Encyclopaedia Britannica [13, 14R ed.]

Table of contents :
Cover
Title
JIR
JOH
JOH
JOI
JOP
JUB
JUD
JUN
JUS
KAB
KAM
KAN
KAR
KAZ
KEN
KEN
KEW
KID
KIN
KIN
KLE
KNO
KOH
KOR
KOS
KUA
KUW
LAB
LAB
LAC
LAG
LAM
LAN
LAN
LAN
LAN
LAP
LAT
LAT
LAT
LAT
LAW
LEA
LEA
LEC
LEG
LEI
LEN
LEO
LEP
LEV
LIB
LIB
LIB
LIE
LIF
LIG

Citation preview

Encyclopaedia Britannica; OK.

A

DICTIONARY o

ARTS

r

SCIENCES,

and

COMPILED UPON A NEW PLAN.

^f-^B ^

TW

let* i

ad tin » •

TW i miTliMiniTlin i

talk

l

to

*

3r>

£^AAZ^ -*~

^00

f-f

«.

tin «JC

*

T

**. ar»r

»*rrfiW ^1

%il«mrt fftWTLUli

IMM

at*

1

I

»l .

f.S

i,

t

.>L«

hru

ii

40 •
-

V the Breton parlement and the exchequer became from the ducal council; military institutions were reorganized, the merchant marine developed and agriculture and industry increased. When John died on Aug. 28, 1442, he was eulogized as an architect of Breton prosperity. For bibliography see Johx IV (Jean de Montfort). (Mi. M.) the Fearless (1371-1419), duke of Burgundy from 1404. was born at Dijon on May 28, 1371. the eldest son of Philip the Bold and Margaret of Flanders. His father arranged his marUnder John

(Jean de Montfort) (1339 or 1340-1399), duke of Brittany from 1365 to 1399. was the son of the John de Montfort (d. 1345) against whom Charles of Blois had contested the Breton succession (see also Brittany). Educated at the court of Edward III of England, who took charge of him when his mother, Joan of Flanders, became insane, he chose his first two wives Mary (1361). Edward's daughter, and Joan (1366), daughter of Thomas, earl of Kent from that king's country. After Charles of Blois had been defeated and killed at Auray (1364), the French king Charles V recognized John as duke of Brittany under the treaty of Guerande (q. v.) in 1365; but John remained determined to preserve his English connections. He made an alliance with Edward III (1372), was granted the earldom of Richmond and. in return, allowed the English to garrison his fortresses: 4.000 Eng-

IV

—

differentiated

JOHN

riage (1385) with Margaret, daughter of

the regent in Hainaut.

knights landed at St. Malo in March 1373. This angered not only the French but also the Bretons themselves, who detested the English. The French invaded Brittany. John fled to England (April 1373), and the English were driven from all the Breton strongholds except Brest. Derval. Auray and Becherel. Finally

(

1380).

Receiving

made peace with

little

Bayazid I's army at Nicopolis (Nikopol; Sept. 1396). He was ransomed for 200.000 gold ducats. From this adventure he gained

nickname "the Fearless." John succeeded his father as duke of Burgundy in 1404, but

his

further help from Richard, John

the regents for the

did not arrange a division of terri-

young Charles VI

tory with his brothers until after

by the second treaty of Guerande (1381). As well as his reliance on English aid, John's harsh taxation had made him unpopular in Brittany. The nobles resented his restrictions of their rights and the erection of new ducal castles at places such as St. Malo. St. Brieuc and Quimper; and his institution (1381) of the Order of the Ermine failed to engage their of France

support. A long personal feud with Olivier de Clisson (q.v.). who gave his daughter Marguerite in marriage to John of BloisPenthievre. son of John IV's old rival Charles, led to an attempt on Clisson's life at John IV's instigation (1392) and was only ended in 1395. John IV. who had married his third wife, Joan, daughter of Charles II the Bad of Navarre, in 1386, died at Nantes, on Nov. 1. 1399. His position in Brittany had been uneasy. See E. Durtelle de Saint Sauveur, Histoire de Bretagne, vol. i (1935) A. Rebillon, Histoire de Bretagne (1957). (Mi. M.)

;

JOHN V

the Valiant (Jean de Montfort) (1389-1442), duke of Brittany from 1399 to 1442, was born on Dec. 24, 1389, the son of John IV of Brittany and Joan of Navarre. Since he was a minor at his father's death (1399), Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, for some years acted as his guardian in the name of the French king Charles VI, but John was crowned duke at Rennes on March 23, 1402. Once in control of affairs, John V showed himself an adroit trimmer in diplomacy, treating alternately with either side in the successive struggles (1) between Burgundians and Armagnacs; (2) between French and English; and (3) between Charles VII of France and his enemies. Though he had been on good terms with Philip the Bold (d. 1404), John favoured the Armagnac faction against Philip's son John (q.v.) the Fearless after the murder of Louis d'Orleans (1407), but even so failed to take up arms against the Burgundians in 1414. Likewise, though he allowed his subjects to fight the English corsairs, he signed a truce (1407) with Henry IV of England; and in 1415 the Breton contingent arrived too late to support the French at Agincourt. Later still, his alliance of 1421 with the dauphin Charles (the future Charles VII) did not deter him from adhering in 1422 to the treaty of Troves (1420) by which Charles was disinherited in favour of Henry V of England; and even after allowing his brother Arthur III to be made constable of France by Charles (1425) he renewed his adhesion to the same treaty of Troves in 1427. When

led the

prisoner in an attack on Sultan

Charles V declared the duchy forfeit in 1378. This provoked a reaction of Breton patriotism in John's favour, which, however. was counteracted by John's allying himself with Richard II of eventually

Albert of Bavaria,

crusade of 1396 against the Turks in the Balkans, won his spurs as a knight in the assault on Vidin but was defeated and taken

lish

England

Duke

Count of Nevers from 1385, John

his mother's death (1405),

when

Brabant and Limburg to Antony and the counties of Nevers and Rethel. with some land he

left

Champagne,

to Philip. In the Countries he supported Antony's claims to Luxembourg;

in

Low "EST OF THE MUSEE ROYAL DES BEAUXANTWERP; PHOTO. A.C.L.

and at Othee (Sept. 23, 1408) he JOHN THE FEARLESS. PORTRAIT BY defeated the people of Liege AN UNKNOWN MASTER OF THE who were rebelling against their SOUTHERN NETHERLANDS. C. 1415 bishop, his brother-in-law. John of Bavaria. For his sister Catherine, widow of Leopold IV of Habsburg. duke of Austria, he secured possession of the county of Ferrette. which had been her dowry. Because one of his vassals. Louis de Chalon. had carried off one of the duchess Margaret's ladies in waiting. John attacked him (1412-19) and occupied his county of Tonnerre. John's quarrel with his first cousin. Louis, due d'Orleans (q.v.), brother of the French king Charles VI, began in 1404. Orleans wanted to join Luxembourg, Valois and Vermandois to his domain, thus dividing Burgundy and Flanders. He had also attained the dominant position in the French royal council, hitherto occupied by Philip the Bold. John, thus deprived of the numerous financial advantages enjoyed by his father, began demanding a reform of the royal finances and objecting to the taxes suggested by Louis. In this he was supported by the University of Paris, by the bourgeoisie of Paris and by the butchers' guild under its leader Simon Caboche {q.v.). John's daughter Margaret was married in Aug. 1404 to the dauphin Louis, due de Guienne (d. 1415), whom John was thus able to employ as an instrument for his policy. After a serious conflict in 1405. the quarrel between Orleans and Burgundy broke out afresh in 1407. A reconciliation was forced on the disputants, but three days later Louis was assassinated ARTS.

(Nov. 23. 1407). John admitted responsibility for this murder had to leave Paris (Nov. 27). but he returned in Feb. 1408. gaging the Franciscan Jean Petit to justify the murder on grounds that it was allowable tyrannicide. In any case. John

and enthe

was now assured of the preponderant role in the king's council and could force the other French princes and the so-called Armagnac

J

JOHN faction

— representing

reconciliation treaties

his victim's heirs

made

—

to agree to a series of

at Chartres (1409), at Bicetre

and, after his unsuccessful campaign against the

(1410)

Armagnacs

in

Bourges, at Auxerre in 1412. From 1409 onward, John inaugurated certain fiscal reforms and penalized various financiers; this repressive policy led to riots (1412-13) directed against the dauphin Louis and against his mother Isabella of Bavaria, who was acting as regent for the deranged Charles VI. John tried to appease the rebels by issuing the reforms known as the "Ordonnance Cabochienne" but soon had to abandon Paris to the Armagnacs (Aug. 1413). John was then treated as a rebel, and an expedition was sent against him in the king's name. This forced him to come to terms at Arras (Feb. 1415). but he took no part in the French campaign which ended in the French disaster at Agincourt later that year. Moreover, his son-in-law the dauphin Louis died in Dec. 1415, the next dauphin (Jean, due de Touraine) died in April 1417, and Charles (afterward Charles VII of France), who then became dauphin, was John's enemy. John had already treated with Henry V of England in Oct. 1416; and in Nov. 1417 he joined up with the queen, whom the dauphin Charles had driven from court, and with her organized a shadow government at Troyes, rivaling the government in Paris. Civil war broke out again, and after a rising in Paris against the Armagnacs (May 1418) John retook the city. By now, however, the English campaign in Normandy, begun in 1417, was menacing Paris, so that John, who could not meet the threat alone, had to come to terms with the dauphin. After preliminary interviews at Pouilly and at Corbeil (July 1419), the two princes met again on the bridge at Montereau on Sept. 10, 1419. There a dispute started, perhaps deliberately provoked by the

Armagnacs, and John was Bibliography.

killed.

—B. Pocquet de Haut-Jusse, Jean sans Peur:

son but

methode (1942) J. d'Avout, La Querelle des Armagnacs et des Bourguignons (1943) H. David, Du nouveau sur Jean sans Peur (1958). et sa

;

;

(J. B. R.)

JOHN

the Steadfast (1468-1532), elector of Saxony from 1525, was born at Meissen on June 30. 1468, the fourth son of the elector Ernest, founder of the Ernestine branch of the house of Wettin.

On

29

admirals of the league and to inspire the soldiers and sailors with In the battle his own courage. of Lepanto (Oct. 7, 1571) the allies virtually annihilated the Turkish fleet. The victory fired Don John's ambition for further campaigns against the Turks; but Philip would only allow him to conquer Tunis (1573) and he vetoed a plan, put forward by Spanish court circles and by Pope Gregory XIII, to proclaim Don John king of Tunis. The city was lost again in 1574, and Don John continued to chafe under the restraints which his cautious and suspicious brother imposed MANSELL— ANDERSON on his ambitions. DON JOHN OF AUSTRIA. DETAIL In 1576 Philip appointed Don FROM A PORTRAIT BY AN UNKNOWN John governor general of the ARTIST. IN THE MUSEO DEL PRADO. Netherlands, then in open revolt MADRID against the king's authority. Don John accepted the post only on condition that he would be al-

lowed to invade England in order to liberate and marry Mary In the Netherlands he signed the Perpetual Edict with Stuart. the states-general (Feb. 1577). The Spanish troops were to be sent away but the Catholic religion was to be restored. The provinces of Holland and Zeeland did not accept this latter condition and refused to recognize Don John's authority. Soon he realized that neither the Netherlanders nor Philip would support his plans against England. After months of exasperating negotiations, Don John reverted to the more congenial role of soldier and resumed

war by capturing Namur. He routed the states-general's army Gembloux (Jan. 1578), but had not enough forces to follow up his success. Philip had grown increasingly suspicious of his brother and had even approved the murder of his secretary, Juan de the at

Don John's repeated requests to be redied at Bouges. near Namur, on Oct. 1, 1578.

Escobedo; yet he refused

Don John

(1486) he began to rule jointly with his eldest brother Frederick III the Wise over all the Ernestine

called.

lands apart from the electoral territory. He was a fervent supporter of Martin Luther. Succeeding his brother as elector in May

and reputation as the Christendom against Islam. In the political and religious conflicts of western Europe, and in the intrigues of the Spanish court, he found himself out of his depth. His early death came as a deliverance from an increasingly intolerable position. Bibliography. W. Stirling Maxwell, Don John of Austria, 2 vol. (1883) P. O. von Torne, Don Juan d'Autriche et les pro jets de conquite de I'Angleterre, 2 vol. (1915-28) F. Hartlaub, Don Juan d' Austria und die Schlacht bei Lepanto (1940) F. Braudel, La Mediterranee el (H. G. Ko.) le monde mediterraneen a Vepoque de Philippe II (1949) JOHN, Don, of Austria (1629-1679), the younger, the most famous of the illegitimate children of Philip IV of Spain, was born in Madrid in April 1629, his mother being the celebrated actress Maria Calderon. He received a princely education at Ocafia and was amply endowed with commanderies in the military orders and other forms of income. He received his first military command in 1647 when he was sent to Naples to support the viceroy against a popular rising. He was recalled to Spain in 1651 and given the

his father's death

1525, he formed the League of Gotha or of Torgau with Philip (q.v.) of Hesse in Feb. 1526, for the protection of the Reformers. Other princes joined this league, and the Reformers were able to

obtain a favourable recess from the diet of Speyer in the following

summer.

Thereupon John proceeded to reform the church in Saxony, where a plan for divine service was drawn up by Luther.

