and 才 一 ケ ー that express a positive meaning may be used, as seen from the examples.

CHAPTER 16

Change o f S ta te : する•なる Constructions

す る "to do" is a transitive verb which takes an object acted upon by an agent (a performer of the action), while な る "to become" is an intransitive verb which does not take an object and which is often used to describe a situation where the agent has no volitional control over the events described (e.gv t r i open the door,/ vs. 'T h e door opens/').1する and なる can be used in various constructions to assign different shades of meaning. The fundamental function of する and なる in those constructions is to express a change of state: an event or situation described by the する or なる construction changes. In the discussion that follows, the patternsす る /な る "make it to/become" a n d こ と に す る / こ と に な る "one decides to d o -/ it has been decided that 〜 " are treated Both of these carry the connotation of change of state.

1

. Predicate + す る / な る

W hen a predicate is followed by する， the sentence indicates that the speaker changes one state into another state described by the predicate. For example, SPJS を — かくする means

make the room w arm " (by using a heater or som e

thing). So the speaker actively changes the state of the room from cold to warm. O n the other hand, when a predicate is followed by なる, the sentence indicates that a situation changes from one state into another. A predicate followed b

y

can describe a state after some change has been made by a volitional force. For example,部屋が暖く なった means "the room became w arm " since a heater was turned 〇a for example. The state of the room altering from cold to w arm is de* scribed as a result of some kind of a volitional act. First look at the formation of these constructions, then at some examples. 1Further discussion of する and な る is found in Dcegami (1997).

216

F undamentals ofJ apanese G rammar

き れ い ' ^

________________________ 217

_ 、

make it dean

てんぷら

make it tempura2

> する

むずかしく

make it difficult

掃除するように」

r}

make (my habit) to dean the room

become dean

に

むずかしく

1

become a teacher

★なる

become difficult

わ か る よ う に ン

Come to understand (situation dianges from not understanding to understanding)

1.1

する

⑴

A t a restau ran t なに

A : 何にしますか。 W h at are you going to have? B

: そうですね。 私はすきやきにします。 Let7s s e e ... I will have sukiyaki.

⑵

A : 試験がむずかしすぎるのですが、 もっとやさしくしてくださいま せんか。 T h e exam s are too difficult. Could you please m ake th em easierr B

: そんなこと言わないで、 もっと勉強するようにしてください。 D on^ say things like that. Try to study harder. ^

⑶

A : 部 屋 が き た な い で す ね 。 もう$ し ち ゃ ん と 掃 除 を す る よ う に し た らどうですか。 Y ou r room is dirty. W h y don7t you tty to d ea n the room regularly? B

: ええ、 きれいにしたいのですが、時間がないんです。 Yes, I w ould like to clean, b u t d on 't have time.

1 2

なる

⑷

A : ずいぶん寒くなりましたね。 It b ecam e quite cold.

2When a noun is tollowed by す る ， it usually indicates the speakers selection of the nourt This construetion is often translated as ,fl decide to have

or ,r[ choose

218

CHAPTER 16

B• • え え 、 ヒーターが _

るようになりましたね。

Yes, a heater (be)cam e to b e needed. (I need a heater now .) (5)

文 法 が や っ ^:わ か る よ う に な り ま し た 。 备 も で f る よ う に な り ま し た。漢字も蠢けるようになりました。 いい点数が备 れるようになっ て 、先生にもほめられるようになりました。 I finally cam e to understand gram m ar. I becam e able to speak, too. O n top of th a t I becam e able to w rite kanji. So, I becam e able to get a good score and cam e to b e praised b y tne teacher.

(6)

a: 先 生 の 关 拏 硗

i

はI T 誠 し て 、 ^ ■ し に な っ た そ う で す ね 。

I hear tnat your graduate student becam e veal atter graduation.

B:

い え い 令 、違 い ま す よ 。 こ %講 師 )に な っ た ん で す 。 抑揚にAをっけるようにしてくださいね。 O h, no, no. Sh e becam e an instructor. Try to pay attention to your intonation.

A verb follow ed b y よ つ に 1 る m eans that an agent tries to c a n y o u t an activity w ith an intention. T h e re fo re ,よ う に す る can follow the negative form o f a verb indicating that the agent tries not to carry out an activity w ith an intention.

(7)

体 に 悪 い の で 、たばこを奋 わないようにしているのですが、一日に 一本は吸いたくなるんです。 どうすれば、吸わないようになるでしょ うか。 Since it is bad for your health, I am trying not to sm oke, b u t com e to want to sm oke at least once a aay . H ow can I (be)com e not to smoKer

(8)

せっかく日本語を習ったのですから、卒業してからも、忘れないよ うにしてください。 Since you tried hard to learn Japanese, please try not to forget even after graduation.

(9)

甘 い も の は 食 べ 過 ぎ な い よ う に 、 お 酒 は 飲 み す ぎ な い よ う に 、テレビ は 見 過 ぎ な い よ う に 、夜 更 か し は し な い よ う に し て く だ さ い 。 T ry not to eat too m any sweets, d rink too m u ch alcohol, w atch too m uch TV, and stay up too late.

219

F undamentals ofJ apanese G rammar

y erb よ う に can b e follow ed not only b y す る , b u t also b y o th e j^ ljra se s, su ch as 気 を つ け る " pay attention/'努 力 す る " m ake an e ffo rt" and 頑 張 る " d o one's best/' In these cases, the equivalent m ay change to 7/so that

w hich m ay carry a

similar m eaning to た め に "in order to へ" N ote the follow ing exam ples, w hich are com pared w ith た め に sentences:

(10)

大 学 院 へ # けるように、大 学 生 の 時 一 生 懸 命 努 力 し ま し た 。 I m ad e a great effort w hen I w as in college so that I could go on to graduate sdiool.

a

大学院へ行くために、大学生の時一生懸命努力しました。 I m ad e a great effort w hen I w as in college in order to go on to graduate school.

(id

a.

I^一 ナ メ ン 卜 に l l て る よ う に 、 み ん な で 頑 張 り ま し よ う 。 L e f s do our best so that w e can w in the tournam ent.

b

. トーナメントに勝つために、み ん な で 頑 張 り ま し よ う 。 Let^s d o our best in order to w in the tournament.

(12)

a

. 発 音 を 間 違 え な い よ う に (発 音 に )気 を つ け て く だ さ い 。 Please pay attention (to your pronunciation) so that you d o n 't m ake m ispronunciations.

?

b

. 発 音 を 間 違 え な い た め に 、漢 字 に は 振 仮 名 を ふ る よ う に し て く だ さい。 T ry to put hiragana on kanji words in order not to maKe anv

mispronunciation. (13)

a.

虫 歯 に な ら な い よ う に 、毎 日 何 回 も 歯 を 磨 き ま し た 。 I brushed m y teeth m any times everv day so tnat I w ould not get cavities.

??

b

. 虫 歯 に な ら な い た め に 、毎 日 何 回 も 歯 を 磨 き ま し た 。 I brushed m y teeth m any times every day in order not to becam e a cavity.3

3In reality, o n e m a y u tter th is ty p e o f so ite n o e w ithou t p ay in g m u ch attention to th e gram m atical acxxiracy o f d ie sentence, a s th e m ean in g is un derstood. W h en v o u o bserve th e sen te n ce d o sely , h o w ev er, y o u will n o tice th at th e sen ten ce cn n veys th at th e sp eaker b ru sh ed h is teeth s o th a t h e d o e s n o t turn in to a cavity, w h ich is nonsensical.

220

CHAPTER 16 c

. 虫歯を作らないために、毎日何回も蠢を篇きました。 I brushed m y teeth m any tim es every day in ord er n ot to m ake a cavity.

There is a difference betw een よ う に す る and た め に •Since た め に is used to indicate a speaker"s purpose m carrying out the event described b y the verb, it has to follow a verb that can b e executed b y the intention o f a sen tien t anim ate being. Therefore, non-volitional intransitive verbs, such as な る ,cannot occu r w ith た め に to express the m eaning o f purpose, as illustrated b y sentence (1 3 ).よ う に does n ot have this restriction, bu t tends to occur w ith a predicate in ord er to express a situation that cannot b e used by ために.

2.

Verb Dictionary Form /な

い + こ と に す る /こ と に な る

The fundam ental notion o f こ と に す る and こ と に な る is also on e o f a change of state. Since す る is a transitive verb that expresses a speaker^ intention^ こ と に す る is used to indicate that a speaker m akes up his/her m ind to change the situation into the one described b y the verb. O n the other hand, in th e case o f な る ，an intransitive verb, the speaker has no control over the change o f state. W h en なる is used, the change is assigned to the speaker, and the decision-m aking process can involve the speaker, as in the case o f marriage. Both こ と に す る and こと に な る follow either an affirm ative or a negative form o f the present casual form. The English equivalent o f these constructions is then /rl decide (not) to do is decided (not) to do c - と に す る and

or "'it

respectively. と に な る are often expressed in the aspectual fonr^ こ

と に し て い ま す a n d こ と に な っ て い ま す .W h e n て い る is attached, as its func­ tion indicates, the speaker m ade a decision som etim e in the p a st and the result of m aking such a decision has continued up to the cu rrent m om ent. F or exam ple, the difference b e tw e e n コ ー ヒ ー は 飲 ま な い こ と に し た a n d コ ー ヒ ー は 飲 ま な い *-と に レ C い る is th at the form er sentence points to a tim e in the p ast w hen the d easion w as m ade, expressing the m eaning /yA t som e point in the p a st I m ade a decision not to drink co ffee/' w hereas the latter refers to a tim e expanse betw een w hen the speaker m ade the decision and the present m o m en t express­ ing the m eaning "T m in the state of having decided n ot to drink coffee/" Such

Fundamentals ofJ apanese G rammar

decisions can also b e perceived as habitual. T h e difference betw een 0

221 < C.

と に な っ た a n d 日 本 へ 行 く こ と に な っ て い る is captured in the sam e fashion as こ と に し た and こ と に し て い る ,except that the decision is m ad e involving a third person.

2 . 1 ことにする ⑴

a

. 健 康 に 悪 い か ら 、煙草をやめることにした。 Since il^s bad for one's health, I decided to quit sm oking.

b

. 健康に悪いから、煙草を吸わないことにした。 Since if s bad for one's healthy I decided not to sm oke.

c . 健康に悪いから、煙草を吸わないことにしている。 Since if s bad for one's health, I d o n 't sm oke (by m y o w n decision).

⑵

a.

本 語 を 上 達 さ せ る た め に 、毎 日 2 時 間 テ ー プ を 高 く こ と に し ました。 In ord er to im prove m y Japanese, I decided to listen to the tape tw o hours a day.

b

. 日 本 語 を 上 達 さ せ る た め に 、毎 日 2 時 間 テ ー プ を 聞 く こ と に し て います。 In order to im prove m y Japanese, I listen to the tape tw o hours a day (by m y ow n will).

⑶

il讅k

は 1^ 答 で 暴 げ る こ と に し ま し た 。 で も ハ ネ ム ー ン へ は 行 か な

いことにしました。 そのお金を使って、マンションをftうことにした んです。 W e decided to have a w edding cerem ony at a cnurch. B u t w e decided not to go on a honeym oon. W e d e a a e d to bu y a condom inium using the m oney for the honeym oon.

2- 2 こ と に な る ⑷ 策 背 か ら 1 ヶ月カナダで仕事をすることになりました。 It w as d ed d ed that 1 will w ork in C anada tor a m onth starting next m onth.

222

C H A PTER 16

⑶ 来 年 の 6 月 に 結 ® することになりました。ハネムーンはハワイへ持 くことになりました。 It w as d ed d ed that w e will get m arried next June. Speaking of a honeym oon, it w as decided that w e will go to H aw aii.

( 6 ) 找 か ら ハ - バ - ド 錄 で 关 挙 觀 と し て i きi す る こ と に な っ て ぃ ます。9 月が楽しみです。 It has been d ead ed that I am going to study at H arvard U niversity as a grad uate student. I am looking forw ard to Septem ber. (7)

アメリカへ出張することになっています。 It has been d ed d ed that I will go to A m erica on a business trip.

し と に な る m ay b e m ore appropriate to use for the situations expressed in sentences (6) and (7), w here adm ission to the graduate school or m aking a business tnp to A m erica cannot b e decided b y the speaker. T he decision is m ad e b y the school and the com pany, and there w as no control over the acceptance or rejec­ tion b y the speaker in these situations.

(8) ?

’白1^

! を 11 ぅ 篷 さ せ る た め に 、

か商テープをH く こ と に な り ま

した。 In ord er to im prove m y Japanese, it w as d edded that I will listen to the tape tw o hours a day.

Sentence ( 8 ) is aw kw ard sem antically because trie purpose of the speaker de­ scribed in the subordinate aau se and the assignm ent passively given to the speaker are not conceptually com patible w ith each other. Thus, the use of こ と に す る and こ と に な る provides crucial inform ation about w here the decision-m aking lies. W hen こ と に な る is used， the sentence often creates an im pression that the speaker is not responsible for the event described by the verb. W hen m aking the decision is not up to the speaker, し と に な 〇 is the construction to use.

CHAPTER 17

M odifying Constructions

All the parts o f sp e ec h ~ v erb s, い adjectives, な adjectives, and n o u n s ~ a re often modified b y other elem ents for further identification and explication o f their at­ tributes and characteristics. M odifiers o f these parts o f speech are consistently lcx^ted in front o f them in Japanese. (Refer to Chapter Z Section 12, ''L eft Branching.") V erbs, い adjectives, and な adjectives are m odified by an adverb. M ost adverbs, how ever, m odity verbs and m ay also m odify som e い adjectives and な adjectives that express degree, such as と て も お い し い "v e ry delicious" and か な り む ず か し い " fairly d ifficu lt" N ouns are modified by a nour% an い adjective, a

adjective, a relative d ause or a noun com plem ent dause. In the follow ing, w e

will exam ine how m odifiers w ork in Japanese.

1.

Noun-Modifying Constructions

Unlike other parts o f speech, a noun can be mcxiified not only b y a single w ord, but also b y a dause. T h e d au se is either a relative d au se (RC) or a nouncom plem ent d au se (NC). H ow ever a noun m ay be m odified, the noun constitut­ es a noun phrase (NP) as indicated in the following chart.

N ou n の N o u n という

_______

ぃ adjective ぃ な adjective な

卜 | N ou n -----------

R elative d au se (RC) N oun-com plem ent d au se (N C) と い う ン

U

~

N ou n phrase (NP)

223

CHAPTER 17

224 Exam ples:

爰1 の 大統領辞任という おもしろい

y

途な

う わ さ を 聞 い た 。 I heard.

ジョンが広めた メリ一は日本語が話せるという

a rum or o f m v friend the rumor, the resignation o f the president I

I heard


f M odal

5When よう follows a nourv it is also used to express a figure of speech "as if -/' For example；あの人は ドイツ人のよつた can also mean "that person looks as if he were iierman' expressing that the person is in fiact not German, but 100ks/behaves/talks^ etc as if he were. Theretore, there are two possible interpretations for あの人はドイツ人のようだ: '"Based on the characteristics he present^ I surmise that person is German" or "(Although he is not), that person looks as if he were German/' The use of the adverb まる で " as if' or どうやら" somehow/somewhar explicates these meanings of よう. For example まるで 雪のようだ means "it is as iHt is snow (implies that it is not snow)" and どうやら雪のよう^ !" it some* how feels like snow is coming."

261

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

らしい is used w hen the speaker^ subjective judgm ent is added to w h at the speaker has heard from an outside source. In this sense, the use o f ら し い is very sim ilar to that o f hearsay そ う だ •Although it is hard to find a n exact equivalent in English^ the m ost appropriate interpretation o f a らし い sentence m ay be hear and I guess

is probably the case" and /7It seem s like 〜 ら し い can b e lo~

cated betw een the follow ing auxiliaries: ^•

あ

め

_ ふ

雨が降るそう

Ih e a r that i f s going to rain.

雨が降るらしい

Ih e a r that it will rain, and I feel like it is going to b e the

雨がふるよう

It looks like it is going to rain, and I feel like it is going to be the case.

匕雨が降りそう

(1 3 )

It looks like it is going to/ about to rain.)

クラスがキャンセルになったらしい。 Ih e a r that the class w as canceled, and I feel like it w as the case.

(1 4 )

カナダは中国人の人口が多いらしい。 Speaking o f Canada, Ih e a r that the Chinese population is large, and I feel like it is the case.

(1 5 ) その話はどうも嘘らしい。 Speaking o f that story, it sounds like a lie. ( 1 6 ) 彼は今年で100才になるが、まだ元気らしい。 H e is going to be 100 years old this year, bu t it seem s that he is still in good health.

1.3.1 Another use of らしい（to express similarity to expectation) らしい dem onstrates another m eaning w hen it links a noun w ith a repetition of that noun. In this c a s e , ら し い is used to express that the attributes o f the noun こ ど ち < m eet a certain im age or ex|>ectation. For exam p le,子 供 り し い W 共 m eans " a kid w ho behaves like a k id ," 失 生 ら し ぃ 先 生 " the teacher w h o em bodies teacherほんとう

ness." T h e second noun m ay som etim es b e omitted, as in め の 人 は 本 当 に にほ

i

じ

ん

★

一

ノ

日 本 人 ら し い ね 又 " that person creates an atm osphere o t true Japanese," "th a t person seem s really Japanese/' T h e meaning should be identified b y context.

CHAPTER 19

262 S a m p le d ialogu e ゴ シ ッ プ "g ossi运こじ

ミ ミ ：ね み 、 ご 存 知 ？ State S tre e tの チ ビ さ ん 、 U niversity S tre e tの 夕 マ さ ん に器をしているらしいですよ。 ミ ケ ：へ え 、為 の チ ビ さ ん が ？彼 は 奥 さ ん が あ ち ら こ ち ら に い し い で す よ。 子 供 も 1 ダ ー ス い る ら し い し • • • 。 そ れ な の に 、今度はタマ さんですか？ ずいぶんプレイボーイですねえ。 ほんと5

す

ミ ミ ••本 当 に 。 ま あ タ マ さ ん は き れ い だ か ら 、 好 き に な る の も わ か り ま す け ど ね 。 で も ね 、 そ れ だ け じ や な い ん で す よ 。 W a sh in g to n S tre e tの 夕 ビ さんも、 どうやら夕マさんのことが好きらしいんですよ。 ミ ケ ：へ え 、 夕 ビ さ ん も ？ じ ゃ あ 、 三 角 関 係 じ や な い で す か 。 で も 、 チ ビ さ ん も タ ピ さ ん も ち ょ っ と 太 っ て い る (fa t)で し よ う 。 ど う か な あ 、 タマさんは好きになるかなあ

2.

suppositional Modais

は ず , に ち が い な い , だ ろ う ，a n d か も し れ な い belong to a category, provision­ ally called "su ppositional," that is concerned w ith the degree o f the speaker^ co n v ictio n .は ず exhibits the highest degree o f speaker conviction that a n event is true or realized, and か も し れ な い , the lowest. N ote that for these m cxials to function as purely m odal, they have to be in the non-past form . It they occur in a clause in the past te n s e , they d o not behave as m odais, because they d o not express the speaker's supposition. Also, modais d o not form interrogative sentences, and は ず is no exception.

2 . 1 はず V erb

彼にはお金があるはずだ。

い adjective な adjective な

はず

N ou n の

弟はお金はないはずだ。 この町はにぎやかなはずだ。 トムは学生のはずです。

Y

>f

Proposition

Modal

263

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

は ず can function as either a suppositional or a nom inal, exhibiting m eanings such as "m u st b e," "o u g h t to b e ," "expected to b e ," or "possibility," "reason/’ "p lan •"は ず is used w hen a speaker m akes a ju d g m ent based on objective grounds, and (used as a m odal auxiliary) lies outside a proposition, indicating to the interlocutor that the speaker had firm evidence about the m atter in question. C om pared to other m odal auxiliaries such as に ち が い な l 、だ ろ う ， and か も し れ な い ，I S ず expresses the highest degree o f speaker conviction. A s mentioned earlier, m odals m ay not b e used to form interrogative sentences, and

is no

exception.

⑴

き の う は 1 0 0 0 円 使 っ た か ら 、 Since I s p e n t1000 yen yesterday,

Since I spent 1000 yen yesterday, there should b e 500 yen rem aining in m y wallet.

⑵

本田さんはもう帰っているはずです。 M s. H ond a is already home, I’m sure. (= M s. H ond a should already b e hom e.)

⑶

昨日そうじしましたから、 まだきれいなはずです。 Since I deaned yesterday, Tm sure it is still dean.

⑷ 彼 は 日 本 の パ ス ポ ー 卜 を 备 っ て い ま す か ら 、 日本国籍のはずです。 Since he has a Japanese p assp ort I am sure that he is o f Japanese nationality.

