Excavations at Tell Sabi Abyad: Prehistoric investigations in the Balikh Valley, northern Syria 9780860546009, 9781407347547

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Table of Contents
Preface and Acknowledgements
List of Contributors
List of Figures
List of Tables
Chapter I: Research Objectives and Strategy
Chapter II: Tell Sabi Abyad: The Site and the Setting
Chapter III: Tell Sabi Abyad: Stratigraphy and Architecture
Chapter IV: The Prehistoric Pottery of Tell Sabi Abyad
Chapter V: Technological Aspects of the Prehistoric Pottery
Chapter VI: Clay Analyses of the Prehistoric Pottery: First Results
Chapter VII: The Flint and Obsidian Artifacts of Tell Sabi Abyad
Chapter VIII: The Other Small Finds of Tell Sabi Abyad
Chapter IX: The Human Skeletal Remains of Tell Sabi Abyad
Chapter X: The Animal Remains from Tell Sabi Abyad - Square P14
Chapter XI: Plant Remains from Tell Sabi Abyad
Chapter XII: Late Bronze Age Pottery of Tell Sabi Abyad
Bibliography

Citation preview

Excavations at Tell Sabi Abyad Prehistoric investigations in the Balikh Valley, northern Syria

edited by

Peter M. M. G. Akkern1ans

Balikh Valley Archaeological Project Monograph 1

BAR International Series 468

1989

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -8468, 1989: 'Excavations at Tell Sabi Abyad' @Peter X.X.G.illermans and the Individual Authors,

1989

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860546009 paperback ISBN 9781407347547 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860546009 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

TABLE OF CO NTE NTS

P re fa ce a nd A cknow ledgemen ts

i i

T he C on tr ibu to r s L i s t o f F igure s

v i

L i s t o fT ab le s

x i

C hap te r 1 : R e sea rch Ob jec t ive s a nd S tra tegy P .M .M .G . A kke rman s C hap te r 2 : T e l l S ab i A byad : t he S i te a nd t he S e t t ing

1

P .M .M .G . A kke rman s C hap te r 3 : T e l l S ab i A byad : S tra t ig raphy a nd A rch i tec ture

1 7

P .M .M .G . A kke rman s C hap te r 4 : T he P reh is tor jc P o t te ry o fT e l l S ab i A byad P .M .M .G . A kke rman s C hap te r 5 : T echno log ica l A spec ts o ft he P reh i s to r ic P o t te ry

2 15

A . v an A s a nd L . J acob s C hap te r 6 : C lay A na ly se s o f t he P reh i s to r ic P o t te ry : F i r s t R e su l ts

.

.

.

.

.

2 33

M . L e M ière C hap te r 7 : T he F l in t a nd Ob s id ian A r t i fac ts o f T e l l S ab i A byad

2 37

L . C ope land C hap te r 8 : The O the r Sma l l F ind s o fT e l l S ab i Abyad

2 85

P .M .M .G . A kke rman s C hap te r 9 : The H uman S ke le ta l R ema in s o fT e l l S ab i A byad .

2 95

J .G ee r l ink C hap te r 1 0 : The A n ima l R ema in s f r om T e l l S ab i A byad

-

S qua re P 14

.

.

3 01

L .H . v an W i jngaa rden -B akker C hap te r 1 : P lan t R ema in s f r om T e l l S ab i A byad

3 25

W . v an Z e is t a nd W . Wa te rbo lk -van R oo i jen C hap te r 1 2 : L a te B ronze A ge P o t te ry o fT e l l S ab i A byad

37

I .R o s sme is l B ib l iog raphy

3 57

PREFACE AN D AC K NO WLE D GE ME NTS T h is r epo r t i n tend s t o g i ve a d e ta i led , a nd t o al a rge e x ten t e xhau s t ive , a ccoun t o ft he f i r s t s ea son o fe xcava t ion a t T e l l S ab i A byad , as i te o ft he 6 th m i l lenn ium B .C . i n t he B a l ikh v a l ley o fn or the rn S y r ia . T he e x cava t ion s l a s ted f r om May 4 t o J u ly 4 1 986 a nd w e re c onduc ted b y P .M .M .G . A kke rman s u nde r t he a u sp ic ie s o f t he U n ive r s i ty o f Am s terdam ' s A rchaeo log ica l M i s s ion t o S y r ia , d i rec ted b y P ro f .Dr . M .N . v an L oon . F ur ther f i e ldwo rk a t T e l l S ab i A byad i sp lanned a nd w i l l n o d oub t a l te r many o ft he v i ew s p u t f o rwa rd i n t he p re sen t v o lume . T he i nve s t iga t ion s a t T e l l S ab i A byad w ou ld n o t h ave b een p o s s ib le w i thou t t he h e lp o f n ume rou s p eop le a nd o rgan isa t ions .

F i r s t o f a l l , Iw ou ld

l i ke t o t hank my t e a cher , Maur i ts v an L oon , f o r h i s c on t inuou s a nd u nre served e ncou ragemen t , a dv i se a nd g u idance . Iam a l so g rea t ly i ndeb ted t o t he o the r a u tho r s o f t h i s r epo r t : Ma r ie L e M ière , L o rra ine C ope land , B ram v an A s , L oe J acob s , J ohanna C eer l ink , L oe s v an W i jngaa rden -Bakke r , Wi l lem v an Z e i s t , W i lhe lm ina Wa te rbo lk -van R oo i jen a nd I nge R o s sme is l . The d raw ing sw ere made e i the rb yt he a u tho r s ,b yB ob D onker o rb yB en C laa sz C oock son . P ho tog raph ica l w o rk w a s d one b y M ich ie l B oo tsman a nd F red G i jbe ls . J an H a r t mann p layed a n i mpo r tan t r o le i nt he s t a t is t ica l p roce s s ing o f t he d a ta . J an B oe rma p rov ided u s w i th t he n ece s sa ry map s a nd c a r r ied o u t ap re l im ina ry a na ly s is o ft he o b s id ian s f r om T e l l S ab i A byad .

H y lke B u i tenhu is t ook c a re o f t he b one s i n t he f i e ld ,

w he rea s G e r t -Jan d e R o l le r d id t he s ame f o r t he p lan t r ema in s . Iam i ndeb ted t o Ode t te H aex f o rh e ra s s is tance i nt he p repa ra t ion o ft h is r epor t . Iam p a r t icu la r ly g ra te fu l t o B e r t H ouben , who d id t he t ype se t t ing . I n a dd i t ion Iw ou ld l i ke t o t hank t he f o l low ing p er son s f o r t he ir h e lp , a dv i se , c o mmen ts o r t he s ome t ime s e nd le s s d i scu s s ion s i n t he f i e ld a nd a t h ome :

S y tze B o t tema , H an s C urver s ,

Mon ica Dü t t ing , J o r i s v an H aa f ten , A nnabe l L a za ro , R on L eenhee r , F r i tz L ü th , a nd D iede r ik Me i je r . An s B u l le s c o r rec ted t he E ng l ish t ex ts . Iw ish t ot hank I l se v an P inx te ren f o r h e r p a t ience a nd c on t inuou s s uppo r t . Imu s t e xpre s s my g ra t i tude t o t he D irec to ra te -Gene ra l o f A n t iqu i t ie s o f t he S yr ian A rab R epub l ic f o r k ind ly p erm i t t ing u s t o w o rk a t T e l l S ab i A byad a nd r ende r ing u s a l l n ece s sa ry a s s is tance . Ie spec ia l ly w ish t o t hank D r .

A f i f

B ahna s s i a nd D r . A dr ian B ounn i . Mr . Mu rha f Kha la f , d i rec tor o f An t iqu i t ie s i n R aqqa , r ep re sen ted t he S y r ian a u tho r i t ie s o n t he s po t a nd h a s b een a mo s t h e lp fu l a dv ise r . T he i nve s t iga t ion s a t T e l l S ab i A byad a re s uppo r ted b y t he F ounda t ion f o r A rchaeo log ica lR e sea rch ,w h ich i ss ubs id ised b y t he N e the r lands O rgan isa t ion f o r S c ien t if ic R e sea rch ( N WO ) . F ur the r f i nanc ia l s uppo r t w a s p rov ided b y t he A lbe r t E gge s v an G if en I n s t i tuu t v oo rP rae - e n P ro toh is to r ie . t he F ounda t ion f o r

A n th ropo logy a nd P reh i s to ry i nt he N e ther land s , A n t . S ch rader B .V . , C hem imex B .V . a nd s o me p r iva te s pon sor s .

D ur ing t he 1 986 s ea son , a ccomoda t ion a nd

o ther f a c i l i t ie s w e re p rov ided b y t he Du tch t e am w o rk ing a t t he n ea rby s i te o f T e l l H ammam e t -Tu rkman . My s i nce re t hank s t o D r .

Maur i ts v an L oon a nd

D r . D iede r ik Me i je r , d i rec to r s o ft he e xcava t ion s a t T e l l H ammam e t -Turkman . T he A lbe r t E gge s v an G if f en I n s t i tuu t v oo r P rae - e n P ro toh is to r ie , Am s te rdam , p rov ided t he n ece s sa ry f a c i l i t ie s f o r p roce s s ing t he r e su l ts o ft he e xcava t ion a nd t o p repa re t he p re sen t p ub l ica t ion . A lbe r t E gge s v an C if f en I n s t i tuu t v oo r P rae - e n P ro toh is to r ie Am s te rdam , J u ly 1 988

P e te r M .M .G . A kke rman s

i v

T H E C O N T RI B U T O RS

P .M .M .G . A kke rman s A lbe r t E gge s v an G if f en I n s t i tuu t v oo r P rae - e n P ro toh i s to r ie ( IPP ) , S inge l 4 53 , 1 012 WP Am s te rdam , t he N e the r lands . A . v an A s I n s t i tuu t v oo r A a rdewe rk techno log ie , R euven sp laa ts 4 , 2 300 RA L e iden , t he N e the r land s . L . C ope land I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , Un ive r s i ty o f L ondon , 3 1 -34 Go rdon S qua re , L ondon WC1 H O PY , E ng land . J .G ee r l ink A lbe r t E gge s v an G if f en I n s t i tuu t v oo r P rae - e n P ro toh i s to r ie ( IPP ) , S inge ! 4 53 , 1 012 WP Am s te rdam , t he N e ther lands . L . J acob s I n s t i tuu t v oor A a rdewerk techno log ie , R euven sp laa ts 4 , 2 300 RA L e iden , t he N e the r land s . M . L e Mi re Ma ison d e l ' Or ien t , U n iver s i té L yon -2 , 7R ue R au l in , F 69007 L yon , F rance . I .R o s sme i s l V an O ldeba rneve ld t s traa t 8 9/3 , 1 052 J X Am s te rdam , t he N e ther land s . W . Wa te rbo lk -van R oo i jen B io log i sch -Archaeo log isch I ns t i tuu t ( BA T ) , P o s ts traa t 6 ,9 712 ER G ron ingen ,t he N e the r land s . L .H . v an W i jngaa rden -B akke r A lbe r t E gge s v an G i f f en I n s t i tuu t v oor P rae - e n P ro toh i s tor ie ( IPP ) , S inge ! 4 53 , 1 012 WP Am s te rdam , t he N e the r land s . W . v an Z e is t B io log i sch -Archaeo log isch I ns t i tuu t ( BA T ) , P o s ts traa t6 ,9 712 ER G ron ingen ,t he N e the r land s .

