Animals in the Steppe: A Zooarchaeological Analysis of Later Neolithic Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria 9781841711539, 9781407352336

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
Dedication
Acknowledgments
Table of Contents
List of tables
List of figures
List of abbreviations
Chapter 1. Introduction
Chapter 2. Setlement archaeology of Tel Sabi Abyad
Chapter 3. Palaeoenvironment
Chapter 4. Zooarchaeological background
Chapter 5. Zooarchaeological analysis: methodology
Chapter 6. Sabi Abyad: the species
Chapter 7. Interpretation
Summary
Samenvatting
Riassunto
References
Appendix: Measurements

Citation preview

Animals in the Steppe A Zooarchaeological Analysis of Later Neolithic Tell Sabi Abyad, Syria

Chiara Cavallo

BAR International Series 891

2000

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 891

Animals in the Steppe © Chiara Cavallo and the Publisher 2000 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781841711539 paperback ISBN 9781407352336 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841711539 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2000. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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A l la m ia f am ig l ia

A cknow ledgmen t s

T h i s b ook i st h e r e su l t o f aP h .D . r e sea rch c a r r ied o u td u r ing t h e y ea r s 1 99 1-97 a tt h e Un ive r s i ty o f Am s t e rdam . I w i sh t oe xp r e s s my t h ank s t ot h o se p eop le a nd i n s t ance s w ho s uppor t ed t h e r e sea rch . Ia m v e ry g r a t ef u l t o my s upe rv i so r P rof . D r . W . G roenman -van Waa t e r inge f o r h e r c onf iden ce , f o r t a k ing t h e r e spon s ib i l i ty f o r t h i s d i s se r ta t ion a nd f o r h e r g u idan ce d u r ing t h e w o rk . S pec ia l t h ank s d e ser ve s my c o superv i so r D r . L .H . v an W i jngaa rden -Bakk e r , f r om w hom I l e a rn t mo s t o f t h e z ooa r chaeo log i ca l d i sc ip l in e , f o r h e r e n thu s ia s t ic a nd i n d ef a t igab le g u id ance a nd e n cou ragem en td u r ing t h e w o rk a sw e l l a si nm yp e r sona l l i f e . Iam v e ry g r a tef u l t oD r . P e t e rA kke rman st o o , who d i r ec t ed t h ee xcava t ion a tT e l l S ab iA byad , f o re n t ru s t ing t h es t udy o ft h ef a una lm a te r ia l t om ea nd f o rh i sv a luab le d i scu s s ion a nd a dv ice . T h i s r e sea r ch w ou ld n o t h ave b een p o s s ib le w i thou t t h e w o rk a nd t h e h e lp o fm any p eop le : t ho se , k nown a nd u nknown , w ho e xcava ted , w a sh ed a nd o rgan ized t h e f a una l m a t e r ia l ; D r . Ma rk V e rhoeven , who t o ok c a r e o ft h e s t ra t ig raphy ; d r . A . V oo r r ip s , w ho i n t rodu ced m e t o t h e " s ta t i s t ica l w o r ld " ; B ob Donk e r , w ho d i d m o s t o f t h e d r aw ing s ; B e r t B row en s t i jn , w ho t o ok c a r e o ft h e g r aph ic p a r t ; A n s B u l l e s , w ho a ccu ra t e ly c o r rec t ed t h e E ng l i sh t e x t . Ia l so w i sh t ot h ank Mr Mu rhaf a l -Kha laf , D i r ec to r o f An t iqu i t ie s o ft h e R aqqa p rov in ce a nd h ead o ft h e R aqqa N a t iona l Mu seum a nd Mr Mohamm ad Mu s l im o ft h e A r ch aeo log ica l Mu seum o fA leppo f o r t h e i r s uppo r t a nd c o rd ia lr e cep t ion d u r ing my v i s i tt ot h es i t e . Ia mm o s t g r a tef u l t oP rof D r . H . -P . U er pma nn a nd D r . H . B u i t enhu i s f o r t h e i r a s s i s tan ce i nt h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f g aze l l ea nd e qu id r ema in sa nd f o rt h e i rv a luab le d i scu s s ion ,a nd t oR .G . Moo l enbeek , who i d en t if i ed t h em o l lu sc s . T h i s r e sea rch w ou ld n o t h ave b een p o s s ib le w i thou t t h e f u nd ing o ft h e M in i s te ro d e l l 'Un ive r s i tä ed e l la R ice rca S c ien t if i ca e T ecno log ica o f t h e I t a l ian R epub l ic , w h ich s u s t a in ed m y l o g i s t ica l s t ay a s aP h .D . s t uden t i n t h e N e th e r land s w i th g r an t s f o r f ou ry ea r s a nd o ft h e I n s t i tuu tv oo rP re - e nP ro toh i s to r i sch eA rcheo log ie ' A lbe r t E gge s v an G if f en ' ( I PP ) o ft h e Un ive r s i ty o f Am s t e rdam , w h ich o f f e r ed m e ap a r t t im e j ob d u r ing t h e l a s t y ea r o ft h e r e sea r ch .T h eI PP a l so p rov ided t h ef a c i l i t ie st op repa r et h ep r e sen ts t udy a nd f man c ia l ly s uppor ted my v i s i tt oS y r ia . T he e xpen se sf o rt h ev i s i tt ot h eI n s t i tu tf a rU r -u nd F rühge sch ich t eo ft h eU n ive r s i ty o fT üb ingen w e re t a ken c a re o f b y t h e S t ich t ing N ed e r land s Mu seum v oo r A n th ropo log ie e n P rae lü s to r ie , w h ich a l so p rov id ed f u r th e r f und ing f o r t h ep r e sen tp ub l ica t ion . Ia mv e ry g r a t ef u l t ot h e s t a f f , c o l league s a nd f r iend s o ft h e I PP f o r t h e i rw a rm w e lcom e a nd k ind a s s i s t ance . My s pec ia l t h ank s g o t oR ik Ma l iepaa rd , n o t o n ly f o r h i s n eve r f a i l ing c up s o fc of f ee a nd t e a , b u t a l so f o r h i s p a t ien t a s s i s tance w i th i n nume rab le p rob lem s . It h ank my m any I t a l ian a nd D u t ch f r i end s , e spec ia l ly Mon ica D ü t t ing a nd P e t e rv an d e r L ind en , f r om t h eb o t tom o f my h ea r t f o r t h e i r e n cou ragem en ta nd w onde rf u l s uppo r t a nd f o r s ha r ing n o to n ly t h ej oy so ft h i s" j ou rn ey "w i th m e ,b u ta l so t h ed i ff i cu l t mom en t s . I nfm e ,v o r r e ie s p r im e re t u t ta l am ia g r a t i tud ine a im ie ig en i to r i eam ia z i aS ab ina p e ra ve ra cce t ta to l em ie d ec i s ion i e , al o ro modo ,c omp re so im ie id e s ide r i .

1 1

C on ten t s P a r tI

I NTRODUCT ION

1

I n troduc t ion

1

2

S e t t lemen ta rchaeo logy o fT e l l S ab i Abyad 2 . 1 T he s i te 2 . 2 S t ra t ig raphy a nd a r ch i tec tu ra lr ema in s 2 . 3 C h rono logy 2 . 4 P o t te ry 2 . 5 F l in ta nd o bs id ian 2 . 6 Sma l l f i nd s

3 3 3 4 4 6 7

3

P a laeoenv ironmen t 3 . 1 I n t roduc t ion 3 . 2 G eomorpho logy 3 . 3 C l ima te 3 . 4 V ege ta t ion 3 . 5 F auna

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 2 1 2

4

Z ooarchaeo log ica l b ackground 4 . 1 I n t roduc t ion 4 . 2 F auna l s t ud ie sf r om N eo l i th ic s i te so ft h eB a l ikh v a l ley 4 . 2 . 1 S ab i A byad H 4 . 2 .2 T e l l A ssouad 4 . 3 F auna l s t ud ie sf r om H a laf ian s i te s 4 . 3 . 1 A rpach iyah 4 . 3 .2 Y ar im T epe I 4 . 3 .3 Umm Q se ir 4 . 3 .4 S ham se d -D in 4 . 3 .5 T e l lT u r lu 4 . 3 .6 G ir ik ihac iyan 4 . 3 .7 B anah i lk 4 . 3 .7 Kh irbe te sh -Shenef 4 . 3 .9 C av iT a r la s i 4 . 4 S umma ry

1 7 1 7 1 7 1 7 1 9 1 9 1 9 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3

P a r tI

ZOOARCHAEOLOG ICAL ANALYSIS OF THE FAUNAL RE MA INS OF SAB I ABYAD

5

Z ooarchaeo log ica l a na ly s is : m e thodo logy 5 . 1 T aphonomy 5 . 1 . 1 P re -depo s i t iona lp roce sse s : b i o s t ra t inomy 5 . 1 .2 P o s t -depo s i t iona lp roce sse s : d i agene s is 5 . 2 R ecove ry 5 . 3 I den t if ica t ion 5 . 3 . 1 G ene ra li d en t if ica t ion p rob lem sf o rt h eM idd le E a s t 5 . 3 .2 Mo rpho log ica l 5 . 3 .2 .1 . S ke le ta l e l emen t s 5 . 4 Q uan t if ica t ion 5 . 5 A ge ing 5 . 6 O s teome t ry

2 8 2 8 2 8 2 8 2 8 2 8 2 9 2 9 2 9 3 1 3 2 3 2

6

S ab i Abyad : t he s pec ie s 6 . 1 T he ma te r ia l 6 . 2 Ov icapr id s 6 . 2 .1 I n t roduc t ion 6 . 2 .2 R a t io O v is :Cap ra 6 . 2 .3 Me t r ica l a na ly s is 6 . 2 .3 .1 Me t r ica l a na ly s is i nd e ta i l 6 . 2 .4 S ke le ta lr e p re sen ta t ion , f r agmen ta t ion 6 . 2 .5 A ge a td ea th 6 . 2 .6 P a tho logy 6 . 2 .7 C onc lu s ion 6 . 3 B ov id s 6 . 3 .1 I n t roduc t ion 6 . 3 .2 Me t r ica la na ly s is 6 . 3 .2 .1 Me t r ica l a na ly s is i nd e ta i l 6 . 3 .2 .2 I n te rp re ta t ion 6 . 3 .3 S ke le ta lr e p re sen ta t ion , f r agmen ta t ion 6 . 3 .4 A ge a td ea th 6 . 3 .5 P a tho logy 6 . 3 .6 C onc lu s ion 6 . 4 S u id s 6 . 4 .1 I n t roduc t ion 6 . 4 .2 Me t r ica la na ly s is 6 . 4 .3 S ke le ta lr e p re sen ta t ion , f r agmen ta t ion 6 . 4 .4 A ge a td ea th 6 . 4 .5 P a tho logy 6 . 4 .6 S umma ry 6 . 5 E qu id s 6 . 5 .1 Morpho log ica l i d en t if ica t ion 6 . 5 .1 .1 P os t -c ran ia le l emen t s 6 . 5 .1 .2 e n ta l e l emen t s 6 . 5 .2 Me t r ica l a na ly s is 6 . 5 .3 S ke le ta lr e p re sen ta t ion , f r agmen ta t ion 6 . 5 .4 A ge a td ea th 6 . 6 Gaze l le 6 . 6 .1 I n t roduc t ion 6 . 6 .2 Me t r ica l a na ly s is 6 . 6 .3 S ke le ta lr e p re sen ta t ion ,f r agmen ta t ion 6 . 6 .4 A ge a td ea th 6 . 7 O ther s pec ie s 6 . 7 .1 F a l low d ee r 6 . 7 .2 R ed d ee r 6 . 7 .3 D og 6 . 7 .4 F ox 6 . 7 .5 H yaena 6 . 7 .6 B rown B ea r 6 . 7 .7 H a re 6 . 7 .8 R oden t s 6 . 7 .9 B ird s 6 . 7 .10 R ep t i le s 6 . 7 .11 Amph ib ians 6 . 7 .12 Mo l lu sc s 6 . 7 .13 F i she s

v i

a nd b u t che ry

a nd b u tche ry

a nd b u tche ry

a nd b u tche ry

a nd b u tche ry

3 4 3 4 4 0 4 0 4 0 4 0 4 1 4 3 4 5 4 7 4 7 4 8 4 8 4 9 4 9 5 1 5 2 5 3 5 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 5 7 5 8 5 8 5 8 5 8 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 0 6 2 6 3 6 3 6 3 6 4 6 4 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 6 7 6 8 6 8 6 8 6 8 6 9 6 8 6 9 6 9

P a r tI I I NTERPRETAT ION 7

I n terpre ta t ion 7 . 1 C on tex tua l a pp roach 7 . 2 A n ima lh u sband ry 7 . 3 H un t ing 7 . 4 P roce s s ing o ff ood a nd r aw ma te r ia l 7 . 5 E nv ironmen ta l e xp lo i ta t ion 7 . 6 R i sk r e duc t ion 7 . 6 . 1 D ive r s if ica t ion 7 . 6 .2 Mob i l i ty 7 . 6 .3 S t o rage 7 . 6 .4 E xchange 7 . 6 .5 S umma ry 7 . 6 .6 C onc lu s ion

1 00 1 00 1 06 1 08 1 08 10 12 13 14 15 15 15 16

S ummary

1 22

S amenva t t ing

1 23

R ia ssun to

1 24

R ref erence s

1 26

A ppend ix:

1 33

Mea su r emen t s

v i i

L i s to ft ab le s T ab le 2 . 1 T ab le 2 . 2 T ab le 4 . 1 T ab le 4 . 2 /a T ab le 4 . 2 /b T ab le 5 . 1 T ab le 5 . 2 T ab le 6 . 1 T ab le 6 . 2 T ab le 6 . 3 T ab le 6 . 4 T ab le 6 . 5 T ab le 6 . 6 T ab le 6 . 7 T ab le 6 . 8 T ab le 6 . 9 T ab le 6 . 10 T ab le 6 . 11 T ab le 6 . 12 T ab le 6 . 13 T ab le 6 . 14 T ab le 6 . 15 T ab le 6 . 16 T ab le 6 . 17 T ab le 6 . 18 T ab le 6 . 19 T ab le 6 . 20 T ab le 6 . 21 T ab le 6 . 22 T ab le 6 . 23 T ab le 6 . 24 T ab le 6 . 25 T ab le 6 . 26 T ab le 6 . 27 T ab le 6 . 28 T ab le 6 . 29 T ab le 6 . 30 T ab le 6 . 31 T ab le 6 . 32 T ab le 6 . 33 T ab le 6 . 34 T ab le 6 . 35 T ab le 6 . 36 T ab le 6 . 37 T ab le 6 . 38 T ab le 6 . 39 T ab le 6 . 40 T ab le 6 . 41 T ab le 6 . 42

R e la t ive c h rono logy o ft h e s e pa ra te l e ve ls o f o ccupa t ion o f S ab i A byad i n r e la t ion t ot h e r eg iona l c h rono log ica l f r amewo rk o ft h eB a l ikh v a l ley . L i s to fr a d ioca rbon d a te sf r om T e l l S ab i A by ad ( f rom A kk e rman s 1 996 : X ) C h rono log ica l a nd " cu l tu ra l " s e quence o ft h es i te sr ev iew ed W i ld s pec ie sd i s t r ibu t ion a tt h ee a r ly N eo l i th ic a nd H a laf s i t e s W i ld s pec ie sd i s t r ibu t ion a tt h ee a r ly N eo l i th ic a nd H a la fs i te s T aphonom ic p roce s se s R e la t ive v a lue so ft h ei d en t if iab le s ke le ta l e l emen t so fs ma l lh e rb ivo re s S ab iA byad : f a una lm a te r ia l a na lyzed A b so lu te a nd r e la t ive f r equency o fi d en t if ied b one so fd ome s t ic a nd w i ld s pec ie si ne a ch p ha se D eg ree o fb one f r agmen ta t ion ( p e r cen tage ) D eg ree o ft oo th f r agmen ta t ion ( p e rcen tage ) I n c idence o fb u t che ry ,b u rn ing a nd g naw ing ( numbe ro ff r agmen t s ) P re -Ha laf p ha se : a b so lu t ef r equency o fi d en t if ied s pec ie si ne a ch l e ve l T ran s i t iona lp ha se : a b so lu t ef r equency o fi d en t if ied s pec ie si ne a ch l e ve l E a r ly H a laf p ha se : a b so lu t ef r equency o fi d en t if ied s pec ie si ne ach l e ve l R a t io b e tween O v i sa nd C apra b a sed o n s e lec ted e l emen t s P re sence o fw i ld O v i sa nd /o rC apra S hou lde rh e igh t( SH )o fo v icap r id s S t a t is t ica lv a lue so fs e lec ted o v icap r id e l emen t s S t a t is t ica l v a lue so fs e lec ted f o r e l imb b one so fs heep A b so lu te f r equency o fo v icap r id s ke le ta l e l emen t s R e la t ive f r equency o fo v icap r id s k e le ta lp o r t ion s F requency o fb u tche r ing m a rk so b se rved o no v icap r id r ema in s O v icapr id e p iphy sea lf u s ion d a ta -p r e -Ha laf O v icapr id e p iphy sea lf u s ion d a ta -T ran s i t iona l O v icapr id e p iphy sea lf u s ion d a ta -E a r ly H a laf F r equency o fo v icap r id r ema in sw i th p a tho log ica l a l te ra t ion s C h rono logy o ft h es i te sw i th b ov id s amp le su sed f o rc ompa r ison C ompa r ison o ft h ep rox ima lb r ead th ( BP ) o ft h e me ta ca rpa l S umma ry o ft h ew i ld c a t t le i d en t if ied f r om t h em e t r ica la na ly s is A b so lu te f r equency o fb ov id s k e le ta le l emen t s R e la t ive f r equency o fb ov id s k e le ta lp o r t ion s B ov id e p iphy sea l f u s ion d a ta -p r e -Ha laf B ov id e p iphy sea l f u s ion d a ta -T ran s i t iona l B ov id e p iphy sea lf u s ion d a ta -E a r ly H a laf B ov id d en ta lw ea ra nd e r up t ion i ne ach p ha se R e la t ive f r equency o fs u id r ema in si ne a ch p ha se A b so lu te f r equency o fs u id s k e le ta l e l emen t s R e la t ive f r equency o fs u id s k e le ta lp or t ion s F requency o fb u tche r ing m a rk s o b se rved o n t h es u id r ema in s S u id mand ibu la rt o o th e r up t ion S u id e p iphy sea l f u s ion d a ta -p r e -Ha laf S u id e p iphy sea l f u s ion d a ta -T ran s i t iona l S u id e p iphy sea l f u s ion d a ta -E a r ly H a laf C ompa r ison o ft h em ea su r emen to fe qu id h ume r i A b so lu te f r equency o fe qu id s k e le ta l e l emen t s R e la t ive f r equency o fe qu id s k e le ta lp or t ion s E qu id e p iphy sea l f u s ion d a ta -p r e -Ha laf E qu id e p iphy sea lf u s ion d a ta -T ran s i t iona l

v iü

T ab le 6 . 43 T ab le 6 . 44 T ab le 6 . 45

E qu id e p iphy sea lf u s ion d a ta -E a r ly H a laf S umma ry o ft h ee qu id e p iphy sea l d a ta

T ab le 6 . 46 T ab le 6 . 47 T ab le 6 . 48 T ab le 6 . 49 T ab le 6 . 50 T ab le 6 . 51 T ab le 7 . 1 T ab le 7 . 2 T ab le 7 . 3 T ab le 7 . 4 T ab le 7 . 5

A b so lu te f r equency o fg aze l le s ke le ta l e l emen t s Mand ibu la rw ea rs t age s o fg aze l le

T ab le 7 . 6 T ab le 7 . 7 T ab le 7 . 8 T ab le 7 . 9 T ab le 7 . 10 T ab le 7 . 11 T ab le 7 . 12 T ab le 7 . 13 T ab le 7 . 14 T ab le 7 . 15

C ompa r ison o fs t a t is t ica l v a lue so fs c apu la a nd h ume ru so fg aze l le f r om S ab iA byad w i th t h ose f r om S ham se d -D in

G aze l le e p iphy sea lf u s ion d a ta e s t ima ted i nm on th s( t ime o ff u s ion f r om D av i s 1 980 ) F requency o fc a n id s k e le ta le l emen t F requency o ft h es k e le ta l e l emen t so ff ox Mo l lu sc d i s t r ibu t ion i nt h es epa ra t el e ve ls F requency o ft h em a te r ia lt h a tc ou ld b ea s c r ibed t o ac on tex t . D is t r ibu t ion o ft h em a ter ia l a c co rd ing t oc on tex t sa nd l e ve l s D if f e ren t ia l d epo s i t ion o fs pec ie sw i th in i n te r io ra nd e x te r io rc on tex t s D if f e ren t ia ld epo s i t ion o ft h ef i ve m a in s pec ie s( p e rcen tage s ) . S amp le s i ze > 100 D if f e ren t ia ld epo s i t ion o fs pec ie sb e tween i n ter na l a nd e x ter na l c on tex t sa c co rd ing t oa n ima l s i ze . S qua re s : P 15 a nd Q 15 F r equency o fo v icap r id , s u id a nd b ov id r ema in s a c co rd ing t ot h et y pe o fc on t ex t F requency o fo v icap r id b one sa cco rd ing t ot h et y pe o fc on t ex t F r equency o fb ov id b one sa c co rd ing t ot h et y pe o fc on tex t F requency o fs u id b one sa cco rd ing t ot h et y pe o fc on tex t R e la t ive f r equency o ft h em a jo rd ome s t ic s pec ie s R a t io b e tween o v icapr id s ,b ov id sa nd s u id s , b a sed o n f r equency o ft h ep rev iou st a b le ( t ab .7 . 10 ) B one sw i th t r a ce so fp a r t ia lb u rn ing a sp o s s ib le e v idence o fr oa s t ing F r equency o fw i ld a n ima l sr e p r e sen ta t ive o fd r ya nd mo is te nv i ronmen t s P e r cen tage so fi d en t if ied m amma l so fg aze l le a nd o nage rr ema in sa tt h es i te so fS ab i A byad I , S ab iA byad a nd K h i rbe te sh -Shenef S ea sona l d i s t r ibu t ion o fa g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie sa nd r e sou r ce s

i x

L i s to ff i gure s F igure 2 . 1 F igure 2 . 2

F igure 3 . 1 F igure 3 . 2 F igure 3 . 3 F igure 3 . 4 F igure F igure F igure F igure F igure F igure F igure F igure F igure F igure F igure

3 . 5 3 . 6 4 . 1 4 . 2 4 . 3 4 . 4 4 . 5 6 . 1 6 . 2 6 . 3 6 . 4

F igure 6 . 5 F igure 6 . 6 F igure 6 . 7 F igure F igure F igure F igure F igure

6 . 8 6 . 9 6 . 10 6 . 11 6 . 12

F igure 6 . 13 F igure 6 . 14 F igure 6 . 15 F igure 6 . 16 F igure 6 . 17 F igure 6 . 18 F igure 6 . 19 F igure 6 . 20 F igure 6 . 21 F igure 6 . 22 F igure 6 . 23

Map o ft h eB a l ikh v a l ley w i th t h e l o ca t ion o fS ab i A byad ( f rom v an L oon 1 988 ,p l a te 1 ) S ab i A byad : a r ch i tec tu ra l p l an s o fl e ve l 1( A ) , o fl e ve l 3 C -3B ( B ) , o fl e ve l 4( C ) , o fl e ve l 5( D ) , o f l e ve l 6( E ) , a nd a r ch i tec tu ra lr ema in s f ound i nt h et e s tt r enche s( Fa nd G : l e ve l 7 ;H : l e ve l 8 ;I : l eve l 9 )( f rom V e rhoeven a nd K ranendonk 1 996 ) Map o ft h en o r ther nB a l ikh v a l ley w i th s o i lscape s ( f rom B oe rma 1 988 ,p l a te 3 ) T empe ra tu re a nd p r ec ip i ta t ion h i s tog ram s ( f rom : A . R ö sne r a nd S chäb i tz 1 991 , f i g . 2 ;B . Mu lde r s 1 969 ,f i g .2 ) L ong te rm a ve rage p r ec ip i t a t ion i nS y r ia ( f rom W ir th 1 971 : m ap 3 ) A ve r age p r ec ip i ta t ion s d u r ing t h ree c on sequen t d ry y ea r s ( 1958 , 1 959 a nd 1 960 ) i nS y r ia ( f rom W ir th 1 97 1 :m ap 4 ) L oca t ion o fp o l len -co r es i t e sm en t ioned i nt h et e x t Map o ft h ev ege ta t iona lz one s ( f rom B o t tema a nd B a rkoudah 1 979 , f i g .2 ) L oca l iza t ion o ft h es i te sr e v iewed P e r cen tage so fi d en t if ied v e r su su n iden t if ied r ema in s P e r cen tage so fw i ld a n ima l s P e r cen tage s o ft h e ma in d ome s t ic s pec ie s C ompa r ison o fo v icap r id m o r ta l i ty p a t te rns R e la t ive f r equenc ie so ft h em a in s pec ie sp e rl e v e l N umbe ro fs pec imen sa nd r a t io b e tween O v i sa nd C apra b a sed o nt h ew ho le s amp le S i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o fs e lec ted e l emen t si nw h ich w i ld s heep a nd /o rg oa ta r ep re sen t . C ompa r ison o ft h ed i s ta lb r ead th ( BD )a nd t h eg r ea te s tb r ead th o ft h et r och lea ( BT )o ft h eo v icapr id h ume r i f r om S ab iA byad w i th o t he rs i te s C ompa r ison o f t h e l a te ra l g r ea te s t l e ng th ( GLL ) a nd t h e d i s ta l b read th ( BD ) o f t h e o v icap r id a s t raga l i f r om S ab i A byad w i th o t he rs i te s O v i s : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o fh ume ru sd i s ta lb r ead th ( BD ) C apra : s i ze i n dex d i s t r ibu t ion o fg oa t f o r e l imb b one sp l o t ted a ga in s tt h e " d if f e rence o fl o ga r i thm s " t e chn ique R e la t ive f r equency o fo v icapr id s k e le ta le l emen t sw i th in e a ch p ha se L oca t ion o ft r a ce s o fb u tche r ing ( c hop a nd c u tma rk s )o nt h eo v icap r id r ema ins O v icapr id m and ibu la rw ea r . S ugge s ted a ge a cco rd ing t oP ayne ' sw ea rs t age s( Payne 1 973 ) O v icapr id e p iphy sea l f u s ion O ra l p a tho log ie s o n o v icap r id r ema in s : A . l owe r f i r s t o rs e cond mo la r w i th e xpan s ion o ft h e r oo t t i p s ;B . mand ib le w i th a n te -mo r tem t o o th l o s s ; C .m and ib le w i th al a rge a l veo la rb one d e s t ruc t ion B o s : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c ompa r ison w i th o t he r s i te s o ft h e l e ng th ( L ) o ft h e t h ird l owe r mo la r ( M3 I ) B o s : s c a t te r -d iag ram o ft h el e ng th ( L )v e r su st h eb read th ( B )o ft h et h i rd mo la r S ca t te r -d iag ram o ft h e l e ng th ( L ) v e r su s t h eb read th ( B )o ft h eb ov id t h ird mo la r s f r om S ab iA by ad a nd f r om Mu r eyb i t B os : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c ompa r ison w i th o t he rs i te so ft h ed i s ta lb r ead th ( äD )o ft h eh ume ru s B o s : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eb r ead th o ft h et r och lea ( BT )o ft h eh ume ru s B o s : s c a t te r -d iag ram o f t h e d i s ta l b r ead th ( BD ) v e r su s t h e b r ead th o f t h e t r och lea ( BT ) o f t h e h ume ru s B o s : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c ompa r ison w i th o t he rs i te so ft h ed i s ta lb read th ( BD )o ft h em e taca rpu s B o s : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c ompa r ison w i th o t he rs i te so ft h ed i s ta lb read th ( BD )o ft h et i b ia B o s : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c ompa r ison w i th o t he rs i te so ft h eg r ea te s tl e ng th o ft h el a te ra lh a lf ( GLL ) o ft h ea s t raga lu s B o s : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ed i s ta lb r ead th ( BD )o ft h ea s t raga lu s B os : c ompa r ison o ft h e s c a t te r -d iag ram o ft h e d i s ta l b r ead th ( BD ) v e r su s t h eg r ea te s t l e ng th o ft h e l a te ra l h a lf ( GLL ) o ft h ea s t raga l i f r om S ab i A byad w i th t h o se f r om Mu reyb i t ,J a rmo ,c a ta lH üyük , a nd c av i T a r la s i

F igure 6 . 24 F igure 6 . 25

F igure 6 . 26 F igure 6 . 27 F igure 6 . 28 F igure 6 . 29 F igure 6 . 30 F igure F igure F igure F igure F igure F igure F igure F igure F igure

6 . 31 6 . 32 6 . 33 6 . 34 6 . 35 6 . 36 6 . 37 6 . 38 6 . 39

F igure 6 . 40 F igure 6 . 41 F igure 6 . 42 F igure 6 . 43 F igure 6 . 44 F igure 6 . 45 F igure 6 . 46 F igure 6 . 47 F igure 6 . 48

F igure F igure F igure F igure

6 . 49 6 . 50 7 . 1 7 . 2

F igure F igure F igure F igure F igure F igure F igure

7 . 3 7 . 4 73 7 . 6 7 . 7 7 . 8 7 . 9

B o s : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c ompa r ison w i th o t he rs i te so ft h ed i s ta lb r ead th ( BD )o ft h em e ta ta r su s B o s : c ompa r ison o ft h e m ea su r emen t s o fg r ea te s t l e ng th o ft h e p e r iphe ra l h a lf ( GLpe ) v e r su s t h e s ma l le s t b read th o ft h e d i aphy s is ( SD ) o ft h e f i r s t p ha lange s f r om S ab i A byad w i th t h o se f r om S ham se d -D in . B o s : s c a t te r -d iag ram o ft h eg r ea te s tl e ng th ( GL )v e r su st h es ma l le s tb r ead th o ft h ed i aphy s i s( SD )o f t h es e cond p ha lanx B o s : s c a t te r -d iag ram o ft h e g r ea te s t l e ng th ( GL ) v e r su s t h e p rox ima l b read th ( BP ) o ft h e s e cond p ha lanx B o s : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c ompa r ison w i th o t he r s i te s o ft h e g r ea te s t l e ng th ( GL ) o ft h e s e cond p ha lanx B o s : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c ompa r i son w i th o t he r s i t e s o ft h e p rox ima l b read th ( BP ) o ft h e s e cond p ha lanx B o s : s c a t te r -d iag ram a nd c ompa r ison w i th o t he rs i te so ft h ed i agona l l e ng th o ft h es o le ( DLS ) o ft h e t h i rd p ha lanx R e la t ive f r equency o fb ov id s ke le ta lr ema in s L oca t ion o ft r a ce so fb u tche r ing o nb ov id r ema in s B o s : h ume ru sw i th ac hopma rk o nt h ed i aphy s is B ov id e p iphy sea l f u s ion A bno rma l t o o th s hape o fb ov id t e e th : ( A ) l owe rm o la r ,( B )i n c is ive R e la t ive f r equency o fs u id s ke le ta l e l emen t si ne ach p ha se ( c o s tae n o ti n c luded ) L oca t ion o ft r ace so fb u t che r ing o nt h es u id r ema in s E name lp a t te rn o fe qu id t e e th R a t io d i ag ram s o ft h e e qu id m e ta ca rpa l s f r om S ab i A by ad c ompa r ed w i th t h em ean d imens ion s o f m e ta ca rpa l s o fv a r iou sa s se s , mode rn a nd f o s s i l ;( a f te rE i senmann a nd B eckouche 1 986 , f i g . 8 ) R a t io d i ag ram s o ft h e e qu id m e ta ta r sa ls f r om S ab i A byad c ompa r ed w i th t h e m ean d imen s ion s o f m e ta ta r sa l s o fv a r iou sa s se s , mode rn a nd f o s s i l ; ( a f te rE i senmann a nd B eckouche 1 986 ,f i g . 1 5 ) S ca t te r -d iag ram o ft h e f i r s t p ha lang e s ( PH 1) m ea su r emen t s o fE quu s f r om S ab i A byad c ompa red w i th o t he rs i te s( a f te rU e rpmann 1 99 1 , f i g . 4 ) S ca t te r -d iag ram o ft h es e cond p ha lange s( PH2 )m ea su r emen t so fE quu sf r om S ab iA byad c ompa red w i th t h e r eg r e s s ion l i ne so fE .h em ionu sa nd E .a s inu s( a f te rU e rpmann 1 99 1 , f i g . 3 ) R e la t ive f r equency o fe qu id s ke le ta le l emen t s L oca t ion o ft r ace so fb u t che r ing o n e qu id r ema in s . S i ze i n dex d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e g r ea te s t l e ng th o ft h ep roce s su s a r t icu la r is ( GLP ) o ft h e s c apu la a nd t h ed i s ta lb r ead th ( BD )o ft h eh ume ru so fg aze l le R e la t ive f r equency o fg aze l le s ke le ta l e l emen t s D i s ta lm e ta ta r su so fg aze l le w i th l o ng i tud ina l c u tma rk sa l ong t h ev a scu la rg roove D eg ree o fw ea ro n t h ed ec iduou s ( DP ) a nd p e rmanen t( P ) f o u r th p r emo la r so fg aze l le r e la ted t ot h e p robab le p e r iod o ft h ey ea ri nw h ich t h ea n ima ls w e r ek i l led ( af t e rL egge a nd R ow ley -Conwy 1 987 , p .8 1 ) Mand ibu la o fs t r iped h yaena ( H yaena h yaena )w i th s e ve r ew ea ro n t h ec an ine I nd ian O cean s he l l ( Po l in ice ss p . )w i th ap i e r ced h o le E l emen tr e p re sen ta t ion o fo v icap r id sr ema in s f ound w i th in d i f f e r en tc on tex t s E l emen tr e p re sen ta t ion o fs u id ,b ov id a nd o v icap r id r ema in sw i th in t h es ame t y pe o fc on tex t( l a rge o pen a r ea s= " gene ra l " ) E l emen tr e p re sen ta t ion o fb ov id r ema in sf ound i np i t s( p )a nd i nl a rge o pen a r ea s( " gene ra l " ) R a t io i nm ea ty i e ld o ft h ed ome s t ic s pec ie s R e la t ive f r equency o fd ome s t ic a nd w i ld s pec ie si ne a ch p ha se B ov id ( a u roch s )s c apu la w i th t h er ema in o fa na r rowhead V ege ta t ion s cheme o ft h eB a l ikh v a l ley a nd t h es l ope o fT e l l H ammam ( f rom B o t tema 1 984 , f i g .2 ) R e la t ive f r equency o fw i ld s pec ie s S t ra teg ie si na n ima le xp lo i ta t ion o ft h ee a r ly N eo l i th ic c ommun i t ie si nt h eB a l ikh v a l ley

x i

L i s to fa bbrev ia t ion s SAB

=S ab i A byad

• • •

=E a r ly H a laf p ha se =T rans i t iona lp ha se =p re -Ha laf p ha se =m ixed p ha se

S I

=s i ze i ndex

SM MM LM

=s ma l l mamma ls = med ium mamma ls =l a rge mamma ls

UF • p . d .

=u nfu sed =f u sed =p rox ima l =d i s ta l

• •

=d ec iduou sp remo la r /m i lk too th =p remo la r = mo la r

S ke le ta le l emen t s :

CORNU CRAN MAX MAND DENTES HYO ID

h or n co re /an t le r c r an ium max i l la mand ibu la l oo se t e e th h yo id

ATLAS AX IS CERV THOR LUMB CAUD VERT SACR S TERN COSTA

a t la s a x is v er teb rae v er teb rae v er tebrae v e r tab rae v e r teb rae s a c rum s t e rnum r i b

S CAP HU M RAD ULNA CARP MC MC 1 MC2

s capu la h umeru s r ad iu s u lna c a rpa l ia me taca rpu s me taca rpa le 1 me taca rpa le 2

c erv ica le s t ho raca le s l umba le s c auda le s

MC3 MC4 MC5

m e taca rpa le 3 m e taca rpa le 4 m e taca rpa le 5

P ELV F EM PATEL T IB F IB ASTR CALC TARS MT MT 1 MT2 MT3 MT4 MT5

p e lv is f emu r p a te l la t i b ia f i bu la a s t raga lu s c a lcaneum t a r sa l ia me ta ta r su s me ta ta r sa le m e ta ta r sa le m e ta ta r sa le me ta ta r sa le me ta ta r sa le

MP PH 1 PH2 PH3 S ESA M

m e tapod ium ( me taca rpus o r me ta ta r sus ) p ha lanx 1 p ha lanx 2 p ha lanx 3 s e samo idea

CORAC CMC PH M T IBT TMT PHP

c o raco id c a rpome taca rpu s p ha lange sm anu s t i b io ta r su s t a r some ta ta r sus p ha lange sp ed is

1 2 3 4 5

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE

Chap ter 1 .I n troduc t ion

s t ra t eg ie s o f t h e N eo l i th ic p opu la t ion i n n o r ther n S y r ia , p rov id ing a l a rg e c o rpu s o f d a ta f o r c ompa r i son w i th o th e r

T h i s r e sea r ch d ea l s w i th t h e z ooa r ch a eo log ica l a na ly s i s o ft h e f a una l r em a in s f ound a t t h e n o r th -Sy r ian s i te o f T e l l S ab i A byad . T h e r e sea rch , c a r r ied o u td u r ing t h e y ea r s 1 991-97 , i s

s i t e s .

p ar to f aw id e ra nd o ngo ing r eg iona lr e s e a r ch p ro jec to fs u rvey a nd e xcav a t ion s i nt h e B a l ikh v a l ley , w h ich h a s t h ep u rpo se t o b u i ld ac h rono log ica la nd ac u l tu ra l s e qu en ce o fo ccupa t ion o f t h e v a l ley . Af t e r t h e r e sea r ch c onduc t ed b y Ma l Iowan i nt h e

T he m a in a im o ft h e r e sea r ch i st or e con s t ru c tt h e i mpo r tan ce o fa n ima l s w i th in t h e e conomy o ft h e l a te N eo l i th ic -H a laf ian c ommun i ty , a nd t os e ew h e th e ra c co rd ing t ot h ea r chaeo log ica l r e su l t s t h e s ub s i s t en ce s t ra t eg ie s a dop ted b y t h a t c ommun i ty

1 930 s , t h ei n te re s ti nt h ev a l ley a ba t ed ,a nd o f t en i tw a ss e en a s ar e g ion o f s e conda ry i mpor tan ce w h en c ompa r ed t o t h e n e ighbou r ing v a l ley s o ft h e E uph ra t e s a nd t h e K habu r . F rom 1 981 o nwa rd s t h e Un ive r s i ty o f Am s t e rdam h a s c onduc ted a s e r ie s o f a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion s i nt h e v a l ley , s t a r t ing w i th t h e s u rvey a nd t h e e xcava t ion a t T e l l H ammam e t T u rkm an . T h e f i r s t e xcava t ion a tS ab i A byad w a s c a r r ied o u t i n 1 986 b y t h e I n s t i tu te f o r P r e - a nd P ro toh i s to ry o f t h e Un ive r s i ty o f Am s t e rdam u nd e r t h e d i rec t ion o f P e te r A kk ennan s .T he f o l low ing c ampa ign sw e re c ondu c t ed i n1 988 b y t h e U n ive r s i ty o f Am s t e rdam a nd s ub sequen t ly b y t h e

w e r e t h e r e su l t s o f ad eve lopm en t a nd t r an sf o rma t ion w i th in l o ca lc ommun i t ie s . T h e a n ima l s a r e t h e s t a r t ing p o in t o ft h e r e sea r ch , o r r a th e r , w ha t i sl ef t o ft h em ; t h e f ma l p o in t i st h e u nde r s tand ing a nd r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e i r m ean ing a nd t h e i r i mpor tance f o r t h e S ab i A byad c ommun i ty . I no t h e r w o rd s , w h ich a n ima l s w e r e u s ed a nd h ow , i nr e la t ion t ot h e p o s s ib i l i t ie s a nd c on s t ra in t s b o th o ft h e e nv i ronm en ta l r e sou r ce s a nd o ft h e t e chno log ica l a nd c u l tu ra ll e ve lo ft h ec ommun i ty . I nd o ing s o , i ti sn ece s sa ry f i r s tt ou nd e r s tand t h e a n im a l si nt h em se lve s , t h e i rb io logy a nd p hy s io logy , b ehav iou r , e t c . a nd t o r e con s t ruc t t h e

N a t iona l Mu seum o f A n t iqu i t ie s o f L e iden , w h ich i sn ow r e spon s ib le f o rt h ec on t inua t ion o ft h er e sea r ch a tt h es i t e .

e nv i ronm en ta ls e t t ing i nw h ich t h ey l i ved , a nd t h en t op u tt h em i n to t h ea r chaeo log ica la nd c u l tu ra lc on tex to ft h e s i te a sw e l l .

