French Precursors of the Chanson De Roland 9780231882699

Table of contents :
Foreword
Contents
Readings and Abbreviations Used in This Study
I. Versification
II. Syntactical Constructions and Vocabulary
III. Stylistic and Literary Devices
IV. Themes and Incidents
V. Conclusion

Citation preview

French Precursors of the Chanson de Poland

French Precursors of the Chanson de Roland M A R I O

A.

PEI

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR O F R O M A N C E COLUMBIA

LANGUAGES

UNIVERSITY

Columbia University Press NEW YORK: MORNINGSIDE HEIGHTS 1948

COPYRIGHT COLUMBIA

UNIVERSITY

1948 PRESS, N E W

YORK

Published in Great Britain and India by Geoffrev Cumberlege, Oxford University Press, London and Bombay

M A N U F A C T U R E D I N T H E U N I T E D STATES OF A M E R I C A

Foreword T H E ORIGIN of the O l d French epic has lent itself to innumerable theories. T h e "rosary of cantilines"

of Gaston Paris, the prose saga

of P a u l Meyer, the pilgrim routes of Bedier, the Germanic origins of P i o Rajna, the Classical sources of Wilmotte and Chiri, undiluted or in mingled proportions, all have had and have their adherents. O n e element that has contributed to the creation of the epic has been glossed over or disregarded by many who have devoted their attention to this problem. T h e evidence in its favor has never been systematically arranged, though portions of it have been repeatedly presented, often in connection with one or another unrelated hypothesis. T h i s element is the religious poetry which constitutes the oldest layer of French literature. Yet an investigation of the connections between the earliest manifestations of French literary genius and the later genre which had such far-reaching effects upon the world's subsequent culture cannot fail to prove interesting and fruitful. If we accept, as the bulk of learned opinion does, the Chanson

Roland

de

as the earliest and most original sample of French epic

poetry, a n d consider the remainder of French epic production as directly or indirectly inspired by it, we must conclude that the establishment of a comparison necessarily lies between the so-called monuments of early religious literature ( E u l a l i e , Passion,

Alexis)

and the Roland.

Leger,

T h e connection between the latter and

the balance of the epic output will not be seriously disputed by anyone. 1 1 T h e possibility that the four religious poems that have come down to us are only a small fragment of a m u c h larger hagiographic literature must, of course, be considered; but until additional material comes to light, we can only work with the material at our disposal. T h e relative proportions of the works under consideration must also be kept in mind. T h e Eulalie consists of a scanty 29 lines, in the course of which m a n y phenomena occurring elsewhere cannot logically be expected to appear. Greater scope is afforded by the Leger ( 2 4 1 lines), Passion ( 5 1 6 lines), and Alexis ( 6 2 0 lines). Still, these poems compare unfavorably in length with the Roland ( R O , 4,002 lines;

vi

FOREWORD

T h e purpose of this study is to establish such a comparison, in the matter of external form, syntactical and lexical characteristics, stylistic and literary devices, themes and incidents, and last, but by no means least, the inspiration and ideals that underlie both genres. If regular progression, evolution, and development, as well as direct similarity, can be established in these fields, then the continuity of a French literary tradition stemming from the Eulalie and advancing down the centuries to the death of the epic genre may be considered proved. In offering such a study, it must be stressed that religious-epic connections are not at all exclusive of any or all of the other influences claimed by those who have advanced often conflicting theories. T h e existence of a written French literary tradition prior to the first Chanson de Geste does not of necessity contradict Paris's oral cantilenes, ranging from the eighth to the eleventh centuries. T h e pilgrim routes of Bedier, granted eleventh-century changes in historical conditions and social outlook, may well have turned existing literary talent from a purely religious into a religious-epic channel. Germanic and purely feudal elements play an important role in epic development, but they also appear, though to a more limited degree, in the earlier poetry. T h e author of the Roland may well have been equipped with a Classical background that some of his predecessors may have lacked. T h e purpose of the present study is not to invaliRV, 6,012 lines). These figures should be kept in mind when comparing frequency of occurrence of a given phenomenon in the Roland and in the hagiographic poems; on the other hand, the sum total of lines in the hagiographic poems is 1,406, as against 4,002 in RO, giving us approximately a 1 to 3 relation. Allowance must also be made for the Biblical model of the Passion, the foreign source and locale of the Alexis, and the imponderable factor of individual taste in the case of the various authors. The Eulalie is generally believed to have been composed toward the end of the ninth century, and the manuscript in which it has come down to us to be of the tenth century. The Passion and Leger are held to be of the second half of the tenth century, the Alexis of the middle of the eleventh, with its earliest manuscript probably written in the twelfth. For the dating of the Roland there is considerable controversy, with the bulk of learned opinion inclining toward the latter part of the eleventh century; see Tavernier, Vorgeschichte, p. 42; G. Paris, Romania, 1902, p. 404; Tavernier, Zeitschrift für französische Sprache und Literatur. 1911, p. 87; Jenkins, p. xci; Wilmotte, Epopee, p. 182, note 2, p. 186.