When

the Catholic majority at the next diet of Speyer (1529) repealed the recess of 1526, John signed the minority's protest, thus original Protestants. He accepted the Augsburg Confession of 1530; and in view of the Holy Roman emperor Charles V's threat to coerce the Lutherans he played a leading part in forming the League of Schmalkalden in the winter of 1530-31. The religious peace of Nurnberg (July 23, 1532) between Charles and the league had temporarily averted hostilities when John died at Schweinitz on Aug. 16, 1532. JOHN, Don, of Austria (1547-1578), the victor of the naval battle of Lepanto, was born at Ratisbon on Feb. 24, 1547, the illegitimate son of the emperor Charles V and Barbara Blomberg, a burgher's daughter. He was brought up in concealment in Spain under the name of Geronimo. After the emperor's death, Philip II recognized Geronimo as his half brother and gave him the name of Don Juan de Austria (1559). Don John had all the princely qualities of dedication to arms, personal charm and loyalty which Philip's son, Don Carlos, lacked so conspicuously. In March 1569 Philip II appointed Don John commander in chief against the rebellious Moriscos of Granada. After the successful conclusion of this campaign, he appointed him (1571) commander in chief of the naval forces of the Holy League of Spain, Venice and the pope. By the prestige of his royal name and by his enthusiasm Don John was able to impose a temporary unity of purpose on the quarreling

becoming one of the

One

of the

history,

most

attractive,

Don John had won

champion

if

quixotic, personalities in Spanish

his victories

of

—

;

;

;

.

command

of the forces besieging Barcelona.

He

negotiated the

terms under which the city surrendered in Oct. 1652. In Catalonia Don John carried out a policy favourable to the interests of the bourgeoisie, who were later to support him in his bids for power at court. In 1656 he was sent to Flanders as governor and achieved a brilliant personal success at Valenciennes. ever, he was defeated at the battle of the

de Turenne.

army initial

Two years later, howDunes by the marshal

Don John was recalled to Spain He held this post from 1661

in Portugal.

to

successes but eventually being soundly beaten.

(Sept. 17, 1665) of Philip

IV he was

command

the

to 1664, enjoying

On

the death

out of favour.

Don John played an active part in the political intrigues which marked the minority of the new king, his half brother Charles II. He was strongly hostile to the queen mother and in 1669 headed a military rising in Aragon and Catalonia (the first of the pronun-

JOHN

3o

ciamientos which were later to become such a recurrent feature of Spanish history) which obliged her to dismiss her confessor and For the time being, Don favourite, Johann Eberhard Xithard. John was forced to content himself with the viceroyalty of Aragon, but in 1677 he was able to drive the queen mother from court and Highly popular, and widely establish himself as first minister. regarded as the saviour of Spain, Don JohnVas in office for only a short time and his administration proved disappointing. His death, which occurred in Madrid, on Sept. 17, 1679, saved him from certain downfall. Bibliography.

IV (1918)

;

—Alberto

Risco,

Don Juan

de Austria, hijo de Felipe II (1954) Juan (J. Re.)

Duque de Maura, Vida y reinado de Carlos

Regla, Els Virreis de Catalunya (1956).

;

JOHN

of Asia (506/507-c. 586), bishop of Ephesus, was a leader of the Monophysite Syriac -speaking church and author of one of the earliest and most important of Syriac histories. Born Amida (modern Diyarbakir, Turk.), he was there ordained deacon in 529, when already a monk. He visited Antioch, Egypt and Constantinople before being compelled to move from his monastery with the other monks because of persecution of the Monophysites after the Council of Constantinople in 536. Four years later he settled in Constantinople, where he won the favour of Justinian I, who in 542 sent him to the province of Asia to evangelize. John was supposed to preach the orthodox faith as defined at the Council of Chalcedon (451), but was finally consecrated as bishop of Ephesus, the capital of Asia, by a Monophysite bishop (c. 558). After the death of Theodosius of Alexandria in 566 John was in Constantinople as leader of the Monophysites there, but was unable to prevent a schism within the Monophysite ranks. In 571 he was expelled from his monastery in Constantinople after the accession of Justin II, and suffered various imprisonments. He died c. 586, after a year of exile in Chalcedon. His only extant works are a collection of lives of the Eastern saints and the last part of an ecclesiastical history of the period from Julius Caesar to his own time. The part which survives covers the years 571 to 585. It gives a reliable account of events in which John took part, referring to himself in the third person. Bibliography. John's saints' lives ed. by E. W. Brooks with Eng. trans., Patrologia orientalis, vol. xvii-xix (1923-26) history ed. by the same with Lat. trans., Corpus scriptorum Christianorum orientalium, series Syriaca, vol. iii, part 3 (1935-36). See also A. Dyakonov, Ioann Efessky (1908) A. Baumstark, Geschickte der syrischen Literaat

—

;

;

tur (1922).

JOHN

the Faster (John TV) (d. 595), patriarch of Constantinople from 582 to 595, who claimed to the title of ecumenical patriarch, was in his youth a sculptor. Showing early asceticism, he became the protege of the patriarch John III Scholasticus, was ordained deacon by him and made almoner of Hagia Sophia. At the death of John Ill's successor, Eutychius, he was elected to the patriarchal throne (582). He apparently first claimed the title ecumenical in 588. This title had previously been used in the time of Justinian I, but the importance of John's act lies in his insistence on its use and its continuance down to the present day {see Constantinople, Ecumenical Patriarchate of). It doubtless represented the dignity of the throne of Constantinople among the other eastern patriarchates as the result of the 28th canon of the Council of Chalcedon (451), which gave the bishop of the imperial capital the second place after that of Rome. Protests were made by both the popes Pelagius II and St. Gregory the Great, but John was not trying to usurp the claims of Rome. The title is one of honorary precedence, the patriarch himself being the mouthpiece of his synod, and has reference to the inhabited (oikoumene) or civilized world. John's asceticism brought him the name of "the Faster." That he left no personal possessions when he died on Sept. 2, 595, added much to his reputation. Various works on penitence are extant under his name, but they seem to belong to the 7th or 8th century. One on repentance, self-control and virginity is largely based on St. John Chrysostom. Bibliography. Supposititious works in J. P. Migne, Patrologia Graeca, vol. 88 (1860). See also R. Janin in A. Vacant (ed.), Dictionnaire de theologie catholique, vol. 8, col. 828-829 (1924); H. G. Beck, Kirche und theologische Literatur im Byzantinischen Reich (1959) E. Herman, "II piu antico penitenziale greco," Orientalia Chris-

—

;

tiana periodica, 19:70-127 (1953).

(A. O.)

JOHN JOHN

of Gaunt: see Lancaster, John of Gaunt, duke of. of Kronstadt (Ivan Ilyich Sergeev) (1829-1909), "the great shepherd of Russia," united in his person traditional asceticism, evangelizing ability and awareness of the social duties of Christianity. He was born on Oct. 31, 1829, in Sura near Archangel, the son of a family with more than 350 years' tradition of priesthood. After attending an ecclesiastical school and a seminary he went in 1851 to the theological academy in St. Petersburg. Although John originally wanted to become a monk, he recognized his call to lay priesthood, married Yelizaveta Konstantinovna Nesvitskaya (or Vetvenitskaya) and, after taking priest's orders on Sept. 24, 1855, went to the Church of St. Andrew in the port of Kronstadt (Kronshtadt), a very poor and crime-infested parish. By diligently visiting the houses of his parishioners he won the confidence of the totally unchurched population. He founded in 1874 a brotherhood for social welfare work. A dom trudolubia, the first of its kind in Russia, was set up to include workshops, training in professional skills and courses in general education and religion, as well as charitable activities. Its own printing works published John's spiritual writings.

John was well known

among owed

all

as a spiritual adviser throughout Russia

classes of society,

Many sick people He was one of the few

even at court.

their recovery to his intercession.

important preachers of his time and an upholder of frequent communion. In order to facilitate this for the crowds of people who flocked to hear him he introduced general confession of sins which was then unprecedented in the Orthodox Church. John died on Jan.

2,

1909.

Many Orthodox

Christians revere John of Kronstadt as a saint, but he was never canonized. The reasons are probably twofold: first, he was an uncompromising supporter of the alliance between the tsarist state and Orthodox Church and the opponent of all political reform and revolution; and second, toward the end of his life there developed a fanatical sectarian veneration of his person in the

form of the so-called "Joannity."

See John's My Life in Christ, Eng. trans, by E. E. Goulaeff (1897). See also G. P. Fedotov (ed.), A Treasury of Russian Spirituality (1948). (F. v. L.)

JOHN

of Salisbury (1115 or 1120-1180), the best Latinist of his age, was the secretary of two important archbishops of Canterbury, Theobald and Thomas Becket, and finally became bishop of Chartres, France. He was born in Old Salisbury, Wilt-

France for between two periods in Paris. He became a clerk in Theobald's household in 1148 and during the next five years was mainly employed on missions to the Roman curia, where he gained a thorough knowledge of chanHis cery practice and of the personalities of the papal court. shire,

and after 1135 studied

at cathedral schools in

12 years, interposing three years at Chartres

Historia pontificalis, written about 1163, with

its brilliant

character

sketches is virtually a memorandum from this viewpoint of the great events of those years. From 1153 John's contribution can be traced in the archbishop's council. His main duty was to draft the correspondence with the papal curia, especially in con-

nection with appeals. In the late summer of 1156 this activity brought him into disfavour with King Henry II who regarded him as a champion of ecclesiastical independence. The crisis blew over, but to some extent it influenced two books that John wrote in 1159, the Policraticus and the Metalogicon. The former work was dedicated to Thomas Becket, still archdeacon of Canterbury and the king's chancellor; its influence may possibly have contributed to Becket's change, when he became archbishop in 1162, into an

austere protagonist of ecclesiastical rights. It seems that Henry saw John's relation with the archbishop in this light, for John had to go into exile in France in the autumn of 1163, in advance of his master. From his refuge in the monastery of St. Remi at Reims

he wrote

many

letters, assessing the

case in the light of

prospects of the Canterbury policies and appearing as

European events and

an acute and almost detached observer. After the reconciliation between Henry and Becket. he returned to England in Nov. 1 1 70, a month before the archbishop, and was in Canterbury cathedral when Becket was assassinated (Dec. 29, 1170). After that event John was occupied in collecting Becket's correspondence and pre-

J

TO AND EPISTLES OF SAINT

JOHN, GOSPEL ACCORDING paring a biographical introduction. He became bishop of Chartres an active part in the third Lateran council (March 1179) and died on Oct. 25, 1180, probably at Chartres, where he

in 1176, took

was buried. The "Metalogicon" and the "Policraticus." In these two books John set out the conclusions he had drawn from the learning of his student days. His general intention was to show his contemporaries that both in their intellectual pursuits and in their actions they were defecting from the true task of humanity. His work represents a protest against the professional specialization slowly developing in royal and papal administration as well as in academic teaching. In the Metalogicon he attempted to show that logical studies ought not to be isolated from literary education;

—

in

it

he provided the

first

western analysis of the whole corpus of

Aristotle's logical writings, thereby proving his acquaintance with

In the Policraticus followed by contempo-

the latest developments in scholastic thought.

he unfavourably contrasted the way of life rary courtiers and administrators with an ideal practice imagined from examples gathered from Latin poets and from classic and As a political theorist John's views were patristic prose writers. those of the pamphleteers who argued the Gregorian thesis of ecclesiastical supremacy. This doctrine seemed to him fully in harmony with the emphasis on natural law that he had derived from the philosophical tradition of antiquity. His attitude is exthe doctrine that the church reprepressed by the literary device which forms the political core sents the soul of the body politic

—

—

of the Policraticus.

among contemporary

philosophers was to some exobviously acquainted with current problems, but his attitude showed a marked divergence from the approach of the Chartres school. Whereas these thinkers indulged in cosmological speculation developed through their interpretation of the Latin version of Plato's Timaeus, John merely reported philosophical doctrine, avoiding metaphysical statements, and he liked to quote Cicero as an authority for this kind of skepticism. This attitude was much more akin to that which had developed among the teachers of theology in Paris during his last years there, partly under the impact of Cistercian opposition to rational investigations. But the composition of all his works shows that he had in any case a strong personal disinclination to systematic con-

John's place

He was

tent ambiguous.

struction.

—

Bibliography. The complete works of John of Salisbury are ed. by A. Giles, Joannis Saresberiensis opera omnia, 5 vol. (1848), and in The J. P. Migne, Patrologiae cursus computus, vol. cxcix (1855). following modern editions are also available: C. Webb (ed.), Joannis Saresberiensis Policratici Libri VIII (1909), and Joannis Saresberiensis Metalogicon (1929) D. McGarry (ed. and Eng. trans.), The Metalogicon (1955) R. L. Poole (ed.), Joannis Saresberiensis historiae pontificalis (1927); M. Chibnall (ed. and Eng. trans.), John of Salisbury's Memoirs of the Papal Court (1956) W. J. Millor and H. E. Butler (eds.), The Letters of John of Salisbury, vol. i, with biographical introduction by C. N. L. Brooke (1955- ) J. Dickinson (ed.), The Statesman's Book, i.e., extracts from the Policraticus (1927). See also C. Schaarschmidt, Johannes Saresberiensis (1862) E. F. Jacob, J.

.

.

.

.

.

official

war

Canadian

artist in the

Order of Merit. A retrospective exhibition of his work was held the Royal Academy in 1954. John died at Fordingbridge, Hampshire, on Oct. 31, 1961.

at

—

Bibliography. C. Dodgson, A Catalogue of Etchings by Augustus John 1901-1914 (1920) A. Bertram, Augustus John (1923) J. Rothenstein, Augustus John (1944); A. John, Chiaroscuro: Fragments of ;

;

Autobiography (1952).

(D. L. Fr.)

JOHN, GRIFFITH

(1831-1912), Welsh minister and the first Christian missionary to penetrate central China, was born at Swansea on Dec. 14, 1831, and was brought up a Congregationalist. His work in China as a missionary covered a period of 55 years. In 1861 he went from Shanghai through the provinces of central China, and he claimed that with his colleagues he had established more than 100 stations of the London Missionary society in Hupeh and Hunan. He acquired an intimate knowledge of Chinese language and literature, and translated the New Testament and a great part of the Old into more than one Chinese dialect. In the Yangtze valley he founded a theological college for native preachers which bore his name. He died at Hampstead, London, on July 25, 1912.