V

L IST OF F IG U RES

F ig . 1 . 1 . Map o ft he B a l ikh v a l ley w i th ( i n se t ) i t s l o ca t ion i n S yr ia 3 F ig . 1 . 2 . C on tour map o ft he a rea w e s t o fT e l l S ab i A byad a nd t he l o ca t ion o f H a la f s i te s i nt he i mmed ia te s ur round ing s o ft he s i te 5 F ig . 1 .1 . V iew o fT e l l S ab i A byad f r om t he n o r thea s t . 1 2 F ig . 1 .2 . C on tou r map o fT e l l S ab i A byad Iw i th ( i n c i rc le s ) t he a pprox ima te l o ca t ion o ft he s i ng le mound s 1 3 F ig . 1 1 .1 . C on tou r map o fT e l l S ab i A byad Iw i th ( i n b la ck ) t he a rea ' s e xcava ted 1 8 F ig . 1 1 .2 . We s t s e c t ion o ft r ench T 4 2 0 F ig . 1 1 .3 . S tone f ounda t ion i n s qua re P 14 , s t r . 1 2 3 F ig . 1 1 .4 . A rch i tec tu ra l r ema in s i n t he t e s t t r ench a l ong t he e a s t s e c t ion o fs qua re P 14 2 4 F ig . 1 1 .5 . N o r th s e c t ion o fs qua re P 14 2 6 F ig . 1 1 .6 . E a s t s e c t ion o fs qua re P 14 2 7 F ig . 1 1 .7 . T ho lo i 0a nd AC i n s qua re P 14 , s t r . 6 D 2 9 F ig . 1 1 .8 . Tho lo i i ns qua re P 14 , s t r . . 6 C 3 0 F ig . 1 1 .9 . T ho lo s 0o fs qua re P 14 , s t r . 6 D -6C 3 1 F ig . 1 1 .10 . T ho lo i o fs qua re P 14 , s t r . 6 B 3 3 F ig . 1 1 .11 . R ound a nd r e c tangu la r a rch i tec ture i ns qua re P 14 , s t r . 6 A , a nd s qua re 0 14 , s t r . 3 3 4 F ig . 1 1 .12 . T ho lo s Ki n s qua re P 14 , s t r . 6 A 3 4 F ig . 1 1 .13 . T ho lo s Ci n s qua re P 14 , s t r . 2( v iew f r om t he n o r th ) 3 7 F ig . 1 1 .14 . A rch i tec tura l r ema in s o fs qua re P 13 , s t r . 5 ,a nd s qua re P 14 , s t r . 3 4 0 F ig . 1 1 .15 . I s ome tr ic r e con s truc t ion o fa rch i tec tura l r ema in s o f s qua re P 13 , s t r . 5 ,a nd s qua re P 14 , s t r . 3 . 4 1 F ig . 1 1 .16 . A r t i s t ic r e con s truc t ion o f a rch i tec tu ra lr ema in s o fs qua re P 13 , s t r . 5 ,a nd s qua re P 14 , s t r . 3 . 4 2 F ig . 1 1 .17 . R ec tangu la r a r ch i tec tu re i n s qua re P 13 , s t r . 5( v iew f r om t he w e s t ) 4 3 F ig . 1 1 .18 . R ec tangu la r a r ch i tec tu re i n s qua re P 13 , s t r . 5( v iew f r om t he n o r th ) 4 3 F ig . 1 1 .19 . A rch i tec tu ra l r ema in s o f s qua re P 13 , s t r . 4 ,a nd s qua re P 14 , s t r . 2 4 6 F ig . 1 1 .20 . S qua re P 13 , s t r . 3 4 9 F ig . 1 1 .21 . E a s t s e c t ion o fs qua re P 13 5 2 F ig . 1 1 .22 . T opmo s t ( s tra tum 1 ) a rch i tec tu re i ns qua re s P 13 , P 14 a nd 0 14 5 3 F ig . 1 1 .23 . L a te B ronze A ge a rch i tec ture i n s qua re 0 14 5 6 F ig . 1 1 .24 . R ound s t ruc tu res i n t he v i l lage o f H ammam e t -Turkman ( Ba l ikh v a l ley ) 6 2 F ig . 1 1 .25 . Mode rn v i l lage a rch i tec tu re d i sp lay s c l o se s i mi la r i t ie s t o H a la f b u i ld ing s . T h is p i c ture s how s ar e c tangu la r h ou se f l anked b y t hree s ma l l ' t ho lo i ' 6 2 F ig . I V .1 . L a te N eo l i th ic p o t te ry f r om t he n o r thea s te rn a r ea 1 68 F ig . I V .2 . L a te N eo l i th ic p o t tery f r om t he n o r thea s tern a rea 1 69 F ig . I V .3 . L a te N eo l i th ic p o t tery f r om t he n o r thea s tern a r ea 1 70 F ig . I V .4 . L a te N eo l i th ic p o t tery f r om t he n o r thea s te rn a r ea 1 71 F ig . I V .5 . L a te N eo l i th ic p o t tery f r om t he n o r thea s te rn a rea 1 72 F ig . I V .6 . L a te N eo l i th ic p o t te ry f r om t he n o r thea s te rn a r ea 1 73 F ig . I V .7 . L a te N eo l i th ic p o t tery f r om t he n o r thea s tern a rea 1 74 .

V i

.

.

.

F ig . I V .8 . L a te N eo l i th ic p o t te ry f r om t he n o r thea s te rn a rea F ig . I V .9 . L a te N eo l i th ic p o t te ry f r om t he n o r thea s te rn a rea F ig . I V .10 . L a te N eo l i th ic ' hu sk ing t r ay s ' f r om t he n o r thea s te rn a r ea F ig . I V .1 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la f s t ra ta . N o . 8 7 : L a te N eo l i th ic F ig . I V .1 2 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la f s t ra ta F ig . I V .1 3 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la f s t ra ta F ig . I V .1 4 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la f s t ra ta F ig . I V .1 5 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la f s t ra ta . N o . 14 : L a te N eo l i th ic F ig . I V .1 6 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta . N o . 1 20 : L a te N eo l i th ic F ig . I V .1 7 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la f s t ra ta F ig . I V .18 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .1 9 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta . N o . 1 38 : p a t te rn -b urn ished F ig . I V .20 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la f s t ra ta F ig . I V .21 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la f s t ra ta F ig . I V .22 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .23 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .24 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .25 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .26 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la f s t ra ta F ig . I V .27 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .28 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la f s t ra ta . N o . 2 05 : p robab ly M idd le o r L a te H a la f F ig . I V .29 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .30 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .31 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .32 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .33 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .34 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .35 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .36 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .37 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .38 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .39 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .40 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .41 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .42 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .43 . P o t tery f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .44 . P o t tery f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .45 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta F ig . I V .46 . P o t te ry f r om t he E a r ly H a la fs t ra ta . S ee d raw ing n o s . 2 08 ( c ) , 2 55 ( a ) a nd 2 56 ( b ) F ig . V .1 . F ig . V .2 . F ig . V .3 . F ig . V .4 . F ig . V .5 . F ig . V .6 . F ig . V .7 . F ig . V .8 . F ig . V .9 . F ig . V1 0 F ig . V1 v i i

1 75 1 76 1 77 1 78 1 79 1 80 1 81 1 82 1 83 1 84 1 85 1 86 1 87 1 88 1 89 1 90 1 91 1 92 1 93 1 94 1 95 1 96 1 97 1 98 1 99 2 00 2 01 2 02 2 03 2 04 2 05 2 06 2 07 2 08 2 09 2 10 2 11 2 12 2 13 2 18 2 18 2 19 2 19 2 20 2 20 2 20 2 21 2 22 2 22 2 23

F ig . V .12 2 23 F ig . V .13 2 25 F ig . V .14 2 25 F ig . V 1 .1 . C lu s te r a na ly s is d end rog ram o fs amp le s f r om T e l l S ab i A byad 2 35 F ig . V I I .1 . L a te N eo l i th ic f l in t a r t i fac ts 2 77 F ig . V I I .2 . L a te N eo l i th ic f l in t a r t ifa c ts 2 78 F ig . V I I .3 . L a te N eo l i th ic o b s id ian a r t i fac ts 2 79 F ig . V I I .4 . A r t ifac ts f r om t r an s i t iona l s t ra ta 2 80 F ig . V I I .5 . E a r ly H a la ff l in t a r t i fac ts 2 81 F ig . V I I .6 . E a r ly H a la ff l in t a r t ifa c ts 2 82 F ig . V I I .7 . E a r ly H a la ff l in t a r t ifa c ts 2 83 F ig . V I I .8 . E a r ly H a la fo b s id ian a r t i fa c ts 2 84 F ig . V I I I .1 B a sa l t g r ind ing s l ab a nd p e s t le s 2 91 F ig . V I I I .2 . S tone b ow l s ( no s . 5 -6 ) a nd b one o b jec ts ( no s . 7 14 ) 2 92 F ig . V I I I .3 . C lay f ema le f i gur ine f r om t r ench T 4 2 93 F ig . V I I I .4 . S p ind le -who r l s ( ? ) f r om t he p reh is to r ic s t ra ta ( no s . 1 6 -19 ) , b ronze a xe ( no . 2 0 a nd c l ay amu le t ( no . 2 1 ) f r om t he L a te B ronze p e r iod 2 94 F ig . I X .1 . S ke le ton B i . T he d e term ined b one f r agmen ts a re s hown i n b lack 2 98 F ig . I X .2 . S ke le ton B 2 . T he d e term ined b one f r agmen ts a r e s hown i n b la ck 2 98 F ig . I X .3 . D en ta l f o rmu la o fi nd iv idua l s B i a nd B 2 2 99 F ig . X .1 . C u t ma rk s o n t he - med ia l s i de o f ad i s ta l h ume ru so f C apra g oa t 3 03 F ig . X .2 . H o rnco re o f C apra g oa t w i th l i gh t c hopma rk a t t he b a s i s 3 08 F ig . X .3 . P rox ima l r ad iu s o f O v i s s heep w i th p a tho log ica l c ond i t ion , p o s s ib ly a n e f ec t o fo ld a ge . 3 13 F ig . X .4 . R e la t ive f r equency o fd ome s t ic a n ima l s i n p ha se s F , Ea nd C . S ou rce : T ab le X .10 3 15 F ig . X I .1 . L oca t ion map o fs i te s men t ioned i nt he t ex t 3 26 F ig . X I .2 . F requency d i s tr ibu t ion h i s tog ram s f o r T r i t icum d i coccum g ra in s f r om S ab i Abyad 3 28 F ig . X I I .1 . L a te B ronze A ge p o t te ry . B ow l s 3 46 F ig . X I I .2 . L a te B ronze A ge p o t te ry . B ow l s 3 47 F ig . X I I .3 . L a te B ronze A ge p o t te ry . B ow l s ( no s . 2 2 -26 ) , g ob le ts ( no s . 2 7 -28 ) a nd j a r s ( no s . 2 9 -35 ) 3 48 F ig . X I I .4 . L a te B ronze A ge p o t tery . J a r s ( no s . 3 6 -38 , 4 1 -48 ) a nd p o ts tand s ( no s . 3 9 -40 ) 3 49 F ig . X I I .5 . L a te B ronze A ge p o t te ry . J a r s 3 50 F ig . X I I .6 . L a te B ronze A ge p o t te ry . J a r s a nd p o ts 3 51 F ig . X I I .7 . L a te B ronze A ge p o t te ry . P o ts 3 52 F ig . X I I .8 . L a te B ronze A ge p o t te ry . B ow ls ( no s . 8 3 -86 , 9 0 -91) a nd p o ts tand s ( no s . 8 7 -89 ) 3 53 F ig . X I I .9 . L a te B ronze A ge p o t te ry . B ow l s ( no s . 9 2 -96 ) a nd p o ts ( no s . 9 7 -99 ) 3 54 F ig . X I I .10 . L a te B ronze A ge p o t te ry . P o ts ( no s . 1 00 -101) a nd b a se s ( no s . 1 02 -111 ) 3 55 F ig . X I I .11 . L a te B ronze A ge p o t te ry . B a se s 3 56 .

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L IST OF TABLES

T ab le I V .1 . D is tr ibu t ion o f v esse l s hape p er s t ra tum 8 4 T ab le I V .2 . D is tr ibu t ion o f t emper p er s t ra tu m 8 5 T ab le I V .3 . D is tr ibu t ion o f f i r ing p er s t ra tum 8 7 T ab le I V .4 . D is tr ibu t ion o f s ur face t r ea t men t p er s t ra tu m 8 8 T ab le I V .5 . D is tr ibu t ion o f c o lour p er s t ra tum 8 9 T ab le I V .6 . D is tr ibu t ion o f v esse l s hape i n T 4 9 6 T ab le I V .7 . D is tr ibu t ion o f t emper i n T 4 9 7 T ab le I V .8 . D is tr ibu t ion o f f i r ing i n T 4 9 8 T ab le I V .9 . D is tr ibu t ion o f s ur face t r ea tmen t i n T 4 9 8 T ab le I V .10 . D is tr ibu t ion o f c o lour i n T 4 9 9 T ab le I V .1 . C orre la t ion o f s t ra ta a nd p ha se s 1 04 T ab le I V .12 . D is tr ibu t ion o fv esse l s hape p er p ha se 1 06 T ab le I V .1 3 . D is tr ibu t ion o ft emper p er p ha se 1 07 T ab le I V .1 4 . D is tr ibu t ion o ff i r ing p er p ha se 1 09 T ab le I V .1 5 . D is tr ibu t ion o fs ur face t r ea t men t p er p ha se 10 T ab le I V .1 6 . D is tr ibu t ion o f c o lour p er p ha se 12 T ab le I V .1 7 . D is tr ibu t ion o fw a re s i n t he s ou thea s tern a rea ( on t he b a s is o ft he t ype s r e cogn i sed ) 16 T ab le V .I . T echno log ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l g roups 2 30 T ab le V I I .1 . Ana lys is o f L a te N eo l i th ic a r t ifac ts 2 38 T ab le V I I .2 . Ana ly s i s o fl i th ic a r t ifac ts f r om T ran s i t iona l l e ve l s 2 50 T ab le V I I .3 . Ana ly s i s o f E a r ly H a la f f l in t a r t ifac ts 2 53 T ab le V I I .4 . Ana lys is o f E a r ly H a la f o b s id ian a r t ifac ts 2 59 T ab le V I I .5 . Macro e l emen ts a ccord ing t o R ap id R ock Ana ly s is 2 72 T ab le V I I .6 . Macro e l emen ts ( B ) a nd t r ace s ( C ) a cco rd ing t o IC P 2 73 T ab le X .I . S ab i A byad s qua re P 14 a n ima l r ema in s 3 02 T ab le X .2 . S pec if ica t ion o f t he u n iden t if ied a n i ma l b ones 3 03 T ab le X .3 . P ropor t ion b e tween l a rge a nd med ium mamma l s 3 04 T ab le X .4 . D egree o ff r agmen ta t ion , p ha se E 3 05 T ab le X .5 . B o3 c f . p r im igen iu s : g rea te s t l e ng th ( CL ) , p rox i ma l w id th ( BP ) , s ma l le s t w id th o f t he d iaphy s is ( DS) a nd d i s ta l w id th ( BD ) o f p ha lanx 1 f r om S ab i A byad , S ham s e d -D in a nd T e l l A ssouad 3 05 T ab le X .6 . B os t auru s , p ha lanx 1 a nd 2 . C ompa r ison o f mea sure men t r ange s 3 06 T ab le X .7 . S pec if ica t ion o f s ke le ta l e l emen ts o fd ome s t ic a n i ma l s 3 07 T ab le X .8 . Mor ta l i ty o f C apr in i 3 09 T ab le X .9 . S pec if ica t ion o f w i ld mamma l r ema ins 3 10 T ab le X .10 . F requency o f d ome s t ic a n i ma l s 3 12 T ab le X I .1 . S ab i A byad s a mp le s i n c luded i n t he e xam ina t ion o f s e eds a nd f r u i ts 3 26 T ab le X I .2 . S eed s , f r u i ts a nd o ther p lan t r ema in s i n S ab i A byad s a mp le s . N o . 2 6 a nd 3 3 a re f r om L a te N eo l i th ic s t ra ta ; t he o ther s a mp le s a re f r om aH a la f c on tex t 3 30 T ab le X I .3 . D i men s ions i n mm a nd i ndex v a lues o f T r i t icum d i coccum g ra ins . Ni sn umber o f mea sured g ra ins 3 31 ‚