T h i s r e sea r ch h a s r evea led t h a tt h e s i t e o fS ab iA by ad , a nd t h e B a l ikh v a l ley i ng ene ra l , o ccup ied a n i mpo r tan t , e ven c r uc ia l

T h e a pp roach u sed i n t h i s r e con s t ru c t ion i s t h e z ooa r chaeo log ica l a na ly s i s , i . e . t h e s t udy o f a n ima l b on e s w i th in t h e i r a r chaeo log ica l c on t ex t . T he r e sea rch p re sen ted a s e r ie s o f i n te re s t ing c h a l lenge s . I n t h e f i r s t p l ace , d ue t ot h e p oo rk now ledge o ft h e a n c ien tg eog raph ica l d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e

c h rono log ica lp o s i t ion i nt h ep reh i s to ry o ft h e r e g ion a nd , l e s s s pec if i ca l ly , o f t h e J ez i ra - t h e r e g ion b e tw een t h e r i ve r s E uph ra t e sa nd T ig r i s -i nn or ther nS y r ia .T h es i te i sp a r t icu la r ly i mpor tan t f o r t h e c omp rehen s ion o ft h e l a t e N eo l i th ic p ha se a nd t h e o r ig in o ft h eH a laf ian c u l tu r e , i nt h es e cond h a lf o ft h e 6 t hm i l lenn ium B .C . T he a ccu ra t ea r ch a eo log ica l i n v e s t iga t ion

d i f f e ren t s pec ie s i na dd i t ion t ot h e i r h eavy r edu c t ion o r e ven e x t inc t ion i n r e cen t y ea r s , t h e d e t e rm ina t ion o f t h e s pec ie s

h a s u n ea r thed a c on t inuou s s equ en ce o f l a te N eo l i th ic o ccupa t ion w i thou t a ny m a jo r h i a tu s , a low ing t h e r e cogn i t ion o f s epa ra t e p ha se s o f o ccupa t ion o n t h e o n e h and , a nd e l uc ida t ing t h e g radua l t r an sf o rma t ion s o ft h e l o ca l N eo l i th ic c ommun i ty o n t h e o th e r . I n o rd e r t o a d ju s t t o t h e a l ready e x i s t ing c h rono log ica l f r am ewo rk s a nd o t he r p ub l ica t ion s o n S ab i A byad ( a nd s o t oa vo id g en e r a l c on f u s ion ) a l l d a t e s w i l l b eu sed i n a' t r ad i t iona l 'm anne r ,i . e .u n ca l ib ra ted . S ee t a b le 2 . 2 f o rc a l ib ra t ed d a te s .

p r e sen t i nt h e a r ea a tt h a t p e r iod i sa n i mpor tan t p u rpo se i n i t s e lf . S econd ly , b ecau se o n ly r e cen t ly a n i n te r e s t h a s d eve loped i nt h e a r ea a nd p e r iod h e r e c on ce rn ed t h e p r ev iou s a r chaeozoo log ica l s t ud ie s w e r e r a the r f ew a nd m a in ly c on cen t ra t ed o n h i s to r ica l p e r iod s o r o n v e ry e a r ly d om e s t ica t ion , s ot h a tt h e d eve lopm en to rf u r th e r s t ad ia o ft h e d om e s t ica t ion w a sr a th e rn eg lec t ed . I ti st h e r ef o re a ni mpo r t an t a im o ft h i s r e sea r ch t oe xam in e w ha t d eg ree o fd om e s t ica t ion , o rh um an c on t ro l , a nd f o r w h ich s pec ie s w a s a t ta ined b y t h e i n hab i tan t s o ft h e s i t e . I np a r t icu la ri ti si mpor tan tt or e cogn ize w h e th e r t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f d om e s t ic a n ima l s f o r t h e i r s e conda ry p rodu c t s h ad a l r eady d eve loped , a nd i fi th ad , w ha t k i nd o fs e conda ry p rodu c t s t h ey w e re a nd w h ich s pec ie s t h ey w e r e r e la ted t o . F in a l ly , a no th e r g oa l o ft h e r e sea rch w a s t o e va lua te t h er o le o ft h ew i ld f a una lc ompon en t .

K now ledge a bou tt h ef auna lr ema in sa nd s ub s i s t en ce s t ra t eg ie s a dop ted b y t h e l a te N eo l i th ic c ommun i t ie s o f t h e v a l ley i s r a th e r s c a r ce . On ly af ew z ooa r ch aeo log ica l s t ud ie s h ave b een c a r r ied o u tu n t i ls of a r .A pa r tf r om as ma l lr e po r to nt h ef a una l r ema in s f r om T e l l A s souad a nd a v e ry r e cen t s t udy o n t h e r ema in s f r om S ab i A byad I , af i r s t a temp t o n t h e a n ima l r ema in sf r om S ab iA byad w a sc a r r ied o u tb yv an W i jngaa rd en B akk e r ( 1989 ) . A l though t h e s am p l e w a s v e ry s ma l l , t h e p rom i s ing r e su l t s t oge the r w i th t h e f u r th e r a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion s t imu la ted af u r th e ra nd m o r e d e ta i led s t udy o fa l a rge r n um be r o ff auna l r ema in s f r om t h e s i t e . T h i s r e sea rch

A cco rd ing t ot h e a pp roa ch a nd t h e a im s d e sc r ibed a bove , t h e b ook i ss t ruc tu red i nt h r ee p a r t s : I .t h e a r chaeo log i ca l , e nv i ronm en ta l a nd z ooa r chaeo log ica l b a ckg round s ; I .t h ea n a ly s i so ft h ef a una lr ema in sf r om S ab iA byad ;

t h e ref o r e d ea l s w i th al a rge n umbe r o ff r agm en t s a nd c on ta in s amo re d e t a i led s t udy o ft h ef a una lr ema in sa nd t h es ub s i s ten ce

I I .t h ei n te rp re ta t ion s .

1

CH IARA CAVALLO

T he f o l low ing ( s econd ) c hap te r w i l l s umm a r iz e t h e a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t o f S ab i A by ad . T h e p u rpo se o f t h i s c h ap t e r i s t o p re sen t t h e r e su l t s o f t h e a r cha eo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion s a tS ab i A by ad w i th e mpha s i s o n w ha t c an b e r e levan t f o r t h e c omp rehen s ion o ft h e a nc ien t c ommun i ty a nd a n ima l u t i l iza t ion i nr e la t ion t ot h e a na ly s i s a nd i n t e rp r e ta t ion o f t h e f a una l r ema in s . T h e t h i rd c hap te r w i l l p rov ide a r e con s tru c t ion ,b a sed o np o l l en ,b o tan ica la nd f a una le v iden ce , o ft h ep a laeoenv i ronm en ta l s e t t ing , i nw h ich m en a nd a n ima l s i n t e ra c ted . I n t h e f ou r th c hap te r t h e p re sen t s t a t e o f t h e z ooa r chaeo log ica l r e sea r ch w i l lb e r e v iewed a nd e va lua t ed , i n o rde rt op l ace t h e r e su l t s o ft h e a na ly s i s o ft h e f a una l r ema in s f r om S ab i A byad i n amo r e g ene r a l N eo l i th ic c on t ex t . I nt h e f i f th c hap te r t h e z ooa r chaeo log ica l m e thod s u sed i n t h i s r e sea r ch w i l l b e d efm ed w i th e mpha s i s o n p re se rva t iona l a s pec t s , o n t h e s pec if i c M idd le E a s te rn p rob lem s o f i d en t if i ca t ion o fs ma l l h e rb ivo r e s a sw e l l a st h e mo r e g ene ra l z ooa r chaeo log ica l a spec t s o f q uan t if i ca t ion , t h e c r i t e r ia o f a ge ing a nd o fm ea su r ing . C hap t e r s i x c on s i s t s o f t h e b ody o f t h e r e sea r ch : t h e d i r ec t a na ly s i s o f t h e S ab i A byad a n im a l r ema in s . T h e a na ly s i s c omp r i se st h ef a una lr ema in se xcava ted d u r ing t h e 1 986 , 1 988 , 1 991 c ampa ign s ( s ee t a b le 6 . 1) . P a r t s o fp r ev iou s p ub l ica t ion s ( Cava l lo 1 995 , 1 996 ) h ave b een i n c luded i nt h ep r e sen tw o rk . I n t h e l a s t c hap t e r ( s even ) a g ene ra l e va lua t ion a nd i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e d a ta a nd t h er o le o ft h e a n ima l s a tt h e s i t e w i th in amo re g ene ra lc on t ex tw i l lb ea t t emp ted .

2

AN I MALS I N THE S TEPPE

Chap ter 2 .S e t t lemen ta rchaeo logy o fT e l lS ab i Abyad

2 . 1 T he s i te

a t ad ep th o f c a . 4 . 50 m b e low t h e l e ve l o ft h e s u r round ing f i e ld s . I tc on s i s t s o f al a y e r o f p ebb le s a nd c obb le s a nd o f c ompac t a nd h omogen eou s l o amy d epo s i t s . T he l a y e r o f p ebb le s h a s b een i n te rp re t ed a s ak ind o f s t one p avem en t p l aced p u rpo se ly b ym en .

T he s i t e o fT e l l S ab i A byad -" Mound o ft h e Wh i t e B oy " i n A rab ic -i sl o ca ted i nt h eu ppe r B a l ikh i nn o r th e rn S y r ia a t3 0 km f r om t h e S y ro -Tu rk i sh b o rde r , c l o se t ot h e m oder nv i l lage o fH ammam e t -Tu r lanan ( f ig . 2 . 1) . T h et e l li sa c tua l ly p a r to fa c l u s te ro fm ound sl o ca l ly k nown a s Kh i rbe tS ab iA byad o r" t h e R u in s o f t h e Wh i te B oy " . T h e s i t e f r om w h ich t h e a n ima l m a t e r ia l i s h e re a na lyzed c on s t i tu t e s t h e l a rge s t o f t h e se m ound s .

L eve l 1 0 . T h i s l e ve l i sr e p r e sen t ed b y al a y e r o f s he rd s l a id d own o n t h e i r f l a t s i d e a nd b y ad epo s i t o fh a rd g r ey -b rown l o amy s o i l ( s t ra tum 1 0 ) . T h e l a y e ro fs h e rd s i si n t e rp re ted a sa s h e rd p avem en ti n t en t iona l ly m ade b ym an . A bove t h i st h e re i s av e ry d i s t in c t d epo s i t ( s t ra tum 9 )w h ich s epa ra t e s t h e l ow e r s t r a t a i nw h ich n o a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu r e s w e re f ound ( p robab ly d ue t o t h e l im i t ed a r ea o f e xcava t ion ) f r om t h e o th e r s w i th

T he mound o fS ab i A by ad m ea su r e s c a . 5h a a ti t s b a se a nd r i se s a bou t 5t o 1 0 m a bove t h e l e v e l o f t h e s u r round ing u ndu la t ing p l a in . T he n a tu ra ls o i lh ow ev e ri sp r e sen ta t ad ep th o f4 . 5 m b e low moder n f i e ld l e ve l s how ing h ow t h e a n c ien t s u rf ace h a s b een c ove r ed b y ac on s id e r ab le a c cumu la t ion o f a eo l ic -f luv ia t i le d epo s i t s (W i lk in son 1 996 ) .

a r ch i t ec tu ra lf e a tu r e s . L eve l 9 .L eve l 9c on s i s t s o fs t ra t a w i th a r ch i t ec tu ra l f e a tu r e s a nd i n t e rm ing l ed l a y e r s o f d eb r i s a ccumu la t ion . T h e a r ch i t ec tu re i sr e p r e sen t ed b y aw a l l a nd i t s r e la ted f l oo r leve l a nd a no ven w i th i t sf l oo r lev e l .

T he p re sen tm ound o fS ab iA byad a c tua l ly c on s i s t s o f ag roup o f f ou r s ma l l mound s w h ich h ave m e rged t o g e th e r t h rough t im e t of o rm o n e l a rge mound . T h e f i r s te xcava t ion c ampa ign s ( 1986 -88 /Un ive r s i ty o f Am s t e rdam ) w e r e c a r r ied o u t o n t h e n o r thea s te rn a nd s ou thea s ter n p a r t o f t h e m ound , a nd o n i t s t o p . T h ey c on cen t ra ted o nt h e H a laf o ccupa t ion l e ve l sd a t ed t o t h e e nd o f t h e 6 th m i l lenn ium . T h e s ub sequ en t e x cava t ion c ampa ign s ( 19911993 /Ne th e r land s N a t iona l Mu seum o f A n t iqu i t ie s ) f o cu sed mo re o nt h eb road h o r izon ta le xpo su re o f t h e T ran s i t iona l l e ve l s a nd o n s t epped t r en ch e s a im ed t o e s tab l i sh t h e g ene ra l s t ra t ig raph ic s e qu en ce a nd t o r e ach t h e v i rg in s o i l( Akk e rman s 1 993 ) .

L eve l 8 . T h i s l e ve l i s r e p r e sen t ed b y l a ye r s i n wh ich a r ch i t ec tu ra l f e a tu re s c on s i s t ing o f aw a l l , af l oo r leve l a nd p i t s w e r e f o und i n t e rm ing led b y d eb r i s l a ye r s . Mo s t o ft h e a n ima l r ema in s a s c r ibed t ot h i s l e ve lc om e f r om t h ep i t s . On e o ft h em ( p i t AD )h a sa no b long s hape m ea su r ing c a . 3 . 80 x 1 . 50 m w i th ad ep th o fc a . 1 . 00 m ) a nd h a s ah omogeneou sf i l l( g rey -b rown l o am )w h i le a no th e r( p i t AG )w i th ad i am e t e ro fc a . 1 . 90 m a nd ad ep th o f 1 . 20 m h a s c l ea r s t r a t ig r aph ic d epo s i t s i nd ica t ing a g r adu a la ccumu la t ion p robab ly o v e r al o ng p e r iod . L eve l 7 .B e s ide s i nt h eP 15 t r en ch ,t h i s l e ve lw a s a l so e xpo sed i n at r en ch o fP 14 a nd i n al i m i t ed a r ea o fs qua r e s P 12 , Q 14 a nd R 14 . E v iden ce o ft wo r e c tangu la rb u i ld ing se r ec ted n ex tt o e ach o t h e rw e re f ound .

2 . 2S tra t igraphy a nd a rch i tec tura lf e a ture s T h e e xcava t ion c ampa ign s a t S ab i A byad h ave r e vea led a c on t inuou s s e r ie s o fs upe r impo sed l e v e l s o fo ccupa t ion d a t ed i ng ene ra lb e tw een 5 700 B .C . a nd 5 000 B .C . ( f ig .2 . 2 ) . I nt o t a l

L eve l 6 .T h i s l e ve lg ave e v iden ce o f as e r ie so fw e l l -p re se rved a r ch i t ec tu ra l s t ru c tu re s , r e p re sen t ing t h e s o -ca l led " Bu rn t V i l lage " b ecau se o f i t s d e s t ru c t ion b y av i o len t f i re . E igh t r e c tangu la r a nd mu l t i room ed b u i ld ing s , f ou r c i r cu la r s t ru c tu re s ( t ho lo i ) a nd s e ve ra l o ven s w e re u n ea r thed . T h e m a t e r ia l f r om t h i s l e ve l s hou ld b e c on s ide red l a rge ly i ns i tu . T h e v i l lage r e la t ed t ot h i s l e ve l w a s p a r t ly b u i l t i nt e r race s o n t h e s l ope o ft h em ound s ot h a tr oof sw e r eo nt h es am el e ve l sa s t h ef l oo ro ft h eh ou se sf r om t h eu ppe rl a y e r s .

e l even o ccupa t ion l e ve l s w e r e r e cogn iz ed . T h e e a r l ie s t l e ve l s ( 1 1-7 ) w e r e o n ly r e ached i n an a r row t r en ch ( P 15 ) 9m l o ng a nd 2 m w ide a l ong t h e s ou th e rn s l ope o f t h e s ou th ea s t er n m ound w h e r e t h e v i rg in s o i l w a s r e a ch ed . T h e t o pmo s t l e ve l s ( 6 1) w e re i n ve s t iga ted i nb road h o r izon t a l e xpo su re s , u p t o 8 00 m2 i ns e ve ra l s qua re s . F o r e ach s qu a re ( 9 x9m ) d if e ren t s t r a ta w e re r e cogn ized , w h ich w e r e g r ouped i nl e ve l sv a l id f o r a l t h e s qua r e s . H e re ag ene ra l d e sc r ip t ion f o r e a ch l e ve l w i l l b e g i ven . F o r amo re d e ta i led a ccoun t o nt h e s t ra t ig raphy a nd t h e c o r re la t ion b e tw een t h e d i f f e r en t s t ra ta o f t h e v a r iou s s qua re s s e e t h e c omp reh en s ive w o rk o f V e rhoeven a nd

L eve l 5 . L eve l 5c on s i s t s o f t wo r e c tangu la r mu l t i room ed b u i ld ing s e xpo sed i ns qua re s P 14 , Q 14 , Q 15 ( bu i ld ing I )a nd i ns qua r e s R 14 a nd Q 14 ( bu i ld ing H ) . I nt h e c ou r tya rd a r ound b u i ld ing Ih ou seho ld s s t ruc tu r e s s u ch a s o ven s a nd h ea r th s w e r ef ound .

K ran endonk ( 1996 ) , a s w e l l a s A kk e rm an s ( 1989a ) , A kke rman s a nd L e M i& e ( 1992 ) , A kk e rman s ( 1993 ) , A kk e rman sa nd V e rhoeven ( 1995 ) .

L eve l 4 .T h i s l e ve l i sc ha rac t e r ized b yt h e p r e sen ce o f aw e l l p r e se rved l a rge t h o lo s w i th a n t echambe ri ns qua re Q 15 . N o r th o ft h et h o lo s as ma l lr e c tangu la rb u i ld ing w a s f ound i ns qua re s

L eve l 1 . T h i s l e ve l r ep r e sen t s t h e e a r l i e s t s t r a tum e xcava t ed a tT e l l S ab iA byad a nd l i e sd i rec t ly u pon t h ev i rg in s o i l f ound

3

CH IARA CAVALLO P 14 , Q 14 a nd t h e n o r ther np a r to fs qua r e s P 15 a nd Q 15 . T h e p re sen ce o fa r ch i tec tu ra lr em a in sb e long ing e i th e rt ol e ve l 4o r 5i nt h en o r th er ns qua re s P 12 a nd Q 12 , i n d ica te s t h a tt h e l a ck o fs t ra ta r e la t ed t ot h e se l e ve l s i nt h e c en t ra l s qua re sP 13 , Q 13 a nd S 13 i sd ue t ot h e l e ve l l ing o ft h i s a r ea f o rt h ec on s t ru c t ion

L eve l 2 . N o d w e l l ing s w e re a t t r ibu ted t o t h i s l e ve l . T h e r e s iden t ia la r ch i t ec tu re p robab ly moved w e s twa rd a ss ugge s t ed b y at h o lo s f ound i n s qua re s 0 13 -0 14 . T h e a r ea o f t h e b u i ld ing s o ft h e p r ev iou s l e ve l s , l a rge ly f i l led b y mudb r i c i c s a nd o ccupa t ion a ld eb r i s ,w a sr e -u sed i nt h i sp e r iod f o ro pen -a i r d om e s t ic a c t iv i t ie sa sd ocum en ted b yt h en um e rou sp i t s ,o v en s , k i ln s , f i r ep la ce sa nd w h i t e -p la s t e red b a s in s .

o ft h el a t e rl e ve l 3b u i ld ing s . L eve l 3 . T h i s l e ve l i s r ep re sen ted b y w e l l p r e se rved a r ch i t ec tu ra l r ema in s f ound i na n e x ten s ive a r ea ( c a . 8 75 m2) o nt h eh i gh e s tp a r to ft h e mound w he re t h es e t t lem en ts e em st o h ave b een c oncen t ra ted i nt h e l a s tp h a se o fh ab i ta t ion . L ev e l 3 i sd i v id ed i n to l e ve l s3 C ,3 Ba nd 3 A . L eve l3 Ci sc ha r ac t e r ized b y t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f a n i mp r e s s ive s t on e w a l l w h ich f un c t ion ed a s ar e ta in ing w a l l s uppo r t ing at e r r ace o nt o p a nd a l ong t h e n o r ther ns l ope o ft h e s ou th ea s ter n mound . L eve l 3 B i s r e p r e sen t ed b y a mu l t ichambe red b u i ld ing ( bu i ld ing I ) , w h ich i n co rpo ra t ed t h e s t on e w a l l , a nd b y r e la t ed c i r cu la r s t ru c tu r e s ( t ho lo i ) . Many d if e r en t m ean s o f a cce s s t o t h e b u i ld ing w e r e p r e sen t , t h e m a in e n t rance b e ing t h a t f r om t h e s m a l l c ou r ty a rd i nt h e n o r thea s te rn p a r t o fs qua re Q 13 , w h ich w a s i n t u rn a cce s s ib le f r om t h e t e r race i n t h e n o r th . T h e b u i ld ing p robab ly h ad t wo s t o r ey s , w h ich w ou ld e xp la in t h e l a ck o f ap a s sage a tf l oo r l e ve l i n s om e r oom s , t h e se m o s t p r e sum ab ly b e ing a cce s s ib le f r om t h e u ppe r s t o rey . F rom t h e k ind o f f md s f ound i n s om e r oom s , s uch a s l a rge s t o r age v e s se l sa nd c l ay o b jec t sw i th s e a li mp re s s ion s , i ts e em st h a tt h e l ow e rs t o r ey c on s i s t ed o fs t o rage r oom s w h i le t h eu ppe rs t o r ey c on ta in ed t h e l i v ing a r ea s . B e s id e s s om e t h o lo i s u r round ing b u i ld ing I o n t h e s l ope s , l e ve l 3 B i sc ha rac te r ized b y t h e p re sen ce o f n um e rou s p i t s , mo s t l i ke ly u sed a s f i r ep la ce s , w h ich y i e ld ed l a rge q uan t i t ie s o fb on e s . L eve l 3 A i sm a in ly r e p r e sen t ed b y t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f ar e c tangu la r b u i ld ing ( bu i ld ing I V ) s ou th o ft h e m a in b u i ld ing , w h ich s t i l lc on t inu ed t ob ei nu se i nt h i sl e ve l .

LEVEL BAL IK 1 I

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1

I IB I IB I IB I IA I IA I IA IC IC IC IC IA

DATE (B .C . ) ( unca l ibra ted ) c a . 5 000 5 050 /5000 5 100 /5050 5 150 /5100 c a . 5 150 5 200 /5150 5 250 /5200 c a . 5 300 c a . 5 400 c a . 5 500 c a . 5 700

L eve l 1 . T h i s l e ve l i sc ha rac te r ized b y t h r ee mu l t i room ed r e c t i l in ea rb u i ld ing s d i v ided f r om e a ch o t h e rb yn a r row a l ley s s u r rounded b y l a rge o pen a r ea s . T he se s t ru c tu re s a ppea r ed i mm ed ia t e ly b e low t h e s u r f ace o ft h e t e l l a nd t h ey h ave b een h eav i ly d amaged b ye r o s ion .

2 . 3 Chrono logy T he l o ng a nd v i r tua l ly u n in t e r rup t ed o ccupa t ion o fS ab iA by ad l a s ted f o r m o re t h an 5 00 y ea r s a nd i sg ene ra l ly d a ted t ot h e s e cond h a lf o f t h e 6 t h m i l lenn ium B .C . T he o n ly p o s s ib l e e xcep t ion i sr e p re sen ted b y l e ve l 1 , t h e o l de s t , w h ich m igh t h ave a ne a r l ie rd a t e o fa r ound 5 800 -5700 B .C . T h ed a t e o ft h e s epa ra t e l e ve l s i s r e po r t ed i n t a b le 2 . 1 . T h e n um e rou s a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion s b a sed b o th o n s u rvey s a nd a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion s i n t h e B a l ikh v a l ley l e d t o t h e c omp i la t ion o f a r e g iona l c h rono log ica l f r am ewo rk ( A ld c e rman s 1 993 ) . I nt e rm s o ft h i s c h rono logy a tS ab iA byad t h e B a l ikh IA ( l eve l 1 ) , t h e B a l ikh IC ( l eve l s 1 0 -7 ) , t h e B a l ikh I IA ( l eve l s 6 4 ) a nd t h e B a l ikh I IB ( l eve l s 3 1 ) a r e a t te s t ed . A s e r ie s o fr ad ioca rbon d a te s w e re o b ta in ed f r om c ha r coa l , b u rn t g r a in s , s e ed s a nd wood s amp le s b o th f r om t h e n o r thea s t er na nd s ou thea s t er ne xcava t ion a r ea s a tS ab i A byad ( t ab le 2 . 2 )( Akk e rman s 1 991 , 1 996 ) .T h er ad ioca rbon d a t e sa r e a l l b u t t wo i n a cco rd w i th t h e s t ra t ig raph ic s equ en ce . T he s amp le s G rN 16801 a nd U tC -1010 a r e t oo o ld o r t o o y oung r e spec t ive ly , p robab ly d ue t oc on tam ina t ion o ft h e s amp le s o r p re sen ce o fo u t -of -con tex tm a te r ia l f r om e a r l ie ro rl a t e r l e ve l s . T h e C 14 d a t e s c onf i rm ed t h e i mpo r t an ce a nd t h e u n iqu en e s s

PHASE

o f S ab i A by ad , a s n o c ompa rab le s i t e s h ad b een e xcava t ed w i th s o e a r ly H a laf l e ve l s d i rec t ly r e la t ed t o p r eced ing N eo l i th ic l e ve l so fo ccupa t ion .

E a r ly H a laf E a r ly H a laf E a r ly H a laf T ran s i t iona l T ran s i t iona l T ran s i t iona l p r e -Ha laf p re -Ha laf p re -Ha laf p r e -Ha laf p r e -Ha laf

2 . 4P o t tery W i th t h e h e lp o ft h e l a rge q uan t i ty o fp o t t e ry r e t r ieved f r om S ab iA byad at y po log ica ls equence c ou ld b ec on s t ru c t ed w h ich c on s t i tu t e s t h e b a s i s o ft h e r e la t ive c h rono log ica l s equen ce o f t h e o ccupa t iona l l e ve l s . I t s a na ly s i s c on s t i tu te s e v id en ce f o r a l o ng a nd c on t inuou s s equence , w h ich e s sen t ia l ly e nab le s u st o s e e h ow t h e H a laf ' c u l tu r e ' d eve loped f r om a n ' e a r l ie r l o ca l ly f ounded N eo l i th ic t r ad i t ion ' ( A ld cer n ian s 1 989b : 1 40 ) . F o r a mo re d e ta i led p r e sen ta t ion o ft h e d e sc r ip t ion a nd c h rono logy t h e r e ade r i sr e f e r r ed t o A ld ce rman s ( 1989d , 1 993 ) a nd L e M ie r ea nd N ieuwenhuy se ( 1996 ) .

T ab le 2 . 1 R e la t ive c h rono logy o f t h e s epa ra t e l e v e l s o f o ccupa t ion o f S ab i A byad i n r e la t ion t o t h e r e g ion a l c h rono log ica lf r am ewo rk o ft h eB a l ikh v a l ley

4

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE

L ab .N o .

Ma ter ia l

L eve l

C onven t iona l d a te B .P .

C onven t iona l d a te B .C .

C a l ibra ted d a te B .P . 1s i gma

C a l ibra ted d a te B .P . 2s i gma

G rN 16804

B u rn t g ra in

1

6 975±30

5 025±30

5 842 -5762

5 934 -5916 5 866 -5730

G rN 16800

C ha rcoa l

2

7 005±30

5 055±30

5 936 -5916 5 870 -5802

5 944 -5910 5 884 -5764

G rN 1680 1

B u rn t s e ed s

3

7 465±35

5 515±35

6 362 -6318 6 306 -6276 6 256 -6224

6 370 -6210 6 206 -6 192

G rN 16802

B u rn t s eed s

3

7 065±30

5 115±30

5 954 -5936 5 9 16 -5870

5 964 -5844

G rN -1 6803

B u rn t s e ed s

4

7 075±25

5 125±25

5 956 -5942 5 912 -5880

5 966 -5932 5 9 18 -5858

G rN 1008

C ha rcoa l

4

6 930±80

4 980±80

5 925 -5924 5 848 -5684

5 950 -5906 5 890 -5620

G rN -1 9367

B urn t g ra in

6

7 075±25

5 125±25

5 956 -5942 5 912 -5880

5 966 -5932 5 918 -5858

G rN -1 9368

B u rn t s eed s

6

7 100±60

5 150±60

5 985 -5934 5 916 -5860

6 024 -5780

U tC -1 009

B ur n t s e ed s

8

7 080±80

5 130±80

5 984 -5828

6 044 -5730

G rN -1 6805

B u rn t w ood

8

7 145±30

5 195±30

5 990 -5958

6 008 -5950 5 906 -5888

U tC -1 0 10

B u rn t w ood

( Ha laf NE m ound )

6 670± 100

4 720± 100

5 595 -5480

5 700 -5430 5 400 -5390

U tC -1 0 11

B urn t wood

( p re -Ha laf NE m ound )

7 150±90

5 200±90

6 110 -6096 6 052 -5936 5 914 -5872

6 168 -6 134 6 130 -6080 6 072 -5786

U tC -1 012

C ha rcoa l

( p re -Ha laf NE m ound )

7 170±90

5 220±90

6 116 -6092 6 056 -5942 5 910 -5882

6 174 -5820

G rN 16806

c ha rcoa l

( p re -Ha laf NE m ound )

7 225±30

5 275±30

6 105 -6098 6 048 -6000

6 116 -6090 6 056 -5984

T ab le 2 . 2L i s to fr ad ioca rbon d a t e sf r om T e l lS ab iA byad ( f rom A kke r rnan s( 1996 : X )

l e ve l 1 . F o rt h ep o t t e ry o ft h i sl e ve l( Ba l ikh IA ) c ompa r i son s a r e p r e sen t i n t h e B a l ikh v a l ley . A l though i ts e em s t o b e s om ewha t y ounge r , t h e p o t t e ry o fl e ve l 1 l a rge ly r e semb le s t h a to fA s souad a nd D am i sh l iyya , t wo o t h e rs i t e s i nt h eB a l ikh v a l ley w i th v e ry e a r ly c e ram ic . F o r t h e l a t e r l e ve l s ( 10 -7 ; B a l ikh IC ) o n ly af ew c ompa r i son s c an b e f o und . D e sp i t e t h e

T he l o ca l ly m anuf ac tu red c oa r se w a re o ft h ep re -Ha laf l e ve l s ( 1 1-7 ) i sg en e ra l ly c ha ra c t e r ized b ys imp l ic i ty , i regu la r i ty a nd u n evenne s s , a s soc ia t ed w i th a n e x t r em e v a r iab i l i ty i n s hape a nd d eco ra t ion . H ow eve r , a g ene r a l t r end t owa rd s a n i n c rea s ing f i nene s s i n b o th t e chno log ica l a nd d eco ra t ive a spec t s c ou ld b e o b se rved f r om t h e e a r l ie s tt ot h e l a t e s tl e ve l s o ft h ep re -Ha laf p ha se . S om ec ha rac t e r i s t ic ss u ch a sl a rge p l an t i n c lu s ion s a nd t h ep re sence o fh and le s a r e l a rg e ly r e s t r ic ted t o

p o s s ib le i mpo r ta t ion o fc e r ta in t y pe s , t h e c e ram ic a s semb lage o ft h e p r e -Ha laf p ha se d oe s n o t p r e sen t a ny c o r re la t ion w i th

5

CH IARA CAVALLO o t he r a r ea s s u ch a s n o r th er n Me sopo tam ia o r n o r thw e s ter n S y r ia a nd C i l ic ia . I t sd i s t r ibu t ion i sr e s t r ic ted t o ar a th e rl im i t ed a r ea , v i z , t h e w e s t er n J ez i ra b e tw een t h e B a l ikh a nd t h e E uph ra t e s( Le M ie r ea nd N ieuwenhuy se 1 996 : 1 2 15 ) .

2 . 5F l in ta nd o b s id ian

Ac a t ego ry o fp o t te ry f r om t h ep re -Ha laf p ha se p o s s ib ly r e la t ed t of o od p r epa ra t ion i st h e ' M ine ra l C oa r se Wa r e ' . T h i s p o t t e ry c on t a in s l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f m in e ra l i n c lu s ion s a nd h a s

f r om l e ve l 1 t h a t t y po log ica l ly s peak ing s e em s t ob e au n i t a pa r t( Cope land 1 996 ) . T h e l i th ic a s semb lage o ft h i s l e ve lc an b e c on s ide red t oo ccupy a ni n te rm ed ia t ep o s i t ion b e tw een t wo v e ry d if e ren t a r ea s , i . e . Me sopo tam ia i n t h e e a s t a nd t h e L evan t i nt h e w e s t . T h i s e n l igh ten s t h e i mpo r tan t r o le o fS ab i A byad l o ca t ed i n ac en t ra l z one b e tween d if e ren t a r ea s n o t o n ly o na n e a s t -we s tb u t , a sw e s hal s e e l a te r , a l so o n an o r th -

T h e l i the a s semb lage f r om S ab i A byad c an b e c on s id e r ed a ' l ong v i r tua l ly u nb roken s equence o fs t on ei n du s t r ia lt r ad i t ion s ' , i nc on t ra s t t ot h e p o t te ry . T h e o n ly e x cep t ion i st h e m a t e r ia l

e x t r em e ly t h ick w a l l s . T he se f e a tu r e s t o ge the r w i th t r a ce s o f b u rn i sh ing o n t h e i nn e r a nd /o r o u t e r s u rf ace , t h e p robab ly c l o sed v e s se l s hape a nd t h e p r e sen ce o fl u g s s ugge s tt h e i ru s e a sc ook ing p o t s .

s ou th r ou te . T he c e ram ic a s semb lage o f t h e T ran s i t iona l l a y e r s ( 6 -4 ) i s c ha rac t e r ized b y t h e c omb ina t ion o f o l d a nd n ew c ha rac t e r i s t ic s . A l l t h e p rev iou sp r e -Ha laf t y pe s a r e s t i l l f ound b u t n ew t y pe s o f w a re a ppea r , s u ch a s t h e f i ne ly m ad e a nd

T he l i th ic a s semb lage f r om S ab i A byad i sa lmo s t c omp le t e ly c on s t i tu t ed o ff l in t a nd o b s id ian t oo l s a nd d eb r i s . F l in t i st h e m a in m a t e r ia l u sed f o r t h e f a b r ica t ion o fs t one i mp lem en t s . I t c on s i s t s m a in ly o fr i ve rp ebb le s c ommon ly f ound o nt h e f o s s i l P l e i s tocene t e r ra ce s b o rd e r ing t h e B a l ikh f l ood p l a in . N odu la r f l in t o b ta in ed f r om s e am s i n l im e s ton e b ed rock s w a s a l so l o ca l ly e xp lo i t ed w h i le t h e t h in h oney -co lou r ed s l ab s e spec ia l ly u sed f o r ' T i le Kn ive s ' w e re p robab ly i mpo r t ed . O b s id ian , m o s t l i ke ly i mpo r ted f r om e a s t er n A na to l ia , r e p r e sen t sl e s st h an o n e -f ou r th o ft h el i t h ic a s semb lage .

p a in ted S ama r ra s t y le p o t te ry . T h i s p o t te ry i sr e p re sen ted b y b ow l s a nd s ma l l j a r s w i th a m a t t , r edd i sh -b rown t o b l a ck p a in t ed d eco ra t ion o rgan ized i n l i n ea r b and s , o f t en o f t wo a l te rna t ing m o t if s . F o r t h e p o t te ry f r om t h e T ran s i t iona lp ha se n o t m any p a ra l le l s c an b e f ound e i the r . A l though i n s om e a spec t s c ompa rab le t o t h a t f r om t h e S ama r ra s i t e s i nc en t ra l I r aq a nd e a s t er n S y r ia , t h e S ab i A byad T r an s i t iona l p o t t e ry m a in ta in si t so wn o r ig ina l i ty .

W i th in t h e d if e r en t t y pe s o ft oo l s t h e " h eavy d u ty t y pe s " a r e w or th m en t ion ing i nt h i s c on tex t i nr e la t ion t o t h e i r p o s s ib le u se o n a n ima l b one s . T h i s c a tego ry i sr e p r e sen t ed b y l a rg e

A l though c l ea r ly em e rg ing g radu a l ly f r om t h ep r ev iou s l e v e l s , t h e E ar ly Ha laf ( l eve l s 3 1) c e ram ic a s semb lage i s v e ry d i s t inc t iv e . T h e ma jo r i ty o ft h e p o t t e ry i sr e p r e sen t ed b y t h e c a r ef u l ly m anuf ac tu red a nd p a in t ed H a laf p o t t e ry o r' Ha laf ian F in e Wa r e ' , w h ich v i r tua l ly c on s t i tu t e s al o ca l t r an sf o rma t ion

p ebb le s f a sh ion ed i n to c hoppe r s , a xe s , r oughou t s a nd b y u nwo rk ed f l in tb a l l su sed a sh amm e r s ton e sa nd s om ep o l i sh e r s . T he se t y pe so ft o o l sa r er a re i na l ll e ve l s .

o ft h e S ama r ran t y pe o ft h e p rev iou s l e ve l s . T he d eco ra t ion a lmo s t c omp le t e ly r ep re sen ted b y p a in t ing i n vo lve s b road e r

A r rowhead s a r e a no th e r c a tego ry o f i mp lem en t s d i r e c t ly r e la t ed t oa n ima l s . T h ey a r er ep re sen t ed b y( a )t h el a rg et a ng ed B yb lo sp o in t ,c ha rac t e r i s t i co ft h e7 th a nd e a r ly 6 t hm i l l enn ium

a r ea s a nd i s mo re v a r iega ted , i n c lud ing b o th g eom e t r ica l a nd , i n s ma l l e r q uan t i t ie s , s t y l ized z oomo rph ic a nd h uman r ep r e sen t a t ion s . Wh i le t h e i mpo r tan ce o f t h e ' Ha laf ian F in e Wa re ' i n c r ea se s t h rough t im e , t h e f r equen cy o f t h e ' Vege ta l C oa r se Wa r e ' d ec rea se s . ' M ine ra l C oa r se Wa r e ' c ha rac t e r i zed b y d en se m ine ra l t empe r , ah o le -mou th s hape a nd l a ck o f

a nd f ound i nt h e o lde s t l e ve l s o fS ab i A byad , b y ( b ) t h e t i ny t r an sve r se a rowh ead s f ound a s c ach e ( 26 c omp l e t e +t wo f r agm en t s ) i no ne r oom o f al e ve l 5b u i ld ing s , a nd b y ( c ) t h e s hor tt a nged " Uba id " o rd e se r ta r rowhead s ,w id e ly f o und i nt h e L evan t a nd i nA rab ia i nt h e 5 t h a nd 4 th m i l lenn ium , a nd a l so

d eco ra t ion i sa l so p re sen t i nt h e E a r ly H a laf l e ve l s . I ts how s t r ace s o f b u rn i sh ing wh ich r edu ce s p e rm eab i l i ty d u r ing c ook ing o fl i qu id s ub s tan ce s .

k nown a s" Hapa r sa P o in t " . I na dd i t ion , af ew a r rowh ead sb o th o f t r an sve r se a nd o f t a nged t y pe w e re m ade i n o b s id ian . I n g en e ra l , a r rowh ead s w e r e s c a r ce i n a l l l e ve l s . F rom l e v e l 6 o nwa rd s t h ey b ecam e v e ry r a re a nd t h e i r r o le s e em s t oh av e b een i n p a r t r e p laced b y s l ing m i s s i le s , w h ich i n c r ea se i n i mpo r tan ce f r om l e ve l 6o nwa rd s ( Akk ennan s , p e r s . c omm . ) . C hange s i nt y po logy i nl e ve l 6t owa rd s as ma l le rt y pe m igh tb e

F ew s i t e s h ave y i e lded c e ram ic s c ompa rab le t o t h o se o ft h e E a r ly H a laf l e ve l s o fS ab iA byad . S o f a r , i ts e em st h a tt h e f m e p a in t ed H a laf c e ram ic w a s d i s t r ibu t ed i na n a r ea d e l im i t ed b y t h e B a l ikh i nt h e w e s t a nd b y t h e T ig r i s i nt h e e a s t ( uppe r J ez i ra n o r th o fJ ebe lS in ja ri nI r aq a nd Khabu rv a l ley i nS y r ia ) . T h e f i r s tk nown e a r ly H a laf c e ram ic s f r om A rpach iyah ( no r th I r aq ) a nd T e l l Aqab ( no r th S y r ia ) b e long t o al a t e r s t age c ompa r ed t o t h e E a r ly H a laf p o t te ry o f S ab i A byad ( A ld c e rm an s 1 993 : 1 23 -132 ) . T h i s w ou ld i n d ica te t h a t t h e B a l ikh v a l ley mu s tn o tb ec on s id e r ed ama rg ina la r ea ,b u tm u s t b ei n c lud ed i nt h eh om eg round o ft h eH a laf s o c ie ty o fn o r th e rn I r aq a nd n o r th ea s te rn S y r ia o re ven b ec on s ide r ed p r eced ing i t s d eve lopm en ti nt h e se a r ea s .

r e la t ed t o ad if e ren th un t ing t e chno logy ,p robab ly w i th t h eu s e o f p o i son , a nd f o r h un t ing b i rd s . O th e r c a tego r i e s o f l i t h i c t o o l s , s uch a s s c rape r s , b l ade s , " b if ac ia l k n ive s " e t c . , w e r e c e r ta in ly m ean t f o r f ood p roce s s ing a nd p repa ra t ion . T h ey w ou ld h ave b een u sed f o r c u t t ing , s c rap ing , t o r em ove m ea t a nd t h e reby l e av ing t r ace s o f s ma l l s om e t im e s r e pea t ed c u tma rk s o nt h eb on e s u r f a ce . T he se t oo l sc ou ld o fc ou r se a l so h ave b een u sed f o r s k in a nd l e a th e rp roce s s ing a sw e l l a sh a i r c u t t ing ,b e s ide sb u r in sa nd b o re r s .

6

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE 2 . 6 Sma l lf i nd s Among t h es m a l lf i nd st h en um e rou sw o rk ed b on eo b jec t s t h a t h ave b een f ound a r e w o r th m en t ion ing ( Spoo r a nd C o l le t 1 996 : 4 52 -453 ) . T h ey m a in ly c on s i s t o fa w l s a nd n eed le s . I n a dd i t ion , s pa tu la s , g auge s a nd n o t ch ed ' t a l ley s t i ck s ' w e r e f o und ,b u to n al im i ted s c a le . S i x t een v e ry p oo r ly p r e se r ved a n ima l f i gu r ine s , c on s ide r ed t o r e p re sen t b ov ine s , w e r e f o und i nl e ve l 6 ,a nd o n e i nl e ve l 3 ( Co l le t 1 996 : 4 06 -407 ) . O the r a n im a l r e p re sen t a t ion s w e r e f o und among t h e s t amp sea l i mp re s s ion s f r om l e ve l 6 .T hey u sua l ly r e p r e sen t ag oa t l ike a n ima l w i th l o ng b a ckwa rd s c u rved h o rn s , b en t h i nd leg s a nd s t r e t ch ed f o r e leg s ( Du i s t e rm aa t 1 996 ) .

CH IARA CA VALLO

TU RK E Y

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s ite

Snenaoi

2 J idle 3 Shrey'an 4 Sahlan 5 As wad

6 Hairan 7 Darn.shIlyya 8

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Map o ft h eB a l ikh v a l ley w i th t h el o ca t ion o fS ab iA byad ( f rom v an L oon 1 988 ,p la te 1 ) 8

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE

A

P 13

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t WIL M A I

a i l, 01 4 F

f I1 10t01 C

0 14

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P 14

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UMC KA II IMCD

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F igure 2 . 2 S ab iA byad : a r ch i tec tu ra lp lan so fl e ve l 1( A ) , o fl e ve l3 C -3B ( B ) , o fl e ve l 4( C ) , o fl e ve l 5( D ) , o f l e ve l 6( E ) , a nd a r ch i tec tu ra lr ema in sf ound i nt h et e s tt r enche s( Fa nd G : l e ve l7 ;H : l e ve l8 ;I : leve l9 )( f rom V e rhoeven a nd K ranendonk 1 996 )

9

CH IARA CAVALLO

Chap ter 3 .P a laeoenv ironmen t

3 . 1 I n troduc t ion

3 . 2G eomorpho logy

T h e e nv i ronm en t a l c ond i t ion s a tt h e e nd o f t h e 6 t h a nd t h e b eg inn ing o ft h e 5 t h m i l lenn ium B .C . i nN o r th e rn S y r ia a r e s t i l l n o t w e l l k nown . P a laeoenv i ronm en ta l i n d ica t ion s h ave s o f a r m a in ly b een d e r ived f r om p a s t v ege ta t ion e v iden ce r e tr ieved t h rough p o l len a nd m ac robo tan ica la n a ly se s . B ecau se o f t h e p rob lem o f l o ca t ing p o l len -bea r ing s ed im en t s s u ch a s p ea t o r c l ay i n a r ea s w i th a n a r id o r s em i -a r id c l ima t e , t h e p o l len e v iden ce f r om t h e B a l ikh v a l ley i t se lf i sl im i ted . Mo s t o ft h ei n f o rma t ion a bou tt h ev ege t a t ion a nd c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s c om e s f r om a d jacen t a r ea s a nd i st h e ref o r e o n ly i n d i r ec t ly a pp l icab le t ot h ea r ea o fs t udy .