JOHN, GOSPEL ACCORDING TO AND EPISTLES OF SAINT, books of the New Testament. The Gospel of John is

the Fourth Gospel, a position

in the

majority of manuscripts.

classified

among

the catholic

it

holds in

The

{i.e.,

printed editions and

all

three Epistles of

John are

universal) Epistles, though II

and III John are addressed to specific persons, II John to "the elect lady and her children" (referring to a church), III John to "the beloved Gaius." The Gospel's place in the New Testament canon, at first contested by some, was established by c. 200. There is no record of dispute about I John. But II and III John ranked as disputed books until the 4th century, when the seven-letter canon of catholic Epistles superseded the three-letter canon that included only James, I Peter and I John.

THE GOSPEL Structure Contents.

.

;

;

;

"John of Salisbury and the 'Policraticus,' " F. J. C. Hearnshaw (ed.), The Social and Political Ideas of Some Great Medieval Thinkers (1923) C. Webb, John of Salisbury (1932) R. L. Poole, Studies in Chronology and History (1934) H. Liebeschiitz, Mediaeval Humanism in the Life and Writings of John of Salisbury (r950) G. Constable, "The Alleged Disgrace of John of Salisbury in 1159," English Historical Review, vol. ;

;

;

;

(H. Lz.)

lxix (1954).

JOHN, AUGUSTUS EDWIN

(1878-1961), British portrait and mural painter, etcher and lithographer, was born at Tenby, Wales, on Jan. 4, 1878. He studied art at the Slade school, London (1894-98), winning a scholarship in 1896. He first visited Paris in 1900, traveling later to the Netherlands, Belgium and Provence. His drawings show great precocity and he was chiefly influenced by Rembrandt, El Greco and the Postimpressionists. He was a regular exhibitor at the New English Art club from 1900, and taught painting at Liverpool university until 1902. A colourful personality, he roamed over Wales, Ireland and Dorset, painting gypsy life and, after working with J. D. Innes and Derwent Lees (1911-14), developed a bold style of sharply defined areas of bright colour. first

an

I as

peace conference. Later portraits include those of the cellist Mme Suggia (1923, Tate gallery), the poet Dylan Thomas (c. 1936-40, National museum, Wales) and the artist Matthew Smith (c. 1946, Tate gallery). His landscapes of the 1920s are in a Cezannesque style. Augustus John is well represented in the Tate gallery. Although elected a royal academician in 1928, he resigned in He was re-elected in 1940 and in 1942 was awarded the 1938.

;

.

His

World War

corps inspired the large decorative cartoon "Canadians Opposite Lens" (1919), and he painted many leading personalities of the

.

.

;

gallery,

service in

31

important

oil,

"The Smiling Woman"

London), was a portrait of

his

(c.

1908, Tate

second wife Dorelia.

His

—The solemn prologue culminates

in the incarnation

Word

(Gr. Logos) and the antithesis between Judaism and Christianity: the Law was given by Moses, grace and truth by of the

Jesus Christ (i, 1-18). The next sections underline the finality of the incarnation in contrast to all that has gone before. John the Baptist yields to Jesus as Son of God (i, 19-52). Jesus' first miracle at Cana marks the transformation of the water of Judaism into the wine of the gospel

(ii,

1-12).

He

purifies the

Temple,

bringing the old cultus to an end (ii, 13-22). He teaches Rabbi Nicodemus about the new birth as something radically supernatural (ii, 23-iii, 21). John the Baptist reiterates his prepara-

tory status as a forerunner (iii, 22-36). Jesus' dialogue with the symbolic figure of the woman of Samaria (iv, 1—42) teaches that true worship transcends both Judaism and the Samaritan cultus, and culminates in the self-revelation of Jesus as Messiah significantly made to a non-Jew outside Jewish territory (cf. the half-heathen Galileans of iv, 43-45). The Samaritans accept the

—

revelation without miracles as guarantees.

man

So

also

of iv, 46-54 (probably a gentile since the story

the nobleis

a modifi-

5-13 and Luke vii, 1-10) is a type of faith in Jesus' word independent of signs and wonders. From v, 1 the scene moves to Jerusalem. The theme is the manifestation of the incarnate Word in Judaea in face of the Jews' disbelief and hardness of heart. The mounting crisis is underlined by the healing of the man at the pool of Bethesda on the Sabbath cation of the centurion's servant in Matt,

viii,

JOHN, GOSPEL ACCORDING

32

day (v. 1-47). by the feeding of the multitude and the discourse on the bread of life (vi. 1-71; since this chapter is located in Galilee, probably it ought to be placed before ch. v), and by the Jews' attempts to kill Jesus and the controversy at the Feast of Tabernacles

ivii-viii).

heightened by the incident of the woman taken in adultery (vii. 53-viii, 11); but the manuscript evidence makes it unlikely that this belongs to the original text of the Gospel which

The

tension

is

i

has no implications for the .question of historical authenticity). Though supported by the Byzantine text and Codex Bezae. it is omitted by many manuscripts and by others is placed after vii. 36 or xxi. 24 or Luke xxi, 38. which suggests that it was a floating tradition which, in face of all the 2nd-century tendencies to turn the Christian ethic into a morality of rules and precepts, asserted Further disputes are occasioned its claim to a place in the canon. by the healing of the man born blind (ix). the discourse concerning the good shepherd (x). and decisively by the raising of Lazarus

from the dead which precipitates Caiaphas' judgment that Jesus' is expedient (xi). Nevertheless. Jesus goes up for the Passover to stay at Bethany with Mary. Martha and Lazarus (the anointing, xii, 1-8), and to make his triumphal entry into Jerusalem (xii, 12-19). At the

death

when '"some Greeks'" ask to hour has now come for the Son point

see him, Jesus declares that the

of

Man

to

be

glorified in the

is throughout a divine victory over the powers of 20-36). and in face of continued Jewish blindness declares himself the light of the world, to reject which is to decide destiny at the last judgment (xii. 37-50.). Hitherto there has been intermittent contact with the synoptic But the washing of the disciples' feet (xiii. 1-15). the tradition. farewell discourses after the Last Supper (xiii. 16-xvn and the intercession for the disciples or "high priestly prayer" xvii") are unparalleled in the Synoptic Gospels; and from xiii. 1 the Gospel of St. John moves into a new key. with a sense of profound inwardness and intensity, as Jesus gives his last teaching to the inner The language reflects the deepest excircle of intimate disciples. perience of the church. There is no account of the actual Last Supper and nothing is said of the institution of the Eucharist (a but just as silence paralleled by the omission of Jesus' baptism) baptism and Eucharist are presupposed in iii and vi respectively, so also xiii. 1-15 is full of baptismal allusions and the "abiding in

passion, which evil (xii.

f

;

the vine'' of xv has strong eucharistic overtones.

The theme

of the farewell discourses as a whole

union between Christ and his disciples.

He

is

are to bear fruit.

the organic

the authentic vine

and the disciples are the branches The mutual love of the Father and the

Son. and of the Son and his disciples, contrasts with the hatred of true disciples share the hatred which Jesus endures in the passion and which is an expression of the world's alienation from God. The departure of Jesus from his disciples is expedient since it is the condition of the coming of the Holy Spirit, the "Paraclete" (i.e., "helper," "advocate." "counselor"; xiv, 16-17, the world

—

26; xv, 26; xvi, 7-15; the word is twice used of Jesus: in I John Just as John the Baptist is 1 and indirectly in John xiv. 16). forerunner for Jesus, so Jesus himself is forerunner for the Spirit

ii.

whom

he himself sends.

resurrection church of Jesus

;

is

The

Spirit's

revelation to the post-

in all respects continuous with the witness

which are not by the Father, both are disboth teach the disciples truth and both So the evangelist denies that the Spirit

no functions are ascribed

to the Paraclete

also ascribed to Jesus: both are sent

cerned only by believers, convict the world of sin. is the source of new revelations out of line with the norm of primitive apostolic teaching, and at the same time affirms the identity of the Jesus of history with the Christ of faith.

The passion

narrative (xviii-xix) resumes closer contact with

the synoptic tradition but of divine triumph

is

dramatically told as a manifestation

and majesty. The resurrection story (xx) under-

proximity to the earthly Jesus is not faith, which is rather a relation to the risen Lord, who is Therefore "blessed nevertheless one with the historical Jesus. The are those who have not seen and yet believe" (xx, 29). epilogue (xxi) describes the meeting of the risen Christ with lines the point that historical

group of disciples by the Lake of Tiberias, and a dialogue with Peter concerning his commission, which includes an explicit denial of a popular rumour that the "beloved" disciple would not die before the Lord's return. Relation to the Synoptic Gospels. St. John's use of his sources is subtle and his relation to the synoptic tradition is problematic. The most superficial reader is struck by the contrast the paucity of parables, the insistence on miracles as a manifestation of divine glory rather than incidental acts of compassion and the drastic heightening of the supernatural (e.g., ii. 1-10; v, 5; ix, 1; xi. 39 ). the long discourses of self-revelation and the hieratic style, the monotones of which produce a strange effect of timelessness. The actions and words of Jesus seem more symbolic than spontaneous. The apocalyptic element has been transmuted (characteristically the eschatological title "Son of Man" in St. John means the humanity of Christ). Judgment and salvation belong not to the future but to the immediate presence of Jesus, preexistent. eternal, unchanging and undergoing no surrender of divine glory by becoming flesh. In St. John's Gospel. Jesus is not a

—

:

tempted and never asks a question to which he does not already know the answer. At death he utters a cry not of dereliction but of triumph.

At the same time

St.

John

is

more emphatic than

the synoptists

in stressing the reality of Jesus' humanity.

Despite the obvious differences there is much contact with the St. John corresponds to St. Mark in including John the Baptist, the feeding of the multitude, the walking on the lake. Peter's confession, the anointing and triumphal entry, the synoptists in detail.

supper. Judas' betrayal, the arrest. Peter's denial, and several deLikewise there tails of the passion and resurrection narrative. is contact with Luke in the mention of Lazarus, a disciple named

Judas other than Judas Iscariot. and Annas the high priest; also in minor details such as John xiii. 38 (cf. Luke xxii. 34), xviii. 10 (cf.

with

Luke xxii. 38), xx, 12 (cf. Luke xxiv. 4). The nearest contact St. Matthew is in the form and placing of the saying, John xiii,

16; xv, 20 (cf. Matt, x, 24-25).

(See also Gospels.)

Literary History

The

style of the

Fourth Gospel

is

throughout so homogeneous

that no theory of composition which breaks

able sources can be rendered plausible.

order of the text as is

(in contrast to the old Israel),

who

TO AND EPISTLES OF SAINT

it

it

On

up into distinguishthe other hand, the

stands (according to the unanimous con-

sensus of the manuscripts) causes acute difficulties which have provoked many attempts at restoring what is believed to be the

The geographical data demand that ch. vi precede 15-24 belongs with v; x, 22 ff. looks like the beginning of the discourse on the shepherd, and x. 19-21. with its reference to healing the blind, seems to be in the wrong place; xii. 44-50 is unconnected with what precedes and follows; xiv, 31 leads naturally into xviii. If the text is indeed in disorder, then it is not the original document as it left its author's hand and a theory of editorial revision is unavoidable. That such revision occurred is likely anyway in view of ch. xxi. where the author of the Gospel is identified with the elusive "disciple whom Jesus loved" (xxi, 20That he is also 24, cf. xiii. 23; xix, 26-27. 35; xx, 2-10; xxi. 7. intended in xviii, 15-16 is possible but not necessary; concerning i, 40 no decision can be reached). The identity of the beloved disciple is never disclosed; not a word in the Gospel itself indicates that John the son of Zebedee is intended (see John, Saixt. the apostle), and this mysterious original order. ch. v; vii,

reticence has led to speculation either that for the original evan-

he is an ideal and symbolic figure and that this was not understood by the first editors or that he is Lazarus (cf. xi, 3 and 36). It is perhaps more probable that the title is throughout attributable not to the evangelist but to bis editors, who carefully give the lie to the popular rumour that the beloved disciple would live until the Lord's return (xxi. 20-23) and manifestly regard him as a concrete historical person, a member of the group mentioned in xxi. 2. present at the Last Supper, an eyewitness of the crucifixion, It is there honoured by being entrusted with Jesus' mother. probable (not certain) that the editors thought the beloved disgelist

ciple

was John son of Zebedee.

JOHN, GOSPEL ACCORDING The deliberate reticence may seem odd to the modern reader, who may find it hard to envisage a book lacking clear indications In fact the Gospels and Acts were pubanonymously their present titles come from the 2nd century (the Bodmer Papyrus ii, of c. 200, has the inscription "Gospel ac-

of author or publisher. lished

;

cording to John"). According to the earliest Christian conviction the author of an inspired work was the Holy Spirit and the human writer was only an instrument. Letters and apocalypses were different, in that they

had

to bear the

name

of their author as a

vindication of their authority and authenticity. editors of the Fourth Gospel provided the

The

fact that the

work with a hint con-

cerning the identity of the author suggests that they were anxious for the acceptance of the authenticity and veracity of the narrative. It is

noteworthy that none of the Synoptic Gospels carries any

internal indication, direct or indirect, concerning the identity of

the author.

The date of the Gospel is very uncertain. A 2nd-century dating put out of court by the evidence of papyrus fragments. According to Christian writers of the end of the 2nd century the Fourth Gospel was the last to be written and was intended as a supplement to the synoptists. If it is independent of the synoptists, But the work is marked its lateness cannot be taken for granted. by a deep sense of maturity and meditative reflection and by an is

and subtlety which make it hard to regard as a young Its composition was probably a long process. Moreover, it reflects the richness of experience of the Christian community. While, therefore, a date before 90-100 is not impossible, especially if it is independent of the synoptists, it is not allusiveness

man's work.

probable.