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i x

C hap te r 1

RESEA RC H OBJECTIVES AND ST RATEG Y B y P e te r M .M .G . A kke rman s

A . THE BALIK H VALLE Y PRE HISTO RIC PROJECT T he e xcava t ion s a t T e l l S ab i A byad Ia r e p a r t o f ar e g iona l ly o r ien ted r e sea rch p ro jec t a imed a t c l a r i fy ing t he n a tu re o f p reh i s tor ic h uman o ccupa t ion i n t he B a l ikh v a l ley o f n o r the rn S y r ia i n g ene ra l , a nd o f s uch o ccupa t ion d u r ing t he H a la f p e r iod i n p a r t icu la r . T he B a l ikh v a l ley i sv e ry s u i tab le f o r p reh i s to r ic r e s ea rch . T he H o locene f l ood p la in i sr a the r n a r row a nd b o rde red b y P le is tocene t e r ra ce s , t hu s f o rm ing a l a rge ly h omogeneou s g eog raph ica l a nd e co log ica l u n i ty ( Mu lde r s 1 969 ; B oe rma , i n p re s s ) . Due t o i t s c en tra l g eog raph ica l p o s i t ion , t he v a l ley may h ave b een o f g rea t i mpor tance i n t e rm s o f c o mmun ica t ion . On t he o ne h and t he v a l ley f o rm s an a tu ra l n o r th -sou th r ou te o f c on tac t b e tween t he T u rk i sh h in te r land a nd t he S yr ian E uph ra te s r eg ion , w he rea s o n t he o the r h and t he s ou the rn f r inge o ft he d ry -fa rm ing z one , w h ich c ro s se s i t , f o rm s p a r t o f t he e a s t -we s t p a s sage b e tween t he L evan t a nd Me sopo tam ia ( Ma l lowan 1 946 :115 ; C ope land 1 979 :253 ) . H uman s e t t lemen t i n t he B a l ikh v a l ley h a s al ong h i s to ry . T he P le i s tocene t e r ra ce s b o rde r ing t he B a l ikh f l ood p la in h ave y i e lded t r a ce s o f P a laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion n ea r J i s r C hn ine ( Cauv in 1 970 ; H ou r s 1 979 ) , b u t t he mo s t n ume rou s r ema in s o f h uman o ccupa t ion d a te f r om t he H o locene p er iod . L o r ra ine C ope land a l ready c on s ide red t he v a l ley t o b e o f g rea t i mpo r tance d u r i ng t he 7 th t o 4 th m i l lenn ia B .C . ( Cope land 1 979 , 1 982 ) a nd d u r ing o ur 1 983 B a l ikh s u rvey w e f ound amp le e v idence t o s uppo r t t h i s v i ew ( Akke rman s 1 984 ) . H oweve r , l i t t le i sk nown o n t he n a ture o f t he e a r l ie s t s e t t lemen ts i n t he a rea , o r a bou t t he ir r e la t ion sh ip s w i th c on tempo ra ry s i te s i no the r r eg ion s . T hu s , o ur g ene ra l r e sea rch o b jec t ive s a re d i rec ted t owa rd s t he a cqu i s i t ion o f i n fo rma t ion b ea r ing o n t he se i t em s . Ou r s pec if i c r e sea rch i n te re s ts a re t he n a ture a nd d eve lopmen t o f Ha laf s oc ie ty i n t he B a l ikh a r ea . U n t i l r e cen t ly , r ema rkab ly l i t t le a t ten t ion h ad b een g i ven b y a rchaeo log i s t s t o t he s tudy o f t he H a la f p e r iod , d e sp i te i t s p o ss ib le i mpo r tance a s a n i n te rmed ia te s t age b e tween v i l lage e conom ie s a nd e a r ly s ta te f o rma t ion . W i th in a r e la t ive ly s hor t t ime H a la f c u l tu ra l t r a i ts s pread o ver t he n o r the rn p o r t ion o f t he F e r t i le C re scen t , t hu s r epre sen t ing t he f i r s t w ide spread c u l tura lh o r izon i nt he N ea r E a s t ( LeB lanc a nd Wa tson 1 973 :117 ) . I n s u rvey s t he e a s i ly r e cogn izab le H a la f p o t te ry h ad b een f ound o n t he s u r fa ce o f many s i te s . I

A l so i ne x cava t ion s H a la fc e ram ics a nd o the r f e a tu re s o f ten a ppea red , b u t i n mo s t c a se s t he a ppea rance o fH a la fr ema in s w a s a n a c c iden ta l f e a tu re n o t i n co rpo ra ted i n to t he o r ig ina l r e sea rch o b jec t ive s . Ou rf i r s t k now ledge o n H a la f ma te r ia l c u l tu re r e su l ted f r om t he s ound ing s a t Y unu sJCa rchem i sh b y Woo l ley i n 1 912 -1913 a nd f r om t he e xcava t ion s a t T e l l H a la f b y v on O ppenhe im b e tween 1 9 11 a nd 1 929 b u t , u n t i l r e cen t ly , t he mo s t s ub s tan t ia l b ody o fi n fo rma t ion o n H a la f s t emmed f r om Ma l lowan ' s e x cava t ion s a t A rpa ch iyah (Woo l ley 1 934 : v on Oppenhe im a nd S chm id t 1 943 : Ma l lowan a nd R o se 1 935 ) .

A f te r \ Ia 1 lowan ' s p i onee r ing w o rk a t A rpach iyah , f o r al o ng t ime

o n ly f ew e xcava t ion s w ere c a rr ied o u t w h ich f o cu sed o n t he H a la f p e r iod ( he re w e may p o in t e . g . t o B anah i lk , e xcava ted i n t he e a r ly 1 950 's (Wa tson 1 983 ) ) . I n r e cen t y ea r s h oweve r , t he re s e em s t o b e ag row ing i n te re s t i n H a la f s o c ie ty . An umbe r o f n ew e xcava t ion s i n I r aq , T urkey a nd S yr ia h ave y i e lded a w ea l th o fd a ta o n H a la f . ma te r ia l c u l tu re a nd s e t t lemen t o rgan i sa t ion . F o r I r aq w e may p o in t e . g . t ot he r e -excava t ion o fA rpa ch iyah ( H i ja ra 1 980 ) a nd t o t he l a rge sca le R u s s ian e xcava t ion s a t Y a r im T epe I a nd Y a r im T epe I I ( s ee e . g .

Me rpe r t

a nd Munchaev 1 969 a nd t he ir l a ter r epo r ts i n S um er ) . F or T urkey w e may r e f e r e . g . t oG e r ik iha c iyan (Wa tson a nd L eB lanc 1 973 ) a nd C av i T a r la s i ( von W ickede 1 984 ; v on W ickede a nd M i s ir 1 985 ) , a nd f o r S y r ia w e may men t ion e . g . T e l l A qab ( Dav id son a nd Wa tk in s 1 981 ) a nd S ham s e d -D in ( Azoury e ta l . 1 980 ) . A l though t he se n ew ly e xcava ted : s i te s h ave y i e lded h i gh ly v a luab le i n fo rma t ion o n H a la f s oc ie ty , a ma jo r d i sadvan tage i st ha t t hey r ema in f o r t he l a rger p a r t i s o la ted s e t t lemen ts , t ha t i st o s ay n o t i s o la ted i n t e rm s o f s e t t lemen t d i s tr ibu t ion b u t i s o la ted i nt e rm so fi nve s t iga t ion . I n mo s t c a se s a r chaeo log ica lw o rk i sc onf ined t o t he s i te s o le ly , w herea s i t s e nv ironmen ta l a nd c u l tura l s e t t ing o n ar e g iona l s c a le i sn eg lec ted . W i th in t he s cope o fo ur p reh is to r ic p ro jec t i n t he B a l ikh v a l ley , i t w i l l b e a t temped t o a vo id t h is w ho l ly s i te -o r ien ted a pproach a nd t o r e la te t he i nd iv idua l s e t t lemen t t o t he o ve ra l l s e t t lemen t s y s tem . O fc ou r se , t h i s a pproach i sn o t n ew ; h e re w e may r e f e r , f o r e xamp le , t o t he e xce l len t w ork o f B ra idwood e t a l . i n I r aq ( Bra idwood a nd H owe 1 960 : B ra idwood e t a l . 1 983 ) a nd t o t he w o rk o fH o le e t a l . i nt he D eh L u ran ( Ho le e ta l . 1 969 ; H o le 1 977 ) . Our p reh is to r ic i nve s t iga t ion s i n t he B a l ikh v a l ley f o cu s o n c h rono logy , s e t t lemen t p a t te rn a nd e co logy o f l o ca l H a la f s oc ie ty .

S pec if i ca l ly o u r p ro jec t

s hou ld d ea l w i th t he f o l low ing p rob lem s : 1 .

T he d a te a nd t he n a tu re o ft he i n troduc t ion o fH a la fc u l tu re i nt he B a l ikh v a l ley . When d oe s H a la f a ppea r i n t h i s r eg ion a nd h ow d oe s i tr e la te t o l o ca l L a te N eo l i th ic s oc ie t ie s?

I s H a la f h e re a f o re ign o r a n i nd igenou s

d eve lopmen t?

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F ig . 1 . 1 . Map o ft he B a l ikh v a l ley w i th ( i n se t ) i t s l o ca t ion i n S yr ia . 3

2 .

T he d u ra t ion o fH a la fo ccupa t ion i nt he B a l ikh v a l ley ( i . e . t he c on s truc t ion o f al o ca l c hrono logy ) . A re t he re a ny i nd ica t ion s a s t o t he d eve lopmen t o f a' l oca l H a la f '? H ow d oe s H a la f i n t he B a l ikh v a l ley r e la te t o H a la f i n o the r r e g ion s?

3 .

T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t he i nd iv idua l s e t t lemen t a nd t he o ve ra l l s e t t le m en t s y s tem . Wh ich v a r iab le s u nde r l ie t h e l o ca t ion a nd r o le o f as e t t le m en t? A re t here a ny ' c en tra l p lace s '?

4 .

T he n a tu re a nd e x ten t o f t he v a r iou s H a la f s e t t lemen ts .

A re t he re a ny

i nd ica t ion s o fl o ng te rm , p e rmanen t o ccupa t ion o r , o n t he o the r h and , o f s ho r t te rm a nd p e rhap s s ea sona lo ccupa t ion? E xcava t ion s a t D am ish l iyya h ave i nd ica ted t ha t s ea sona lo ccupa t ion s hou ld n o t b e e xc luded a s ap o ss i b i l i ty o f H a la f s e t t lemen t O rgan isa t ion ( Akke rman s , i n p re s s ) . A re t he re a ny c l ue s a s t o t he s i ze o f p opu la t ion p e r s e t t lemen t a nd f o r t he B a l ikh v a l ley a s aw ho le d u r ing H a la ft ime s? 5 .

T he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t he i nd iv idua l s e t t lemen t , t he o vera l ls e t t lemen t s y s tem a nd t he n a tura l e nv ironmen t .

Wh ich s ub s is tence e conomy a nd

s ubs i s tence s t ra teg ie s u nde r l ie H a la f s oc ie ty? Wh ich v a r iab le s o fe co log i c a l n a tu re u nde r l ie t he c ho ice o f s e t t lemen t l o ca t ion?

Wh ich e co log ica l

v a r iab le s d ef ine t he s oc io -econom ic f unc t ion o f as e t t lemen t? I n a t temp t ing t o a n swe r t he q ue s t ion s j u s t r a i sed , ar eg iona l s t udy w a s s e t u p , c on s i s t ing o f ac o mb ined p rog ram o fs u rvey a nd e x cava t ion s . T h is s tudy s t a r ted a s as i de l ine o f t he U n ive r s i ty o f Am s te rdam ' s a rchaeo log ica l p ro jec t a t T e l l H ammam e t -Tu rkman o n t he B a l ikh . A t t he l a t te r s i te , l a rge sca le e xcava t i on s h ave b een u nde r taken s i nce 1 981 . T h is p ro jec t , i n i t ia ted a nd d i rec ted b y D r . Mau r i ts v an L oon a nd D r .D ieder ik Me i je r , w a so r ig ina l ly s e t u pf o r w ho l ly d i f f e ren t p u rpo se s t han t ho se b rough t f o rwa rd h e re . A t T e l l H ammam e t -Tu rkman , t he ma in empha s i s i sl a id o n at ho rough i nve s t iga t ion o f t he s e cond m i l lenn ium ( M idd le B ronze A ge ) l a ye r s p re sen t a t t he s i te , a l though c on s ide rab le a t ten t ion h a s b een g i ven t o t he l owe r , p reh is to r ic l e ve l s ( van L oon 1 982 , 1 983 , 1 985 ; v an L oon , e d . , i n p re s s ; v an L oon a nd Me i je r 1 983 ) . W i th t he k ind p e rm i s s ion o ft he S yr ian D irec tora te -Gene ra lo fA n t iqu i t ie s , as urvey o ft he B a l ikh v a l ley w a s c a rr ied o u t i nt he a u tumn o f1 983 . T h i s s u rvey w a s s pec if i ca l ly a imed a t t he r e cove ry o fe a r ly v i l lage s i te s , b u t s i te s f r om l a te r p e r iod sw e re n o te xc luded . I ns um , o ver 2 00 s i te sw e re f ound r ang ing i nd a te f r om t he e a r ly N eo l i th ic p e r iod u n t i lt he l a te M idd le A ge s ( Akke rman s1 984 ) . T he s i te s a re d i s tr ibu ted i n al i nea r p a t tern a l ong t he B a l ikh a nd i t s w ad is . O cca s iona l ly t hey a ppea ri nc l u s te r s ( s ee A kke rman s 1 988 ) . A n a s ton i sh ing ly l a rge amoun t o f

4

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Contour map o f t he area around Sab i Abyad (after E R A . 1 960 d ra w ing I PP . 1 988)

F ig . 1 . 2 . C on tou r map o ft he a rea w e s t o fT e l l S ab i A byad a nd t he l o ca t ion o fH a la f s i te s i nt he i mm ed ia te s u rround ing s o ft he s i te .