S ab iA byad i sl o ca ted i nt h en o r ther np a r to ft h e B a l ikh v al ey n ea r t h e m oder nv i l lage o fH ammam -e t -Tu rk rnan , i nn o r th e rn S y r ia . T h e v a l ley , o r ien ted n o r th sou th b e tween t h e S y r ian T u rk i sh b o rd e r a nd R aqqa i nt h e S y r ian E uph ra te s a r ea , i sc a . 1 00 km l o ng a nd a bou t 3 5 km w ide . I tw id en s o u ti n ab road a nd u ndu la t ing p l a in , r e ach ing aw id th o fa bou t 1 3 / 14 km n ea r H ammam -e t -Tu r l cman .

A f u r th e r s ou r ce o f i n f o rma t ion o n p a laeoenv i ronm en ta l c ond i t ion s d e r ive s f r om a n ima l r ema in s . T h e f a una l a s semb lage s w h i ch p rov ide mo r e d i rec t p a laeoenv i ronm en ta l i n f o rma t ion a r e t h o se f r om e a r ly p reh i s to r ic s i t e s i n w h i ch a n ima l d om e s t ica t ion h ad n o t y e t d eve loped a nd m en w e re mo re d epend en t o n n a tu ra l r e sou rce s f o r t h e i r m ea t s upp ly . L a t e r ,w i th t h ei n t rodu c t ion o fd om e s t ic a n ima l s' man b ecam ea f ood p roduce r ' a nd b egan t o b e l e s s d ependen t o n t h e e nv i ronm en t . C h ange s i n d om e s t ic f a una l a s semb lage s w e r e , t h e ref o re , l e s s d i r ec t ly r e la ted t o c hange s o ccu r r ing i n t h e e nv i ronm en t ( Bu i t enhu i s 1 990 ) . Unde r h um an i n f luen ce t h e r e la t ion sh ip f a un a -env i ronm en t w a s i n ve r t ed a nd d om e s t ic a n ima l s b ecam e ad e te rm inan t a c t ive f a c to r i ne nv i ronm en ta l a nd v ege ta t ion m od if i ca t ion . T h i s w ou ld h ave b rough ta bou ta r ap id d e t e r io ra t ion o ft h ev ege t a t ion , wh ich i ss uppo sed t oh ave s t a r ted a l ready f r om t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e d om e s t ica t ion ( C la son a nd C lu t ton -B rock 1 982 ) . D ue t ot h e i rs p ec if i c h ab i ta t , s ma l l m amma l s , s u ch a sr od en t s , a nd mo l lu sc s a r e u sua l ly g ood c l ima t ic i n d ica to r s . H ow eve r , d ue t ot h e i rh ab i to fd i gg ing d eep ly i n to t h eg round ,r oden t sa r e n o t a lway s c on t empo ra ry w i th t h e l a ye r s i nw h ich t h ey w e r e f ound . Due t o t h e l a ck o f s y s t ema t ic s amp le p rocedu re s f o r e nv i ronm en ta l r e sea rch , t h e m o l lu scan a s semb lage s f r om a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion s a r e o f t en t h e r e su l t o f p a r t ia l c o l lec t ion s i nf a vou r o fl a rge r s pec ie s . B ecau se o ft h e i r w ide r ange a nd a dap tab i l i ty t o d if e ren t h ab i ta t c ond i t ion s , l a rge m amma l s s u ch a s h e rb ivo re s , a r e l e s s s u i tab le c l ima t ic i nd ica to r s . H ow eve r , w he rea s l a rge mamma l s d o o ccu r i n p reh i s to r ic f a una ls amp le s , t h e o t h e rt wo c a t ego r ie sa r eu sua l ly b a re ly r ep re sen t ed . I n o rd e r t ou nd e r s tand wh ich k ind o fe nv i ronm en ta l s i tua t ion c ou ld h ave b een p r e sen t a tS ab iA byad d u r ing i t s o ccupa t ion , t h i s c hap te r w i l l g i ve a s umma ry o f t h e a va i lab le e v id en ce r ega rd ing t h e a bove c a t ego r ie s . T h ree s e t s o fd a ta h ave b een u sed , n am e ly p o l len , b o tan ica l a nd f a una l s amp le s i na dd i t ion t o ac ompa r i son t ot h e moder ns i tua t ion .

1 0

T h e v a l ley i ss h aped b yt wo m a jo r l a nd m a s se s , t h e H o locen e f l ood p l a in a nd t h e P le i s tocene t e r race s ( f ig . 3 . 1) . T h e f l ood p l a in c on s i s t s o fH o locen e d epo s i t s o fb rown f l uv ia t i le -a eo l i c b a r n s , 5 10 m t h ick , w h ich c ove r d eep a l luv ia l , h i gh ly c a lca reou s , c l ayey s o i l s ( Boe rma 1 988 : 6 ) . T h i s r e g ion i s r e la t ive ly f l a t w i th d eep g round w a t e r -m a in ly 4 -9 m d eep , l o ca l ly 1 . 5 4 m -a nd i se xp lo i ted n ow aday s f o r i r r iga t ed a nd r a in -f ed a g r i cu l tu re a sw e l l a ss t ubb le g r az ing ( Boe rma 1 988 : 5 ,t a b le 2 ) . T h e p l a in i sb o rde red b y s t eep g r ave l P l e i s tocen e t e r ra ce s r i s ing 5 10 m a bove i t .T h e t e r race s a r e f o rm ed b y l im e s ton e a nd m a r l , g yp s if e rou s r ock s a nd c em en t ed g r avely a l luv ia . T h e se a r ea s , c ha rac te r ized b y amo r e u ndu la t ing r el i ef a nd b y ad eg raded s t eppe v ege ta t ion , a r e m a in ly e xp lo i t ed f o r g r az ing . Ow ing m a in ly t oi t s g ene ra l ly d eep g roundw a t e r a nd t h e a b sen ce o fs u r f ace w a t e r , t h e t e r race s a r e s ca r ce ly u sed f o r a g r icu l tu r e ,p o s s ib le o n ly w i th t h ea i do fi r iga t ion ( i b id . ) . A l though t h e B a l ikh n owaday s t e nd s t o d ry u p d u r ing t h e s umm e r , e s pec ia l ly i n i t s l owe r p a r t , a s ar e su l t o f t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f i t s w a te r f o r i r r iga t ion , i tr e p re sen t s t h e o n ly p e r enn ia lr i v e ro ft h ev a l ley .I to r ig ina te si nt h eT u rk i sh T au ru s m oun ta in s a r ound U rf aa nd r e ce ive s mo s to fi t sw a t e rf r om t h e s p r ing ' A in a l -A rou s ' w h ich i sf ed b y s ub t e r ran ean s t r eam s , d r a in ing t h ep i edmon ta r ea n ea rU rf ai nT u rk ey ( Boe rma 1 988 : 2 ) . C ompa r ed t ot h e E uph ra t e s t h e B a l ikh i s ar e la t iv e ly s m a l l r i ve rc ha ra c t e r ized b y at i gh tm eande rc ou r se a nd b y am od e s t d i scha rge o fa bou t 6m3/ s ec .u pt o1 2m 3 / sec . d u r ing t h ew in t e r ( Mu lde r s 1 969 : 5 4 ) . A no th e r p e r enn ia l w a te r s ou rce i nt h e v i c in i ty o fS ab i A byad m ay h ave b een f o rm ed b y t h e N ah r S louq w h ich r e ce ived i t s w a t e r f r om s p r ing s l o ca t ed n ea r t h e mod e rn v i l lage o fS l ouq c a . 1 0 km n o r thea s t o fT e l l S ab i Abyad (W i lk in son 1 996 : 2 3 ; c f . f i g . 2 . 1 ) .F rom s eve ra lp rof i le sa l ong t h ev a l ley o ft h eS l ouq i ta ppea r s t h a t l a nd scape f e a tu re s h ave b een o b l i te ra t ed b y s ed im en t s f o rm ed b y a s t eady , l ow -ene rgy s i l t -p la in a gg rada t ion . T h e t h ickn e s s o ft h e s ed im en t sv a r ie s f r om c a . 8 0 c m t o c a . 4 m a s i n t h e s u r round ing s o f S ab i A by ad ( A ld c e rm an s 1 993 : 1 44 ; Wi lk in son 1 996 : 1 3 ) . F o r t h i s r e a son t h e r e i sl i t t le p rec i se e v id en ce f o r t h e l a nd scape i n t h e 6 t h m i l l enn ium a tt h et im eo fo ccupa t ion o fT e l lS ab iA byad .

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE 3 . 3C l ima te

mon th s o f b ad w ea the r ( c o ld a nd s now ) c an t h r ea t en a nd d e s t roy w ho le f l ock s( Lew i s 1 988 : 6 89 ) .

T h e p r e sen t c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s o f t h e a r ea o f s t udy a r e c ha ra c t e r ized b y a p ronounced a r id i ty . S i tua t ed i n t h e s ub t rop i ca l h i gh -p re s su r e b e l t , i n t h e r a in s hadow o f t h e

T h em a jo rs e to fd a ta a bou tt h ec l ima t e i nt h ep a s tc om e s f r om p o l len s amp le s r e t r ieved f r om moun ta inou s a r ea s . T h e p o l len d a ta f r om t h e t h r ee c o r e s amp le s o f t h e Ghab v a l ley , i n N o r thw e s ter nS y r ia , a bou t2 50 km f r om t h eB a l ikh v a l l ey ( f ig . 3 . 5 ) , g i ve e v id en ce o f ac on s i s t en t i n c r ea se i n h um id i ty r e p re sen ted b y a n i n c r ea se i n a r bo rea l p o l len - e s pec ia l ly

L eban e s e a nd T au ru s moun ta in r a nge s , a nd o pen t o t h e i n f lu en c eo ft h eA rab ian p en in su la , t h e c l ima t e o fi n land S y r ia i s g en e r a l ly c on t in en ta l w i th h o t a nd d ry s umm e r s a nd r e la t iv e ly c o ld a nd h um id w in t e r s( Mu lde r s 1 969 : 1 5 ) . T h e B a l ikh v a l ley , i np a r t icu la r , i sl o ca t ed i na n a r ea o fl ow a nnu a l p r ec ip i ta t ion w i th a n a ve rage o f l i t t le mo re t h an 3 00 mm . C h a rac t e r ized b y al a rge v a r ia t ion d u r ing t h e y ea r , p r ec ip i t a t ion o ccu r s m a in ly i nt h e f o rm s o fc l oud b u r s t s a nd ( h eavy ) r a in s to rm s t h a ta r e c oncen t ra t ed i nt h e w in te r m on th s , J anua ry b e ing t h e w e t t e s t o ne ( f ig . 3 2 ) . I n s umm e r t h e r e i s a lmo s tn op r ec ip i ta t ion a nd J u ly a nd A ugu s ta r ec omp le t e ly d r y mon th s ( Mu lde r s 1 969 : 1 7 -18 ; t a b le 1 ) . R a inf a l l i sm o r eove r u n ev en ly d i s t r ibu ted a l ong t h e v a l l ey , b e ing a lmo s t t w ice t h e a moun t i nt h e n o r th er np a r t c l o se t ot h e T u rk i sh b o rde r ( 2 75 mm ) w h en c ompa red t ot h e s ou th er na r ea o fR aqqa ( 1 83 mm ) ( i b id . ) . A lmo s t i nt h e m idd le o ft h e v a l ley , i nt h e s am e a r ea a sT e l l S ab iA by ad ,t h ei s ohy e to f2 50 mm w h ich i sg ene ra l ly t a ken t o r e p r e s en tt h el im i to fr a in -f ed a g r icu l tu r er un sn owaday s . Mo r e p rec i s e ly , a cco rd ing t o p edo log ica l r e sea r che s t h i s l im i t h a s b een l o ca t ed a pp rox ima te ly 5km s ou th o fT e l l S ab i A by ad i n t h e v i c in i ty o fT e l l Z k e ro (W i lk in son 1 996 : 2 2 ) . T h e a ve r age a nnua lr a in f a l la r ound S ab i Abyad r a nge s f r om 2 50 mm t o4 00 mm w h i ch i n g ene ra l s t i l l a l low s l o ca l c u l t iva t ion o fw in t e r c e r ea l s s u ch a s w hea t a nd b a r ley a nd o fm i l le t a s as umm e r c r op . H ow eve r , h o t a nd d ry y ea r s m ay r e su l t i ni n t en s iv e c r op f a i lu r e s( W i r th 1 971 : 2 0 -21) . T he se c ond i t ion sw i l la l so h ave a d i r ec t a nd i n d i rec t i n f luen ce o n t h e a va i lab i l i ty o f f odd e r , t h rough l i m i ta t ion o ft h e g row th o fn a tu ra l v ege ta t ion a nd o f s t ubb l e .T h ed ua l i ty b e tween t h en o r th e rn a nd t h es ou th er np a r t o f t h e v aley w a s s t i l l v i s ib le i n t h e p a t t e rn s o f p opu la t ion d i s t r ibu t ion i nt h en ine t een th c en t ury ,t h en o r th -w e s t er np a r to f t h e v a l l ey b e ing mo re p e rmanen t ly p opu la t ed a nd u sed f o r r a in -f ed a g r icu l tu ra lp u rpo se s wh i le t h e s ou ther np a r tw a s l e s s d en se ly o c cup ied b y t e n t -v i l lage s o fb edou in s a nd a g r icu l tu r e n ece s s i ta t ed i r r iga t ion ( Lew i s 1 988 : 6 88 ) . T he a v e r age a nnua l t empe ra tu re i nt h e B a l ikh v a l ley i sa bou t 2 0 °C . I nt h ew in te ri ti sa bou t8 °C a nd i n c r ea se si nt h es umm e r t o am ax imum o f a bou t 2 8° d u r ing t h e d r ie s t mon th s o ft h e y ea r ( Mu ld e r s 1 969 : 2 0 ; f i g . 2r e po r t ed i n f i g . 3 . 2 ) . T h e se v a lu e s , h oweve r , a r e e x trem e ly v a r iab le a nd t h e a c tua l t empe r a tu r ec an b e much h i gh e r . A n i m po r tan t c ha rac t e r i s t ic o ft h e c l ima t e i nt h i s a r ea i st h e a pe r iod i c i ty , e spec ialy i nt e rm s o fr a inf a l l , i nt h e c ou r se o ft h e y ea r s , w h ich i s r e f lec ted i n t h e c hang ing l im i t o f r a in -f ed a g r i cu l tu r e , a nd i n t h e i n ten s i ty o f a n ima l h u sband ry , d e t e rm in ing ah igh d eg r ee o fr i sk . W i th o n ly af ew s ub sequ en t d ry y ea r st h e l i n e o ft h e 2 50 mm i s ohy e t mu s tb e t r a ced mu ch f u r th e r n o r th (W i r th 1 971 , p . 92 ) ( f ig s . 3 . 3 , 3 . 4 ) w h i le af ew

1

Q ue rcu s c e r r i s type /dec iduou s o ak -a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e e a r ly H o locene , f r om a bou t 1 0 ,000 B .P . ' ( Van Z e i s t a nd Wo ld r ing 1 980 ) . F rom t h i s d a t eu n t i la lmo s t9 000 -8000 B .P . a p e r iod o f m ax imum h um id i ty f o r t h e H o locen e o ccu r r ed . A no th e r i n c rea se i nh um id i ty i ss ugge s ted t oh ave o ccu r red i n t h e m id -Ho locen ep e r iod ( Van Z e i s ta nd Wo ld r ing 1 980 : 17 1 20 ) . T h i s v i ew i ss uppo r ted b y s t ud ie s o n t h e p a s tc l ima te o f S aud i A rab ia b a sed o n s e a l e ve l f l uc tua t ion s a nd t h e w ad i a gg rada t ion s w h ich i n d ica t e t wo h um id p ha se s d u r ing t h e H o locene 9 000 -8000 B .P . a nd 7 , 000 -4 ,500 B .P . d i v id ed b y a d r ie rp e r iod a nd c h a rac te r ized b ya na b rup tc hange t o ah ype r a r id c l ima te a bou t 6 000 B .P . ( F lö tz l a nd Z ö t l 1 978 : 3 03 ) . T he p o l len d i ag ram f r om L ake V an i ne a s t e rn T u rk ey i n d ica te s a p e r iod o f d ryne s s a nd l ow t empe ra tu re , w h ich p r even t ed t h e g row th o ft r ee s i nf a vou r o f as t eppe v ege ta t ion c h a ra c t e r ized b y C henopod iaceae , E phed ra s p .a nd A r tem i s ia s p .f r om c a . 9 800 B .P . t o 6 400 B .P . ( Van Z e i s t a nd Wo ld r ing 1 978 ; B o t tema a nd v an Z e i s t 1 981) . Af t e rt h i sp e r iod , ac on s ide rab le i n c r ea se i n h um id i ty p robab ly d ue t o h i ghe r t empe ra tu r e s i n f luenced t h e e xpan s ion o ff o r e s t v ege ta t ion ( e spec ia l ly o ak ) a tt h ee xpen se o fs t eppe v ege t a t ion .T h ed i ag ram f r om B ozova , i ns ou ther n T u rk ey a ta bou t 1 00 km f r om t h e B a l ikh v a l ley , i n d ica te s t h a t n o i mpo r tan t c h ange s i n t h e c l ima t e h ave o ccu r red i nt h e l a s t 3 000 -4000 y e a r s ( Van Z e i s t e ta l . 1 968 ( 1 970 ) : 3 7 ) . T h e i n c r ea se i n h um id i ty d u r ing t h e e a r ly H o locen e i n s ou thwe s t er n A s ia s e em s t o h ave f o l low ed a s ou th -no r th g r ad ien t . I to ccu r r ed f i r s ti nn o r the rn I s rae l( c a . 1 5 ,000 - 1 ,000 B .P . ) , t h en i nt h e S y r ian p a r to ft h e Med i t e r ran ean c oa s ta la r ea ( c a . 1 ,000 -9000 B .P . ) , f o l lowed b yt h e Ana to l ian P l a t eau ( c a . 7 000 B .P . ) a nd t h e Z ag ro s Moun ta in s , i nw h i ch t h e m od er n c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s -' Z ag ro s o ak f o re s t ' - w e re e s tab l i sh ed a t a bou t5 500 B .P . ( G remm en a nd B o t tema 1 99 1) . O th e ri n f o rma t ion o nt h ep a s tc l ima t ew a sc o l lec ted f r om m o r e s ou th er n a nd e a s t er n a r ea s . R ema in s o f w i ld e i nkor n f r om Mu r eyb i t , n owaday s g row ing o n t h e T au ru s m oun ta in s , s ugge s t t h a t mo i s t e r c ond i t ion s w e re p r e sen t a l ong t h e E uph ra te s a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e H o locene ( Bo t t em a 1 989 ) . T h e p o l len d i ag ram f r om B oua ra i nd ica t e s t h a t m od e rn c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s w e re e s tab l i sh ed i nn o r thea s t e rn S y r ia f o r t h e l a s t 6 000 y ea r s . T he l ow p e rcen t age o f a r bo r ea l p o l len , w h ich p robab ly c am e f r om t h e moun t a in a r ea o ft h e s ou th e rn p a r t o f T u rk ey , i n c omb ina t ion w i th h i gh p e r cen tage s o f 3 -A cco rd ing

t ot h eo r ig ina la r t ic le s ,u n ca l ib r a t ed

( c onven t iona l )B .P .d a te sw i l lb eu sed o n ly i nt h i sc h ap t e r .

CH IARA CAVALLO G ram in eae , C h enopod iaceae a nd P lan tago s p . , i n d ica te s a t r ee le s se nv i ronm en tc ha rac te r ized b ys t eppe a nd d e se r t s teppe v ege ta t ion ( G r emm en a nd B o t t ema 1 99 1 : 10 ) . S im i la r c on c lu s ion s , i n d ica t ing a f a i r ly c on s tan t c l ima t ic c ond i t ion ,w e r ed r awn f r om ap o l len s amp le f r om t h ee a s tb ank o f t h e B a l ikh ( G r emm en a nd B o t tema 1 991 : 11) . T h i s p robab ly d a t e sb ack t ot h eU ba id p e r iod b u tu nf o r tuna te ly d u e t o t h e p oo r p r e se rva t ion o f t h e o rgan ic c on ten t n o p r ec i se c h rono log ica li n d ica t ion s a r ea va i lab le a nd c o r re la t ion w i th t h e B oua ra c o re i sn o t p o s s ib le . T he p o l len s pec trum s how s h i gh v a lu e s f o r n on -a rbo r ea l p o l len , ma in ly C henopod ia ceae ( 2 5 5 0% ) t o ge th e r w i th G ram ineae a nd C ype raceae , w h e r ea s t h e p e r cen tage o fa r bo rea lp o l len i sv e ry l ow ( 5% ) ,P inu sb e ing t h e mo s t f r equen t t a xon ( 2 -4% ) . A no the r p o l len s amp le w a s r e t r ieved f r om t h el a y e rb e low t h e Uba id o ccupa t ion o ft h es i te o f T e l l H ammam ( G remm en a nd B o t tema 1 991 : 11) . T h i s d if e r s f r om t h e f o rm e r ( on t h e B a l ikh -ea s t b ank ) i n t h e d om inance o f A r tem i s ia a nd i n t h e l ow p r e sen ce o f C h enopod ia ceae . T h e v a lue o f a r bo rea l p o l len i sa ga in l ow , c on s i s t ing mo s t ly o fP inu s .

s u i tab le e daph ic a nd c l ima t ic c ond i t ion s( W i r th 1 971 : 1 30 ) . P a laeobo tan i ca l i n ve s t iga t ion s i nd ica te t h a t a l ong t h e B a l ikh i t s e lf t h e n a tu ra l v ege ta t ion d u r ing t h e e a r ly H o locen e w a s r e p r e sen t ed b y ar i ve r ine f o r e s t , d om ina ted b yp op la r( Popu lu s e uphra t ica ) , w i l low s h rub s ( Sa l ix s p . ) , t am a r i sk ( T amar ix s p . ) a nd d en se r e ed s b ed s ( Van Z e i s t e ta l . 1 988 ; G remm en a nd B o t tema 1 99 1 : 1 06 ) . F ew r emnan t s o ft h i sv ege ta t ion w e r et i l l r e cen t ly e n coun t e r ed i nt h e B a l ikh v a l ley w h ich i sn ow aday s e x t en s ive ly c u l t iva ted ( G remm en a nd B o t t ema 1 99 1 : 1 06 ; B o t tema 1 989 ) . A pa r t f r om p op la r , a tS ab iA byad c ha r coa l o f e lm ( U /mu s s p . ) a nd a sh ( F rax inu s s p .) w e re f ound . T h i s w ou ld i n d ica t e t h a t t h e se t r ee s w e re p r e sen t i n t h e r i ve r in e f o r e s t . R ema in s o ft amar i sk w e re n o t e n coun te red s ugge s t ing t h a t t h i s t r ee w a s n o t ac ommon p a r t o ft h e n a tu ra l v ege ta t ion o f t h e B a l ikh v a l ley ( Van Z e i s t a nd Wa t e rbo lk -van R oo i jen 1 996 : 5 39 -540 ) . T ama r i sk w a s , h oweve r , am a jo r c on s t i tu en t o ft h e r i ve r -va l ley f o re s t o n t h e S y r ian E uph ra te s ( Van Z e i s t a nd Wa t e rbo lk -van R oo i jen 1 985 ) . S edg e ( Carex s p . ) a nd c l ub ru sh ( S c i rpu s m ar i t imu s ) c er ta in ly c on s t i tu t ed t h e h e rba ceou s u nd e rg row th a l ong t h e B a l ikh t o g e the rw i th s p ik e r u sh ( E l eochar i s s p . ) ( Van Z e i s t a nd Wa t e rbo lk -van R oo i jen 1 996 : 5 40 ) .

3 . 4V ege ta t ion 3 . 5F auna

T he B a l ikh v a l ley i s s i tua ted i n a n a r ea o f s pa r se s t eppe v ege ta t ion c ha rac t e r ized b y t h e p r e sence o f A r tem i s ia h erba -a lba , C h enopod iaceae ( N oaea s p . ) , G ram in eae ( S t ipa s p . ) , P oaceae ( Poa b u lbo sa , P oa s i na ica ) L egum ino sae ( As t raga lu s s p . ) , C ompo s i tae ( P lan tago s p . , H e l ian themum s p . ) (W ir th 1 971 : 1 23 ; 1 33 ; V an Z e i s t a nd B o t tema 1 99 1 : 3 1 ;45 ) ( f ig . 3 . 6 ) . T he p r e sen t v ege ta t ion i st h e r e su l t o f a ma rked d eg rada t ion o ft h e o r ig ina l n a tu ra l s t eppe v ege ta t ion , p r in c ipa l ly d u e t o o ve rg raz ing a nd h uman i n f luen ce s uch a s f u e l g a the r ing a nd e x ten s ive p l ough ing , wh ich l e d t o t h e d i sappea ran ce o f p a la tab le p l an t s i n f a vou r o f A r tem i s ia , C henopod iaceae a nd o th e r d wa r fs h rub s s uch a sP oa s i na i ca a nd C arex s t enophy l la (W i r th 1 971 : 1 3 1-134 ; B o t tema 1 989 : 4 ;V an Z e i s t a nd B o t t ema 1 991 : 4 5 ) . T h e d e te r io ra t ion o ft h e

L ik e t h e v eg e ta t ion , s ow a st h e f auna d ra s t i ca l ly r educed i nt h e l a s t c en tu ry . U n t i l t h e f i r s t d ecade s o ft h i s c en tu ry o n e c ou ld s t i l l e n coun t e r i n t h e J e z i ra o nage r ( Equu s h em ionu s h e rmppu s ) , g az e l le ( Gaze l la s p . ) , A r ab ian o ryx ( O ryx l e uco ryx ) a nd w i ld g oa t ( Capra a egagru s ) a s w e l l a s w o lf , ( Can i s l u pu s ) , A s ia t ic j a cka l ( Can i s a u r eu s ) , s t r iped h y ena ( H yaena h yaena ) , c h ee tah ( Ac inonyx j uba tu s ) , d e se r t l y nx o r c a raca l( C a raca lc araca l ) , A s ia t ic l i on ( Pan thera l e op e r s ica ) , j ung le c a t( F e l i xc hau s ) a nd w i ld b oa r( Su ss c rof a )( Hat 1 959 ; T a lbo t 1 960 ; H a r r i son 1 968 ; T ha len 1 979 ) . Onage r , A s ia t ic l i on , a nd A r ab ian o ryx a r en owaday sc omp le t e ly e x t in c t . Sma l l h e rd s o fg a z e l l e m ay b e e ncoun te red i nr emo te a r ea s , c h ee tah d i sappea r ed . T h e o t he r a n ima l s s u rv ived i n l ow n umbe r s . Wh i le t h el a rge m amma l sh ave b een a lmo s tc omp le te ly h un t ed t oe x t in c t ion , t h e s male r w i ld a n ima l s h ave l a rge ly s u rv iv ed . F ox ( V u lpe s v u lpe s ) , h a r e ( Lepu s c apen s i s ) j e rboa ( J acu lu s s p . ) , g e rb i l ( Ge rb i l lu s s p . ) a nd h edgehog ( E r inaceu s s p . ) a r e s t i l l c ommon ( i b id . ) . L a rge n umbe r s o fs p ec ie s o fs nak e s a nd l i za rd s a l so c h a ra c t e r ize t h e s t eppe a n im a l l i f e ( Tha len 1 979 : 1 04 ; K rupp a nd S chn e ide r 1 991) . I n a dd i t ion , ar i ch b i rd l i f e , i n c lud ing b i rd s o f p r ey a nd l a rge f l ock s o f s andg rou se ( P te roc le ss p . ) ,i ss t i l lp r e sen t( i b id . ) .

v ege ta t ion u nde r h uman i n f luen ce i s ap rog re s s ive , l o ng t e rm p roce s s w h ich s t a r t ed a l ready i np reh i s to ry b u t m a in ly t o ok p l ace i n t h e l a s t 1 00 150 y ea r s . G ue s t ( 1966 : 8 1 ) r e po r t s d i scu s s ion s o f B edou in s f r om c en t ra l J e z i ra i n r em embe r h ow t h e v ege ta t ion w a s much d en se r d u r ing t h e i r y ou th , t h e g round b e ing c ove r ed b y A r t em i s ia h erba a l ba , A ch i l lea a nd H a loxy lon , b u she sw e r ei ng en e ra l mo re a bundan t .

I r aq , w ho a nd l u sh e r t h ick e t s o f w h i le s a l t

T h e n a tu ra l s t eppe v ege ta t ion c over ing t h e b o rde r ing p l a teau s o ft h e v a l ley w a s p robab ly d i f f e ren t ly d i st r ibu ted i nt h e p a s t j u s t a s i ti st o day . T he mo s t l a v i sh v ege ta t ion i sn owaday s f ound o n t h e n o r th er n a nd n o r thw e s te rn l im e s ton e p l a teau s w h i le t h e g yp s if e rou s e a s t er n p l a teau i sa lmo s t b a r r en . T h e g yp s if e rou s p l a t eau s i n t h e s ou ther n p a r t o f t h e v aley a r e s uppo sed t oh ave b een o r ig ina l ly c ove red b y at h ick e r s t eppe v ege ta t ion w i th g r a s se s o fa bou t 5 0 cm h e igh t s uch a sS t ipa , A g rophyrum a nd F e s tuca , i nw h ich t h e p re sen ce o f as pa r se f o r e s tv ege ta t ion o fP i s tac iu s w a s p robab ly f a vou r ed b y mo r e

T h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic ( PPNA ) s i te s o f Mu reyb i t a nd A bu H u r ey ra a r el o ca t ed a l ong t h eE uph ra te si nt h es t eppe a r ea w i th ar a inf a l lt o day o fl e s st h an 2 00 mm ay ea r .T he f auna la na ly s i s o ft h e se s i t e s r e vea led t h a t t h e ma jo r g am e s pec ie s w e r e t wo t y p ica l s t eppe s p ec ie s : o nage ra nd g azel e( Duco s 1 978 ; L egge 1 975 ; L egg e a nd R ow ley -Conwy 1 978 ) . T h e d om in an ce o f o n age r f o l low ed b y g aze l le a t Mu r eyb i t , c ompa r ed t o t h e a b so lu te d om inan ce o ft h eg aze l le a t Abu H u rey ra ( up t o8 0% ) ,

1 2

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE i s s uppo sed t o r e f lec t a n e xp lo i ta t ion o f d i f f e r en t l o ca l e nv i ronm en t s ( Bu i tenhu i s 1 990 : 1 98 ) . A t t h e se s i t e s w i ld s h eep , w i ld b oa r ,a u roch sa nd f a l low d ee ra r ef a rl e s si mpo r tan t s p ec ie s . Wh i l e i nt h e p a s t t h e d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h e w i ld s h eep e x t ended f u r th e r s ou th , i t s n a tu ra l h ab i t a t h a s b een l o ca t ed i n t h e T au ru s -Zag ro s moun ta in s ( Ha r r i son 1 968 ; U e rpmann 1 987 ) . T h i s s pec ie s i s , t h e ref o re , p r e sen t i n s i t e s s u ch a s a yön t ia nd c a f e r Höyük l o ca ted f u r the rn o r th a l ong t h eu ppe r E uph ra te s a nd T ig r i s i n t h e T u rk i sh T au ru s m oun ta in ( Law ren ce 1 980 , 1 982 ; H e lm e r 1 985a , 1 991) . A l though a u roch s a r e m o re a dap tab le t o v a r iou s e nv i ronm en t s , t h ey d emand mo i s t e re nv i ronm en t st h an t h eo v icap r id s ,o n age r sa nd g aze l le s , a nd a h ab i ta t w i th c on t inuou s v ege ta t ion ( Duco s 1 991a ) . T h ey s hou ld h ave f ound t h e i r s u i tab le h ab i t a t i nt h e r i ve r ine f o r e s ta l ong t h eE uph ra t e st o ge th e rw i th w i ld b oa ra nd

d a t ed t ot h e 7 t h m i l lenn ium , h un t ing c on cen t ra ted o n g aze l le w h i le e qu id r ema in s a r e c omp le te ly a b sen t( Van Wi jngaa rden B akk e ra nd Ma l iepaa rd , i np re s s ) . A tT e l lA s souad s i tua t ed o n t h e e a s t b ank o ft h e r i ve r B a l ikh a nd o ccup ied i nt h e l a t e 7 t h a nd i nt h e e a r ly 6 t hm i l lenn ium s ho r t ly b ef o r e S ab i Abyad , t h e p e r cen tage o f g aze l le i sr e la t ive ly h i gh w i th c a . 4 0% o ft h e a s semb lage , a nd o nage r i sr a r e ( He lm e r 1 985b ) . L a t e H a laf s i t e s s how ag en e ra l i n c rea se o fw i ld a n ima l s ; S henef h a s 3 2% o nage r a nd 3% g aze l le r ema in s , a nd S h am s e d -D in o n t h e E uph ra t e s 4 2% o nage r a nd 7% g aze l le ( Ue rpmann 1 982 ; H end r ich s 1 990 ) . T h e se d i f f e rence s m ay i n d ica te l o ca l e nv i ronm en ta lc hange st owa rd s amo i s t e rc l im a t es uch a si nt h e c a se o f t h e a b sen ce o f o nage r a t S ab i A byad I ( Van W i jngaa rd en -Bakk e r ,p e r s . c omm . ) a nd m o r ea r id i ty s uch a si n t h e c a se o ft h e i n c r ea se o fo nage r i nt h e l a t e rp e r iod a tS h en ef a nd S ham s -ed D in . A t S h enef r oden tr em a in s w e r e f ound t h a t c ou ld b e i d en t if ied a s Me r ione s a nd S pa lax ( Cava l lo , f o r th com ing ) . T he p re sen ce o f Mer ione s a t S hen ef m igh t i n d ica t e ad r ie rc l ima t e( o ra ni n c r ea s ing h um an i mpac tc au s ing ad r ie r v ege ta t ion ) a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h e 5 t h m i l lenn ium , a s s ugge s t ed f o r t h e T epe A l i K o sh s equ en ce i nw h ich Mer ione s c ra s su s i sr e s tr ic t ed t ot h e l a t e s t p ha se w h i le T a tera i nd ica i s d i s t r ibu ted i nt h e e n t i r e s equen ce w i th m a jo r i n c iden ce i nt h e p r eced ing p ha se ( Redd ing 1 978 ) .

f a l low d ee r . T h e p e r cen t age o fo nage r a nd g aze l l e i sa b rup t ly r e duced i n l a te r N eo l i th ic s i te s ( PPNB ) . H ayaz H öyük , G r i t i l le , A bu H u rey ra , T e l l e s -S in a nd B ouq ra s s how ah i gh p e r cen tage o f o v icap r id s ( u p t o8 0% ) , i n d ependen t ly f r om t h e a r ea i nw h ich t h ey a r e l o ca t ed ( C la son 1 979 -80 ; B u i t enhu i s 1 988 , 1 990 ; S t e in 1 989 ) . I n t h e se s i te s a mo r e d i r ec t r e la t ion w i th t h e e nv i ronmen t c an b e s e en i n t h e s pec t rum o f w i ld a n ima l s . W i th in t h e se o ne s t i l l f md s m a in ly o nage r a nd g aze l le a s t y p ica l s t eppe s pec ie s a nd a v a r ie ty o f o t h e r a n im a l s f r om m o i s te re nv i ronm en t ss u ch a sa u roch s ,w i ld b oa r , r o ed ee r , r ed d ee r , a nd f a l low d ee r . T h e c omb in a t ion o f t h e se v a r ie s a c co rd ing t ot h el a t i tude .T he ref o r e ,a tH ayaz H öyük l o ca ted i n t h e f oo th i l l so ft h eT au ru s Moun ta in s ,p i gc omp r i se s5 %o ft h e t o ta l a s semb lage , g aze l le i ss c a rce ly r e p re sen t ed ( 1f r agm en t ) , a nd d ee r 0 . 3% . A t B ouq ra s p ig s a r e l e s s t h an 1 % , g aze l le i s b e t t e r r ep r e sen t ed ( 4 .2% ) a nd d ee r h a s ap e r cen t age 0 . 2% ( Bu i tenhu i s 1 990 : 1 99 ) .

B i rd s a r e r e p r e sen t ed b y aw ide v a r ie ty o fs pec ie s , a l though f ound i n r a th e r s ma l l n umbe r s . T hu s t h ey c an n o t f u rn i sh i n f o rma t ion i nt e rm s o fr e la t ive p e rcen t age t h rough t im e . T h e m a jo r i ty o ft h em f ound i np reh i s to r ic s i t e s o n n o r ther n S y r ia a r e i n d ica t iv e o f a mo i s t e nv i ronm en t s u ch a s h e ron ( Ard ea s p . ) , g a rgany ( Ana sq uerquedu la ) , w h i t e -h eaded d u ck ( Oxyura l e ucocepha la ) , w h ich l i ve i n d en se u nd e r cove r s , m a r sh a nd s wamp p oo l sb o rd e red w i th w i l low s a nd w e tm eadow s( C la son a nd B u i tenhu i s 1 978 , C la son 1 981) . I nd ica t ive o f w ooded e nv i ronm en t s a r e s pa r row h awk ( Acc ip i t e r n i su s ) , s t ock d ove ( C o lumba o ena s ) , s ong t h ru sh ( T urdu s p h i lome lo s ) m agp ie ( P ica p ica ) , r ook ( Corvu sf rug i legu s ) w ho se p ref e r red h ab i ta t mu s t h ave b een t h e d en se c ove r o ft h e r i ve r ine f o re s t r a th e r t h an t h es t eppe ( i b id . ) .

A cco rd ing t oB ököny i( 1982 : 1 54 -5 ) ap roce s so fd ef o r e s ta t ion s t a r t ed i nA n a to l ia d u r ing t h e 7 th m i l lenn ium a nd c on t inued i n t h e 6 th m i l lenn ium a s i n d ica t ed b y t h e r e la t ive f r equen cy o f w i ld a n ima l s f r om n o r th er n Me sopo tam ian s i t e s s u ch a sA bu H u r ey ra ( c e ram ic n eo l i t lüc l e ve l , b eg inn ing o f t h e 6 t h m i l lenn ium ) , Umm D abagh iyah i nw e s t e rn I r aq ( m idd l e o ft h e 6 t h m i l lenn ium ) , a nd T e l l e s -Sawwan o nt h e r i gh tb ank o ft h e T ig r i s ( e nd o f t h e 6 th m i l lenn ium -b eg inn ing o f t h e 5 t h m i l lenn ium ) . A t t h e se s i te s , b e s ide s t h e p r edom in an t g r a s sy s t eppe s pec ie s s uch a sg aze l le a nd o nag e r , s p ec ie s o ft h e o pen f o re s t o rf o r e s t s t eppe ( ma in ly a u roch s ) a r e s t i l lp r e sen t w h i le t h o se t y p i ca lo ft h e d en se f o re s ts u ch a sr e d d ee r , r o ed ee ra nd b rown b ea ra r er ema rkab ly r educed o ra r ec omp le t e ly a b sen t .

A l t hough p o t en t ia l ly g ood i n d ica to r s o f l o ca l e nv i ronm en ta l c ond i t ion s ,m o l lu sc s a r ea l so ac a tego ry o ff md su sua l ly p oo r ly r e p re sen t ed i nf a una l a s semb lage s . A t t h e p r eh i s to r ic s i t e s o f N or ther n S y r ia f r e shwa te r b iva lve s , m a in ly U n io t i g r id i s , a nd f ew f r e shwa t e rg a s t ropod sa r ec ommon ly f o und .

T he re a r e o n ly a f ew f a un a l s t ud ie s o fs i t e s f r om t h e B a l ikh v a l ley i t s e lf wh ich c an p rov id e p a laeoenv i ronm en ta l i n f o rma t ion . A t t h e p rece ram ic N eo l i th ic o f S ab i A byad 12, 2

S ab iA byad I s hou ld n o tb ec on f u sed w i th t h eS ab i

A byad ( o rS ab iA byad I )w h ich i st h es ub jec to ft h i ss t udy . B o th s i te sa r ep a r to f ag r oup o f mound sw h ich a lb ea rt h e s am eg en e ra ln am e( Kh i rbe tS ab iA byad )( c f .c h ap t e r2 . 1) .

S umm ing u p , t h e i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e H o locen e c l ima t e i n t h e M idd l e E a s t , t a k en w i th c au t ion b ecau se o f t h e r eg iona l d i f f e ren ce s , i n d ica te s : ( a ) amo i s te rp e r iod f r om t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e H o locene u n t i l c a . 8 000 B .P . , i . e . b ef o re T e l l S ab i A byad w a s i n hab i ta t ed ; ( b ) e s tab l i shm en t o f t h e mod er n c ond i t ion ss i n ce c a . 6 000 B .P . , i . e . a f t e rt h ei n hab i ta t ion o fT e l l S ab i A byad ; a nd ( c ) l a ck o f i n f o rma t ion f o r t h e p e r iod c on ce rned , i . e . 6 t ha nd 5 t hm i l lenn ium . T h ea r chaeo log ica ls i t e sa r ed i s t ingu i sh ed b y ap rog re s s ive n umbe ra dded t ot h i sn am e .