The so-called anti-Marcionite prologue to John (to which various dates from the 2nd to the 5th century have been assigned) attributes to Papias the statement that "John gave his gospel to the churches while he was still in the body" (adhuc in corpore constituto) Probably this is a distant echo of lost controversy on .

the question whether the Gospel was a

posthumous publication or

not (cf. xxi, 23-24). Ecclesiastical Tradition.—The ecclesiastical tradition from the last decade of the 2nd century unanimously affirms that

John

son of Zebedee, one of the 12 apostles, wrote the Gospel and the first catholic Epistle that bears his name. As both Gospel and Epistle are strictly anonymous productions (like much other early Christian literature), this 2nd-century evidence must be scrutinized. That the son of Zebedee also wrote the Johannine Apocalypse (see Revelation, Book of) and the two Epistles known as II and III John, ancient testimony is not unanimous, though these writings are not anonymous II and III John are written by one entitling himself "the presbyter." Origen, who regards Gospel, Apocalypse and First Epistle as the work of the apostle, records uncertainty about II and III John; Eusebius of Caesarea (4th century) reckons them among the disputed books. Dionysius of Alexandria (3rd century), while rejecting an extreme view that the Apocalypse had no place whatever in the New Testament canon, argued on stylistic grounds that Gospel and Apocalypse cannot be by the same author and suggested that the latter was by another John, finding support for this hypothesis in the existence of two rival tombs at Ephesus, each claimed as the apostle's. The affirmation that the apostle lived to an old age and died at Ephesus is common to several writers at the end of the 2nd century: Irenaeus of Lyons, Polycrates of Ephesus, Clement of Alexandria and Tertullian of Carthage. Polycrates, when the apostolic tradition of Asia Minor was challenged by Victor of Rome, declared that Philip the apostle was buried at Hierapolis and that John, "who leant on the Lord's breast, who was a priest, wearing the sacerdotal plate, both martyr and teacher, fell asleep at Ephesus." His reference to John's martyrdom is noteworthy; he probably means the exile to Patmos, thereby implying the identification of apocalyptist and evangelist. It is disturbing that he seems to merge Philip the apostle and Philip the evangelist, which suggests an inclination to overcall the hand.

—

Irenaeus, whose origins lie in Asia Minor, does not doubt that the apostle John, having written the Apocalypse under Domitian,

TO AND EPISTLES OF SAINT

33

wrote the Gospel and died in Asia Minor under Trajan; i.e., after Irenaeus claims that as a small boy he saw Polycarp of 98. Smyrna who had known John, and frequently appeals to the authority of "elders" (whom he does not claim to have either seen or heard but whom he must have read, or read about) who also knew John in Asia Minor. These links between Irenaeus and John are not invulnerable, and the points for which Irenaeus invokes the authority of "elders" are unimpressive; e.g., that Jesus lived to an old age (cf. John viii, 57). Moreover, all his statements are made in a polemical context, defending both Gospel and Apocalypse from attack. Since the criterion of admission to the New Testament canon was apostolic authorship, to claim any less was ipso facto to admit defeat. In short, Irenaeus' evidence is not cast-iron; but it is at least certain that for him the attribution of both Gospel and Apocalypse to John is traditional; i.e., he is more important as a witness to the tradition's existence than as a guarantee of

its truth.

The Apocalypse

is

ascribed by Justin Martyr

(c.

155) to John

"one of the apostles"; to whom he ascribed the Fourth Gospel if he knew it (which is probable but not certain) there is no evidence. Although the external testimonies to unity of authorship are strong, and although there are remarkable points of contact between Gospel and Apocalypse ("the word of God," "the water of life," "the lamb of God"), the differences, especially in language and style, are so vast as to make it very improbable, if not impossible, that they come from the same author; apart from the testimony of church tradition, no one would ever have imagined it. If, therefore, the tradition is mistaken, some hypothesis to account for the error is required.

Apocryphal Acts

of John.

—

key These Acts were written in the name of a supposed disciple of the apostle John named Leucius, probably in Asia Minor and, being probably known to Clement of It is possible that there is a

in the apocryphal Acts of John.

may be dated before 180 (how much before 180 is unLike other apocryphal Acts (see Apocrypha, New Testament: Acts) the work was a loose amalgam of stories; it tended to break up in transmission, but can be partially restored by piecing together separate episodes from different Greek manuscripts. An early Latin version current by 250 has not survived; only a doctored late Latin text, purged of heresy, occurs in "Abdias" (Historia apostolica, 5). Occasional Greek fragments occur in quotation or on papyrus. Unhappily, the beginning is lost, and the first extant section opens with John landing at Miletus and forthwith going on, in obedience to a vision, to evangelize Ephesus. Ephesus, it is repeatedly emphasized, is John's prime care; but eventually he yields to a pressing invitation to visit Smyrna. After a lacuna the story brings J.ohn from Laodicea back to Ephesus, where, after resurrecting a dead woman and expounding esoteric and highly unorthodox doctrines, he arranges the digging of his grave, lies down in it and dies. Only the Ephesian portions of the narrative survive. But probably the lost beginning told of John's exile to Patmos. A tantalizing fragment of the Acts in a 4th-century papyrus from Oxyrhynchus contains John's arrest by a proconsul with letters from the emperor; the papyrus does not name the emperor and breaks off immediately. It is likely, however, that Clement of Alexandria, whose probable knowledge of these Acts is otherwise attested, drew on them for his "legend which is ho legend but a true story" concerning John and the robber; it happened (Clement says) "when, after the tyrant's death, John removed from the island of Patmos to Ephesus and used to go off by request to neighbouring places." Origen explains that Mark x, 39 was fulfilled when Herod killed James and when "the Roman emperor (as tradition tells us) condemned John, witnessing for the word of truth, to the island of Patmos." Neither Clement nor Origen names the emperor. (Irenaeus identifies him with Domitian.) The evidence points toward the conclusion which, until more of the Acts of John turn up cannot be more than probable conjecture, that the exile to Patmos featured in the Acts. It is noteworthy that the order of the cities in the missionary itinerary corresponds to that of Rev. i-iii; perhaps Pergamum, Thyateira and Sardis fell in the lacuna. Since one passage in the Acts speaks of John Alexandria, certain).

—

:

34

it seems clear that the Acts use the Fourth Gospel and identify John with the beloved disciple. There-

as leaning on Jesus' breast, fore,

it

is

likely that the notion of identifying the apocalyptist

and the evangelist

is due to this author's fertile imagination. The Acts are also the earliest witness to the tradition connecting the apostle with Ephesus; that the author is the creator of this tra-

dition

is

possible but not probable.

Possible

Martyrdom

of

John the Son

of Zebedee.

—The

strength of the Ephesian tradition associating the Fourth Gospel with the son of Zebedee must be balanced by consideration of the evidence that John suffered martyrdom, like his brother James, at the hands of the Jews. The prime authority for this is a fragment of the second book of the exposition of the Lord's oracles by

Papias (c. 130), preserved in two Byzantine sources: a 10th- or 11th-century manuscript of the 9th-century chronicle of George the Monk (the citation is not in other manuscripts of the chronicle and is an early interpolation, but the point is immaterial here),

and a

AND

JOHN, GOSPEL ACCORDING TO

series of excerpts

from a

carelessly

made epitome

of church

EPISTLES OF SAINT

between John the disciple and John the Elder. But there is nothing to indicate whether John the Elder lived at Ephesus or not; and, unfortunately, while Papias knew both the Fourth Gospel and the First Epistle, and while his millenarian beliefs suggest the strong influence of the Apocalypse, there is no particle of evidence for his opinions about their authorship. Conclusion. To sum up, the external testimony ascribing the Fourth Gospel to the son of Zebedee, though less than compelling, remains strong; but the question can be decided only on the basis of the Gospel itself. Internal evidence suggests that the work as it stands comes from editorial hands which were responsible for attributing the work to the beloved disciple, probably understood to be John. The fundamental difficulty about accepting the tradition. without more ado lies in the inherent content of the work that is, in its radical divergence from the historical tradition of the

—

synoptists, in its exalted theology (notably the "I

and

am

.

.

."

sayings)

in the presence of certain strongly Hellenic elements (see be-

low).

history, contained in a 14th-century manuscript in the Bodleian

mentions Phocas and is used by Theophanes, must fall between 600 and 800. It looks as if both George and the excerptor drew on the same source, and it is more probable than not that this source is the lost work of Philip of Side (c. 430). Philip was a poor historian, but his fragment of Papias may be genuine. According to George's interpolater it runs "Papias ... in the second book of the Lord's oracles says John was killed by the Jews, and so clearly fulfilled, with his brother, Christ's prophecy concerning them (Mark x, 38-39). For it is impossible for God to lie." The interpolater proceeds to compare Papias' exegesis with that of Origen mentioned above. Subsidiary evidence supporting Papias' account has been strangely sought in early church calendars which commemorate John and James on the same day; but it would be so natural to associate the two sons of Zebedee that nothing can be built on so flimsy a foundation. In any event, Acts xii does not say that John died with James; and Gal. ii, 9 proves that John was alive two or three years later. The crucial question is whether Papias Conservative scholars, anxious to is independent of Mark x, 39. uphold the Ephesian tradition, have often stressed the tenuous transmission of the Papias fragment so as to cast doubt on its authenticity. More cogently, they have argued that the fragment cannot contain an authentic statement of Papias since the full text of his work lay before Irenaeus and Eusebius, neither of whom mentions anything of the kind. All these arguments about Papias' testimony to John's martyrdom assume that, if he said it, he is independent of Mark. But Papias was avowedly expounding the Lord's oracles; like Origen, he could not think any prediction unfulfilled. Accordingly, the final issue concerning the early martyrdom of John turns on this text alone. The commentator must decide whether, if the text contains ipsissima verba of Jesus, it means that both sons of Zebedee were expected to die as martyrs or if "baptism" could mean something less than actual death, or whether the saying is more probably prophecy after the event and reflects the fact of the death of both James and John. Papias cannot be invoked to enforce the latter exegesis. The question remains open. It can only be said that if the Papias fragment is genuine it may have some negative value inasmuch as, if he did so expound Mark x, 39, and if he thought both brothers were martyred at the same time (which is far from clear), then he ignored the tradiPapias tion that John died peacefully in old age at Ephesus. did not five far from Ephesus and wrote before the Acts of John. On the other hand, as Eusebius of Caesarea remarks, he was very stupid. John the Elder. Papias further adds to confusion by what he says about a certain "John the Elder." He explains that, being anxious to find out all he could about the conversation of the apostolic generation and valuing oral tradition more highly than books, he used to question any Christian arriving at Hierapolis who had heard words spoken by Andrew, Peter, Philip, Thomas, James, John or Matthew. He also treasured the words of Aristion and "John the Elder" (of these two he speaks in the present tense). According to the natural reading of the words Papias here distinguishes library. Oxford, which, since

—

Influences on the Gospel

it

The prologue to the Fourth Gospel puts in the forefront the concept of the Word (Gr. Logos). The term Logos was used, for example, by Stoic writers to describe the universal reason apparent in the order and rationality of the cosmos on the one hand and in the mind of man on the other. The concept also plays some part in late Platonism. But John's introduction of the term Logos does not take one as far afield as Greek philosophy and it is important not to read too much into his use of the word. It is equally important to be on guard against putting the Gospel in line with later Christian theology based in part upon it. Christian writers of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, in expounding their faith to a critical Greek audience, use the Logos idea to explain their doctrine of a unique revelation of God in Christ and at the same time to affirm the continuity of this revelation with all truth wherever it may be found. The Johannine prologue is very near to this. The Logos is the light lightening every man coming into the world; yet he is also the

tion

is

dence

Word who

is made flesh. The particularity way by which the universality of God's known and understood.

the is

of the incarnacreative provi-

Nevertheless, this kinship with the themes of later Christian writers addressing a gentile world must not be allowed to prejudge the question of the purpose of the Fourth Gospel. It cannot be

taken for granted that the book

is

primarily an apologia for Chris-

tianity to the gentile world.

—

Hellenistic Judaism. A background for the term Logos more immediate than that of Stoicism is found in Hellenistic Judaism. Philo (q.v.) of Alexandria, whose voluminous works expounding the Pentateuch are the chief literary monument of the Greek synagogues, stands at the meeting point of Hebraic and Hellenic thought and strives after a synthesis of Platonic and Stoic philosophy with a biblical doctrine of God and the world. Where the older Jewish Wisdom literature (e.g., Prov. viii) spoke of the personified divine Wisdom as the ordering agent of God in creation and as the inspirer of the Mosaic Law, Philo speaks rather of the Logos of God as the medium of creation and so as mediating between the transcendent God and the earthly order and exercising immanent providential care. He also thinks of the image of God in man as a fragment or reflection of the Logos, interpreting Gen. ii, 4 as referring to the making of earthly man and Gen. i, 26-27 as referring to the heavenly archetypal man formed after God's image. Many Old Testament symbols are interpreted by Philo as referring to the divine Logos. He is the manna from Heaven, the shepherd, the light and life of the world, the sole mediator of the knowledge of God, our leader on the way to God, our high priest, intercessor and "Paraclete."