は ず can also function as a noui\ in w hich case it m eans "possibility," "reason/' o r， .plan,/ (see below ) and m such cases, it no longer functions as a m odal, bince m odals are concerned w ith the degree o f speaker conviction tow ard the realiza­ tion or truth o f a proposition, they m ay not occur in the negative form . H ow ever, w hen は ず is used as a nourv it can occur w ith negative, interrogative, or past

CHAPTER 19

264

tense forms. In negative co n tex ts,は ず 這 な い " there is no w ay that 〜 " rather than は ず じ ゃ な ぃ is often used.

(5)

私 の 人 生 、 こ ん な は ず じ ゃ な か っ た の に ••

•〇

M y life w as not supposed to be this w a y .. . (6)

_

孝のう論文を备 しに来るはずだつたんですが、 車 の 事 故 が あ っ て 、 来られなくなってしまったんです。 I w as supposed to com e to subm it m y paper yesterday, b u t I oecam e unable to do so a u e to a car acad ent.

S am p le dialogu e そ ん な は ず は あ り ま せ ん • • • （It cannot be that •••) 女 ：

あ れ 、 こ こ に 写 っ て い る 人 、堀 田 さ ん の お 母 さ ん で & しよう？

男 ：

え 、 写 真 ？ま さ か 。 堀 田 さ ん の お 母 さ ん は 2 年 前 に 亡 く な っ た ん だから、写真に写っているはずはないよ。

女：

でも、見て、 これ堀田さんのお母さんでしよ？

男：

あ 、 そ う だ よ 、 これ

男 /女 ： ぞ 〜 〜 〜 〜 。

2 1 .1 はずvs•ことになっている W hen は ず is used to indicate a plarv it can often b e restated b y こ と に な つ て い る " it has been a e a d e d ." The difrerence betw een these concepts is that w hile は ず reflects the sp e a k e rs conjecture about the proposition^ こ と に な つ 飞 い る is a statem ent concerned w ith a factual situation, and the statem ent itself is a proposi­ tion that can ind u d e another mcxlal. For exam ple, w hile the double u se o f the m o d a ls行く は ず か も し れ な い ' I t m u st be the case that s/he m ay g o " is ungram m atical, 行く こ と に な っ て い る 'I t m ay b e the case that s/ he is supposed to go7' is gram m atical. T h e key to using either of these form s lies in context as well as the degree o f the speaker's belief about the proposition. See the following exam ples:

(7)

a

. トムは今日は才フィスに条ないはずです。 F m sure that T o m will not com e to the office today.

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

b

265

. 卜厶は今日はオフィスに来ないことになっています。 I f s been scheduled that T o m is not com ing to the office today. は日本へ# くはずです。

(8) ? a.

I'm sure that I will go to Japan, (sounds as if you d o not know about you r ow n schedule) b

. 私は日本へ各くことになっています。 Tm supposed to go to Japan. /It has been scheduled that I g o to Japan.

(9) ? a

. 本田さんはぎ畚に枭 るはずですか。 A m I sure that M r. H onda com es at five?

b

. 本 田 さ ん は 5 時に来ることになっていますか。 Is M r. H onda supposed to com e at five?

(1 0 ) * a

. 宿題は今日出すはずですか。 A m I sure that I am subm itting the hom ew ork today?

b

. 宿題は今日出すことになっていますか。 A re w e supposed to subm it the hom ew ork today?

A s can be seen from (8a), (9a), and (1 0 a ),は ず is aw kw ard w h en used to describe the speaker"s ow n schedule or activity, or to inquire about the validity o f the a m supposed to " is not necessarily the equivalent o f は ず ; rather, it

proposition.

is the equivalent o f こ と に な っ て い る .

2 2 にちがいない V erb い adjective

にちがいない

な adjective N oun

丁 Proposition

>f M odal

彼は物理学者だから、数学もできるにちがいない。 5 ち

文 *

ま无

家 は 駅 の 前 だ か ら 、 うるさいにちがいない。 家 は 駅 の 前 だ か ら 、便 利 に ち が い な い 。 ラつ

ゆうれい

ここに写っているのは、幽霊にちがいない。

CHAPTER 19

266

に ち が い な い " m u st b e ," derived from ま ち が い な い " there is no m istake，" is also a m odal th at expresses a high degree o f speaker conviction. W hile は ず has various fu n c tio n s ,にち力《い な い functions only as a m odal. It can som etim es express the speaker's belief based not on firm evidence, b u t on a sixth sense or intuition. ゆうれい

(11 )

よ

幽靈はこの世にいるにちがいない。 There m u st b e ghosts in this w orld. (I believe in the existence of ghosts.) ひと

(12)

かんこくあん

あの人は韓国人にちがいない。 T h at person m u st b e Korean. いも？と

(13)

へん

かお

おとうと

^

マ•く

妹が変な顔をしているから、 弟の作ったカレーはまずかったに ちがいない。 Since m y sister has a w eird look on her face, the currv m v brother m ade m u st have been bad. ねこ

(14)

さいきん

た

わる

うちの猫は最近あまり食べなくなった。 とこか悪いにちがいない。 M y cat does not eat m u ch lately. There m u st b e som ething w rong with よなか

(15)

いちじ

りょうしん

しんぱい

もう夜中の1 時だ。 両 親 が 心 配 し て い る に ち が い な い 。 I f s already one o 'd o ck in the m orning. M y parents m u st b e worried about

2 . 3 だろう たいふう

い adjective な adjective

とうきよう

-------------- 1 だろつ

------- --------- 1

ぶっか

たか

東京は物価が高いだろう。 谷はにぎやかだろう。

はんにん

犯人はあの人だろう。

N ou n

Proposition


me visit m e at the hospital.

m

Ditransitive verbs 筅基はぉ第V

ぎ未し乂をw 界、し て く だ さ い ま し た 。

T h e teacher w as kind enough to introduce a Japanese person to m y brother. 友達は私に彼女の電話番号を教えてくれました。 M y m end w as kind enough to give m e her phone num ber. 弟は私におみやげを買ってきてくれました。 M y brother w as kind enough to bu y m e a souvenir.

2.2.2

Transibve verbs

先生は私の写真を撮ってくださいました。 The teacher w as kind enough to take m y picture.

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar せんせい

*

わたし

しゃしん

287

と

先生は私に写真を撮ってくださいました。 T h e teacher took m e a picture. ともだち

くるま

あら

友達は私の車を洗ってくれました。 M y friend w as kind enough to w ash m y car. 友 達 は 私 ]^車 を 洗 っ て く れ ま し た 。 M y friend w as kind enough to w ash m e the car. いも*b と みおく 妹は私を見送ってくれました。 M y sister w as kind enough to see m e off. *

妹 は 私 ]^見 送 っ て く れ ま し た 。

*

M y sister w as kind enough to see off to me.

1 2 .3

Intransitive verbs

先生は私のために朝6 時に起きてくださいました。 i he teacher w oke up at six o'd o ck for me. *

先 生 は 私 ]^朝 6 時 に 起 き て く だ さ い ま し た 。

*

i ’he teacher w oke up to m e at six o'clock* 本田さんは私のために病院へ行ってくれました。 M r. H ond a w as kind enough to go to the hospital for me.

*

本 田 さ ん は 私 ]^病 院 へ 行 っ て く れ ま し た 。

*

M r. H ond a w as Kind enough to go to m e the Hospital.

2 . 3 てもらう•ていただく V erb て も b つ m eans that som eone receives a fovor o f d oing som ething trom som eone, i.ev som eone had som eone d o something.5 It also carries a connotation tnat som eone asked som eone to do som ething and s/he d ia so. For exam ple:

(8)

父にコンサートの切符を買ってもらいました。 I received the favor o f buying and giving m e the ticket to the concert from m y father. = I had m y father bu y m e the ticket to the concert.

5 In English, '"have'' in 7/I had John do the dishes^ carries the connotation of causative, even ooerdve, which means that I forced John to do the dishes. In Japanese, this meaning is dismissed, although the result of the actiOTi may be the sam e If coercion is involved, then the proper causative construction should be used, as in /7I made Jd in do the dishes./#

CHAPTER 20

288

N ote that the English equivalent //have/, in this case has the nuance o f //favor/, rather than o f "fo rc e ,’ Since the function o f the particle に is to indicate the source o f the activity the subject benefits (from), it d i& rs from the indirect object function o f に used in あ げ る / く れ る •There are no restrictions o n the w ay a 〜 て も ら う sentence is used w ith the particle に .

D itransitive verbs [SOO V] Transitive verbs [SO V 】

山田さんは田中さんに荷物を送ってもらいました。 M r. Yam ada had M s. Tanaka send h im a package. 山 田 さ ん は 田 中 さ ん に ( 自 分 の ）車 を 洗 っ て も ら い ました。 M r. Yam ada had M s. Tanaka w ash his car.

Intransitive verbs [SV]

2.3.1

山田さんは田中さんに病院に来てもらいました。 M r. Yam ada had M s. Tanaka visit him at the hospital.

Ditransitive verbs

先生に日本語を教えていただきました。 I had m y teacher teach m e Japanese. (I asked m y teacher to teach m e J^ m ie s e and she kindly did so.) 友達 に 本 を # してもらいました。 I had m y m end lend m e the book. 党 に 新 し い 時 計 を H ってもらいました。 I had m y brother b u y m e a new watch.

2.3.2

1 ransinve verbs

山 本 さ ん に 夕 食 代 を !^ つていただきました。 I had M s. Y am am oto pay for dinner. 友 達 に 妹 を _ つてもらいました。 I had

m end w ait tor m y sister.

妹に部屋を掃除してもらいました。 I had m v sister d ea n m y room.

289

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

2.3.3

Intransitive verbs

ゎ表しはに答に枭 ていただきました。 I had the section chief cx>me to the meeting room . 私はg ろの学生に座わってもらいました。 I had students in the b ack sit dow n. 私は友達にわかってもらいました。 I had m y friend understand me.

3.

てくれるand てもらう Used in the Request Form6

The て く れ る and て も ら う constructions can b e used w h en one m akes a request. They are com bined w ith form s such as た い "〜 w an t to ," the potential form, and the negative form. The degree o f politeness m ay b e different depending on the form s u s e d .て も ら う has m ore expressions than て く れ る •See the follow ing exam ples w here the speaker asks som eone to teach Japanese. N ote that the English equivalent is a n approxim ate one. 教えてくれる？

C an vou teach m e?

教えてくれますか。

W ill vou teach me?

教えてくれませんか。

W ill vou please teach m er

教えてくださいますか。

Could you teach m e?

教えてくださいませんか。

W ould you please teach m e?

教えてもらえますか。

C an you teach me?

教えてもらえませんか。

C an I ask you to teach m e?

教えてもらいたいのですが。

I w ould like you to teach me.

教えていただけますか。

Could I ask you to teach m e ?

教えていただきたいのですが。

I w ould like you to teach me.

教えていただけませんか。

Could you please teach m e?

教 え て い た だ け な い で し ょ う か 。 Fd appreciate if it you could teach me.

6Refer to Chapter 10, Section 9: the verb てほしい /yI want (someone) to do (something)."

290

CHAPTER 20

Sample dialogue 今日中の仕事、 あした手伝ってあげます I will help you w ork for ixxlay tom orrow. 仕事がなかなか备 わらなくて_ っ て い る ん だ 、 I cannot finish m y w ork and am in trou b le.. . 女 ： じゃあ、手伝ってあげましょうか。 W ell, shall I help you? 男：

ほんと？

助かるなあ。

女:

Really? That will be a great help. にも ^> いつかA さんがい はこ そ の か わ り 、私 が 荷 物 を 一 階 か ら 三 階 へ 運 ぶ の 、手 伝 っ て く れ る ？ In return, can you help m e carry m y stuff from the first floor to the third floor?

男：

もちろんさ。 O f course.

女：

今できるかしら。 C an w e d o it now ?

男：

いいよ。その後、僕の仕事を手伝ってね。 Yes, I can. H elp m e w o rk after that, okay?

女：

ええ、 もちろん。 Yes, o f course.

1 時 間 摄 [A n hour later】 男：

ずいぶん時間がかかったねえ。 It took a long tim e, d id n't it!

女：

え え 、 あ ら 、 も う こ ん な 時 間 ！私 、 今 日 エ ア ロ ビ ク ス (aerobics) のク ラスがあるの。 ごめんなさい、お仕事、あした手伝ってあげるわ。 じゃあ、 またあしたね。 It sure did. O ops, it is already late. I have an aerobics d ass tcxiay. T m sorry, b u t I wul help you w ork tom orrow , bee vou tom orrow .

男：

え、そ ん な • • • 。 この仕事今日中なんだ O h, n o ... This w ork has to b e done today.

291

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

勘符の行方 W hereabouts o f the ticket 5 本 田 さ ん ^:豊 田 課 長 に 歌 舞 伎 の 切 符 を も ら い ま し た が 、 そ の 自 、 *差 5南5が で き て 呑 け な く な っ て し ま い ま し た 。 そ れ で 、 そ の 切 符 を 松 田 さ & にあげました。松田さんはガールフレンドとのデートにちようg いいと思 い、 さっそく電話をしてみましたが、 ガ ー ル フ レ ン ド は 気 分 が い の で 行 こま

かいしや

ひと

きたくないと言いました。 困った松田さんは会社で切符をあげられる人を 髮 し ま し た 。 す る と 、 k よ く 前 に 座 っ て い る 川 崎 さ ん が 「あ 、 そ の 切 符 ぼ く に く れ る ？」 と 言 っ た の で 、 喜 ん で 川 崎 さ ん に あ げ ま し た 。 ところが、 しばらくして川崎さんのお父さんから電話がありました。 お母さんが_ 気になったのです。それで、川崎さんも行けなくなってしま いました。 困った川崎さんが会社の中を見回すと、豊田課長が煙草をすい ながら新聞を読んでいました。 「課 長 、 こ れ 、 よ ろ し か っ た ら ど う ぞ 。 今 晩 8 時 か ら で す が

. . 、 」 と言って課長にさしあげました。豊田課長は切符をしばらく見

つ め 、そ し て 、言 い ま し た 。 「あ れ え 、 こ れ 、 見 た こ と あ る な あ 。 だ れ か に あ げ た な あ • • 、 」

切符の行方は？

(

M

)— (

H

M

)

CHAPTER 21

Structures o f Imperatives/Commands

The fundam ental notion o f a com m and is that one orders others to realize the event described b y the verb. C om m and form s cx:cur in both the affirm ative and the negative, as in し ろ ’T

)〇

i f ’ and す る な ' "Don’t d o i t / '自 分 で し ろ ’

it

y o u rse lf,"企 ま れ " Stop,〃 菌 す な ，T ) 〇 n’t talk/' and 台 か な い で ’ T )o n 't go." H ow ever, in Japanese these phrases standing alone sound m asculine. In conversatior\ the form な さ い is m ore com m only used by b oth fem ale and m ale language speakers since it does not sound as strong as the direct com m and form .1 Also, although the equivalent o f て く だ さ い is "p lease d o," this construction should b e considered a form of the com m and, since it has the sam e function as the direct com m and. In this section w e learn the constructions o f the com m and f o r m s し ろ a n d なさい. 1. し ろ C onsonant V erbs いそ

Affirm ative

N egative

急ぐ

to hurry

急げ

急ぐな

華

to advance

進め

進むな

to bring

持っていけ

持っていくな

to investigate

調べろ

調べるな

考える

to think

考えろ

考えるな

k る

to look

見ろ

見るな

む

為ってぃく

V ow el V erbs (-5 verbs) 調べる かんが

1For example, one can say 春 よ 、莱 い ！ " Springs come!" and ゴミよ、备 え ろ ！" Garbage, bum!" but n o t 春よ、来 な さ い a n d ゴミよ、燃 え な $ い. な さ い is used only from a person to another person (unless personified).

292

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

Irregular V erbs する < 来る

293

Affirm ative

N egative

to do

レろ

するな

to com e

垂い

来るな

In principle, the re a p ie n t o f the order is an anim ate entity, w ho/ that can bring about the event as told; therefore, com m ands are usually m ade w ith volitional transitive verbs. H ow ever, the com m and form can also b e used tow ard inani­ m ate entities (w hich d o not have the will to bnng a situation into existence), indieating the speaker's strong desire for a situation to b e realized, as in 雨 よ 、 _ れ "Rairv f a ll," 春 よ 、 杀 い "Springs come, " a n d 麁 け ろ C om m and form s m ay b e heard alone in casual or extrem ely inform al con­ versation am ong m ale language speakers. A dult fem ale language speakers m ay not use these form s even during casual conversation. T he form s are instead often used in indirect quotations that m d ud e som e kind o f co m m a n a form , such as 先 ¥ が 授 業 中 は 話 す な と 言 っ た /yThe teacher told us not to talk during class," and in w ritten signs seen in public, such as 正 ま れ " Stop ." T h e direct quo* tation in this case, m ay b e 先 生 が 「 授 業 中 は 話 し て は い け ま せ ん 」 と言った 'T h e teacher said, 'Y ou should not talk during class"' or 先 生 が 「 授業中は話さ な い で く だ さ い 」 と 言 っ た 'T h e teacher said, 'D o not talk during class period ."' Also, w hen a com m and form is used alone, it is usually accom panied b y a sentence~final particle, such a s こ っ ち へ 来 い よ ！"C om e here!" a n d ば か な こ と 言 う な 主 '"D on't say a stupid thing." H ere are som e m ore exam ples:

(1)

t

Public traffic signs

企まれ

Stop

右 へ 曲 が ^l

Tu rn right

スピード落とせ

Slow dow n

i

D on’t run

るな

装< な

D on’t w alk

i

D on't cross

るな

ん せ い き ほ ん て き

こ と ば

じぶん

しら

か ん じ

おぼ

先 生 ：基 本 的 な 言 葉 は 自 分 で 調 べ な さ い 。 漢 字 も ち ゃ ん と 覚 え て く だ さ い 。 C heck the basic vcx^bulary bv yourselt. M em orize kanji correctly.

CHAPTER 21

294 では、 またあした。 W e ll,I will see you tom orrow .

学 生 l : 先生が基本的な言葉は自分で調べろと普うけど、 どれが基本的な言 葉 な の か わ か ら な い 。 それ に 、漢 字 も ち ゃ ん と 覚 & ろ と 言 う け ど 、 どうすればちゃんと覚えられるのかわからない。 困ったよ。 in e teacner tells us to check the basic vocabulary b y ourselves, b u t I d o n 't know w hich ones are basic ones. Also, she tells u s to m em orize karm correctly, bu t I d on't know how to m em orize tnem correctly. I am in deep trouble. 学 生 2:

先生のオフィスに合って、f t いて来いよ。 G o to the teacher's office and ask ner. 何してるんだよ。早くしろよ。

(3)

W h at are you doing? H urry up! ⑷

A

: うるさいな、 ちょっと_ か に し てくれる？ Y ou talk too m uch. Could you be a bit quieter?

B

: 黙れと备 うのね？ Y ou are telling m e to shu t up, right?

A : そうじやないよ。静かにしろと頼んでいるんだ。 N o, that"s not the case. Tm asking you to b e quiet. 耒よ、大きくなれ。そしてたくさん轰 をつけろ。

(5)

Plant,

bigger. A nd produce lots o f fruit.

明日天気になあれ！ B e sunny tom orrow ! (To b a llo o n s)上 が れ 、 上 が れ 、 天 ま で 上 が れ 。

(7)

G o up, up, up to the sky.

なさい

2.

な さ い follow s the stem o f a verb to form a な さ い phrase. T h e negative form of な さ い is created by the な い form o f the verb follow ed b y い な さ い .

Affirm ative i

ぐ

為って行く

N egative

急ぎなさい

急がないでいなさい

持って行きなさい

持って行かないでいなさい

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

295

かんが_ 考えなさい

考えないでいなさい

s める

集めなさい

集めないでいなさい

I る

見なさい

見ないでいなさい

The な さ い com m and form m ay often be used w hen an older person or an individual w ith a higher ran k is com m anding som eone w h o is you nger or in a subordinate position•な さ い is a conversational form that can b e used b y anyone, regardless o f the speaker"s sex. It is used only in relation to anim ate entities, such as hum ans and anim als. It m ay not be seen in signs, and contrary to the しろ forir^ it m ay not be used tow ard an inanim ate entity to describe the speaker's desire for an event to becom e realized. People m ay find this form used often b y parents as they give orders to their very young children. See the follow ing exam ­ ples:

( 1 ) 真 理 子 、 起 き な さ い 。 早 く 学 f e へ 行 く 支 ]宴 を し な さ い 。 M anko, w ake up. G et ready for school as soon as you can. ⑵

に ん じ ん 、 ブ ロ ッ コ リ 一 、 ピーマン、全 部 食 べ な さ い 。 Carrots, broccoli, and green peppers— eat them a lls

⑶

わからないところがあったら、 私の才フィスにA きに条なさい。

⑷

怖い映画はi ないでいなさい。i

If there is anything you d on 't understand, c»m e ask me. トイレに行けなくなるから。

D o n 't w atch scary movies, since you becom e unaole to go to the bathrcx)m at night. ⑶

* 明日天気になりなさい。 B e nice w eather tom orrow .