1 3

CH IARA CAVALLO

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mon th ly mean

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F igure 3 . 2

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1 4

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE

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g li ga r aa i lL i m l a ng jäh r egen M i t te l

F igure 3 . 3 L ong te rm a ve rage p r ec ip i ta t ion i nS y r ia ( f rom Wi r th 1 971 : m ap 3 )

F igure 3 .4 Ave rage p rec ip i ta t ion sd u r ing t h r ee c on sequen td ry y ea r s( 1958 , 1 959 a nd 1 960 )i nS y r ia ( f rom W i r th 1 971 : m ap 4 )

1 5

CH IARA CAVALLO

F igure 3 . 5 L oca t ion o fp o l len -co r es i t e sm en t ion ed i nt h et e x t

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U P P E RM E O I T ERRAN EU V E G E TA T I O N 0 0 -M ED I TERRA NEA N D E C IDUOU S V E G E TA T IO N

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F igure 3 . 6 Map o ft h ev ege ta t iona lz on e s( f rom B o t t em aa nd B a rkoudah 1 979 , f i g .2 ) 1 6

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AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE

Chap ter 4 .Z ooarchaeo log ica lb ackground

c on tex t , b o th p r eced ing a nd s ucceed ing . F o r t h i s r e a son

4 . 1 I n t roduc t ion

a t t en t ion w i l l b e p a id t ot h e i d en t if i ca t ion o fs p ec ie s a nd t h e i r T h e a r ch aeo log ica l r e sea r ch a tS ab i A byad h av e e no rmou s ly c on t r ibu t ed t o t h e k now ledge o f t h e l a t e N eo l i th i c c u l tu ra l

r e la t ive

i mpo r tan ce

i n t h e

a s semb lage ,

t o t h e

s t a t e o f

d om e s t ica t ion , t h e a ge ing p a t t er n , a nd t ot h e p r e sen ce a nd t h e r e la t ive i mpo r tance o fw i ld a n ima l s .

d ev e lopm en t i n t h e N ea r E a s t . T h e i mpo r tan ce o f t h e s i t e c on s i s t s m a in ly i nt h e e v iden ce t h a tt h e H a laf s o c ie ty ( i . e . t h e f i n a l s t age o ft h e N eo l i th ic ) d ev e loped f r om a n e a r l ie r l o ca l N eo l i th ic c on t ex ta nd w a sn o ti n t roduced f r om o t h e ra r ea s . A n o v e rv iew o ft h e e x ten s ive z ooa r ch aeo log ica l s t ud ie s o f s i t e s s om ehow r e la ted t o S ab i A byad w i l l b e p r e sen t ed i n t h i s c h ap t e r . T h e r ef o re ,t h es i te sh ave b een c ho sen a c co rd ing t ot h e

4 . 2F auna ls t ud ie sf r om N eo l i th ic s i te so ft he B a l ikh v a l ley

a r ea ( Ba l ikh v a l ley ) a nd t h e i r ' c u l tu ra l ' a f f in i ty ( Ha la f ) t oS ab i A by ad ( f ig .4 . 1 ,t a b le 4 . 1) .

4 . 2 .1 S ab i Abyad H S ab i A byad I i s as ma l l l a t e P r e -po t te ry N eo l i th ic B ( PPNB ) s i t e l o ca ted o n as ma l l mound c l o se t ot h e l a rge r m ound o f S ab iA byad , t h em a in s ub jec to ft h i sd i s se r ta t ion . T h r ee p ha se s

T h e p r e sen t k now ledge r e ga rd ing t h e s ub s i s t en ce o ft h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic c ommun i t ie s w ho l i ved i n t h e B a l ikh v a l ley i s e x t r em e ly p oo r a s s o f a r f a un a l r ema in s f r om o n ly t wo s i t e s f r om t h e B a l ikh v a l ley , S ab i A by ad I a nd T e l lA s souad , h av e b een a na ly zed ( Van W i jngaa rden -Bakk e r a nd Ma l iepaa rd , i n p r e s s ; H e lm e r 1 985b ) . T h e t wo s i t e s b e long t o a n e a r ly

o f o ccupa t ion w e re r e cogn ized w h ich l a s t ed f r om c a . 6 500 B .C . t o 6 000 B .C . ( Ve rhoeven 1 994 ; A kk e rman s , p e r s . c omm . ) . T h e a na ly s i s o ft h e f a una l m a te r ia l c on s i s t s o f at o ta l o f2 821 f r agm en t s o fw h ich 5 3 .5% c ou ld b e i d en t if i ed ( Van W i jngaa rden -Bakk e r a nd Ma l iepaa rd , i np re s s ) . T h e d om e s t ic s p ec ie s amoun t t o mo r e t h an 9 0% o f t h e i d en t if i ed m a t e r ia l .

N eo l i th ic c on t ex t , i nw h ich p o t t e ry i ss t i l l c omp le t e ly a b sen t ( S ab i A by ad I ) o r h a s j u s t b een i n t rodu ced ( Te l l A s souad ) . T h e r ef o r e , t h ey c h rono log ica l ly j u s tp r eced e S ab iA by ad . T h e s i t e o fT e l l A ray 2 ( Hongo , 1 996 ) i nt h e O ron t e s v a l ley i n n o r thw e s t e rn S y r ia i sr ough ly c on t empo ran eou s t o t h e p r e -

S heep a nd g oa t s a r e l a rge ly p r edom inan t i n a l p ha se s ( 8 5 9 0% ) . T h i sh i gh p e rcen t age p o in t st o aw e l le s tabl i sh ed a n ima l h u sband ry b a sed o n t h e se t wo s pec ie s , b u t o t h e r a s pec t s i n d ica te ar a th e rl o o se c on t ro lo ft h eh e rd s . T h e se o t he ra s pec t s

H a laf l e v e l s o f S ab i A byad b u t t h e d i f f e r en t g eog raph ic l o ca t ion a nd N eo l i th ic t r ad i t ion e x c lud e s i tf r om t h e r e v iew

c on s i s t o f : ( 1 ) t h e r a th e r i n d i sc r im ina t e f a sh ion i nw h i ch t h e t wo s pec ie s w e re c u l led , a s s hown f r om t h e f a i r ly e ven

h e r ep r e sen t ed . No o the rc ompa rab le o rc on t empo ra ry s i t e sf o r w h i ch a l so z ooa r ch aeo log ica l a na ly se s h ave b een c a r r ied o u t e x i s t f o r t h e f i r s t t wo p ha se s , t h e p r e -Ha laf a nd t h e T r an s i t ion a l ,o fS ab iA byad .

d i s tr ibu t ion i n to t h e d if e ren ta ge g roup s ; ( 2 ) t h e v a r iab i l i ty o f t h e s i ze o ft h ed if e r en te l em en t s ; ( 3 )t h e f a i r ly h i gh p ropo r t ion o fm a le s . C a t t le a nd p i g s p l ay ed ad ef in i te ly m ino rr o l e . T h e i r i mpo r tance , h oweve r , i n c r ea se s t h roughou t t h e o ccupa t ion o f t h e s i te f r om c a . 2% t o c a . 5% o f t h e i d en t if i ed r ema in s . B e s ide s t h e p r e sen ce o fc e r ta in ly t wo s pec im en s o fw i ld b oa r , t h e s om ewha ts ma l le ra l though s t i l lr a th e rl a rge s i ze o ft h ep ig r ema in s s ugge s t s ap o s s ib le i n c ip ien t d om e s t ica t ion f o r t h i s s p ec ie s . T h e l a rge s i ze o ft h e b ov id r ema in s a l so p o in t s t oa p o s s ib le i n c ip ien t d om e s t ica t ion o fc a t t le . T h e d og i sp r e sen t b u tw i th o n ly o n ef r agm en t .

F auna l s t ud ie s o ft h e H a laf s i t e s a r e s l igh t ly b e t t e rk nown , b u t s t i l l f ew i nr e la t ion t ot h e v a s t e xpan s ion o ft h e H a laf s o c i e ty . F rom t h e B a l ikh v a l ley i t se lf s o f a r o n ly o n e , K h i rbe t e s h S h en ef , r e la t ed t ot h e l a t e s t age o ft h e H a laf c u l tu r e , h a s b een s t ud ied ( Hend r ich s 1 990 ) . Mo r e i n f o rm a t ion i sa va i lab le f r om a d ja cen t a r ea s s uch a sa l ong t h e K habu r ( Umm Q se i r ) , a l ong t h e E uph ra t e s ( Sham s e d -D in , T e l l T u r lu a nd c av i T a r la s i ) f r om m idd le a nd l a t e H a laf , a nd a l ong t h e T ig r i s( A rpach iyah , Y a r i rn T epe I ) ( Zede r 1 994 , i n p r e s s ; U e rpmann 1 982 ; S chäf f e r a nd B oe s sneck 1 988 ; D u co s 1 99 1b ; Wa t son 1 980 ;

W i ld s pec ie s a r e s c a rce ly r e p re sen ted , b u t t h e i r i mpo r tan ce i n c rea se s t h rough t im e . T h e w i ld s pec t rum c omp r i se s m a in ly g aze l le ( Gaze / la s p . ) . M ino r g am e a n im a l s a r e w i ld b oa r( Surs s c rof a ) ,w i ld s h eep ( Ov i so r ien ta l i s ) ,b adge r( M e l e sm e / e s )a nd f o x (V u lpe s v u lpe s ) . N o r ema in s o fe qu id s w e r e e n coun t e r ed . T h i s a b sen ce i se xp la in ed a s al a ck o fd i r ec te xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e s t eppe b y t h e p opu la t ion o f S ab i A by ad I . T h e l o ca l c e r ea l c u l t iva t ion a nd t h e a n ima l h u sband ry w ou ld h av e b een

B ib ikova 1 981 ) . On t h e b o rd e r o ft h e d i s t r ibu t ion a r ea o ft h e H a laf c u l tu r ee x ten s ive f a una ls t ud ie sc om ef r om G i r ik ih ac iyan a nd B anah i lk ,b o th r e la ted t ol a t eH a laf ( McA rd le 1 990 ;L af f e r 1 983 ) . T h e u se o f d if e ren t m e thod s o f d a t ing m ak e s a n a b so lu t e c h rono log ica l c ompa r i son o f t h e H a laf ian s i t e s d if i cu l t . I n g ene ra l , a l l t h e a na lyz ed H a laf ian s i t e s s u cceed S ab iA by ad i nt im e a nd mo s to ft h em b e long t ot h e l a s ts t age s o ft h eH a laf c u l tu re .

s uf i c ien t t of u lf i l t h e p opu la t ion ' s f ood r equ i rem en t s w i thou t t h e n eed f o r e x t ra f ood s upp lem en t . T h e s t eppe w ou ld l i e o u t s ide t h e l im i to ft h e a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie s , c ondu c t ed i nt h e f l ood p l a in , a nd t h e r ef o re w ou ld n o t h ave b een p a r t o f t h e n o rma la g r icu l tu ra lp a t t e rn s .

T h e a im o ft h i s c hap t e r i st h e r ef o r e t og i ve ab ackg round o f f a una ls t ud ie s a nd t op l ace t h em a t e r ia lf r om S ab iA byad i ni t s

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CH IARA CAVALLO

F igure 4 . 1 L oca l iza t ion o nt he s i te sr ev iewed 1T e l l A s souad ; 2S ab iA byad I ; 3G i r ik iha c iyan ; 4C av iT a r Ia s i ; 5T e l lT u r lu ; 6S ham se d -D in ; 7Umm Q se ir ; 8A rpa ch iyah ; 9B anah i lk ; 1 0 Y a r im T epe I ; 1K h i rbe te s h -Shenef • e a r ly N eo l i th ic s i te

A Ha laf s i te ( l a te N eo l i th ic )

s i te

t ime o fo ccupa t ion

p er iod ( 1 )

C av iT a r la s i Kh i rbe te sh -Sh en ef B anah i l l c

m idd le 5 t hm i l l . m idd le 5 t hm il .La t e m idd le 5 t hm i l l .La t e

L a t eH a laf L a t eH a laf L a t eH a laf

G i r ik iha c iy an T e l lT u r lu

L a t eH a laf L a t eH a laf

S ham se d -D in Umm Q se i r

5 000 -4500 B .C . f i r s th a lf 5 t hm i l l . f i r s th a lf 5 t hm il . m id -5 th m i l l .

Y a r im T epe I A rpach iyah A s souad

e a r ly h a lf 5 t hm i l l . e a r ly h a lf 5 t hm il . h a lf 7 th m i l l . (2 )

M idd l e -La t eH a laf M idd l e -La t eH a laf P PN 1 3 -C e ram ic N eo l i th ic

S ab iA byad I

l a te 7 t h -beg in .6 th m i l l . (3 ) 7 th m i l l .

P PNB

L a t eH a laf L a t eH a laf

( 1 )m a in ly b a sed o nA ld c e rman s( p e r s . c omm . a nd 1 993 ) ( 2 )C auv in 1 974 ( 3 )A kke rman s ,L eM ie r e 1 992

T ab le 4 . 1 C h rono log ica la nd " cu l tu ra l "s equen ce o ft h es i tes r e v iew ed

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AN I MALS I N THE S TEPPE 4 . 2 .2 T e l lA s souad

b yw i ld b oa ra nd a u roch s . H ow ev e r , f r om 4 0% o ft h e l e ve lV I Vs amp le ,g aze l le w a sr educed t o3 . 9% i nl e ve lI .

T e l l A s souad i sl o ca ted i nt h e B a l ikh v a l ley a ta bou t 1 0 km n or thw e s t o f S ab i A byad . T h e s i t e w a s f i r s t e x cava ted b y Ma l lowan ( 1 946 ) i n t h e t h i r t ie s a nd r e -ex cava t ed a f ew

S umm ing u p , t h e f a una l s t udy ( b a sed o n 8 15 i d en t if i ed s p ec i m en s ) o ft h e T e l l A s souad b on e s g i ve s ap i c tu r e o fa n a n ima l e conomy i nw h ich t h ed om e s t i cp roce s sh a sn o tr e ached a l t h e p o t en t ia l ly d om e s t icab le s pec i e s a nd t h e o v icap r id s a s sum e a d ef in i t e ly p redom inan tr o le i nt h e l a te r l e ve l s o fo ccupa t ion a t t h e e xpen se o ft h e g aze l le , w h ich r ema in s t h e s pec ie s h un t ed

d ecade s l a t e r b y C auv in ( 1972 ) . T h e l a t t e r i n ve s t iga t ion r e v ea led l e ve l s ( V I I I -V I I ) w i th c e ram ic s b u t w i thou t a r ch i tec tu r e , c ove red b y l e ve l s ( V I I ) w i th a r ch i tec tu r a l f e a tu re s o n al im i ted s ca le ( t e s t t r en ch e s o n ly ) b u t w i thou t c e ram ic s . T h e s i te i s d a ted t o t h e m idd le o f t h e s even th m i l lenn ium ( Cauv in 1 974 ) . A cco rd ing t oA kk e rman s ( 1 991 ,

m o s t( He lm e r 1 985b : 2 83 ;f i g . 3 ) .

1 993 ) mo r e r e cen t r ad ioca rbon d a t e s f r om t h e n ea rby s i t e o f D am i sh l iyya w i th i d en t ica l c e ram ic s p o in tt oc on t empo ran e i ty b e tween t h e t wo s i te s , t h e r eby d a t ing T e l l A s souad t ot h e e nd o ft h e s ev en th m i l lenn ium a nd t h e v e ry e a r ly p a r t o ft h e 6 t h m i l l enn ium . U n t i l n ow , a pa r t f r om S ab i A byad I , T e l l A s souad i st h eo n ly o th e rs i te o ft h eB a l ikh v a l ley p r io rt oS ab i

4 3F auna ls t ud ie sf r om Ha laf ian s i te s

4 . 3 .1 A rpach iyah

A by ad f r om w h ich t h e f a una l m a t e r ia l h a s b een s t ud ied ( He lm e r 1 985b ) .

A rpach iyah i s as ma l l H a laf i an s i t e o n t h e e a s t b ank o ft h e T ig r i s i nt h e Mo su lr e g ion i nI r aq a nd d a ted t ot h ee a r ly h a lf o f t h e 5 t h m i l lenn ium B .C . T h e s i t e w a s f i r s t e x cava t ed i n1 932

H ow eve r ,t h ea n ima lr ema in so ft h e Ma l low an e xped i t ion w e r e a na lyzed b yB a t ea nd o n ly as ma l la ccoun to fh e r a na ly s i s w a s r e po r ted b y Ma l low an ( 1946 : 1 24 ) . B a t e i d en t if i ed s h eep a nd /o rg oa t ,p i g s ,m ed ium t ol a rge s ize o xa nd

b y Ma l lowan ( Ma l lowan a nd R o se 1 935 ) a nd s ub sequen t ly r e e x cava t ed b y H i ja ra i n 1 976 ( 1 980 ) . F rom t h i s l a s t s e a son o f e x cava t ion a s ho r t a ccoun t o n t h e f a un a l r ema in s h a s b een p ub l i sh ed b y Wa t son ( 1980 ) .

as ma l lE quu s . E xcep tf o rt h e s ma l l E quu s , w h ich w a s r e la ted t ot h e S y r ian s ma l lo nage rE .h em ionu s ,t h e o t h e rs p ec ie sw e re t h ough tt ob ed om e s t ica ted .

D om e s t ic s heep , g oa t , c a t t le a nd p ig s , w h ich c on s t i tu t e t h e l a rge s tp a r to ft h es amp le ,w e r ei d en t if i ed . T h ew i ld v er t eb ra te s a r er e p re sen ted b y af ew g aze l le b on e sa nd as i ng le t o o th o fa s s o ro n age r . I na dd i t ion af ew b one so fl a rge c an id s , as i ng le f i sh

A cco rd ing t oH e lm e r , o nt h e c on t r a ry , d om e s t ica t ion c ou ld b e e s tab l i shed o n ly f o r af ew s pec ie s . G oa t s , a nd m o s t l i k e ly s heep a sw e l l , w e re t h e o n ly t wo d om e s t ica ted s p ec ie s , w i th a s l igh t ly s t ronge r r ep re sen ta t ion o f t h e f o rm e r . T oge th e r t h ey r e p r e sen t 6 0% i n t h e f i r s t l e ve l s ( V I I I -V I I ) a nd t h e i r p e r cen tage i n c r ea se s i nt h e l a t e rl e v e l s , u pt o7 9 .5% i nl e ve l I . T h e d e te rm in a t ion o ft h e i r d om e s t ic s t a tu s w a s o b ta in ed i na d if e ren t w ay f o r t h e t wo s pec ie s : o n t h e b a s i s o f t h e mo rpho log ica l c ha rac t e r i s t ic s o ft h e h o rn co r e s , w h ich s how a t o r s ion t y p ica l o f d om e s t ic a n ima l s , a nd o n t h e r educ t ion i n s i ze o ft h e a n ima l s d ue t ot h e d om e s t ica t ion i nt h e c a se o ft h e g oa t ; a nd o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e s t a t i s t ica l e va lu a t ion o ft h e a ge c l a s se sf o rt h es h eep ( i b id . :2 79 ;2 81) .

v e r t eb ra a nd al a rge q uan t i ty o ff r og b on e si n aj a rw e re f o und . N o a b so lu te n umbe r o f f r agm en t s i sg i ven a nd t h e r ef o r e n o r a t io b e tw een d om e s t ic a nd w i ld a n ima l s c ou ld b e c a lcu la t ed . T h e d om e s t ic s pec ie s , h ow eve r , p r edom ina t e t o al a rge e x t en t o v e rt h es c a rce ly r e p r e sen t ed w i ld s pec ie s . W i th in t h e f ou rd om e s t ic s pec ie s , t h e f a un a l s equen ce s how sa s h a rp i n c rea se f i r s t o fp ig s f o l low ed b y c a t t le . H ow eve r , t h e p ropo r t ion sw e re c a lcu la ted f o r av e ry s mal s amp le o fs e lec t ed p a r t s o ft h e s k e le ton : i nt o t a l 2 48 f r agm en t s d i v ided i nf o u r p ha se s ! A d if e ren t p r e se rva t ion b e tw een t h e " wo rk " a nd t h e " r e s id en t ia l " ( t ho lo i ) a r ea s o fp ha se C w a s o b se rved . C a t t le b on e s w e re l e s s f r equen t i nt h e l a t t e r a r ea s i n d ica t ing t h a tt h i s p a r to ft h es e t t lem en tw a sc l ean ed r e gu la r ly .

T h e d om e s t ic s t a tu s o fb ov id s a nd s u id s i sn o t a t t e s ted . T h e s i ze o ft h e b ov id a nd s u id b one s p o in t s t ot h ep r e sen ce o ft h e w i ld c oun t e rpa r t s ,t h ea u roch sa nd t h ew i ld b oa r . H owev e r ,t h e l a t t e r s e em st ob e o fq u i te as mal t y pe a nd f o rt h i sr e a son i ti s h ypo th es ized t h a t i t c ou ld r e p re sen t a n i n i t ia l s t age o f d om e s t ica t ion .

I n f o rm a t ion o nt h e a ge a td ea th o ft h e d om e s t ic s pec ie s i sa l so a va i lab le . S om e s h eep a nd g oa t s w e r ek i l led a ta na ge o fm o r e t h an t h ree y ea r s , b u t h a lf o f t h e m and ib le s b e long t o i n d iv idua l s y ounge r t h an t wo y ea r s . C a t t le w e re k i l led b ef o re

T h e s c en a r io o f t h e w i ld g am e i sc omp le t ed b y t h e o t h e r a n ima l s s u ch a sc e rv id s , d ee r( C ervu se l aphu s )a nd f a l low d ee r

t h e i r t h i rd y ea r , p i g s m a in ly y ounge r t h an o ne y ea r a nd o n ly f ew a bove t h i sa ge .

( Dama s p . ) , o n e s pec ie s o fa n t e lope , t h e g aze l le ( Gaze l la s p . ) , a nd e qu id s , t e n ta t ive ly i d en t if i ed a s w i ld a s s ( Equu s c f . a f r icanu s ) . I na dd i t ion t wo s ma l lc a rn ivo r e s ,t h eb adge r( M e le s s p . ) a nd t h ef ox (V u lpe sv u lpe s )a r ep r e sen t , a sw e l la sr ema in s o fc an id s( C an i ss p .) . T h ei mpor tan ce o fh un t ing s e em st oh ave i n c rea sed a nd t oh ave b een e spec ia l ly i mpor tan t i nt h e l e v e l s V Ia nd V .H un t ing w a sb a sed p a r t i cu la r ly o ng aze l l e , f o l low ed

4 3 .2 Y ar im T epe I Y a r im T epe I i ss i tua ted o n t h e w e s te rn b ank o ft h e Wad i J ouba ra D ia r ia s i i nt h e S in ja r p l a in i nn o r th er n I r aq . S eve ra l

1 9

CH IARA CAVALLO R u s s ian e xcava t ion s h av e u n ea r thed an umbe r o fr ounded a nd

t h es i t e( Zed e r 1 994 ) .

r e c tangu la r b u i ld ing s o f ap e rman en t ly o ccup ied H a laf ian s e t t lem en t d a t ed t o t h e e a r ly h a lf o f t h e 5 t h m i l lenn ium

T h e f a un a l a s semb lage ( 2446 i d en t if i ab le f r agm en t s , o fw h ich

( Mun cha ev a nd Me ipe r t 1 981) . T h e f a una l s amp le amoun t s t o 2 184 i d en t if ied m amma l f r agm en t s w i th a l ow p e rcen tage o f u n iden t if i ed f r agm en t s( 1 5% )( Bi b ikova 1 981) .

3 5% h av e b een i d en t if i ed ) i s c ha rac te r ized b y a l ow r e p r e sen ta t ion o fd om e s t ica ted a n ima l s ( 37% -54% ) . D om e s t ic c a t t le a r e c omp le t e ly a b sen t . T h e p e r cen tage o f s h eep a nd g oa t s ,w h ich a r et h eb e s tr ep re sen ted d om e s t ic s pec ie s ,r ema in s c on s tan t b u t w i th a s l igh t d ec l ine i nt h e l a s t t wo p ha se s . I n c on t ra s t , p i g b on e s c l ea r ly i n c rea se i n t h e l a s t t wo H a laf i an l e ve l s .

A l though f ou r o ccupa t iona l l e ve l s w e re f ound , t h e f a una l s amp le w a s c on s id e r ed a s aw ho le b ecau se t h e s am e t y pe o f c on serva t ion a nd n o d i f f e r ence s i n t h e n umbe r s a nd p e r cen tag e so fs pec i e se x i s t ed b e tw een t h ed i f f e ren tl e ve l s .

T he s i z e o f t h e o v icap r id s i s r e por ted t o b e s im i la r t o S heep ,g oa t ,c a t t le ,p i g , d og a nd d onkey r ep r e sen tt h ed om e s t ic s pec ie s , w h ich a moun tt o8 7 .5% o nt h e b a s i s o ft h en umbe ro f

c on tempo r a ry s i t e s i nt h e r e g ion , w h e rea s t h e s i ze o fp ig s i s d ef in i t e ly s m a l l . T h e mo r ta l i ty c u rve o ft h e o v icap r id sg i ve s a n

f r agm en t s . T he l a s t s p ec ie s , h ow eve r , i s a q ue s t ionab le i d en t if i ca t ion : d onk ey a ppea r s o n ly i n t h e t h i rd m i l lenn ium B .C . a nd h a sb een i d en t if i ed i nn o o the rH a laf i an o rN eo l i th ic f a una a s semb lage s .

i n d ica t ion o fa l -y ea r round o ccupa t ion : al ow mor ta l i ty i nt h e f i r s t 6m on th sa nd af i r s tp eak b e tw een 6 12 mon th s o ld ( 17% ) a nd a s e cond p eak b e tw een t h e 2 . 5 a nd 4 y ea r s o ld ( 54% ) , f o l low ed b y ag r adua ld ec l in eo fa n ima l sk i l l ed a ta no lde ra ge . T h i s p a t t er nw a s c o r r e la ted t ot h e p e r iod o ft h e y ea r i nw h ich

Among t h e d om e s t ic a n im a l s , s h eep a nd g oa t s a r e t h e m o r e n um e rou s w i th a r a t io o f 2s h eep f o r 1g oa t . T h e l ow

t h e a n im a l s w ou ld h ave b een k i l led : s om e s heep a nd g oa t s w e r e k i l led i nt h e s umm e r /au tumn s e a son a r ound t h e e nd o f t h e i rf i r s ta nd t h es e cond y ea r . T he r ema in ing o v icap r id sw ou ld h ave b een r a i sed f o r t h e i r m ea t a nd k i l led a tt h e a ge o fm a jo r m ea t y i e ld ( 2 .5 -4 y ea r s o ld ) , a t t h e mom en t w hen p a s tu re b ecam e s c a r ce r i nt h e l a t e d ry s umm e r a nd e a r ly r a iny s e a son

p e r cen tage o fp ig s( 1 4 .7% )h a sb een c o r re la t ed t ot h eb ad s t a t e o f c on se rva t ion b ecau se t h ey a r e r ep r e sen ted b y y oung i n d iv idua l s . C a t t le a r e o n ly s l igh t ly l e s s f r equ en t t h an p i g s , 1% a nd c a . 1 2% r e spec t ive ly i nt h en umbe ro ff r agm en t s .

( a u tumn ) . T he h i gh p e rcen tage o f c a t t le k i l led y oung ( 40% ) e xc lude s t h e i r r o le a sb ea s t s o fb u rden . I th a sb een c a lcu la t ed t h a t 3 5% o ft h e m ea t p roduc t ion d e r ived f r om s heep a nd g oa t . D u e t o t h e l ow r ep r e sen ta t ion o fy oung i n d iv idua l s t h e se t wo s pec ie s w e re i n t e rp re t ed t o h ave b een u sed f o r t h e i r s e conda ry p roduc t sa sw e l l ,a mong o t h e r sw oo l ,m i lk a nd l e a th e r .

T he p r e sen ce o fp i gr ema in sa nd t h e i r mo r ta l i ty p a t ter ns ugge s t t h a t t h e se a n im a l s w e re r e a red a t t h e s i t e , r u l ing o u t t h e h ypo th e s i s o f ap a s to ra l i s tc ommun i ty . I np a r t icu la r , p ig s w e re k i l led i na l s e a son s o f t h e y ea r a nd mo s t ly y oung : b e tween b i r th a nd t wo y ea r s o l d w i th p eak s a r ound s i x mon th s o ld a nd

T he o ccu r ren ce o fw i ld a n ima l s i sr a the r l ow . Among t h em o nage r ( Equu s h em ionu s ) w a s t h e p redom inan t s pec ie s ,

i nt h e f i r s t h a lf o ft h e i r s e cond y ea r , w h e r ea s f ew e r , b u t s t i l l p r e sen t , a r et h o se k i l led i nt h e i rt h i rd a nd f ou r th y ea r sa nd b ey o nd .

f o l low ed b y t h e g aze l le ( Ga ze / la s ubgu t turo sa ) . W i ld s h eep ( O v i s a mmon ) a nd g oa t s ( Capra a egag ru s ) w e re p r e sen t i na l owe r q uan t i ty . I n a dd i t ion a f ew r ema in s o fj a cka l ( C an i s a ureu s ) , t i ge r ( Pan the ra t i g r i s ) , b adge r ( M e le s m e /e s ) a nd p o rcup in e ( H y s tr ix l e ucura ) w e r e f ound . On ly o ne b on e o fa b i rd ( An ser s p .) w a sf o und .

R em a rk ab le i st h eh eavy d ependen ce o nw i ld g am er a th e rt h an d om e s t ic f l o ck s , w h ich i n c rea se s t h rough t im e , f r om 4 6% i n t h e f i r s t p ha se t om o r e t h an 6 0% i nt h e l a s t t wo p ha se s . T h e g aze l le , r e a ch ing a lmo s t 5 0% o f t h e p r ima ry m ea t s pec ie s , d om ina te s t h e l a rge s pec t rum o fw i ld a n ima l s . T he o th e r ma in h un ted s p ec ie s w a s t h e o nage r ( Equu s h em ionu s ) . A u roch s ( Bo s p r im ig en iu s ) a nd c e rv id s , mo s t ly f a l low d ee r ( Dama m e sopo tam i ca ) a nd r ed d ee r ( C er vu s e l aphu s ) w e r e a l so

4 . 3 .3 Unun Q se ir

h un ted , b u t l e s s f r equen t ly . S u rp r i s ing ly t h e w i ld b oa r , w h ich p robab ly i n h ab i t ed t h e s am e r i ve r in e -hum id e nv i ronm en t a s c e rv id s a nd a u roch s , w a s n o th un t ed . C a rn ivo re s c omp r i se f ox ( V u lpe s s p . ) , w o lf ( Can i s l u pu s ) , h yaena ( H yaena s p . ) . H a re ( Lepu s c apen s i s ) w a s h un ted a s w e l l . B i rd s , t u r t le , f i sh a nd mo l lu sc sa r ep r e sen tb u ti ns ma l lq uan t i t ie s . R ive r ine r e sou rce s h ave p l ay ed o n ly am ino rr o le i nt h ed i e t .

U r run Q se i r i s as m a l l H a laf i an s i t e l o ca t ed o n t h e m idd le Khabu r b a s in i nn o r th ea s t e rn S y r ia . T he o ccupa t ion p robab ly l a s ted f o r n o t mo r e t h an 2 00 y ea r s i nt h e f i r s t h a lf o ft h e 5 t h m i l lenn ium ( Ho le a nd J ohn son 1 986 -87 ) . T h ree p h a se s o f o ccupa t ion w e r er e cogn ized : 1 )a na shy m idd en d epo s i t2 5 c m t h ick d i rec t ly o nt h ev i rg in s o i l ;2 ) am idd le l e ve lw i th t r a ce so f ar ound s t ru c tu re ( t ho lo s ) ; 3 )a no th e r m idden l a y e r a bove t h e t ho lo s n o l o nge r i nu se ( Ho le a nd J ohn son 1 986 -87 ) . T h e s i t e w a sf i r s ti n te rp re ted a s as m a l lt empo ra r i ly o ccup ied p a s to ra l i s t s i te ( Ho le a nd J ohn son 1 986 -87 ) . H oweve r , t h i s i n te rp r e ta t ion h a sb een q ue s t ioned o nt h eb a s i so ft h es t udy a nd i n t e rp r e ta t ion

T h e s t udy o f t h e m o r ta l i ty p a t te rn o f t h e g aze l le p rov ided i n f o rma t ion o n t h e h un t ing h ab i t s o f t h e p opu la t ion w ho i n hab i t ed Umm Q se i r . I th a s b een c a lcu la ted t h a t 4 0% o ft h e g aze l le w e r e k i l led a sa du l t s , wh ich c o r re spond s t o ag en e ra l i z ed h un t ing s t r a tegy p a t t er n . E a r ly s p r ing h un t ing o fg aze l le i s s ugge s t ed b y t h e p r e sen ce o f a lmo s t a l l owe r f ou r th m i lk

o f t h e f a una l r ema in s , i np a r t icu la r o ft h e c u l l ing p a t t e rn s o f o v icap r id sa nd p ig s , w h ich s ugge s t ay ea r round o ccupa t ion o f

2 0

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE p r emo la r s i na n a dvan ced w ea r s t age , w h ich c o r r e spond s t o

A s ma l l a moun t o f f a una l r ema in s ( 123 i d en t if i ed ) w e re s t ud ied ( Duco s 1 99 1b ) . T he d om e s t ic s pec ie s a r e r e p r e sen t ed m o s t ( 9 5% ) .The s amp le s how s ap r edom inan ce o fo v icap r id s , w h i ch a moun t t oc a . 5 0% o ft h e s amp le . T h e o th e r d om e s t ic a n im a l s s u ch a s p ig a nd c a t t le a r e a l so w e l l a t te s ted w i th a p e r cen tage o f2 5% a nd 1 0% r e spec t ive ly . I n a dd i t ion , af ew f r agm en t so fC an i s( 0 .8% )w e r ei d en t if i ed .

a bou to n ey ea ro fa ge ,a nd i sc onf i rm ed b yt h ep a t ter no b ta ined f r om t h ef u sed s t a t eo fg row th o ft h ec a l can eum .

4 . 3 .4 S ham se d -D in T h e s i t e o fS h am s e d -D in i sl o ca ted o n t h e l ef t b ank o ft h e m idd le E uph ra t e s o n al ow e rr i ve rt e r ra ce o nt h eb o rd e ro ft h e

W i th in t h e o v icap r id s , g oa t r ema in s p redom ina te . H ow eve r ,

n ow f l ooded a r ea o f t h e T abqa D am . T h e a n c ien t v i l lage , c ha rac t e r iz ed b y r ound h ou se s , w a s o ccup ied f o r as ho r t t im e t ow a rd s t h e e nd o f t h e H a laf p e r iod , a s i n d ica t ed b y t h e p o t t e ry , w h ich i sw ho l ly a s s ignab le t o t h e l a te p ha se o f t h e H a laf c u l tu r e( Dav id son 1 977 : 2 23 ) .

b ecau se n o s y s tema t ic m e thod s f o r d i s t ingu i sh ing C apra f r om O v i s w e re a pp l ied , t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o fC apra i sb a sed o nt h e h or n co r e s w h i le t h a to fO v i s i sb a sed o nt h e m e taca rp i . G iven

T h e f a una l s amp le a ccoun t s f o r as ma l l a moun t o fi d en t if ied

T h e s i ze o fC apra h or n co re s i ss l igh t ly i n f e r io r t ot h a t o ft h e

b on e s ( 1 396 ) w i th a r a th e r l ow p e r cen tage o f u n id en t if i ed f r agm en t s( 1 9 .3% )( Ue rpmann 1 982 ) .

w i ld C . a egagru s w h e rea s t h e s i ze o f s h eep m e tapod ia l s i s

t h e b e t t e r p re se rva t ion o f g oa t h or n co r e s v e r su s s h eep o n e s , t h i sr a t io i sh a rd ly r e l iab le .

d ef in i t e ly s ma l le r t h an t h a t o f t h e w i ld 0 . o r ien ta l i s ( c f . Mu r eyb i t ) .

T h e p e r cen tag e o fd om e s t ic a n ima l s i sr a the r l ow ( 46% o ft h e i d en t if i ed r em a in s ) . T h e d om e s t ic s pec ie s a r e d om ina ted b y

Mo s t o ft h e o v icap r id s w e re k i l led b e tw een t h e i r s e cond a nd t h i rd y ea r . T h e s ma l l n umbe r o f b ov id f r agm en t s c ou ld n o t

s h eep a nd g oa t s , f o l low ed b yc a t t le a nd p i g s . T h e s m a l ls i ze o f t h e s amp l e l im i t s t h e i n f o rma t ion a bou t t h e c ha rac t e r i s t ic s o f t h e se d om e s t ic h e rd s . S heep a nd g oa t , a s w e l l a s c a t t le , a r e c on s id e red t oh ave b een au n if o rm p opu la t ion o fa n ima l s o f r a th e r l a rge s i ze c ompa rab le t ot h a t o fc on tempo ran eou s s i t e s i nt h e s am e a r ea . T he s i ze o ft h e p i g s c ou ld n o t b e a s se s sed b ecau se o ft h e i ry oung a ge .

p rov id ea ny i n f o rm a t ion a bou tt h ea ge o fd ea th w he rea st h ep i g r ema in s g i ve a n i n t e r e s t ing a nd u nu sua l e v id en ce o fa n im a l s k i l led q u i t eo ld a tt h ea ge o f 2t o 5( c a . 5 0% ) . Among t h e w i ld a n ima l s f ew s p ec ie s a r e r e p r e sen ted : B o s p r im ig en iu s , Dama m e sopo tam ica , G aze l la s p . . N o e qu id r ema in sw e r ef ound .

A ge i n d ica t ion s a r e p rov id ed o n ly f o r t h e o v icap r id s . T h e se a n ima l s w e r e s l augh te r ed mo s t ly i n t h e i r f ou r th y ea r . T h i s m o r ta l i ty p a t t e rn p o in t st o ar e a r ing o ft h e se a n ima l s mo s t ly f o r m ea t . H ow eve r , e ven i ft h e re i sn o t d ef in i t ive b one e v idence , t h i s d oe s n o te xc lude t h ep o s s ib i l i ty o fa no the ru t i l iza t ion s uch a sf o r w oo lp rodu c t ion a ss ugge s ted f r om o t h e ra r chaeo log ica l

4 3 .6 G ir ik ihac iyan T h e s i t eo fG i r ik iha c iyan i s as e t t led f a rm ing v i l lage l o ca t ed o n t h e u ppe rp a r t o ft h e T ig r i s i ns ou thea s t er nT u rk ey w h ich w a s o ccup ied a r ound t h e m idd le o f t h e 5 t h m i l lenn ium (Wa t son a nd L eB lan c 1 990 ) .

f md s . T h ef a una la s semb lage i sc ha rac t e r iz ed b y ah i gh p e r cen tage o f w i ld a n im a l s ( c a . 5 4% o ft h e i d en t if i ed b one s ) , mo s t ly o nage r a nd t o al e s se re x t en tg aze l le , f o l low ed b yf a l low a nd r e dd ee r , a nd w i ld b oa r . T he p r e sence o fa u roch s i sn o t d ef in i t ive , e ven i fs om e l a rge s pec im en s mo s t l i k e ly b e long t o t h i s s pec ie s .

T h e f a una l s amp le ( 2 132 f r agm en t s ) i s p r edom ina t ed b y d om e s t i c o v icap r id s ( c a . 6 0% o f t h e i d en t if i ed s amp le ) , f o l low ed b y p ig s ( 17% ) a nd c a t t le ( 15% ) ( McA rd le 1 990 ) . D om e s t ic d og sw e r ef a i r ly c ommon . A lmo s th a lf o ft h eo v icap r id sw e re k i l led y oung ,b ef o r et h ee nd o ft h e i rs e cond y ea r . A dd i t iona l ly a lmo s t4 0% w a sk i l led a ta n

U n ique i st h ei d en t if i ca t ion o fw a t e rb u f f a lo ( Buba lu ss p .) .F ox a nd w i ld c a ta r et h e o n ly c a rn ivo re sp re sen ti nt h e a s semb lage . S om e b i rd r ema in s w e r e f ound , p robab ly b e long ing t o t h e

a du l t b u t n o t a dvan ced a ge . T h e s ma l l p e rcen tage w h i ch s u rv iv ed w a s k i l led m a in ly i nt h e i r a dvan ced a ge ( 1 1% ) a nd o n ly f ew o l d a n im a l s ( 4 .4% ) w e re k ep t , p robab ly a sb r eed ing s t ock .

w h i te s t o rk ( C icon ia c f c i con ia ) . O n e s i ng le s pec im en o f f r e shwa te r mu s se l( U n io t i g r id i s )w a sr e t r ieved .

4 3 .5 T e l lT ur lu

Am o r ta l i ty p a t te rn s im i la rt ot h e o v icap r id s i ss hown b yp i g s , t wo th i rd s o fw h ich w e r e k i l led b ef o r e t h e e nd o ft h e i rs e cond y ea r . I nc on t ra s t , c a t t le s how s ad if e ren tp a t t e rn . T h e se w e re k i l led m a in ly ( 5 1% ) a ta n a du l ta ge , w h en t h ey w e re p robab ly t h r ee y ea r s o ld o r mo re . I ti st e n ta t ive ly s ugge s ted t h a t t h i s p a t t er nm igh tr ef l ec t ak eep ing o fc a t t le f o ro t h e rp u rpo se st h an l a rge r m ea t /p ro te in y i e ld . A l though n o c l ea r e v id en ce i s a va i lab le , i th a sb een s ugge s ted t h a tt h ey c ou ld h ave b een u s ed f o rt r a c t ion a nd m i lk .

T e l l T u r lu i ss i tua ted o n t h e u ppe r E uph ra t e s i ns ou thwe s ter n T u rkey . T h es i t ei sd a ted t ot h ef i r s th a lf o ft h e 5 t hm i l lenn ium a nd i sr e la t ed t o t h e m idd le a nd l a t e p ha se o f t h e H a laf ian c u l tu re ( B r en iqu e t 1 991) . T he s i t e ,w h ich r e p r e sen t so n eo ft h e m o s t n o r thw e s t er n H a laf ian s i t e s , i s c ha rac t e r ized b o th b y c i r cu la r a r ch i t ec tu re ( t ho lo i , l e ve l s I I I -V I ) a nd b yr e c tangu la r a r ch i tec tu r e( l eve lV ) .

2 1

CH IARA CAVALLO H un t ing d e f in i t e ly p l ay ed am ino r r o le . T he w i ld s p ec t rum i s c ha rac te r ized b yt h ep r e sence o ff o x (V u lpe s v u lpe s ) ,p robab ly h un ted m a in ly f o r i t s f u r , a nd o fr e d d ee r ( C er vu s e l aphu s ) . T he e qu id s a r e s c a r ce , p robab ly r e p re sen t ed o nage r ( Equu s h em ionu s ) , w h e r ea s g aze l le i sc omp le te ly a b sen t . W i ld g oa t ,

m a in p ha se s o f o ccupa t ion w e re r e cogn ized . S o f a r o n ly t h e f a una l r em a in s o f t h e 1 988 c ampa ign h ave b een s t ud ied ( Hend r ich s 1 990 ) . T h e s amp le amoun t s t o4 85 f r agm en t s , o f wh ich 9 9b e long t o ap a r t ia ls ke le ton o f ab adge r , Me /e sm e le s . T he f a un a l a s semb lage o fS henef i sc ha rac t e r ized b y as ma l l

w i ld s h eep a nd a u roch s ( Bo s p r im igen iu s ) w e re a l so h un ted . H a r e s ( Lepu s ) , b i rd s ( p robab ly p a r t r idge ) , t o r to i se s ( T e s tudo g raeca ) ,f i sh a nd mo l lu sc s( U n io t i g r id i s )c omp le ted t h ed i e t .

s pec t rum o f s p ec ie s . Among t h e i d en t if ied r em a in s wh ich c o r re spond t o2 8 .4% o ft h e t o ta l s amp le , s h eep a nd g oa t , p ig a nd b adge r c ou ld b e i d en t if i ed t o s pec ie s l e v e l . B o s i s r ep re sen t ed b y o n ly t h r ee f r agm en t s a nd t h e i r d eg ree o f f r agm en ta t ion h ampe red a f u r the r i d en t if i ca t ion . T h e e qu id r em a in s w e r e a t t r ibu t ed t ot h e o nage r ( Equu s h em ionu s ) . A s b o th h o rn co re s a nd m ea su rab le b one s w e re a b sen t , t h e s pec ie s l e ve lo ft h eg az e l l ec ou ld n o tb ee s tab l i shed .