FOREWORD

vii

date previous theories, but only to add to them an element hitherto partly neglected, to point out the important role that religious poetry must have played in epic creation, and to prove the existence of a literary current capable of turning from a purely religious into a religious-epic channel, and thereafter of losing its original religious features as it wandered farther and farther from its source. Critics will point out that some of the similarities in form, style, syntax, vocabulary, literary devices and themes are inconclusive because such similarities appear elsewhere, in Classical poetry, in the Germanic epic, in the writings of the Vulgar Latin period. They will say that there is nothing to prove that the author of the Alexis and the author of the Roland may not have independently borrowed devices, tournures, incidents from an older source. But even if we grant this (nihil sub sole novt) argument to be valid, the existence of a continuous cultural and literary stream in the France of the ninth to the eleventh centuries is nevertheless, and thereby, proved. The essential element in a comparison of this type is not so much similarity as progression, the passage from the old to the new not by immediately discarding the old, but by combining it with the new, by adding to an already existing structure until the old edifice becomes unrecognizable, save to the skilled eye. The contributions of the early religious poetry may be so completely disguised as to appear imperceptible by the time we reach the Loherain Cycle. But are they imperceptible in the earliest and noblest of the Old French epics, from which the others stem? Is the Chanson de Roland an epic pure and simple? Above all, is it merely a feudal epic? Or may it not better be described as a religious-feudal epic, the cusp between two separate and yet related genres, the connecting link between the devotional spirit of the earlier and the feudal-military spirit of the later Middle Ages ? And may not the Alexis, so often described as the culminating masterpiece of the "religious" period, reveal by its form, style, and incidents that it is the logical forerunner of the epic genre, or even, as some have claimed, an epic in embryo ? Most of the theories hitherto advanced have been largely based upon external evidence. The present study is of an exclusively in-

Vlll

FOREWORD

tcrnal character. This limits its scope and makes it subject to definite limitations. On the other hand, internal evidence escapes the charge of subjectivity and preconceived judgment, which has so often been leveled by the followers of one school at those of another. It presents facts, not fancies, however plausible, and leaves only the question of evaluation and interpretation. T h e four major divisions of this comparison are ranged in order of progression from the more material to the more spiritual of the features under consideration: versification; language; stylistic and literary devices; themes and incidents. If each of them succeeds in shedding a clearer light upon the connection between religious and epic poetry, our efforts will not have been in vain. Grateful acknowledgment is hereby made of the valuable suggestions received from the friends and colleagues who read this work in manuscript form: Professors Dino Bigongiari, Henri F. Muller, Lawton Peckham, and Norman Torrey, all of Columbia University. Columbia University September, 1948

MARIO A .

PEI

Contents READINGS AND ABBREVIATIONS I. VERSIFICATION 1. 2. 3. 4.

Unit Assonance Verse Caesura

II. S Y N T A C T I C A L CONSTRUCTIONS A N D VOCABULARY 1. Syntactical Constructions and Special Word Groups 2. Use of Correlative and Opposite Words 3. Individual Words and Semantics 4. Time, Weather, Feasts 5. Proper Names

xi 1 1 1 2 3

4 4 14 15 19 21

III. STYLISTIC AND LITERARY DEVICES 1. Form of Introduction and Conclusion 2. Direct and Indirect Discourse 3. Litotes and Understatement 4. Apposition 5. Simile 6. Chiasmus 7. Anticipation 8. Personal Intervention (General) 9. Personal Intervention: Exclamations and Rhetorical Questions 10. Personal Intervention: Statement of Opinion 11. Enumeration 12. Repetition and Threefold Rhythm 13. Scene-Shifting