5

p reh is to r ic s i te s a ppea red i nt h i s n a r row ly c i rcum sc r ibed a rea . We f o und a tl e a s t 2 1 s i te s d a t ing t o t he 7 th a nd e a r ly 6 th m i l lenn ia B .C . , a bou t 2 7 H a la fs i te s a nd a bou t 1 5 U ba id -re la ted s i te s , s ome o ft hem v e ry l a rge . Ad e ta i led a na ly s i s o ft he r e su l ts o ft he s urvey i si n p rog re s s . U n t i l n ow , e xcava t ion s h ave b een c a r r ied o u t b y t he U n ive r s i ty o f Am s te r d am A rchaeo log ica l M i s s ion a t t h ree s i te s i n t he B a l ikh v a l ley : T e l l H ammam e t -Turkman , T e l l D am i sh l iyya a nd T e l l S ab i A byad . A l l s i te s y i e lded p reh is to r i c r ema in s r ang ing i n d a te f r om t he 7 th a nd 6 th m i l lenn ia ( Dam ish l iyya a nd S ab i A byad ) t i l l t he 5 th a nd 4 th m i l lenn ia ( Dam ish l iyya p i ts a nd H ammam e t T u rkman ) . A t T e l l H ammam e t -Turkman . t he 5 th a nd 4 th m i l lenn ium l a ye r s w e re u nea r thed i n ad eep s t epped t r ench o n t he e a s t s l ope o ft he mound . On t he b a s is o f t he p o t te ry r ç covered , w e w e re a b le t o s e t u p al e ng thy a nd u n in te r rup ted s equence o f N or the rn U ba id -re la ted a nd L a te C ha lco l i th ic c e ram ic d eve lopmen t a t t he s i te ( Akkerman s , i n p re s s ) . T h i s s equence a l low s as e cu re d a t ing o f t he p o t te ry ( and t hu s o f s i te s ) f ound d u r ing t he 1 983 s u rvey .

T e l l H ammam e t -

T urkman mu s t h ave b een o ne o f t he ma jor c en tre s o f o ccupa t ion i n t he B a l ikh v a l ley d u r ing l a te r p reh is to r ic t ime s . T e l l D am ish l iyya i ss i tua ted o n t he w e s t b ank o ft he r i ve r B a l ikh , c l o se t o T e l l H ammam e t -Turkman . I n r e spon se t o t he i mm inen t d e s truc t ion o f t he s i te b y i r r iga t ion p rac t ice s a nd h ou se -bu i ld ing , s ma l l -sca le e xcava t ion s w e re c a rr ied o u t h e re i nt he a u tumn o f1 984 . T he se s ound ing sy i e lded a n i n te re s t ing s equence o f P re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic l e ve l s c ove red b y P o t te ry N eo l i th ic l a yer s , a l l d a t ing t o t he 7 th m i l lenn ium B .C . T he c e ram ic s f r om t he l a te r l e ve l s a t t he s i te s howed ac l o sed r e semb lance t o t ho se f ound b y C auv in a t T e l l A s souad , s i tua ted o n ly a bou t 1 2 km n o r th o fD am ish l iyya ( Cauv in 1 972 ) . T e l l D am ish l iyya r ep re sen ts a s ma l l N eo l i th ic s e t t lemen t , c ove r ing o n ly a bou t 0 . 4 h a . Sma l l v i l lage s o rh am le ts l i ke D am ish l iyya a re d i s tr ibu ted c o mmon ly t hroughou t t he B a l ikh v a l ley . T e l l D am ish l iyya p robab ly w a s d e se r ted a round 6 000/5900 B .C . A f ter a h ia tu s o f s eve ra l c en tu r ie s , t he s i te w a s r eoccup ied o n al im i ted s ca le d ur ing t he H a la f p er iod . T he re a re s o me i nd ica t ion s t ha t T e l l D am ish l iyya a t t h i s t ime may h ave s e rved a s as ea sona l c amp s i te , r epea ted ly v i s i ted f o r as ho r t t ime o ve r an umbe r o fy ea r s ( Akke rman s , i n p re s s ) . H a la fo ccupa t ion a t D am ish l iyya i sd ef in i te ly o f al a te r d a te t han t ha t o fS ab i A byad . A t T e l l S ab i Abyad e xcava t ion s w e re u nde r taken i n t he s pr ing o f 1 986 ( Akke rman s 1 987 ) . T h i s s i te w a s s e lec ted f o r e xcava t ion f o r s eve ra lr ea son s . T he ma in w e re t ha ta )o ns urvey e v idence w et hough tt ha t S ab iA byad m igh tr epre sen t ap e rmanen t ly o ccup ied a nd c en tra l H a la f s e t t lemen t , s u r rounded b y an umbe r 6

o fs ma l le r ' s a te l l i te s ' , a nd p e rhap s f u lf i l l ing a k i nd o fl o ca l s e rv ice f unc t ion , a nd b ) t ha t s u r face e v idence s ugge s ted t ha t H a la f r ema in s c ou ld e a s i ly b e r eached h e re . T he e xcava t ion s y i e lded ah i gh ly i n te re s t ing s equence o fE a r ly H a la fl e ve l s , s i tua ted u pon L a te N eo l i th ic l a ye r s . T he se N eo l i th ic r ema in s a re n o d oub t o f a l a te r d a te t han t ho se e x cava ted a t t he n ea rby s i te s o f D am ish l iyya o r A s souad . T e l l S ab i A byad s e em s t o h ave b een i nhab i ted t hroughou t t he 6 th m i l lenn ium B .C . S ome s he rd s f ound o n t he s u r fa ce o f t he s i te a nd c l o se ly r e semb l ing t he c e ram ic sf r om D am i sh l iyya a nd A s souad s ugge s t t ha t e a r l ie r( i . e . 7 th m i l lenn ium ) l a ye r s may b e f ound h e re t oo , b u t w e c anno t y e t p rove a c on t inuou s o ccupa t ion f r om t he 7 th i n to t he 6 th m i l lenn ium . I th a s b een s ugge s ted t ha t a s ar e su l t o f i n c rea s ing d e s icca t ion , t he B a l ikh v a l ley w a sd e se r ted i nt he e a r ly 6 th m i l lenn ium B .C . ( Cope land 1 979 :268 -69 ) ; w e e xpec t , h owever , t ha t f u tu re f i e ld w o rk a t S ab i A byad w i l l y i e ld d ef in i te e v idence f o r t he n on -ex is tence o fs uch ag ap i nt h i s a rea . O ccupa t ion may h ave c on trac ted t o s eve ra l s i te s o n ly b u t w e d o n o t e xpec t t he v a l ley a s s uch t o 'h ave b een w ho l ly d e ser ted ( s ee A kke rman s 1 988 ) .

B . PRE VIO US W O RK IN THE BALIK H VALLEY

I n S yr ian a rchaeo logy , t he B a l ikh v a l ley h a s b een t erra i ncogn i ta f o r al ong t ime . T he G e rman e xp lore r E dua rd S a chau t r ave l led t hrough t he r eg ion i n 1 879 , o n h i s w ay f r om H a r ran t o R aqqa , a nd n o ted an umber o f mound s b o th o n t he e a s t a nd w e s t b ank o ft he r i ve r( Sa chau 1 883 ) . O ve r4 0 y ea r sl a te r , i n 1 925 , W .F . A lbr igh t v i s i ted t he v a l ley a nd r epo r ted o n p a in ted p o t te ry f ound a t T e l l Z a idan ( s i tua ted n ea r t he o ld c onf luen ce o fB a l ikh a nd E uph ra te s ) a nd a tT e l l a s -Saman ( nea r t he modern v i l lage o f t he s ame n ame i n t he m idd le B a l ikh r eg ion ) . H e s ugge s ted a c l o se r e semb lance b e tween t he B a l ikh p a in ted p o t te ry a nd t ha t o ft he s ou the rn Me sopo tam ian s i te s o fT e l l a l -Uba id a nd E r idu ( A lbr igh t 1 926 ) . I n t he l a te 1 930 ' s , Ma l lowan c ame t o t he v a l ley a f te r c o mp le t ing h i s e xca v a t ion s a t T e l l B rak i nn o r thea s te rn S yr ia ( Ma l lowan 1 946 ) . I n as i x w eek s ea son Ma l lowan e xecu ted s ound ing s a t 5s i te s i n t he m idd le a nd u ppe r B a l ikh r eg ion , v i z . , t e l l s Me f e sh , A swad , S ah lan , J id le a nd I bn a s -Shehab ( t he l a t ter s i te i sa l so n amed " T e l l H ammam" b y Ma l lowan b u t s hou ld n o t b e c on fu sed w i th T e l l H am mam e t -Turkman , s i tua ted a bou t 2 0 km s ou th o f Ma l lowan ' sT e l l H ammam a nd r e cen t ly e xcava ted b y t he U n ive r s i ty o f Am s te rdam ' s A rcha eo log ica l M is s ion ) . A t T e l l J id le , t he l ower l e ve l s 8 -7 y i e lded ma te r ia l w h ich may b e p laced i n t he l a te f ou r th o r t he e a r ly t h ird m i l lenn ium B .C . T ru ly p reh i s to r ic r ema in s w e re f ound i n t r enche s a t T e l l Me f e sh a nd T e l l A swad , w he rea s f l in t i mp lemen ts c l o s e ly r e semb l ing t ho se o fA swad w ere a l so f ound a tI bn a s -Shehab , b u t a ppa ren t ly i n ad i s turbed c on tex t ( Ma l lowan 1 946 :138 ) . A t Me f e sh , t r a ce s o f ar e c tangu la r 7

b u i ld ing a ppea red , b u i l t o f r a the r l a rge mud b r ick s . N ea r t h i s s t ruc ture a n um b er o fc i rcu la r " co rn b in s" w ere u ncove red , a l so b u i l t o f mud b r ick s ( i b id . :126 ) . [ ba id -re la ted p o t te ry was f ound i na s soc ia t ion w i th t he se a r ch i tec tura l r ema in s . Ma l lowan c on s ide red t he se c e ram ic s t o b e o f a" hybr id" n a ture : a l though c l ea r ly o f l J ba id d e r iva t ion , t hey s howed H a la f i nf luence ( i b id . :1 28 -29 ) . On t he t op o f t he mound a tT e l l A swad , Ma l lowan f ound t r a ce s o f ar e c tangu la r b u i ld ing w h ich h e c on s ide red t o b e long t o t he H a la f p e r iod . O n t he b a s i s o f a n o x s ku l l f ound a cro s s t he t h re sho ld o f ad oo rway , h e s ugge s ted t h i s b u i ld ing m igh t h ave s e rved a s as h r ine ( i b id . :124 ) . F o r al ong t ime , Ma l lowan ' s s ound ing s h ave r ema ined t he o n ly s ou rce s o f a r chaeo log ica l i n forma t ion f o r t he B a l ikh a r ea . I n 1 954 . D o s s in a nd R ihaou i s urveyed t he v a l ley b u t , e xcep t f o r as ho r t n o te , n o a ccoun t o f t he ir f i nd ing s i n t he r eg ion i sa va i lab le ( R ihaou i 1 969 :83 ) .

I n 1 969 , aF rench t eam d i rec ted b y

J . C auv in u nde r took a s urvey o f t he B a l ikh a nd t he a d ja cen t J ez irah r eg ion s ( Cauv in

1 970 ) .

On t he t e r race s

b o rder ing

t he B a l ikh

J i sr C hn ine a n umbe r o f P a laeo l i th ic s i te s w a s f ound .

f l ood

p la in n ea r

T he l i th ic a s semb lage s

w e re o fl a te A cheu lean t r ad i t ion b u t a l ready s howed L eva l lo i s i nf luence ( Cauv in 1 970 ; Ma len fan t 1 976 ) . I n t he B a l ikh v a l ley i t se l f , o n ly af ew p lace s w e re v i s i ted b y C auv in , t wo o f w h ich w e re n o t k nown b e fo re :

Kh irbe t a l -Ba s sa l a nd T e l l

R i j l iye . B o th s i te s y i e lded H a la f p o t te ry o n t he s u r face . A t Kh irbe t a l -Ba s sa l b rown -bu rn ished p o t te ry a l so a ppea red , t oge the r w i th f r agmen ts o fs t one v e s se l s . The l a t te r h ave b een c o mpa red w i th e xamp le s f r om J a rmo ( Cauv in 1 970 :287 ) . N ever the le s s , t he s i te wh ich a ppa ren t ly mo s t a t trac ted C auv in ' s a t ten t ion w a s T e l l A s souad ( Ma l lowan ' s A swad ) , f o r i n 1 970 a s t epped t r ench w a s l a id o u t o n t he n o r th s l ope o ft he mound ( Cauv in 1 972 ) . T h i s s ound ing r evea led as equence o f e i gh t N eo l i th ic o ccupa t ion l e ve l s , n umbe red

It o

V I I I f r om t op t o b a se .