4 . 3 .7 B anah i lk B anah i lk i s as ma l ll a t eH a laf ian s i t ed a ted t ot h em idd l eo ft h e 5 t hm i l lenn ium . T h e s e t t lem en t i sl o ca ted o n ap l a in a l ong t h e Z ag ro s moun ta in s i n n o r th er n I r aq . I tr ep re sen t s t h e m o s t e a s t e rn H a laf ian s i t e . A l though s m a l l , t h ev i l lage i sc on s ide red t o h ave b een p e rm anen t ly o ccup ied b ecau se t h e mo r ta l i ty p a t te rn s d o n o t s how a ny e v id en ce o f s ea son a l o ccupa t ion

A l though o v icap r id s p r edom ina te ( 44% o f t h e i d en t if i ed s amp le ) , t h e p e r cen tag e o fw i ld a n ima l s i sr a th e r h i gh ( 36% ) . H un t ing s e em s t o h av e b een c oncen t ra ted m a in ly o n t h e o nage r , w ho se r em a in s c o r re spond t o 3 2% o f t h e i d en t if i ed a s semb lage , a nd t o al e s se r e x ten t t o t h e g az e l le ( 17% ) . C omp le t e ly m i s s ing a r e c a rn ivo re s , r od en t s , b i rd s a nd f i sh . H ow eve r , t h e r e a son o ft h i s a b sen ce c an b e a t t r ibu t ed t o t h e

( B ra idwood e ta l . 1 983 ) . As ma l l f a una l s amp le h a s b een s t ud ied . I t c on s i s t s o f 9 62 b on e s , f r om wh ich 8 10 w e r e i d en t if i ed , r e su l t ing i n al ow p e r cen tage o f u n iden t if i ab le f r agm en t s( 15 .8% )( Laf f e r 1 983 ) .

r e cove ry m e thod s a s w e l l a s t o t h e r a the r s ma l l s i ze o f t h e s amp le .

P eop le a tB anah i lk s t rong ly r e l i ed o nd om e s t ic a n ima l s , w h ich c omp r i sed mo r e t h an 9 0% o ft h e i d en t i f ied r ema in s . T h e f ou r m a in s pec ie s ( s heep , g oa t , c a t t le a nd p ig s ) a r e c on s ide r ed t o h ave b een f u l ly d om e s t ica t ed . T h e i r d om e s t ic s t a tu s i sm a in ly b a sed o n t h e s i ze a nd o n t h e s u rv ivo r sh ip p a t te rn s : 4 7 .5% o f t h e o v icap r id s s u rv ived b eyond a pp rox ima te ly f ou r y ea r s o l d , 1 4% o fp ig s b eyond t h e i r t h i rd y ea r a sd id 2 5% o ft h e c a t t le . T h e d om e s t ic s t a tu s o ft h e c an id s i se xc luded , b ecau se o ft h e s ma l l n umbe r o f s pec im en s a nd t h e l a ck o f ap o s i t ive i d en t if i ca t ion a nd o fa ny g naw ing e v id ence .

4 . 3 .9 C av iT ar la s i T he s i t e o fC av i T a r la s i i sl o ca ted o n t h e u ppe r E uph ra te s i n s ou thwe s t er n T u rkey . I ti sd a ted t o t h e m idd le o f t h e 5 t h m i l lenn ium a nd i ti sr e la t ed t o t h e l a te H a laf c u l tu r e . ç av i T a r la s i i s al a rge s e t t l em en t p e rmanen t ly i n hab i t ed f o r 2 00 y ea r sb yc a . 1 00 150 p e r son s( Schäf f e ra nd B oe s sneck , 1 988 ) .

W i th in t h e w i ld s pec ie s , f ew w i ld s heep a nd g oa t w e r e i d en t if i ed o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e h om co re s hape . A l though w i th s om e u n ce r ta in ty a f ew s p ec im en s o f w i ld c a t t le w e re i d en t if ied . T he re i s e v iden ce o f t h e p re sen ce o f r e d d ee r

Ad e ta i led s t udy o fm o r et h an 5 000 r ema in s , o fw h ich c a . 7 0% c ou ld b e i d en t if i ed , h a sb een c a r r ied o u t . T h e a n im a le conomy s e em s t o h ave b een b a sed o n h u sband ry , w h e r ea s h un t ing , d e sp i te t h e r i ch l i s t o fs p ec ie s , p lay ed am ino r r o le ( on ly c a . 2% ) .

( C er vu s e l aphu s ) , r o e d ee r ( C apr eo lu s c apreo lu s ) , r e d f ox ( V u lpe s v u lpe s ) , b rown b ea r ( U r su s a rc to s ) , l e opa rd ( F e l t s p ardu s ) , a nd h edgehog ( E r inaceu s s p . ) , b i rd s a nd f i sh . A c on s ide rab le a moun t o f s h e l l s o f a l a nd s na i l ( H e l ix s a lomon ica ) w e r e f o und i n l a rge c on cen t ra t ion s i n d if e ren t p a r t so ft h es e t t lem en t .

T h e a n im a lh u sband ry w a sf o cu sed o nc a t t le o fl a rge t om idd le s i ze . T h e m or ta l i ty d a ta o ft h e b ov id s i n d ica te t h a tt h e se w e re k ep t f o r m ea t p rodu c t ion a nd n o t f o r m i lk o r t r ac t ion . T h ey w e re k i l led mo s t ly a t ay oung a nd s ubadu l t a ge ; o n ly a f ew w e re k ep ti n to a du l thood a nd k i l led a f t e rt h e i rt h i rd y ea r .

T h e a b sen ce o f b o th g aze l le a nd o nage r i s n o t s u rp r i s ing b ecau se t h e s i t e i sl o ca t ed o n ap l a in a cce s s ib le o n ly t h rough n a r row g o rge s o r o ve r h i gh m oun ta in s , r ep r e sen t ing a n u n l ik e ly a r ea f o rw i ld e qu id s .

Among t h e o v icap r id s , s h eep s e em t oh ave b een o u tnumbe red b yg oa t s ,b u tt h i s i sb a sed o nt h eh o rn co r e s . On t h eb a s i so ft h e s hape o fh o rn sa nd o cc ip i ta lb one s , i tc ou ld b ee s tab l i shed t h a t p r edom inan t ly m a le s w e r e k i l led a nd t h a t , t h e r ef o r e , t h e l i ve h e rd s c on s i s t ed t o al a rge e x ten t o f f ema le s . T h ey w e re p r im a r i ly r e a r ed f o r t h e i r m ea t a nd s k in , w h e r ea s m i lk p roduc t ion s e em s t o h ave p l ayed a s e conda ry r o l e . A lmo s t 5 0% o ft h e o v icap r id s w e r e k i l led y oung b ef o re t h ey r e ach ed

4 3 .8 Kh irbe te sh -Shene f Kh i rbe te sh -Sh enef i s as m a l ls i t el o ca t ed a tc a . 5km s ou thwe s t o f S ab i A byad i n t h e B a l ikh v a l ley . T he s ma l l t r en ch e xcava t ion s h ave r evea led o n ly r ound b u i ld ing s ( t ho lo i ) . T h e s i t e w a s r e pea t ed ly b u t s ho r t ly o ccup ied a r ound t h e m idd le o f t h e5 t hm i l lenn ium ,c o r re spond ing t ot h el a t eH a laf p ha se . Two

2 2

t h e i r s e cond y ea r . O ft h i s 5 0% , a lmo s t 3 0% w e r e l amb s a nd 1 5% y ea r l ing s . O f t h e o t h e r 5 0% o lde r t h an t wo y ea r s , t h e m a jo r i ty w e re k i l l ed w i th t h et h i rd mo la rs how ing al ow d eg r ee o fw ea r , af ew a ta no l d e ro ra t av e ry o ld a ge .

AN I MALS I N THE S TEPPE T h e d om e s t ic p i g s , c l ea r ly d i s t ingu i sh ed f r om t h ew i ld o n e sb y t h e i r s i z e , w e r e r e a red f o r t h e i r m ea t a s c ou ld b e c on c luded

T he m a jo r i ty o f i d en t if i ed f r agm en t s b e long t o d om e s t i c s pec ie s . H ow eve r a l though a t te s t ed a t a l l t h e s i t e s , t h e i mpo r t an ce o f h u sband ry i sr a th e r v a r iab le . T he P r e -po t te ry

f r om t h ea ge a tw h i ch t h ey w e re k i l led : a tl e a s th a lf o ft h ep i g s w e r ek i l l ed a ta na ge o f6 9m on th s ; t h er e s tw a sk i l led i ne qua l q uan t if i e s i nt h e i r s e cond a nd i nt h e i r t h i rd y ea r . T h e s amp le

N eo l i th i c s i t e o fS ab i A byad I s how s ar a th e r c on s t an t h i gh p e r cen tage o fd om e s t ic o v icap r id sa nd p o s s ib ly c a t t le a nd p i g s . N ea rby A s sou ad , h ow eve r , p r e sen t s mo r e f l uc tua t ion s w i th in t h e s e pa ra t e l e ve l s , w i th a g en e ra l ly l ow e r p e rcen tage o f d om e s t i c a n im a l s t h an a tS ab i A by ad I , a nd t h e r e s t r ic t ion o f t h e d om e s t i c s t a tu s t o C apra a nd p o s s ib ly O v i s a nd S u s .

r e vea led a h i gh q uan t i ty o f f ema l e s , p robab ly k i l led a f t e r h av ing h ad a tl e a s to n el i t te r . H un t ing p l ay ed am ino r r o le i nt h e e conomy o ft h e s i t e . T h e a n im a l h un t ed m o s t w a s t h e w i ld b oa r , f o l low ed b y o nage r ( Equu sh em ionu s ) a nd g aze l le ( Gaze l la s ubgu t turo sa )o fe qua l i mpo r tan ce .E xcep tf o rt h eg enu sO v i s ,t h ew i ld c oun t e rpa r t so f t h e d om e s t i c a n ima l s w e re a l so i d en t if i ed , i . e . w i ld g oa t , a u roch s a nd w i ld b oa r . C ompa r ed t o o th e r H a laf i an s i t e s , f a l low d ee r ( Dama m e sopo tam ica ) a nd r e d d ee r ( C ervu s e l aphu s )a r er e la t ive ly w e l lr e p re sen t ed .

Wh e r ea s t h e d om e s t ica t ion o ft h e o v icap r id s i sw e l l a t t e s t ed , t h e d om e s t i ca t ion o fc a t t le a nd p ig s a tt h e se t wo s i te s i sa ta n i n c ip ien tl e v e l . S u rp r i s ing ly e nough , e s tab l i sh ed a g ra r ian

w he r e o n e w ou ld e xpec t a w e l l e conomy w i th f u l ly d om e s t ica t ed

o v icap r id s , b ov id s a nd s u id s , t h e i mpo r tan ce o fh u sband ry a t t h e 6 t h a nd 5 t h m i l lenn ium s i te s i ss om e t im e s r educed a nd a t s i t e s s u ch a s Umm Q se i r a nd S h am s e d -D in w i ld s pec ie s a r e e ven p r edom in an t( f ig .4 . 3 ) . Ak ind o fd i cho tomy i so b se rvab le

T h ew i ld s p ec t rum i se n la rged b ys eve ra lo th e rs p ec ie s , s u ch a s f ox , b rown b ea r , w i ld c a t among t h e c a rn ivo r e s , a nd h a r e

e spec ia l ly i nt h e l a t e H a laf , w i th s i t e s i nw h ich d om e s t i ca t ed s pec ie s d ef in i te ly p r edom ina te a nd s i t e s w i th ar e la t ive ly h i gh p e r cen tage o f w i ld s pec ie s s u ch a s S h en ef . T h i s d i s t r ibu t ion

( Lepu s c apen s i s ) , P e r s ian s qu i r re l ( S c iuru s a noma lu s ) , b eave r ( Ca s tor f i ber ) , w h i t e too thed mo le ra t ( Spa lax l e ucodon ) , among t h e r oden t s . I n a dd i t ion , w a t e r t o r to i se (M auremy s c a sp ica ) a nd l a nd t o r to i se ( T e s tudo g raeca ) w e r e i d en t if i ed a s w e l l a s ac r ab ( Po tamon s p . ) a nd t wo s pec ie s o f m o l lu sc s ( U n io c r a s su sa nd U n io t i g r id i s ) .

s e em s t o b e c o r r e la ted t o t h e l o ca t ion o f t h e s i te s a nd c on sequ en t ly t ot h e i re nv i ronm en t( f ig .4 . 3 ) . S i t e sl o ca ted mo r e i nt h e n o r th a r e t h o se c ha rac te r ized b y ah i gh p e rcen tage o f d om e s t ica t ed a n ima l s . S i t e s s i tua t ed i nt h e mo r e a r id s ou th e rn s t eppe p r e sen t ah i gh e rh un t ing c ompon en t( c f . c hap te r7 . 6 ) .

4 . 4S ummary T h e f a una l a s semb lage s f r om t h er e v iew ed s i t e s s how e x t rem e v a r iab i l i ty . T hey v a ry i nt h e s i ze o ft h e s amp le s , f r om m o r e t h an 5 , 000 t o af ew h und r ed f r agm en t s ,g en e ra l ly r e su l t ing i na s ma l l a moun to fi d en t if i ed r ema in s . T h er e la t ive p e r cen tage o f i d en t if i ed v e r su s u n id en t if ied f r agm en t s a l so v a r ie s c on s id e rab ly , f r om 1 5% t o a lmo s t 9 0% ( f ig . 4 . 2 ) . T he e s t ima t ion o f t h e r ep r e sen ta t ivene s s o f t h e m a te r ia l a nd i t s i n t e rp r e ta t ion a r eh i gh ly s ub jec t ive a nd m ay d i f f e rf r om a u tho r t o a u tho r . T h e m a jo r f a c to r w h i ch c on t r ibu t e s t o ah i gh p e r cen tage o f u n id en t if i ed r em a in s i s t h e h i gh d eg ree o f f r agm en ta t ion , a sw a st h e c a se a tG i r ik ih ac iyan , w he re , d e sp i t e t h e ' e x ce l len t ' p r e serva t ion o f t h e m a t e r ia l , c a . 8 5% o f t h e f a una l m a t e r ia l c ou ld n o t b e i d en t if i ed . S i t e s f r om m o re a r id ( s teppe ) a r ea s a r e a l so c h a rac te r ized b y ah i gh p e r cen tage o f

T h er e la t ive f r equ en cy o fd om e s t i c s pec ie s v a r ie s c on s id e rab ly ( f ig . 4 . 4 ) . T h e d om inan td om e s t ic s p ec ie s a r e s h eep a nd g oa t s . S h eep s e em t o p r edom ina te o ve r g oa t s w i th a r a t io v a ry ing f r om c i r ca t wo t of ou r s h eep f o r o n e g oa t . T h e e xcep t ion i s S ab i A by ad I w i th ar a t io o fs h eep t og oa t o fc a . 1 3 :1 . C a t t le a r e n o t a lway s p r e sen t ( Umm Q se i r ) o r t h e i r s t a tu s i sn o t d efm ed ( Sh ene f ) . A to t h e rs i te st h e i mpo r tance o fc a t t le i sv e ry h i gh , a s i nc av i T a r la s i , o r a s i nS ham s e d -D in , w he r e t h e i r o ccu r r en ce l a rge ly o u tnumbe r st h a to fp i g s . S ab i Abyad I a nd S ham s e d -D in a r e t h e o n ly s i t e s w i th al ow p e rcen tage o fp i g r ema in s . A t t h e o t h e r s i t e s t h e p e r cen tage o f p ig s i sf a i r ly c on s t an t( 1 8 -22% o ft h ed om e s t ic s pec ie s ) . Wh e re ad i f f e ren ce i np ha se s w a s p r e sen t , t h e n umbe r o fp i g s i n c rea sed t h rough t im e ,a sa tS ab iA byad , Umm Q se i ra nd A rpach iyah .

u n iden t if i ed f r agm en t s , s u ch a s S h en ef ( 7 1 .7% ) a nd Umm Q se i r ( 6 5% ) . S ham s e d -D in , f r om t h e s am e k i nd o f e nv i ronm en t , h a s a mu ch l ow e r p e rcen tage ( 19 .3% ) o f u n iden t if i ed f r agm en t s . O th e r f a c to r s i n f luen c ing t h e n a tu re o f t h e s amp le a nd t h e c on sequen t d eg r ee o f i d en t if i ca t ion a r e c e r t a in ly t h e m e thod s o fr e cove ry . A pa r t f r om s i t e s e x cava t ed a tt h e b eg inn ing o ft h i s c en tu ry , s e lec t ion d u r ing e xcava t ion , p r e so r t ing , s i ev ing e t c .m igh ts t i l lp l ay a ni mpo r tan tr o le .A l so t h e s ub jec t iv i ty , e xpe r ien ce a nd c onf iden ce o ft h e a na ly s t i n

Wh en i ti sa te s t ed , t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e d om e s t ic a n ima l si s m a in ly f o rt h e i rm ea t . T h e re i sn os p ec if i c e v id ence f o rt h eu s e o fm i lk o rw oo l . T h e c on s ide ra t ion s a bou tt h ep r inc ipa lu se o f t h e d om e s t ic a n ima l s a r e d rawn f r om t h e i r mo r ta l i ty p a t te rn s . Mo r e i n f o rma t ion i sp re sen t f o r s h eep a nd /o rg oa t s , f o rw h i ch i n m o s t c a se s am o r ta l i ty c u rve c ou ld b e r e con s truc t ed ( s umm a r iz ed i n f i g . 4 . 5 ) . H ow eve r , t h e c ompa r i son o f t h e mo r ta l i ty p a t t e rn s i sh ampe r ed b y t h e d i f f e r en t m e thod s o f e va lu a t ing t h e a ge a td ea th . T he c ommon c ha rac te r i s t ic i st h a t

a tr ibu t ing t h e f r agm en t s t o a mo r e s p ec if i c o r mo re g en e ra l c a t ego ry p robab ly c anno tb e c omp le t e ly r u led o u t . Mo s tl i k e ly

o v icap r id s w e r e n o t k ep t t o o ld a ge , b u t t h a t t h e ma jo r i ty o f t h em w a s k i l led p robab ly b ef o re t h e i r f ou r th y ea r . Mo r e

t h ee xpec t ed a nd n o rm a lp e rcen tage o fu n iden t if ied r ema in sf o r as i te f r om t h es t ud ied a r ea l i e sa r ound 7 0% , i fw et a k et h es i t e o f Umm Q se i r a sa n e xamp le , w h e r e t h e m a t e r ia l w a s s i eved w i th a1 / 4i n ch m e sh ,b u th ad b een p r e sor t ed a tt h es i t e .

v a r ia t ion s a r e p r e sen t i nt h e y ounge r a ge c l a s se s , i . e . t h e v e ry y oung a nd s ubadu l t o n e s . T h e d if i cu l ty i n c ompa r ing t h e se c a t ego r ie s i sa l so e n la rged b yt h e d if e r en ta ge c l a s s d iv i s ion s . D ue t ot h e s m a l l s amp le , t h e mo r ta l i ty d a ta o fc a t t le a r er a r e ly

2 3

CH IARA CAVALLO g i ven . W i th t h ee xcep t ion o fT e l lT u r lu i nw h ich c a . 5 0% w e r e k i l led b e tw een 2 5 y ea r s , p i g s a r e u sua l ly s a id t oh ave b een k i l led y oung . E s t ima t ion o ft h e s i ze o ft h e a n im a l s i su sua l ly h ampe red b y t h e s amp le s i ze a nd t h e s t a t e o ff r agm en t a t ion o ft h e m a t e r ia l , wh ich o f t en r e su l t si nl im i t ed o s t eom e t r ic d a ta . O v icap r id s i ze s a r e r a re ly d efmed . C a t t le a r e g en e r a l ly o fm idd le la rge s i ze . P ig s i ze i sv a r iab le . T h e p o s s ib le o ccu r r en ce a nd c on sequen t o ve r lapp ing o f t h e w i ld c oun t e rpa r t s m ak e s i td i ff i cu l t t o e s tab l i sh w i th c e r ta in ty t h e r a t io b e tw een w i ld a nd d om e s t ic a n ima l sa nd t h el im i to ft h es i ze o ft h et wo p opu la t ion s . T he re i sa l so c on s ide rab le v a r ia t ion i nt h e i mpo r tance , n umbe r a nd t y pe o fw i ld s pec ie s ( f ig . 4 . 3 , t a b l e4 . 2 ) . A l r eady f r om t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic o f t h e B a l ikh v a l ley , A s souad s how s a r e la t ive ly h i gh p e r cen tage , w h e rea sf o rS ab iA byad I i ti sl ow . Mo re u n expec ted i st h e r e la t ive ly h i gh p e r cen tage o f w i ld f a una a tl a te rs i te s s u ch a sS h am s e d -D in , Umm Q se i r , S h enef , i n ag en e ra l p a t ter n i nw h ich ah i gh s t a te o fd om e s t ica t ion i s r e ach ed a nd a g r icu l tu re i sw ide ly a te s ted a nd p r edom inan t . T h i sv a r ia t ion m igh tb er e la t ed t ot h ek i nd o fs i t e s , o ccup ied p e rmanen t ly a nd f o r al o ng p e r iod , s u ch a sT e l l T u r lu a nd C av i T a r la s i , o rb r ief ly o ccup ied s uch a sS henef , a s w e l l a st ot h e e nv i ronm en t . T h e s i t e s w i th h i gh e rp e r cen tage s o fw i ld a n ima l s a r e t h o se i nt h e m o r e a r id a r ea s . W i th in t h e l a rge a nd v a r iab le s pec t rum o fs p ec ie s , g aze l le a nd o nage r a r e t h e m a in h un ted s pec ie s . T h e i r r e la t ive i mpo r tance , h ow eve r , v a r ie s a nd s om e t im e s o n e o ft h em i sc omp le te ly a b sen t . T h i s c anno t a lway s b e e xp la in ed a sr e la t ed t ot h e e nv i ronm en t , a s t h e se a r e s t eppe s pec ie s . T h e a r ea s e xp lo i t ed a s h un t ing g round s w e re p robab ly a l so d e t e rm ina ted b y t h e t y pe o f e conomy a nd t h e l o ca t ion o ft h e s i t e . O the rw i ld s pec ie s w e re a l so v a r iab le a nd p robab ly w e r en o ta lp a r to ft h ed i e ta ss om e c a rn ivo r e s a s w e l l a s h a re a nd b ea r m igh t a l so h ave b een h un ted f o rt h e i rf u r .

2 4

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE

G aze I la

c a v iT a r la s i

E quu s

B o s

s p .

+ ?

( s p . )*

s p . + ?

S henef B anah i lk G i r ik ih a c iy an T e l lT u r lu S ham se d -D in Umm Q se i r Y a r im T ep eI

S u s

o t h e r s

+ ? s p .

A rpach iyah A s souad S ab iA byad I *p r obab ly i n t ru s iv e

T ab le 4 . 2W i ld s pec ie sd i s t r ibu t ion a tt h ee a r ly N eo l i th ic a nd H a laf s i t e sr e v iew ed

c av iT a r la s i S h en ef B anah i lk G i r ik iha cy an T e l lT u r lu

1 +

2 +

3

4

5

6

+

+

-

s p .

-

7

8

9

1 0

s p .

-

s p .

+

1

1 2

+

S ham se d -D in Umm Q se i r Y a r im T epe I A rpac iyah

+ +

A s souad S ab iA by ad I

s p .

+ + ? # +

s p .

+

-

-

_

#" l a rg ec a n id s " 1 Dama m e sopo tam ica /dama ,f a l low d ee r 2C ervu se l aphu s ,r ed d ee r 3C ap r eo lu sc apreo lu s ,r o ed ee r 4 Me l e sm e l e s ,b adge r 5C an i sl u pu s ,w o lf 6C an i sa ureu s ,j a cka l 7V u lpe sv u lpe s , f ox

8U r su sa r c to s ,b rown b ea r 9H yaena ,h yaena 1 0P an thera t i g r i s ,t i ge r 1F e l l sp ardu s , l e opa rd 1 2F e l i sl y nx , lf f l 1 3F e l i ss i lve s t r i s ,w i ld c a t 1 4L epu sc apen s i s ,h a r e

T ab le 4 . 2( c on t inued )W i ld s p ec ie sd i s t r ibu t ion a tt h ee a r ly N eo l i th ic a nd H a laf s i t e sr e v iew ed

2 5

1 3 +

1 4 +

CH IARA CAVALLO Q av i T a r Ias i

.

1 10 1

S hene f

3 1 1 1 1

1 3i den t i f ied

"un iden t i f ied

B anah i lk G ir ik ihac iyan T e l l T u r lu S hams e d -D in Umm Q se i r Y a r im T epe I A rpach iyah S ab i A byad I A ssouad 0% F igure 4 .2

2 5%

5 0%

7 5%

1 00%

P ercen tages o fi d en t if ied v ersus u n iden t if ied r e ma in s

Q av i T a r Ias i B anah i lk G i r ik ihac iyan T e l l T ur lu S hene f S hams e d -D in Umm Q se ir 3 2 1 Y a r im T epe I A rpach iyah S ab i A byad I3 2 1 A ssouad 1 1 IV V -V I V I I -V 1 1 1

• North ( mountainous/ more humid )

S outh ( steppe )

0

F igure 4 .3

1 0

2 0

3 0

4 0

5 0

6 0

7 0

P e rcen tages o fw i ld a n i ma ls

Q av i T a r las i

1 1s heep " p ig E ]ca t t le

S hene f B anah i lk

1 1 1 1 1 1 M 1 1 1 1 W M 1 1 1 1

1 • 1 11 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

,

G i r ik ihac iyan T e l l T ur lu S hams e d -D in Umm Q se i r

B e m. ••me n r- -

Y a r im T epe 1

'

S ab i A byad I2 A ssouad 0

F igure 4 .4

2 0

4 0

P e rcen tages o ft h e ma in d o mes t ic s pec ies 2 6

6 0

8 0

1 00

AN I MALS I N THE S TEPPE 50

a mCavi

50 Hanahilk

T ar lasi

40

40

30 -

20 -

10 -

0-1

1-2

• 5 2--

--4

l ate

30

20

1 0

young

o ld

subad .

adult

m ature

years

50

U Tell

Turlu

40 -

30

20

1 0

young

adult

m ature

o ld

0-1

1-2

2-3

3-4

>4

y ears

50

50 Qseir

M Assouad

40

40

30

30

20

20

10

1 0

0-1

1-2

2-3

3-4

4--

--5

7- -

--8

9- - --10

years

1-2

2-3 years

5 0 " 'Sab i A byad 1

4 0

3 0

2 0

1 0 -

„ a • e

0-1

, be' r

F igure 4 .5 C ompa r i son o fo v icapr id mo r ta l i ty p a t te rn s 2 7

3-4

>14 -

CH IARA CAVALLO

Chap ter 5 .Z ooarchaeo log ica la na ly s i s : me thodo logy

5 . 1 T aphonomy

5 . 1 .2 P o s t -depo s i t iona lp roce s se s : d i . lgene s i s

T h e i n te rp re ta t ion o ff a una l r ema in s i sn c c omp le t e w i thou t

Af t e rb e ing i n co rpo ra t ed i n to t h e e a r th , b one s a r e s ub jec ted t o c hem ica l p roce s se s w h ich t r an sf o rm t h e i r o rgan ic c on t en t . B on e s f r om a r id z on e s o ft h e M idd le E a s ta r e c ha rac t e r ized b y al ow a moun t o f o rgan ic c on t en t w h ich m ak e s t h em v e ry f r ag i le a nd t h e i r s u r f ace b r i t t le . D epo s i t ion o fc a rbona t ic s a l t c r y s ta l s i sn o t u n common e i th e r . T r ace s l ef t o n t h e b on e

t h e a na ly s i s o f t a phonom ica l p roce s se s h i ch a f f ec ted t h e s amp le . T aphonomy i s d ef ined a s t h e p a s sage o f o rgan ic m a t e r ia l f r om t h eb io sphe re t ot h e l i t ho sph e r e( Ef r emov 1 940 : 8 5 ) . I n o the r w o rd s , a f t e r t h e d ea th o f t h e a n ima l s t h e o s t eo log ica l m a t e r ia l u nd e rgoe s as e r ie s o f t r an sf o rm a t iona l p roce s se s wh ich r e su l ti n ad ea th a s semb lage ( t han a tocoeno s i s )

s u rf ace b yt h e a c id so ft h er oo t s a r eu sua l ly t h e mo s tv i s ib le o f t h ep o s t -d epo s i t iona lf a c to r s .

o f t en v e ry d i f f e ren t f r om t h e o r ig ina l l i v ing a s semb lage ( b iocoeno s i s ) . T he se p roce s se s c an b e g r ouped i n to t wo c a t ego r ie s , t h ep r e -depo s i t iona lp roce s se s , f r om t h em om en to f d ea th t o t h e b u r ia l i n t h e e a r th , a nd t h e p o s t -depo s i t iona l

Many b on e s f r om l e ve l 6a tS ab i A by ad w e r e u n in ten t iona l ly a f f ec t ed l o ng a f te r t h e d ea th o f t h e a n ima l s b y af i r e w h ich d e s t roy ed t h e v i l lage . Mo s t l i k e ly t h e b on e s h ad a l ready b een p a r t ia l ly i n co rpo ra ted i nt h e e a r th a tt h a t t im e . N o d i s t in c t ion b e tw een t h e t wo d i f f e ren t ( p r e - a nd p o s t -depo s i t iona l ) f i r ing p roce s se sh a sb een a t t emp ted , a l though t h ec o lou ro ft h eb on e s h a sb een n o t ed .

p roce s se s o ccu r r ed i nt h e e a r th ( t ab le 5 . 1) ( Van W i jngaa rd en B akk e r 1 986 : 8 9 ) .

b io t ic f o rce s p re -d epos i t iona l p roce s se s : h uman a c t ion a n im a l s p o s t -d epos i t iona l p roce s se s : m ic roo rgan i sm s

a b io t ic f o rce s

S o i l c o r ro s ion , t o ge the rw i th o t h e rp o s t -depo s i t iona lp roce s se s s uch a sr e cove ry a nd r e sea r ch m e thod s , i sp robab ly t h e mo s t i mpor tan t c au se f o r t h e f r agm en ta t ion o ft h e b one s f r om S ab i A byad . T o u nde r s tand t h e d eg ree o f f r agm en t a t ion o f t h e m a t e r ia lt h e s t a te o fp r e se rva t ion o ft h eb on e w a s m a rk ed o na s c a le o ff i v e c a tego r ie s ( 0 ) a r e p lo t t ed a bove t h e s t anda rd l i n e a nd v a lu e s s ma l le r (

• z C r

8 3 0 6

• 2 8

S e

4 2 6 2

S td . D ev = 2 . M ean = 2 6 .9 N =2 3 .00

0

2 3 .0

2 5 .0

2 7 .0

2 9 .0

3 1 .0

•

•

•

ii

2 4 2 2

2 4

3 0

2.8

2 6

3 3 .0

L AR O v icapr ids . p e lv is

O v icapr ids , p e lv is . a ce tabu lum . l e ng th(LA )

3 0

1 0

8 2 0 > .

6 c r a t

0 )

2 S td . D iv = 1 . 25 M ee. = 1 9 .4 N=2 4 .00 1 7 .0

1 8 .0

1 9 .0

2 0 .0

2 1.0

2 2 .0

0

2 3 .0

S td . D ev = 1 . 68 M ean = 2 7 .7 N =6 2 .00 2 5 .1

2 6 .2

2 7 .3

2 8 .4

2 9 .6

3 0 .7

3 1.8

3 2 .9

O v icapr ids . a s traga lus . g rea tes t l a tera l l e ng th ( GLL )

O v icapr ids . f emur . c apu t , d ep th ( DC )

1 0

2 0

8

1 6 .

6

1 2

1 4 ) . • z c r a ,

3

l a-

1 0

8 6

2

0

4 S td . D iv = 1 . 23 M ien = 2 2 .87 N =2 5 .00 2 1.50

2 2 .50

2 3 .50

2 4 .50

2 5 .50

2 6 .50

3 0 .3

O v icapr ids , m eta tarsus , d i s ta l b read th ( BD )

3

r

3 1.8

3 3 .3

3 4 .8

3 6 .3

3 7 .8

3 9 .3

4 0 .8

O v icapr ids . p ha lanx!. g rea tes t l e ng th(GL )

2 4

2 2

2 2

2 0

2 0

1 8

1 6

1 6

1 6 a ,

S td . D iv = 2 .06 M ean = 3 5 .4 N=5 9 .00

2

1 4

1 4

• 1 2

1 2

• 1 0

1 0

a :

a

8 6

6

4

4

S td . D iv = . 99 M ean = 1 .58 N=6 3 .00

2 8 .50

9 .50

1 0 .50

1 .50

1 2 .50

1 3 .50

1 4 .50

9 .35

1 0 .75 1 0 .05

1 5 .50

1 2 .15 1 .45

1 3 .55 1 2 .85

1 4 .25

O v icapr ids . p ha lanx I .d i s ta l b read th ( BD )

O v icapr ids , p ha lanx 1 .p rox ima l b read th ( BP )

F igure 6 . 3

S td . D iv = . 9 9 M ean = 1 .09 N =5 8 .00

2

( con t inued ) S ize d i s t r ibu t ion o fs e lec ted e l emen t si n wh ich w i ld s heep a nd /o rg oa ta r ep resen t .

7 3

CH IARA CAVALLO

mm 38.25-

. bb b 34-

bb b

•

.. .

.. .b.b : : b b •• ••s .. b . b 29 .750

.

S

.:.

0

0

:

: :

. S

6

•

•

.

y _

25. 525. 5 24

28.5

3 4.5

31. 5

27

mm

3 3

3 0

BT

6 = s= b=

Sabi Abyad Shams ed-Din Bougras

2 0

Sabi Abyad ( BD) Sabi Abyad ( BT) avi Tarlasi ( BT) Assouad ( BD) Banahilk ( BD)

N 9 9 9 7 1 0 9 1 5 1 1

Turlu ( BD) Mureybit ( BD) Catal Hüyük ( BD) Bougras ( BD)

3 5 3 1 6

I

2 4

I

I

2 8

I

I

3 2

I

I

3 6

I

1

•

•

I

I

4 4 mm I

w

1 i • • •

40

w

1 1

•

I

• ••

Ovis Capra •

Ovis

• 1

F igure 6 . 4 C ompa r i son o ft h ed i s ta lb read th ( BD ) a nd t h eg r ea te s tb r ead th o ft h et r och lea ( BT ) o ft h eo v icap r id h um e r if r om S ab i Abyad w i th o the rs i te s

7 4

AN I MALS I N THE S TEPPE

a

36-

3 3a aa a • . a • •

30-

ma • a bb :

•

bb

• a

• • 27-

•

. . :.

: •

b •

:s . • • • ••

1 6.8 16

1 8.4

20

1 7.6

19.2

21.6 20. 8

2 2.2

BD

• a b m s t

=S ab iA byad =A s souad =B ouq ra s = Mu reyb i t =S ham se d -D in =ç av iT a r la s i

F igure 6 . 5 C ompa r i son o ft h el a t e ra lg r ea t e s tl e ng th ( GLL )a nd t h ed i s ta lb read th ( BD )o ft h eo v icap r id a s t raga l if r om S ab i Abyad w i th o t h e rs i te s

7 5

mm

CH IARA CA VALLO

1 6 1 4

F requency

1 2 1 0 8 6 4 S td . D ev = 2 .32 M ean = 3 0 .4 N= 1 6 .00

2 0

2 6 .3

2 8 .0

2 9 .7

3 1 .3

3 3 .0

3 4 .7

H umerus , d is ta l b rea th , E ar ly H a laf

S td . D ay = 1 . 69 M ean = 2 9 .9 N =2 6 .00 2 6 .3

2 8 .0

2 9 .7

3 1 .3

3 3 .0

3 4 .7

H umerus , d is ta l b rea th , t r ans i t iona l

1 6 1 4 1 2

4 S td . D ev = 1 . 60 M ean = 2 9 .5 N =3 4 .00

2

2 6 .3

2 8 .0

2 9 .7

3 1 .3

3 3 .0

3 4 .7

H umerus , d is ta l b read th , p re-Ha laf

F igure 6 . 6

O v i s : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o fh um eru sd i s ta lb r ead th ( BD )

7 6

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE 54—

Ear ly Halaf 2—

F req uen cy

1—

2-

T rans it iona l

p re-Ha laf

I

0 . 1

I

0 .09

I

0 .08

I

0 .07

I

0 .06

I

0 .05

I

I

0 .04

0 .03

0 .02

0 .0 1

F igure 6 . 7 C apra : s i ze i n d ex d i s t r ibu t ion o fg oa tf o r e l imb b on e sp l o t t ed a ga in s tt h e" d if f e r en ce o fl o ga r i thm s " t e chn ique

3 5

T rans i t iona l

3 0

E a r ly H a la f

2 5 2 0 1 5 1 0 5 .

0 \ . , 0

i -Z >e •b e e o .K •

< ( ‘ < be ee

( f ro x . Ä .\ . \ e -e S , Nec' we N ‚-

r i l re r a r r a r r e l Li

F igure 6 . 8 R e la t ive f r equen cy o fo v icap r id s k e le ta le l em en t sw i th in e a ch p ha se

7

e •

e se\e 'ke ` b• c ( `

CH IARA CAVALLO

c u tma rk s c hopma rk s

F igure 6 .9

L oca t ion o ft r aces o fb u tche r ing ( c hop a nd c u tma rk s ) o nt h eo v icap r id r ema in s

7 8

AN I MALS I N THE STEPPE

3 5

3E a r l y

H a la f

....

3 0 2 5

..

2 0

.

. . . . ..

1 5 1 0

•-

• • . . .

8 -12 m

. .. •

5 3 -6 m

< 1

1 -2

2 -3

3 -4

4 -5

5 -6

6 -7

7 -8

8 -9

9 10

y ea rs

3 5

• • . . .. . ..... .

3 0

.

2 5

1 5

.... .

. . . . . . •. .

2 0

1 :T rans i t iona l

.. •• •. .

8 -12 m

.•

• H . • ...

1 0 3 -6 m

< 1

1 -2

2 -3

3 -4

4 -5

5 -6

6 -7

7 -8

8 -9

9 10

y ea rs

3 0

p r e -H a l a f

2 5

. .•

2 0

.. . . . .

1 5

. . . . •. . . . .• .

1 0

5

< 1

1 -2

2 -3

3 -4

4 -5

5 -6

6 -7

7 -8

8 -9

9 10

y ea rs F igure 6 .10 O v icap r id m and ibu la rw ea r( s amp le s i ze : p re -Ha laf = 5 6 ; T ran s i t iona l =3 1 ;E a r ly H a laf = 4 2 ) ;

s ugge s ted a ge a cco rd ing t oP ayn e ' sw ea rs t age s( Payne 1 973 ) 7 9

CH IARA CAVALLO -0-

1 00

T rans i t iona l X -

6 0

. . . . :

. .

2 0

0 e a r ly

E a r ly H a la f

. .

8 0

4 0

p re -Ha la f

m idd le 1

m idd le 2

l a te

F igure 6 . 11 Ov icapr id e p iphy sea lf u s ion

A

//

F igure 6 . 12 O ra lp a tho log ies o no v icap r id r ema in s : A . l owe rf i r s to rs e cond mo la rw i th e xpan s ion o ft h er oo t t i p s( s ca le 1 : 1) ; B . mand ib le w i th a n te -mor tem t oo th l o s s( s ca le 1 : 2 ) ;C . m and ib le w i th al a rge a l veo la rb on e d e s t ruc t ion ( s ca le 1 : 2 )

8 0

AN I MALS I N THE S TEPPE

L( M3 I)

M idpo int 3 4 .00 3 4 .75 3 5.50 3 6 .25 3 7 .00 3 7 .75 3 8 .50 3 9 .25 4 0.00 4 0.75 4 1.50 4 2.25 4 3 .00 4 3.75 4 4.50 4 5.25 4 6 .00

.••••••••••••••••••

********************

I I MOU 1 1 1 1 1 1 13 1

I...+ ....I....+ ....I....+ ....I....+ ....I....+ ....I 0 1 2 3 4 5 H istogram f requency rans itional; • E arly H alaf p re -Halaf; • T

3 0

3 5

G ir ik ihac iyan B anahilk E t v i T arlas i S ab i A byad A ssouad H ayaz H öyük B ouqras D eh L uran J armo M ureyb it

4 0

4 5 *

4 7 m m

*

I

* (w )

* * *

n .= 15

*

* (d)

( w )

n .=3

( w)* ( w)

n .=8

F igure 6 . 13 B os : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c ompa r i son w i th o t he rs i te so ft h e l e ng th ( L ) o ft h et h i rd l ow e r mo la r ( M3 I )

I nn

( w).

4 2 .5 -

3 8 .25 • •

•

• •

3 4 -

1.) b

I 1 2

1 2 .6

i l 1 3 .2

t 1 3 .8

' 1 4 .4

1 5

t 1 5.6

m m

*p re -Halaf; • T ransitiona l; • E arly H alaf

F igure 6 . 14 B o s : s ca t te r -d iag ram o ft h el e ng th ( L )v e r su st h eb r ead th ( B )o ft h et h i rd mo la r

8 1

CH IARA CAVALLO

S (w)

4 5 -

M M

M

M

M M L

4 0 .5 -

3 6 -

1.25

1 6 .25

1 3.75 1 5

1 2.5

m r n

1 8 .75 1 7 .5

S = S ab i A byad M = M ureyb it

F igure 6 . 15 S ca t te r -d iag ram o ft h el e ng th ( L )v e r su st h eb r ead th ( B )o ft h eb ov id t h i rd mo la r s f r om S ab iA byad a nd f r om Mu reyb i t

B D ( HUM)

M idpo int 7 1 0 7 35 7 6 0 7 85 8 1 0 * ********* 8 3 5 •••••••••• 8 6 0 8 8.5 9 1 0 9 3 5 9 6 .0 9 8 .5 1 01.0 1 03.5 1 06 .0 * ********* 1 08 .5 * ********* 11.0 0

( w) ( w)

1 2 H istogram f requency

.I....+... I ....+ ....1 3 4 5

*p re -Halaf; • T ransitional; • E arly H alaf

J armo D eh L uran Q atal H üyük ( 1) C atal H üyük ( 2) Q atal H üyük ( 3) S uberde S ab i A byad G irik ihaciyan B anahilk

1

I

I

I

I

I

6 1

7 1

8 1

9 1

1 01

11

( w) ( w)*

*

(0 *( d) *( d)

n .=4 n .=2 ( d) n .=33 ( d?) n .= 12 ( w) n .=8

* *

*( w)

( 1) P erk ins 1 969 : l evel V I, 5 800 B .C. ( 2) P erk ins 1 969 : l eve l X -XII, 6 400 B .0 ( 3) D ucos 1 988 : l eve l I-V III, 6 000-5600 B .C.