—

Hermetic Doctrine. The cosmogony of Genesis provoked speculation on both sides of the vague frontier between hellenized Jews and Greeks in contact with Judaism. The Greek aspect is seen in the Corpus Hermeticum, a collection of dialogues in which Hermes Trismegistos (q.v.) imparts revelations to an initiate, some concerning astrology and alchemy, others concerning philosophical and religious matters, the latter being marked by mystical feeling

,

JOHN, GOSPEL ACCORDING TO

AND

EPISTLES OF SAINT

35

marks of polemic in John (i, 8, 15 ff. hi, 22 and there was probably some measure of rivalry. Qumran Community. There are also some important con-

sometimes passing into fantasy and theosophical speculation but normally tempered by restraint and reasonableness. The demonstrable presence of Jewish elements in some of these tracts suggests that Judaism may have acted as a catalyst upon the minds of the

to be unmistakable

writers.

and darkness and certain phrases like "walking in darkness" (viii, 12; xii, 35; I John i, 6; cf. Manual of Discipline Hi, 21), "doing the truth" (iii, 21 I John i, 6; cj. Man. Disc, i, 5), "sons of light" (xii, 36; cf. Man. Disc, i, 9; iii, 24 ff.), "the works of God" (vi, 28 Moreover, beside John's strongly ff. cf. Man. Disc, iv, 4). Aramaizing Greek, there is close contact with Palestinian soil in the detailed knowledge of topography disclosed by such remarks

According to the Hermetic doctrine the way of salvation for man lies in the "knowledge" (gnosis) of "the divine"; man, disregarding his right to immortality, has given himself over to death, but can recover himself by repentance, by learning the cosmic mysteries expounded by Hermes and by an intuitive, ecstatic awareness described as "entering into the divine life and light," The concept of the or, in the 13th tract, as being "born again." cosmic Logos occurs in a few (not very prominent) passages referring to a mediating power between the supreme mind (nous)

and the material world. Here again, it is possible that this is due to the influence of Jewish speculations about the creation and the Old Testament theme that "by the word of the Lord the heavens were made" (Ps. xxxiii, 6). Gnosticism. The existence of certain significant parallels should not obscure the distinctiveness and individuality of the writers concerned. It is unlikely either that John had read Philo or that the Hermetic writers had read John, and literary dependence is not in question. Kinship does not mean borrowing, and even the 13th Hermetic tract, where the case for direct Christian

—

The parallels, is at maximum, may well be independent. however, at least illuminate the background of Johannine language and the way in which the Gospel would be understood by some readers. The Hermetic tracts, in particular, were popular among the Gnostic sects of the 2nd and later centuries a.d. and it is congruous that the Fourth Gospel also found a receptive public in the same circles, especially in the school of Valentinus (q. v.). Valentinus' pupil Ptolemy wrote a commentary on the Johannine prologue; another, Heracleon, wrote an exposition of the Gospel as a whole, 40 fragments of which are preserved by Origen, freely influence

exploiting the evangelist's

symbolism so that the work becomes

an esoteric allegory. The influence of the Fourth Gospel can likewise be discerned in the "Gospel of Truth" discovered at NagHammadi in Egypt, perhaps also in the Odes of Solomon and in Ignatius. The speculative elements in the background of the Fourth Gospel, its apparent attempts to ward off Gnosticism by concession as well as by correction and its warm reception among the Gnostic sects of the 2nd century have led some to speak of Gnosticism as the clue to the Gospel. (See also Gnosticism.) The most important common element between John and, for example, the Valentinians is a way of thinking which in certain respects is akin to Kierkegaard and to 20th-century existentialism. It is antihistorical, stressing the contemporaneity of the gospel and its timelessness as opposed to its particularity in the historical process. The Fourth Gospel is profoundly concerned with the problem of the historical element in the revelation. It is of the very essence of Christianity that the Word was made flesh. At the same time John does not think of Jesus as a past figure of history but as contemporary, known to the believer in the preaching of the Word and in the sacramental life of the church. John's stress on the timelessness of existential faith is not to be understood from the background of Platonic idealism, which is only remotely influential, but from the quest for contemporaneity among believers removed from the scene of the incarnation in both time and space (cf. John xx, 29).

Mandaean Doctrine.—How and even Mandaean

far

it is

right to use later Gnostic

texts to illuminate the thought of the fourth

controversial and obscure. The Mandaean documents most part late and not free of Christian influence; it is hazardous to use them to illuminate earlier Christian texts. On the other hand, the Mandaeans (q.v.) seem to have some connection with an early group which greatly reverenced John the Baptist; and it is therefore relevant that the fourth evangelist seems to go out of his way to stress the superiority of the incarnate Lord to one who was merely a forerunner. The existence of a sect of followers of John the Baptist at Ephesus is adequately attested by Acts xix, 1-7; cf. Mark ii, 18; Luke vii, 29; xi, 1. There seem evangelist

is

are for the

;

ff.),

—

tacts with the

Dead

sea scrolls (q.v.), notably the dualism of light

;

;

at Aenon near Salim), v, 2 (the pool of porches) and xix, 13 (the pavement called all of which cases archaeology has tended to uphold John's accuracy. It seems hopelessly artificial to think of some Hellenistic Christian author getting his topography right with the aid of a lst-century guidebook, and the simplest explanation of the phenomena is that the author was a Palestinian Jew who knew That the author had any actual contact with the the country.

as

iii,

(much water

23

Bethesda and Gabbatha), in

its five

Qumran community

is

unverifiable speculation.

Qualities of the Gospel

—

Aims. It will be seen that certain elements in Johannine thought and vocabulary point to an author whose mother tongue was Aramaic and whose native soil was Palestine, whereas other elements point to the Greek world and especially to Greek Judaism. The evidence would be covered by the hypothesis of a Palestinian writer who had emigrated to a Greek-speaking community and acquired much familiarity with the language and religious categories of the surrounding society. Consideration of the penumbra of Hellenistic Judaism and Judaizing Hellenism helps to pose the right questions about the evangelist's objectives. The prologue can be misleading if it is taken to suggest that John is anticipating Clement of Alexandria and seeking to convince gentile readers that the Logos of the philosophers has become incarnate. After the prologue the term Logos plays no further part in the Gospel and is replaced by "the Son"; the chief theme becomes the Son's unity with the Father and his unique revelation of the Father to the world, continued in the

The most probable view

work

of the Spirit in the church.

is primarily addressed not so much to the Hellenic world as to Greek-speaking Judaism in the synagogues of the diaspora, scattered not only throughout Syria and Asia Minor but in the entire Mediterranean world from the Crimea to Cadiz. John xx, 30-31 declares explicitly that "now did Jesus many other signs in the presence of the disciples which are not written in this book; but these are written that you may

believe that Jesus

ing you is

may have

is

the Christ, the

life in his

name

not a proper

that the Gospel

is

the

;

name."

word

is

Son of God, and that

believ-

In the Fourth Gospel "Christ" a title carrying its full force of

"Messiah" or "anointed one." The messiahship of Jesus is a central theme. Of him spoke both the Law and the Prophets (i, 45; v, 39), and it is his messianic destiny to "gather into one the children of God who are scattered abroad" (xi, 52; cf. x, 16). Moreover, it is important for the evangelist and his readers not only that the inscription on the cross describes^ Jesus as "king of the Jews" but also that this dignity was recognized by the Roman procurator (xix, 19 ff.). Jesus is authenticated as God's anointed and only begotten Son by the fulfillment of prophecy and by bis

The (iii, 2; vii, 31; xi, 47; xii, 18, etc.). quasi-Platonic symbols of an unseen reality

miracles, entitled "signs" signs are not so

(though

this is

much

an overtone in the background) as guarantees which

vindicate Jesus' authority as Messiah. Because he is Messiah he has turned the purifying water of Jewish ceremonial observances into the wine of the messianic feast.

Use of Symbolism.

—

It is characteristic of the evangelist that

he takes a plain story of a wonder at a wedding (ii, 1-10) to symbolize the transcending of outward religion by the worship of God in spirit and in truth. Almost every detail of a story, as John tells it, is the vehicle of symbolism. The night into which Judas makes his departure (xiii, 30) is more than natural darkness; The it is the darkness which does not comprehend the light (i, 5). foot washing is an enacted parable of the entire mystery of the

incarnation (xiii, 1 ff. as well as a lesson in sacramental theology with clear allusions to baptism and penitence. The healing of )

the

man born

blind

is

the peg on which the evangelist hangs the

discourse on the light of the world trates the discourse.

John has not found the story

The miracle illusmean that

(ix, 1 ff.).

The symbolist

writing does not

In the passion nar-

in the tradition.

few features occur which are not given a symbolical meaning (e.g., Peter's denial in xviii, 15 ff.; and contrast the treatment of Gabbatha, xix. 13. with that of Siloam, ix. 7). But these are exceptional, and the most striking literary feature of the Gospel (and one of the reasons for its perennial fascination and intense power) is the artless form veiling a content of extraordinary subtlety. John loves words with many levels of meaning (cf. for example, "lifted up," iii, 14; xii, 32). The symbolism is specially attached to Jewish liturgical feasts. Each discourse, with its illustrative miracle, is linked to a feast {e.g., v, 1; vi, 4; vii, 2; x, 22; xi, 55. etc.), and the liturgical rative, in particular, a

associations of the festival are reflected in the discourses. The themes attaching to the Feast of Tabernacles (vii, 2) are the water drawing and the illuminations {cf. vii, 37 ff. viii, 12 ff.). The ;

synagogue lections at the Feast of Dedication concern God as shepherd of his sheep (cf. x, 22 ff.). That the feeding of vi, 1 ff. symbolizes the Last Supper is obvious enough. Accordingly it has also been argued (by A. E. Guilding) that the unnamed feast of v, 1 must be the New Year, on the ground that the lections for this feast concern judgment, which is the main theme of ch. v. Historicity. It follows that the relation, in John's mind, of historical events and theological truth is profoundly complex. It is as good as certain that in many details the Gospel contains excellent historical tradition; e.g., it is widely held that John is right, against the synoptists, in dating the Last Supper on the evening before the Passover (xix, 14). That the essential narrative matter came to John in the tradition is highly probable, and (whatever view is taken of ii, 1-10 or xi, 1-44) there is no good ground for thinking that the narrative of any incident was invented by the evangelist though its placing in the chronology of the ministry

—

—

be subservient to John's theological plan. Whether or not is disputed. The strong case for asserting complete ignorance (P. Gardner-Smith) has to account for phrases suggesting direct knowledge at least of Mark and Luke; but in any event it is a priori improbable that, even if John knew and used the synoptists. he had no other source of good information. He may have shared the view of Papias that oral tradition was better than books. The notion that the synoptists preserve unadorned history and that John gives theology scarcely anchored in fact will not bear critical examination. There is symbolist writing in all three synoptists; a particular link binds John to Mark in that both are deeply concerned with unbelief in face of divine revelation. No doubt the synoptists stand much nearer to the thought world of the historic ministry of Jesus, and the discourses of the Fourth Gospel must in the main reflect the evangelist's inspired meditations upon will

John knew the synoptists

the

meaning of the gospel events.

He

is

declaring what the Spirit

saith unto the churches, convinced of the complete continuity be-

tween Jesus in the days of xi,

AND

JOHN, GOSPEL ACCORDING TO

36

27

= Luke

x,

his flesh

and the risen Lord.

But Matt,

22 stands as a lasting warning against hastily

supposing that the self-consciousness of a unique relation to the Father is in itself a sign that the discourses are wholly the product of the evangelist's

Influence.

untrammeled imagination. Fourth Gospel

—Although the

is a puzzle to which the historian often feels that he lacks the essential clues, its theo-

power and intensity of insight make creative works of early Christian literature. tury its theology and divergence from the logical

the synoptists caused a dispute about

its

one of the greatest During the 2nd cen-

it

historical tradition of

Once it had Irenaeus, it dominated

authority.

been vindicated, mainly by the advocacy of

the theological scene; the early controversies concerning Trinity and the Person of Christ frequently turned upon exegesis of Johannine texts; its theology of the incarnation and Eucharist were particularly congenial to the Alexandrians and

the

the the

most perceptive expositions from Cyril The book became a problem to the 19th-century

Gospel received one of of Alexandria.

the

its

EPISTLES OF SAINT

who assumed that the Gospels were (or ought to be) biographies and provided material that the historian could use to make the "Jesus of history" comprehensible against his environhistorians

ment

in time and space. But the Fourth Gospel has none of the presuppositions of a modern biography, and is not interested in, for example, tracing the development of Jesus' character or asking

what

it

was

his nature to

revelation of the

do and to

Word made

It is concerned with the urgently demanding man's

be.

flesh,

moral decision of faith, lifting him up from the nothingness and mortality of this-worldly existence to participate in the very life of God.

THE THREE EPISTLES I

John

is

an anonymous manifesto addressed probably to a group

of churches where grave heresy taught by "false prophets" has led to a secession (ii. 19) so substantial that the orthodox remnant is sadly depleted. The heretical teachers, who are denounced as Antichrist 1-6).

(ii,

18),

deny that Jesus Christ came

The orthodox remnant

in the flesh (iv,

are disconcerted to find that the

is more successful with the pagan world than their own teaching, and appear to have been given a sense of inferiority by the sectarian claims to profounder mystical experience. The Epistle gives the impression of using ideas and terms drawn from the opposition in an orthodox and disinfected sense (the tension betw-een the concessions and the correctives has led to theories denying the Epistle's literary unity and supposing it to be an orthodox revision of a document originally more radical and Gnostic). If so, the heretics claimed to possess perfection, and that they are "in the light," "born of God" and without sin. In fact their false spirituality goes with moral licence. The Epistle recalls the orthodox brethren to "that which was from the beginning" (i. 1) as opposed to heretical innovation, to the tangible fact of the incarnate Lord (i, 1 ii, 7). to the atonement (ii, 1-2). and to the authentically Christian moral life which is keeping Jesus' commandments and, above all. the commandment of love a virtue The exalted claims of little regarded by the seceding Gnostics. the sectarians are met by equally high affirmations of every Christian inheritance (ii. 20-21; v, 13-15); believers possess the forgiveness of sins and have already overcome the transitory and evil world (ii, 12 ff.). But this does not mean perfectionism and rigorism since a brother may fall into a minor sin which is not "mortal" without passing beyond the pale he may be restored by fraternal intercession (v, 16-17). Latent throughout the Epistle is the basic question whether or not there is such a thing as authentic Christianity and, if so. how it is to be identified. The Epistle finds its verification in the moral life and love of the brethren (iii, 10 ff.; iv, 12-21); its ground is the love of God manifest in incarnation and atonement (iv, 9-10), and the true operation of the Spirit is wholly one with the continuous sacramental fife of the church in baptism and Eucharist (v, 8). The relation of I John to the Fourth Gospel is obviously intimate, but whether or not both are by the same author is keenly debated. Certain differences suggest that the author of the Epistle may be a pupil of the fourth evangelist (perhaps one of the Gospel's editors). The text of i, 1 does not imply that the author is

heretical version of Christianity

;

—

;

himself an eye-witness; the "we" refers to the Christian community w^hich looks back to its founding events. The famous comma Johanneum (I John v, 7) mentioning the three heavenly witnesses (Father, Word and Spirit) appears in no

Greek manuscript before the 14th century and no early Greek by the Spanish heretic Priscillian (d. 385), the spurious words gradually made their way from Spain into manu-

writer; first quoted

scripts of the Latin Vulgate generally.