R ema rkab ly e nough , p o t te ry a ppea red o n ly i n t he l owe rl e ve l s V i l l -V i l ( t o b e d a ted a round 6 600/6500 B .C . , s e e C auv in 1 974 ) w he rea s t he u ppe r l e ve l s V I I y i e lded n oc e ram ic sa ta l l ! A no ther c ur iou sf a c ti st ha t t he P o t tery N eo l i th ic l e ve l s s howed n o t r a ce s o fa rch i tec ture w he rea s t he P re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic l aye r sy i e lded mud -b r ick r ema in s . I ti s , h owever , d oub tfu l w he the r t he se s urpr is ing f i nd s f r om A ssouad g i ve ac o r rec t p i c tu re o fN eo l i th ic d eve lopmen ts a tt he s i te . P robab ly t he a bsence o f p o t te ry i nt he u ppe r l e ve l s a nd o fa r ch i tec tu ra l f e a ture s i nt he l owe r l e ve l si sd ue t os amp l ing p rocedure s( Le M iè re 1 979 :40 ) . A t D am ish l iyya ,s i tua ted o n ly a bou t 1 2 km s ou th o f T e l l A s souad , w e f ound a s equence o f P re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic a nd P o t te ry N eo l i th ic l aye r s ,a l l ma rked b y mud -br ick a rch i tec ture b u t w i th p o t te ry s o le ly i n t he u ppe r l e ve l s . T he se c e ram ic s c l o se ly r e semb le t ho se o f A s souad ( Akke rman s , i n p re ss ) . H a la f p o t te ry w a s o n ly f ound b y C auv in o n t he s u r fa ce o f T e l l A s souad . N o s uch c e ram ic s a ppea red i n t he t r enche s l a id o u t a nd n o l i nk t o Ma l lowan ' s 8

r e c tangu la r b u i ld ing o f s uppo sed H a laf ian d a te c ou ld h e e s tab l i shed . C ope land ( 1 979 :269 ) h a s s ugg e s ted t ha t Ma l lowan ' s b u i ld ing was i nf a c t N eo l i th ic a nd o lde r t han t he H a la f p o t te ry f ound a t t he s i te ( a v iew w h ich i sa l so h e ld h e re ) . More r e cen t ly . i n 1 978 a F rench -Br i t ish t e am d i rec ted b y P . S an lav i l le s u rveyed t he B a l ikh a r ea . P a laeo l i th ic r ema in s w e re f ound i nt he l owe rB a l ikh , i n t h e s a me r eg ion f r om w h ich C auv in , a bou t 1 0 y ea r s b e fo re , r epo r ted t he p re sence o f s ome l a te A cheu lean s i te s ( Hour s 1 979 ) . I n t he H o locene f l ood p l a in o f t he B a l ikh , an umbe ro fe a r ly s i te s w a s v i s i ted , e i gh t o fw h ich w e re n o t k nown b e fore . T he se s i te s r ange i nd a te f r om t he l a te 7 th t o t he 4 th m i l lenn ium B .C . ( Cope land 1 979 , 1 982 ) . C oa r se p o t te ry a nd f l in t i mp lemen ts d a t ing f r om t he 7 th m i l lenn ium B .C . w e re f ound a tt wo s i te s , w he rea s H a la fa nd U ba id c e ram ic s w e re f ound a ts i x o the r s i te s . E x cep t f r om o ne p la ce ( T e l l Mounba teh ) , w h ich i st hough t t o h ave b een o ccup ied t h roughou t t he w ho le H a la f p e r iod , t he ma jo r i ty o f t he n ew ly d i scover ed s i te s i sc on s idered t o b e long t o t he l a te r p a r t o f t he H a la f p er iod o r t o aH a la f -Uba id t r an s i t iona l p ha se . T he ma in i mpo r tance o f t h i s 1 978 s u rvey i st ha t i tw a s t he f i r s t w h ich t ru ly a cknow ledged t he i mpor tance o f t he B a l ikh v a l ley i n p reh i s to r ic t im e s .

9

C hap te r I

TELL SABI AB YAD : THE S ITE AN D THE SETTIN G B y P e ter M .M .G . A kke rman s

A . DESC RIPTIO N OF THE S ITE T e l l S ab i A byad ( 'mound o ft he w h i te b oy ' ) i sl o ca ted i nt he u pper B a l ikh r eg ion o fn o r the rn S yr ia . T he s i te i ss i tua ted a bou t 2km s ou th o ft he modern v i l lage o f H ammam e t -Turkman ,n ea rt he r oad f r om R aqqa t o S louk ,a ta bou t

5 00

9 0 'N .

450

2 0 'E a nd a pprox ima te ly 3 20 m a bove s ea l e ve l . T he s i te i sp a r t o f ag roup o ff our mound s d a t ing b ack t o t he 7 th a nd 6 th m i l lenn ium B .C . As ma l l ' F lach s ied lung ' d a t ing t o t he l a te 2 nd m i l lenn ium B .C . i sa l so a t te s ted h e re . p reh is to r ic

mound s ,

a pa r t f r om

T e l l S ab i

T he c l u s te r o f

A byad , c on s is t s o f t wo

p robab ly

P re -Po t te ry N eo l i th ic s i te s a nd o ne H a laf ian mound . N owaday s , t he l a t te r s i te i su sed a s ag raveya rd f o r t he i nhab i tan t s o f H ammam e t -Tu rkman a nd t hu s i s a lmo s t c o mp le te ly c ove red b y mode rn g rave s . Af ew s uch b u r ia l s a re a l so f ound i nt he n o r thwe s te rn p a r t o f T e l l S ab i A byad . Among l o ca l v i l lage r s t he who le c l u s te r o fs i te s i sk nown a s Kh irbe t S ab i A byad . F o rr ea son so fc onven ience a nd t oa vo id a ny c on fu s ion , w eh ave n umbe red t he v a r iou s mound s f r om It o V . H ence fo r th i n t h i s w o rk S ab i A byad s t and s f o r T e l l S ab i A byad I . T he p reh i s tor ic mound s a re s i tua ted i n al i nea r n o r th -sou th p a t te rn a t s ho r t d i s tance s o fe acho the r . T he l o ca t ion o ft he mound s s ugge s ts t ha t t he N ahr e t -Tu rkman , ab ranch o ft he B a l ikh , o r ig ina l ly t ook i t s c our se a l ong t he c o mp lex . N owaday s ,t he N ah r e t -Turkman f l ow sa t as ho r t d i s tance w e s to ft he S ab i A byad mound s . I ts hou ld , h oweve r , b e n o ted t ha t t he c our se o f t he N ahr e t -Turkman i sf r equen t ly

mod if i ed f o r

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m ea su re sa bou t 2 40 x 1 70 m a ti t s b a se ( abou t 4 . 1 h a ) a nd r i se sb e tween 5a nd 1 0 i na bove t he s ur round ing f i e ld s . A c tua l ly T e l l S ab i A byad Ii sn o t o ne c ohe ren t mound , b u t ac l u s ter o f a t l e a s t f our s ma l l mound s w h ich h ave me rged t h rough t ime ( F ig . 1 .2 ) . T he o lde s t r ema in s s o f a r a re f ound o n t he n o r th s i de o f T e l l S ab i A byad I .E xcava t ion s o n t he n o r thea s tern r i se o f S ab i A byad h ave y i e lded L a te N eo l i th ic r ema in s i mmed ia te ly b e low t he s ur face . S ince v i rg in s o i l h a s n o t y e t b een r e a ched ,t he d a te o ft he e a r l ie s t o ccupa t ion a t S ab i A byad i sn o t k nown 1

F ig . 1 .1 . V iew o fT e l l S ab i A byad f r om t he n o r thea s t .

y e t . H owever , s ome c e ram ics f ound o n t he s ur fa ce s how c l o se af in i t ie s t o p o t te ry f r om t he n ea rby s i te s o fT e l l D am ish l iyya a nd T e l l A s souad ( Akke rman s ,i np re ss : C auv in 1 972 ) , t hu s s ugge s t ing a d a te i n t he s e cond h a l f o f t he 7 th m i l lenn ium B .C . f o r t h i s e a r l ie s t o ccupa t ion .

L a te N eo l i th ic r ema in s c o mpa rab le t o t ho se

u nea r thed i n t he n o r thea s tern a rea w e re a l so f ound i n t he s ou thea s te rn p a r t o f T e l l S ab i A byad I .H oweve r , h e re t he L a te N eo l i th ic s t ra ta h ave b een c ove red b y a n a ccumu la t ion o fH a la fl e ve l s o ver 3m t h ick . N owaday s b o th t he n o r thea s te rn a nd t he s ou thea s te rn mound s a re a bou t 5m h igh , b u t a ppa ren t ly i n N eo l i th ic t ime s ac on s ide rab le d if e rence i n t e l l h e igh ts e x i s ted . H a la f o ccupa t ion a t S ab i A byad s e em s t o h ave b een c oncen tra ted i nt he o r ig ina l ly l owe rs ou thea s tern p a r t o ft he s i te . T owa rd s t he e nd o f t he 6 th m i l lenn ium B .C . T e l l S ab i A byad Is e em s t o h ave b een d e ser ted , a nd i tw a s n o t b e fo re t he e nd o f t he 2 nd m i l lenn iu m B .C . t ha t p a r ts o ft he s i te w e re r e inhab i ted . T he n ew s e t t lemen t p robab ly o ccup ied a n a r ea o f a bou t 1 00 x 1 00 m o n t op o f t he l ower p r eh i s tor ic r ema in s . T he p re sen t e v idence f r om S ab i A byad s ugge s ts t ha t t he se l a te 2 nd m i l lenn ium o ccupa t ion l e ve l s a nd t he ir a s soc ia ted e ro s ion d ebr is l a rge ly a ccoun t f o r t he f i l l ing o f t he d epre ss ion s b e tween t he v a r iou s s ma l l p reh is to r ic mound s , t hu s g i v ing t he s i te i t s p re sen t r a the r f l a t a nd c ohe ren t a ppea rance .

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C on tour map o fT e l lS ab i Abyad Iw i th ( i n c i rc le s ) t he a pprox i ma te l o ca t ion o ft he s i ng le mound s .

I n 1 978 a F rench -Br i t i sh t eam s urveyed p a r ts o f t he B a l ikh v a l ley , t hereby v i s i t i ng t he Kh irbe t S ab i A byad c o mp lex ( Cope land 1 979 , 1 982 ) . F ou r mound s w e re f ound b u t o n ly t wo w e re s ho r t ly d e scr ibed : ' Te l l S ubh i A b iad I '( wh ich i st he p re sen t b u r ia l mound o ft he v i l lage o f H ammam e t -Tu rkman o r , i no u r t e rm ino l o gy , T e l l S ab i A byad I V ) a nd T e l l S ubh i A b iad I ( wh ich i so u r T e l l S ab i A byad I ) . F rom b o th s i te s H a la fa nd p a r t icu la r ly U ba id ma te r ia l i sr epo r ted . T he l a t te r i s , h oweve r , d ef in i te ly a b sen t f r om t he Kh irbe t S ab i A byad c o mp lex . A ppa ren t l y s ome c oa r se ly a nd s imp ly d eco ra ted H a la f s he rd s w ere e r roneou s ly t aken f o r U ba id p o t te ry . A n i mpo r tan t N o r the rn U ba id -re la ted s e t t lemen t , T e l l H ammam e t -Turkman , i sf ound a to n ly f i ve km s ou thwe s t o f S ab i Abyad ( van L oon 1 983 , 1 985 ) .

B . THE NATU RAL SETTIN G T he B a l ikh v a l ley w a s f o rmed a t t he s t a r t o ft he u ppe r P le is tocene . O r ig ina l ly , t he B a l ikh i n i t s l owe r c ou r se f l owed t o t he w e s t , f o l low ing t he w ad i a l -Fayd i n to t he E uph ra te s v a l ley . Due t o t e c ton ic movemen ts a l ong t he E uph ra te s f au l t t owa rd s t he e nd o f t h e u pper P le i s tocene , t he B a l ikh c hanged i t s c ou r se t o t he e a s t , t he reby c u t t ing t h rough E uph ra te sd epo s i ts a nd c r ea t ing af l oodp la in a bou t 1 3

Ikm w ide . G enera l ly , t he B a l ikh p la in i sa bou t 1 00 km l ong a nd a bou t 4t o 6km w ide , a l though

i n

t wo a rea s . v i z . . i nt he n or th . t h e r e g ion e a s t o fT e i l S ab i A byad .

a nd , i n t he s ou th . a t t he c onf luence o f o ld a nd r e cen t B a l ikh . t he v a l ley w idens i n to ab road a nd u ndu la t ing p la in o ver 1 2 km w ide F ig .1 .I ) . E xcep t i nt he l a t ter a rea s , t he v a l ley i sg enera l ly b ordered b y s t eep g rave l t e rrace s r i s ing 1 0 t o 3 0 m e tre s a bove t h e p l a in . T he B a l ikh b a s in c on s is ts o f H o locene d epo s i ts h av ing at h ickne ss o f 5t o 1 0 m e tre s a nd ma in ly b u i l t u p o f b rown f l uv ia t i le -aeo l i th ic bar n s .

Mo s t a nc ien t s e t t lemen ts a re s i tua ted o n t he se H o locene d epos i ts : t he

P le is tocene t e r races . a pa r t f r om P a laeo l i th ic o ccupa t ion , w ere ma in ly u sed f o r t he c on s truc t ion o f R oman -Pa r th ian c eme ter ie s . T he r i ver B a l ikh i s as ma l l s t ream h av ing a n a verage w id th o f a bou t 6 m e tre s . On ly n ea r i t s ma in s pr ing a t ' A m t he r i ve r i sc ons iderab ly w ider .

a l -A rous n ear t he S vro -Turk ish b o rder

' Mn a l -Arou s i sf e d b y s ub terranean s t reams

d ra in ing t he e x tens ive p i edmon t a rea n ear U r fa i n T urkey . S evera l s i des treams ( Nahr Q a ramokh . N ahr J u lab ) c on tr ibu te t o t he B a l ikh b u t f o r t he l a rger p a r t o f t he y ea r t he se s t ream s a re d ry . T he B a l ikh i s ap erenn ia l t r ibu ta ry o ft he S yr ian E uphra te s . T he a verage f l ow o f t he B a l ikh i sa bou t 6r n3 , s e c w h ich i sv ery l ow w hen c o mpa red w i th t he E uphra tes o r t he Khabur t ha t h ave a n a verage f l ow o f a bou t 8 40 m3/sec a nd 5 0 m3/sec . r e spec t ive ly . On ly a f ter t he w in ter r a in s t he f l ow o ft he B a l ikh may i n crea se t o a bou t 1 2 m3/sec

Mu lder s 1 969 : W ir th 1 9'1) .