F igure 6 . 16 B o s : s i ze d i s tr ibu t ion a nd c ompa r i son w i th o t h e rs i te so ft h e d i s ta lb read th ( BD ) o ft h eh um eru s

8 2

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE

B T ( HUM) M idpo int 6 2 6 4 6 6 6 8 7 0 7 2 7 4 7 6 7 8 8 0 8 2 8 4 8 6 8 8 9 0 9 2 9 4

• ••••••••• ** ********

*** *******

(w)

*** *******

(w)

0

1 2 3 H istogram f requency

4

5

*p re -Halaf; • T rans itional; • E arly H alaf

F igure 6 . 17 B o s : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eb r ead th o ft h et r och lea ( BT )o ft h eh um eru s

( w) *

( w) *

1 00 -

8 7 .5 -

•

7 5 -

•

6 7 .5 6 3

7 6 .5

8 5.5

7 2

8 1

I 9 4 .5 9 0

B T

F igure 6 . 18 B o s : s ca t te r -d iag ram o ft h ed i s ta lb r ead th ( BD )v e r su st h eb read th o ft h et r och lea ( BT )o ft h e h um e ru s

8 3

CH IARA CAVALLO B D ( MC)

M idpo int 5 9 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 3 6 4 ••••••••• 6 5 6 6 6 7 6 8 6 9 7 0 7 1 7 2 7 3 ********* 7 4 7 5 0

( w) ( w)

1 2 3 H istogram f requency

4

5

*p re -Halaf; • T ransitional; • E arly H alaf

A li K osh J armo M ureyb it B ouqras

1

I

1

1

I

6 5

7 0

7 5

8 0

8 5

( w) ( w) ( w)

S ab i A byad B anahilk T e ll T urlu C av i T arlasi

I

6 0

*

* * *

*

* **

*

1

* *

( d)

* ( d)

( w) * *

F igure 6 . 19 B os : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c ompa r i son w i th o t he rs i te so ft h ed i s ta lb read th ( BD )o ft h em e taca rpu s

B D ( TIB)

M idpo int 5 9 6 0 6 1 6 2 6 3 6 4 6 5 6 6 6 7 6 8 6 9 7 0 7 1 7 2 7 3 7 4 7 5

•••••••••

( w) ( w) ( w)

0

..+....I.. . +.. 1 2 3 H istogram f requency

.I ....+....I 4 5

•T ransitional; • E arly H alaf

M ureyb it B ouqras J armo C atal H üyük S ab i A byad B anahilk

I

I

I

I

I

i

6 0

6 5

7 0

7 5

8 0

8 5

*

* * * *

( w) *

*

*

F igure 6 . 20 B os : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c ompa r i son w i th o t h e rs i te so ft h ed i s ta lb read th ( BD ) o ft h et i b ia

8 4

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE

G LL ( ASTR) M idpo int 6 4 6 5 6 6 6 7 6 8 6 9 7 0 7 1 7 2 7 3 7 4 7 5 7 6 7 7 7 8 7 9 8 0

**** ******

•••••••••• ******** ************ ** ******** ** ********

*** *******

** ********

( w?) ** ********

0

(w?)

1 2 3 H istogram f requency

4

5

*p re-Halaf; • T rans itional; • E arly H alaf

6 5 S ab i A byad a v i T arlasi B anahilk

7 0

7 5

8 0 n .= 15 n .=7 n .=4

( d ) ( d)

F igure 6 . 21 B o s : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c om pa r i son w i th o t h e rs i t e so ft h eg r ea t e s tl e ng th o ft h el a t e ra lh a l f( GLL ) o ft h ea s t raga lu s

B D ( ASTR) M idpo int 4 3 .00 4 3 .75 4 4 .50 4 5.25 4 6 .00 4 6 .75 4 7 .50 4 8 .25 4 9 .00 4 9 .75 5 0 .50 5 1.25 5 2 .00 5 2 .75 5 3.50 5 4 .25 5 5.00

********** ********* *** **** ****

********* * **********

**********

0

(w?)

1 2 3 H istogram f requency

4

. I 5

*p re -Halaf; • T rans it ional; • E arly H a laf

F igure 6 . 22 B o s : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h ed i s t a lb r ead th ( BD )o ft h ea s t r aga lu s

8 5

CH IARA CAVALLO

1

m m 6 4 -

1

m m 6 4 -

•

5 6 -

5 6 -

4 8 -

4 8 -

1

4 0 -

4 0 6 5

7 5 7 0

8 5

1 9 0

8 0

I 6 5

9 5 1 00

m m

7 5 7 0

i

l 8 5

8 0

l

i 9 5

9 0

' 1 00

m m

G LL

G LL •M ureyb it A J armo

S ab i A byad : *p re-Halaf; • T ransitional; • E arly H alaf

m m 6 4 -

m m 6 4 -

5 6 -

5 6 -

4 8 -

4 8 -

4 0 -

4 0• 1 6 5

1

1 7 5

7 0

1

1 8 5

8 0

1 9 0

1 9 5

i 1 00

m m

1 6 5

1

1 7 5

7 0

G LL

1

1 8 5

8 0

1 9 0

1 9 5

1 1 00

m m

G LL

. a tal H üyük

•c av i T arlasi

F igure 6 . 23 B o s : c ompa r i son o ft h e s c a t t e r -d iag ram o ft h ed i s ta lb r ead th ( BD )v e r su st h eg rea te s tl e ng th o ft h e l a te ra lh a lf ( GLL )o ft h ea s t raga l if r om S ab iA byad w i th t h o se f r om Mu reyb i t , J a r rno , c a ta l Hüyük , a nd c av i T a r la s i

8 6

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE

B D ( MT)

M idpo int 5 4 .00 5 4 .75 ********** 5 5.50 5 6 .25 * W M*** 5 7 .00 ********** 5 7 .75 5 8 .50 5 9 .25 6 0 .00 6 0 .75 6 1.50 6 2 .25 6 3.00 6 3 .75 ********** 6 4 .50 6 5.25 ********** 6 6 .00 1 2 3 H istogram f requency

0

4

5

*p re -Halaf; • T rans itiona l; • E arly H alaf i

i

i

5 0

6 0

7 0

J armo Q atal H üyük (0 * M ureyb it ( w) * S ab i A byad G er ik ihaciyan ( d) B anahilk ( d) * * * S hams e d-Din * ( d) ? av i T arlas i ( d) * * *

* **

1 8 0 m m (0 * * **

*

F igure 6 . 24 B o s : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c ompa r i son w i th o t h e rs i t e so ft h ed i s ta lb r ead th ( BD )o ft h em e ta ta r su s

• SD

3 5-

0

0

30-

A D o

A

1 1 25-

o

0

A 0

0

A P

6Ö Sabi Abyad:

1 65

Early- Halaf: Transitional: pre-Halaf: Shams e d-Din: A anterior;

71 4 1 : 0

71 5

GLph

0 a nterior; posterior a a nterior; • posterior 0 a nterior; • posterior P posterior

F igure 6 . 25 B o s : c ompa r i son o ft h em ea su rem en t so fg r ea t e s tl e ng th o ft h ep er iphe ra lh a lf ( GLpe )v e r su st h e s ma l le s tb read th o ft h ed i aphy s i s( SD ) o ft h e f i r s tp h a lange sf r om S ab iA byad w i th t h o se f r om S ham se d -D in .

8 7

CH IARA CAVALLO

m m 5 4

4

*

*

*** *

4 2

m s •m in S .

•

3 2 2 .5

7 .5

3 2.5

2 5

3 0

S D

3 7 .5 3 5

4 0

m m

*p re -Ha laf; • T rans itional; • E arly H alaf S .Shams e d -D in

F igure 6 . 26 B o s : s c a t te r -d iag ram o ft h eg r ea te s tl e ng th ( GL )v e r su st h es ma l les tb read th o ft h ed i aphy s i s ( SD )o f t h es e cond p ha lanx

1 5 4 -

4 8 -

*

•

*

•

• * *

*

4 2 •

3 6 -

•

2 8 .5

3 1.5 3 0

1 3 3

1 3 4.5

1

1 3 7 .5

3 6

1 3 9 m

B P *p re -Ha laf ; •T rans itional; • E arly H alaf

F igure 6 . 27 B o s : s ca t te r -d iag ram o ft h eg r ea te s tl e ng th ( GL )v e r su st h ep rox ima lb read th ( BP )o ft h es e cond p ha lanx

8 8

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE

G L ( PH2)

M idpo int 3 2 .5 3 4 .0 3 5.5 3 7 .0 3 8 .5 4 0 .0 4 1.5 4 3 .0 4 4 .5 4 6 .0 4 7 .5 4 9 .0 5 0 .5 5 2 .0 5 3 .5 5 5.0 5 6 .5

( w)

( w) . + 0

3 5

. I ....+ . .I.. . + .. . 1 .. . + . . I . + ....I 2 4 6 8 1 0 H istogram f requency V alid c ases 3 0

4 0

M ureyb it ( anter ior) M ureyb it ( poster ior) S hams e d -Din ( anter ior) S hams e d -Din ( poster ior)

4 5

5 0

5 5

6 0 n .=45 n .=23

** **

F igure 6 . 28 B os : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c ompa r i son w i th o t h e rs i t e so ft h eg r ea te s tl e ng th ( GL )o ft h e s e cond p h a lanx

B P ( PH2)

M idpo int 2 7 .50 2 8 .25 2 9 .00 2 9 .75 3 0 .50 3 1.25 3 2 .00 3 2 .75 3 3.50 3 4 .25 3 5.00 3 5.75 3 6 .50 3 7 .25 3 8 .00 3 8 .75 3 9 .50

( w ) ( w)

2 4 6 H istogram f requency

2 0 M ureyb it ( anter ior) M ureyb it ( poster ior) S ham s e d -Din ( anter ior) S ham s e d -Din ( poster ior)

2 5

3 0

3 5

8

1 0

4 0

4 5 n .=25 n ..45

**

F igure 6 . 29 B os : s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a nd c ompa r i son w i th o t he rs i t e so ft h ep rox ima lb read th ( BP )o ft h es e cond p h a lanx

8 9

CH IARA CAVALLO

D LS ( PH3)

M idpo int 6 4 ********** 6 6 I mm o m m u •••••••••• ********** 6 8 ********* 7 0 7 2 7 4 7 6 7 8 ********** (w) 8 0 8 2 ( w) 8 4 8 6 8 8 9 0 9 2 9 4 9 6 * ********* ( w)

. ..+ 0

6 4

7 0

1...1.... 1...+....1. 1 2 3 H istogram f requency

7 5

8 0

.+....I 4

8 5

. +...

5

9 0

9 5 n .= 18

M ureyb it S hams e d -D in *

F igure 6 . 30 B o s : s c a t te r -d iag ram a nd c ompa r i son w i th o t he rs i te so ft h ed i agona ll e ng th o ft h e s o le ( DLS ) o ft h e t h i rd p ha lanx

3 0 p re -Ha la f

l e iTrans i t iona l-

2 5

E a r ly H a la f 2 0 1 5 1 0

I T

1 co

m

, er e > ee b 4 . bec e\e i ee r e e( 2 >o C 5 C> e e ec ) ( b • e eer b S Ne

F igure 6 . 31 R e la t ive f r equency o fb ov id s k e le ta lr ema in s

9 0

4

e, 1 4 / 0 .e)e)

\ c,

1

4 3 ; ?

c l : Zb

c e r ö •

AN I MALS I N THE S TEPPE

c utmarks c hopmarks

F igure 6 . 32 L oca t ion o ft r aces o fb u tche r ing o nb ov id r ema in s

F igure 6 . 33 B os : h um e ru sw i th ac hopma rk o nt h ed i aphy s i s

CH IARA CAVALLO

° -p re -Ha l a f " * -T ran s i t io na l x -E a r ly

F igure 6 . 34 B ov id e p iphy sea lf u s ion

B

A

F igure 6 . 35 Abno rma lt oo th s hape o fb ov id t e e th : ( A )l owe r mo la r , ( B ) i n c i s ive

9 2

H a la f

AN I MALS I N THE S TEPPE

p re -Ha la f T rans i t iona l " 'Ea r ly H a la f

0

• c • e > e >e -e • c ` r t f re. . . \ « ,b e .N c •

• ( `

\ NO• O • c (\ e i , e N

t b-, < Qx\ c i

\ C J ( b .

4 Q\

F i gure 6 . 36 R e la t ive f r equency o fs u id s ke le ta le l em en t si ne ach p ha se ( cos tae n o ti n c luded )

4 —>

c utmarks c hopmarks

F igure 6 . 37 L oca t ion o ft r ace s o fb u tche r ing o nt h e s u id r ema in s

9 3

r f

CH IARA CAVALLO

8 14 /3

2 5 -90 /12

2 6 -108 / 1

3 1-95 /6

3 0 -81/3

2 8 -71/5

2 8 118 /4

F igure 6 . 38 E nam e lp a t ter no fe qu id t e e th

. 0 , 1 )

e_—

. 1 0

( " ? . ) c c

. 08 . 0 6

' G . ;< z 7 : -k i ' um

. 04

g 3

. 02

a )o

4 .

" - * " "

/

"

M

7

E . af r icanus ( n » 6) E ° s inus , mode m (n> / 19 ) E . osinus , I k r it ( n) i I I)

,

1% * * * * 1 ---

0

e „ . .2 k

. 02 . 04 -. 06

. 08

ONAGER

• _ _ __ _ \, .. . " / *

* \

/ *

4 4 / 1

, *

e M c I i : I

Sabi Abyad:

Measures

3

4

5

6

• • MC distal x---x MC distal

1 0

1

1 2

1 3

1 4

7

8

( n. =1) ( n. =1)

F igure 6 . 39 R a t io d i ag ram so ft h ee qu id m e taca rpa l sf r om S ab iA byad c ompa red w i th t h em ean d im en s ion s o f m e taca rpa l so fv a r iou sa s se s , mode rn a nd f o s s i l ; ( af t e rE i senmann a nd B eckouche 1 986 , f i g . 8 )

9 4

. 08 . 06 . 04

l o g . d i f ferences w i th Eh o nog e r

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE

4 F-X -4 .

E . o f t/cant 's (n> ,6 ) sinus , modern ( n= 16 ) E . o E o sinus , I k r i ( n = 1 1)

. 0 2

J / I

. 02 . 04 _06 . 08

1 , . . . . * * x .

, . . 9( Y

/

\

-‘ , . ./ *

* *

---

\ . . . . • ' '

_ _ _ _ _ _ - —* A t# * 7; 7 1 : ---. .* *

ONAGER

• , * , ,/ * o c -

e

' MT I I :M easu res

1

3

Sabi Abyad:

4

5

6

1 0

1

1 2

1 3

1 4

8

7

p---• MT proximal ( n.=1) *---• MT proximal ( n.=1) MT distal ( n.=1)

F i gure 6 . 40 R a t io d i ag ram so ft h ee qu id m e ta ta r sa l sf r om S ab iA byad c ompa r ed w i th t h em ean d im en s ion so f m e t a t a r sa l so fv a r iou sa s se s ,m od e rn a nd f o s s i l ;( a f t e rE i senm ann a nd B eckouch e 1 986 ,f i g . 1 5 )

SD

4 •

t , A u re l t) . %

•2 •1

2 5-

3

a A L a * * * * *

e *

2 0-

1 5

I

6 0

1

6 5

•

i

i

I

7 0

I

i

I

7 5

8 0

8 5

"

G L

F i gure 6 . 41 S ca t t e r -d iag ram o ft h ef i r s tp h a lange s( PH 1) m ea su r em en t so fE quu sf r om S ab iA byad c ompa r ed w i th o t h e rs i te s( af t e rU e rpm ann 1 99 1 ,f i g .4 )

9 5

CH IARA CAVALLO

GL f , us

45-

t > " ‘

e

0

40-

a

P S Se ••

0

PS

a4 •

0

35-

30

I

25

30

40

315

I

45

BP

F igure 6 . 42 S ca t te r -d iag ram o ft h e s e cond p ha lange s( PH2 )m ea su r em en t so fE quu sf r om S ab iA byad ( A ) c ompa red w i th t h e r eg re s s ion l i ne s o fE . h em ionu sa nd E .a s inu s( af t e rU e rpmann 1 991 , f i g . 3 ) • =f i nd sf r om a r ab ian s i te s ; 0 =r e cen tE .af r icanu s ; •= r e cen td onk ey s ; s=S ham se d -D in

2 5 p re -Ha la f T rans i t iona l

2 0

I Ear ly

H a la f

1 5

1

1 0

0

F igure 6 . 43 R e la t ive f r equency o fe qu id s k e le ta le l em en t s

9 6

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE

cutmarks chopmarks

F igure 6 . 44 L oca t ion o ft r ace so fb u t che r ing o ne qu id r ema in s .

5—

c 3— a ) a t u 2— L .

I 0 .04

I 0 .03

I 0 .02

I 0 .0 1

I

i

I 0 .0 1

I 0 .02

I 0 .03

i 0 .04

F igure 6 . 45 S ize i ndex d i s t r ibu t ion o ft h eg r ea te s tl e ng th o ft h ep roce s su sa r t icu la r i s( GLP ) o ft h es capu la a nd t h ed i s ta lb read th ( BD )o ft h eh um e ru so fg aze l le

9 7

CH IARA CAVALLO

4 0

Dp re -Ha la f

E lT r ans i t iona l

UEarly Halaf

3 0

2 0

1 0

0

e+ d •c jekez be , 4 0 ‘g2)

r i ` 2,1 Y

e

1

( z,< Q e9 l eee r b •-e

e

G

• e 9 ze

F igure 6 . 46 R e la t ive f r equency o fg aze l le s ke le ta l e l emen t s

c 3

F igure 6 . 47 D i s ta lm e ta ta r su so fg aze l le w i th l ong i tud ina lc u t rna rk sa l ong t h ev a scu la rg roove ( s ca le 1 : 1)

9 8

AN I MALS I N THE S TEPPE 1 0

T UNWORN TEETH

P4

almost

DP4 ( ca.

T

erupted

( ca.

1 .5 yr)

6 m )

T

PERIOD IN WHICH MILK TEETH ARE REPLACED

6 E f

• 1

C D

0 C . )

I

I I

I

I

I

I

I

I

HEAVELY WORN TEETH

i t 0 =

n

3

n

( i )

0

0

C o

n

c u

' t 7 ,

2

=
100

1 0 1

CH IARA CAVALLO I no rde rt os e e i ft h ed epo s i t iona lp a t t er n sb e tw een i n te r io ra nd e x te r io r c on t ex t s w e r e a f f ec ted b y t h e s i z e o ft h e b one s , t h e i d en t if i ed r ema in sg rouped i n to t wo c a t ego r ie sw e r ec ompa r ed t o t h e u n iden t if i ed m ed ium a nd l a rge m amma l r ema in s o f l e ve l s 6 ,4 ,a nd 3f r om s qua r e s Q 15 a nd P 15 ( t ab le 7 . 5 ) . T he se s qua re s w e r e s e lec ted b ecau se t h ey a r et h e m o s tr e p r e sen ta t ive f o r t h e t y pe o f c on tex t s a nd f o r t h e i r s amp le s i ze . T h e p ropo r t ion o f b on e s d epo s i ted i n i n t e r io r v e r su s e x te r io r c on tex t s i s4 0a ga in s t6 0 f o rl e ve l 6a nd 2 0a ga in s t8 0 f o rl e ve l 4w h i le n ob on e s c ou ld b e a s soc ia t ed w i th i n t e r io r c on tex t s i n l e ve l 3 . T h e a lmo s t e qua l d iv i s ion b e tw een i n te r io r a nd e x te r io rc on tex t so ft h em a te r ia l f r om l e ve l 6i smo s tl i k e ly d ue t o am a jo rc oncen t ra t ion o fa r ch i t ec tu r a l f e a tu r e s i nr e la t ion t o t h e a r ea o f e xcava t ion . L eve l 4 c on s t i tu t e s ap ha se o f o ccupa t ion a l so c ha rac t e r ized b y a r ch i t ec tu r a l f e a tu re s , b u t t h e se a r e l e s s c oncen t ra ted , w h i le i nl e ve l 3t h ea r ea o fs qua r e s Q 15 a nd P 15 t u rn s i n to ac omp le te ly o u tdoo rr e g ion . T h e a r ea o f l e ve l 4i sp robab ly mo re e qua l ly d i v ided b e tw een i n te r io r a nd e x te r io r ; t h e ref o r e t h e se v a lue s s hou ld p robab ly b e c on s ide r ed g ene ra l ly m o re r ep re sen ta t ive . I n t h i s c a se t h e

L EVEL 4 n .

L EVEL 6 n . i n ter ior 0 /C+SUS+GAZE BOS+EQUUS MM LM

d i s t r ibu t ion o f i d en t if i ed a nd u n iden t if ied m a t e r ia l b e tw een i n t e r io r a nd e x t e r io r c on tex t s i sq u i t e s im i la r . I tm ay t h e r ef o r e b e c onc luded t h a t t h e r e i sn o l a rge d if e ren ce b e tween i n t e rna l a nd e x t e rna l c on t ex t s a cco rd ing t o t h e s i ze o f t h e a n ima l s . S econd ly , am o r ed e ta i led a na ly s i sr e ga rd ing t h er e p re sen ta t ion o fs k e le t a l e l em en t s o ft h e m a in s p ec ie s h a s b een c a r r ied o u t . T h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e o v icap r id r ema in s c om e s f r om e x t e r io r c on t ex t s , e s pec ia l ly f r om p i t s a nd l a rge o pen a r ea s ( t ab le 7 . 6 ) . I n g en e r a l c r an ia l r ema in s o f t h e o v icap r id s a r e b e t t e r r e p re sen t ed i nt h e e x te r io rc on t ex t s ( f ig . 7 . 1) . T hey amoun to n a ve rage t oc a . 1 0% ( 4 3 .4% i n c lud ing l o o se t e e th ) f o r i n t e r io r c on t ex t s a nd t oc a . 1% ( 50% i n c lud ing t e e th ) f o rt h e e x te r io r c on t ex t s . V e r t eb ra e a r e b e t t e r r e p r e sen t ed i ni n te r io r c on t ex t s s u ch a si nr oom s( 5 .4% )a nd f l oo r s( 4 .5 % )a ga in s t0 . 7% -2 . 7% o ft h e e x t e r io r c on t ex t s . O ft h e p o s tc ran ia l e l em en t s , c a rpa l ia a nd m e t aca rpa l s a r eb e t te rr e p r e sen ted i nr oom s a nd f l oo r s a nd s oa r e p e lv i s , f emu r a nd i ng en e ra l l ong b on e s . T h e d i spe r s ion o ft i b ia , a s t raga l ia nd s ma l lt a r sa l ia i ss l igh t ly s im i la rw h i le t h e c a lcaneum s how s a n o ppo s i t e t r end s im i la r t ot h e p ha lange s , w h ich a r ea l so m o r ef r equen to u t s ide .

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T ab le 7 . 7F requency o fo v icap r id b one sa cco rd ing t ot h et y pe o fc on tex t( Abb rev ia t ion s : s e et a b le 7 . 2 )

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p robab ly p r e served t h e b one s b e t te r a nd a l so p reven ted t h e

T he r e la t ive ly h ighe r i n c idence o fc r an ia l e l em en t s i ne x te rna l c on tex t s m igh t b e e xp la ined a s t h e r e su l t o f t h e b u tche r ing p roce s s o ccu r r ing i nl a rge o pen a r ea s o n t h e o ne h and , a nd o f

d i spe r s ion o fs ma l l b one s s u ch a s c a rpa l ia a nd s ma l l t a r sa l ia . T ha t b one s a r e m o re s ub jec t t o d e s t ruc t ion o u t s ide

t r amp l ing o n t h e o the r , wh ich r e su l t ed i n ah i ghe r d eg ree o f f r agmen ta t ion p a r t icu la r ly e v iden t i n m and ib le s a nd c r an ia l

a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu re s c ou ld a l so b e t h e r e a son w hy t h e l a rge r , s t ronge r a nd mo re c ompac t b one s s uch a s c a lcaneum a nd

e l em en t s . T he e l emen t r e p re sen ta t ion w i th in r oom s a nd f l oo r s

p ha lange s a r e b e t te r r e p re sen ted o u t s ide . T ha t s t ronge r b one s

i sn o t s u rp r i s ing e i the r c on s ide r ing t h a t d e sp i te t h e d ef in i t ion s

h ave b e t te rc hance s o fs u rv iv ing i ne x te r io ra r ea s i se ven mo re

i tc oncer n s r e -depo s i t iona l l a ye r s ( f i l l ing ) o ft h e l a rge mu l t i c hambe red b u i ld ing o f l e ve l 31.T he a r ch i tec tu ra l s t ruc tu re s

e v iden t i n B os w ho se r e p re sen ta t ion o f p ha lange s i sc l ea r ly h i ghe rt h an i nt h es m a l le rs pec ie s( 0 /C a nd S u s )( f ig . 7 . 2 ) .

A l lt h e ma ter ia lf ound " on " t h ef l oo rc ome sf r om l e ve l3 A ; t h e ma te r ia lf r om t h ef i l l ing o ft h er oom sc ome s i na g r ea tm a jo r i ty f r om l e ve l3 A( 2 50 f r agm en t s ) , a nd f r om l e ve l4 ( 1f r agmen t ) , l e ve l 5( 5f r agm en t s ) , l e ve l 6( 54 f r agm en t s )a nd

T he m a jo r i ty o ft h eb ov id b one s c om e s f r om p i t so rl a rge o pen a r ea s ( t ab le 7 . 8 ) . T h e se t wo t ype s o fc on tex t s s how as im i la r e l emen t d i s t r ibu t ion i ng ene ra l ( f ig . 7 . 3 ) . Howeve r , t h e c r an ia l b on es ( c ran ium , m ax i l la a nd c ornuu s ) a r eb e t t e rr ep re sen t ed i n p i t s wh i le t h e m and ibu lae a nd t h e t e e th a r e a bsen t o r l e s s r e p re sen ted .T h i sm igh ti n d ica te ab e t te rp re serva t ion o ft h e

f r om l e ve l 7( 4f r agm en t s ) .

1 05

CH IARA CAVALLO

c r an ia l e l em en t s , i np i t s w h i le i na n o pen a r ea t h ey a r e s ub jec t

t h e o ccupa t ion o f t h e s i te . T he se f ou r s pec ie s t o ge the r a r e h i gh ly r e p r e sen t ed i nt h e s amp le , a moun t ing t o mo re t h an 9 0% o ft h e i d en t if i ed r em a in s . T h e i mpo r tan ce o fd om e s t i c s pec ie s i n c r ea se s s l igh t ly t h rough t im e f r om 9 4 .8% i nt h e p re -Ha laf p ha se t o 9 6 .6% i n t h e E a r ly H a laf p h a se , w i th a mode ra te

t o mo r e f r agm en t a t ion , w i th c on sequen t ly a m o r e d i ff i cu l t i d en t if ica t ion . Wh i le f o re l imb b one s a r e f ound m o r e i no pen a r ea s , p ha lange s a nd d i s ta l h i nd l imb b on e s a r e s l i gh t ly b e t t e r r e p re sen t ed i n p i t s . T h i s , t o ge the r w i th t h e h i ghe r r e p re sen ta t ion o fc r an ia l e l em en t sm igh ti n d ica te t h a tt h ef i l l ing o f p i t s c on s i s ted m a in ly o f d i sca rd ed r e f u se o f b u t ch e r ing a c t iv i t ie s .

r educ t ion t o 9 2 .5% i n t h e i n te rm ed ia te T ran s i t iona l p ha se ( t ab le 6 . 2 ) . T h e r ef o r e , a pa r t f r om t h e se s m a l l f l uc tua t ion s , t h e h u sband ry r em a in s t h u s t h e b a s i s o f t h e a n ima l e conomy a t S ab iA byad .

C ompa red t ot h ep rev iou st wo s pec ie st h e s u id r em a in ss how a r e la t ive ly b e t te r c oncen t ra t ion i nt h e f i l l o fr oom s w i th in t h e i n ter n a l c on tex t s ( t ab le 7 . 6 ) . I n p a r t icu la r t h i s c on cer n s t h e r oom s o ft h e mu l t i -chambe r ed b u i ld ing o fl e ve l 32,i nw h ich t h e i n c idence o fs u id r ema in s i ss l igh t ly h i ghe r t h an t h a t f r om t h e v i c in i ty o ft h es t ru c tu re s( " ou t s ide " )o ft h es am el e ve 1 3.T he d i s tr ibu t ion o f t h e s ke le ta l r ema in s w i th in e a ch c on t ex t i s r e po r ted i nt a b le 7 . 9 . A l though t h e a moun t o fb on e s i ss m a l l t h e re s e em t ob en oi mpo r tan td i f f e r en ce sb e tw een t h ed i f f e ren t c on tex t s . T he o n ly d i f f e rence s m igh t b e r e p r e sen t ed b y t h e l owe r f r equen cy o f t e e th i n p i t s i n d ica t ing a ga in l e s s f r agm en ta t ion o rb e t te rp re se rva t ion o fs u id b on e s i nt h i s k i nd o fc on tex ta sh a sa l ready b een o b se rv ed f o rt h eo t h e rs p ec ie s . F rom w ha t i ss a id a bove , i ts e em s t h a tt h e r e a r e n o s i gn if i can t d i f f e rence s i nt h e s ke le t a l r e p re sen ta t ion a nd i nt h e s i z e o ft h e b one s b e tw een i n ter n a l a nd e x t e rn a l c on t ext s . S l igh t ly b e t te r p r e serva t ion s e em s ,h oweve r ,t ob ep r e sen ti nt h em a t e r ia lf r om t h e p i t s , w h ich w a s p robab ly d i sca rded i no ne a c t ion a nd h a s b een s ub jec t ed l e s s t os c a t t e r ing a nd t r amp l ing . T h e v a r ia t ion o f s pec ie s f r equency o b served b e tw een i n te rn a l a nd e x t er n a l c on tex t s w i th in t h e v a r iou s l e ve l s s e em st ob ec l o se rr e la ted t o t h er ep re sen ta t ion o ft h ek ind o fc on t ex t sw i th in e a ch l e ve lt h an t o ad i f f e r en t ia l p re se rva t ion o ft h e m a t e r ia l . F o r t h i s r e a son a nd f o r t h e p rob lem o f s amp le s i z e i th a s b een p r ef e r red t o e va lua te t h e f a una l m a te r ia l a cco rd ing t o p ha se s a nd n o t t o l e ve l s , i n o rde r t o a ch ieve a m o r e r e l iab le p a t t er n a nd o ve rcom et h ev a r ia t ion sw i th in t h es i ng le l e ve l s .

7 . 2 An ima lh u sbandry T h e a na ly s i s o f t h e f a una l r ema in s s how s t h a t a n ima l e xp lo i ta t ion a t S ab i Abyad w a s b a sed o n f o u r d om e s t ic a n ima l s -s h eep , g oa t , c a t t le a nd p i g s -s i nce t h e b eg inn ing o f

2F ro

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t h ef i l lo ft h er oom so ft h e mu l t i -chambe r ed

b u i ld ing o fl e ve l3 Ac om e 8 1 f r agm en t s ;t h er e s tw a s d i s t r ibu ted b e tw een l e ve l 1( 4f r agm en t s ) ,l e ve l 4( 2 f r agm en t s ) , l e ve l 6( 9f r agm en t s ) ,e i th e rl e ve l 2o r3 A( 2 f r agm en t s ) . 3M a i r i . lyf r om

p r e -Ha laf T ran s i t iona l E a r ly H a laf n umber o f f r agmen t s O v i s /Cap r a B o s S u s

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7 8 .2 1 7 .2 4 . 6

T ab le 7 . 10 .R e la t ive f r equency o ft h em a jo rd om e s t ic s pec ie s

T h e e mpha s i s o ft h e a n ima l h u sband ry i s mo s t ly o no v icap r id l i ve s tock w ho se r ema in s a ccoun t f o r m o re t h an 7 0% o f t h e d om e s t ic s p ec ie s ( t ab le 7 . 10 ) . T h e i r i mpor tan ce , h ow eve r , s e em s t oh ave b een s om ewha t r edu ced i nt h e c ou r se o ft im e e spec ia l ly a f t e r t h e p re -Ha laf p ha se . T h e i mpor tance o fc a t t le , t h e s e cond m a in d om e s t ic a n ima l , d ec r ea sed a s w e l l , b u t n o t b ef o re t h e E a r ly H a laf p ha se , wh i l e i t s i mpo r tan ce r ema in s e s sen t ia l ly t h e s am e i n t h e p rev iou s t wo p ha se s . P ig s , i n c on t ra s t , i n c rea se i n i mpo r tan ce c on s t an t ly t h rough a l l t h e s epa ra t ep h a se sw i th t h e i rr ema in so u tnumbe r ing t ho se o fc a t t le i nt h eE a r ly H a laf p ha se . T he e xp lo i t a t ion a nd t h e r o le o f t h e m a in d om e s t ic s pec ie s s how i mpo r tan tc hange s i nt h e c ou r se o ft h eo ccupa t ion o ft h e s i te . V a r iou s a spec t s o f t h e z ooa r chaeo log ica l e v idence i n d ica te ap roce s s o ft r an sf o rma t ion t owa rd s amo r e c on t ro l led a nd e s tab l i sh ed h u sband ry f o ra l lf ou rs pec ie s . E v idence h a s b een p re sen t ed t h a t t h e h u sband ry o fs heep a nd g oa t s h if t ed f r om ag ene ra l ized p a t t er no fm ea t e xp lo i ta t ion t o t h e d eve lopm en t o f s e conda ry p roduc t e xp lo i ta t ion , t o ge the r w i th a n i n c r ea se i n g oa t s a nd a d eve lopm en t o f p o s s ib le p a s to ra l i sm i n t h e l a s t p ha se o f o ccupa t ion . T he mo r ta l i ty p a t t er n o f t h e se a n ima l s i n t h e p r e -Ha laf p ha se s how s a c oncen t ra t ion o fi n d iv idua l ss l augh te r ed i nt h e i rf i r s t3 -4 y ea r s , f o l low ed b y ag r adua l d ec l ine i nt h e n umbe r o fo lde ra n ima l s , p robab ly k ep t f o r r e p roduc t ion p u rpo se s , i n d ica t ing ap a t ter n

l e ve l3 B ( 2 1 f r agm en t s )a nd l e ve l3 A( 26

f r agm en t s ) wh i le 9f r agm en t sc ou ld b ea t t r ibu t ed e i th e rt o l e ve l s3 Ao r3 B ;t h er e s tc om e sf r om o u t s ide t h et h o lo so fl e ve l 4( 12 f r agm en t s ) ,f r om e i th e rl e ve l s 5o r 6( 2f r agm en t s ) ,a nd f r om e i th e rl e ve l 1o r3 A( 2f r agm en t s ) .

o f e xp lo i t a t ion o f t h e o v icap r id s m a in ly f o r t h e i r m ea t . T h i s

1 06

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE p a t t er nc hanged i nt h e s ub sequ en tT r an s i t iona lp ha se , i nw h ich ac l ea r i n c r ea se o f a n im a l s s l augh t e r ed a t ay oung a ge b e tw een 1 2 y ea r s o ld ,c omb in ed w i th ac on cen t ra t ion o fo l d a n im a l s b e tween 4 a nd 6 y ea r s , i n d i ca t e s as h if t t owa rd s a n e xp lo i t a t ion o ft h e se a n ima l s ( o r a tl e a s tp a r t o ft h em , n am e ly g oa t s ) f o r t h e i r m i lk . A l though t h e g en e ra l s i ze o f t h e o v icap r id sd oe sn o tp r e sen tn o t iceab le c h ange si nt h ec ou r se o f t im e , t h e s i ze d i s t r ibu t ion a nd t h e s i z e i n d ex a na ly s i s o f s e lec ted f o r e l imb e l em en t s s how v a r ia t ion s t ow a rd s ab imoda l

Mea t p roduc t ion s e em s t o h ave b een t h e m a jo r g oa l i n t h e a n im a l h u sband ry a nd c ommon t o a l l t h e m a in d om e s t ic s p ec ie s . H ow eve r ,t h e i rr o le a nd r e la t ive i mpor tance v a r ie sa nd c hanged t h rough t im e . I nt e rm so fm ea ts upp ly i ts e em st h a tt h e e xp lo i ta t ion o fs h eep , g oa t a nd c a t t le f o r t h i s s pec ia l p u rpo se d im in i sh ed i nt h e c ou r se o ft im e a nd w a s t a k en o ve rb yp i g si n t h e E a r ly H a laf p ha se . I n o rde r t o e s tab l i sh t h e r e la t ive i mpo r tance o ft h e d om e s t ic s p ec ie s w i th r ega rd t ot h e i r m ea t

d i s t r ibu t ion o fs h eep s pec im en s w i th ac on cen t ra t ion o n l a rg e s i ze i n d iv idua l s , a nd t owa rd s ar e p re s en t a t ion o fo n ly s ma l le r g oa t i n d iv idua l s . T he se v a r ia t ion s m igh t t h e r ef o re a l so b e a r e f lec t ion o f ac hange i nu se , s uch a sm o r ee xp lo i ta t ion o fm i lk ( f i r s t s h eep a nd t h en g oa t , o rt h e o ppo s i t e ) , w h ich w ou ld h ave c hanged t h e g row th r a te . T he m i lk e xp lo i ta t ion w ou ld b e

s upp ly , t h e r a t io b e tw een t h e t h r ee s pec ie s m u l t ip l ied b y t h e m ean c a r ca s s w e igh t o f d r e s sed c a rca s s w e igh t o f 2 5 k g h a s b een o v icap r id s ( Dah l a nd H jo r t , 1 976 : 2 00 -203 ) , a nd 7 0k gf o rp i g s( F lann e ry 1 969 ,t a b le 2 ) .

c oncen t r a ted o n g oa t s , w h i le s h eep r em a in ed t h e b a s i s o ft h e m ea t e xp lo i ta t ion . T h i s w ou ld b e c onf i rm ed b yt h e i n c rea se i n

RAT IO :

0 /C

:B o s

:S u s

t h e n umbe r o fg oa t s a tt h e e xpen se o fs h eep i nt h e f o l low ing E a r ly H a laf p ha se , a s s hown f r om t h e v a r ia t ion s o ft h e r a t io

E a r ly H a laf T ran s i t iona l p r e -Ha laf

4 . 6 : 0 . 6 9 . 6 : 2 . 2 1 7 .0 : 3 . 7

: 1 : 1 : 1

b e tw een t h e t wo s pec ie s . I n a dd i t ion , t h e E a r ly H a laf p ha se s how s a ga in a d i f f e ren t p a t t er n o f m o r ta l i ty w i th a c oncen t r a t ion o fa n ima l s k i l led i nf ew a g e c l a s se s , n am e ly i n t h e f i r s t a nd s e cond y ea r a nd t h en i nt h e i r t h i rd t of ou r y ea r . T h i s s e l ec t ive c u l l ing c omb ined w i th a n a ppa r en t r e tu rn t oa m ea t -o r i en t ed s t ra tegy w ou ld s ugg e s t t h a t o n ly p a r t o f t h e o r ig in a l h e rd s , i . e . t h e p a r t e xp lo i t ed a nd e a ten a tt h e s i t e , i s r e p re s en t ed i nt h e f a una l a s semb lag e o fS ab i A byad w h i le t h e r e s t o f t h e h e rd s h ave b een b rough t f a r f r om t h e d i r ec t s u r round ing s o f t h e s i te , a t l e a s t f o r p a r t o f t h e y ea r . C a t t le h u sband ry a l so s how s c h ange s t ow a rd s am o r e s e lec t ive b r eed ing , c on cen t ra ted o n s m a l le r a nd r e la t iv e ly y oung i n d iv idua l s . I n t h e c ou r se o f t h e o ccupa t ion o f S ab i

( t ab le 7 . 11) w a s e a ch s p ec ie s . A a s sum ed f o r t h e 2 50 k g f o r c a t t le

T ab le 7 . 11 . R a t io b e tween o v icap r id s ,b ov id sa nd s u id s , b a sed o nf r equency o ft h ep r ev iou st a b le ( t ab le 7 . 10 ) .