(6)

*

頭 よ 、4 がはえなさい。 H ead, grow som e hair.

CHAPTER 2 2

Structures o f Permission: The

ても Form

The て form follow ed by the particle も， the so ca lle d て も forir^ is used to express an "e v en i f , or an "ev en thou gh" m eaning and constitutes a subordinate clause. T h e e ^ t m eaning o f て も is determ ined b y the tense in the m ain clause. For exam ple, 爾 が 陰 っ て も 行 き ま す m eans "E v en if it rains, I w ill g o〃and 雨 が 降 っ て も 行 き ま し た m eans '"Even though it rained, I w e n t" 1 T h e て ゎ construction is quite frequently used to express perm ission in Japanese.12 T h e notion is expressed by a com bination o f a subordinate d a u se and a m ain d au se w ith a few options.

1 . Permission and the ても Form 1.1 The structure of the permission sentence A sentence that expresses a m eaning of perm ission is constructed in the com bination o f the て も form in the subordinate d au se and い い , か ま わ な い , or だ い じ よう， 5、 m the m ain clause.3 Either the affirm ative or the negative form can be used in the subordinate dause, as m ay be seen from 食 べ て も い い ’I f s all right if you eat7' and 食 べ な く て も い い " It"s all right even if you don’t eat." If the per­ m ission occurred in past co n tex t only the predicate o f the m ain d a u se changes its form to the p ast tense form. N ote that the negative form s o f a part o f speech all fall under the category o f l ' adjectives in term s o f their m orphology. A sentence o f perm ission can b e structured b y all parts o f speech in a variety o f com binations.

1A ても sentence in past context can also express a oounterfiactual situatioa For example,雨が降って b

行ったのに means

would have gone even if it had rained/’ implying that the speaker did not go.

2Permission is also expressed by the use of the potential form of the verb and the phrase ことがでさるThis stmcture of permission is^ however, exdusively for //permission,/ and does not possess a dual func­ tions, as the potential form does. 3 Sometimes も can be optional depending on personal preference.

297

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

E v en if -/ e v e n though V erb ても

It is all right/ it w as all right 、

い adjective くても な adjective 乃 N ou n

1.1.1

}

卜

で ( も）

構 (； 、ま せ ん /構 わ な か っ た

1 く

大 丈 夫 だ /大 丈 夫 だ っ た

Perm ission in non-past contexts: せんせ い

⑴

い い /よ か っ た かま

あたま

いた

先生、 頭が痛いんです。

A:

Professor, I have a headache. B

: そ う で す か 。 じゃあ、 今 日 は 帰 っ て も い い で す よ 。 Is th at so? W ell, you m ay go hom e today.

A

: クイズは明日でもいいですか。 Is it all n g h t if I take the quiz tom orrow ? ええ、今日は受けなくてもいいです。

B:

Yes. You d o n 't have to take the quiz today. ⑵

「 むずかしい」は漢字でどう書くんですか。

A:

H ow do you write "difficult7’ in kanji? B

: ちよつとむずかしいです。漢字じゃなくても構いません。 ひらが なでいいです。 It is a litde difficult. Y ou don 't have to w rite it in kanji. H iragana is fine.

だいがく

⑶

リ よ う ば し よ ふ べ ん

やす

大学の寮は場所が不便でもかまいません。安ければいいです。 Speaking o f the university dormitory, even if the location is bad, it's all nght. I n f s cheap, it will do.

1.1.2 ⑷

Perm ission in Dast contexts: 宝 く じ に あ た っ た か ら 、高いものを買っても構わなかった。 Since w e w on the lottery, it w as all right even though I bought expensive things. = I could bu y expensive things.

CHAPTER 22

298 (5)

腕 の 骨 を 奋 っ た の で 、試 験 を 受 け な く て も 大 丈 夫 だ っ た 。 Since I broke a bone in m y arm , it w as all right even though I d id n 't take th e exam . = I d id n 't have to take the exam .

(6)

昨日はクラスが休講だったから、大学へ持かなくてもよかった。 T h e lecture w a s canceled yesterday, so it w as all n g h t even thou gh I didn71 go to the university. = I d id n't have to go to the university.

(7)

昨 日 は ク ラ ス が 休 講 だ っ た か ら 、大 学 へ 行 か な く て も よ か っ た か も し れない。 Since the lecture w as canceled yesterday, it m ight have been all right even if I d id n 't g o to the university. = I m ight not have had to g o to the universitv, b u t actually I went.

A T t ) sentence w ith a perm issive m eaning m av express a countertactual m ean­ ing in p ast context. H ow ever, as indicated in sentences (6) and (7), a n additional gram m atical device like 力、も し れ な い is required to differentiate the m eaning.

1.2

ても with other main clauses

Since the て も form constitutes a subordinate clause expressing the m eaning "e v en i f ' or "e v en though/’ it can b e used w ith a m ain clause other than the ones used in sentences of perm ission. O bserve the follow ing exam ples:

1.Z 1 ても sentences in non-past contexts: (8)

一 万 円 も ら っ て も 、芝刈りはいやです。 E v en if I receive 10,000 yen, I d o n 't w ant to m o w the law n.

(9)

せっかく作ったのだから、 まずくても： ! ベてください。 Since I w en t to all the trouble to m ake this, even if it is n ot delicious, eat i t

(10)

だめでも、 もう一度やってみてごらんなさい。 E ven if it a o e s not work, try one m ore time.

(11)

へたな日本語でも、話せないよりいい。 E ven if you r Japanese is pathetic, it is better than not being able to speak at all.

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

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299

ても sentences in past contexts: 鶴が高っても、試合は中止になリませんでした。 E ven though it rained, the gam e w as not canceled.

a

雨 が 降 っ た け れ ど も 、試 合 は 中 止 に な り ま せ ん で し た 。 A lthough it rained, the gam e w as not canceled. (The speaker is stating a fact involving little of his/her emotion.)

Cf.

雨が降ったのに、試合は中止になりませんでした。 Even though/ although it rained, the gam e w as not canceled (against m y expectations).

(1 3 )

せ っ か く 1苺 が 作 っ て く れ た か ら 、 ま ず く て も 备 ベ た 。 Since m y m other m ade it for m e w ith great effo rt even though it w as not delicious, I ate it.

(1 4 )

先生でも、質 問 に i えられない時があった。 E ven the teacher som etim es could not answ er the questions.

(15)

頭がi

くても、我慢した。

E ven though I had a headache, I endured. ( 1 6 ) 本 当 の こ と を *§ わ な く て も 、 逆 ら れ な か っ た 。 E ven though I d id n 't tell the truth, I w as not scolded. (1 7 )

本当のことを言わなくても、叱られなかっただろう。 E ven if I d id n 't tell the truth, I w ould not have been scolded.

1 .2 3 ても w ith an interrogative word A n accom panying interrogative changes the m eaning o f the で も sentence into "n o m atter h o w ~ , 18920

(1 8 )

ど ん な に む ず か し く て も 、頑 張 り ま す 。 N o m atter how hard it is, I will do m y best.

(1 9 )

いくら食べても、おなかがいっぱいにならないんです。 N o m atter how m uch I e a t m y stom ach does not becam e full.

(2 0 )

この映画は何回見ても、おもしろい。 N o m atter how m any tim es I w atch this movie, I can enjoy it.

CHAPTER 22

300 ( 2 1 ) だれにf t いても、だれも_ えがわからない。

N o m atter w h o m I ask (no m atter how m any people I ask), no one know s the answer. ( 2 2 ) 猫 の 自 ’笑 ||が ど ん な に へ た で も 、 そ う は 备 え な か っ た 。 N o m atter how poor his spoken Japanese

w e could not tell him so.

( 2 3 ) だ れ が 何 と 备 っ て も 、な っ と う は 絶 対 に : ! ベ な か っ た 。 N o m atter w h at anyone said, I never ate natto. (2 4 )

ど ん な に 1 い 羔 M を も ら っ て も 、 1M し て 日 本 語 を 諦 め な か っ た 。 N o m atter how bad the score I received, I never gave u p (learning) Japanese.

(2 5 )

どこまで# つても、その店はぶつからなかった。 N o m atter how far w e w e n t w e could not find the restaurant.

S am p le dialogue お父さんからのプレゼン卜 娘 ： お母さん、そのネックレス、 いいなあ。 ち ょ う だ い ？ 母：

これはだめなの。 だれがI ： し い と； ! っても、 い く ら も ら マ て も 、 あげ られないのよ。だってお父さんが初めてのデートの時に買ってくれた んですもの。

娘：

そ う 。 じ ゃ 、 お 母 さ ん の 形 見 (m em e n to )と し て し か も ら え な い の ね 。

母：

いいえ、だめよ。赤んでもあげない。

娘：

そ う 。 じゃ、 そ の 時 は 私 が 大 切 に 保 管 し て も い い か し ら 。

母：

ええ、ぜひそうしてちょうだい。

CHAPTER 2 3

Structures o f Prohibition: The

ては Form

In English, the notion o f prohibition is articulated b y m odal auxiliaries such as "shouldn’t " "cannot/’ and "m u stn’t7' as well as the negative com m and "d o n ’t7’ and so on. In Japanese, too, a variety of expressions are used to express the notion一 for e x a m p le ,な い で く だ さ い /な い で ほ し い " doiVt d o 〜バdoiVt w arjt you to d o ノ’ and negative com m and phrases, such as す る な "d o n 't d o " and 行 く な "d o n 't g o ." Som etim es, even the sim ple な adjective だ め " don't7' conveys the m eaning "prohibition." 丁he m ost com m on w ay to express "prohibition" m ay b e to use a sentence that consists o f the て は subordinate clause and a m ain d a u se m eaning ' I t w on’t do, if you dg へ〃 T h e m ain d ause ind u d es a predicate, such as い け ま せ ん ,だ め で す , and 困 り ま す , expressing that the event described in the subordinate clause is not desired to happen from the view point o f the speaker. N ote that the negative form is used in the subordinate clause, creating a double negative construetion w hich expresses an obligatory m eaning 行 か な く て は い け ま せ ん " m u st.〃 S e e C h a p te r2 4 a b o u t"o b lig a tio n "fo ra m o re d e ta ile d e x p la n a tio n . If the prohibition conveyed is in past co n text only the predicate in the m ain d au se changes its form to the past tense. The

T (i

suDordinate in past con­

te x t then, expresses a '"shouldn't have,/ m eaning (unless referring to a counterfactual situation).

1.

The Structure of Sentences of Prohibition If you do/ it is 〜

it w o n 't do/it is/w as not all right

CHAPTER 23

302

1.1

Prohibition in non-past contexts

⑴

a : 風邪 で!■ね。 し ば ら く お 酒 を ^:ん で は い け ま せ ん 。 そ れ か ら 、 煙草も& つてはだめです。 お風呂にも入らないでください。 Y ou have a cold. You shouldn't drink alcohol for a while. Also, you shou ld n't sm oke. D on 't take a bath, either. B

: あのう、 コーヒーは飲んでもいいですか。 W ell, can I d rink cx>£teer

A

: コ ー ヒ ^■ も だ め で す ね 。 早 く よ く な り た い で し よ う 。 そ れ に は た くさんAな く て は だ め な ん で す よ 。 C offee is not gcxxd, either. \ou w ant to g et Detter soon, d o n 't you r ^or thaトyou have to sleep a lo t

⑵

一

答 は 英 語 で i いてはいけません。 日本語で書いてください。 Speaking o f answ ers, you shouldn't w rite them in English. W rite them in Japanese.

⑶

日本では、蒙の中を靴で歩いてはいけません。 In Japan, you should not w alk around the house w ith snoes on. だ い が り よ う

⑷

とお

こま

大学の察はあまり遠くては困ります。 Sneaking o f the dorm itory, it cannot b e too far from the university.

(5)

未成年ではだめです。大人でなければなりません。 It w o n 't d o if you are under 20. You have to b e an adult.

1.2

Prohibition in past contexts

W h en a prohibition is conveyed in past co n tex t it can express a cx)unterfactual m eaning. C ontext helps clarify the m eaning unless an auxiliary gram m atical device appears.

(6)

ここで煙草を4 ってはいけなかった。 I could not sm oke here. / I shouldn't have sm oked a cigarette here. = I w as n ot supposed to sm oke here, (but I did).

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は英語で書いてはいけなかった。

(7)

Speaking o f the answ ers, w e could not use English. / W e should n't have w ritten the answ ers in English. = W e w ere not supposed to use English to w rite the answ ers, (but w e did). (8)

その仕事は学生ではだめだった。 Speaking o f that job, it w ouldn't do if it w as a stu d en t = A student cx)uld not d o the job.

(9)

日本では、蒙 の 中 を 靴 で I I いてはいけなかった。 In Japan, you could not w alk around the house w ith shoes on.

2.

The ては Form with Another Main Clause

Since the て は form constitutes a subordinate clause expressing an " i f ’ meanings just like the [ i conditional, it can invite a m ain d au se other than the ones used in sentences o f prohibition. H ow ever, unlike ば, w hen a て は sentence describes a past e v e n t it seldom expresses a counterfactual m eaning. Instead, the sentence is interpreted as expressing a ’ since" meaning. O bserve the follow ing exam ples in both non-past and past contexts:

2.1

Prohibition in non-past contexts

⑴

そんなことを言っては、嫌われてしまいます。 1 If you say th irty like th a t you will be disliked.

⑵

ま ず く て は 、美 れ な い で し ょ う 。 If it does not taste good, it w on 't sell. あいて

こども

おこ

⑶

相手が子供では、怒ることもできない。

⑷

If the person I am dealing w ith is a child, I cannot even e e t m ad at the child. ひま ひと やと ひつよう D お店がこんなに暇では、人を雇う必要もないでしょう。 It the restaurant is unpopular to this ex ten t there is no necessity to hire a w aitress.

1The conditional sentenoe with the closest meaning is expressed by a たら sentence:風邪をひいた時は

コーヒーを飲みすぎたら、 早くよくなりません. と an d ば 00nditiorval sentences express a general, habitual meaning.

CHAPTER 23

2.2

Prohibition in past contexts

(5)

しようゆが嫌いでは、 日本のものを食べることができなかった でしよう。 Sin re I d id n 't like soy sauce, I could not eat Japanese food.

(6)

相手が子供では、怒ることもできなかった。 Since the person I w as dealing w ith w as a child, I could n ot even g et mad at the child.

(7)

お店があんなに暇では、人を1 う必要もなかった。 Since the restaurant w as so unpopular, there w as no necessity to hire a waitress.

(8)

毎 日 雨 で は 、 どこへも合けなかった。 Since it rained every day, I could n ot go anyw here.

3.

The ては Form in Casual Conversation

In colloquial conversation, contracted form s are used instead o f T l i .

V erb ては

■ > 書いちゃ

い adjective く て は

• > まずくちや

な adjective N ou n

暇じや では

がくせい

学生じや

V/l\^/(V^/ V

りをy て は いけない。 不J I で は 困 り ま す „ ではだめだ。

/( \

关 学 に 達 く て は i る。

Sample dialogue (飛 行 機 の 中 で )た ば こ は 南 わ な い で く だ さ い D o not sm 〇Ke in the airplane.

-> 居眼リをしちやいけない-* 不便じや、 困る。 — 小銭じやだめだ。 - » 大 学 に 逮 く ち や _困 る 。

F undamentals

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305

A:

あ の う 、 す み ま せ ん が 、 こ こ は 禁 煙 席 で す 。 た ば こ を P忘 っ て は 議 り

B:

ま す し 、 あ 、 失 礼 。 じゃ、 そ こ で 吸 い ま し ょ う 。

A:

あのう、そこも禁煙ですが

B:

あ 、 そ う 。 じゃ、 あ そ こ で 。

A:

す み ま せ ん 、 こ の 便 (flig h t)は 禁 煙 な ん で す 。

B:

あ、そ う • • Beep, beep, beep, beep!

C:

だれかがトイレでたばこを吸っています！

A:

(opening the lavatory door)

B:

すみません• • • 。

た ば こ は 吸 っ て は い け ま せ ん ！吸 う な と # っ て い る ん で す ！

CHAPTER 2 4

Structures o f Obligation

In English, the m eaning o f obligation is expressed by auxiliaries su ch as "'should/7 "o u g h t to," "m ust/’ and "h av e to." For exam ple, if you are obliged to go, "y ou m u st go,r m ay b e articulated. Since English m odal auxiliaries have dual functions, as, for exam ple, //m u s t/, w hich can express m eaning b oth o f obligation and of supposition, w hich m eaning the w ord has in a sentence d epends on context. In Japanese, the tw o notions expressed b y the English auxiliary '"m ust" are expressed, w ith som e variations, by different structures such as な け れ ば な ら な い, な く て は い け な い , a n d な い わ け に は い か な い •See the follow ing exam ple that represents the English sentence '"He m ust go,r:

#か な け れ ば 1

^な ら な い

, O bligation H e m u st go

行かなくては」

ベ 、 Supposition

「 いけない

L だ め だ etc.

行くにちがいない

行 か な け れ ば な ら な い , for exam ple, a conditional sentence, is one o f the con­ structions that expresses a m eaning o f obligation. T h e ば form is used in this double negative construction and leads to an affirmative m eaning, as m ay be seen from the follow ing representative sentence:

行 か な い +

ならない

=

行かなければならない

I d o not go

it is nofall right

=

I m ust go

+

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

307

There is a phrase な い わ け に は い か な い '"There is wo w ay wof to d oノ' w hich also expresses a m eaning o f obligation. These representative expressions are dis­ cussed in w h at follows.

i.

な け れ ば な ら な い /な く て は い け な い

A ny com bination presented in the chart above expresses a m eaning o f obligation. N ot onlv verbs, bu t also other parts o f speech can form a sentence o f obligation. O bserve the follow ing schem atic tor a com plete listing o t w avs to torm a sentence of obligation: V erb い adjective く な adjective ■ で /じ や N ou n -

な け れ ば /な く て は

J 1

[""な ら な い いけない だめだ L 困る

A s seen in the ch a rt instead o f い け な い 、 な ら な い 、 or だ め だ , other expres* sions that express a negative mearunル such as 困 る ， m ay also b e used. This m eans that a vanety o f com binations exist for constructing a sentence o f obliga­ tion.1 T h e な け れ ば な ら な い /な く て は い け な い constructions constitute pre~ dicates that are m orphologically l ' adjectives; therefore, w h en they express past events, they alternate to な ら な か つ た / い け な か っ た . There is no negative form of these predicates, as a triple negative construction is too com plicated for listen­ ers to prcx^ss the m eaning im m ediately in day-to-day conversation. F irs t observe the following exam ples that contain these constructions:

⑴

A:

日本へ# つたら、 ど ん な こ と を し な け れ ば な り ま せ ん か 。 W h at kind o f thing am I supposed to do w hen I go to Japan?

1In fact there is a grammatical difference between ならない and いけない. When ならない is used, the sentence usually refers to the speaker him /herself such as 1 have to do ~ /’ while いけない tends to refer to another individuaTs obligatioi% sudi as "you have to d o - . This is due to the nature of なる and いく， which are generally perceived as inward (coming toward the speaker) and outward (departing from the speaker), respectively. However, in day-to-day communication, such distinctions may not be recognized.

308

CHAPTER 24 B： まず、 家へ入る時はくつを脱がなくてはいけません。 Jhirst you have to take off your snoes w hen you enter som eone s house. それから、 車を運転する時は右側を走らなくてはだめです。 Also, w hen you drive, vou have to d n v e the car o n the n g h t side of the road. そ れ に 、 目 上 の !X と 話 す 時 は 敬 語 を ! わ な け れ ば な り ま せ ん 。 W h a fs m ore, w hen you talk to som eone w ho is older th an you are, you have to use honorific language.

⑵

明日までに論文を仕上げなければなりません。 I m u st nrush w n tin g the tnesis b y tom orrow .

⑶

国民はみな税金を収めなければいけません。 People in the nation all have to pay tax.

⑷

私が結婚する人は、 頭がよくなくてはいやです。 The person w h o m I will m arry has to b e intelligent.

(5)

コーヒーはブルーマウンテンでなくてはだめです。 A s for coffee, it w o n 't do if it"s not Blue M ountain.

(6)

この仕事は健康じやなければできません。 This job cannot b e done if one is not healthy. (O ne has to b e healthy in ord er to do this job.)

The basic sentence o f obligation is form ed by using the conditional; therefore, instead o f は，と, or た b m ay be used to construct a sentence, thou gh the com bト nation o f た ら and な り ま せ ん /い け ま せ ん m ay b e rare. O bserve the following exam ples: 789

(7)

銀行でお筌を秦リないとだめです。 I m u st borrow m oney at the b a n k

(8)

早く帰って吾なかったらいけませんよ。 Y ou m u st com e hom e early.

(9)

薬 を 总 :ま な か っ た ら だ め で す 。 Y ou m u st take m edication.