N owadays . i n s u mmer l a rge p a r ts o f t he B a l ikh a r e c o mp le te ly d ry .

T he B a l ikh

p la in i sd ra ined b y n u merous c hanne ls a nd w ad is , s ome o f w h ich a re v ery l a rge . O cca s iona l ly , ad ifuse r i ver p a t tern o ccur s , d iv id ing t he w a ter o ft he B a l ikh o ver n umerous c hanne l s a nd t hu s c r ea t ing a h igh ly i nacce ss ib le , o f ten s wampy a rea ( c f . Ma l lowan 1 946 ) . T he B a l ikh v a l ley h a s a n a r id , s t eppe l ike c l i ma te marked b y al ow a nnua l p rec ip i ta t ion a nd v ery h igh e vapora t ion . S umme rs a re d ry a nd h o t . T he r a iny s ea son s t ar ts a t t he e nd o fO c tober a nd may l a s t u n t i l A pr i l . Al a rge p ar t o ft he p rec ip i ta t ion c o me s f r om h eavy r a in s t orm s a nd c l oud b ur s ts , a nd mo s t r a in o f a mon th may e a s i ly f a l l w i th in 2 4 h ours ( Mu lde r s 1 969 :18 ) . T he B a l ikh v a l ley r ough ly l i e s b e tween t he 2 00 a nd 3 00 mm i s ohye ts . T he a verage a nnua l r a in fa l l v a r ie s f r om 1 83 mm a t R aaqa o n t he E uphra tes t o 2 75 mm a t T e l l A byad n ea r t he S yro -Turk ish b order . N owadays , t he c ruc ia l 2 50 mm i s ohye t , r unn ing e a s t -we s t s omewhe re n ea r t he c onf luence o fB a l ikh a nd i t s ma in t r ibu ta ry w ad i Q a ramokh , d iv ide s t he v a l ley i n to t wo z ones o f w ide ly d if eren t l and -u se . T he n or thern p a r ts o f t he B a l ikh v a l ley , i n c lud ing t he r eg ion a round S ab i A byad , a re

s u i tab le f o r d ry -fa rm ing b u t i n t he s ou th a gr icu l ture n eces -

s i ta te s i r r iga t ion . T he p re sen t -day v a l ley i sa lmo s t e n t ire ly u sed f o r a g r icu l tura l p urpo se s . I n t he n o r th , w hea t a nd b a r ley a re t he ma in c rops . I r r iga ted f i e ld s a re 1 4

p l an ted w i th c o t ton , v ege tab le s a nd o cca s iona l ly a p r ico ts ( Bo t tema 1 983 ) . I nt he s ou th , e x ten s ive c o t ton f i e ld s a re f ound . S em i -na tu ra l v ege ta t ion i sr e s tr ic ted t o t he i mmed ia te s u r round ing so ft he r i ve r . H ere p op la r a nd w i l low may o ccu r w i th a n u nde rg row th o fr e ed s a nd o ther ma r sh p lan ts .

1 5

C hap te r I I

TELL SABI AB YA D : ST RATIG RAP H Y AND ARC HITECTU RE B y P e te r M .M .G . A kke rman s

A . THE AREAS OF EXCAVATIO N A s c an b e s e en i n F ig . 1 1 .1 , e xcava t ions w ere c a r r ied o u t o n b o th t he n o r the rn a nd s ou the rn p a r ts o fT e l l S ab i A byad I .As ma l l t e s t t r ench ( PlO ) w a s l a id o u t i n b e tween ; t h is t r ench w a s d ug t o ad ep th o f o ver 1 . 20 m a nd y i e lded s o le ly l a te 2 nd m i l lenn ium o ccupa t ion d ebr is . N o d oub t t h is t r ench w a s s i tua ted i n t he d epre s s ion b e tween t he p reh i s to r ic n or thea s te rn a nd s ou thea s te rn mound s . A s a r e su l t o fl a te 2 nd m i l lenn ium o ccupa t ion a nd s ub sequen t e ro s ion t h is d epre s s ion w a s g radua l ly f i l led a nd h idden f r om v i ew . A t p re sen t , t wo ma in p reh i s tor ic p er iod s a re d i s t ingu i shed , c over ing t he l a te r p a r t o ft he 6 th m i l lenn ium B .C . ( 5300

-

5 000 B .C . ) a nd t e rmed L a te N eo l i -

t h ic a nd E a r ly H a la f , r e spec t ive ly . T h i s t e rm ino logy may c au se s ome c on fu s ion s i nce o ur ' La te N eo l i th ic ' a c tua l ly i sn o t t he l a te s t N eo l i th ic p ha se ; t he l a t ter i s c ons ide red t o b e r ep re sen ted b y t he H a la f c u l tu re .

A l though i th a s b een s ug -

g e s ted ( Me l laa r t 1 970 , 1 981 ; C ope land 1 979 ) t o d ef ine p a in ted p o t tery s oc ie t ie s l i ke H a la f a s ' Cha lco l i th ic ' , Ih e re f o l low B ra idwood a nd H owe ( 1960 ) , t he reby c on s ide r ing H a la f s e t t lemen ts l i ke S ab i Abyad a s a dvanced f a rm ing v i l lage s ( s ee a l so R edman 1 978 :177 ) . Mo reover , t he e xcava t ion s a t T e l l S ab i A byad g ave e v i d ence o f ac l o se r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t he L a te N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly H a la fp er iod s , t he c ha ra c te r i s t ic t r a i ts o ft he l a t te r p e r iod p robab ly b e ing al o ca l o u tg row th o f e a r l ier L a te N eo l i th ic f e a ture s . T he n o r thea s te rn p a r t o fS ab i A byad i sc ha rac te r i sed b y af l a t b u lge r i s ing a bou t 5m a bove t he s urround ing f i e ld s . T he n or the rn s l ope i sr e la t ive ly s t eep b u t t he mound s l ope s g en t ly i na n e a s tern ly a nd p a r t icu la r ly s ou the rn ly d i rec t ion . A t e s t t r ench 3 . 5 m w ide w a sl a id o u t d own t he n o r the rn s l ope ( T4 ) , s upp lemen ted b y ap a r t ly e x cava ted 9 x 9 m s qua re ( T5 ) a nd a t e s t t r ench 2 m w ide ( S5 ) o n t he s u mm i t o ft he mound . T he t e s t t r ench T 4 y i e lded s can ty t race s o fH a laf ian a rch i tec tu ra lf e a ture s o n ly i n t he t opmo s t s t ra ta 1 a nd 2 . T he l a rger p a r t o f t h is t r ench , h oweve r , s e emed t o c on ta in a t h ick a ccumu la t ion o f Ha laf ian d ebr i s l aye r s , r e s t ing o n a s im i la r L a te N eo l i th ic d ebr i s a ccumu la t ion . The e v idence s ugge s ts t ha t t h is p a r t o fS ab i A byad w a s u sed a s ad ump f o r al ong t ime . 1 7

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C on tou r map o f T e l l S ab i A byad I w i th ( i n b la ck ) t he a rea ' s e xcava ted .

T he n e ighbou r ing s qua re T o y i e lded L a te N eo l i th ic r ema in s i mmed ia te ly u nde rnea th t he t op s o i l . H e re H a la f ma te r ia l w a s o n ly f ound i n t he m ixed t op s o i l l aye r . P robab ly t he H a la f r ema in s h ave c omp le te ly e roded o n t h i s p a r t o f t he s i te .

T he v i r tua l a b senc e o f s ub s tan t ia l Ha la f r ema in s s ugge s ts t ha t t he

n o r thea s te rn p a r t w a s a ma rg ina l a rea o f t he H a la f s e t t lemen t a t t he s i te .

I n

t he n or thea s te rn a rea H a la f o ccupa t ion a ppa ren t ly c on trac ted n ea r t he s l ope o f t he mound , t hereby l e av ing t he l ower L a te N eo l i th ic mound l a rge ly i n ta c t . The s l op ing H a laf ian l a ye r s h ave e x tended t he d imen s ion s o f t he n o r thea s te rn a rea c on s ide rab ly . T he o r ig ina l L a te N eo l i th ic mound i nt h is a rea s e em s t o h ave b een much s ma l le r . Ou r ma in e fo r ts i n 1 986 w e re c oncen tra ted o n t he s ou thea s te rn p a r t o f T e l l S ab i A byad whe re f our 9x 9 m s qua re s w ere o pened ( 013 , 0 14 , P 13 , P 14 ) . H e re H a la f o ccupa t ion l e ve l s a ppea red i mmed ia te ly b e low t he s u r face , b u t i n s qua re s 0 13 a nd 0 14 t he se H a la f s t ra ta h ad b een h eav i ly d i s tu rbed b y l a te 2 nd m i l lenn ium b u i ld ing a c t iv i t ie s . i n s qua re s P 13 a nd P 14 .

V ir tua l ly n o s uch d i s turbance w a s n o ted

I n o rde r t o f u lf i l l o u r r e sea rch o b jec t ive s a nd t o u se

o ur f und s e f ec t ive ly , i tw a s d ec ided t o f o cu s a t ten t ion o n t he l a t te r t r enche s . 1 8

H e re ac omp lex H a la fs equence o ve r 3m t h ick c ou ld b e e s tab l i shed , i mmed ia te ly p receded b y L a te N eo l i th ic o ccupa t ion l e ve l s . N o t r ue g ap i no ccupa t ion b e tween t he L a te N eo l i th ic a nd H a la f p e r iod s i si nd ica ted . O n t he s ou thea s te rn mound , L a te N eo l i th ic l e ve l s w e re o n ly r eached i n s qua re P 14 . I n o the r s qua re s e xcava t ion w a s l im i ted t o H a laf ian l e ve l s o n ly . A s t ime r an o u t a t t he e nd o ft he s ea son a nd n o d ef in i te c l ue a s t o t he u l t ima te d u r a t ion o fH a la fo n t h i s p a r t o fT e l l S ab i A byad h ad y e t b een f ound . i tw a s d ec ided t ol im i t t he a c tua l a r ea o fe xcava t ion t o a2m w ide t r ench a l ong t he e a s t s e c t ion o f s qua re P 14 . I n t h is w ay , w e c u t t hrough t he H a la f s t ra ta a nd t hu s r eached t he u nde r ly ing L a te N eo l i th ic l e ve l s . T he se L a te N eo l i th ic r ema in s a re c l o se ly r e la ted t o t ho se e xpo sed o n t he n o r thea s te rn p a r t o f T e l l S ab i A byad ( s qua re T 5 ) a nd p robab ly d a te f r om t he m idd le a nd f i r s t h a l fo ft he 6 th m i l lenn ium B .C . T he L a te N eo l i th ic l e ve l s u nea r thed t hu s f a r a t T e l l S ab i A byad a re d ef in i te ly o f al a te r d a te t han , t ho se f ound a t t he n ea rby s i te s o f D am i sh l iyya a nd A s souad w h ich c an b o th b e p laced i nt he l a te r 7 th m i l lenn ium B .C . .( Akke rman s ,i np re ss ; C auv in 1 972 ) . I n t h is p rog re s s r epo r t s t ra t ig raphy a nd a r ch i tec tu re o fe a ch s qua re o fe x c ava t ion a r e p re sen ted s epa ra te ly , a l though w e t r y t os how r e la t ion sh ip s b e tween v a r iou s s t ra ta i n v a r iou s s qua re s w heneve r p o s s ib le . i n o rde r o f e xcava t ion , i . e .

f r om t he t op d ownwa rd s .

h oweve r , b e d i scu s sed i n o rde r o f a ccumu la t ion , i . e .

A l l s t ra ta a re n umbe red T he v a r iou s s t ra ta w i l l , f r om t he e a r l ie s t t o t he

l a te s t .

B . EXCAVATIO NS IN THE NO RT HEASTE RN ARE A

B .1 . TRE NC H T4 S tra tu m 4 T he l owe s t s t ra tum r eached i n s qua re T 4 i s ma rked b y a n a ccumu la t ion o ve r o ne me te r t h ick o f r a the r h omogeneou s s o f t b rown l oam , s l op ing t o t he n o r th . N o f e a tu re s o r s ub s tra ta c ou ld b e r e cogn i sed . T h is l o am d epo s i t w a s c ove red b y v a r iou s t h in l aye r so fa she s a nd r edd ish b u rn t e a r th . a l so f ound i nt he n e ighbou r i ng s qua re 1 5 . R e la t ive ly f ew a r t i fac ts a nd b one s w e re r e cover ed f r om t h i s l oam d epo s i t . T he p o t te ry w ho l ly c on s is ted o f L a te N eo l i th ic w a re s i d en t ica l t o t ho se f ound i ns qua re T 5 . T he n a tu re o ft h i s l o am d epo s i t i sn o t y e t c l ea r . S t ra tum 4 d if e red i n s o i l c on s is tency a nd s o i l t ex tu re a s w e l l a s k ind o f a r t i fac ts f r om t he n ex t s t ra tum 3 .