F igu r e 7 . 4 c l ea r ly s how s t h e p rom in en t p o s i t ion o f c a t t le e spec ia l ly i nt h e p r e -Ha laf a nd T ran s i t iona l p ha se , i nw h ich t h ey w ou ld h ave f u rn i sh ed a lmo s t t wo th i rd s o ft h e c a lo r if i c n eed s . I n a dd i t ion t h e i n c r ea s ing i mpor tan ce o fp ig s a sm ea t p roduce r s i nt h e E a r ly H a laf p ha se b ecom e s e v iden t . H ow eve r , a sp i g s a r e u sua l ly k i l led r a th e r y oung , t h e p ropor t ion o fp i g m ea t s upp ly i nr e la t ion t ot h e o t h e r d om e s t i c s p ec ie s s hou ld p robab ly b e r e du ced . T he n umbe r o fy oung p i g s k i l led a tl e s s t h an o n e y ea ro l da l so v a r ie s i nt h ec ou r se o fo ccupa t ion o ft h e

A byad t h e r e i sa n m a rked d ec r ea se o ft h e b ov id p opu la t ion s i z e . T h e l a rge s i ze o ft h e b ov id s f r om t h e p r e -Ha laf p ha se , p a r t ia l ly , c ompa rab le t ot h a t o fw i ld a u roch s , m igh t s ugge s t a f i r s t a t t emp t a td om e s t ica t ion o r af i r s t s t age i nd om e s t ica t ion . T h e p roce s s o f d om e s t i ca t ion w ou ld h ave b een f u r th e r d eve loped i nt h e l a te r T ran s i t ion a l p h a s e , i nw h ich b o th l a rge a nd s m a l l i n d iv idua l s a r e p re sen t , a nd f i na l ly i nt h e d ef in i t e ly s m a l le r a n ima l s i nt h e E a r ly H a laf p h a se . T h e mor ta l i ty d a ta a r e a l so c on s i s ten t w i th t h i s p roce s s o ft r an sf o rma t ion . T h ey s how ac on s tan t i n c rea se o fy oung a n ima l s c omb ined w i th a d ec r ea se i na du l ta n ima l st h roughou tt h es e pa ra te p ha se s .F rom t h e se d a ta , c omb ined w i th t h e c om p le t e a b sen ce o f o l d i n d iv idua l s , i tc ou ld b e c onc luded t h a t c a t t le w e r e m a in ly e xp lo i t ed f o rt h e i rm ea t . T h er edu c t ion o ft h es i ze o ft h eb ov id p opu la t ion c ou ld t h e ref o r e h ave b een t h er e su l t o fs e lec t ion o f r e la t ive ly y ounge ra n im a l s f o rm ea tp u rpo se s . P ig s d o n o t s how a ny mod if ica t ion s s u ch a ss i ze r educ t ion o r r e levan t c hange s i n s l augh te r ing p a t t e rn s , a s t h e p r ev iou s s p ec ie s d o . H oweve r , t h e i r i mpo r tan ce c on s tan t ly i n c rea se s i n t h e c ou r se o ft h e o ccupa t ion o ft h e s i t e . T h ep e rcen tage o fp i g r ema in s i sa lmo s t d oub led i n e ach p h a se ( t ab le 7 . 10 ) . P ig s w e re k i l led q u i t e y oung i na l l p ha se s , b u t w i th in t h i s g ene ra l p a t ter n ac on s tan ti n c rea se o fv e ry y oung a n im a l s w a s p r e sen t . P ig s f o rm a s i gn if ican t p a r t o f t h e a n im a l h u sbandry a s a n i n c rea s ing ly i mpor tan ts ou rce o fm ea t .

1 07

s i t e . C ompa red t o t h e p r e -Ha laf p ha se ( 16% ) , t h e i r n umbe r d oub le s i n t h e T ran s i t iona l p ha se ( 40% ) , w h i l e i tr ema in s r a th e r c on s tan t i nt h e E a r ly H a laf p ha se ( 37% ) . T h e m and ib le w ea rp a t ter ni n d ica t e s a na u tumna l k i l l ing w h en p i g sr e ach t h e p robab le a ge o f 6 9 mon th s . T h i s w ou ld p r e sum e al ow e r c a r ca s s w e igh t t h an i n af u l ly a du l t a n ima l . I n l a te -ma tu r ing b r eed s w i th a l ow p l ane o fn u t r i t ion , t h e l i f e w e igh t o fp i g s w ou ld r a nge b e tw een 4 5 -70 k g w i th ad r e s s ing p e rcen tage o f 7 0 -75% ( c o r re spond ing t oc a . 3-51 k g ) ( Goodw in 1 973 : 3 9 4 1) . C on sequen t ly t h e f i gu r e o f c a . 4 2 k g ( a ve rage d r e s s ing p e r cen t age ) i n s tead o f7 0k gw ou ld b e mo re a pp rop r ia t e f o rt h e T ran s i t ion a l a nd E a r ly H a laf p ha se . H oweve r , t h e i n c rea se o f t h e i mpor tance o fp i g s a s as ou r ce o fm ea t i nt h e l a s t p ha se r ema in se v iden t . T he r o le o ft h e o v icap r id s s e em s t oh ave b een c on s tan t i nt h e f i r s tt wo p ha se s a nd i n c rea sed i nt h e l a s t , a tt h e e xpen se o ft h e b ov id s . T h e i mpo r tan ce o ft h e a n im a l s a s ad i r ec t s ou rce o f f o od p rocu rem en th a s a l ready b een p o in ted o u tb yA l ck e rman s ( 1 993 : 2 34 -239 ) . H e s ugg e s t ed t h a tc e rea lc u l t iva t ion b a sed o n d ry f a rm ing w a s n o t a b le t of u lf i l t h e f ood r equ i r em en t s o ft h e S ab i A byad p opu la t ion . C e rea l c u l t iva t ion w ou ld h ave p rov ided a bou t h a lf t o t h ree q ua r t e r s o f t h e a nnua l c a lo r if i c d em and s o f as ma l l sca le s e t t lem en t o f n o t mo r e t h an f i ve

CH IARA CAVALLO l im i ted , a nd t h a t f i r ewood c o l lec ted f r om t h e r i ve r in e f o re s t

h ou seho ld s o f 6 10 p e r son s e ach . A kk e rm an s c a lcu la t ed t h a t t h e c a lo r if i c c on t r ibu t ion o f o v icap r id s w ou ld h ave s a t i sf i ed o n ly 1 3% o ft h e n ece s sa ry y i e ld a nd t h a tc a t t le a nd p i g sw ou ld h ave b een a b e t te r i n ve s tm en t . T h e f a una l d a ta c onf i rm t h i s

m ay h ave b een t h em o s tc ommon s ou rce o ff u e l( Van Z e i s ta nd Wa te rbo lk . -van R oo i jen 1 996 : 5 40 -541) .

h ypo the s i s . H ow eve r , a cco rd ing t o t h e z ooa rch aeo log ica l e v iden ce t h e m ea t s upp ly w ou ld h ave b een f u rn i sh ed m o r e c on s i s t en t ly b yc a t t le t h an b yo v icap r id s . A kke rm an ss ugge s t ed t h a t am ea t -o r ien ta ted a n im a l h u sband ry a l on ew ou ld n o th ave b een e nough a nd t h a t at wof o ld s t ra tegy w ou ld h ave o ccu r r ed , i . e . a m ea t -and -m i lk e xp lo i ta t ion . T he r e su l t s o f z ooa r chaeo log ica l a na ly s i s i n d ica t e t h a tt h i s o ccu r r ed f r om t h e T ran s i t iona l p ha se o nwa rd s f o r t h e o v icap r id s . T he m o r t a l i ty d a ta o ft h eo v icap r id s , s how ing a ni n c rea se o fa n im a l sk i l led a t ay oung a ge , r e vea l as h if t t owa rd s m i lk p rodu c t ion i n t h e T ran s i t iona l p ha se . A m i lk o r m ea t -and -m i lk o r ien ta t ed

7 . 3 Hun t ing H un t ing a lway sp l ayed am ino rr o le i nt h e a n im a l e conomy o f S ab i A byad . T h e p e rcen tage o f w i ld s pe c i e s i sr a th e r l ow , a moun t ing t o l e s s t h an 1 0% o f t h e i d en t if i ed s p ec ie s . T h e p e r cen tage s f o r t h e s epa ra t e s pec ie s i ss l igh t ly d i f f e r en t f r om t h e p r ev iou s p r e l im ina ry a ccoun t ( Cava l lo 1 996 ) . When a l a rge rs amp le w a s a na lyzed , t h e s t eady d ec l in eo fw i ld s p ec ie s , a s p r ev iou s ly r e po r ted ( Cava l lo 1 996 ) , c ou ld n o l o nge r b e m a in ta ined . I na dd i t ion t h e d i f f e r ence s c an b ee xp la in ed b yt h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f m o re s pec im en s a t t r ibu t ed t o w i ld s pec ie s a f te r amo re d ef in ed m e t r ica la na ly s i s . T h e l a s tr e su l t s i n d ica t e as l igh t i n c r ea se o f w i ld s pec ie s i n t h e T ran s i t ion a l p ha se , f o l low ed b y ac l ea rd rop i nt h eE a r ly H a laf p ha se ( f ig . 7 . 5 ) .

s t ra t egy i nc a se o fc a t t le c ou ld n o tb ea t te s t ed . T h er e d i .z t ion i n s i ze m igh tp o in t t o ap o s s ib le m a jo r r e p re sen ta t ion o fi em a le s b u tm o r ta l i ty d a ta s how t h a tt h ey w e re m a in ly k ep tn o tb eyond t h e i r 3 rd -4 th y ea r s , w h ich r e p r e sen t s t h e o p t ima l c u l l ing s t age i nt e rm s o fm ea t a nd f a t r e tur n f o r l a t e -b r eed ing c a t t le ( Van W i jngaa rden -Bakk e r 1 980 ) . T he r e du c t ion i nt h e i mpo r tance o fc a t t le i nt h eH a laf p ha se w ou ld t h e r ef o re b eb e t t e r, : x p la in ed i nt e rm s o fc o s t a nd l a bou r t h an b y ac hange i ne xp lo i t a t ion s t ra t egy , o rp o s s ib le c ompe t i t ion w i th c r op c u l t iva t ion i nt e rm s o f l a nd d emand . T he i mpo r tan t a spec t o f t h e l a s p h a se o f o ccupa t ion o fS ab iA byad i st h a tt h e o v icap r id h u s t, i n c i ry m ay f o r al a rge p a r t h ave t a ken p l ace a way f r om t h e s . a nd t h a t w i th in t h e S ab i A byad f auna l s amp le o n ly t h e c on . um ed p a r t

T he w i ld s pec ie ss p ec t rum i sd om ina t ed b yg az e l le a nd o n age r , b u t aw ide r a nge o f o th e r m ino r s pec ie s i sp r e sen t ( f ig . 7 . 8 , t a b le 6 . 2 ) . I n t e r e s t ing ly , t h eh i ghe s tp e r cen t age o fw i ld s pec ie s o f t h e T ran s i t iona l p ha se a l so s how s t h e w ide s t r a nge o f s p ec ie s . I n t h i s p ha se w e a l so f i nd t h e a ppea ran ce o f al a rge n umbe ro fb i rd s . I ti si n te re s t ing t oc o r re la t et h i sr e su l tw i th t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v id ence . D u r ing t h e T ran s i t iona l p h a se an ew t y pe o f s m a l l a nd d e l ica te a r rowh ead a ppea r s . D u e t o i t s s m a l le r s i ze i th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t t h i s k i nd o fa r rowhead

o ft h e h e rd i sr ep r e sen t ed . T h i s v i ew i ss uppor ted I tvag en e r a l r e du c t ion i nt h e n umbe r o fo v icap r id r em a in s ( t ab 1 , 2 7 . 10 ) a nd b ya na ppa ren t i n c rea se o ft h e i ri mpo r tan ce a sm ea tp rodu ce r s ( f ig . 7 . 4 ) . T h ec oncen t ra t ion o fE a r ly H a laf o v icapnd sk i l led i n t h e i r 3 rd -4 th y ea ra ge c l a s s , w h i ch r e p re sen t st h eb e s tm om en t t o k i l l t h e se a n ima l f o r m ea t p u rpo se s , a l so s uppo r t t h i s i n t e rp r e ta t ion .

w a s e s pec ia l ly u sed f o rh un t ing b i rd s , p o s s ib ly i nc omb ina t ion w i th t h eu se o fp o i son ( Cope land 1 996 : 3 15 ) .

I n c onc lu s ion , a n ima l h u sband ry r e p re sen t ed a n i mpo r tan t c omp lem en ta ry a spec t o f t h e s ub s i s ten ce e conomy o f S ab i A byad b a sed o n c e rea l p roduc t ion . Mod if i ca t ion i n t h e e xp lo i t a t ion o f t h e f ou r s pec ie s o f l i ve s tock o ccu r r ed i nt h e c ou r se o f t im e , i n d ica t ing a p r eva len t t r an sf o rma t ion f r om a g en e r a l ized t o a mo re i n t en s if i ed a nd c on t ro l led a n ima l h u sband ry , b a sed o n m ea t e xp lo i ta t ion i nt h e c a s: . o fp i g a nd c a t t le , a nd o n m ea t -and -m i lk e xp lo i ta t ion i nt h e c a se o fs h eep a nd g oa t , o r a t l e a s t o ne o f t h em . I n c on t ra s t , t h e r e i sn o e v id en ce f o rt h e e xp lo i ta t ion o fo v icap r id s f o r w oo l o rf o r t l i c u t i l iza t ion o fc a t t le f o rp lough ing , n e i th e r i nt h e f o rm o fd i r ec t o s t eo log ica le v iden ce s uch a sm od if i ca t ion o ft h em e t apod ia l s , a s s h ape o r p a tho log ica l a l t e ra t ion s , n o r i n t h e f o rm l f m or t a l i ty p a t ter n s i nd ica t ing t h e p re sence o f o l d a n im . s . Mo r eove r , t h e d ec rea se i nt h e i mpo r tan ce o f c a t t le c on tn t s w i th ap o s s ib le u t i l iza t ion o ft h e se a n ima l s f o rp l ough ing . l ti s n o t e x c luded t h a t t h e l i v ing a n ima l s c ou ld a l so h ave b een i mpo r tan t i n o th e r w ay s , p rov id ing o t he r k i nd s o f p roduc t s s u ch a s d ung , b o th f o r m anu r e a nd f o r f u e l . T h e s c a r ce o ccu r ren ce o fs e ed sf r om p a la tab le p l an t s( g ra s se so rs h rub s )i n t h e b o tan ica l s amp le s f r om S ab i A byad s ugge s t s t h a t t h e p r ac t i ce o f b u rn ing d ung f o r h ea t ing mu s t h ave b een v e ry

1 08

A p a t t er n i n h un t ing s e a son s e em s t o b e p r e sen t . T h e z ooa r chaeo log ica l d a ta a s soc ia ted w i th i n f o rm a t ion t a k en f r om m od er n a n ima l b ehav iou r ia l p a t t e rn s w ou ld s ugge s t t h a t h un t ing o ccu r r ed i ns pec if i cp e r iod s o ft h ey ea r , i . e . i na u tumn a nd /o ri nw in te r .T he c rown h e igh ta nd t h ew ea rp a t te rn so ft h e m and ibu la r t e e th o fg aze l le i nd ica t e ak i l l ing o ft h e se a n im a l s d u r ing O c tobe r a nd F eb rua ry ( f ig . 6 . 48 ) . T h e p r e sen ce o f m a in ly w in t e r s p ec ie s o f b i rd s i s a l so c on s i s t en t w i th t h e i n te rp re ta t ion t h a t e xp lo i ta t ion o fw i ld g am ew a s c on cen t ra ted i nt h i s p a r t o ft h e y ea r . O nage r s m ay a l so h ave b een k i l led i n t h i sp e r iod d u r ing t h e i r move s a l ong t h e i rm ig ra to ry r ou t e . T h e f u s ing d a ta i n d ica te k i l l ing o fy oung a n ima l s ( p robab ly u nde r o n e y ea r o l d ) a nd a du l t a n ima l s , s ugg e s t ing t h a t h un t ing c oncen t ra ted o n h e rd s o f f ema le s a nd y ea r l ing s w ho l i ve s eg rega ted f r om t h e m a le s f o r mo s t o ft h e y ea r . T he p r e sen ce o f o n ly m a le g aze l le h or n co re s m igh t , o n t h e o t h e r h and , s ugge s t ap r ef e r r ed k i l l ing o fo n ly m a le g a ze l le s . T he se d a ta r e ga rd ing t h e t wo s pec ie s i n d ica te t h a t h un t ing p a r t ie s w ou ld t h e ref o r e s e em t oc oncen t ra te o n h e rd s a nd a du l t s r a the r t h an o ni n d iv idua la n ima l s .

7 . 4P roce s s ing o ff ood a nd r aw ma ter ia l A par t f r om t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e a n ima l s f r om S ab i A byad f o r f ood ( m ea t , m a r row a nd m i lk , a nd p robab ly a l so f a t a nd

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE b l ood ) , t h e r e i se v idence f o r t h e u t i l iza t ion o ft h e a n im a l s f o r t h e i r h i de s a nd a s s ou r ce o f r aw m a te r ia l f o r b one m anuf a c tu r ing . W i th in f ood p roce s s ing f o u r p ha se s c an b e d i s t ingu i sh ed : k i l l ing , b u tche r ing , c ook ing a nd e a t ing , t ow h ich c on se rva t ion m ay b ea dded . T he se s e pa ra t ep h a se so ff o od p roce s s ing l e ave d i f f e r en t k ind s o f f a una l r e f u se , t h a t c an s om e t im e s b e r e cogn ized w i th in t h ef a una lm a te r ia l .A cco rd ing t ot h e s p ec ie s ( dom e s t ic o rw i ld )k i l l ing c ou ld h ave b een c a r r ied o u te i th e ra t t h es i t eo ra way f r om i t .A ss uppor t ed b yt h ee v iden ce o fa l t h e p a r t so ft h ec a rca s sp r e sen t ,t h ed om e s t ic s pec ie sw e re k i l led a t t h e s i t e . T he E a r ly H a laf v i l lage o f S ab i A byad w a s c ha ra c te r ized b y f ew a nd s c a t t e r ed p e rmanen t s t ruc tu r e s , r e p re sen t ing o ne o r t wo e x t end ed h ou se c omp lexe s p e r b u i ld ing p ha se , s epa ra t ed b y o pen a r ea s ( A l ck e rman s 1 993 : 1 64 ) . I n t h e se o pen a r ea s k i l l ing o f d om e s t ic a n ima l s w a s p r e sum ab ly c a r r ied o u t . K i l l ing o fw i ld a n im a l s o ccu r red a way f r om t h es i t e . D epend ing o nt h ed i s tan ce o ft h ep l ace o fk i l l ing , a n im a l w e igh t a nd n umbe r o fp eop le i n vo lved i nt h e h un t ing p a r ty , t h e c a rca s s c ou ld h ave b een b rough t t o t h e s i t e c omp le t e ly o r i np a r t . A cco rd ing t ot h i s i ts e em s l i k e ly t h a t g aze l l e w a s b rough t i nc omp le t e ly a nd o nage r o n ly p a r t ia l ly . H ow eve r , t h e re i sn o s t rong e v iden ce f o rt h i s d i f f e rence a nd i t i ss ugge s t ed t h a t t h e a l p a r t s o ft h e c a r ca s se s o f t h e se t wo a n im a l sw e re t r an spo r t ed t ot h es i t e .T he l e s s c omp le te s k e le ta l r e p re sen t a t ion o ft h e o n age r a nd g aze l le r ema in s c ompa r ed t o t h a t o fo v icap r id s , c a t t le a nd p i g s m igh tb e r e la ted mo r e t ot h e s amp l e s i ze a nd i d en t if i ca t ion b i a st h an t o as e lec t ion o fp i ece s b rough tt ot h es i te . B u tch e r ing a c t iv i t ie s a r e w e l l a t t e s t ed b y t h e t r ace s l e f t o n t h e b one s u r f ace s . No d i f f e r en ce s i n t h e b u t che r ing t e chn iqu e s w e re n o t ed b e tween t h el a rge s ized s p ec ie sa nd t h es m a l l s ized m amma l s . L i th ic t o o l s s u ch a s k n ive s , s c rape r s a s w e l l a s u n r e touch ed f l ake sa nd b l ade sc ou ld h ave b een u sed f o rc u t t ing a nd m ea t r emov ing . T he r a r e p r e sen ce o fh eavy d u ty t o o l s , s uch a s c hoppe r s , a x e s , r oughou t s a nd h amm e r s ton e s i s c on s i s t en tw i th t h es c a r ce o ccu r r en ce o fc hopm a rk s .T he se a r e

a s t r c a lc c o s ta f em h um m c mp m t p h i P h2 r ad s c ap r i b t i b t u lna

B o s 2

O v i s /Cap ra 1

S u s

G aze

r e la ted t o t h o se s k e le ta l p a r t s w ho se r emov ing o r b r eakage w ou ld h ave r e qu i r ed a h eavy i mpa c t m o s t e xc lu s ive ly . C hopm a rk s a r e t h u sp r e sen to nh o rn co r e s a nd o n p ha lange s o f b ov id s a nd e qu id s . I ti s mo s t l i ke ly t h a th eavy d u ty t o o l s w e r e p r in c ipa l ly u s ed f o r b r eak ing t h e s haf t o ft h e l o ng b on e s , b u t d ue t ot h e r e cen t f r agm en t a t ion o ft h e m a t e r ia l t h i s t e chn ique c ou ld n o tb ew id e ly i n ve s t iga ted . T o t h e b u t ch e r ing p h a se b e long s r e f u se o fn on o r l i t t le m ea t b ea r ing s k e le ta l p o r t ion s , s u ch a sd i s ta l e x t r em i t ie s a nd s ku l l s . F rom t h e a na ly s i s o ft h e s i ng le s pec ie s i te m e rged t h a t i nt h e l a te r l e ve l s ah i ghe r f r equency o f d i s ta l l imb s , e spec ia l ly p ha lange s , o fo v icap r id s , g aze l le , e qu id s a nd s u id s w a sp r e sen t a s w e l l a s m o r e s ku l l e l em en t s o f b ov id s a nd e qu id s . T h i s c ou ld b e c on s id e r ed a se v idence o fb u t che r ing r e f u se . I nt h i s s en se i ti sc on s i s t en t w i th t h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence o f a s h if t ing o f t h e v i l lage n or thwa rd s a nd t r an sf o rma t ion o f t h e z one , f r om w h ich t h e f a una lm a te r ia lh a sb een a na lyzed , i n to a mo r e o pen a r ea . T h e c o r r e la t ion o f ah i ghe r r e p re sen ta t ion o f c r an ia l b on e s o f b ov id s f r om p i t c on tex t s ( c f . s e c t ion 7 . 1) c onf i rm st h eu s eo fl a rge o pen a r ea s a sb u tch e r ing a r ea s a nd o f t h e p i t s a sb u t ch e r ing r e f u se c on tex t s a f t e rt h e i rp r ima ry u s e a s s ou r ce so fc l ay h ad c om et oa ne nd ( Ve rhoeven ,p e r s . c omm . ) . F ood p r epa ra t ion c an b e d one i n d i f f e r en t w ay s : c ook ing i n v e s se l so ri na s h ,r o a s t ing , c ook ing i nl e a the rb ag so ri ni t so wn s k in o r s u r rounded b y h o t s t one s e t c . , b u t n o c on c lu s ive e v iden ce o n t h e b on e s h a s b een f ound a s t ot h e u se o ft h e se t e chn ique s . T he r e cen t f r agm en ta t ion o ft h e b one s h ampe red t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o ft h e o r ig ina l f r agm en ta t ion p a t t e rn . Mo s t o f t h e t r a ce s l e f t o n t h e b one s a r e r e la ted t o ap roce s s o f d i sa r t icu la t ion . T h e r a the r l ow o ccu r rence o f c u tma rk s i n g en e ra l a nd e s pec ia l ly a l ong t h e d i aphy se s s ugge s t s t h a t m ea t w a sr emoved a f t e rt h ej o in tw a sc ooked o rb o i led . I nd ica t ion o f p o s s ib le r o a s t ing i sp r e sen ted b y b on e s p a r t ia l ly b u rn t a tt h e j o in tl e ve l . Mo s to ft h e t r ace s o fp a r t ia lb u rn ing w e re f ound o n s m a l l a nd m ed ium m amma l b one s , af ew o n b ov id o ne s a nd o n ly o ne o n ab i rd b on e( t ab le 7 . 12 ) .

LM

MM

V u lpe s

Ana s

1 2

1 2 1 2

2 2 1 3 1 4 2 1 1 3

1

3

1

1 1 1

1

T ab le 7 . 12 B one sw i th t r a ce so fp a r t ia lb u rn ing a sp o s s ib le e v iden ce o fr o a s t ing

1 09

CH IARA CAVALLO

F ood p repa ra t ion a nd e a t ing a r e t wo c l o se ly r e la ted p ha se s a s f a r a s b on e r e f u se i sc oncer n ed . T h ey a r e b o th r e la ted t ot h e p a r t s o ft h e c a r ca s s t h a t y i e ld t h e m o s t m ea t . T h e se p a r t s a r e t h e u ppe r l imb s ( s capu la , h um e ru s , f emu r a nd t i b ia ) a nd t h e n eck a nd t h o rax ( v e r t eb rae a nd r i b s ) . T h e b on e s f r om t h e se p a r t s a r e r a the r f r equen t i n t h e s amp le b u t n o s pec ia l c oncen t ra t ion w a s o b se rved . N o e v id en ce o f m ea t c on se rva t ion , e i the r s moked , d r ied o r s a l t ed c ou ld b e a s ce r ta in ed f r om t h ef auna lm a t e r ia l .

h ea ta nd a r ee x t r em e ly d ependen to nh um id i ty . T he m o s t p l au s ib le g r az ing g r ound s w e re t h o se a r ound t h e v i l lage i nt h e f l ood p l a in . T h e o r ig in a ln a tu ra lv ege ta t ion i nt h e B a l ikh v a l ley h a s b een r em a rkab ly r e duced a nd t h ep reh i s tor ic l a nd scape f e a tu re s a r e a lmo s t c omp le te ly u nknown ( s ee c hap t e r 3 ) . T h e m oder ns i tua t ion , h ow eve r , s how s as e lec t ion i np a s tu re a r ea s i nt h e f l ood p l a in ( Bo t tem a 1 984 ) ( f ig . 7 . 7 ) . T he m o i s t e r a r ea s s u ch a s m a r sh e s a nd w e t m eadow s o n s ed im en t -f i l led c u t -of fm eande r s a r e m a in ly g r azed b y c a t t le . H e r e R umex , J uncu s a nd C ynodon d ac ty lon g row . S h eep a nd g oa t s g r aze o n h i ghe r e l eva t ed a r ea s , s u ch a s s l ope s o f t e l l s w he re m o r e e r o s ion o ccu r s , c ove r ed b y d en se s h rub s o f A t r ip lex l e ucoc lada t o ge th e r w i th t h e l e s s c ommon P eganum h arma la ,A lhag ia nd C u scu ta .

T he re i s c l ea r e v idence f o r t h e u s e o f a n ima l s f o r o t h e r p u rpo se s t h an f ood p roce s s ing . F o r e xamp le e v idence o f s k inn ing i nt h ef o rm o fc u tma rk s o nt h em e t apod ia l sa nd o nt h e p ha lange s o fo v icap r id s a nd e qu id s . I ti sm o s t l i ke ly t h a t t h i s p rac t ice w a s e x t ended t ot h eo t he ra n im a l s a nd t h a tt h e l a ck o f e v idence f o rt h e se s pec ie s mu s tb e a t t r ibu t ed t ot h e s c a rc i ty o f t h e s amp le . B one sw e re a l so u sed f o rt h ep rodu c t ion o fv a r iou s t o o l s . T h e mo s t c ommon t o o l i s t h e a w l o b t a ined f r om m e tapod ia l s o f b o th o v icap r id s a nd g aze l le . S em i m anuf ac tu red s pec im en s a low t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o f t h e p roce s s o f f a b r ica t ion ( c f . s e c t ion 6 . 6 .3 ) . T ib iae o f s m a l l h e rb ivo re s w e re f a sh ion ed i n t h e f o rm o f g ouge s , a f t e r r emov ing t h e p rox ima l p a r t . R ib s o fl a rge m amma l s s u ch a s b ov id s a nd e qu id s w e re u sed a ss pa tu la s . T hey p r e sen t af a i r ly w or n a nd s h iny s u rf ace o n b o th s i de s , a nd o ne o f t h e e x t rem i t ie s( on t h es ho r ts i d e )i sg en e ra l ly r ound ed .

S heep a nd g oa tw e re a l so t h e m o s tp rof i tab le u se r s o ft h e v a s t s t eppe o nt h e h i gh e rp l a t eau sb o rd e r ing t h e v a l ley , w h ich w e r e c ha r ac t e r ized b y ar i ch e r c ove r ing o f p a la tab le g r a s s a nd p e renn ia l s h rub s t h an t oday ( c f . c hap t e r 3 ) . T he i n c rea se o f g oa t s i n t h e l a s t p ha se o f o ccupa t ion m igh t r ef l ec t aw ide r e xp lo i ta t ion o fd r ie r a r ea s a s ac on sequen ce o fe i the rp o s s ib le d eg rada t ion o r e nv i ronm en ta l c hange s . T h i s w ou ld m ean e xp lo i ta t ion o fo t h e r e nv i ronm en t s b e s ide s t h o se c l o se t ot h e v i l lage ,i . e . n o to n ly t h e f l ood p l a in b u ta l so t h es t eppe . T he e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e s t eppe a r ea i sa l so r e p r e sen ted b yt wo t y p ica l s t eppe a n ima l s , t h e o n age ra nd t h e g aze l le , w h ich w e r e t h e m a in h un t ed s p ec ie s ( t ab le 6 . 2 ) . T oday o n age r s l i k e o t he r w i ld e qu id s l i ve i no pen , f l a t a nd r a th e r d ry a r ea s . T h ey c an w i th s tand d rough t a nd h i gh t empe ra tu r e s . T h e k u lan s i nI r an c an t o le ra te t empe ra tu re s u p t o 5 8 ° i nt h e d ay t im e ( G rove s 1 974 ) . A l though t h ey u sua l ly d r ink d a i ly , t h ey c an l i ve w i thou t w a t e r f o r a tl e a s t 2 3 d ay s ( Hep tn e r e ta l . 1 966 ) . T he i r d i e t v a r ie s a c co rd ing t ot h e s e a son w i th in 10 t a xa , a l though t h ey p ref e r f e ed ing o nj u icy l ow -g row ing p l an t s , s u ch a sC ar ex s p . , P oa s p . a nd S t ipa s p . ( Hep tn e r 1 966 : 8 49 ; G rove s 1 974 : 1 02 ) ;

7 . 5E nv ironmen ta le xp lo i ta t ion T he f a una l a s semb lage f r om S ab i A byad i sc ha rac te r ized b y t h e p re sen ce o f s pec ie s w e l l a dap t ed t o a r id a nd s em i -a r id c ond i t ion s a s w e l l a s t ot h e s t rong s e a sona l i ty o ft h e c l ima t e . O v icap r id s , wh ich a ccoun t f o r c a . 7 0% o ft h e f a una l r ema in s f r om t h e s i te , a r e ag ood e xamp le o f e xp lo i ta t ion o f a n ima l s pec ie s i nr e la t ion t ot h e l o ca l e nv i ronm en t . S h eep a nd g oa t s c an w e l l w i th s tand e x t r em e t empe ra tu r e s a nd d r ough t a nd c an e a s i ly e xp lo i t t h e f e ed ing p o s s ib i l i t ie s o ft h e s t eppe a nd o t h e r a r ea s o ft h e v a l ley . S heep d o n o t n eed t od r ink e ve ry d ay a nd c an s t ay w i thou tw a te r f o ru p t of i ve d ay s a sw e l la st o le ra t e a h i gh d eg ree o f s a l in i ty i n t h e w a te r ( S chm id t a nd N ie l sen 1 964 ) . T h e f e ed ing h ab i t s o f t h e t wo s p ec ie s f o rm a g ood c omb ina t ion o fs e lec t ive g r az ing b y s h eep a nd i n d i sc r im ina t e b row s ing b yg oa t s . S tud ie so nw i ld s h eep s how ed t h a tt h ey c an f e ed o n al a rge v a r ie ty o fp l an t s p ec ie s ( u p t o 1 80 ) , s u ch a s P oa s p . a nd C arex s p . a nd o ns a l ty s h rub s ( Anaba s i s ,S a l so la ) ; t h e d i e t o fw i ld g oa t s i sr e s t r ic t ed t o as m a l le rn umbe r( 40 ) o f g ra s sa nd h e rb s pec ie sb u tt h ey c an a l so f e ed o n al a rge v a r ie ty o fs h rub sa nd l e ave s( Hep t r i e re ta l . 1 966 ) .

i n a dd i t ion t ot h e se , t h ey c an a l so f e ed o n s a l ty h e rbaceou s p l an t s ( Anaba s i s a nd S a l so la ) a nd s h rub s s u ch a s A r tem i s ia ( i b id . ) . G aze l le s h ave a s im i la r h ab i ta t . T oday t h e g o i t r ed g aze l le s l i ve o n g r ave l p l a in s a nd l im e s ton e p l a teau s , l i ke t h e o nage r w i th w ho se h e rd s t h ey h ave b een o b se rved t o r un ( G rove s 1 974 ) . T h ey f e ed o n 3 5 -40 d if e r en t s pec ie s o fg r a s s a nd al a rge v a r ie ty o fs h rub s , a nd t r ee leave s s uch a sp i s tach io l e ave s ( Hep tn e r e t . a l . 1 966 : 5 37 -8 ) ; t h e dwa r f s c rub , R han ter ium e ppapo sum , i so n e o f t h e m o s t i mpo r tan t f ood p l an t s o ft h i s s p ec ie s i nc en t r a l A rab ia ( Ha r r i son 1 968 : 3 64 ) . T hey a r e a l so e x t rem e ly d rough ta nd h ea tr e s i s tan ta nd c an l a s t w i thou tw a t e ru pt o3 -7 d ay s( Hep tn e re ta l . 1 966 : 5 38 ) .

T h e o the rm a in d om e s t ic s pec ie s e xp lo i t ed a r e l e s s s u i tab le t o d ry e nv i ronm en t s . Ow ing t o t h e i r p hy s io log ica l a nd m e tabo l ica l c ond i t ion s c a t t le c anno t w i th s tand d rough t a nd

T he a na ly s i s o ft h e mo r t a l i ty p a t t er n s o ft h e o nage r a nd o ft h e g aze l le i n d ica t e s t h a t t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e s t eppe e nv i ronm en t a s h un t ing g round w a s mo s t p robab ly c oncen t ra ted o n t h e w in t e r w h ich i so n e o f t h e p e r iod s o f d en se r h e rd p opu la t ion f o r t h e se s p ec ie s ( c f . s e c t ion 6 . 5 . a nd 6 . 6 ) .

e vapo ra t ion a se a s i ly ( Schm id t a nd N ie l sen 1 964 ) . T h ey n eed t o d r ink mo re f r equen t ly t h an s h eep . F o r t h i s r e a son t h ey c anno t move v e ry f a r a way f r om w a t e r s ou r ce s a nd t h e r ef o r e t h ey n eed mo i s te r g r az ing a r ea s . P ig s a r e a l so l e s s t o le ran t o f

10

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE p r e -Ha laf

T ran s i t iona l

E a r ly H a laf

d ry e nv ironmen t / s t eppe O v i s /Cap ra E quu s G aze I la

7 3 8 2 8 ( 3 3 )

5 5 4 5 4( 7 2 )

5 1 3 4 0( 50 )

t o t . 7 3 ( 7 8 )

13 ( 1 31)

5 8 ( 6 8 )

1 2( 2 5 ) 3

1( 1 3 ) 2

mo i s te nv iron . / r i ver f o re s t B o s S u s U r su s C ervu s D ama

1 2 3

2 t o t . 1 7( 24 )

1 9( 2 1)

t o t .9 0( 102 )

1 32 ( 1 52 )

3 1 2

6 6 4( 74 )

0 / 0 s t eppe

8 1 .1 ( 76 .5 )

8 5 .6 ( 86 .2 )

9 0 .6 ( 9 2 )

r i ver f o re s t

1 8 .9 ( 23 .5 )

1 4 .4 ( 1 3 .8 )

9 . 4 ( 8 )

0 =d oub tf u li d en t if ica t ion si n c lud ed T ab le 7 . 13 F requency o fw i ld a n im a l sr e p re sen ta t ive o fd ry a nd m o i s te nv i ronm en t s

A pa r t f r om t h e se s t eppe s p ec ie s al a rge v a r ie ty o fo t h e r g am e s p ec ie s a r e i n d ica to r s o fe xp lo i ta t ion o fm o i s t e r e nv i ronm en t s . W i th in t h e se s pec ie s w e f i nd r e d d ee r , f a l low d ee r a nd b rown b ea r a s t y p ica l f o r e s t s p ec ie s , t o ge th e r w i th w i ld b oa r a nd a u roch s . T oday D ama l i ve s i nd en s e i mpene t rab le j ung le s o f w h i t ep op la ra nd t ama r i sk b o rd e r ing t h er i ve r s o fs ou thw e s te rn P e r s ia a nd o fs ou th Me sopo tam ia ( Ha l t enor th 1 959 ) . T h ey a r e b row se r s t h a tf e ed o ny oung s hoo t so fp op la rb u sh e s( Ha r r i son 1 968 : 3 68 ) . W i ld b oa r , w ho se o mn ivo rou s d i e t i n c lude s r h izom e s o f a qua t ic a nd m a r sh p l an t s , t o day m a in ly l i ve s i n d en se t h icke t s a nd r e ed j ung le s ( Ha r r i son 1 968 : 3 75 -376 ) . A u roch s r e qu i re a l e s s r e st r ic t ed h ab i ta t a nd a r e m o r e a dap tab le t o v a r iou s e nv i ronm en t s . H ow eve r , t h ey a l so d emand mo i s t e r e nv i ronm en t s c ompa r ed t o t h e o v icap r id s , o nag e r a nd g aze l le , a nd a h ab i ta t w i th a d en se c on t inuou s v ege ta t ion . T h e se s pec ie s c ou ld h ave f ound t h e i r t y p ica l h ab i ta ti nt h er i ve r ine f o r e s ta l ong t h eB a l ikh v a l ley w h ich w a s d om ina t ed b y p op la r , t am a r i sk , w i l low s h rub s a nd d en se r e ed b ed s( c f .c h ap te r3 . 4 ) . E xp lo i ta t ion o ft h i s mo i s t e re nv i ronm en t i sa l so d ocum en t ed b y t h e p r e sen ce o f d i f f e r en t s p ec ie s o f a qua t ic b i rd s s uch a sA n se l -a nd A na si nt h e f a una la s semb lage o f S ab i A byad ( c f . c hap t e r 6f o r t h e d e sc r ip t ion o f b i rd h ab i ta t s ) .

T he e xp lo i ta t ion o fo t h e rb i o tope s s u ch a st h e r i ve r , t h e w ad i s o rt h et empo ra ry f l ooded a r ea sa r ound t h es i t ei sa t te s t ed b yt h e p r e sen ce o ff i sh a nd m o l lu sc s i nt h ef a una ls pec t rum o ft h es i t e . T h e i r s m a l l a moun t , h ow eve r , s ugge s t s t h a t a qua t ic r e sou r ce s w e re s c a r ce ly e xp lo i t ed a nd t h i s s e em s t ob e ag en e ra lp a t t er n i np r eh i s to r ic s i t e s o f n o r th er n S y r ia ( Bu i tenhu i s a nd Z ede r , p e r s . c omm . ) . I ti sn o t t h e a im o ft h i s w o rk t oi n ve s t iga te t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e v a r iou s e nv i ronm en t s f o r p u rpo se s n o t d i r ec t ly r e la t ed t o t h ea n ima l s , a st h e se h av eb een w id e ly d i scu s sed a nd e va lua t ed e l sewhe r e( Akk e rman s 1 993 ) . I tm ay b ew o r thwh i le t om en t ion t h a t t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e f l ood v a l ley f o r a g r icu l tu ra l p u rpo se s w a s d i r ec t ly l i nk ed t ot h ep o s s ib i l i ty f o rt h e d om e s t ic a n ima l s t o g r aze o n t h e s t ubb le , a s a n i n t eg ra t ion w i th in t h e a g r icu l tu ra ls y s tem . A g en e ra l i n c rea se o f t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f a n ima l s f r om t h e s t eppe t h rough t im e c an b e o b served w h e r eby t h e i mpo r tan ce o f t h e o nage r w a s r e du ced i n t h e l a s t p ha se w h i le t h a t o f g aze l l e r ema in ed r e la t ive ly c on s tan t ( t ab le 7 . 13 ) . T h i s d i f f e r ence c anno t b e a t r ibu t ed t oa n e xp lo i ta t ion o fd i f f e ren t e nv i ronm en t s b u t m u s tb e t h e r e su l to f ad if e ren te xp lo i ta t ion

11

CH IARA CAVALLO o f t h e s am e e nv i ronm en t . T h e f i r s t p o s s ib i l i ty i st h a t t h i s d i f f e r ence m igh t b e a t t r ibu ted t o d i f f e ren t h un t ing s t r a t eg ie s a nd t e chn ique s . T he l i t h ic i n du s t ry d oe s n o t s uppo r t t h i s i n te rp re ta t ion . H un t ing w a sp e rf o rm ed w i th t h eb ow -and -a r row t e chn ique a si n d ica t ed b yt h e f l in t i n du s t ry a nd d o cum en t ed b y a p o t te ry f r agm en t r ep r e sen t ing t wo m en w i th a b ow ( Akke rman s 1 993 : f i g . 3 . 21 , p . 77 ) a s w e l l a s b y t h e e xcep t iona l f i nd o f ab ov id s hou lde rb lade w i th a n a r rowh ead s t i l l i n co rpo ra ted i n t h e b one ( f ig . 7 . 6 ) . T h i s c a t ego ry o f

S ab iA by ad I ( 7 th .m i l l . ) G aze l le

2 . 1%

O nage r

S ab iA byad ( 6 th m i l l . )

S h en ef ( 5 th m i l l . )

1 . 7% ( 2 .2% )

1 7%

1 . 6%

3 2%

0 =d oub t f u l i d e n t if i ca t ion si n c lud ed

a r tef ac t ( a r rowhead s ) d oe s n o t s how s i gn if i can t m od if i ca t ion s i n s hape a nd q uan t i ty t h rough t h e s epa ra t e p ha se s o f o ccupa t ion , e xcep t f o r t h e i n t roduc t ion o f as ma l l e r t y pe o f a r rowhead p robab ly r e la ted t o t h e h un t ing o f w i ld f ow l .