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

309

In casual conversation な く て は is often pronounced なく ち ゃ （ h•な き ゃ ， and い け な い /な ら な い are often omitted. See exam ples (10) through (13), w hich follow.

( l 〇)

手紙を# かなくてはな ら な い —

書 か な く ち ゃ /書 か な き ゃ

I have to w rite a letter. (1 1 )

小 銭 じゃなくてはだめだ。—

小 銭 じ ゃ な く ち ゃ /小銭じゃなきゃ

I have to write a letter. ( 1 2 ) 先 生 に 説明しな く て はいけない。

説 明 し な く ち ゃ /説 明 し な き ゃ

I have to explain it to the teacher. (1 3 )

大 学 に 近くなく て は 困る。—

近 く な く ち や /近 く な き や

It has to b e d ose to the University.

2.

ないわけにはいかない

わ け に は い か な い following a verb in the な い form constitutes a double nega­ tive constructior% and is a set phrase that also expresses a m eaning o f obligation. O nly verbs are used in this construction. T h e literal m eaning is 'T h e r e is no w ay nof to d o 〜广" i f s

possible wof to d o 〜 わ け に は い か な い also follow s the

affirm ative form o f the verb to express 'T h e re is no w ay to do

= ''O n e cannot

d o 〜." A lthough verb な い わ け に は い か な い consists o f double negative m or­ phem es and has the equivalent meaning to な け れ ば な ら な い and な く て は い け な い , the difference betw een these constructions is that verb な い わ け に は い か な い m ay express a sense o f obligation that is a bit stronger than な け れ ば な ら な い and な く て は い け な い •It is m ost typically used to describe an obligation belonging to the speaker him /herself and not an obligation pertaining to a third person. In this sense, it m ay b e said that な い わ け に は い か な い is used based on the speaker^ self^evaluatior% w h il e な け れ ば な ら な い a n d な く て は い け な い are used w hen social and m oral issues are involved in judgm ent. T h e わ け に は い か な い phrases can be used both in past and non-past contexts as exem plified in the following:

CHAPTER 24

310 ⑴

先生のお別れ会だから、 出席しないわけにはいかない。 Since it is a farew ell party for m y professor, there is no w ay n ot to attend the party.

⑵

クラスで使う教科書だから、お金はないけど、買わないわけにはい かない。 Since these are textbooks w e use in dass, though I d o n 't have m oney, I have to bu y them .

(3)

卒 業 す る の に 論 文 が 必 要 だ か ら 、書 か な い わ け に は い か な か っ た 。 Since a thesis w as necessary in order to graduate, there w as no w ay not to w rite one.

⑷

父が芒くなったので、学期中だったが、 日本へ猜らないわけにはい かなかった。 Because m y father passed away, although it w as in the m iddle o f a term, I had to return to Japan.

Sample dialogue けっこんしき

で

結婚式に出ないわけにはいかないんです おんな

いそ

女 ： どうしたの、そんなに急いで。 W h at naj)|?ened? You look in a hurry. 男 ： 急に帰国しなくちやならなくなつたんだ。で、今から空港に行かな くちやいけなくて• • I cam e to have to return to m y country all o f a sudden, and have to g o to the airport n o w ___ 女：

急 に 帰 国 っ て 、椅 か あ っ た の ？ Suddenly returning hom e? Som ething happened?

男：

明後日姉と党が結婚することになつたんだ。 M y sister and brother are getting m am ed the d ay after tom orrow .

女：

え、お姉さんとお兄さんが結婚するの？

まさか• •

W hat? Y ou r sister and brother are going to get m am ed ? N o w a y ... 男：

違うよ、二人が同じ日に結婚式をするんだよ。だから帰らないわけに はいかないんだ。 N o. They are going to have a w edding cerem ony on the sam e d ay ^with different partners). So, there is no w ay not to go back.

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar おんな

女 ： ああ、なんだ、びっくりした。 Phew . Y ou surprised me. じゃ、 ク ラ ス を 休 ま な く ち ゃ い け な い ん で し よ ？ Then, you have to m iss dass, d on 't you? 男 :

そうなんだ。 あ、先生に報告しなくちゃいけないね。 T h a f s right. O ops, I have to let the teacher know about it.

女：

私が言っておいてあげるわよ。 I will tell the teacher.

男：

ほ ん と ？あ り が と う 。 A re you sure? T hank you.

女:

じや、 お 土 産 、 忘 れ な い で ね 。 W ell, d o n 't torget a souvenir.

男•

あ 、 ああ 、 そう だ ね 。 もちろん。 Oh/ yes, that^s right. O f course.

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CHAPTER 2 5

Terms o f Respect: Polite Affixes and Honorific and Hum ble Form s

敬言鲁 is used to express the speaker^ sense o f

and m odesty to~

w ard the individual. There are three c^tegpries, Y 拿 歯 , 尊 叙 諸 , and 謙 譲 語 , all o f w hich fall under the um brella te rm 叙 語 " honorific language/' 丁 寧 語 is also び か

jr

often referred to a s 美イ匕語’"beautification o f wordsこ ’ because its function is to m ake w ord s sound nice and polite by affixing お or■御 to various parts ot speech. そんけぃご

i

之んじょうご

y

尊 敬 語 and 謙 譲 語 use com pletely different nouns or verbs w ith m eanings equivalent to the onginal nouns or verbs, or m ake use o f a particular verbal sen­ tence pattern. D etailed discussion is given in the follow ing sections.

1

. 丁 寧 語 ： The Polite Affixes お and 御

F irst w hile plain forms, such as fラ く " to g o " and 見 ^ ) " to see" are "inform al form s" w hich are used m casual conversation (betw een m ends and fem ily m em b e r s ),で す /ま す form s are "polite form s" w hich are used w hen a speaker talks in public, com m unicates w ith people to w h om s/he is not dose，etc. In addition to で す /ま す forms, there are som e other w ays to elevate w ords into a polite equivalent. The m ost com m on one is the use o f the affixes and _ that are prefixed to a nourv い adjective, or な adjective, and to m ake the phrase sound polite or let the speaker feel gracious or, som etim es, fem inine. For exam ple, one m ay s a y , 私 は お ボ が 叙 み た ぃ で す '1 w ant to d rink w ater." Here, a third person is not involved in the situation, and to is sim ply there to m ake 7K sound polite•お and 御 are also used to foiynulate hononnc and h um ble expres~ sions, such a s お 借 り し た 先 生 の 御 本 を # 読 し ま し た read your b o o k w hich I borrow ed ." Thus, since the function o f お and 御 is to change a w ord into its

312

313

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

pplite eq u iv alen t unlike honorific and hum ble expressions, phrases w ith お and ffll d o not necessarily refer to a third party or an entity belonging to a third party. T h e basic distinction betw een お and 御 is based on the type o f the part of speech•お is prefixed if the w ord is pronounced in a Japanese w ay ( _ 読み)， w hich m eans that the w ord is an onginal Japanese w ord. If the w ord is proおん よ

nounced in a しhrnese w ay (音 読 み )， w hich m eans that the w ord is a Chinese com pound, M is prefixed. H ow ever, there are m any exceptions to this basic di­ chotom y such as WM and i S V , w hich have been assim ilated into Japanese w ords and are prefixed b y お ：お 電 話 す る and お 返 事 す る • H ere are som e exam ples:

たか

お 手 紙 (letter)

お 高 い (expensive) うらや

お 水 (water)

な adjectives

い adjectives1

Nouns てがみ

ひま

お 暇 （time to spare) ■げん▲き

お 名 前 (name)

お 羨 ま し い (envious) ラつ< お 美 し い (beautiRil)

ごいけん

ごかんば

御 意 見 (opinion)

御 芳 し い (favorable) a,

御 し 網 (kind)

ごきぼう

御 希 望 (preference)

御 香 ば し い (good-smelling)

御 不 便 (inoOTivenient)

なまえ

お 兀 讯 (healthy) ぉ ± ¥ (skillful)

ごふべん

Few い /な adjectives are prefixed b y 御 . O n e needs to keep in m ind that excessive use o f お /御 m ay m ake sentences sound less graceful. ⑴

こ ち ら に お 名 前 、御 住 所 、 お 電 話 番 号 を 御 記 入 く だ さ い 。 Please fill in your nam e, address, and phone num ber on this paper.

⑵

御 意 見 が ご ざ い ま し た ら 、 どうぞ。 If you have an opinion, please go ahead and telli l me.

⑶

お高いお料理店でお食事をしてしまいましたので、 もうお金がござ いません。 Since I had a m eal a t an expensive restaurant I d o n 't have any m oney any m ore.

御芳しい and 御香ばしい are v a y uncommon compared to their English equivalents*

CHAPTER 25

314 (4)

何 度 か お を お & ししましたが、お返事がありません。 A lthough I sent letters a few times, there has been no response.

Som e w ords m ay have different polite equivalents. 私 good exam ples.

and し ざ い 末 す are

is usually used by female language speakers in day-to-day

co n v ersatio a b u t m ale language speakers also use this w ord w h en they m ake a public speech^ on form al occasions, and so on •ご a t 、ま 3 is a hum ble equivalent o f あ り ま す , b u t it can also b e used as a polite equivalent o f で す or あ り ま す . O bserve the follow ing examples:

(5)

ぃ ら っ し ゃ ぃ ま せ 。 こちらはとA きM デ パ ー ト 業 し 鞋 で 、 条 i が ご ざ ぃます。 W elcom e. T h is is Tokyu D epartm ent Store East Building. W e have furniture.

(6)

わたくしの主人はアメリカ人でございます。 M y husband is an Am erican.

(7)

首相に任命されまして、 私は大変光栄でござぃます。 I am truly honored to b e selected as prim e minister.

2.

Honorific Statements

H onorific form s are used to express a speaker^ respect tow ard the person the speaker is addressing. For exam ple, w hen an individual w h om a speaker respects perform s an action^ the speaker uses a honorific form to address the individual's activity, as i n 先 生 は *^•才 フ ィ ス に い ら っ し ゃ い ま す 'T h e teacher is in his/her office now 7' and 3 ^ 統 領 は お 昼 ご 飯 に ピ ザ を 召 し 上 が り ま し た ’"The presi­ d ent had pizza for lunch." In Japan, age and social status are the prim ary factors behind the use o f the honorific form s. If som eone is older than the speaker or is at a higher rank in term s o f social status, the speaker uses honorific form s w hen talking about the referent7s perform ance and /or attributes as a m ark of respect for and /or courtesy in public situations. The use of the honorific form depends entirely on how the speaker feels about the person and the situation the speaker is in. H onorific form s m ight not b e used if the person in question is not present at the tim e o f the

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

315

conversation. O r the speaker m ight use honorific form s to show others that the speaker respects the person in question. If learners o f Japanese are surrounded b y college students o f a sim ilar age, they m ay notice that honorific form s are seldom heard. This m ay b e true, as stu­ dent status cxrupies a unique period in a person's lifetime and contrasts w ith die status o f people w h o are em ployed b y som e kind o f scxial organization. A s soon as young people becom e responsible m em bers o f society, they find that the lan­ guage they u se is no longer the sam e as the language they used in college. They face the reality o f hierarchical scxnal m echanism s in Japan and learn how m uch they need to know honorific language. H u m ble form s are used w hen a speaker also w ishes to show respect to ­ w ard another person b y being hum ble about the speaker's ow n activities and/or attributes. The subject o f the verb expressed by the hum ble form therefore is alw ays the speaker him /herself or people in the sam e group. For e x a n ^ le ,

毛に

明 B ご 連 絡 い た し ま す " I will contact the teacher tom orrow^ a n d 父 は 昨 年 先 め

生 に お 目 に か か り ま し た " M y father m et the teacher last year."2 Both form s are also used w hen the speaker and the addressee d o not know each other, i.ev are strangers to each other. This is because people try to be polite and respectful to each other, especially w hen thev d o n ot know the other person's age and /or social status. O nce they com e to know each other, depend-

2A question may arise as to how one may use an honorific form to describe his/ her teachers activity to a friend for whom s/h e can use a plain form to express doseness* When the teacher is not present at the time of the 00nversatioi% the speaker might not use the honorific fom\ but s / he may use the plain form of the honorific form to express the speakers respect toward the teacher, while simultaneously being casual to his/her friend. The following are examples of such cases in both the honorific and the humble ⑴ ⑵

A :先 生 、才 フ ィ ス に い る ？

"Is the teacher in her office?"'

B :ううん、 いないよ。

'"N o'sheisnot"

A :先 生 、才フィスにいらっしゃる？ B :ううん、 いらっしゃらないよ。

⑶

⑷

A :この辞# 、先生にもらったんだ。

"\ received this dictionary from the teachc

B :え、 もらっ た の ？いいなぁ„

"Did you receive it? I envy you."

A :この辞害、先生にいただいたんだ。 B :え、いただいたの„ いいなぁ。

316

CHAPTER 25

ing on the relationship into w hich they develop, they m ay change the form s they use to each other or m aintain the sam e stance as before. Som e verbs have fixed form s as their honorific and hum ble form s. For other verbs, there are several patterns for form ulating honorific or hum ble sentencees. F irst consider the chart w ith the verbs that have fixed form s follow ed by exam ple sentences.

2.1

Verbs w ith fixed honorific and humble forms Humble torm

Regular torm

Honorific form いらっしゃいます

います

おります

おありです

あります

ございます

〜でいらっしゃいます

〜

いらっしゃいます

苔きます

お見えになります

来ます

なさいます

します 〜

です

なさいます

でございます

まいります

いたします ご/ お〜します

します

れんら 〜

〜




Hypothetical

1The antecedent generally means that something happens or exists before something else In grammar, the antecedent is a word or phrase to which a following word refers. For example, in ''Please say hello to John when you see is the antecedent of '"him/' In a logical dause expressing ooncitiorv the antecedent refers to the first half of a hypothetical propositiorv i.ev the np n component in a proposition '"if p, then q/' The consequent on the contrary, is found in die second half of a hypothetical propositiorv i.ev uo[' oomponent The antecedent is also the same as the subordinate dause in an if-then sentence and the 00nsequent is the main dause The terms "antecedent^ and "consequent^ are used throughout this cha]> ter.

323

324

CHAPTER 26

In E n glish the speaker chooses "w hen/’ " i£ " or "w henever"' depending on the m eaning s/he tries to express.

is given a t the beginning o f a n antecedent and

the listener im m ediately picks up the signal that the speaker is describing a hypothetical situation. In Japanese, however, unlike in English^ と/ ば, and たら have a dual fu n ctio n ~ th ey are used to express tw o o f the three m eanings ''w hen/ w h en ev er/ it/r w hich m eans that they can b e used to indicate either a hypothetical m eaning or a non-hypothetical m e a n in g .な ら , on the other hand, is used to express only a hypothetical m eaning, though it is one that is deeply d e­ pendent on the previous context and the flow o f com m unication. W hether a Ja­ panese conditional sentence expresses a non-hypothetical m eaning or a hypothetical m eaning depends on the nature o f the co n seq u en t and on pragm atic jud gm ents m ad e b y the speaker. Thus, the term "cond itional" refers to the com plete sentence~~including both the antecedent and the consequent— that contains any o f the conditional にほん

い

forms. For exam ple, let^s take the 日 本 へ 行 く " M r. H ond a g oes" as an antecedent follow ed b y three conditionals と, ば, and た ら as e x a m p le s :日本 へ 行 く と，日本 へ 行 け ば , 日 本 へ 行 っ た ら . Th e m eaning o f each anteced ent how ever, cannot be determ ined w ithout a consequent. For e x a m p le ,日 本 へ 行 っ た ら can b e interpreted as "w h e n " or " i f ’ w hen the consequent is う な ぎ が 蒼 べ て み た い 1 w ant to eat eel ^and see how it tastes;/7 W nether y/going to jap an"' is realized or not is know n only to the speaker. If the speaker does not k now w hether visiting Japan w ill b e realized, then the sentence creates a hypothetical m eaning. O n the other hand, if the speaker know s that s/ he is going to Japan, then the sentence creates a non-hypothetical m eaning. Alternately, if the consequent o f 日 本 へ 行 け ば refers to a situation in the p a st such as 温 桌 に 入 っ た も の だ '1 used to g o into a hot |pも ring/’ then the interpretation o f ば is "w henever." If the consequent is l U 、 着 物 が 買 え る " I can buy a nice kim ono" then the ば antecedent indicates m ost appropriately an /yi f ' m eaning. Thus, Japanese conditional form s have the capability to express eitner a non-hypothetical or a hypothetical situation depending o n the consequent. Such language use is in part due to the fact th a t for both tem poral //w hen,/ and condi­ tional ,% n the m ost frequent relation betw een antecedent and consequent is causal in nature. Jacobsen (1992) d aim s that the fundam ental feature o f cx>ndi-

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

325

tionals is m ost appropriately captured if they are view ed in term s of the ''cxDntingency7' that is expressed in a relationship betw een tw o events, w hereby one event is contingent on the prior realization of another. Unlike their English counterparts, Japanese conditionals are best grasped if they are treated in term s of w hether the antecedent event is actually realized, o r n o t as an independent feature. The fol­ low ing figure cap tu res the approxim ate sem antics of Japanese conditionals:

In the follow ing sections, the functions of each conditional form are explained. The figure above provides approxim ate m eanings of the conditional form s と，た ら，ば . (N ote that there are alw ays exceptions in their use, such as と being used to express an ''if ' m eaning. The figure gives only fundam ental m eanings.)

i.

と

Verb 行かない い adjective

おもしろい

な adjective

ひまだ

おもしろくない

ひまじやない N oun

擎蜇だ 学生じやない

CHAPTER 26

326

と follow s non-past form s o f all parts o f speech. A lthough と sentences can be used to express non-hypothetical (when, every tim e/w henever) or hypothetical (if) situations, depending on co n text the fundam ental function o f と sentences is to describe a situation in w hich a speaker finds the consequences o f a n event pre­ dictable, such as a natural course o f events or general/sdentific/m athem atical facts w hose causal relations are already know n to the speaker. Therefore と sentences are used to express m ostly a "w hen/every tim e" m eaning. と sentences can express an " i f m eaning w hen the antecedent contains an event or a situation that is not controllable or predictable to the speaker, or a described situation is counterfactual. L et us observe the functions o f と sentences first in non-past contexts, then in past contexts.

1.1

と sentences in non-past contexts

The m ost com m on interpretation of a と sentence in non-past context m ay b e " X then Y/' indicating that Y naturally follow s/occurs w hen X happens. Though future events are not guaranteed to happen as expected, due to the speaker^ know ledge based on previous experience and/or scientific events that have been proven to be true, a "w h en 7 interpretation is applicable for future events. F or exr じゆうがつ ゆ き 、ふ am ple，ミ ネ ソ タ で は 1 0 月 に な る と 雪 が 降 る can b e interpreted as expressing only a non-hypothetical m eaning since O ctober com es every year. T h e m eaning o f this sentence is then "O ctober comes, then it snow s in M innesota" = " I t snow s in O ctober in Minnesota/7 u b serv e the following exam ples: わたし

⑴ ⑵

さけ

の

かお

あか

私 は お 酒 を 飲 む と 、すぐに顔が赤くなる。 W h en I d rink alcohol, m y race im m ediately turns rea. むすめ た しよ 5 じz よ5 で 娘はェビを食べると、ア レ ル ギ ー 症 状 が 出 る 。 M y dau g h ter^ ets an allergic reaction w hen she eats shrim p.

⑶

春 に な る と 桜 が 4 く。 W h en spring com es, cherry flow ers bloom ./Cherry flow ers bloom in the spring.

⑷

赤 に 青 を 丨 1ぜ る と 、 紫 に な り ま す 。 W h en you m ix red w ith blue, it becom es purple.

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

(5)

327

漢字を命っていると、 日本語は堯みやすいかもしれない。 If you know Q iin ese characters, Japanese m ay b e easy to read./Know ing C hinese characters m ay let you read Japanese easily.

(6)

飛行機の切符は、学生だとS くなりますが、学生じゃないとi 朝は ありません。 Speaking o f an airplane tick et if you are a stu d en t it becom es cheap, b u t if you are not a stu d en t there is no discount./Airplane tickets are cheap for stuaents, bu t there is no discount for non-students.

(7)

雨が降ると、試合が中止になってしまう。 If it rains, the gam e will end up being canceled.