23 23 24 26 27 29 30 30 31 33 34 35 36 41

IV. T H E M E S AND INCIDENTS 1. Religious-Supernatural Assumption Angels Miracles

43 43 43 44 44

CONTENTS Portents, Omens, Predictions Devil and Hell 2. Religious Baptism and Conversion Confession, Penance, and the Forgiveness of Sins Prayer Honoring of Saints, Relics Virginity and Chastity Resignation to Death, Making Peace with God Martyrdom Temptation

46 48 49 49 51 51 54 54 55 56 57

3. Religious-Feudal Appeasement Betrayal Persecution, Intolerance, Attitude toward Non-Christians Christian Name and Pride, Declaration of Faith, Upholding of Law Service of God, Feudal Service 4. Feudal Feudal Customs and Terminology, Warfare Wealth and Earthly Honors

58 58 59 61

Enjance

65 67 71 71 73

76

5. Human Learning and Wisdom Body and Physical Beauty, Honoring of Body Human Affections Blame of Self or Others Sensitiveness to Human Opinion Joy, Sorrow, Sympathy Outward Manifestations of Grief Physical Pain Treatment of Captives, Binding and Chaining, Mockery,

76 76 78 79 82 84 85 88 90

Capital Punishment, Torture 6. Isolated Themes Entrusting of Objects and Captives Personalization of Inanimate Objects References to Ancient Times Search Arrival on Death-Scene Sea Voyage

91 92 92 93 94 95 95 95

V. CONCLUSION

96

1headings and Abbreviations Used in This Study READINGS U S E D IN T H I S STUDY

Eulalie, Passion, Leger, Alexis: W. Förster and E. Koschwitz, Altfranzösisches Uebungsbuch, 5th ed., Leipzig, 1915. For the Alexis, the Lamspringe MS version has been used as a basic text; where the Ashburnham, Paris, or other MSS have been used, they are specifically mentioned in the text. Chanson de Roland (Oxford MS): T. Atkinson Roland, Oxford Version, Heath, New York, Chanson de Roland (Venice MS): E. Kolbing, genauer Abdruc\ der Venetianer Handschrift ABBREVIATIONS OF W O R K S

Jenkins, La Chanson de 1924. La Chanson de Roland, IV, Heilbronn, 1877.

CONSULTED

includes only works dealing specifically with the topic of the relationship between religious and epic poetry. No attempt has been made to present a comprehensive bibliography of works dealing with related problems, such as the connection between the Vulgar Latin and the Old French religious poetry, the theory of collaboration between monks and jongleurs along the pilgrim routes, the dating of the various Roland manuscripts, and the role played by the Alexis in Old French literature. T H I S LIST

Appel. C. Appel, "Zur Changun de Willeime," Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, 1922, pp. 426-457. Becker, Anfänge. Ph. Becker, "Anfänge der romanischen Verskunst," Zeitschrift für französische Sprache und Literatur, 1932, pp. 257-323. Becker, Grundriss. Ph. Becker, Grundriss der altfranzösischen Literatur, Heidelberg, 1907. Bedier, Commentaires. J. Bedier, La Chanson de Roland, Commentaires, Paris, 1927. Bedier, Histoire. J. Bedier and P. Hazard, Histoire de la litterature frangaise, Paris, 1923-1924. Bedier, Legendes. ). Bedier, Legendes epiques, Paris, 1921.

READINGS AND ABBREVIATIONS

xii

Bertoni. G. Bertoni, La Chanson

de Roland,

Boissonnade. P. Boissonnade, Du Nouveau

Firenze, 1935.

sur la Chanson

de

Roland,

Paris, 1923.

Brinkmann. Η. Brinkmann, Zu Wesen und Form mittelalterlicher Dichtung, Halle, 1928. Burdach. K. Burdach, Vorspiel: gesammelte Schriften zur Geschichte des deutschen Geistes, Halle, 1925-1927. Chiri. G. Chiri, L'epica latina medioevale e la Chanson de Roland, Genova, 1936. Crescini. V. Crescini, Romanica Fragmenta, Torino, 1932. Curtius. E. Curtius, "Zur Interpretation des Alexiusliedes,"

für romanische Philologie, 1936, pp. 113-137. Faral, Arts. Ε. Faral, Les Arts poetiques du 12e et du 13e siicle,

Zeitschrift

Paris,

1924.

Faral, Chanson.

E. Faral, La Chanson

de Roland, Paris, 1934.

Faral, Histoire. E. Faral, in Bedier and Hazard, Histoire de la litterature franqaise, Paris, 1923-1924. Förster. W . Förster, San\t Alexius, Halle, 1915. Förster and Koschwitz. W . Förster and E. Koschwitz, Altfranzösisches

Uebungsbuch,

Leipzig, 1915.