II

and III John are unmistakably

real letters

from one

calling

himself "the presbyter" and are closely akin to I John in language and ideas. II John exhorts a church, fancifully called "the elect lady and her children," to boycott the heretics who deny the reality of the incarnation. Ill John is a confidential letter to one Gaius, explaining that, though the presbyter has written to the church, Diotrephes who loves pre-eminence refuses to recognize his authority.

The presbyter

asks Gaius to continue his support for

some

1

—

.

JOHN ALBERT—JOHN BULL

37

The two letters itinerant missionaries who have his confidence. vividly illustrate the sharp divisiveness introduced by Gnostic teaching.

The situation of III John has been imaginatively interpreted, some taking Diotrephes' ambition as the beginnings of the mon-

Kasemann maintains) he was a rigidly conservative leader resisting Johannine teaching as making too many concessions to Gnosticism. archical episcopate; or perhaps (as E.

The

earliest

evidence for the existence of the three Epistles

comes from Polycarp and Papias (I John) and Irenaeus (I and II John) III John is first attested in Clement of Alexandria. Probably they come from Asia Minor c. 100. See also Bible; Gospels; and references under "John, Gospel According to and Epistles of Saint" in the Index. Bibliography. The Gospel: Greek text with commentary by J. H. Bernard (1928) in International Critical Commentary and by M. J. ;

—

Lagrange, 7th ed. (1948) in Etudes bibliques; English translation with commentary by G. H. C. Macgregor (1928) in Moffatt New Testament Commentary, by E. C. Hoskyns edited by F. N. Davey (1940), bv R. H. Lightfoot (1956). Commentary by C. K. Barrett (1955). German translation with commentary by H. Strathmann (1951) in Das Neue Testament deutsck and by R. Bultmann (1957-58). See also W. F. Howard, Christianity According to St. John (1943) and The Fourth Gospel in Recent Criticism and Interpretation, 4th ed. (1955) C. H. Dodd, The Interpretation of the Fourth Gospel (1953), Historical Tradition in the Fourth Gospel (1963); P. Gardner-Smith, St. John and the Synoptic Gospels (1938) O. Cullmann, Early Christian Worship (1953); A. E. Guilding, The Fourth Gospel and Jewish Worship

(RIGHT) BY COURTESY OF HENRY FEARON; PHOTO,

R,

B.

FLEMING

a

CO.,

LTD.

THREE CHARACTERIZATIONS OF JOHN BULL: (LEFT) AS A COUNTRYMAN IN AN 1829 CARTOON; (CENTRE) THE PORTLY CITIZEN IN AN 1848 CARTOON BY "HB" (JOHN DOYLE): (RIGHT) WEARING A UNION JACK WAISTCOAT IN A 1911 CARTOON BY POY FOR THE "LONDON DAILY DISPATCH"

;

;

(1960).

The Epistles: Greek text with commentary by B. F. Westcott (1883) English translation with commentary by C. H. Dodd (1946) in Moffatt New Testament Commentary; German translation with commentary by H. Windisch, rev. ed. by H. Preisker (1951) in Handbuch zum Neuen Testament ; commentary by A. E. Brooke (1912) in International Critical Commentary. See also W. F. Howard, "The Common Authorship of the Johannine Gospel and Epistles," Journal of Theological Studies, 48:12-25 (1947); E. Kasemann, Exegetische Versuche und Besinnungen, vol. i, pp. 168-186 (1960) (Hy. C.)

John Bull, or the Englishman's Fireside (acted 1803), a comedy by George Colman the Younger, in which however, no character called John Bull appears; Thomas Dibdin's prologue explains:

;

JOHN ALBERT

(1459-1501), king of Poland from 1492 was the third son of King Casimir IV Jagiello and Elizabeth of Austria. As crown prince he distinguished himself by his brilliant victory over the Tatars at Kopystrzyn in 1487. He succeeded his father on Aug. 27, 1492, and, gifted but imprudent, made plans to recapture the harbours of Kilia at the mouth of the Danube and of Belgorod in the delta of the Dniester. Polish expansion conflicted here with Hungary's aspirations and with the interests of Moldavia, then under the rule of the hospodar Stephen the Great. John Albert's attempts to reach an agreement with his brother Wladyslaw (Ulaszlo II), king of Hungary and Bohemia, at the conference of Levoca (Slovakia), in 1494, were unsuccessto 1501,

In 1497 John Albert collected 80,000 men and began the campaign. The war became one between Poland and Moldavia, in which John Albert, weakened by the insubordination of the gentry, had the worst of matters. He was, however, more successful in the north, compelling the recalcitrant grand master of the Teutonic Order, Frederick of Saxony, to do homage, but a further campaign was frustrated by his sudden death on June 17, 1501. See Fryderyk Papee, Jan Olbracht (1936). (St. He.) BULL, a conventional personification in literature and caricature of England, the English character and the "typical" Englishman, first found in this context in Law Is a Bottomless Pit (1712), one of five related satires by John Arbuthnot (q.v.), dealing in the Tory interest with European events preceding the treaty of Utrecht (April 1713; see English History). They were reissued in 1727 as "The History of John Bull," in Swift's and Pope's Miscellanies in Prose and Verse, vol. ii. Bull appears as an honest clothier, bringing an action with his linen-draper friend Nicolas Frog (Holland), against Lewis Baboon (Louis XIV) for interfering with trade. The wide circulation of these satires fixed

JOHN

Bull, Frog and the others as national personifications at that time, and they reappear, though less influentially, in other 18th-century political satires.

Arbuthnot's John Bull

and

is

honest, bluff, good-natured, easily dewhen aroused: a plain, simple,

self-reliant

not unsuccessful tradesman.

This conception

is

.

.

.

JOHN BULL.

is also no direct representation of Bull in the first use of the character in a print, "The Auction" (1756) in which "all the valuable effects of John Bull" are to be sold; but among those

There

Nicolas Frog, soliloquizing that he will be the next Here Bull is "England," but by 1762 he has become the typical Englishman and in 1773 Boswell can refer to Johnson as "much of a John Bull; much of a blunt, true-born Englishman" {The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides, 1785). Also in 1762 comes the first representation in which the figure has a bull's head, present

is

bankrupt.

body or both. The French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars brought John Bull's first great period in caricature, notably in the hands of James Gillray, who with Thomas Rowlandson conventionalized a gross, rather stupid figure, weighed down with debt, or taxation or opa bull's

pression, according to the several artists' political allegiance; but

"HB" (John Doyle) raised John Bull in became the portly, prosperous citizen, a little like Dickens' Pickwick, and a little like Surtees' John Jorrocks. These were native representations; hostile foreign caricature identified him with "perfidious Albion," but from the early 19th century it was internationally recognized that John Bull less

ful.

ceived, but sensible

JOHN BULL

British Character at large; is Plain, blunt, his heart with feeling, justice full, That is a Briton, that's (thank heaven!)

than 50 years later

the social scale and he

equaled England. The figure also appeared in other countries. The Diverting History of John Bull and Brother Jonathan (1812) by the American satirist James K. Paulding (q.v.) coupled Jonathan (or Uncle Sam) with Bull, and thereafter the two characters

were often shown together. John Bull's widest recognition came in the mid- and late 19th century, especially through the influential cartoons of Punch, in which he appeared in many guises, often that of a seaman in the Royal Navy. But the most familiar and frequent representation was that developed (with some debt to Gillray and "HB") by John Leech and Sir John Tenniel, of the jovial and honest farmerfigure, solid and foursquare, sometimes in Union Jack waistcoat and with bulldog at heel, which was long the John Bull of a convention by now so universally understood that the name frequently appeared in book, play and periodical titles, and pictorially as a brand name or trade-mark for manufactured goods. But by the mid-20th century political satire and caricature made less use of abstractions and tended rather to depict living persons, for the illustrated press, the cinema and television had made

confirmed in national leaders internationally known by

sight.

Thus

Hitler,

JOHN CASIMIR—JOHN FREDERICK

38

Mussolini, Roosevelt and Churchill often stood for their countries in political

caricature;

but, although in

some

John Bull was by then too firmly established

pictorial eclipse,

to pass out of literary

currency.

—

Bibliography. M. H. Spielmann, The History of Punch (1895) C. R. Ashbee, Caricature (1928) M. D. George, English Political Caricature to 1792 (1960), English Political Caricature 1793-1832 (1960). See also H. Teerink (ed.), The History of John Bull (1925), and L. M. Beattie, John Arbuthnot, Mathematician and Satirist (1935), in both of which authorship of the political tracts is discussed The Dramatic Works of George Colman the Younger (1827), ed. by J. W. Lake. ;

;

;

(K. Ho.)

JOHN CASIMIR

s

(1609-1 6 72

).

king of Poland from 1648 to

1668 and pretender to the Swedish throne, was born on March 22, 1609, the younger son of King Sigismund III Vasa. He was in Austrian service from 1635 and took part in the war against France. He was intended to become viceroy of Portugal and Spanish admiral, but was imprisoned for two years in France. Discouraged with politics, he became in 1640 a Jesuit novice and, in 1646, a cardinal without orders. He was elected king on Nov. 17, 1648, after the death of his brother, Wladyslaw IV, whose widow, Marie Louise de Gonzague-Nevers, he married. Although he was in favour of an agreement with Bohdan Chmielnicki and his insurgents, John Casimir, under pressure from wealthy Polish magnates interested in exploiting the Ukraine, waged a long and bitter war against him. He showed his military skill by winning the battle of Beresteczko against the Cossacks and Tatars on June 28-30, 1651. When the Cossacks submitted to the Russian tsar in 1654 the war took an unfavourable turn, and Sweden, backing the Polish magnates' opposition, attacked the country in 1655. With the downfall of the Polish state, the gentry accepted the protection of Charles Gustavus of Sweden. John Casimir fled abroad, but a peasant uprising and the disillusionment of the gentry with the Swedes enabled him to return in 1656. A long war against the Swedes and their allies, Frederick William of Brandenburg and Gyorgy Rakoczy II of Transylvania, ended with the peace of Oliwa on May 3, 1660. The war with Russia ended with the truce signed at Andruszow on Jan. 31 (N.S.), 1667, at a period of great economic exhaustion for the country. The political system was weakened, moreover, by a mutiny of the gentry, opposed to the absolutist ideas of the court. The discouraged king abdicated on Sept. 16, 1668, and went to France, where he died, at Nevers, on Dec. 16, 1672. See also Poland: History. (St. He.) (Dory), the name for several species of oddlooking spiny-rayed marine fishes of the mid-depths. Belonging to the family Zeidae, the typical species, the European dory {Zeus faber), is found from the British Isles southward into the Mediterranean and along the west coast of Africa. The body is much compressed and nearly oval and the mouth large and capable of

X

JOHN DORY

great distention; the anterior dorsal fin is

armed with long

may

Dories

spines.

reach three feet in

length.

This

fish

shares with the had-

dock a quaint reputation lore

:

body the

On is

in folk-

either side of the golden

a dark

smudge, legend has

thumb and

finger print of Peter; the story, derived from DOUGLAS P. WILSON Scripture (Matt, xvii, 27), is that JOHN DORY (ZEUS FABER) Peter took a coin from the mouth of this fish to pay the temple tax required by custom. Related dories include Zeus japonicus of the Indo-Pacific region it

St.

and Zenopsis ocellata of the Atlantic coast of North America. All young of other

are voracious, feeding on mollusks, shrimp and the fishes.