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C hap te r V

TEC HNOLO GIC AL ASPECTS OF THE PRE HISTO RIC POTTE RY B y A braham v an A s a nd L oe J acob s

A . INT ROD UCTIO N T he p re sen t c hap ter w i l l p re sen t t he r e su l ts o f t he r e sea rch c a r r ied o u t b y t he D epa r tmen t o f P o t te ry T echno logy ( Un ive r s i ty o f L e iden ) , i n to t he t e chno log ica l a spec ts o ft he L a te N eo l i th ic a nd E a r ly H a la fc e ram ic sf r om T e l l S ab i A byad . T he ma in o b jec t ive so ft h i ss t udy i n c luded b o th a na t temp t t or e con s truc t t he s hap ing a nd f i r ing t e chn ique s o ft he p o t te ry , a nd t o d ef ine t he a pp l ied r aw ma te r ia l s . T he n umbe ro fp o te ry s he rd s a c tua l ly s tud ied w a sl im i ted . A t t he A lber t E gge s v an G i f f en I n s t i tuu t v oo r P rae - e n P ro toh is to r ie . Am s te rdam . s ome 4 00 s he rd s w e re s e lec ted f o r t e chno log ica l s tudy a t L e iden , f r om among t he c e ram ic ma te r ia l w h ich h ad b een t r an spo r ted f r om S yr ia t o t he N e the r land s . T he se 4 00 s he rd si n c luded 4 0 p i ece s w h ich , w i th s om e c e r ta in ty ,c ou ld b e u sed t or e con s truc t t he m e thod b y w h ich t he p o ts , t o w h ich t he s herd s h ad b e longed , w e re s haped . T he c ha ra c te r isa t ion o f t he a pp l ied r aw ma te r ia l s i nvo lved i n t he ma in a ma c r o scop ic a na ly s is o f t he n on -p la s t ic s . F o r t h i s p urpo se 6 3 s herd s w e re s e lec ted . P a r t icu la ra t ten t ion w a s p a id i nt he s e lec t ion t o t he i n c lu s ion , w i th in t h e s amp le , o f b o th s he rd s w h ich s how ed t r ace s o f t he s hap ing t e chn ique s a nd s he rd s w h ich c a me f r om a l l t he a rchaeo log ica l c a tego r ie s o f t he c e ram ic r eper to ire . T he s a me p o t te ry s amp le w a s f u r the rmore u sed f o r d ef in ing t he f i r ing t e chn ique s w h ich w e re o r ig ina l ly u sed ( f i r ing a tmo sphe re a nd f i r ing t empera ture ) .

B . M ET HODOLO GY T he t e chno log ica l s tudy o ft he p o t te ry f r om T e l l S ab i A byad i nvo lved : a ) s hape a na ly s i s a nd b ) r aw ma te r ia l a na ly s is . T he w o rk ing m e thod s a pp l ied c on fo rm t o t ho se g ene ra l ly f o l lowed a t t he D epa r t men t o f P o t te ry T echno logy ( s ee v an A s 1 984 ; F ranken 1 983 ; J a cob s 1 983 ; S t ien s tra 1 986 ) .

1 3 .1 . S hape Ana lys is T he m e thod o f s hap ing w a s r e con s truc ted o n t he b a s is o f c e r ta in t r ace s o f t he a pp l ied t e chn ique s s t i l l r ema in ing o n t he p o t te ry . T h is w a s f o l lowed b y t e s ts w i th 2 15

a ppropr ia te c l ay s .

l t w a s p o s s ib le o n ly w i th a v e ry f ew s he rd s t o r e con s truc t

t he o r ig ina l s hap ing p roce s s .

B ecau se o f t he ir s i ze , mo s t o f t he s he rd s o n ly

c on ta ined t r ace s o f as i ng le a spec t o ft he s hap ing t e chn ique . A l l t oo o f ten t r a ce s o ft he s hap ing t e chn ique w e re e ra sed b y t r a ce s o ft he f i n i sh ing , s uch a s s c rap ing , s moo th ing o r p a in t ing .

B .2 . Ma ter ia l Ana lys is T he ma te r ia l a na ly s is i n c luded : a ) ad e sc r ip t ion o ft h e t e x ture o f t he p o t te ry , a nd b ) t he d e te rm ina t ion o f t he o r ig ina l f i r ing a tmo sphe re a nd f i r ing t empe ra ture . I n o rde r t o d e scr ibe t he t e x ture . t he n on -p la s t ics w e re macro scop ica l ly s tud ied w i th a l Ox a nd 4 0x l e n s . b o th f r om t wo o f t he t e s t s he rd s w h ich h ad b een r ef i red f o r 3 0 m inu te s i n a n o x id is ing a tmo sphe re w i th a t empe ra tu re o f 7 50 ' C a nd 8 50 ' C r e spec t ive ly , a nd f r om t he r ema in ing t e s t s herd s w h ich w ere n o t r e f i red . A l l t he g ra in s w h ich w e re l a rge r t han 1 00 m ic rome ter . t he s o -ca l led ma crog ra in s , w e re d e scr ibed . A l l t he s ma l le r g ra in s ( t he m ic rog ra ms ) w e re c on s i de red t o b e p a r t o f t he ma tr ix ( S t ien s tra 1 986 :39 ) .

T he d om inan t s i ze a nd

s hape o f t he v a r iou s ma crog ra ins w e re d e te rm ined . T he t ype o f n on -p la s t ic w a s d e te rm ined , a sf a r a s p o s s ib le ' . T he t o ta l amoun t o fn on -p la s t ics w a s d e te rm ined i n p e r cen tage s o f d ry w e igh t , b y c o mpa r ison w i th a r e f e rence c o l lec t ion ( Jacob s 1 983a :6 ) 2.S pec ia l a t ten t ion w a s a l so p a id t o t he s pa t ia l a r rangemen t o f , a nd t he r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t he c omponen ts ( t he f abr ic ) . T he o r ig ina l f i r ing a tmo sphere w a s d e te rm ined o n t he b a s is o f ac o mpa r i son o ft he c o lou ro ft he t e s t s herd s a nd t ho se wh ich h ad b een r ef i red i ns t anda rd c i rcum s tance s ( i n a n e l ec tr ic o ven f o r 3 0 m inu te s , w i th a t empe ra tu re o f 7 50 ° C a nd 8 50 " C r e spec t ive ly ) . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t t he c o lou r o ft he s he rd s ( ex te r i o r a nd t he c o re ) d epend s o n t he c o mpo s i t ion o ft he a pp l ied r aw ma te r ia l s a nd t he f i r ing c i rcum s tance s . T he c o lour a f te r r ef i r ing i ns t anda rd c i rcum s tance s i n d i ca te s t he f i r ing c o lour o ft he u sed c l ay b ody . T he c o lou r o ft he s he rd s a sf ound o n t he s i te i nd ica te s t he v a r iab le o r ig ina l f i r ing c i rcum s tance s : o x id i s ing ( w i th ah igh p e rcen tage o fo xygen ) , r educ ing ( w i thou t o xygen ) , o r n eu tra l ( w i th l i t t le o xygen ) . T he c o lou r o f t he s he rd s c an a l so g i ve a n i d ea o f t he f i r ing d u ra t ion ( s ee R ye 1 981 :114 -118 ) . On t he b a s i s o f t he r up tu re s t reng th a nd t he c hange s o b se rved d u r ing t he r ef i r ing p roce s s i n t he s t ruc tu re o f t he c a lc i te g ra in s i n t he s he rd s , a n e s t i ma te c ou ld b e made o ft he o r ig ina l f i r ing t empe ra tu re ' .

C . THE M ET HOD OF SHAPIN G W i th in t he p o t te ry r epe r to ire t he f o l low ing s hap ing t e chn ique s c ou ld b e d i s t in g u i shed : mou ld ing , c o i l ing a nd p inch ing . 2 16

C .1. Mou lded p o ttery

T he u se o f a mou ld f o r t he manu fa c tu re o f p o t te ry i sp o s s ib le b ecau se s o f t c l ay d oe s n o t s t ick t o ap o rou s ma te r ia l . T he a dvan tage s o f t he u se o f a mou ld a re t he f o l low ing :

-

-

B o th a f a ir ly d ry a nd af a ir ly s o f t c l ay c an b e u sed . B o th v ery p l a s t ic a nd v e ry l e an c l ay c an b e u sed . T he l a t te r i sp a r t icu l a r ly a dvan tageou s f o r t he manu fa c ture o f c ook ing p o ts , i n w h ich c oa r se c a lc i te i sp re f e rab ly u sed b ecau se o f h ea t c onduc t iv i ty a nd t he rma l s hock r e s is tance ( s ee R ye 1 976 ) . T he b a se s o f c ook ing p o ts a r e t he re fo re o f ten made i n a mou ld .

-

T he t h ickne s s o ft he p o t c an b e w e l l c hecked e verywhere . E ven t he ma n u fa c ture o f av e ry t h in w a l l c an b e d one w i thou t t oo many p rob lem s .

-

T he t e chn ique d oe s n o t d emand ah igh l e ve l o fc ra f tman sh ip . When t he p o t te r w an ts t o make a b a se w h ich i sn o t s t rong ly c urved , h e

f l a t ten s ap i ece o fc l ay b e tween h i s h and s ( F ig . V .1) , o r o n as u r face . T h i s p i ece o f f l a t tened c l ay i ss ub sequen t ly p laced i n s ide t he mou ld a nd w e l l p re ssed i n to i t . T he i n s ide may b e s c raped s omewha t ( F ig . V .2 ) . When a b a se w i th as t rong c u rve i s w an ted , t he p o t te r f l a t ten s as ma l ler p i ece o f c l ay d i recly i n s ide t he c en tre o ft he mou ld . T he reupon t he p o t ter a dd s p i ece s o fc l ay a nd p re sse s t hem i n to t he mou ld .

T ra ce s o f t h i s p re s s ing a r e o f ten s t i l l v i s ib le o n t he i n s ide o f

t he p o t . I fp o s s ib le , t he j o in ts w e re made i na n o ve r lapp ing manne r . S ome t i me s , h owever ,t he re a re i r regu la rs eam s w h ich ,i ft hey a re n o t r emoved l a ter o n , r ema in v i s ib le . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t t he se s eam s a re n o t a s l ong a s t ho se w h ich a re c au sed b y b u i ld ing u p t he p o t w i th c o i l s . When ar e la t ive ly d ry c l ay i su sed , t he s hape can b e r emoved f r om t he mou ld a f te r as hor tt ime . S ub sequen t ly t he mou ld c an b e u sed a ga in . When s uch a c l ay i su sed , t he s he rd w i l l h ave a s o mewha t r ough s ur fa ce , wh ich c an b e s moo thed . I ft he c l ay w h ich i su sed i sf a ir ly s o f t , t h i s p rob lem w i l l n o t g ene ra l o ccu r , u n le s s av ery p oo r c l ay i sa pp l ied . When a s o f t c l ay i su sed , t he s hape h a s t or ema in i nt he mou ld f o r al onger p e r iod , b e fo re i tc an b e r emoved . I ti sc o mmon p ra c t ice t o u se amou ld o n ly f o r p l a te s a nd t he b a se so fp o ts . T he w a l l o f p o ts a re b u i l t u p b y a dd ing c o i l s , o ne a bove t he o the r ( F ig s . V .3 , V .4 ) . E xamp le s : F ig . V .5 ( Ha la f P a in ted F ine Wa re ) .

A p i ece o f c l ay i sf l a t tened a nd p re s sed

u pon af l a t a nd p la te -f o rmed b a se o f ap o rou s ma te r ia l . I ti sp o s s ib le t ha t s uch 2 17

F ig . V .1 .

F ig . V .2 .

2 18

F ig . V .4 .

2 19

P

U

Z

F ig . V .5 . F ig . V .7 .

F ig . V .6 .

a mou ld w a s l a rge r t han t he s hape i t se l f , s o t he mou ld w a s p robab ly u sed f o r s hape s o f v a r iou s s i ze s .

A f ter p re s s ing a nd f l a t ten ing t he c l ay i n to t he mou ld ,

ac o i l w a s a dded a nd f i xed t o t he b a se . T he c o i l w a s s ub sequen t ly p inched a nd mode l led i n to a n u pr is ing r im . I ti sp robab le t ha t i n t h is c a se t he p o t te r u sed mo re t han o ne c o i l . When t he c l ay w a s l e a the r d ry , s ome c l ay w a s s c raped a way , b o th o n t he i n s ide a nd i n s o me c a se s , o n t he o u ts ide . T he a pp l ied t e chn ique h a s c l ea r ly b een o f i nf luence i n t he c r ea t ion o f t he s ha rp a ngu la t ion i n t he p rof i le . T he i n te r io r a nd e x te r io r o ft he r im w ere p a in ted w i th i r on o x ide . F ig . V .6 ( Ha la f P a in ted F ine Wa re ) T he b a se w a s f o rmed i n a mou ld . A p i ece o f c l ay w a s f l a t tened a nd p re s sed i n to t he mou ld . T he p a r t o f t he s hape w h ich r o se a bove t he mou ld w a s b u i l t u p w i th c o i l s .

T h is i si nd ica ted b y t he

h o r izon ta l s eam s , w h ich a re s ome t ime s f a ir ly l ong . T he i n te r io r a nd e x te r io r o f t he s hape s w ere p a in ted w i th i r on o x ide . 2 20

F ig . V .7 ( Ha la fP a in ted F ine Wa re ) T he b a se w a s f o rmed i n amou ld . T he u ppe r p a r t w a s made w i th c o i l s . T he i nne r s i de o f t he w a l l s how s t r a ce s o f t he p inch ing o ft he c l ay i no rder t o make t he w a l l t h inne r . T he o u ts ide o ft he s hape w a s p a in ted w i th i r on o x ide .

C .2 . Hand made p o ttery , made o fc o i ls T h i s me thod , j u s t l i ke t he o ne u sed f o r t he p reced ing g roup , d oe s n o t r equ ire c on s ide rab le c ra f tman sh ip , n o r s pec if ic d emand s t o t he q ua l i ty o f t he c l ay . B e c au se t he c l ay i sn o t s t re tched o u t v e ry much .i ti sp o s s ib le t oa dd r e la t ive ly l a rge amoun ts o f n on -p la s t ic ma te r ia l , s uch a s s and o r p o t te ry g r i t . T he a dvan tage s a re man ifo ld :

-

-

T he a dhe s ion o ft he c o i l s i si mproved . T he d ry ing p roce s s i s more r egu la r a nd e qua l ly d i s tr ibu ted o ver t he w ho le s hape , b ecau se o f ab e t ter c onduc t ion o fw a ter .