Gautier. L. Gautier, Les Epopees

fran(aises,

Gennrich. F. Gennrich, Der musikalische Chanson de Geste, Halle, 1923.

Paris, 1897.

Vortrag der

altfranzösischen

Jarcho. B. Jarcho, review of Ε. Faral, La Chanson de Roland, Speculum, 1935, pp. 340-344. Jenkins. Τ. Jenkins, La Chanson de Roland, New York, 1924. Lerch. E. Lerch, "Zu den Anfängen der französischen Literatur," in

Vom Geiste neuer Literaturforschung

(Festschrift

für O.

Walzet),

Potsdam, 1924, pp. 96-112. Lindner. F. Lindner, "Die Chanson de Roland und die altenglische

Epik," Romanische

Forschungen,

1893, pp. 557-569.

Lot. F. Lot, "Les Legendes epiques fra^aises," Romania, 1928, pp. 357380. Luquiens, Geste. F. Luquiens, "The Reconstruction of the Original

Chansons de Geste," Transactions and Sciences, 1909, pp. 111-136.

of the Connecticut

Academy

of Arts

Luquiens, Roland. F. Luquiens, "The Reconstruction of the Original Chanson de Roland," Romanic Review, 1913, pp. 112-117. Meyer. P. Meyer, "Le Couplet de deux vers," Romania, 1894, pp. 1-35.

Mulertt. W. Mulertt, Laissenverbindung den Chansons de Geste, Halle, 1918.

und Laissenwiederholung

in

READINGS

AND

ABBREVIATIONS

xiii

Nordfeldt. A. Nordfeldt, Les Couplets stmilaires dans la vieille ipopee franqaise, Stockholm, 1893. Olschki, Canqun. L. Olschki, "Male C a n g u n A r c h i v u m Romanicum, 1924, pp. 325-326. Olschki, Literaturen. L. Olschki, Die romanischen Literaturen des Mittelalters, Wildpark-Potsdam, 1928. Paris, Alexis. G. Paris, La Vie de Saint-Alexis, Paris, 1911. Paris, Charlemagne. G. Paris, Histoire poetique de Charlemagne, Paris, 1905. Paris, Extraits. G. Paris, Extraits de la Chanson de Roland, Paris, 1905. Paris, Origini. G. Paris, review of P. Rajna, Le Origini dell'epopea francese, Romania, 1884, pp. 598-627. Pauphilet. A. Pauphilet, "Sur la Chanson de Roland," Romania, 1933, pp. 161-198. Pope, Chansons. M. Pope, "Four Chansons de Geste," Modern Language Review, 1915, pp. 310-319. Pope, Study. M. Pope, "A Study in Old French Versification," Modern Language Review, 1913, pp. 352-367. Rajna, Alexis. P. Rajna, "Un Nuovo testo parziale del 'Saint Alexis' primitivo," Archivum Romanicum, 1929, pp. 1-86. Rajna, Contributi. P. Rajna, "Contributi alia storia dell'epopea," Romania, 1885, pp. 398-420. Rajna, Origini. P. Rajna, Le Origini dell'epopea francese, Firenze, 1884. Richter. Ε. Richter, "Studien zum altfranzösischen Alexiusliede," Zeitschrift fur französische Sprache und Literatur, 1933, pp. 80-95. Salverda de Grave. Salverda de Grave, "La Chanson de Geste et la ballade," Melanges Thomas, Paris, 1927, pp. 389-394. Schiaffini. A. Schiaffini, "La Prima voce epica della Francia," Nuova Antologia, 1935, pp. 458-462. Siciliano. I. Siciliano, Le Origini delle canzoni di gesta, Padova, 1940. Tavernier, Beiträge. W. Tavernier, "Beiträge zur Rolandsforschung," Zeitschrift für französische Sprache und Literatur, 1910, pp. 71-102. Tavernier, Vorgeschichte. W. Tavernier, Zur Vorgeschichte des altfranzösischen Rolandsliedes, Berlin, 1903. Thomas. A. Thomas, Le Decasyllabe roman et sa fortune en Europe, Paris, 1904. Tobler. A. Tobler, Vermischte Beiträge, Leipzig, 1921. Verrier. P. Verrier, Le Vers franqais, Paris, 1931-1932. Voretzsch. C. Voretzsch, "Alter und Entstehung der französischen Heldendichtung," Archiv für das Studium der neueren Sprachen (Herrigs Archiv), 1916, pp. 294-308.