The interpretation o f the above sentences varies betw een hypothetical readings and non-hypothetical readings. W hen the truth or the realization o f the event in the antecedent is uncertain to the speaker, as happens w ith natural phenom ena and other indiviauals, thoughts and acts, the sentence tends to receive an "'if' m eaning. O n the other hand, w hen the truth or the realization o f the event in the antecedent is certain to the speaker, as happens w ith activities the speaker him /herself perform s and w ith internalized events, the sentence receives a "w hen/every tim e/w henever"' meaning. W hether or n ot the interpretation is a one-tim e event "w h e n " or a habitual event "every tim e/w henever", depends on the context and the pragm atic judgm ent m ade by the listener. In addition, the notion o f ''invited inference/, is a great indicator o f how strongly a hypothetical m eaning is expressed in a sentence. H ypothetical situations often cause a speaker to imply, or an interlocutor to infer, that a result other than that expressed in the antecedent is possible due to the unpredictability o f the realization o f the expressed antecedent. For exam ple, in the use o f natural language, if one says 30 ド ル く れ れ ば 、 1働 い て あ げ よ う " If y0U give m e thirty dollars an hour, I w ould w ork for you/' it invites an inference about the opposite situation: 30 ドル く れ な け れ ば 、 傲 か な い " If y〇u do n ot give m e thirty dollars an hour, I w ould not w ork for you//This tendency is referred to as ^invited inference," a term proposed by G eis and Zw icky (1971), w h o pointed o u t the appliesbility o f biconditionals to natural language phenom ena and suggested that a

CHAPTER 26

328

sentence o f the form X ••• Y invites an inference o f the form ~X ••• ~Y

indi-

cates "negative"). In our daily com m unication, it is not difficult to perceive that the higher the degree o f hypotheticality o f a sentence, the stronger the possibility o f the proposition's suggesting invited inference. In other w ords, w h en a speaker has firm evidence in stating a proposition, the statem ent does n ot cause an interlocu­ tor to infer an alternate situation. O n the other hand, if the speaker is uncertain o f the situation's being true or realized, the interlocutor can scarcely help inferring an alternate situation. T o seek a possibility o f expressing an invited inference is a good test for discerning w hether a conditional sentence expresses a high degree o f hypotheticality•と sentences are least likely to create this "invited inference" inteq^retation, w hich m eans that their degree o f hypotheticality is low or even nil.

1.1.1 Some grammatical restrictions W h en the consequent includes a predicate that expresses hum an volitiorv と becom es a gram m atically unacceptable option. This is d u e to the fact that hum an volition cannot support the establishm ent o f som ething generally valid. H u m an volition does not necessarily guarantee the certain realization o f an event; there­ fore, it cannot create a temporal, factual connection betw een the antecedent and the co n seq u en t w hich after all contradicts the fundam ental function o f と sentences. Thus, the unacceptability o f these sentences is based on the speaker"s volitional involvem ent in the consequent. N ote the follow ing exam ples:

わからないと、先 生 に 聞いてみてください。 If

d on’t understand, please ask your teacher and see (w hat sh e says).

含月日晴れると、 ピ ク ニ ッ ク へ # き ま し よ う 。 If it is sunny to m o rro w ,le f s go on a picnic. (l〇 )

大学を出ると、 コンピュータプログラマーになりたいです。 W n en I graduate trom college, I w ant to becom e a com puter program m er.

( 1 1 ) * そ の ア パ ー ト が き れ い だ と 、借 り る つ も り で す 。 It the apartm ent is dean, I wul rent it. (12) * テ レ ビ が 安 い と 買 お う と 思 っ て い ま す 。 If the T V is ch e a p ,l am thinking of buying it.

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

329

All o f the exam ple sentences ⑶ through (12) have a volitional expression in the consequent and are considered inappropriate. In order to express this meanings たら is the preferred conditional, because it does not have such restrictions.

と sentences in past contexts 1.2«1 Non-hypotheticalと 1.2

The fundam ental function o f と sentences in non-past contexts, nam ely, to present natural courses o f events, or general/sdentific/m athem atical facts, is also applicable to unterfactual m eanin g ~ so m etru n g d ia n ot turn o u t the w ay it w as supposed to ~ d u e to the use o f the tc form in the antecedent and gram m atical devices で し よ う and の に .Sentence (8) gives alm ost the sam e interpretation as the antecedent w ith か ら i n 彼 が ハ ン サ ム で 頭 が い い か ら '"Be* cause he is handsom e and sm art." The difference is that w h en な ら is used, the inform ation is n o t in the speaker^ domain^ and there is still room to hypothesize about the inform ation conveyed. By using な ら ,the speaker can avoid stating the attributes m aking the speaker responsible for the statem ent. O n the other hand, w h en

b //since,/ is used, the inform ation is entirely in the speaker's dom ain,

and there is no room to hypothesize. Thus, placing an event in a hypothetical dom ain b y using TJ：b leaves room for the speaker to avoid m aking a direct statem ent and assum ing responsibility. For learners w hose first language is English, Japanese conditionals are dif­ ficult to understand com prehensively due to the fact that one particular form in the leam er,s native language corresponds to m ore than tw o form s in the target language, a divergent phenom enon pointed out b y Inaba (1 9 9 1 )."G iv e " and ^receive/7 as explained in c h a p te r 20, are another exam ple o f such divergence, as Japanese has tw o verbs that are equivalent to //give//A lthough there are alw ays exceptions in the w ay gram m ar is described, understanding the basic, fundam ental issues o f a gram m ar item should be a great help. It w ill eventually com e naturally if learners have a thorough grasp o f the fundam ental issues.

CHAPTER 2 7

Comparative Sentences

The com parative construction is used w hen tw o entities are evaluated in relation to each other. Predicates used in the com parative construction are often either an い adjective or な adjective. Verbs are usually accom panied by an adverb, and nouns are accom panied by a m odifier indicating degree, quantity, or frequency. Let u s first observe the structure for form ing a question^ then have a look a t constructing the answ ers to the questions. Pay attention to the variations.

Creating a Question Sentence X

と

Y

と(では)、 ど ち ら (の 方 )が 1

Predicate

IT

い adjective な adjective V e rb w i 出 ad v erb s N o u n s w ith m cxiiners

( 1 ) カ リ フ ォ ル ニ ア 州 と 日 本 と (で は )、 ど ち ら (の 方 )が 大 き い で す か 。 W hich is bigger, the state of California o r lagan? ⑵ 高 校 と 大 学 と ( で は ) 、 ど ち ら (の 方 )が 成 績 が よ か っ た で す か 。 W h ich transcript w as better, high sch(X)l or college? ⑶

豊 田 さ ん と 松 田 さ ん と (で は )、 ど ち ら (の 方 )が 這 が 速 い で す か 。

⑷

犬 と 猫 と (で は )、 ど ち ら (の 方 )が &き で す か 。

W ho runs faster, M s. Toyota or M s. M atsuda?

W hich do you like better, dogs or cats? 1が here is used as an example；but the particle does not have to be が. For example^ 国 と 甲 国 と 、 どちらへ行きたいですか’"Where (to whidb) would you like to go, Korea or China?"' In this sentence, the partide ^ is used. See also example sentences (9) and (12) in the text

CHAPTER 27

346 ⑶

東 京 で は 、 電 車 と バ ス と (で は )、 ど ち ら (の 旁 )が 便 利 で す か 。 In T o l^ o , w hich is m ore con ven ient the subw ay or the bus?

(6)

鈴 木 先 生 と 本 田 先 生 と (で は )、 ど ち ら (の 方 )が い い 医 者 で す か 。 W h o is a better doctor, Dr. Suzuki or Dr. H onda?

(7)

ジ3 ン と 卜 厶 と (で は )、 ど ち ら (の 方 )が 有 名 な 歌 手 で す か 。 W h o is a m ore fam ous singer, Joh n or Tom ?

(8)

す し と て ん ぷ ら と (で は )、 ど ち ら (の 方 )が た く さ ん 食 べ ら れ ま す か 。 W hich can you eat m ore, sushi or tem pura?

(9)

レ ス 卜 ラ ン と 喫 茶 店 と (で は )、 ど ち ら (の 方 )へ よ く 行 き ま す か 。 W here do you g o m ore often, to a restaurant or to a coffee shop?

(l 〇)

チ ー 夕 と ひ ょ う と (で は )、 ど ち ら (の 方 )が 早 く 走 れ ま す か 。 W hich cai\run faster, a cheetah or a leopard?

T h e com parative structure is also used w hen one chooses betw een tw o item s. In this case, the sentence is not necessarily com paring the degree, quality, quantity, and/or frequencv, b u t indicating a preference. W h en the structure is used this w ay, と で は is not an option.

(1 1 )

コ ー ヒ ー と 日 本 茶 、 ど ち ら (の 方 )を 备 み ま す か 。 W hich are you going to drink, coffee or green tea?

( 1 2 ) 東 京 と 京 都 、 ど ち ら (の 方 ) へ 行 く つ も り で す か 。 W hich d ty are you planning to v isit Tokyo or Kyoto?

2.

Answering Question Sentences

In answ ering a com parative sentence, there are several w ays to construct a response. N ote that as long as the correct particles are used, the order o f X の 方 が and Y よリ can b e reversed. a.

X

(の 方 )が

Y

b.

X

(の 方 )が

Predicate

c.

X

です

上り

Predicate

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

⑴

347

Q :カ リ フ ォ ル ニ ア 州 と 日 本 と (で は )、 ど ち ら (の 笑 )が 关 き い で す か 。 W hicn is bigger, the state o f California or Japan? A l：

リフ才ルニア州の方が丨f § 本 よ 【 了 ] 大 き い で す 〇 〇r r 日 本 よ り llカ リ フ ォ ル ニ ア 州 の 方 が 1 大 き い で す 。

The state o f C alitom ia is bigger than Japan. A 2 :カ リ フ オ ル ニ ア 州 の 方 が 大 き い で す 。 The state o f California is bigger. A 3 :カ リ フ オ ル ニ ア 州 で す 。 T h e state o f California.

It the sentence is given as a statem ent (not as an answ er to a question),カ リ フ 才 ル ニ ア 州 は 日 本 よ り 大 き い で す 'T h e state of California is bigger than Ja p a n " is an appropnate sentence. In the following exam ples, the sentence in parentheses is a sim ple statem ent.

⑵ 犬 よ り 猫 (の 方 )が 备 き で す 。 （ 猫は犬より好きです。） ⑶ レ ス 卜 ラ ン よ り 喫 茶 店 (の 方 )へ よ く 行 き ま す 。 （ 喫茶店へはレストラン よりよく行きます。） I go to a restaurant m ore often than to a cx>ffee shop. ⑷

鈴木先生の方が本田先生よりいい医者です。（ 鈴木先生は本田先生よ りいい医者です。） D r. S u z u k i

is

a better doctor than Dr. H onda.

W h en tw o com pared entities are very d ose based on the evaluation criterion in­ dicated b y the oredicate, a different construcoon m ay b e used to exhibit the closeness.

d.

X

も [p red ica te I で す が 、

ほどじゃありません。

For exam ple, w hen the size o f the United States and C anada is com pared, though both are big countries, C anada is slightly bigger than the U nited States. In this case, one m ay say that A m erica is a big country, bu t not as big as C anada. See the follow ing exam ples in Japanese:

CHAPTER 27

348 关も旮 きですが键 ほどじゃありません。

(5)

I like dogs, b u t not as m uch as I like cats. レ ス ト ラ ン (へ ) も よ く # き ま す が 、 喫 茶 店 ほ ど じ ゃ あ り ま せ ん 。

(6)

I oftgn g o to a restau rant b u t n ot as often as I go to a coffee shop. 本 田 先 生 も い い 医 者 で す が 、鈴 木 先 生 ほ ど じ ゃ あ り ま せ ん 。

(7)

D r. H onda is also a good doctor, bu t not as good as Dr. Suzuki.

D u e to the availability o f diverse structures, there are m any w ays to create a com ­ parative sentence. A s long as the correct partides are used, w ord order is n ot a concern to a great extent.

1 n v ia qu iz Look u p the w ords y ou d o not know in th f dictionary. ( 1

)

コーヒーと日本茶と、 どちらの方がカフェインがM いですか。

(2)

東京とロスアンゼルスとでは、 どちらの方が緯度が高いですか。

(3)

ミネソタと北海道とでは、どちらの方が雪がたくさん降りますか。

⑷

ア メ リ カ の ビールとカ ナ ダ の ビールとで は 、 ど ち ら の 方 が アルコール が強いですか。

(5)

C N タ ワ 一 と Searsタ ワ ー と で は 、 ど ち ら の 方 が 高 い で す か 。

(6)

エ ジ プ ト と 中 国 と で は 、 どちらの方が歴史が古いですか。

(7)

馬とグレイハウンド（ g rey h o u n d )と で は ど ち ら の 方 が 速 い で す か 。

(8)

スーパ一マンとスパイダーマンとでは、どちらの方が強いですか。

(9)

ぞうと馬とでは、 どちらが長く生きますか。

( 1 0 ) チ キ ン と 卵 と で は 、 どちらが先に創られましたか。

Create questions o f vour own:

CHAPTER 2 8

Superlative Sentences

T h e superlative construction is used to select the m ost qualified item that suits the evaluation described b y the predicate. U nlike the com parative construction, the given entities are not lim ited to two, bu t can be an indefinite num ber. A ll one needs to d o is identify the entity that com es to the top o f the list. F or this reason, the w ord 一 # (b e st m ost) is alw ays used before the predicate.1 L e f s consider the creation and answ ering o f a question sentence.

1.

Creating and Answering a Question Sentence N o u n の中 が 12 [ — 番] X と Y と..

nil with the answer

X

⑴

A

[p r e d ic a te

が

-番

I predicate

: 日本の食べ物の中で何が一番好きですか。 A m ong Japanese food, w hat d o you like best?

B••すしが一番好きです。 I like sushi best.

1A common mistake is to use どちら and — 番 together in the same sentence, such as どちらが一番好 き で す か ^Which one of two do you like besty The English equivalent may not sound inappropriate

but in Japanese；どちら is used for a comparative sentence that requires selection of one of two entities^ while —^ is used tor a superiative sentence diat selects the top item of the list 2 が is given as an example here* It may not be が, but may be some other partide, such as を and へ as in 何を一番たく さ ん 备 ベ ま し た か /7What did you eat most?" and どこへ 一 番 行 き た い で す か 'm e re

would you like to go most?"'

349

350 ⑵

CHAPTER 28 A : 家族の中でI I がー番臺が翯いですか。 W h o is the tallest in your family? B:

妹 で す 。 M y sister is.

⑶

A : 平仮名とカタカナと漢字の中で、 どれが一番むずかしいと思いま すか。 A m ong hiragana, katakana, and kanji, w hich d o you think is the m ost difficult? B

: 力夕カナが一番むずかしいと思います。 I think that katakana is m ost difficult.

⑷

A : 東京と香港とニューヨークの中で、 どの都市が一番物価が高い ですか。 A m ong Tokyo, H ong Kong, and N ew York, w hich d ty has the highest prices? B

: 東京でしょう。 Perhaps Tokyo.

There are also som e variations in the w ay the notion o f a superlative is expressed. They all in d u d e 一 番 .

W h at is the tallest m ountain in the w orld? B

: (世 界 で 一 番 高 い 山 は )エ ベ レ ス 卜 で す 。 I f s M t. Everest.

(6)

A ••ア メ リ カ で 一 番 大 き い 州 は ど こ で す か 。 W h at is the biggest state in Am erica? B:

(ア メ リ カ で 一 番 大 き い 州 は ) ア ラ ス カ で す 。

Vs Alaska. (7)

試験で一番むずかしかったのは物理の試験です。 A m on g the exam s, the m ost difticult one w as the phvsics exam .

(8)

— 番 お も し ろ い と 思 っ た 映 画 は 「ロ ー ド • 才 ブ • ザ • リ ン グ 」 で す 。 T h e m ovie I thought w as the m ost interesting is //rThe Lord o f the Rings.,/

(9)

一番悲しかった出来事はペットの券です。 T h e saddest event w as the death of m y pet.

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

( 10)

私は研究をしている時が一番充実しています。 T h e tim e w h en I am doing research is the m ost satisfying time.

T riv ia qu iz L ook u p the w ord s you d o not know in the dictionary.

⑴

¥ 择 で 一 番 关 き い S は1 で す か 。

⑵ 世 界 で 一 番 深 ぃ "Tj T は 何 で す か 。 ⑶世界で一番人ロが爹い鐘はどこですか。 ⑷

日本で一番大きい湖は何ですか。

(5)

日本で一番大きいk はどこですか。

(6)

アメリカで一番乂気のあるスポーツは何ですか。

(7)

日 本 で 一 番 人 気 の あ る ス ポ ー ツ は 何 で す か。

(8)

世界で一番長いW は何ですか。

(9)

月から一番遠いM 星は何ですか。

( 1 0 ) 動物の中で一番大きいのは何ですか。 (i

d

日 本 で 一 番 の は 1 ですか。

( 1 2 ) 世界で一番?

( お 金 持 ち )な A は 誰 で す か 。

(13)

石の中で、一番鐘い石は何ですか。

(14)

星の中で一番明るい星は何ですか。

( 1 5 ) 動物の中で一番真く圣きるのは何ですか。

Create questions o f y ou r ow n:

351

CHAPTER 2 9

Structures o f Suggestions

In English, the process o f giving and asking for suggestions uses various sentence structures, such as '"H ow about ~?,r '"W hy d on 't you - ? /, and /yIt m ay b e good if you d o

In Japanese too, a variety o f expressions can be form ed using different

sentence structures. A representative case is using the conditional form s fz b and ば •O ne m ag o^ten hear sentences， such as ど う す れ ば い い ？ ’"W hat shall I d o ?" and 先 ¥ に 相 f e し た ら ど う ？ '"W hy d o n 't you consult you r teacher?" Sugges­ tions m ay n ot b e given as a rule to a person at a higher status and/ or to som eone older than the speaker. Also, since a suggestion is m ad e w hen a person urges som eone to carry o u t a certain a c t the predicate used in the structure o f sugges­ tions is a verb.

i.

たら/ば

T h e conditional form s た ら or ば can b e used to form a sentence o f suggestion w hen follow ed b y ど う ？，ど う で す か , い か が で す か . T he m eaning is /7It w ould b e good if you d o -Z 7 For exam ple, you m ay say f/lt w ould b e good if y ou w ent hom e early77 w hen you give such a suggestion to y ou r friend. T h e Japanese equivalent i s 早く 象 へ 1雇 っ た ら ど う で す か •The question sentence that m akes such a suggestion then should b e derived from the sam e structure, replacing the verb phrase w ith an interrogative noun phrase. T he question that derives 帰 っ た ら as its answ er i s ど う し た ら o r ど う す れ ば ; th e re fo re ど う し た ら /ど う す れ ば い い で す か ’"W h at/ H ow shall I d o 〜 ? " is the question. W h en the question is given in this construction, the answ er can b e given in various constructions d e­ pending o n the situation o f the speaker, w ith w h om the speaker is interacting, etc. T h e choices are up to the individual.

352

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

⑴

353

教科書を夤いたいんですが、お射治を憲れてしまいました。 どうしたらいいでしよう I w ant to b u y a textbook, bu t I forgot m y wallet. W h a t shall I d o ...?

いい 〜 ば ペ

いいんじやない？ いいんじやないでしょうか

お金を借りれば？ 1 友達に友達にお金を借りればいいよ。 友達にお金を借リればいいんじやない？ 友達にお金を借りればいいんじやないでしょうか。

? どう？ 〜たら气

どうですか いかがですか

友達にお金を借りたら？ 友達にお金を借りたらどう？ 友達にお金を借りたらどうですか。 友達にお金を借りたらいかがですか。

(2)

友達に借りたコンピュー夕を壊してしまいました。 どうすればいいで しよラ。 I broke the com puter I borrow ed from m y triend. W h a t shall I do?

1The expressions in the forms, ?, ~ ばいいよ, ~ ばいいんじやない, which are all in the plain fornv are used in casual oranmuracations where the speaker speaks to his/her friends and femily m em bas, for example.〜ぱいいんじやないでしょうか is formal and is used when the speaker interacts with some" one to whom the speaker is not very dose emotionally and soaally or who is older.

354

2.

CHAPTER 29

方がいい

为 力U U ' is another construction that m av b e used to express suggestion, fh is is a com parative sentence structure w here a speaker selects one situation^ e v e n t or entity out o f tw o. W h en this structure is used to m ake a suggestion, the p>erson is conveying that "d o in g A is better than not doing A •"方 が い い m o st frequentlv follow s the perfective た fom v b u t it m ay also follow the im perfective る form . If one suggests not doing somethings な い can be used as well. T h e English equivalent m ight b e "y o u m ay w ant to

る ない

1

た

一

"y o u ’d better d o a n d so on.

， 方がいいです

クラスはg 日 出 席 す る 方 が い い で す よ 。 クラスはM まない方がいいですよ。 クラスは毎日出席した方がいいですよ。

( 1 ) A : 教 科 書 を f t い た い ん で す が 、 お 財 布 を 忘 れ て し ま い ま し た 。 どう

B

k 忘らぃじでV ょぅ_ “V か

: 友 達 に お 金 を 借 り て 、今 日 買 っ た 方 が い い か も し れ ま せ ん よ 。 もう売り切れそうですから。 Y ou m ight as well borrow m onev from your friend and b u v it today. It lcx)ks like the textbooks are about to sell out.