-

T he s hap ing p roper t ie so ft he p a s te a re i mproved ,a ss uch ac l ay m ix ture i s l e s s w eak t han t ha t made o fs o f t c l ay . T h i s a spec t i so fs pec ia l s i gn if icance w hen t he p o t te r i st r y ing t o make a s omewha t h i ghe r , o r c urved w a l l out o fc o i l s . I n t h i s manne r t he n on -p la s t ic ma te r ia l f unc t ion s a s s ome s o r t o f s ke le ton , a s t he w a l l r ema in s u pr igh t b e t te r a nd t he w o rk c an b e c a r r ied o u t s omewha t q u icke r .

-

T he s hr inkage i sr educed .

T h is r educe s t he c hance o f d ryne ss r up ture s

d ue t o s hr inkage t en s ion . T he f a c t t ha t t he p re sence o f much n on -p la s t ic ma te r ia l make st he c l ay much p oo re r a nd t he reby l e s sc ohe ren t , i s ad i sad v an tage w h ich c an b e p a r t ly h e lped b y t he a dd i t ion o r u se o fs ome f i brou s ma te r ia l , s uch a s c hopped s t raw , h a ir , g ra s s . e t c .

F ig . V .8 . 21

F ig . V .9 .

F ig . V .10 .

222

/ y )

F ig . V .11 .

/

F ig . V .12 .

23

P rov i s iona l d ry ing p ha se s c an b e i n se r ted w hen n eeded . T h i s i se spec ia l ly u se fu l w hen l a rge r s hape s a re f o rmed . I ti sp a r t ly b ecau se o f t h i s p o in t t ha t t he t e chn ique d oe s n o t d emand much b y w ay o f c ra f t man sh ip f r om t he p a r t o ft he p o t te r . T h ir teen f r agmen ts s howed t r a ce s o ft he a dhe s ion o f c o i l s ( 2x i n t he c a se o f L a te N eo l i th ic C oa r se Wa re ; l x L a te N eo l i th ic G rey -B la ck Wa re ; l x S ama rra F ine Wa re ; 3 x H a la f C oa r se Wa re ; 3 x H a la f F ine Wa re : 3 x H a la f P a in ted F ine Wa re ) . T he w a l lo fh andmade p o t te ry w h ich i sc o mp le te ly made o fc o i l s , o r made o fc o i l s o n t op o f a mou lded b a se , i so f ten made t h inne r a nd h i ghe r b y p inch ing t he c l ay b e tween t humb a nd f i nge r s ( F ig .

V .8 ) . T ra ce s o f t h i s t e chn ique w ere

f ound o n s even f r agmen ts ( lx S ama r ra F ine Wa re ; 4 x H a la f F ine Wa re ; 2 x H a la f P a in ted F ine Wa re ) . A no ther manne r t o make t he w a l l t h inne r a nd h ighe r i sb y p a t t ing t he e x ter io r o f t he p o t , w h i le t he i n s ide i ss uppo r ted b y ah and o r ar ounded o b jec t ( F ig . V .9 ) . P a t t ing o f ten o ccur s t oge ther w i th p inch ing . T h i s m e thod g i ve s ap o t a s omewha t t au t a ppea rance . T he w a l lo ft he p o ts w h ich a r e made o u t o fc o i l s a nd a f terwa rds p inched i ss ome t ime s made t h inne r b y s c rap ing t he w a l l w hen t he p o ts a re l e a the r -dry ( F ig . V .10 , V .11) . T h is w a s d e tec ted o n f i ve f r agmen ts ( lx L a te N eo l i th ic P a in ted F ine Wa re ; l x S ama r ra F ine Wa re ; l x H a la f F ine Wa re : 2 x H a la f P a in ted F ine Wa re ) . T h i s s c rap ing ,j u s t l i ke t he s weep ing ( F ig . V .12 ) , c ou ld a l so h ave b een c a r r ied o u t a s t he l a s t s t age o ft he manu fa c tu r ing p roce s s , a nd p r io r t o t he p o t tery b e ing p a in ted .

C .3 . Hand made p ottery , made b y p inch ing t he c lay T he p o t te r make s ah o le i n ap i ece o f c l ay u s ing h i s t humb . S ub sequen t ly h e f o rm s t he w a l l b y p inch ing t he c l ay b e tween t humb a nd f i nge r s . I ti sr ema rkab le t ha t t he c l ay w a s s o me t ime s t empe red w i th c hopped s t raw . T h is w a s a ppa ren t ly d one i n o rde r t o g i ve t he c l ay mo re i n te r io r s t reng th d u r ing t he manu fa c tu r ing p roce s s o ft he p o t , t hu s p reven t ing r up ture s .

D . THE PAINTIN G W i th in t he c e ram ic r epe r to ire a l a rge n umbe r o f t he s he rd s w e re p a in ted . T he p a in t ing w a s d one p r io r t o t he f i r ing ; t he p a in t c on s i s ts o f as l ip w i th f i ne i r on o x ide p a r t ic le s . T he se p a r t ic le s h ave al ower s i n te r ing t empera tu re t han t he 2 24

F ig . V .13 .

F ig . V .14 .

25

n o rma l ly o ccu r r ing , c oa r se r i r on o x ide p a r t ic le s . T he s i n te r ing t empe ra ture was a l so l owe red b ecau se a t t he e nd o f t he f i r ing p roc e s s as ho r t p e r iod o f r educ t ion w a s c a r r ied o u t . t he o ven a ga in .

D ur ing t he c oo l ing o f p er iod o xygen w a s a l lowed t o e n ter F o r t h is r ea son t he o r ig ina l f i r ing c o lou r s o f t he s herd v a ry

f r om r educ t ion c o lour s t o n eu tra l a nd o x id i sed c o lour s .

B ecau se o f t he s a id

c i rcum s tance s t he t empe ra ture w hereby t he i r on o x ide p a r t ic le s u sed f o r p a in t ing s t a r ted t o s i n ter w a s f a ir ly l ow . I ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t r educed i r on o x ide i sa p owe r fu l f l ux , w h ich c o mpound s w i th s i l ic ic a c id a nd a l ka l ine c o mponen ts f r om t he s he rd . D ur ing t he s i n te r ing p ha se t he c o lour o ft he i r on o x ide c hanged f r om r ed b rown t o b l ack ( t he c o lour o f r educed i r on o x ide ) . F o r t he r ef i r ing t e s ts a t at empera tu re o f 8 50 " C u nde r o x id is ing c i rcum s tance s , i ta ppea red t ha t i tw a s o n ly p a r t ia l ly p o s s ib le t o r e -ox id ise t he i r on o x ide . I n mo s t c a se s t he s i n te r ing h ad a dvan ced s o f a r t ha t t he af in i ty o f t he l a ye r f o r o xygen w a s t oo l ow . T h i s p o in t d id n o t a pp ly t o t he s herd i t se l f , t he b a ckg round t o w h ich t he p a in t ing a dhe red . T he c au se f o r t he b la ck c o lour s i n t he p a in t ing t he re fo re l i e s i n t he l ow s i n te r ing t empe ra ture o ft h i s l a yer , c o mb ined w i th r educ ing c i rcum s tance s a t t he e nd o f t he f i r ing p roce s s . I n t wo c a se s ( Ha la f P a in ted F ine Wa re ) , t he p a in t ing h ad n o t s i n te red t ha t f a r , a nd r e -ox id is ing t o ar ed c o lour w a s s t i l l p o s s ib le a t a t empera tu re o f8 50 ' C . I n o the r c a se s , r e -ox id i s ing w a s n o l o nge r p o s s ib le . S ome o ft he s he rd sh ad o r ig ina l ly b een b aked w i thou t ap e r iod o fr educ t ion a t t he e nd : t he p a in t ing o n t he se p i ece s m isse s t ne d a rk c o lou r . T he p a in t ing w a s af ixed o n t he s ur face o ft h ep o t w i th t he h e lp o f ab ru sh : t he p o t r e s ted i n t he h and ( F ig . V .13 ) . I n t ho se c a se s w here t he h or izon ta l , a nd c on t inuou s d eco ra t ion l i ne s w e re a pp l ied i n ap e r f ec t ly s t ra igh tl i ne ,i tc an b ea s sum ed t ha t t he p a in t ing w a s af ixed o n t he u nbaked p o t w h i le b e ing t u rned a round o n ar o ta t ing b a se ( aux i l ia ry p o t te r ' s w hee l ; F ig . V .14 ) .

E . F IRING TEC H NIQ UES E .1 . F ir ing a t mosphere T he c o lour s o ft he s he rd s a s f ound a t t he s i te s how t ha t t he r eper to ire i n c luded p o t te ry w h ich h ad b een f i red i n a n o x id is ing , n eu tra l o r r educ ing a tmo sphe re . F o r as urvey ,s e e T ab le V .1 .

E .2 . F ir ing t e mpera ture F he m in ima l f i r ing t empe ra tu re w h ich c ou ld b e d ef ined w a s c a . max imum t empe ra ture t ha t w a s f ound w a s c a . o r ig ina l f i r ing t empe ra ture s . s e e T ab le V .1 . 26

7 00

C . T he

9 50 1 C . F o r as urvey o f t he

E .3 . Manner o ff i r ing T he a bove c an b e u sed t o d educ t t ha t t he p o t te ry u nde r c on s idera t ion , w i th t h e e xcep t ion o f t he p a in ted H a la f c e ram ic s , c ou ld v e ry w e l l h ave b een f i red i n n o t p a r t icu la r ly a dvan ced k i ln s o r o pen f i re s . T he p a in ted H a la f p o t te ry , t o t he c on tra ry , d emanded ak i ln w he reby t he o ven t empe ra ture c ou ld b e a d ju s ted .

E .4 . Par t icu lar i t ies W i th in t he r epe r to ire t here a r e s he rd s w h ich s how b l i s ter ing . T he b ubb le s o n t he s u r fa ce o ft he s he rd a r e c au sed b y f i r ing g a s se s w h ich d id n o t e s cape q u ick ly e nough f r om t he s he rd d u r ing t he f i r ing p roce s s .

T h is i nd ica te s t ha t t he p o t

f r om w h ich t he s he rd d e r ive s , h ad b een s ub jec ted f o r as ho r t t ime t o av e ry h i gh t empe ra ture ( s ee H am e r 1 975 :27 . 2 8 ) .

F . THE RA W M ATE RIALS W i th in t he s t ud ied s amp le c o l le c t ion , t he f o l low ing ma ter ia l s w e re i d en t if ied b y ma c ro scop ic m ean s : c a rbona te g ra in s , c a lc i te g ra in s , q ua r tz g ra in s . c ong lome r a te o f q ua r tz g ra in s , i r on o x ide c oncre t ion s , f e l spa r g ra in s . m ica s , p o t te ry g r i t . u nd i s so lved c l ay g ra in s , c av i t ie s o f f i brou s o rgan ic ma te r ia l , c av i t ie s o f o rgan ic ma te r ia l w i th i r on o x ide a cc re t ion , u n iden t if ied g ra in s . F ur the rmo re , c hange s i nt he s t ruc tu re o fc a lc i te a t at empe ra tue o fa bou t 7 50 ° C a tr educ ing c i rcum s tance s , a nd t he r e a c t ion w i th h yd roch lo r ic a c id ( HCL ) w e re a l so n o ted . T he f o l low ing c a tegor ie s w e re d i s t ingu i shed ( s ee a l so T ab le V .1 ) : Group 1 . 2 1 s he rd s w i th t he f o l low ing c ha ra c te r i s t ic s : t he p re sence o ff i ne c a r b ona te g ra in s i n r a the r l a rge amoun ts ( m in ima l s i ze o f t he g ra in s 0 . 1 Amoun t : 1 0 -15% a nd 1 5 -20% d ry w e igh t . d ive r se a ngu la r ) .

-

H omogeneou s d i s tr ibu t ion .

I n a dd i t ion t he re a re s po rad ica l ly o the r g ra in s :

0 . 2 mm . S hape :

i r on o x ide

c onc re t ion s ( va r iou s s hape s a nd s i ze s ) . P o t te ry g r i t ( angu la r t o b ad ly r ounded : v a r iou s s i ze s ) . U n iden t if i ed b lack g ra in s ( mo s t ly a ngu la r ; v a r iou s s i ze s ) . U nd is s o lved c l ay g ra in s ( r ounded ) . T he c l ay i sl i gh t ly t om ed ium i r on o x ide c on ta in ing . T he u nd is so lved c l ay g ra in s mo s t ly c on ta in s omewha t h ighe r l e ve l s o fi r on o x ide . T he u nd i s so lved p i ece s o f c l ay w h ich w e re f o und a t c e r ta in p la ce s i n t he s he rd i nd ica te t ha t i nt he se c a se s t he c l ay h ad b een m ixed w i th w a te rs ho r t ly b e fo re b e i ng p roce ssed b y t he p o t ter . I ti sr ema rkab le t ha t i nt h is c a tego ry t he re a re n one o r h a rd ly a ny q ua r tz g ra in s . On ly o cca s iona l ly a r e t he re f i ne g ra in s o fq ua r tz o r ac ong lome ra te o ff i ne p i ece s o fq ua r tz . 2 27

I n mo s t c a se s t he s he rd s f r om t h is g roup h ad o r ig ina l ly b een f i red i n a n o x id is ing o r n eu tra l a tmo sphe re . T he f i r ing t empe ra ture f o r a t l e a s t h a l f o f t he s he rd s d id n o t o r ig ina l ly r each a h ighe r t empe ra tu re t han 7 50

a nd f o r t he

U C ,

r ema in ing s he rd s t he t empera tu re d id n o t g o much b eyond t ha t . Group 2 . Two s he rd s s howed t he f o l low ing c ha ra c te r i s t ic s : ad om inan t p re sence o f q ua r tz g ra in s ( angu la r t o b ad ly r ounded