XIV

READINGS AND

ABBREVIATIONS

Vossicr. C. Vossler, Frankreichs Kultur und Sprache, Heidelberg, 1929. Wilmotte, Epica. M. Wilmotte, review of G. Chiri, L'Epica latina medioevale e la Chanson de Roland, Moyen Age, 1937, pp. 212-219. Wilmotte, Epopee. Μ. Wilmotte, L'Epopee frangaise, Paris, 1939. Wilmotte, Franfais. M. Wilmotte, Le Franqais ä tele epique, Paris, 1917. Wilmotte, Theorie. M. Wilmotte, "Une Nouvelle theorie sur l'origine des Chansons de Geste," Revue Historique, 1915, pp. 241-288. Winkler. E. Winkler, "Von der Kunst des Alexiusliedes," Zeitschrift für romanische Philologie, 1927, pp. 588-597. Zimmermann. O. Zimmermann, Die Toten\lage in den altfranzösischen Chansons de Geste, Berlin, 1899.

I. Versification 1.

UNIT

In the Eulalie the unit is the two-verse strophe, the verses being in assonance. The Passion has a four-verse strophe, the verses being in assonance two by two, while in the Leger the strophe increases to six verses, still in two-by-two assonance. In the Alexis we have a regular five-verse strophe which perhaps contains the germ of the later laisse, the five verses being in regular assonance. In the Roland the laisse comes into full existence. The laisses, each consisting of verses in assonance, run in length from 5 to 35 lines, with 14 as the average. Becker, Anfänge, p. 276, says that the laisse "zuerst in der Legendendichtung der bis dahin allcinherschenden Strophe den Boden streitig gemacht habe und erst nachtraglich jenen dauerhaften Bund mit der Chanson der Geste eingegangen sei, der bis zum Untergang der Gattung vorhielt." The change from the four to the fiveverse strophe is described by him as "originelle Strophenbildung auf Grund einer schöpferischen Kombination." Curtius, p. 133, concurs. See Wilmotte, Epopee, pp. 114-116, for a discussion of the strophes of the Passion and Leger and an extended comparison of the Alexis strophe and the Roland laisse. For the theories on the origin of the laisse, see Wilmotte, Epopee, pp. 207-209; Paris, Charlemagne, p. 48; Paris, Alexis, pp. 129-130; Paris, Origini, p. 620; Gautier, 1, p. 325; Rajna, Origini, pp. 493-496. For additional discussions on the laisse, see Jenkins, pp. cxliii-cxliv; Luquiens, Geste, pp. 111-136; Luquiens, Roland, pp. 112-117; Pope, Study, pp. 353 ff.; Rajna, Origim, pp. 525 ff.; Mulertt, p. 33.

Progression is definitely indicated, with a growing tendency to lengthen the unit of poetry as well as the unit of thought. The five-verse assonanced strophe of the Alexis seems to supply the connecting link between the earlier two-verse assonance and the epic

laisse. 2.

ASSONANCE

Outstanding in all the early poetry and early epic is the fact that assonance, not rhyme, is used. This assonance is identical in type

2

VERSIFICATION

throughout; the final stressed vowel of the verses is similar in sound, and the consonants are not considered. Complete uniformity between religious poetry and epic is in evidence in this matter. For our purpose of specific comparison, theories concerning the nature and origin of assonance in contrast to rhyme are irrelevant. 3.

VERSE

The verses of the Eulalie are generally decasyllabic, but there is much fluctuation and irregularity. Despite all ingenious explanations, it seems difficult to deny that line 4 has only nine syllables, and that lines 9, 10, 12, 19, 21, and 23 have at least eleven. Passion and Leger