⑵

A : 友達に借りた本をなくしてしまったんです。 どうすればいいでしょう。 I lost the b ook I borrow ed from m y friend. W h at shall I do? B

: 早く友達に" I った方がいいですよ。 それとももう少し探してみま すか。 Y ou m ay w an t to tell your friend as soon as possible. O r are you going to look for it a little more?

⑶今日は天気が悪いから釣りには行かない方がいいですよ。 Since the w eather is bad today, you should not go fishing.

355

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

⑷

先

， 害 は 4 し 撼 が し そ う だ か ら 、 策しM の オ フ ィ ス ア ワ ー の 蒔 に す る方がいいと思います。 Since the teacher looks bu sy this w eek, you m ay w an t to ask her questions during next w eek's office hours.

Sample analogue

眷で 怿 員 ： *3とし

ト ロ ン ト 行 き の 58便 で す ね 。 じや 、 パ ス ポ ー ト 、 お 減 い し ま す 。 S it ；

男 ：

わす

き

パ ス ポ ー 卜 . ■ • ア ア ツ ！ ！家 に 忘 れ て 来 ち や っ た . ■ • ! ど う し よ う ••

!

•„

ぎ や < さま

い

係員：

お 客 様 、パ ス ポ ー 卜 が な い と 、 カ ナ ダ へ は 行 け な い ん で す が 。

男：

うん、で も こ こ は デ ト ロ イ ト で し ょ 。 た っ た 4 0 分 じ や な い 、 卜 うんてんめんきよしよ

ロン卜まで。 運転免許書じやだめかなぁ „

ちか

係員：

いちおうがいこく

ひ こ う き

の

近 く て も 一 応 外 国 で す の で 、パ ス ポ ー 卜 が な い と 、飛 行 機 に は 乗 と

ちど

とど

れないんです。 家に取りにお戻りになるか、 どなたかに届けても らうといいと思いますが。 男：

だ っ て 、離 陸 ま で あ と一時間じやない。 条 逢 だ よ 。 わたし

係員：

ほう

あと

ブ じ

びん

私の方ではどうすることもできませんが、 この後の5 時の便に お乗せすることはできます。そ れ ま で に 御 自 宅 に 取 y にお戻りに なったら、 いかがですか。

男：

も う 〜 ^ ^ 〜 ！そ れ っ き や な い か 。 じ や 、 そ う し ま す 。 あ り が と いろいろ

う、 色 々 。

なくした友達のセルフオン A : あ あ 、 困 っ た な ぁ ■ • . 。 友 達 に 借 り た セ ル フ オ ン 、 ど こ か に j| とし ち ゃったんだ。 B : 拾 っ た 人 が 使 い 始 め た ら 困 る か ら 、 早 く 友 達 に _ ■っ た 方 が い い よ 。 A : う ん . • • 。でも今弁償するお金がないんだ。慈 る だ ろ な ぁ . . .。 B： こ う い う こ と は 正 直 に 話 し て 、 謝 っ た 方 が い い よ 。今 毫 售 す れ ば ？ A : その電話をなくしちゃったんだよ。

CHAPTER 29

356 [ リーンで、 二J ー ン ] B : あ れ 、電 話 g な っ て る よ ？ A:

g んとだ。1 のだろう。

#

B : 碧の お し り の あ た り か ら f t こえてくるけど A : あ 、 ほ ん と だ ！あ 、 電 話 だ ！あ っ た 、 あ っ た ！ ポ ケ ッ ト に 穴 が あ い て い て 、 電 話 が ず れ 落 ち た ん だ 。 あ あ 、 よか っ た • ■ ■ ! B : そ の 電 話 、 洗 っ た 方 が い い ん じ や な い ？出 る 前 に

CHAPTER 3 0

Potential Sentences

There are tw o w ays to com pose sentences w ith a potential m eaning: one m ay change a v^rb into its potential form or add こ と が で き る to the verb dictionary fornv e.g•，書 け る and 書く こ と が で き る , respectively. In both cases, only verbs that can b e controlled by a speaker's intention can form the potential form. T h e function o f the tw o constructions is identical, b u t こ と が で き る m ay b e m ore form al and, therefore, less frequently used in casual conversation. T he difference betw een こ と が で き る and ら れ る lies in their syntactic behavior•ら れ る constitutes part o f a potential predicate, w hile こ と が で き る is a com plex phrase. The tw o m ay n ot em ploy the sam e partide.

z------日 本 語 | C^/め

に ほ ん ご

日本語を書くこと

書ける

( ^ ) できる

I can w rite Japanese.

W riting Japanese is w hat I can do.

A s seen in the above ex am p les,書 け 勺 is a com pound stative predicate consisting o f the verb "to w rite" w ith the potential "can/' w hile で き る is a pure single stative predicate. Further explanation follows. Potential form s can b e used not only to dem onstrate ability or possibility, bu t also perm ission and request (in com bination w ith verbs o f receiving). T hey share sim ilarities w ith the potential form in English, as in ^ o u can speak Japa­ nese/' w hich m ay m ean either that you have the ability or the chance to speak Japanese or that you are allow ed to speak Japanese, depending o n the context and pragm atic ju d g m ent m ad e by the speaker. N ote that す る こ と が で き る '"be able to d o " should be contracted to で き る " can do. 〃In the followings the 書 け る and 書く こ と が で き る patterns are observed separately.

357

CHAPTER 30

358

l.

# ける

F irst one should learn how to inflect a verb in the potential form . N ote that only activity verbs that are controlled b y an anim ate entity w ith volition can b e form u­ lated in the potential. C onsonant V erbs (う v e r b s ) 〜 wbecom es 〜e, and る is added 運ぶ

hakob-u

運べる

hakob-^ru

なおす

naos-u

なおせる

naos-eru

i つ

kats-u

勝てる

kat-eru

V ow el V erbs (る verbs)

verb stem + られる

起きる

oki-ru

起きられる

oki-rareru

かける

kake-ru

かけられる

kake-rareru

i る

m i-ru

見られる

m i-rareru

Irregular V erbs する

できる

尜 る

系られる

W h en the potential suffixes 〜 eru and -rareru are attached to a considered a cc unpound, stative predicate, and an object of llic u r v e v i

uy

U.

W J.

u.

u w x.

V i.

be

わ

principal due to the stative nature o f the predicate).1 In theory, w h en t)^ is used, the p o te n tia lで き る is m ore em phasized, as in " I am speak Jap anese," w hereas the action o f the verb 語 す is em phasized, as in '1 can speofc Jap anese" w h en を is used. The form ation o f the potential sentence is as follows: r に ほ ん ご i 私 は [ 私 が 日 本 語 を 話 す j で き ま :!:

わたし

私 は 日 本 語 が /を 話 せ ま す 。21

1This grammatical regulation is the same as when the desiderative form にい is used. See Chapter 9.

2Note that 私には日本語が話せます is also an option if 話せる expresses the ability of the speaker.

F undamentalas of J apanese G rammar

359

Let7s observe som e examples:

⑴

A ••ス ペ イ ン _ が /を 話 せ ま す か 。 3 C an I speak Spanish? (Is it O.K. if I speak Spanish?) B

: え え 、 い い で す よ 、 どうぞ。 Yes, you m ay. Please go ahead (and speak in Spanish.)

⑵

A ••ス ペ イ ン 語 が /を 話 せ ま す か 。 C an you speak Spanish? B:

ス ペ イ ン 語 は 苦 手 で す 。英 語 な ら で き ま す け ど 。 I am bad a t Spanish. If it's Enelist% I can speak. せんせい

⑶

A:

ね こ な お

Q

先 生 、 うちの猫、治るでしょうか

r

D octor, will m y cat get better? ほ.んとう

芝 -ど




■る I ける c.

m becom es

買ラ

琴ける

•

〜

る is dropped and させる is a

uke-ru

受けさせる

uke-saserru

oshie-ru

教えさせる

oshie-saseru

ake-ru

開けさせる

ake-saseru

Irregular V erbs

する

辛せる

尜 る

条させる

375

376

2.

CHAPTER 32

Structure and Meaning: //Make,/ vs.

Pragm atically, a causative m eaning usually prevails over a perm issive m eaning if a causative sentence alone is used in daily com m unication. In ord er to express a perm issive m eaning, an additional gram m atical device is required. H ow ever, the gram m atical device m ay b e slightly different depending on the type o f verb used in a causative sentence. W hen a transitive verb is used, the use o f the verb o f giving/ rec^vi^g (てあげる，て くれる，て $ らう） or the u se o f an adverbial phrase, such as 勝 羊 に ’’at one’s ow n will’’ and 自由に ’’freely," is required to express the perm issive m eaning. W hen an intransitive verb is used, the use o f the verb of giving/receiving is also key to expressing a perm issive m eaning, b u t the use o f a different partid e further differentiates the m eaning.

2.1

Causative sentences with transitive verbs

W h en a causative sentence is formed, the person w ho is forced to perform an activity is m arked by the partide に since the person becom es an indirect o b j^ : w h o receives the com m and/request. For exam ple, in causative sentence (1 ),卞供 is the entity to w h o m her m other^ com m and is directed and is m arked b y Iこ.

2.1.1 Transitive verbs 母親が[ 子 供 @

に ん じ ん を 食 べ る I さ■る Causative morpheme

y

母 親 が 子 供 ®

に ん じ ん を 食べさせる。

T h e m other m akes the child eat carrots.

( l ) l、『

@

W を

i

ぅ。

M y sister w ashes the car.

i 弟 が 妹 (g ) 車 を 洗わせる。 M y brother m akes m y sister w ash the car.

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

⑵

難

377

鏈 を 豨 ぅ 。

®

The students help the teacher. 4

先 生 が 学 生 ©

( 自分を） 手伝わせる。

T h e teacher m akes trie students help him.

2.1.2

D itransitive verbs 先 生 が [ジ ョ ン @

メ リ ー e g ) i 学を緘える】 させる

-

i

先 生 が ジ ョ ン 0^) メ リ ー 数 学 を 教 え さ せ る 。 i he teacher m akes Joh n teach M ary m athematics.

メ リ ー ジ ョ ン （ ^ ) お 金 を 1私 った。 M ary paid Joh n m oney. i

先生がメリー©

ジョン©

お金を払わせる。

Trie teacher m ad e M ary pay m oney to John.

鈴木さん@

豊田さん@

車を美った。

M r. buzuKi sold a car to M r. Toyota. i

本田さんが鈴木さん®

豊 田 さ ん ( § ) 車 を 売らせた。

M r. H ond a m ade M r. Suzuki sell a car to Mr. Toyota. In order to express a perm issive meanings てあげる , てくれる , or てもらう have to be accom panied a t the end of a sentence. See the following exam ples:

C ausative

筅笙が拏笙に蘇輪を i わせた。 T h e teacher m ade students use the dictionary.

378

CHAPTER 32

P erm issive せんせい

がくせい

じ し つ か

先生が学生に辞書を使わせてあげた。 T h e teacher let students use the dictionary.

学生は先生に辞書を使わせてもらった。 The students had the teacher let them use the dictionary.

先生が私たちに辞書を使わせてくれた。 先生が私たちに辞書を自由に使わせてくれた。 i he teacher w as kind enough to let us use the aictionary freelv.

If one w ants to ask for perm ission, the causative construction can b e used as exem plified in the following. N ote that the て も い い で す か " M ay I ~?〃 construetion m ay also b e used, b u t the causative construction is m ore polite and less casual.

(5)

コンピュー夕を使わせてくださいますか。 C an you let m e use the com puter?

(6)

今日は気分が悪いので、仕 事 を 休 ま せ て い た だ き た い の で す が 、 Since F m feeling sick, I w ould like to get perm ission to take a d ay off from work.

(7)

先生の論文、読ませていただけますか。 W ould you let m e read your thesis r

22

iTie causative construction with an mtr

There are three basic gram m atical devices that express i

i verb ive m eaning for

intransitive verbs. T h e first is to add the verb o f giving/ receiving a t the end o f the sentences just as one does w ith a transitive verb. T h e second is to use an adverbial かって

phrase, such as 勝 手 に " a t one's ow n w ill" and 自 由 に " freely." T h e third is to use the particle に instead o f を：に is for permissiorv w hile を is for causation. H ow ever, the latter is rather pedantic, and the alternating use o f the partid es m ay not b e very consistent in daily com m unication. T he best w ay to express a perm is­ sive m eaning is, after all, the use o f the verb o f giving/ receiving ju st as in the case

379

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

o f a transitive verb. Also, the change in partides becom es ineffective if the verb of giving/ receiving is added at the end o f the causative form . O bserve the follow ing exam ples: C ausative

錄

が

群

⑥

錢

へ

荇かせた。

T h e father m ad e his son g o to college. P erm issive

父 親 が 息 子 （ g ) 大 学 へ 行かせた - 1 T h e father let his son go to college.

父 親 が 息 子 ^ をハこ;）大 学 へ 行かせてあげた。 Tne father w as kind enough to Jet his son go to college.

父 親 が 息 子 f を / に> 大 学 へ 自 由 に 行かせた 。 12 T h e father w as generous enough to Jet rus son choose a college to go to freelv.3

Pay attention to the use ot the partides and the verb o f giving/receiving to m ake sure that the m eaning o f each sentence is clear.

a. I I

(8)

が 拏 笙 （ g)蒙 へ

Mらせた„

T h e teacher m ad e the student go hom e, b

. 先 生 が 学 生 ©

家 へ 帰らせた。

The teacher let the student go hom e.

1In th e ab o v e ex am p le ； is u se d to ind icate th at perm ission w a s g ran ted to th e son . A lth o u g h th is is a gram m atical devioe th at alters th e m ean in g o t a sentence, in p ractice th e u se o f au xiliary v erb s exp licate the p erm issiv e m u c h m o re ap propnatelv. 2T h e adv erbial p h ra se can also o ccu r w ith v erb s o f giving/ receiving, w h ich m e a n s th a t th ere a re m a n y com bin ation s fo r ex p ressin g a sin gle p erm issiv e m ean ing. F ollow in g a re s o m e exam p les: a. b c

d

父親が息子を大学へ行かせてあげた。 父親が息子に大学へ行かせてあげた。 父親が息子を大学へ自由に行かせた。 . 父親が息子に大学へ自由に行かせてあげた。

.

3T h is sen ten ce m a y b e interpreted th at regard less o f his financial situation, th e fa th er let m s so n g o to a college b y p ay in g th e tuition. In Ja p a n m a n y p arents p a y to r th e cost o f t h a r ch ild ren 's ed ucation .

380

CHAPTER 32

C• 難 が 拏 笙 ④ 蒙 へ i らせてあげた丄he teacher w as kind enough to 迫 the student go hom e, d• 先 生 が 学 生 （ g ) 家 へ 帰らせてあげた。 i he teacher w as kind enough to Jet the student go hom e.

Ir one w ants to express permission, the causative construction can b e used, as is show n in the follow ing exam ples. Also, the てもいいですか /7M a y I

" con-

struction m av also b e used, b u t the causative construction is m ore polite and less casual.

私に行かせてくださいますか。

(9)

W ould you please let m e go? (l〇 )

息子にここで泳がせていただけるでしようか。 W ould you please let m y son sw im here?

(ID

今度のマラソンでは、私に走らせてください。 A t the next m arathon, let m e run.

N ote that w hen a causative sentence w ith an intransitive verb intends to express a perm issive m eaning, only an anim ate entity can b e the rea p ien t of the permission. See tne following exam ples tnat support this idea.

(12)

a

. 父は植木を死なせてしまった 。 （causative m eaning) M y father unfortunately m ade the plant die (because he did not water the plant for a long time, for example).

* b

. 父は植木に死なせた 。 (perm issive meanings bu t nonsensical) M y father let the plant die. (M y father gave the plant perm ission to

驴

(13)

a

…

くへ

. 丨は野菜を！ ^ らせてしまった。（ causativem eaning) I m ad e the vegetables rot (because I forgot to put them in the fridge).

* b

僕は野菜に腐らせてしまった。 (p erm issiv em ean in g,bu t nonsensical) I let the vegetables rot. (I gave the vegetables perm ission to rot.)

381

Fundamentals of J apanese G rammar

The follow ing is a brief sum m ary of the gram m atical devices that express a perm issive m eaning using the causative form.

2.2.1 T ran sitive verbs Tw o gram m atical devices expressing a perm issive m eaning:

1

. T h e u s e o f あげ令、 くれる、 もらう

お母さんが子供©

アイスクリーム @

た

食べさせてあげた -

T h e m other w as sw eet enough to allow the chud to eat ice cream . 2.

T h e use o f an adverbial phrase ( 自由に、勝手に、為1きなだけ, etc.)

お 母 さ んが子供（ g ) アイスクリーム ( ？) 好きなだけ食べさせた。 T h e m other let the child eat as m uch ice cream as the child w anted.

2.2.2 Intransitive verbs Three gram m atical devices to express a perm issive m eaning:

1

.

The use o f あげる、 くれ令、 もらう

おa さんが子供、( 0 家の中で遊ばせてあげた 。 ^ お母さんが子供 ( g ) 家の中で遊ばせてあげた 。 I

, ，

T h e m other w as kind enough to allow the children t 〇|)lav inside the

，

house.

B oth sentences can express a perm issive m eaning d u e to 、 the use o f あげる regardless of the use o f a different particle . ン

2.

T h e u s e o fa n a d v e rb ia lp h r a s e ( 自由に、

手に、好きなだけ , etc.}

お母さんが子供 @

家の中で直盅ばせた。

お母さんが子供 ®

家の中で直里 ] ^ 遊ばせた。」

ノ

the use o f 自由に regardless o f the use o f a difterent particle.

382

CHAPTER 32

3.

T h e use o f a differept particle

おI さんが ¥ 1 4 ©

_ の中で遊ばせた 。 4

T h e m other let the children play inside the house. (Perm issive reading)

お母さんが子供 ®

家の中で遊ばせた。

T h e m other m ad e the children play inside the house. (cau sa tiv e m eaning only) D escribe the follow ing situations in one causative sentence:

歸奠：

军

中山：

え、英 語 で す か • • • 。課長。 I 、英語苦手なんですよ。

い

け

ど

、こ れ ま で に し て く れ な い か な 。

できるかなあ、月曜までに 課長：

仕事だよ、君。頼んだよ。

中山：

はあ• • • 。 A n d .. . N akayam a pulled three all-nighters and translated the docum ent.

5i

5 0 0 円あげるから、 車 洗 っ て く れ よ 。

：

弟

：

ええ、5 0 0 円じゃ、やだよ。 1 0 0 0 円くれなきゃ。

兄 ：

何言ってんだよ、 こ の 前 宿 題 、手伝ってあげただろう？

弟 ：

そ う か • • • 。 じゃまた手伝ってくれる？

兄 ：

うん、車洗ってくれたらね。 A nd the little brother w ashed his brother's car for 500 yen.

母 ：

できた、できた。

娘 ：

わあ、お母 $ ん、お い し そ う ！ちょっと味見してもいい？

母 ：

お父さんが帰って来るまでだめよ。

娘 ：

ちょっとだけ。ねえ、いいでしょう、お母さん。

母 ：

しようがないわねえ。 じや、一ロだけよ。 A nd tne daughter tasted the cake.

4Although the use of L is one of the grammatical devices used to express a permissive meaning, in daily c^mmunicanon, the use of the giving/receiving verb or adverbial phrase will let the meaning across more accurately.

CHAPTER 3 3

Causative-Passive Constructions

A causative construction can com bine w ith a passive construction to form a com ­ pound predicate causative passive form, such as n\w as m ad e (forced) to eat iBsh/' The causative-passive construction does not c a n y a perm issive meanings bu t usually carries an adversity m eaning. Since the causative predicates are a l l -5 verbs, the form ation o f the causative passive-predicate is sim ply to add られ勺.

1.

Formation C ausative

causative-passive

書かせる

書かせられる

is m ad e to w rite

参む

飲ませる

飲ませられる

is m ad e to d n n k

令く

行かせる

行かせられる

is m ad e to go

1 ぅ i える

買わせる

買わせられる

is m ad e to b u y

教えさせる

教えさせられる

is m ad e to teacn

いる

いさせる

いさせられる

is m ad e to stay

李せる

させられる

is m ad e to do

桑させる

来させされる

is m ad e to com e

か

する 枭 る

Causative:

友 達 が 僕 に 納 豆 を 食べさせた。 M y friend m ad e m e eat natto.

Caus.-Pass.:

僕 は 友 達 に 納 豆 を 食 べ さ せ ら れ た

Stem

Causative

I w as m ade to eat natto b y m y friend.

383

Passive Tense marker

384

CHAPTER 33

In the follow ing sentences, pay attention to the function o f the partid e に.

⑴ 雇 省 に W 辕 に ’X 篇 さ せ ら れ て し ま っ た 。 I w as forced to b e hospitalized by the doctor.

⑵

先生に才フィスに吾させられた。

(3)

子供の時は、よく母に買物に合かせられた。

I w as m ad e to com e to the office by the teacher.