T ab le 7 . 14 P e r cen tage ( on t h e i d en t if i ed m amma l s ) o fg aze l le a nd o nage r r em a in s a tt h e s i t e s o fS ab i A by ad I , S ab i A byad a nd Kh i rbe te s h -Shenef

H ow eve r , t h e a ppea rance a nd t h e i n c rea s ing i mpo r tan ce o f s l ing m i s s i le s f r om l e ve l 6o nwa rd s ,w h ich p a r t ly s e em t oh ave r e p laced t h er o le o ft h ea r rowh ead s ,b ecam ing v e ry r a r e ,m igh t s ugge s t ac hange i nt h e h un t ing t e chn ique s . As e cond p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion f o r t h e d if e rence i n o nage r a nd g aze l le p e rcen tage sm ay b e s e a rched i ne nv i ronm en ta lc hange s , w h ich m ay h ave b rough t ar educ t ion o rm od if i ca t ion i nt h e q uan t i ty o fp rey . A l though d i r ec t e v iden ce f r om p a lyno logy i sl a ck ing f o r t h e p e r iod c once rned , t h e i n c rea se i ng oa t s s hown i nt h e l a te s t E a r ly H a laf p ha se , m igh t a l so b e e xp la in ed b y e nv i ronm en ta l d eg rada t ion . T h e d em and f o r a r ab le l a nd s a nd t h e i mpac t o fd om e s t ic a n im a l s u nd e r h um an i n f lu en ce m igh t h ave c on t r ibu ted s e r iou s ly t ot h e d eg rada t ion o ft h ee co sy s tem b ya l te r ing a nd r e s t r ic t ing t h eo r ig ina lv ege t a t ion .R edu c t ion o f v ege t a t ion m ay e f f ec tt h ea ve rage r a in f a l la nd c on sequen t ly t h e w a te r a va i lab i l i ty , w h ich c ou ld h ave h ad ar a th e r g r ea t e f f ec t

T he l o ca t ion o fS ab i A byad i n am a rg ina l a r ea , o n t h e b o rde r o ft h e d ry f a rm ing z one , a nd g ene ra l ly c ha rac t e r ized b y ah i gh d eg r ee o fc l im a t ic f l uc tua t ion s ( c f . c hap t e r 3 )p re sen t s ah i gh d eg ree o fr i sk i nc r op f a i lu r e s . Af t e ro n ly af ew c on secu t ive d ry y ea r s t h e i s oy e th o f2 50 mm o fr a inf a l l , c o r re spond ing t ot h e l i m i t o f d ry f a rm ing , c an r e t r ea t c on s id e rab ly n or thwa rd s t owa rd s t h eu ppe rb o rde ro ft h eB a l ikh v a l ley ( W i r th 1 969 ; s e e f i g s . 3 . 2 , 3 . 3 ) . A l though d rough t i st h e m o s t i mpo r tan t f a c to r , l ow t empe ra tu r e s o r o t h e r n a tu ra l h aza rd s s u ch a s i n f ec t ion s a nd d i sea se s c an a l so b e as ou r ce o f r i sk a nd d i sa s te r , s om e t im e s c au s ing t h e d ea th o fe n t i r e h e rd s ( Lew i s 1 988 ; c f .

o nt h e mod if i ca t ion o ft h em ic ro -c l ima t eo f as m a l lv a l l ey ,s u ch a st h a to ft h eB a l ikh v a l ley . I na dd i t ion , g aze l le i sk nown t ob e s l igh t ly mo r e r e s i s tan t t o h ea t a nd i t s m o r e i n t e rm ed ia t e f o rag ing s t ra teg ie s p robab ly r e p re sen ted a n a dvan tage c ompa r ed t o t h a t o f t h e o nage r w h ich d epend en t s m o r e o n g r az ing .

c hap te r 3 ) . B e s id e s t h e se " na tu ra l " r i sk s , c u l tu ra l h aza rd s s u ch a s c hange s i nl a bo r f o r ce s d ue t o w a r s o r c hange s i ns oc ia l r e la t ion sh ip s m igh t a l so h ave p l ay ed a n i mpo r tan t r o le ( Ha ls tead 1 990 ) . T he re a r e d if e ren t w ay s t o c oun t e rac t t h e u np red ic tab l e v a r iab i l i ty i na g r icu l tu r a l r i sk s , a cco rd ing t ot h e v a r iou s l e v e l s o f e conomy a nd t e chno logy . H a l s t ead a nd

7 . 6R i sk r educ t ion

O 'Shea ( 1989 ) p o in t o u t t h a t t h e re a r e f ou rb a s ic r e spon se s t o f o od s c a r c i ty w h ich d e r ive s f r om r i sk a nd u nce r ta in ty . T h ey c on s i s t o f 1 )d i ve r s if i ca t ion , 2 ) mob i l i ty , 3 ) s t o rage , a nd 4 ) e xchange . W i th t h e se a spec t s i n m ind i tw i l l b e t r i ed t o u nde r s tand t h e r o le o f a n im a l s a s o n e o ft h e m ean s t o c ope w i th a nd r e du ce t h e r i sk o fs ho r tage o ff o od r e sou r ce s w i th in t h ea g r icu l tu r a lc y c le o ft h ec ommun i ty o fS ab i Abyad .

I nc on c lu s ion , a l though i ti sn o t p o s s ib le t od r aw ad ef in i t ive c onc lu s ion o n t h e r e a son s f o r t h e v a r ia t ion o f t h e h un t ing s t ra teg ie s , i ts e em s h ow eve rt h a tw i th in ag en e r a l r e du c t ion o f i t s i mpo r tan ce t h rough t im e , h un t ing a tS ab i A by ad b ecam e i n c r ea s ing ly c oncen t ra ted o n s ma l le r p rey s s u ch a s g aze l le i n s tead o fo nl a rge rh e rb ivo re ss u ch a sa u roch sa nd o n age r ,a nd t h a tt h eb e s te xp lo i t ed h un t ing g round sb ecam et h es t eppe . I ti si n te r e s t ing t o o b serve t h a t a tt h e p r eced ing P r e -po t t e ry N eo l i th ic s i t e o fS ab iA byad I o ft h e t wo s p ec ie so n ly g aze l le w a s h un t ed w h i le e qu id r ema in s w e r e c omp le t e ly a b sen t . F o r t h a ts i t e i tw a ss ugge s ted t h a th un t ing t h e g aze l le d i dn o ti mp ly v en tu r ing i n to t h e s t eppe , b u t t h a t g aze l le s w e r e p robab ly h un ted w h en t h ey a pp roach ed t h e r i ve r v a l l ey ( Van W i jngaa rden -Bakke ra nd Ma l iepaa rd , i np r e s s ) . I fw ep o s tu la te f o r S ab i A byad t h a t h un t ing o fb o th s pec ie s i si n d i ca t ive o f s t eppe e xp lo i ta t ion , w e c an , t h e r ef o r e , o b se rve o n aw id e r c h rono log ica l p e r spec t ive t h a t t h e a r ea o ft h e m idd l e B a l ikh b ecam e mo r e a nd mo r e e x ten s ive ly e xp lo i t ed , a s t h e p e rcen tage o fg aze l le a nd o nage r c on s i s ten t ly i n c r ea se s a tt h e l a t e H a laf s i t e o f Kh i rbe t e sh -Shen ef ( t ab le 7 . 14 ) ( Hend r ich s 1 990 ) .

12

S ab i A by ad w a s as e t t led v i l lage b a sed o n as ub s i s t ence e conomy . T h e a g r icu l tu ra l p roduc t ion w a s c a r r ied o u tb y d ry f a rm ing , a sn o d ef in i t ive e v iden ce o fi r iga t ion w a s f ound . T h e a g r icu l tu re w a s b a sed o n c e rea l c u l t iva t ion , e spec ia l ly o n e mm e r w h ea t ( T r i t icum d i coccum ) , f o l lowed b y e i nkom ( T r i t icum m onococcum ) a nd , t o al e s se r e x t en t , b y b a r ley ( Hordeum d i s t icum ) ( Van Z e i s t a nd Wa te rbo lk -van R oo i jen 1 989 , 1 996 ) . T h e se a r e w in te r c r op s w h i ch a r e n owaday s h a rve s ted i ne a r ly s p r ing , b e tween A p r i l a nd May , w h i le t h e f i e ld s a r e s own i n a u tumn a s s oon a s t h e r a in s s t a r t ( L ew i s 1 988 : 6 88 ;A ld c er n ian s 1 993 : 2 17 ) . A s w a s d e sc r ibed i n ap rev iou s s e c t ion , a n ima l h u sband ry r e p re sen t ed ac omp lem en ta ry p a r t t ot h e c e r ea l d ry f a rm ing i n t e rm s o ff o od s upp ly . T h eh a rve s tp e r iod , i ns p r ing , i s ap e r iod

AN IMALS I N THE S TEPPE o fv e ry i n t en s ive l a bo ri n ve s tm en tc on cen t r a t ed i n as ho r tt im e , p robab ly w i th in o n ly t wo w eek s ( Akk e rm an s 1 993 : 2 17 ) . S p r ing i sa l so t h e p e r iod i nw h ich y oung a n ima l s ( l amb s a nd c a lve s ) a nd d a i ry p roduc t s a r e a va i lab le f o rf ood r e qu i r em en t s . N ow aday s i n t h e M idd le E a s t l amb ing t a ke s p l a ce i n l a t e w in t e r ( b e tw een J anua ry a nd Ma r ch ) a nd s p r ing a nd e a r ly s umm e rc on s t i tu t et h ep e r iod o ft h eh i gh e s tp r epa r a t ion o fm i lk p roduc t s a s" l amb n umbe r s a r e s y s t em a t ica l ly r educed a nd t h e m i lk s upp ly d i ver t ed t o h uman u s e " ( C r ibb 1 991 : 2 9 ) . T h e e xp lo i ta t ion f o rd a i ry p roduc t ion s e em st oh ave b een e s pec ia l ly i mpo r tan t f r om t h e T ran s i t iona l p h a s e o nw a rd s , i nw h ich t h e c u l l ing p a t te rn s o ft h e o v icap r id s s h ow a n i n c r ea se o fa n im a l s k i l led a t ay oung a ge t o ge th e r w i th a r e duc t ion o f o l d i n d iv idu a l s , a s ar e su l t o ft h e e xp lo i t a t ion o ft h e se a n im a l s f o r t h e i rm i lk .A tt h e e nd o ft h e s umm e rp r obab ly t h em o s tc r i t ica l

i n c r ea se i n n umbe r o f s p ec ie s f r om t h e T ran s i t ion a l p e r iod o nw a rd s . I n t h e s am e p e r iod al a rge r v a r ie ty o fh un ted b i rd s w a s a l so o b se rved , w h ich m igh tb e f a vo r ed b y at e chno log ica l i n nova t ion s u ch a s t h e i n t rodu c t ion o f s ma l l t r an sve r se a r rowh ead s w h ich a r e s uppo sed t o h ave b een e spec ia l ly u t i l ized a sp o i son ed p ro jec t i le s u sef u l i nb r ing ing d own g am e b i rd s a nd w a t e r f ow l ( Cope land 1 996 ) . D ive r s if ica t ion i nt h e f o rm o f as l igh ti n c rea se i nh un t ing , al a rge rv a r ie ty o fs p ec ie s , a nd m o r e m i lk e xp lo i ta t ion i n c omb ina t ion w i th m ea t e xp lo i ta t ion , m igh t b e i n t e rp re t ed a s r e spon se s t o p e r iod s o f c r i s i s . T he i n t e rp re ta t ion o ft h e o v icap r id m o r ta l i ty p a t t er n a s p o s s ib le h e rd s e cu r i ty m anagem en ti nt h eT r an s i t iona lp e r iod i s c on s i s t en tw i th t h ei n t e rp r e t a t ion o f ap o s s ib le c r i t ica lp e r iod i n

p e r iod s t a r t ed a s t h e s upp ly o f d a i ry p roduc t s d ec l in ed a nd v ege ta t ion i mpove r i sh ed . T he re i se v id en ce t h a t p i g s a tS ab i A byad w e re k i l led a tt h e e nd o ft h e a u tumn a nd d u r ing t h e w in te r . T h i s a l so c o r r e spond s t ot h e p e r iod i nw h ich h un t ing m a in ly o ccu r r ed . S t e in ( 1989 ) s ugg e s t st h a ta tG r i t i l le , aP PNB s i t e o n t h e n o r ther n E uph ra te s i nT u rk ey , as im i la r p a t t er n e x i s ted w i th h un t ing c on cen t ra ted d u r ing w in te r . W in te r i st h e p e r iod o fm a jo rr i sk so fd i sea se sa nd r e la t ive ly p oo rp a s tu r ef o r t h e l i ve s tock , b u t i ti s a l so t h e p e r iod i n w h ich t h e w i ld r e sou r ce s ( c ap r ine s , a u roch s , p i g s ) , w h i ch m ig ra t ed t o l ow e r a l t i tud e s b ecau se o f s now i n t h e s u r round ing T au ru s moun t a in s , w ou ld h ave b een mo r e a c ce s s ib le . O bv iou s ly m en t o ok a dvan tage o f s e a sona l a n ima l m ov em en t s , o ft h e l a rge r h e rd a gg r ega t ion o fw i ld a n im a l s d u r ing t h e c o ld m on th s , a nd t h e u ngu la te s ' d i ff icu l t ie s i n mov ing o n m uddy g round s a f t e r t h er a in s .

A t r end o f d i ve r s if i ca t ion i s a l so o b se r vab le i n aw id e r p e r spec t iv e . A c on t inuou s d eve lopm en t i n t h e s ub s i s t en ce s t ra teg ie s i sp r e sen tf r om t h eP r e -po t te ry N eo l i th ic S ab iA by ad It ot h e l ow e r l e ve l s ( p r e -Ha laf l e ve l s ) o f S ab i A byad ( f ig . 7 . 9 ) . S ab i A by ad r e p r e sen t s t h e t r an s i t ion f r om a n ( i n ten s ive ) e nv i ronm en t e xp lo i t a t ion r e s t r ic t ed t o t h e f l ood v a l ley ( Sab i A by ad I a nd p r e -Ha laf p h a se o f S ab i A byad ) t o aw id e r e nv i ronm en ta l e xp lo i ta t ion , i n c lud ing a ne x t en s ive e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h e s t eppe . T h i s w ide r e nv i ronm en t e xp lo i ta t ion i sa t t e s t ed a tS ab i A byad b y a n e n la rgem en t o f t h e n umbe r o f s pec ie s h un t ed a nd i na n i n c r ea se o ft h e i mpor tan ce o ft h e w i ld s t eppe s p ec ie s f r om t h e T ran s i t iona l p ha se o nwa rd s , a sw e l l a s , l a t e r i nt h e 5 t hm i l lenn ium , b yt h e d i r ec to ccupa t ion o ft h e s ou ther n

S pr ing

S umm er

a g r icu l tur e

h a rve s t

h u sband iy

d a i ry p roduc t s

h un t ing

A u tumn

t h i sp ha se .

p a r t o ft h e v a l ley b y t h e l a t e H a laf s oc ie ty ( s ee e . g . Kh i rbe t e s h -Shen ef a nd D am i sh l iyya ) ( Akke rman s 1 993 ) . L ook ing a t o t h e rr e g ion s ,w es e eo t h e rl a t eH a laf s i t e si nw h ich t h eh un t ing c omponen t i sr a th e r i mpo r tan t a nd c ha rac t e r ized b y aw id e s p ec t rum o f s p ec ie s . T h i s i st h e c a se o f Umm Q se i r o n t h e

Win ter

K habu r . H e re t h e s i t e w a s f i r s t i n te rp re ted a s ap a s to ra l c amp o n t h e b a s i s o ft h e s ho r t o ccupa t ion a nd s c a rce a r ch i t ec tu ra l e v iden ce . H oweve r , t h e f a una l a na ly s i s s how ed a n a l l -y ea r r ound o ccupa t ion o f t h e s i t e ( Zede r 1 994 ) , i n d ica t ing a p e rman en t e xp lo i ta t ion o ft h i s a r ea . T he h un t ing c omponen ta t t h i s s i t e i s ,h oweve r , r a the rh i gh a nd i n c rea se s i nt h e c ou r se o f o ccupa t ion o f t h e s i t e , w h i le o t h e r c ha ra c t e r i s t ic s o f t h e n eo l i th ic t r ad i t ion , s u ch a s c a t t le h u sband ry , a r e m i s s ing o r a bandon ed . S ham s e d -D in o nt h eE uph ra t e s i sa l so l o ca ted i na s t ra teg ic p o s i t ion o nt h eb o rde r l ine b e tw een t h ef l ood p l a in a nd t h e p l a teau s o t h a t ab e t t e r e xp lo i ta t ion o f t h e s t eppe c ou ld h ave b een p o s s ib le ( Ue rpm ann 1 982 ) , a s a t t e s ted b y t h e r e la t ive ly h i gh p e r cen tage o fh un t ed s pec ie s , e s pec ia l ly o n age r a nd ,t o al e s se re x t en t ,g aze l le .

s own ing p i g s / ca t t le -hun t ing -

T ab le 7 . 15 S ea sona l d i s t r ibu t ion o fa g r icu l tu re a c t iv i t ie s a nd r e sou r ce sd u r ing t h ey ea r

7 . 6 .1 D iver s if i ca t ion T he r o le o f d i ve r s if i ca t ion a s ar i sk r e duc t ion s t ra t egy w a s l im i ted i nt h e c a se o f c r op s . T h e se w e r e r e s t r ic t ed t o af ew k ind s o f c e r ea l c r op s w h i le t h e r o l e o fp u l se s w a s n o t v e ry i mpor tan t a nd t h e g a th e r ing o f w i ld s p ec ie s w a s r a re ( Van Z e i s t a nd Wa t e rbo lk -van R oo i jen 1 996 ) . A s t h e r e i s n o i n d ica t ion o fv a r ia t ion i nf a rm ing d u r ing t h e t h ree p ha se s o f o ccupa t ion o fS ab iA byad , t h ez ooa r ch a eo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion s how s t h a t i mpo r tan t t r an sf o rm a t ion s o ccu r red i n t e rm s o f a n ima l m anagem en t a nd r e sou r ce s s u ch a s c hang ing a nd a mp l if i ca t ion o fh e rd ing s t ra teg ie s ( i n c lud ing m i lk p roduc t ion ) a nd e xp lo i t a t ion o fw i ld a n ima l s . I n t e r e s t ing i nt h i ss en se i st h e

13

T h e se c ha ra c te r i s t ic s a r e , h ow eve r , t y p ica l o f t h e s ou th er n H a laf ian s i t e s l o ca t ed o n t h e b o rde r z one o ft h e s t eppe . T he n o r ther n s i t e s , s u ch a s c av i T a r la s i , B anah i lk , G i r ik iha cyan a nd T e l l T u r lu r e ly m a in ly o n h u sband ry w h i le t h e w i ld c omponen t , t h ough s om e t im e s r a the r v a r ied , i sr a th e r l im i ted ( c f . c hap t e r4 ,f i g . 4 . 3 ) . T he n o r th sou th g r ad ien ts e em st oh ave b een ar a th e ri mpo r tan tf a c to ri nt h e s ub s i s ten ce c ho ice s o ft h e l a t e H a laf c ommun i ty . T he n o r th er np a r t c ou ld c oun to nm o r e s t ab le a nd s e cu r e y i e ld s f r om c r op c u l t iva t ion , w h i le t h e s ou ther n p a r t w a s m o r e s ub jec t ed t o t h e h aza rd s o f c l im a t ic

C T T IARA CAVALLO f l uc tua t ion s , w h ich w ou ld h ave i n duced t h e i n h ab i t an t s t o e xp lo i t a no the r a nd ( a t t h a t t im e ) a bundan t r e sou r ce s o f t h e a r ea , i . e . w i ld g am e . S o i ni t sl a s tp ha se s t h es e t t lem en t s o ft h e H a laf c ommun i ty a ppea r t o b e mo r e d i spe r sed o ve r al a rge t e r r i to ry , c on s i s t ing o fd i f f e r en tb i o tope s . T h e H a laf c u l tu r e a t t h a t t im e e xh ib i t s , t h e ref o re , ac e r ta in f l ex ib i l i ty i ni t s v a r ied s ub s i s ten ce s t ra t eg ie s ,p o s s ib ly a s ac on sc iou sa dap ta t ion t ot h e p o ten t ia lo ft h el o ca le nv i ronm en t .

e conomy . M i lk p roduc t s a r e c on s ide r ed t ob e ap r e requ i s i t e f o r t h e d eve lopm en t o f ap a s to ra l e conomy , w h ich u sua l ly d epend s o n t h e se p roduc t s ( Ba r -Yo sef 1 992 : 1 6 ) . I ti sn o t

7 . 6 .2 Mob i l i ty A s t h e e conomy a tS ab i A byad r e l ied h eav i ly o n a g r icu l tu r e a nd a n ima l h u sband ry , t h e r o le o f mob i l i ty a s ab uf f e ra ppea r s t o h ave b een l im i ted . T he r e la t ive ly l ow f r equen cy o f w i ld a n ima l s c omb in ed w i th t h e f a c t t h a t h un t ing w a s r e s t r ic t ed i n t im e t ot h a t p a r t o f t h e y ea r w h en p eop le a r e m o r e r e lea sed f r om f a rm w o rk i n d ica t e s t h a t i n g en e ra l h un t ing p l ay ed a m ino r r o le i nt h e s i te ' s e conomy . T h e h un t ing c omponen t i sa c on s tan t f e a tu re i n t h e N eo l i th ic s e t t lem en t s , a nd i t s i mpo r tance s e em s t ob e e x t rem e ly v a r iab le ( c f . c h ap t e r 3 ) . A s i nt h e c a se o fG r i t i l le , f o r S ab iA byad t h ew in t e rs e a son w ou ld a l so r e p re sen t ap er iod o f c r i s i s o n t h e o n e h and a nd o f p o s s ib ly mo re p rey o n t h e o t he r . O nage ra nd g aze l le h e rd s a r e m o re d i spe r sed i nt h e s umm e r i n s e a r ch o fp a s tu r e w h i le i n w in t e r t h ey g roup f o r m a t ing . F o r p eop le w in t e r i sa l so t h e p e r iod i nw h ich t h e re i s mo r ep o s s ib i l i ty t om ove f r om t h e s i t e a nd t h u s w hen ' mob i l i ty ' c ou ld h ave h ad m o r e c han ce t o d eve lop . T he f a una la na ly s i s i nd ica t e st h a ti nt h eE a r ly H a laf p ha se o n ly p a r to ft h eo v icap r id h e rd sw a sk ep ta tt h es i t e : d if e r en t ly f r om t h e p rev iou s p ha se , t h e mo r ta l i ty p a t t e rn o f t h e E a r ly H a laf p ha se s how s ac on cen t ra t ion o n af ew a ge c a t ego r ie s w i th a n a ppa ren t r e tu rn t o a m ea t -o r ien t ed s t ra t egy , a f t e r t h e d eve lopm en to ft h e e xp lo i t a t ion o ft h e se a n im a l s f o rt h e i rm i lk i nt h eT ran s i t iona lp ha se , s ugge s t st h a to n ly p a r to ft h eo r ig ina l h e rd s i sr ep r e sen ted i nt h eE a r ly H a laf a s semb lage ( c f . c hap t e r 6 . 2 .5 ) . T h e c u l l ing p a t ter n o f t h e o v icap r id s amp le o f t h e T ran s i t iona lp ha se c ou ld a l so b ep a r t ly i n t e rp r e t ed a st h er e su l t o f ah e rd secu r i ty s t ra tegy . I nt h e s am ep e r iod t h e r e i s as l igh t i n c r ea se i nh un t ing a sw e l l a si nt h en umbe ro fs p ec ie sh un t ed . T h i s c omb in ed t o al a te r( Ea r ly H a la f ) i n c r ea se o fg oa t s m igh t b e ar e spon se t o ac r i s i s p e r iod i na n im a l f e ed ing r e sou r ce s w h i ch m igh t h ave b een r e so lved b y m ov ing p a r t o f t h e o v icap r id h e rd s a way f r om t h e s i t e . T he r o le o f h un t ing a b uf f e r i n t e rm s o f mob i l i ty m igh t h ave b een , t h e r ef o re , c omb in ed o r e ven r ep laced b y a mo r e m ob i le o r n omad i c p a s to r a l i sm i n t h e l a s t p ha se . B o th h un t ing a nd p a s to ra l i sm

n ece s sa r i ly t h e w ho le p opu la t ion o f S ab i A byad t h a t w a s i n vo lved i nt h e se m o re m ob i le p a s to r a l a c t iv i t ie s , a nd n o t f o r t h ew ho le y ea r . T h e p e rmanen tc ha rac t e ro ft h ev i l lage o fS ab i A byad r ema in s a st e s t if i ed b y t h e c on s tan t h i gh p e rcen tage o f d om e s t ic a n im a l s , b y t h e i n c rea se i n p i g s a nd b y ab e t t e r c on t ro l led c a t t le h u sband ry . T he s eden ta ry c ha rac t e ro ft h e s i t e i sa l so a t t e s t ed b y t h e c on t inu ing e v iden ce o fc r op c u l t iva t ion a nd t h e a r ch i t ec tu ra l r ema in s . T he p r e sence o f t wo c ompon en t s , s e d en ta ry a g r icu l tu re a nd m ob i l e p a s to ra l i sm , i s n o t i nc on t r ad ic t ion . A s Khazanov ( 1984 )p o in t s o u tt h e r e i sa c l o se ly r e la t ed a nd i mpo r tan t r e la t ion sh ip b e tw een a g r icu l tu ra l i s t s a nd p a s to ra l i s t s . P a s to r a l i s t s a r e e x t r em e ly d ependen t o n a g r icu l tu ra l i s t s , i nt e rm s o fa g r i cu l t u r e p rodu c t s , o r t h ey a r e e ven , a l though t o ad i f f e r en t d eg r ee , i n vo lved i n a g r icu l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie s . T h e r ef o r e , af o rm o f s em i seden ta ry p a s to r a l i sm m igh t h ave d eve loped a t S ab i A byad , w h e re a g r icu l tu re s t i l l p l ay ed a n i mpo r tan t r o l e a nd p a r t o f t h e p opu la t ion w ou ld h ave b een i n vo lved i np robab ly s e a son a l m ig r a t ion s . T h e se p eop le w ou ld r e tu rn t ot h e s i t e f o r c e r ta in p e r iod s o ft h e y ea r . O n e o ft h e se p er iod s w a s mo s t l i k e ly t h e h a rve s t ing t im e i ns p r ing , w hen i n ten se l a bou r r e sou r ce s w e r e r e qu i r ed mo s t . A n e x t ra c omb ina t ion w ou ld b e t h e p o s s ib i l i ty o fl a rge h e rd sg r az ing o ns t ubb le a f t e rh a r v e s t ing . O th e r a r cha eo log ica l e v iden ce s e em s t o s ugge s t t h a t a l ready d u r ing t h e T r an s i t ion a l p ha se p ar t o f t h e S ab i A byad p opu la t ion w a s n o t p e rman en t ly p re sen t a tt h e v i l lage . T he n um e rou s s e a l s c on cen t ra t ed i n af ew r oom s o f as t o rage b u i ld ing o f l e ve l 6( T ran s i t iona l p ha se ) p rov id e e v iden ce o f s t o r age o fg ood s a nd d ev ice s o fp rope r ty c on t ro l ( Akke rman s , p e r s . c omm . ; A kk e rman s a nd D u i s te rm aa t , 1 997 ) . T he s i ze o f t h e p o s s ib le c on t a in e r s , n umbe r a nd t y pe o fi mp re s s ion s , a nd t h e c on cen t r a t ion o n al im i ted a r ea o f t h e v i l lage l e d t h e e xcava to r s t o s uppo se t h a t t h e se g ood s d i d n o t b e long t o p eop le l i v ing i n t h e v i l lage , f o r w hom t h i s k i nd o f c on t ro l w ou ld n o tb en ece s sa ry , b u tt op eop le n o tp e rmanen t ly p r e sen t a t t h e v i l lage , t h e se p eop le b e ing p a r t o f t h e n omad ic p opu la t ion . T h i s w ou ld p r e sum e t h e p r e sen ce o ft wo a l r eady d eve loped s p ec ia l ized s oc ie t ie s ( a g r i cu l tu ra l i s t s a nd p a s to ra l i s t s ) i nt h e a r ea . K hazanov ( 1984 : 1 7 ) p o in t s o u t t h a t p a s to ra l n om ad i sm i s ar a the r s pec ia l iz ed s o c i e ty : "p a s to ra l n omad i sm r e p r e sen t s ad i s t in c t ive f o rm o f f ood p roduc ing e conomy i n w h ich e x ten s ive mob i le p a s to ra l i sm i s t h e p redom inan t a c t iv i ty a nd i n w h ich t h e m a jo r i ty o f t h e p opu la t ion i sd r awn i n to p e r iod ic p a s to ra lm ig ra t ion " . T h i s l e ad s t ot h e q ue s t ion w hen p a s to ra l i sm d eve loped i nt h e a r ea o fs t udy . I n d ica t ion s f o r t h e b eg inn ing o fp a s to ra l i sm a r e f o und i nt h e e a r ly 6 t h m i l lenn ium i nt h e J o rdan a r ea ( Köh le r R o l lef son 1 992 ) a nd d u r ing a pp rox ima t e ly t h e s am e p e r iod i n s ou thw e s ter n a nd n o r thw e s ter n I r an ( Ho le e ta l . 1 969 ; V o ig t 1 983 ) .

d epend o n s e a sona l i ty . P a s to ra l n om ad i sm i sc ha r ac t e r iz ed b y p e r iod ic c hange s i n p a s tu re s , d epend ing o n t h e s e a sona l a va i lab i l i ty o f g r az ing a r ea s a nd w a t e r f a c i l i t ie s ( Kh azanov 1 984 : 1 9 ) . A s t h e z ooa rchaeo log ica l e v iden ce s ugge s t s , t h e S ab iA byad p opu la t ion m ay h ave b een i n c r ea s ing ly i n vo lved i n a mo re mob i le p a s to ra l i sm t owa rd s t h e l a s t p ha se o f o ccupa t ion o ft h e s i te . T h e p o s s ib le d eve lopm en to fs e conda ry p rodu c t s s u ch a s m i lk , o b se rved i n t h e T ran s i t iona l p ha se ,

F o r t h e B a l ikh v a l ley , S ab i A byad I a tt h e e nd o f t h e 7 t h m i l lenn ium p rov ide s i n d ica t ion s o f as ub s i s t en ce p a t t er nb a sed

c ou ld h ave f a c i l i ta ted t h i s s h if t t o am o r e m ob i le p a s to ra l

14

AN I MALS I N THE S TEPPE o n a n a g ra r ian c ommun i ty , l i nked t oi t ss u r round ing t e r r i to ry . I nt h e p o s s ib le c h rono log ica l g ap b e tw een S ab i A byad I a nd S ab i A by ad a d eve lopm en t o r o ccupa t ion o f t h e a r ea b y a p a s to ra lc ommun i ty c ou ld h ave o ccu r red .H ow eve r , i nt e rm s o f s ub s i s t ence p a t t e rn s , t h e p r e -Ha laf l e v e l s o f S ab i A byad a r e c on s i s t en t w i th S ab i A byad I ( f ig . 7 . 9 ) . T h e c ha rac t e r o ft h e s ub s i s t ence o fS ab i A by ad s how s g r adua l c hange s t owa rd s a n i n c r ea s ing i n vo lvem en t i nw ide r e xp lo i t a t ion o fr e sou rce s a nd e nv i ronm en t a nd i n ap o s s ib ly m o r e e x t en s ive a nd mo r e

i n d ica t ed b y t h e s h ape a nd d im en s ion s o fp ar t o ft h e b u i ld ing a nd b y t h e n um e rou s c l ay s e a l ing s ( c f . A kke rman s 1 993 a nd t h e v a r iou s c on t r ibu t ion s i nA kk e rm an s , e d . , 1 996 ) . L ive s tock a l so r e p r e sen t s a n i mpor tan t f o rm o f ' i nd i r ec t s t o rage ' o r ' b ank ing ' , w h ich c ou ld h ave b een f e d w i th a g r icu l tu ra l s u rp lu s i ng ood y ea r sa nd e a t en , o re ven tua l ly e xchanged , i nl e an y ea r s ( Ha l s tead 1 990 : 1 55 ; F l ann e ry 1 969 : 8 7 ) . I na dd i t ion , i n c rea se i nt h e s i ze o ft h e h e rd s c on s i s t s a l so i n af o rm o fs u rp lu s , a nd c on sequ en t ly af o rm o fs t o rage . T h i s w ay o fp roduce a no th e r

m ob i le p a s to ra l i sm , a s a n e ven tua l a dap ta t ion t o n ew c i r cum s tan ce s . T he d eve lopm en t o f at wof o ld e conomy w h ich

t y pe o fs u rp lu sm igh th ave b een p r ov id ed ak i nd a' s t a tu s ' i nt h e c ommun i ty , o ra tl e a s td i f f e r en t ia t ep a r to fi t .

c ha rac t e r ized t h e l a s t p ha se o f t h e H a laf s o c ie ty ( i n t h e f i r s t h a lf o ft h e 5 t h m i l lenn ium ) w a s d i s t ingu i shed b y al a rge r s i t e p e rm an en t ly o ccup ied w i th as ca t te r ed n umbe ro fs ma l lb r ie f ly o ccup ied s i t e s ( Akke rman s 1 993 ; c f . c h ap t e r 3 ) . T h i s p a t ter n m igh th ave b een s t a r ted i nt h el a s tp ha se so fo ccupa t ion o fT e l l S ab i A by ad w hen p a r t o ft h e c ommun i ty l e f t f o r t h e g r az ing g r ound s f o r p a r t o ft h e y ea r a nd r e tu rn ed t ot h e v i l lage a tt h e m om en t o f l a bou r i n ten s if ica t ion , i . e . h a rve s t ing . T he o ccupa t iona lp a t ter no ft h e B a l ikh v a l l ey i n d ica t e s t h a t a f t e r a p e r iod o f d ec l ine i n p opu la t ion i n t h e f i r s t h a lf o f t h e 6 t h m i l lenn ium , a n i n c rea se i nt h e p opu la t ion t o ok p l ace t ow a rd s t h ee nd o ft h es am em i l lenn ium a nd t h ee a r ly 5 t hm i l lenn ium i n c o r r e sponden ce w i th t h e a ppea ran ce o f H a laf t r a i t s ( Akke rman s 1 993 : 1 86f f ) . Ap ro l if e r a t ion o fs e t t lem en t sd u r ing t h e B a l ikh I IC p e r iod o ccu r red , w h ich i so ne o ft h e "mo s t d en se ly o ccup ied p e r iod s " o f t h e v a l l ey ( Akk e rm an s 1 993 : 1 88 ) . I nt h e f i r s th a lf o ft h e 5 th m i l lenn ium e v iden ce o fs ma l l , b r ief a nd r e pea ted o ccupa t ion i s r e p r e sen ted b y t h e l a te H a laf ian s i te o fS henef , a s t wo p ha se s o fo ccupa t ion d i v ided b y a( mod e s t ) e r o s ion l a y e r . T he H a laf s e t t lem en t o ft h e e a r ly 5 t hm i l lenn ium o fD am i shhyya o nt h ew e s tb ank o ft h eB a l ikh w a s r e s t r ic ted t o av e ry s ma l l a r ea . T h e e x t rem e ly r e s t r ic t ed a r ea o n w h ich p o t t e ry w a s f ound a s soc ia ted w i th t h e c omp le te a b sen ce o fa r ch i tec tu ra l r ema in s i n d i ca t e s t h a t t h e s i t e m igh t h ave s e rved a s as e a sona l c amp s i t e , r e pea t ed ly v i s i ted f o r a s ho r t t im e o ve r an umbe r o fy ea r s ( Akk e rman s 1 993 : 1 ) . T o t h e se l a te H a laf s i te s , mo s t o ft h e p a s to ra l c ompon en t o ft h e e conomy m ay h ave b een t r an sf e r r ed . T h e l a te H a laf ian s i te s i n t h e s t eppe a r ea l so t h e s i t e sw i th ah i gh e rp e r cen t age o fh un ted a n im a l s . Mob i l i ty c ha rac te r ized b o th h un t ing a nd p a s to ra l i sm . H un t ing , t h e ref o re , m igh t h ave f a vou r ed t h e d eve lopm en t o fa m o r e m ob i le p a s to ra l i sm i nt h e l a s t p ha se s o fo ccupa t ion o f S ab i A byad ,j u s t a s mo r e mob i l i ty m igh t h ave f a vou r ed mo r e h un t ing i nt h e l a te H a laf s i t e s . T ha tm o s to ft h e se s i t e s s how a b r ief b u t s t i l l a l-yea r round o ccupa t ion b a sed o n s ma l l sca le a g r icu l tu re , m igh t b e d u e t o t h e f a c t t h a t f r om t h e p u re ly p a s to ra l c amp s p robab ly n o a r chaeo log ica l e v id en ce i sl ef t , e x cep t i n af ew c a se s s u ch a s a tD am i sh l iyy a ( Akke rman s 1 993 : 1 91) .

7 . 6 .4 E xchange R ega rd ing e xchange , t h e a r chaeo log i ca l i n ve s t iga t ion s a tS ab i A by ad m ay b e t a ken a se v iden ce f o r ap o s s ib le c en t re w i th in a m o r e i n t eg ra t ed s y s t em ( Akk e rman s 1 993 , A kke rman s a nd L e M ir e , 1 992 ) . T he e v idence m a in ly c on s i s t s o f l a rge s t o rage f a c i l i t ie s , i n t h e a ppea rance o f n um e rou s c l ay s e a l ing s f r om l e ve l 6i n d ica t ing as t anda rd ized a dm in i s t r a t ive s y s tem , i nt h e c on s t ruc t ion i nt h e E a r ly H a laf p h a se o fc e r t a in a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu r e s s u ch a sa n i mp r e s s ive s t on e w a l l s uppor t ing at e r race w h ich m igh t h ave f un c t ion ed a s ap l ace f o r c ommun a l c e r emon ie s . I fw e s uppo se t h a t p a r t o f t h e c ommun i ty w a s b ecom ing i n c rea s ing ly i n vo lved i n m o r e p a s to ra l a c t iv i t ie s o u t s ide t h e v i l lage , ak i nd o fs ho r t -d i s tance e xchange b e tw een t h e t wo p a r t s o ft h e c ommun i ty m ay b ea s sum ed t oh ave h ad a r a the r g r ea t e conom ica l i mpo r tan ce , i n t e rm s o f p a s to ra l p rodu c t s ( m ea ta nd m i lk a nd /o rm i lk p rodu c t s )o no n e s i de a nd a g r icu l tu ra lp roduc t s( c e rea l s )o nt h eo t h e r . B e s id e s , l o ng -d i s tance e xchang e i s a l so a t t e s ted , b o th b y a r chaeo log ica l a nd f auna l e v iden ce . S t on e s a nd m in e ra l s , s uch a s o b s id ian , c oppe r o r e a nd b a sa l t , w e re o b ta in ed f r om A na to l ia w h i le c eda r w ood a nd D a rk -Faced B u rn i shed Wa re c am e f r om t h e L evan t( Akk e rm an s 1 993 : 2 7Of f ; V an Z e i s ta nd Wa t e rbo lk -van R oo i jen 1 996 : 5 40 ; Akk e rman s a nd D u i s te rmaa t , 1 997 ) . C on tac t s w i th n o r th a nd c en t ra l I r aq a r e a t te s t ed f o r b y t h e p r e sence o f S am a r ra - a nd H a s suna l ik e p o t t e ry . T h e f u r the s t p rovenan ce i sf u rn i sh ed b y t h e p re sence o f as h e l l f r om t h e I nd ian O cean . T h e l o ng -d i s tance e xchange , m a in ly r e la t ed t og ood s o fs ma l l d im en s ion s o ro f ap a r t icu la r a nd r a re v a lue , d oe s n o ts e em t oh ave p l ay ed ad ec i s ive r o le i n t h es ub s i s t ence p a t t e rn so ft h ev i l lag eo fS ab iA byad .

7 . 6 .5 S ummary I n a l f ou r b a s ic r i sk r edu c t ion s t ra t eg ie s t h a t h ave b een a na lyzed , a n im a l s w e re w ide ly a nd v a r iou s ly i n vo lved . T he ref o re i tc an b ec on c luded t h a ta n im a l sp l ayed a ni mpor t an t r o le i nr i sk r edu c t ion a sa na n sw e rt of o od s c a r c i ty ,n o to n ly b y b roaden ing t h e r a nge o f f o od r e sou r ce s a va i lab le f o r c on sump t ion b u t a l so b y ' b ank ing ' t h em f o r l e an p e r iod s . D ive r s if i ca t ion a nd s t o rage s e em t o h ave b een t h e mo s t i mpo r tan t s t ra t eg ie s t o c oun t e r ac t t h e i regu la r a nd u np r ed ic tab le f l u c tua t ion s o ft h e N ea r E a s t e nv i ronm en t , w i th

7 . 6 .3 S torage S t o r age s e em s t oh ave b een o ne o ft h em o s ta dop t ed s t ra teg ie s t om in im ize t h e e f f ec t s o fv a r ia t ion i nc r op y i e ld s . B e s ide s t h e d i r ec t e v iden ce o f b u rn t g ra in d epo s i t s , a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion p rov ide s e v iden ce o fm any s t o rage f a c i l i t ie s , a s

15

CH IARA CAVALLO t h ep o s s ib le a dd i t ion o f mob i l i ty i nt h el a s tp ha se o fo ccupa t ion o fS ab iA byad ,i n vo lv ing a tl e a s tp a r to ft h ep opu la t ion .

7 . 7C onc lu s ion T h e z ooa rchaeo log i ca l a na ly s i s o f t h e f a una l r ema in s f r om S ab i A byad h a s s hown t h a t t h e c omponen t o f t h e e conomy b a sed o n t h e e xp lo i ta t ion o f a n ima l r e sou r ce s w en t t h rough i mpo r tan t e conom ic t r an sf o rm a t ion s i nt h e c ou r se o ft h e t im e o fo ccupa t ion o ft h e s i t e . Ag r adua l ly i n c rea s ing c on t ro l i nt h e a n im a l h u sband ry i si n d ica t ed b y t h e t r an sf o rm a t ion f r om a mo r e g ene ra l ized p a t te rn o f m ea t p roduc t ion t o t h e d eve lopm en t o ft h e e xp lo i ta t ion o fs e conda ry p roduc t s ( m i lk ) i nt h e c a se o fo v icap r id s , a nd b yt h e b e t te ru t i l iza t ion o fc a t t le a nd p i g s a s s ou r ce s o fm ea t . A n e xpan s ion o fe nv i ronm en t a l e xp lo i ta t ion i si n d ica t ed b y t h e w i ld a n ima l r e sou r ce s a nd b y t h e p o s s ib le d eve lopm en t o f am o r e mob i le p a s to ra l i sm . S ab i A byad m ay t h e r ef o r e r e p re sen t t h e mom en t o ft r an sf o rma t ion f r om t h e mo re " s i t e r e la ted " e conomy o f t h e e a r ly N eo l i th ic c ommun i ty t ot h e i n i t ia l s t age o ft h e t wof o ld e conomy w h i ch c ha ra c t e r ized t h e l a t e r s t age s o ft h e l a te H a laf s oc ie ty w i th a s i t e d i s t r ibu t ion o fs m a l l s ho r t te rm s i t e s b a sed o n e x t en s ive h u sband ry a nd h un t ing , w h ich w e r e s om ehow d epend en t o n p e rmanen t ly o ccup ied a nd r e la t ive ly l a rge r s i t e s n ea rby , b a sed o n i n ten s ive a g r icu l tu r e . I th a s b een s ugge s ted t h a t , w i thou t c l ea r e v iden ce f o r c l ima t ic c hange s , t h e r e a son s f o r t h e d eve lopm en to ft h e se d i f f e r en tp a t t e rn so fs ub s i s t en ce m igh tb e s e a r ch ed i na n e nv i ronm en t a l d e t e r io ra t ion d ue t oo ve rg r az ing o rr e duc t ion o fg r az ing a r ea s i nt h e c l o se s u r round ing s o ft h e s i te d u et ot h eu se o fl a nd f o ra g r icu l tu r e ,w h ich m ay h ave b een i n du ced b y p opu la t ion g row th a si n d ica ted b y t h e i n c r ea se i n s i ze a nd n umbe r o f s i t e s N eo l i th ic /Ha laf p e r iod .

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