show an octosyllabic scheme which is fairly

rigidly adhered to. T h e Alexis returns to the decasyllabic arrangement, which is regularly observed, and this state of affairs continues into the early epic. See Curtius, pp. 132-133, for a full discussion of the theories concerning the rise of decasyllabic verse. After discussing the theories of Becker, Bertoni, and Olschki, he concludes that the author of the Alexis is the inventor of the French "epic decasyllabic" verse, which later is taken over by the epic. In this connection, Becker, Anfänge, p. 275 f., supposes that it may have been derived from the Latin alcaic hendecasyllable of the religious hymns of Prudentius and Ennodius, while Olschki, Literaturen, p. 15, holds that the masterly handling of the decasyllable in the Alexis points to its use in previous poems. The imperfect use of the dccasyllable in the Eulalie as a precedent for the Alexis and Roland seems to have escaped notice. Verrier, II, pp. 1 ff., 108-118, claims that there is epic style in the Eulalie; II, p. 106, that the decasyllabic verse stems from Latin prose (on this point, see also Meyer, p. 8 ) ; II, p. 32, that in the Passion we have the first occurrence of an unaccented syllable appearing sporadically at the end of a verse, a phenomenon which docs not appear in the Leger. See Wilmotte, Epopee, pp. 200-215, for the theory of the continuity between religious verse-forms and earlier Latin poetry', as well as the subsequent epic. See also .Jenkins, pp. xxxviii-xxxix, cxxxviii-cxliii; Thomas, passim; Rajna, Ortgini, pp. 503 ff.; Lerch, pp. 104-106; Voretzsch, p. 307. Gennrich, pp. 20, 39, claims identity of musical structure for the Leger and the Roland.

Fluctuation between octo- and decasyllabic arrangements ends in the triumph of the latter, achieved in the Alexis before the epic stage is reached (note, however, that in another early epit, Gormond Isembart,

there is a return to the octosyllabic arrangement).

et The

irregularity of the Eulalie is probably due to the fact that the new

VERSIFICATION

3

tongue is being used for the first time as a literary vehicle; this irregularity is corrected as the poets acquire familiarity with the new medium of expression. 4 . CAESURA

This is highly irregular in the Eulalie, with the 6-4 order predominating (but line 1 has 4-4 or 5-5, line 2 has 4-5 or 4-6, line 3 has 4-5 or 5-5, line 4 has 5-4 or 4-4). It is fairly regular in the Passion and Leger (4-4) and in the Alexis and Roland (4-6). Sec Wilmotte, Epopee, p. 114, for the strictly observed caesura of the Passion and Leger; p. 202 for the predominance of the 4-6 caesura in the Eulalie, with the 5-5 arrangement appearing occasionally. Verrier, pp. 76 β., claims 6-4 or 5-5 for the Eulalie, while the epic is stated to prefer 4-6 for "epic reasons."

In this respect we again find irregularity in the earliest composition, corrected as time goes on. The epic caesura (4-6) is anticipated in the Alexis.

II. Syntactical Constructions and Vocabulary THE LIST of constructions and words here given is far f r o m exhaustive and, from the linguistic side, a complete comparative study of the syntax and vocabulary of the early religious poetry and the early epic still remains to be done. T h e constructions and words selected are those which show more striking similarity and progression, with the possibility of direct influence. 1. SYNTACTICAL CONSTRUCTIONS AND SPECIAL WORD GROUPS

a grand Eulalie, 18, a grand honestet Passion, 36, 343, 349, a grand honor Passion, 72, a grand destreit Leger, 12, a grand torment Leger, 193, a grand furor, a gran flaiel Alexis, 50, 3, a grant pouerte

RO, RO, RO, RO,

Passion, 66, a tormenz Passion, 62, a males penas

RO, 437, α honte ed a viltet RO, 752, 887, a lei de chevalier {de bon vassal) RO, 903, a doel ed a viltet RV, 871, a dol & auiltaqe RV, 1328, a dol & atormät R O , 1844, ad ait

816, 1977, 3741, a grant dolor 1899, a si grant tort 3592, a molt grant tort 3643, a si grant honte

R O , 3454, a

conseill

RO, 3682, a joie ed a baldor T h e use of phrases of attendant circumstances introduced by ä grand recurs throughout both religious poetry and epic. In the latter,

CONSTRUCTIONS

AND VOCABULARY

5

a tendency is noticeable to dispense with the adjective and use h with the noun alone (but note similar examples in the Passion).

aller with present participle This construction does not appear at all in the Eulalie. The Passion makes limited use of it: 46, van laudant; 48, van clamant; 75, vai firend; 76, vai desfazend; 79, van demandan; 167, seuguen lo vai; 203, vant il acusand; 481, van parlan; 482, van annuncian. The Leger makes even scantier use of the progressive device: 133, vai ardant. Equally scanty is its appearance in the Alexis: 2, 4-5, uait remanant. The epic shows the construction well on its way to its ultimate vogue: 1160, vait siuant; 1166, vont querant; 1190, ν ait disant; 2232, vait angoissant; 2461, vont ataignant; 2648, vait adestrant; 2843, vait escridant; 3371, vait jerant; 3375, vait querant; and passim. It may be noted that while the Roland makes fairly copious use of the progressive form, it does not use it, as do later epics, merely to make assonance or rhyme.