I w as often m ad e to eo bu y som ethin^ by m y m other w h en I w as a child.

⑷

1 週 間 に 3 冊も本を蠢ませられた。 I w as m ad e to read as m any as three books a w eek.

(5)

兄に無理やり Til を泳がせられた。 I w as m ad e to sw im the river b y force b y m y brother.

C onsonant verbs have a contracted form, w hich is casual and used in colloquial com m unication.

買わせられる

kaw as - (er) - areru

買わされる

あかせられる

ik a s - ( e r ) - a r e r u

行かされる

あませられる

nom as - (er) - areru

飲まされる

&か せ ら れ る

nakas —(er) - areru

泣かされる

読ませられる

yom as - (er) - areru

読まされる

歩かせられる

arukas - ^er; - areru

歩かされる

泳がせられる

oyogas - ^er; - areru

泳がされる

Sample exercise D escribe the follow ing situations in one causative-passive sentence:

ティム： 先 生 、 レポートができました。 1 ていただけますか。 先生：

ああそう。 ど れ ど れ • • • 。 あれえ、何これ、夕イポだらけだ (full o f typos) 。 これじやあだめですね。 もう一度書いて条てくだ

さい。 ティム： あ、そ う で す か • ■ • 。すみませんでした。 A nd T im rew rote the report.

385

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

母：

百子お父さんが出張（ b u sin esstrip ) から帰ってくるんだけど、 雨が降ってるから駅まで ^

! って来てほしいって。

百子：

え〜、今 忙 い の よ 。お母さん行ってよ。

母：

お母さんは夕飯作ってるでしょ。

百子：

じや、 隆 に 行 か せ れ ば ？ t

母：

隆はあした試験があるって言うから、 勉#_ させているの。

百子：

あ、そ う 言 え ば (speaking o f w hich )、 私もあした試験があるのよ ねえ〜。

母：

百子、お父さん、おみやげがたくさんあるそうよ。

百子：

え、あ、そ う な の ？じや、行って来ま〜す。 A nd M om oKo brought an um brella to the station for her father.

貧

誠

リカの ソ ニ ー に 電話しな $ ち $ いけないんだけど、どうも

妹 廳

M t e か★ が # でねぇ。鈴木君、観の茯ゎリに電話してくれなぃか。

え、課長、僕も英語苦手なんですよ。だめですよ、僕じゃ。 そんなことないよ。 この前上手に話していたじゃないそ。 あれだけ話せればじゆうぶんだ よ。 ほら、電話して 、 善 。

顯 11鮮

え、今 で す か ？課長、ちょっと練 1^習させてくださいよ。 だめだめ。急いでいるんだ „ 早くして。 あ、そ う な ん で す か ■ •

_ つたなあ• •

A nd Suzuki had to call Sony in Am erica.

美々子：

ごミクス： 美々子：

アレックス：

アレックス、 これ、荷 か ^ ] ってる？

をぼ何、これ'、へ

な が 一

「 梅干し J って言うのよ。梅 を 長 い 間 塩 に つ け て お く の 。 へえ、 じゃ、 しょっぱいんだろうね 。 （It m u st b e salty)

美々子：

ええ、 とっても。一つ ; ! ベてみる？

アレックス：

え、いいよ ' 僕。

美々子：

いいから、食べてみなさいよ。 ほら。

アレックス：

やだよ

美々子：

日本に棊たんでしょ。群 な f 纏 し た 1旁 がぃぃゎ。

アレックス：

う ！し ょ っ ぱ い ！采 だ 、水 が い る ！ああ、鼓 け て え 〜 ！

食べなさい。

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2.

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Jacobsen, W esley. 1983. ''O n the Aspectual Structure of the A dverbs M ad a and Moo/7 Journal o f the Association of Teachers o f Japanese 1 8 .1 1 9 -1 4 4 . ---------- .1992. The Transitive Structure of Events in Japanese. Tokyo: K urosio Press. Johnson, Yuki. 1997. '"Hypotheticality and the Conditional Nara/' Princeton

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がfcw to

Nihongo Kyooiku 3 (Linguistics and Japanese Language Education 3 ),1 2 0 -1 4 0 . Tokyo: Kurosio Press. -----------. 2005a. /yA n Exam ination o f N oun M odifying Q a u se s in Japanese and English: Syntactic and Sem antic V iew s of the Toyuu Q a u se ./, Japanese Linguistics and Japanese Language Education, 1 7 -33. T o l^ o : Hitsuji Shoboo. -----------. 2005b. U npublished paper. '"N o

op

K o to ? P r o b le m S o lv in g o f

Ja p a n e s e C o m p le m e n tiz e r s ." P re s e n te d a t

to Aft/zongo

Kyooiku 5 (L in g u is tic s a n d Ja p a n e s e L a n g u a g e E d u c a tio n 5). ---------- .2 0 0 7 . U n p u b lis h e d p a p e r. /yO n S ta te o f M in d a n d G r a m m a tic a l F o r m s fr o m F u n c tio n a l P e rsp e ctiv e s/ ' P re s e n te d a t th e In te rn a tio n a l C o n fe re n c e o n Ja p a n e s e L a n g u a g e E d u c a tio n . Kam io, Akio. 1990. Joohoo no Nmvabari Riron. Tokyo: Taishukan Shoten, 1990. -----------.1 9 9 4 . 'T h e Theory o f Territory o f Inform ation: T he C ase o f Japanese/'

Journal ofPragtmtics 2 1 .6 7 -1 0 0 . -----------. 1997a. ''Evidentiality and Som e D iscourse Characteristics in Japanese/'

Directions in Functional Linguistics. 145-171. A m sterdam : Joh n Benjam ins. -----------. 1997b. iheory o f Territory of Information. A m sterdam : Joh n Benjam ins. Kuno, Susum u. 1973. The Structure of the Japanese Language. Boston: MT1 Press. -----------.1983. ''C huuritu U kem i to H igai Ukemi/' Shin Nihon Bunpoo Kenkyuu. 192-219. Tokyo: Taishuukan Shoten. -----------.1987. Functional Syntax: Anaphora, Discourse, and Empathy. Uhicago: U niveristy o f C hicago Press. -----------•1998. "Shika-bun ni okeru im iron." M ton 又ひ■gflfcw to Mtowgo Kyooifcw (Linguistics and Japanese Language Education). 1 -2 5 . Tokyo: Kurosio

Kuno, Susum u, and Yuki Johnson. 2004. ''O n the N on-Canonical D ouble N om inative Construction in Japanese: The Partid e Ga as an O bject M arker/' Studies in Language 29 (2). 285-328.

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

389

---------- .2005. 'T h e Syntax of Object/' Nihongcygaku to Nihongo Kyooiku 4 (Linguistics and Japanese Language Education 4 ),1 3 -2 4 . Tokyo: Kurosio Press. Kuroda, S-Y. 1978. "'Case M arking, Canonical Sentence Patterns, and C ounter Equi in Japanese. In Problems in Japanese Syntax and Semantics, edited by Joh n H inds and H ow ard Irwing, 30-51. Tokyo: Kaitakusha. Levin, Beth, and M alka R appaport H avov. 1995. Unaccusativit}/. Boston: M IT Press. M akino, Seiichi. 1996. Uchi to Soto no Gengo Bunkagaku. Tokyo: A L C Press. M atthew s, Peter. 1997. The Concise Oxford Dictionary ofLinguistics. O xford: O xford University Press. M iura, Akira, and N aim i H anaoka-M cGloin. 1994. An Integrated Approach to

Intermediate Japanese. Tokyo: Japan Times. Perlmutter, D avid. 1978. ^Inversional Passives and the Unaccusative H ypothesis./, Berkeley Linguistics Society 4 . 157-189. Shibatani, M asayoshi. 1990. The languages of japan. Cam bridge: C am bridge University Press. Tsujim urA N atsuko. 1991. "O n the Sem antic Properties o f U naccusativity."

Journal o f Japanese Linguistics 1 3 .9 1 -1 1 6 . Tsukuba D aigaku N ihongo Kyoiku Kenkyukai. 1983. Nihongo Hyogen Bunkei

Chukyu 1 .Tokyo: Bonjin-sha.

Index before, 115; notion of, 109. See also

accusatives, 92 additive linkage, 20^-205

im penecave

adjectives,1 1 ,1 3 -1 5 ; compound, 130; conjugation of, 2 9 -3 0 ;

bi-directional,63

i

(い) , 1 1 ,1 3 -1 5 ; wa (な ) , 1 5 ,30»32

causal, 1 9 6 -1 9 7 ,3 2 3 -3 2 5

adverb: degree of attributes, 233;

change of state, 216 -2 2 2

degree of frequency, 233; d e­

cfex/ow (long v o w e l)(長 音 ) , 7

gree of probability, 234

cohortative form (oo [お う 】form),

adverbial forms of " 如 （ い/ な）

20 ,2 4 > 2 8 ,1 8 1 -1 8 4 co m m an d s, 144,2 9 2 -2 9 5 ,3 3 8 ,376

adjectives, 237 after, 173-175, notion of, 109. See also

comparative, 345 -3 4 8 com plem entizer of a sentence, 64;

perfective agent (perform er of an action), 48,

of a noun, 224

5 1 - 5 3 ,6 9 ,9 1 -9 5 ,14 7 ,2 1 6

completion of an e v e n t 1 5 ,1 0 5 ,148,

がm (あ げ る ) , 27 6 -2 7 9

1 1 7 ,1 6 3 ,1 7 2 ,176-177. See also

agglutination,1 6 ,1 0 5 ,362

to (た ) form com pound

aida ni/ aidawa (間 に / 問 は ) ,120-

complex p red icate,16 com pound adjective,130

124 ぬ wdn•(あ い づ ち ) , 208

com pound predicate, 5 1 ,1 1 4 ,1 4 3 , 1 6 0,383

anaphoric,1 8 7 ,189,191 antecedent 226; definition of, 323

conditional,2 0 ,2 9 ,3 1 ,1 0 7 ,3 0 3 ,306,

apposition^ 7 8 ,224> 233

3 0 8 ,3 2 4 -3 4 4 ,353; to (ば),3 2 1 ,

flrw (あ る ) , 9 8 -1 0 4

3 3 6 -3 4 1 ;mzm (な ら ) , 3 2 1 ,3 4 1 344; tom (た ら ) , 3 2 1 ,3 3 1 -3 3 6 ; to

aspectual form, 1 0 6 ,1 4 8 ,150,157, 1 7 8 ,1 8 3 ,2 2 0 ,334. See also

te iru

( と),3 2 1 ,3 2 5 -331 conjugation: of copula da (fd\ 3 0 -

(て ぃ る ）

32; of z.( い) adjectives, 2 9 -3 0 ; of

ba ( ( i ) , 3 2 1 ,3 3 6 -3 4 1 ; grammatical

verbs, 2 1 -2 9

restrictions, 338; in non-past

conjunction w ords, 6 1 ,8 0 ,1 9 3 -2 0 5 ; dflfcam ( だから ),193,194>1 9 6 -

con text 336-338; in past con­

198; rfemo ( でも ) , 193; depend-

te x t 340-341

e n t 201;が ( が ),2 0 1 ; tom (から ),

tazV (ば い い ) , 3 5 2 -353; fenVn 和 腕 • (ば い い ん じ や な い ), 353; t o 加

197-199; teto (け ど ) , 1 93,201-

jarni deshoo ka

202; _ゴ 〇 (け れ ど ) , 193;

(ば い い ん じ や

な い で し よ う か ) , 353

391

I ndex

392 temtomo ( けれども ) , 1 9 3 ,2 0 1 2 0 3 ; 加办 ( ので ) , 1 93,197-1 9 9 ; worn•(のに ) , 201- 203; sto•(し)， 204-206; s/itomo ( しかも) , 193, 204-206; s/zifazsto•(しかし) , 193; ( その上 ) , 1 9 3 ,204-206; sore企 (それで ) , 1 9 3 ,194> 195, 1 9 6 ,1 9 9 ,2 0 0 ; soretora (それか

ら) , 1 9 3 ,194> 195-196; sorem•(そ れに ) , 1 9 3 ,204-205; sos/nfc (そ して) , 193-195; ( て) , 193-198 consequent, 3 2 3 -3 2 5 ,3 2 8 -3 2 9 ,331, 3 3 3 ,3 3 9; definition 〇t 323

dependent conjunction w o r d ,193, 1 9 7 ,2 0 1 ,2 0 4 desiderative, 5 0 ,9 7 ,1 3 0 ,1 3 2 ,1 7 6 , 178 dictionary form, 2 3 -2 5 ,2 6 ,2 8 -2 9 , 114> 1 1 5 ,1 1 8 ,1 7 6 ,1 7 8 ,2 2 0 ,259, 35 7 ,3 6 0 dictionary-form com pound: aida ( 間に / 間は ) ,1 2 0 124; toto m

216,220-222;kotonisum (こ と にする),2 1 6 ,2 2 0 -2 2 2 ; _ m細 (前に / は) , 1 1 5 -1 1 6 ,128; (ため [ に] ) ,118-120;

consonant verb, 2 1 -2 2 contingency, 325, M2 contracted form s: o f fe 而 （ ては)， 304 co n trast 34> 3 9 - 4 3 ,9 9 ,1 1 5 ,1 1 6 ,120, 1 2 2 ,1 3 0 ,2 0 9 ,2 2 9 ,359 counterfactual, 1 1 5 ,1 8 1 ,2 0 3 ,269, 2% , 3 0 1 -3 0 3 ,3 3 0 ,3 3 ^ -3 3 6 ,3 4 0 3 4 1 ,344. See also conditional

( ことになる)，

fcoro ( ところ) , 117-118; teimzori ( つもり ),1 1 尖wc/n. m/ wcW ziw ( うちに / うちは),1 2 4 -1 2 9 direct quotation, 2 1 0 ,294 discovery, 2 4 8 ,3 3 3 ,3 6 4 ditransitive verb, 56, % , 2 8 3 ,2 8 4 2 8 5 ,2 8 6 ,2 8 7 ,3 7 7 dodnra ( どちら) , 1 8 8 ,2 1 ^ 215,318, 345-348; and ichiban (— 番)，

dflfero ( だから ) , 194> 196-198

赦

( だけ ) , 240*241 (voiced s o u n d )( 濁音 ) , 5

dflroo ( だろう ) , 254> 266-268

darootoom ou(fd ろ う と 思 、う ),267, 275 de ( T ) : m arking a noun phrase (as a

349-351

rfoo训

( 同 音 異 義 語 ),5

dynam ic situation, 4 2 ,1 4 8 ,1 0 2 ,148. See also

zrw ( ている）

e ( へ ) , 6 2 -6 3 ellipsis, 359

cause), 70; m arking a noun

em bedded relative dause, 230-231

phrase (as a to o l),69; m arking a

em bedded sentence, 8 2 ,8 3 ,2 0 8 ,241

noun phrase (as tim e or quan­

energy in p u t 148-151

tity), 70; m arking a place noun,

epistem ic possibility, 268

67 -6 8

evidential modal, 25 5 -2 6 2

d eictic;188

exhaustive-listing, 4 2 ,4 6 -4 8

demo (でも ) , 8&^89

existence verbs, 5 7 ,9 8 -1 0 4

dem onstrative pronoun, 187-192

explanatory m odals, 254> 270-275

393

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

first-time recognition, 333 5 W 1 H 211 ,2 1 2 fixed form s; honorific and humble,

hypothetical, 2 6 9 ,2 7 1 ,3 2 3 -3 2 4 339, 341,344^ 3 6 i _ (たら ) ,3 3 1 335; to ( と) , 325-331

316

furigam (Z、り が な ),2

f ( い) ad jective,1 1 ,1 3 -1 5 ; adverbial

ga

ichiban (—番)，and dochira ( ど ち ら '),

form of, 234 42-50; as a subject marker (for exhaustive-listing), 46-48; (for neutral description), 43-46;

349 Ikegami, Yoshihiko, 216

(for new information), 42~48;

imperatives, 2 0 ,2 9 2 -2 9 4

as an object m arker, 48-51

im perfective,1 5 ,2 3 ,1 0 5 ,1 0 7 ,109,

Geis, M ich ael,327 gerundive fom v (fe [てj form), 21, 2 4 ,2 9 ,3 1 ,7 1 ,2 4 3 giving, 276 ( 〇 , as a polite affix, 313; -n o u n tteu (です ) ,318 gram m atical restrictions, - ba ( l i ) , 3 3 8 ;-to ( と) , 328 -3 2 9

1 1 4 ,1 1 5 ,1 8 0 ,2 2 6 ,3 5 4 Inaba, Midori, 344 independent conjunction w ord, 201 indirect quotation, 2 1 0 ,293 information: new, 4 2 - 4 7 ,1 0 2 ,104> 213; old, 3 5 ,4 6 ,2 1 3 ; territory of, 86,253. See also Kam io, A kira in-group, 2 7 7 ,2 7 8 ,28 0 ,2 8 5 interrogative qu estio n 2 0 7 ,2 1 0 ,211

habitual, 1 0 6 ,1 1 5 ,1 1 6 ,1 3 2 ,1 5 1 ,1 5 5 , 2 2 1 ,3 2 3 ,3 2 7 ,3 2 9 ,3 3 1 ,3 4 0 ,3 4 1 /wifcw (俳句 ) , 3 H am ano, Shoko, 237

intransitive: 9 0 -92; o f verbs, 9 0 -9 5 ; o f volitional,5 2 ,5 3 , % 93,95, 331; o f non-volitional,150,153, 220,331

/xozw ( はず),19,254> 262-265 ;呢

invitation, 8 8 ,8 9 ,131,184>185

koto ni natte-iru, 264-265 hiragam (平 仮 名 ) hodojaarirmsen (ほ ど じ ゃ あ り ま せ

invited inference, 3 2 7 -3 2 8 ,3 3 3 ,340 irw ( いる) , 4 9 ,9 8 -1 0 2

itadaku( い た だ く ),276,281,287

ん ),3 4 7 honorific: language, 2 3 ,7 3 ,274> 276,

Jacobsen^ W esley, 9 0 ,2 3 8 ,3 2 4 ,3 4 2

2 8 1 ,315-319; requests, 320-321.