They are common market fishes locally, but there is disagreement as to their food value and palatability. JOHN FREDERICK I der Grossmutige or the Magnanimous (1503-1554), elector of Saxony from 1532 to 1547, the last elector of the Ernestine branch of the house of Wettin, was born at Torgau on June 30, 1503, the elder son of John (q.v.) the Steadfast. He succeeded John as elector in Aug. 1532, to rule over the

western part of Saxony and over Thuringia. Coburg however was detached in 1541 to provide an appanage for his half brother John Ernest (d. 1553). A Lutheran like his father, John Frederick hesitated to oppose the Holy Roman emperor Charles V, in whose pacific intentions he believed; and he was often at variance with the impetuous Philip of Hesse, his colleague in the League of Schmalkalden for the defense of the Reformers. In 1542, however, he forcibly had Nikolaus von Amsdorf consecrated as bishop of Naumburg, though the cathedral chapter had elected a Catholic, Julius von Pflug; and he also laid hands on Wurzen, the property of a collegiate chapter dependent on the bishopric of Meissen,

which was under the joint protection of electoral and ducal Saxony. Thereupon his second cousin Maurice, duke of Saxony from 1541, of the Albertine line of the Wettins, took up arms against him; but Philip of Hesse and Martin Luther mediated an uneasy peace between them. John Frederick then helped Philip of Hesse to expel the Catholic Henry II of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel from his duchy (1542). Though John Frederick personally came to terms with Charles V (on the basis of dynastic arrangements to their mutual advantage) at the time of the diet of Speyer in 1544, Charles remained de-

termined to overthrow the League of Schmalkalden. War broke out in July 1546, and Maurice, to whom the electoral dignity had been promised, invaded the Ernestine lands at the end of October. John Frederick counterattacked, drove Maurice out. captured his ally Albert Alcibiades of Brandenburg-Kulmbach at Rochlitz and invaded ducal Saxony; but at the battle of Miihlberg (April 24, 1547) he was wounded and taken prisoner by Charles V's victorious army. A sentence of death, passed on him in order to induce Wittenberg to surrender, was not executed; but by the capitulation of Wittenberg (May 10, 1547) he renounced the electoral lands and certain disputed territories to Maurice and other districts to Charles V's brother Ferdinand. He refused, however, to compromise on religious questions, rejected the Augsburg Interim (1548) and advised his sons, who had been allowed to retain the Ernestine lands in Thuringia, to make no peace with Maurice. Consequently he remained a prisoner till May 1552, when the emperor, then at war with Maurice, set him free. Regarded as a martyr of Lutheranism, John Frederick was welcomed back to the remaining Ernestine lands. Claiming again to be elector himself, he could not come to terms with Maurice, who was killed in July 1553; but finally, under the treaty of Naumburg (Feb. 1554) he recognized Maurice's successor Augustus I as elector in return for the restoration of Altenburg, Neustadt and some lesser territories to the Ernestines. A few days later he died, at Weimar, on March 3, 1554. A great hunter, a hard drinker and a heroic figure in adversity, he had also been the founder of the University of Jena (after Wittenberg had been lost to the Albertines) and a patron of that of Leipzig. See G. Mentz, Johann Friedrich der Grossmutige, 3 vol. (1903-08).

JOHN FREDERICK n

der Mittlere or the Middle One (1529-1595), duke of Saxony, was born at Torgau on Jan. 8, 1529, the eldest son of the elector John Frederick I (q.v.), on whose imprisonment in 1547 he undertook the government of the remaining Ernestine lands together with his brothers John William (153073) and John Frederick III the Younger (1538-65). After his father's death (1554) he ruled Ernestine Saxony jointly with his brothers till 1557; then he became sole ruler till 1565, when he ceded Coburg as a separate duchy to John William but kept Weimar and Gotha for himself. A strong, even a fanatic, Lutheran, he upheld Matthias Flacius (q.v.) and the University of Jena against the milder doctrines sponsored by the University of Wittenberg under the protection of the new elector of Saxony, Augustus I. His desire to regain the electoral dignity, however, made him lend a willing ear to Wilhelm von Grumbach (q.v.). Outlawed in Nov. 1566 for his persistent support of Grumbach. he was attacked by Augustus and by John William. Captured in Gotha in April 1567, he was held prisoner in various places till his death at Steyer on May 9, 1595. His wife, Elizabeth of the Palatinate Their sons John (d. 1594), had shared his captivity with him. Casimir (1564-1633) and John Ernest (1566-1638) ceded Weimar in exchange for Coburg to the uncle John William by the treaty of Erfurt (1572).

.

JOHN GEORGE—JOHN SCHOLASTICUS JOHN GEORGE

I (1585-1656), elector of Saxony from 1611, was born in Dresden on March 5, 1585, the younger son of the elector Christian I (d. 1591). His brother, Christian II (d. 1611), appointed him administrator of the Protestant bishopric of

Merseburg (1591) and had him educated in his own image: a bigoted Lutheran, a faithful adherent of the imperial house of Habsburg, easygoing and indolent, a confirmed drunkard. He was quite unable to grasp the opportunities which were open to Saxony, the richest and most powerful of the German states. His main wish "to drink his beer in peace and quiet" lost him the leadership

German Protestants, first to Frederick V of the Palatinate, then to Gustavus II Adolphus of Sweden and lastly to Frederick William of Brandenburg. His irresolute policy during the Thirty Years' War brought him the acquisition of the Bohemian fief of Lusatia (1635), but neither the Bohemian crown nor the permanent gain of the archbishopric of Magdeburg, to both of which he had halfheartedly aspired. The peace of Westphalia was a turningpoint in that henceforth Saxony was to be outstripped by Brandenburg. After the early death of his first wife. Sibylla Elizabeth of Wiirttemberg, John George in 1607 married Magdalena Sibylla of Brandenburg (d. 1659), by whom he had 9 children and lived to see growing up 51 grandchildren and 19 great-grandchildren. He died at Dresden on Oct. 8, 1656. (S. H. S.) of the

JOHN HENRY,

American Negro Negro Paul Bunyan. In the ballad which describes his contest with a steam drill, John Henry crushed more rock than the machine but died "with his hammer in his hand." Writers and artists see in John Henry a symbol of man's foredoomed struggle against the machine, and of the Negro's tragic battle with the white man. Some factual basis exists for the ballad of John Henry. When the Chesapeake and Ohio railroad drove the Big Bend tunnel through the Allegheny mountains in West Virginia, from 1870 to 1873, "steel drivers" hammered steel drills, held by their partners, Since the modern steam drill into the rock to plant explosives. was introduced into the south in 1870, the comparative efficiency of the two methods could have been tested at Big Bend. Although southern Negroes sing about John Henry, they tell few stories of him and, like Paul Bunyan, he is not truly a folk The imaginative treatment by Roark Bradford in John hero. Henry (1931) made the name known to many Americans. See Guy B. Johnson, John Henry: Tracking Down a Negro Legend (1929); Louis W. Chappell,/oAn Henry, a Folk-Lore Study (1933). (R. M. Dn.) ballad,

is

generally

the hero of a widely sung

known

as the

JOHN MAURICE

of Nassau (called the Brazilian) (1604-1679), colonial governor and military commander in the Dutch service, was born at Dillenburg on June 17, 1604. He was the younger son of John, count of Nassau-Siegen-Dillenburg, whose father was William the Silent's brother John, chief author of the union of Utrecht. John Maurice fought in the campaigns of his cousin the stadholder Frederick Henry and was by him

recommended

to the directors of the

Dutch West India company

governor general of the new dominion in Brazil, recently conquered by the company. He landed at Recife, the port of Pernambuco and the chief stronghold of the Dutch, in Jan. 1637. By successful expeditions he extended the Dutch possessions from Sergipe on the south to S. Luis do Maranhao in the north. He likewise conquered the Portuguese possessions of St. George del Mina and St. Thomas on the west coast of Africa. With the assistance of the architect Pieter Post of Haarlem he transformed Recife by building a new town called after his name Mauritsstad.

in 1636 to be

A capable general and first-rate administrator, John Maurice was exceptionally tolerant and humane for his age, and his work for the interests of the whole population under his government had some temporary success in reconciling them to Dutch rule. His own humanist interests led him to patronize scholars and scientists such as Caspar Barlaeus, Georg Marcgraf and Willem Piso, who published invaluable work on the botany, zoology and tropical diseases of Brazil, while Frans Post painted landscapes. John Maurice's large programs and lavish expenditure, however, alarmed the directors of the company, and he left Brazil in May 1644. John Maurice refused later proposals that he should return to

39

from Frederick William, elector Mark and Ravensberg. In 1665 he became commander in chief of the Dutch army against England's ally, Bernhard von Galen, bishop of Minister; and in the third of the Dutch Wars (q.v.) he was appointed by William III of Orange to command the forces in Friesland and Groningen in 1673. Though 70 years of age, he disBrazil, but in 1647 he accepted

of Brandenburg, the position of stadholder of Cleves,

tinguished himself at the battle of Seneffe in 1674.

He

retired in

1675 and died at Cleves on Dec. 20, 1679. Most of his extensive collections were dispersed, but the house in The Hague designed for him by Pieter Post is still known as the Mauritshuis and contains the well-known collection of Dutch paintings. See also

Netherlands. The: History.

—

Bibliography. L. Driessen, Leben des Fiirsten Johann Moritz von Nassau (1849) H. Watjen, Das hollandische Kolonialreich in Brasilien (1921) C. Barlaeus, Nederlandsch Brazilie onder het bewind van Johan Maurits , ed. by S. P. Naber (1923) D. J. Bouman, Johan Maurits van Nassau (1947) C. R. Boxer, The Dutch in Brazil (1957). (K. H. D. H.) ;

;

.

.

;

.

.

.

.

;

JOHN OF GOD, HOSPITALLER ORDER OF SAINT Joannis de Deo; Fate Bene Fratelli; Catholic mendicant religious order of nursing brothers founded in 1537 by St. John (q.v.) of God. The motherhouse is on Calybit Island in the Tiber river, Rome. More

(Ordo Hospitalarius

O.H. [F.B.F.]),

is

a

S.

Roman

than 2,500 brothers operate 225 hospitals, containing 50,000 beds, throughout the world, including general hospitals, institutions for mentally retarded children and hospitals for incurably sick men of all ages and creeds. The brothers also staff the Vatican pharmacy. (O. McG.) O'GROATS, a place on the north coast of Caithness, Scot., 17 mi. N. of Wick by road. It is the site of the house, now only a mound, connected with a story first recorded in The Statistical Account of Scotland ( 1 793) This tells how three Dutch brothers, Malcolm, Gavin and John de Groat, arrived in Caithness with a letter of protection from King James IV. They prospered till eight families of the name held land in the parish. Annually they celebrated their arrival with a feast until disputes on precedence arose. These were settled by John de Groat who built a house with an octagonal room and table so that all were "head of the table." Mention of "Johnny Groat's house" is found early in the 17th century and the family held lands in Canisbay from 1500 onward. With two hotels and shops, John o'Groats is now a popular resort. "From Maidenkirk to John o'Groats" (280 mi.)

JOHN

.

is

meaning from end to end of Scotland, John Barbour's phrase in The Brus (or The Bruce), Fra Weik anent Orknay

a colloquial expression

displacing

To Myller's Neuk in Galloway. "From Land's End to John o'Groats" (873 mi.) means from end to end of Great Britain. (In fact, the northernmost point in mainland Britain is Dunnet Head [q.v.] the most northerly point in the British Isles is the Muckle Flugga lighthouse on a rock off the island of Unst in Zetland [Shetland].) (F. W. Rn.) (John III) (d. 577), patriarch of Constantinople and canonist, whom some scholars identify with the chronicler John Malalas (q.v.). He was born at Seramis near Antioch where he later became a well-known lawyer, gaining the Ordained late in title of Scholasticus ("orator"; Syriac malal). ;

JOHN SCHOLASTICUS

life,

he was appointed apocrisarius ("permanent legate") from the

patriarchate of Antioch to that of Constantinople (550). He was elected patriarch in 565 and died on Aug. 31, 577. While in Anti-

och he compiled a collection (Gr. synagoge) of canon laws in 50 which was a revision of a similar collection made earlier in the century. It included the main Novels of Justinian I and the canons of Basil of Caesarea. Later, in Constantinople, he made a further collection of 87 chapters of excerpts from the Novels and a supplement in 22 chapters. Photius mentions his authorship of a catechetical oration on the Trinity, and the 7th-century historian John of Nikiu refers to his Mystagogia (probably an interpretation titles

of the liturgy).

—

Bibliography. Collection of 50 titles ed. by V. Beneshevich, Abhandlungen der bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, philos.-liist Abteilung, new series, vol. 14 (1937) other collections in J. B. Pitra, Juris ecclesiae Graecae historia et monumenta, vol. 2 (1868). See also £ Herman in R. Naz (ed.), Dictionnaire de droit canonique, vol. 6, col. ;

JOHNS HOPKINS—JOHNSON,

4-o

118-120 (1957); H. G. Beck, Kirche und theologische Literatur im Byzantinischen Reich (1959). (A. O.)

JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, a nonsectarian

U.S. in-

Md., was founded by Johns Hopkins, a Quaker merchant and banker of Baltimore who also founded the Johns Hopkins hospital, a separate corporation. Both institutions were incorporated in 1867; instruction in the university was begun in 1876 and the hospital was opened in 1889. The university's famed medical school was opened in 1893. While the primary purpose of the university, in line with the German approach to higher education, was to sustain graduate education and research, and to train men for scholarly careers, it also provided undergraduate instruction for men in the arts and sciences. See Baltimore; see also Medical Education; Medical stitution of higher education at Baltimore,

Research.

ANDREW

1808-1875), 17th president of the JOHNSON, United States, was born at Raleigh, N.C., Dec. 29, 1808. No one reached the White House from humbler origins. Because his father, a poor sexton and porter, died while Johnson was very young, he was apprenticed to a I

Without day of formal schooling, he

tailor at the age of ten.

a

learned to read in the small inter-

from

vals of time he could spare

with his mother and stepfather, he moved to Tennessee and finally settled his

work.

In

1826,

at Greeneville in the eastern part

of the state, and there he opened

own tailor shop. On May 17, 1827, he married Eliza McCardle

his

(1810-76),

who was

relatively

well educated for the time

who

taught metic.

him writing and

and

arith-

Johnson soon turned to politics 3Y COURTESY OF THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS and rose to prominence. Before ANDREW JOHNSON he was 2 1 he organized a workingman's party which first elected him alderman and then mayor of Greeneville. Between 1835 and 1843 he served two terms in the Tennessee house of representatives and one in the state senate. During this period he rejected the more aristocratic Whig party and joined the Democrats. Trained in the hard school of border state politics, he emerged as the raucous spokesman for the eastern Tennessee mountaineers and small farmers. In 1843 he began a ten-year tenure as U.S. congressman from his eastern Tennessee district which the Whigs, in despair of ever defeating him, ended by gerrymandering him out of the district in 1853. Johnson countered by announcing his candidacy for governor. He won by a fair majority and, as a champion of public education, was rea U.S. senator in 1857, Johnson agreed with the dominant proslavery element of his party in the senate on such issues as the

As

lowering of tariffs and putting an end to antislavery agitation. In addition, he stood solidly behind his poor white constituents in their fear of the abolitionists'

However, pany with most of slaves.