appeler {dire, clamer) The expressions used for a person or thing called by a certain name vary. Two examples in the Passion use the verb dire in the third plural: 89, eel di que dizen Paschas; 475b, de glo di dicent pentecostem. The Alexis indicates a shift to appeler in the third singular with on : 114,1, sainz boneface que lum martir apelet. The epic continues the use of on with clamer: RO, 352, noble vassal vos i soelt hom clamer; 2127, siet el cheval qu'om claimet Veillantif. The verb is as frequently used with a personal subject: 1534, siet el cheval qu'il claimet Barbamosche; 2032, sor son cheval que claimet Veillantif. Other expressions occasionally appear: 314, ςost Baldewin qu'om dist k} ert prozdoem; 1363, o'st vostre espede kj Halteclere at nom?

avoir cure de This first appears in the Alexis: 107, 2, de cest aueir certes nus n'auum cure. More frequent is its occurrence in the epic: RO, 293,

6

CONSTRUCTIONS

n'ai cure de manace;

AND

VOCABULARY

1170, n'ai cure de parier; 1361, n'ai cure de

baston.

avoir mal Passion, 462, non avra mal

RO, 60, ne nos aions les mals ne les soffraites RO, 2140, ensemble avrons e lo bien e lo mal

c'est merveille "It is a wonder that" or "it is no wonder that" appears in both the Alexis and the Roland: ΑΙ., 88, 5, c6 est grant merueile que pitiet ne t'en prist ΑΙ., 89, 5, c6 est granz merueile que li mens quors tant duret ΑΙ., 93, 5, η'est merueile n'ai mais filie ne filz

RO, 1774, ς ο est merveille Deus lo soefret tant

que

RO, 2877, nen est merveille se Charles at iror

T h e epic carries the expression further with variations: R O , 537, molt me puis merveillier; 550, merveille en ai molt grant

doucement prit ä parier Pas., 106, tan dulcement pres a parier

RV, 1837, tant dolce met li prese a-castier RO, 2026, molt dolcement a regreter lo prist RO, 2886, tant dolcement a regreter lo prist

Slightly different constructions appear in the epic: RO, 1999, si li demandet dolcement e soef RO, 2176, molt dolcement li at Rodlanz preiet RO, 2343, molt dolcement la plainst α sei medisme

CONSTRUCTIONS

AND VOCABULARY

7

estovoir While this verb never appears in the earlier poetry, it is very frequently used in both Alexis and Roland. Expressions of the type "it is not necessary to say (ask)" are frequent. ΑΙ., 26, 3, set il fut graim nel estuet demander ΑΙ., 115, 3, grant est la presse nel estuet demander ΑΙ., 119, 1, or m'estot dire del pedra e de la medra ΑΙ., 39, 4, mais ne puet estra ailurs I'estot aler ΑΙ., 86, 5, mult fust il dur \i n'estoust plurer

RO, 119, s'est qui'l demandet, nel estoet enseigner

RO, 310, en Sarragoce sai bien qu'aler m'estoet RO, 318, aler vos en estoet RO, 1151, mais as espedes I'estovrat eslegier RO, 1242, or est li jorz qu'els estovrat morir RO, 1257, mort vos estoet sofrir

komme charnel (mortel, vif, vivant, ne) The Passion abounds in these expressions, usually in the negative: 8, horn carnals; 381, nul om carnals; 339, nulz om mortalz; 448, nul om de madre naz; 332, no I sab om vivs; 483, no lor pod om vivs contrastar. One such tournure, reenforced, is found in the Leger: 137, del ne jud nez de medre vivs. The Alexis uses it sparingly: 118, 5, suz del n'at home. The Roland makes use of nearly all the above terms, but prefers homme vivant to homme vif: RO, 562, ne crient home vivant; 1074, que ςο seit dit de nul home vivant; 1993, que reconoistre poisset home mortel; 2153, ja n'iert vencuz por nul home charnel; 2740, Charles ne crient home \i seit vivanz. jusque (tres que, d'ici que) These expressions are common to the Passion, the Alexis and the Roland:

8

CONSTRUCTIONS

Pas., 328, jusche la terra per mei jend Pas., 309, jusque nona des lo meidi ΑΙ., 23, 3, iusque an alsis en vindrent dui errant

AND

VOCABULARY

RO, 1645, tresqu'd nasel tot lo helme li fent RV, 1349, da me$o di trosque lora de uespre RO, 3, tresqu'en la mer conquist la terre altaigne (but RV 10, qusqua la mer conquis la tere altagne) RO, 685, tresqu'en la rive mer RO, 2372, tresqu'a cest jorn RO, 3635, li enchalz duret d'ici qu'en Sarragoce

mieux que This type of expression first appears in the Eulalie: 16-17, melz sostendreiet les empedementz/quelle perdesse sa virginitet. In both Passion and Alexis the expression is used by characters in betokening a preference for nonexistence: Pas., 151-152, melz ti fura non fusses naz/que me tradas per cobetad; ΑΙ., 97, 5, melz me uenist amis que morte fusse. In the epic the expression is used realistically (44-46, 58-60: asez est mielz that the hostages lose their heads than that we lose our possessions), and generally refers to a preference for death over other eventualities: RO, 359, mielz est sols moerge que tant bon chevaler; 536, 1091, 1701, 2336, mielz voeill morir que guerpir son barnet (hontages me vaignet, honte seit retraite, entre paiens remaignet); 2738, mieilz voelt morir que ja fuiet de champ. mort est The prototype appears in the Alexis: 68,4, morz est tes prouenders. In the Roland the expression occurs very frequently: RO, 1546, ja est morz Engeliers; 1603, 2021, morz est li quens; 2242, morz est Turpins; 2397, 3802, morz est Rodlanz; 2920, morz est mis nies; 3456, morz est li gloz. ne—ne (used to connect substantives in a series; cf. Enumeration, pp. 35-36)

CONSTRUCTIONS

AND

VOCABULARY

9

Eu., 7-9 ne por or ned argent ne paramenz por manatee regiel ne preiement niule cose non la pour et omque pleier Pas., 385 argent ne aur non i donet AL, 111-112 surz ne auogles ne contraiz ne lepras ne muz ne orbs ne neuls palazinus ensur tut ne nuls languerus nuls η en i at fy n'alget malendus eel η en n't at \i'n report sa dolur ni uint amferm de nul amfermetet quant ill apelet sempres nen ait sanctet RO, 2399-2401 il nen i at ne veie ne sentier ne voide tere ne alne ne plein piet que nen i ait ο Franceis ο paien RO, 3292-3293 entr'els nen at ne pui ne val ne tertre sehe ne bois, asconse ni poet estre Wilmotte, Epopee, pp. 116-117, stresses this ne—ne construction in the Eulalie, Alexis and Roland.

ne pouvoir muer Expressions of the "can't help" type do not appear in the earlier poetry. T h e Alexis

has a fair assortment, with muder,

tant faire as alternative forms. Astenir but muder

astenir,

also appears in the

and

Roland,

is heavily in the majority.

AL, 93, 3, ne puis tant faire mes quors sen sazit AL, 45, 2, plurent si oil ne puet astenir AL, 55, 5, ne puet muer ne aparissant (Ashburnham Paris manuscripts)

que sen seit and

RO, 2891, Charles se pasmet, ne s'en pout astenir RO, 773, ne poet muder que de ses oeilz ne plort RO, 825, 841, 2193, 2381, 2873, ne poet muder η en plort RO, 834, ne puis muder ne plaigne RO, 1642, ne poet muder qu'il ne s'en espoent RO, 2517, ne poet muder n'en plort e ne 's diment

10

CONSTRUCTIONS

AND

VOCABULARY

A similar expression of the Alexis which does not appear elsewhere is "can't be"; 106, 4, mats ne puet estra; 116, 5, mats altre ne puet estra. nul (homme,

celut)

n'y a qui ( c f . Personal

Intervention,

pp. 34-

35) Expressions of the type "there is no one who" are frequent throughout, with a preference for nul or nul homme in the earlier poetry, for homme and eel in the epic. ΑΙ., I l l , 4, nuls nen i at kj alget malendus Pas., 381-382, quar anc non fo nul om carnals/en cest en fern non fos anaz Leg., 31-32, ne fud nuls om/qui mieldre just Pas., 88, hanc non fud hom qui magis I'audis

Leg., 137-138, ciel ne fud nez de medre vivs/qui tal exercite vidist ΑΙ., I l l , 5,