See also hum ble form s; polite affix t o 於n)•(方がいい ) , 354-356 hum ble forms, 312; fixed hum ble forms, 31 o- j 17; ni nari-

masulitashimasu, 318; o-desu/godesw, 318-319

fez (か) , 8 2 -8 5 ; as "o r," 84~85; sen­ tence-final particle (as a ques­ tion mark), 1 0 ,83~84; w i^i an interrogative noun (creating a w ord "s o m e -"), 85 K am i。 , Akira, 8 6 ,2 5 5

Index

394 fazmos/nrewm(かもしれない ) , 19, 2 5 3 ,2 5 i 2 6 2 ,2 6 3 ,264> 268-270 (から ) , 3 3 ,3 6 ,4 1 ,54> 5 5 ,5 9 ,6 0 ,

M akino, Se n ch i,133 (万葉仮名 ),1 m^myoo sfzyuti (万葉集 ), 1

7 9 -8 0 ,8 1 ;as sentence-final con­

mos/ioo ( ましよう ) , 8 9 ,1 8 4 -1 8 6

junction, 1 9 4 ,1 9 6 -1 9 7 ,200,213,

M atthew s, Peter, 237

214>; difference from ので，

M cGloin, N aom i, 231 (みたい ) , 1 9 ,2 5 i 2 5 9 -2 6 0

197-199 ( 方 ) , 137-138 ( 形容動詞 ),1 3

M iura, Akira, 231 mo ( も) , 7 0 -7 4 ; w ith //如 （ い /な）

fc^/oos/ri (形容詞 ), 1 3

adjectives (''not even,,)/7 4 -7 5 ;

temtomo ( けれども ) , 1 93,201-:203;

w ith noun phrases ("also ,"

difference from rzom•(のに)，

//both//， and //neither,,)/7 1 ;w ith

202-203

verb sterns ("n o t even/’ "in

fcosoflrfo ( こ • そ • あ • ど) , 187

koto ga dekiru ( こ と が で き る )，357 toto m nam ( ことになる ),2 1 6 ,2 2 0 ,

fcoto

m odal: au xiliary,1 9 ,2 5 3 -2 7 5 ,301,

306; daroo [だ ろ う ),19,25^ 261 2 6 3 ,266 -2 6 8 ; difference from

221-222 ( ことになつている ),

fcoto m

addition"), 72

fotom m?他-/ru (ことになつて

221; difference from はず, 2 6 4 -

いる) , 264-265; evidential, 254>

265

2 5 5 -2 6 2 ,2 7 1 ; explanatory, 254,

stim ( ことにする ) ,2 1 6 ,220,

221 kudasaru ( く だ さ る ),276-277 Kuno, Susum u, 9 , 4 6 ,4 8 ,9 7 ,240, 367 fctmyomz (訓読み ), 4> 313 fcwrern ( くれる) , 9 6 ,27&~281,282, 285-287 Kuroda, Shige-Yuki, 53

270-275; t e w ( はず) , 1 9 ,254> 262- 265;

(かもし

れない ) , 1 9 ,2 5 3 ,2 5 i 268-270; m 如 (みたい )，1 9 ,254> 259; W c/2私rimzz•(にちがいない ) , 1 8 ,1 9 , 2 5 4 ,2 6 2 ,2 6 3 ,265 -2 6 6 ; noda irti (のだ卜んです】 ) , 254> 255, 270*273; ms/nY ( らしい) , 1 9 ,254> 260-262; soo (そう ) , 1 9 ,2 5 2 ,2 5 5 ; soo ( そう）hearsay, 258; soo (そ

Levin, Beth, 92

つ）visual, 255 -2 5 7 ; supposi­

linkage: additive, 203-204; para­

tional, 254> 26 之2 63,271;

doxical, 201-2 0 3

(わけ ) , 1 9 ,254> 2 7 1 ,273-274; yoo ( よう ),1 9 ,2 5 2 ^ ^ - 2 6 0

讀 fo ( まだ),1 7 7 ,2 3 8 -2 4 0 臟 M まで) , 8 1 -8 2 ( までに ),8 2 m’/zm (前に / は) , 115- 116

m odifying constructions; em ­ bedded relative dause, 2 3 0 231; z’/rw ( い/ な ） adjective + nourv 223-224; noun (no [の ]),

395

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

7 6 -7 8 ; noun (to zw [ という ]), 224-226; noun-com plem ent d au se + noun, 233-234; relative d au se + noun, 226-233 ( ものだ) ,3 2 4 ,340,341 moo ( もう) , 28 moraw ( もらう ) , 5 9 ,2 8 1 - 2 8 2 ,2 8 7 2 8 9 ,3 7 6 ,3 7 7 ,3 8 1 (な）ad jective,1 1 ,1 3 -1 5 ; adverbi­ al form of, 237 (ながら ) , 1 2 1 ,1 3 5 -1 3 7 mz/ratew 如a tomn •(ないわけには

いかない ) , 3 0 6 ,3 0 7 ,3 0 9 -3 1 1

nakereba m rarni/ mkutewa ikerni (な ければならない/なくてはい けない),3 0 6 ,3 0 7 -3 0 9

( にくい) , 134

no ((D), 7t>-78; expressing an appositional relationsrup, 7 8 ;linking noun phrases,

7b-77; m arking

a suoject in a relative dause, 7 8 -7 9

noda (~n desu)(の だ l〜ん で す ]),2% 26^-273

腺 fe (ので ) , 1 9 6 ,1 9 7 -1 9 9 nom inalizers wo [ こと /の ]), 244-252 non-anap horic,187 non-hypothetical,3 2 3 ,324> 325; tara (たら ) , 3 3 3 -3 3 4 ; 幻( と) , 3 2 6 -3 2 8 加 m•(のに ) , 1 9 3 ,2 0 1 -2 0 2 ; difference from fcemtomo ( けれども ) , 2 0 2 204

mkutewa, nakudm/ nakya{t^\ C l i ,

non-past affirm ative,14

なくちや , なきや ） 309 (なら ) , 3 2 3 ,3 2 4 ,34 1 -3 4 4 (なる ) , 216-2 2 0 咖 細 (なさい ),2 9 之29 4 -2 9 5 肊 (ね),86~87

non-volitional,1 4 9 ,1 5 0 ,179; intransitive v e rb s ,1 5 0 ,1 5 3 ,220, noui331)m plem ent d ause, 2 2 3 ,225, 233 noun m odifying, 7 6 ,2 2 3

negative form: adjective,1 6 ,29-v^O; coDula ゐ (だ ) , 3 0 -3 1 ; verb, 2728 negative question, 208-209 neutral description, 4 2 ,4 3 -4 6 new inform ation, 4 2 ,4 5 ,4 6 ,4 7 ,102, l〇 i 213 m•(に) , 5 5 -6 2 ; for listing noun phrases, 60-6 2 ; m arking a pla­ ce noun, 5 7-5 8 ; m arking a time noun, 5 8 -5 9 ; m arking an indi­ rect o b ject 5 5 -5 7 ; m arking the source o f an action, 5 9 -6 0 m 咖 加 脚 ’ ( にちがいない ) , 18,19, 2S4> 2 6 2 ,2 6 3 ,265-266

o ( を) , 5 1 -5 5 ; place noun m arker (indicating a path), 5 3 -5 5 ; o b ­ ject m arker (for transitive predicates), 5 1 -5 2 o ( お) , as a polite affix^ 313 o ( お) + verb stem + desw ( です)， 318 -3 1 9 ( お) + verb stem + fa/dzsm•(くださ

い) , 318 〇/が ( お /御 ) : + swrw noun + (+ す る noun + ください) , 321; + verb stem teW moszi (いたし ます) , 315; + verb s te m - m’ 似… mosw ( になります ) , 317

396

I ndex

object (syntactic), 9 ,1 0 ,3 1 ,3 2 ,3 3 ,3 5 ,

passive,1 6 ,5 9 ,6 0 ,3 1 9 ,3 2 0 ,362-374;

4 2 ,4 8 ,5 0 ,5 1 , 5Z 5 3 ,5 5 ,5 6 ,7 1 ,

adversity, 3 6 5 ,3 6 6 -3 7 1 ; direct,

7 7 ,9 0 ,9 2 ,9 3 ,94> 9 5 ,9 7 ,1 0 1 ,130,

364r-365; formation of, 362-363;

1 3 1 ,1 6 0 ,1 6 8 ,2 1 6 ,2 3 0 ,2 4 6 ,2 4 8 ,

honorific sentences and, 319;

2 4 9 ,2 5 1 ,2 8 2 ,2 8 3 ,3 5 8 ,3 6 0 ,3 6 2 ,

indirect 36 3 ,3 6 6 -3 7 1

3 6 3 ,364> 3 6 5 ,3 6 7,368; defini­

past tense: of adjectives, 30; of the

tion of, 4 8-4 9 ; in d irect 55,56,

copula ぬ (だ )，3 0 -3 1 ; of verbs,

7 7 ,9 之9 6 ,1 0 1 ,1 3 0 ,2 3 0 ,283,286,

27

288,376; sentential, 244> 249, 360

past tense form (to [た ] form), 2 4 27, 1 0 5 ,1 1 5 ,1 7 3 ,174> 1 7 8 ,1 7 9 ,180,

object marker, 4 1 ,4 2 ,4 8 ,5 1 ,5 2 ,9 3 . See also 奶 （ が) ; o ( を）

341,344>354 perfective,1 5 ,2 3 ,1 0 5 ,1 0 6 ,107,109,

obligation 1 9 ,3 0 1 ,3 0 7 -3 1 1

111, 114> 1 1 5 ,1 7 2 ,1 7 6 ,1 8 0 ,2 2 6 ,

o tfe m m (お電話),313

354

お返事),313 old inform ation, 3 5 ,4 6 ,2 1 3 one-tim e event, 1 2 7 ,1 4 9 ,1 5 0 ,153, 154> 1 5 7 ,1 5 9 ,3 2 7 ,3 3 0 ,3 3 1 ,336. See also

ィrw ( ている）

on -g o in g ,1 0 6 ,1 1 7 ,1 2 0 ,1 4 8 ,1 4 9 ,151, 154> 157,159 onom atop oeia,1 , 2 3 5 ,237 owyomf(音読み ) (sound-reading), 4> 5 ,3 1 1

Perlmutter, David, 92 permission, 7 1 ,2 5 3 ,2 9 6 -3 0 0 ,357, 3 5 9 ,3 7 8 ,3 8 0 plain form.

See dictionary form

polite affix, 313; go- ( 〇 , 310; 〇- ( お ),3 1 0 postposition,1 0 ,3 3 potential,5 0 ,9 7 ,2 8 9 ,3 1 9 ,357-361;

kotoga dekim (

ことができる

),

360-361

oo (f c 5 ) form, 2 4 ,2 8 ,1 8 2 ; to omou

predicate: co m p lex,16; compound,

( と思う) , 182-183; to swrw (とす

5 0 ,5 1 ,114> 1 4 3 ,1 6 0 ,383; simple,

る) , 183

16; stative-transitive, 4 3 ,4 9 ,5 0 , 5之 9 1 9 7 ,1 6 0 ,2 5 1 . See also 別

paradoxical linkage, 20 1 -2 0 4 particles,10 ,1 2 ;企 ( で) , 67 -7 0 ; demo

(で も ) , 8 8 ~ 8 9 ,? (へ ) , 6 2 -6 3 ; 奶 (が ) , 4 2 -5 1 ;to ( か) 83~85; fezra (から ) , 7 9 - 8 0 ; 謂企(まで),8 1 •82;

•(までに),82; m o (も)，

7 0-75; ne (ta ), 8 6 -8 7 ; ni ((C), 55~62; m )( の) , 7 6 -7 9 ; 0 ( を) , 5 1 55; to (t\ 6 ^ 6 7 ;w a ( l i ) , 34-42; ( や) , 7 S > 7 6 ;p ( よ) , 87-^8

(が' ) (as an object marker); potential; fcri (た い ） progressive, 14 8 ,1 8 2 prohibition, 301-305 pronouns, 244> 250, demonstrative, 187-192; interrogative,1 2 ,207, 2 0 9 ,211-213; personal, 228; relative, 226 propositions,1 8 ,1 9 ,2 5 3 ,254> 255, 2 6 0 ,2 6 3 ,264> 2 6 5 ,2 6 9 ,2 7 1 ,2 7 3 , 27 5 ,3 2 8

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

question: interrogative, 207,210,211; negative, 204r-205; yes/no, 207,

211 quotation: direct or ind irect 66,210, 293

397 somfe (それで ) , 1 9 3 ,194> 1 9 5 ,196, 1 99,200 sorefe而 ( それから ) , 6 1 ,1 4 6 ,1 4 7 ,1 9 3 , 194>195,196 somri (それに ) , 6 1 ,1 9 3 ,2 0 « 0 6 sosWte (そして ) , 1 9 3 ,194> 1 95,199

ms/izV ( らしい) , 1 9 ,254> 2 5 5 ,260-262

sound-reading (onyomz•[音読み ]) , 4> 313

referencing, 188,189

speaker-centered, 14 0 ,1 6 5

relative cla u se ,1 1 ,1 之7 6 ,7 8 ,224>

speaker's group (in -g rou p ),133,277,

Rappaport Havov, M alka, 92

226-230; em bedded, 230-232,

2 78,279,2 8 0 ,2 8 5 ,3 1 5

230; w ith 加 （ の） m arking the

specificity, 333; notion of, 331

su b ject 78-7 9

static, 4 6 ,6 8 ,1 4 8

repetitiorv 1 4 8 ,1 4 9 ,1 5 0 ,1 5 1 ,1 5 3 respect 312-322 resultative, 9 2 ,1 1 7 ,1 4 8 ,149,151, 154> 1 5 5 ,1 5 7 ,1 5 9 ,1 6 0 ,161,318. See also te am (飞 ある ) ; fe zm (ている）

stative-transitive predicate, 4 3 ,4 9 , 5 0 ,5 之9 2 ,9 7 ,1 6 0 ,2 4 6 ,2 5 1 .See also が （ が ) (as an object m arker); potential; fori ( たい） stativity: 4 2 ,1 0 9 ; existence verb aru/

zm(£5/U5),98-104;resul-

run-on sen ten ces,194

tative, 9 2 ,1 1 7 ,1 4 8 ,1 4 9 ,1 5 0 ,1 5 1 ,

sashiagem ( さ し あ げ る ),276,277,

static, 4 6 ,6 8 ,1 4 8 ; te 到 (て あ

1 5 i 1 5 5 ,1 5 7 ,1 5 9 ,1 6 0 ,1 6 1 ,318; 27&-281,282-2 8 5 sentence com p lem entation 66 sequential, 1 1 5 ,1 2 9 ,1 4 6 ,1 4 7 ,1 7 3 , 1 9 4 See fl/so linkage; fe torn (て

から）

る) , 159-162; feirw ( ている)， 106,148-1 5 7 stem fom v 2 6 ,2 7 ,7 1 ,74> 130-142, 255 stem form com pound: Kata { / j ), (ながら ) , 1 3 5 -

Shibatani, M asayoshi, 237

137-138;

s/zto( しか),7 3 ,2 3 8 -2 3 9

137; m• ( に) + m otion verb,

sM amo ( しかも) , 19 2 ,2 0 3 -2 0 4

140-142; nftwz•(にくい) , 134;

sMos/n ( しかし) , 192

sugiru (す ぎ る ),138-140; tagaru

stop ( しろ) , 290-292

(たがる ) ,1 3 2 ; 加•(たい ) , ISO -

sim ple pred icate,16

132; yoswz•(やすい)， 134

sofonw (促音 ) (double consonant), 6 so即撕 (その上 ),1 9 之203-204 soo ( そう )， 252; hearsay, 256; visual, 253-255

subordinate clause, 2 3 ,1 0 5 ,1 0 7 ,1 0 8 , 1 0 9 ,1 2 0 ,1 2 1 ,1 2 3 ,124> 1 2 5 ,126, 1 2 7 ,1 2 8 ,1 2 9 ,1 3 5 ,1 3 6 ,1 9 7 ,201, 2 2 2 ,2 3 5 ,2 % , 2 9 8 ,3 0 1 ,303;

398

I ndex

mVfo (間 ),1 2 0 -124; moe ( 前 )， (な が ら ),1 2 1 ,

115-116; 135-137; to 偷

& (た 後 で ) , 147,

172-174; to mamfl (た ま ま ) , 180; tame (m) (た め [ に] ) , 118-120; fc fam?(て か ら ) , 1 4 3 ,1 4 6 -1 4 7 ; wc/zf ( うち) , 12 3 ,1 2 4 -1 2 9 ; "w hen/' 107-113. See also conditional

いる) , 148-157; fc faro ( てから)，

1 4 6 te kudasai (て く だ さ い) , 143-145; fe (て くれ る)， 283-285; te m/m ( てみる)， 162163; te monm ( てもらう)， 9 6 ,2 8 2 ,287 -2 8 9 ; te — (ておく ), 157-158; te s/nmaw ( てしまう)， 1 6 3 - 165

suggestion, 352 -3 5 3

fezn喊 〇( 丁寧語 ) , 312- 314

s 嗯 Vw (す ぎ る ) , 138-140

te n se,1 6 ,1 8 ,2 3 ,24> 2 5 ,2 6 ,105-113

superlative, 349-351

to ( と) : as a conditional, com parison

suppositional m odal, 254> 262,263, 271

w ith fern?( たら ) , 3 3 3 -3 3 4 ; as a parallel linkage, 6 5 -6 6 ; as quo­

surface structure, 2 0 7 ,233

tation m arks, 66 -6 7 ; indicating

swrw (する ) nouns, 321

a m utual action, 6 4 -6 5 ; gram ­ m atical restrictions on, 328-329;

to (た ) 6 )1 1 ^ 2 3 ,2 7 ,1 1 5 ,1 7 2 to (た ) form com pound:

hypothetical, 3 3 0 -3 3 1 ; non-

flto企 (た

後 で ),U 7 ,172-174; ta koto ga

(た こ と が あ る ) , 176-178; to

mmrn (た ま ま ) ,180; ta tokoro (た と こ ろ ) , 178-180; tara (た ら ),

hypothetical, 3 2 9 -3 3 0 tozw( という) : n o u n と い う nourv 224-225; noun-com plem ent d au se + noun, 2 3 3 -2 3 4

329-333; tan’ torf swm (た りた

toiu kotodearu ( と い う こ と で あ る ), 275

り す る ),174-176

to わ 阶 te /rw ( と言われている ) , 275

吨 am (た が る ) , 132- 134 加•(た い ) , 130-132 加 從 (m )た め ( に) , 118-120; differ­ ence from yoo m swru (よ う に す る ) , 218 -2 1 9

toka ( と か ),75 to kangaeru ( と 考 え る '),275 tokoro ( と こ ろ ) ,117- 118 to p ic,1 7 ,1 8 ,3 3 ,34> 3 7 ,3 8 ,3 9 ,4 0 ,4 1 , 4 3 ,5 0 ,7 7 ,9 8 ,1 0 3 ,2 2 9 ,3 6 1 ;de~

tara (たら ) , 32 1 ,3 3 1 - 334; com pari­ son w ith to ( と), 333-334; for

nrution of, 3 5 -3 6 ; topiccom m ent stru ctu re,1 7 ,3r>, 43 tonic la n g u a g e,17

advice, 33 5 -3 3 6 f e ( T ) form, 24> 2 5 -2 7

transitive structure, 90

te ( T ) form com pound: te ageru (\

transitive verb, 5 之5 3 ,5 5 ,9 0 ,9 1 ,9 之

あ げ る ) , 28 2 -2 8 5 ; te am (てあ

9 3 ,9 5 ,9 6 ,1 7 9 ,2 1 6 ,2 2 0 ,2 8 3 ,284>

る) , 159-162; te tes/z/f (て ほし

2 8 6 ,2 8 8 ,2 9 3 ,3 6 3 ,3 6 7 ,3 7 6 ,3 7 8 ,

い ),168-17Q; te Hcu/kuru (て い

379,381

く/て く る ) , 165-168; fe

(て

Tsujim ura, N a tsu k o ,159

399

F undamentals of J apanese G rammar

fswmorf ( つもり ) , 114r~115

_

(わ け ) , 1 9 ,254> 2 7 1 ,2 7 3 -2 7 5

wake niwa ikami (わ け に は い か な uchini/uchiwa ( う ち に /

う ち は ),

1 2 3 ,124-129

い),3 0 6 ,3 0 7 ,3 0 9 ,3 1 0 W H m o v em en t 209

unaccusatives, 92

w hen clause, 107-113

unergatives, 92

writing system: /riraが 而 (平 仮 名 ), 1 ;

unexpectedness, 73,3 3 3

kanji(漢 字 ), V,katakam (力 タ カ ナ),1

verb modifying. See adverb verb phrase d eletio n ,12 verbs: conjugation, 2 0 -2 9 ; conso­ n a n t 2 1 , 2Z 24> 2 6 ,2 7 ,2 8 ,292,

y a m , 75-76 (や る ) , 278 -2 7 9 yoswf ( やすい ) , 134

3 3 6 ,3 5 8 ,3 6 3 ,3 7 5 ,3 8 4 ;d itra n si-

y e s /n o question, 2 0 7 ,210

tive, 5 5 ,5 6 ,9 2 ,9 3 ,9 6 ,2 8 3 ,2 8 i

yo ( ょ) , 8 7 -8 8

2 8 6 ,2 8 8 ,377; intransitive, 52,53,

yowe (よ ね ) , 8 6 -8 7

9 0 ,9 1 ,9 2 ,9 3 -9 6 ,1 4 9 ,1 5 0 ,153,

yoo ぬ (よ う だ ) , 2 5 i 2 5 、 260

1 6 0 ,1 7 9 ,2 1 6 ,2 2 0 ,2 5 6 ,2 8 4 ,285,

yoo m ki ga sum (よ う な 気 が す る '),

2 8 6 ,2 8 7 ,2 8 8 ,2 8 9 ,3 3 1 ,3 6 7 ,370, 3 7 6 ,3 7 8 ,3 8 0 ,3 8 1 ; non volition­ al intransitive, 1 5 0 ,153,220,

275

yoo m koto wa m i (よ う な こ と は な ぃ) , 275 ( ように見える ) , 275

331; of leaving, 95; volitional in­

yoo m

transitive, 4 9 ,5 2 ,5 3 ,9 2 ,9 3 -9 6

yoo m_swm ( ようにする ) , 218; dif­

volitional co n tro l,4 9 ,9 2 ,147,149, 1 5 0 ,1 7 9 ,216,3 3 2

ference from tome m•(た め に )， 219-220 j/oo'on (拟 音 ) (contracted sound), 6

zw ( は) ,34^42; as a topic marker, 3 4-39; fcr co n trast 34> 39~42

Z w id ^ , A., 327

About the Author Yuki Johnson is Associate Professor of Japanese Linguistics and Under­ graduate Program Coordinator in the Department of East Asian Studies at the University of Toronto. She received her Ph.D. in linguistics from the University of Minnesota in 1994 and has served on the faculty of International Christian University and Harvard University, and as Director of the Japanese language programs at the University of Michigan and the University of British Columbia. Her field of expertise concerns the functional syntax and semantics of Japanese, focusing on the topic of mcxlality, which she has discussed in numer­ ous artides and a book entitled "'Modality and the Japanese Language/' Her ex­ pertise extends also to second language curriculum and instruction. Dr. Johnson takes great interest in training Japanese language instructors and graduate stu­ dents with a thorough knowledge of Japanese linguistics, grammar, and peda­ gogy in the framework of profidency-oriented instruction. She is a valuable member of various professional linguistics associations, as well as of the Associa­ tion of Teachers ofJapanese (ATJ), where she has served as a board member.