In 1864 the Republican party, deciding to broaden

in

demand

for

freedom of the Negro

favouring a homestead act, he parted com-

his fellow southerners.

Upon Lincoln's election as president in 1860, Johnson vehemently denied that the South had valid reasons for secession. When Tennessee passed an ordinance of secession in June 1861, Johnson, alone among the senators from the seceded states, remained at his post and refused to join the Confederacy. Although he was denounced by a majority of Tennesseans, he never faltered In March 1862, in recognition of in his loyalty to the Union. Johnson's unwavering support of the Union, Lincoln appointed him military governor of Tennessee, which by this time had been largely overrun by the advancing Northern armies. During a turbulent period of more than two years Johnson served as military governor of the state. Shortly before he relinquished this position he created the machinery for a restoration of civilian rule in Tennessee.

its

support

by forming a Union party of Republicans and "War" Democrats, nominated Abraham Lincoln as president and Andrew Johnson as vice-president. Johnson appeared ill and weak at his inauguration

March 4, 1865. Accepting an offer of a drink whisky to steady him during the prolonged ceremonies, he became intoxicated. This indiscretion permitted his political enemies during the remainder of his career to depict him unfairly as a

as vice-president on of

drunkard. Lincoln's assassination in 1865 thrust Johnson into the presidency; he took the oath of office on April 15. Reconstruction was the most vexing of many unsolved problems that he inherited and, immediately upon his accession, he reiterated his view that the South should be reconstructed with fire and rope. Radical Republicans who wished to recast Southern society believed that Johnson would co-operate with them more fully than had Lincoln. Johnson, however, infuriated the radicals by changing his position. As a lifelong spokesman for the small farmers, he did not want to see the South dominated by the free Negroes. Therefore, on May 29, 1865, he issued two proclamations that foreshadowed his reconstruction policy. They included a mixture of Lincoln's ideas and an earlier radical proposal, the Wade-Davis bill, along with some of Johnson's own prejudices. In accordance with this policy Johnson quickly reconstructed the former Confederate states. When congress met in Dec. 1865, however, Republican leaders looked upon Johnson's actions as premature and rejected his handiwork. While Republican moderates still vainly sought a basis of compromise with Johnson, the radicals in congress demanded that the Negroes immediately be given the right to vote and that a sufficient number of ex-Confederates be disfranchised to assure Republican majorities in most of the southern states, assuming that the Negroes would vote Republican out of gratitude to the party that had effected their freedom. The times demanded a president who was tolerant, broad of view and politically adept. By temperament and experience Johnson lacked these qualities, and the breach between him and the Republican congress widened. As president Johnson had been placed in an

almost impossible situation, for he had no large personal following in either the North or the South; he was president by accident and was the titular head of a party whose policies and leaders he distrusted. Standing almost alone, he faced the complexities of reconstruction which had taxed Lincohrs greater capacities. During the congressional elections of 1866 Johnson made a "swing 'round the circle" a tour of the important cities of the using his forceful stump-speaking technique east and middle west to explain his reconstruction policy to the people and to help elect a congress with which he could work. His efforts were a failure. Indeed, under the goad of vicious heckling. Johnson lost his temper and hurt rather than helped his cause. As a result, he had to face a congress in which his opponents commanded a firm two-

—

—

thirds majority.

On March

elected in 1855.

ANDREW

the

first

2,

1867. the radicals in congress passed over his veto up what has become known as

of a series of acts setting

"radical reconstruction" based upon Negro suffrage. Johnson administered the law faithfully but interpreted it so narrowly that By vetoes and a narit had to be clarified by additional legislation.

row interpretation gram so seriously

of congressional acts he delayed the radical pro-

that he contributed materially to

its

ultimate

failure.

Although an earlier attempt to impeach Johnson in the house of representatives had collapsed because none of his official acts could be construed as criminal, he played into the radicals' hands by the imbroglio over the Tenure of Office act, an effort to protect radical sympathizers in the executive branch of the government. Johnson had long suspected that his secretary of war, Edwin M. Stanton, was working secretly with the radicals. Usually credited with great boldness, Johnson occasionally vacillated over obvious but unpleasant decisions and so he did not remove Stanton until after the Tenure of Office Act had been pressed through congress over his veto.

This act forbade the president to remove certain federal

officeholders without the concurrence of the senate.

tended by his removal of Stanton to

rid

Johnson

in-

himself of an untrust-

JOHNSON, HIRAM- JOHNSON, LYNDON to provide a court test of the constitutionality Instead, this action provided the radicals in the house of representatives with the opportunity to vote articles of impeachment based mainly upon his violation of the act. In the trial before

were Rebekah (Mrs. O. P. Bobbin), Josefa (Mrs. Jim Moss, died 1961), Sam Houston Johnson, and Lucia (Mrs. Birge D.

the senate the charges against Johnson proved so obviously weak that 7 Republicans joined 12 Johnson men in voting to acquit him.

The father of the Alexander). family was a rancher, real estate

More Republican votes could have been obtained if they had been The votes taken on May 16 and May 26, 1868, resulted

agent, and

worthy adviser and of the act.

needed. in

35-to-19 decisions, one vote short of the two-thirds necessary

legislature. five

years

moved

for conviction.

Almost unnoticed during all the political furor, Johnson's secreHugh McCulloch, quietly carried out financial policies approved by the dominant wing of the eastern radical Republicans and generally contradictory to Johnson's own policies. After his term as president ended in March 1869, Johnson, deeply tary of the treasury,

After several unsuccessful attempts in Tennessee, he won a senatorial election in 1875. He attended only one short session of the senate before his sudden death from a paralytic stroke on July 31, 1875. Despite his intellectual force, integrity and unquestioned courage, Johnson was too tactless and undignified to fit the popular conception of the presidency. It was ironic that Johnson should have been impeached for violation of a law, for much of his political difficulty in the reconstruction period stemmed from his resentful, sought to vindicate himself.

political

strict interpretation of the constitution.

See also references under "Johnson, Andrew" in the Index. Bibliography. Robert W. Winston, Andrew Johnson, Plebeian and Patriot (1928) Lloyd P. Stryker, Andrew Johnson: a Study in Courage (1929) Eric L. McKitrick, Andrew Johnson and Reconstruction (1960) J. G. Randall and David Donald, The Civil War and Reconstruction, 2nd ed. (1961). (R. J. Ro.)

—

;

;

;

JOHNSON, HIRAM

WARREN

(1866-1945), governor of and U.S. senator, was born in Sacramento, Calif., Sept. 2, 1866. In his junior year he left the University of California, entered his father's law firm, was admitted to the bar in 1888 and in 1902 opened a law office in San Francisco with his elder brother. He became a brilliant trial lawyer and acquired a reputation as a civic reformer. As city attorney in Sacramento he campaigned against a corrupt political machine presided over by his father. Grove Johnson. In 1906 he acquired a reputation as a California

crusading prosecuting attorney, moving against the corrupt alliance of the Union Labor party and the great public service corporations that had dominated the San Francisco city government. As the nominee of a state-wide reform movement in 1910 he won the governorship of California and was re-elected in 1914.

Under his leadership the state legislature passed a comprehensive program of reform that curtailed the political hold on California of the Southern Pacific railroad and placed the state in the forefront of the progressive action then sweeping the nation. Meanwhile in 1912 Johnson helped in the formation of the National Progressive party, which nominated Theodore Roosevelt for president and Johnson for vice-president. In 1917 Johnson resigned as governor and entered the U.S. senate, to which he was regularly re-elected until his death. As senator he opposed the dominant conservative tendency of the Republican party. Johnson was best known in his later years as an implacable isolationist. He opposed U.S. adherence to the treaty of Versailles, the League of Nations and the World court. He sponsored the neutrality acts of the 1930s and was adamantly opposed to involving the nation in what he considered to be strictly European quarrels. In 1940 and 1941 he opposed the lend-lease act, conscription and other preparedness measures. At the very end of his life he argued that the United States should not join the United Nations. Johnson died on Aug. 6, 1945, at Bethesda, Md. (G. E. Mo.) JOHNSON, BAINES (1908), 36th president of the United States, succeeded to the office on Nov. 22, 1963,

LYNDON

upon the assassination of Pres. John

F.

Kennedy.

He became

the first Southerner to hold the office of president since

Andrew

Johnson of Tennessee succeeded Abraham Lincoln in 1865. Johnson was born Aug. 27, 1908, on a farm near Stonewall, a small town in Gillespie County, Tex. He was the eldest son of Samuel Ealy Johnson and Rebekah Baines Johnson, descendants of Texas pioneer families. The other children, in order of birth,

member

41

of the state

When Lyndon was of

age

the

family

Johnson City, a Texas town founded by the boy's grandfather, who had also been a member of the Texas legislature. There he attended the public schools and graduated from high school in 1924. Though he had LYNDON B. JOHNSON done well as a student he did not plan to go on to college; instead he journeyed to California with several friends and worked at odd jobs. When he returned home after a few months he took a job In 1927, finally deas a laborer on a road-construction project. ciding to heed his mother's advice about going to college, he borrowed money to get started and enrolled at Southwest Texas State Teachers College at San Marcos. He earned his way by working after hours, took one year off to earn more money by teaching in an elementary school, and graduated in 1930. He then became a teacher in the Sam Houston High School in Houston, Tex. With experience as a debater in both high school and college behind him, he taught debating and public speaking. In 1931 he took part in Richard M. Kleberg's successful campaign for Congress and was asked by Representative Kleberg to become his congressional secretary. While in Washington, D.C., Johnson took night courses at Georgetown University Law School for a few months. On Nov. 17, 1934, he married Claudia Alta Taylor (known as Lady to

Bird, the name given her in infancy by her nurse), a recent graduate of the University of Texas and the daughter of a wealthy family in Karnack, Tex. Their first child, Lynda Bird, was born in 1944 and the second, Lucy (or Luci) Baines, in 1947.

Representative.

—In 1935 Johnson was appointed Texas

direc-

Youth Administration, a New Deal agency for aiding needy young people. Two years later he decided to run for Congress when a special election was held in the 10th congressional district of Texas to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Rep. James P. Buchanan. His victory in the election on April 10, 1937, brought him to the attention of Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt, who was fishing off the Texas coast at the time. The president invited the young congressman to accompany him back to tor of the National

Washington on the presidential train, thus beginning a long period of friendly relations between the two men. Johnson was reelected for a full two-year term the next year and continued to represent the 10th district in the House of Representatives until 1948. During this period he ran for the Senate in a special election held on June 28, 1941, but was defeated by W. Lee ("Pappy") O'Daniel in a close race. He interrupted his congressional service a few days after the Pearl Harbor attack (Dec. 7, 1941) to enter the U.S. Navy as a lieutenant commander. After a few months of service in Australia and New Zealand, during which he was awarded the Silver Star for participation as an observer during a bombing raid on Japanese positions in New Guinea, he returned to Washington when President Roosevelt objected to further service by congressmen in the armed forces. During the remaining years of World War II Johnson was a member of the House Naval Affairs Committee, and in 1947 moved to the Armed Services Committee he also served on the Select Committee on Postwar Military Policy in 1944-45 and in 1948 on the Joint Atomic Energy Committee. Throughout his wartime service in the House of Representatives he was a consistent supporter of President Roosevelt's policies and was closely associated with the influential speaker of the House of Representatives Sam Rayburn, a family friend and fellow Texan. Senator. In 1948 Johnson again ran for the Senate. In the Democratic primary, which was tantamount to election in Texas, ;

—

JOHNSON, LYNDON

42

former Gov. Coke Stevenson won the most votes, with Johnson

mittee, which had been created during the 1962

second, but as Stevenson did not have a majority of the total votes cast, a runoff election was necessary. This time Johnson

crisis.

won

the Democratic nomination

total of nearly

1,000,000.

The

by a margin of 87 votes out of a result was unsuccessfully chal-

lenged in the courts and Johnson, after the general election, took his seat in the Senate (Jan. 3, 1949), where he became a member of the Senate Armed Services Committee and the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. In 1950 he headed a subcommittee that investigated and sharply criticized the disposal of surplus property by the armed services. From 1951 to 1953 Johnson served as Senate majority whip (assistant to the majority leader) and in 1953, with the Republicans in control of the Senate, he

was elected minority leader by the Democrats; two years later, the Democrats regained control, he became majority leader, a position he held until the end of 1960. As majority leader Johnson soon became recognized as a master of persuasion and compromise. Because he believed that his job was to get legislation passed, not to create political issues, he was often criticized by the more liberal members of his party who felt that his approach resulted in a watering down of liberal legislation. It was Johnson's leadership that was largely responsible for winning enactment of the 1957 and 1960 civil rights bills, the first such bills passed by the U.S. Congress in the 20th century. It was during this period of Senate leadership in July 1955 that Johnson suffered a heart attack. After a period of hospitalization he returned to the Senate and resumed his arduous duties as ma-

when

—

—

jority leader.

On major

issues before the Senate,

reflected his earlier support of the

moderate rather than extreme.

wage

to

He

Johnson took a stand that Deal, but his views were

New

favoured raising the

minimum

$1.25, enlarging the social security program,

lieving depressed areas

by means of

and

re-

federal-state cooperative ef-

forts; in 1958 he set forth a ten-point antirecession plan that included a greatly expanded public works program. An area in

which Johnson consistently voted along pro-Texas lines was the regulation of the oil and gas industries. As a member of the Senate Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce in 1949 he voted for a bill exempting independent natural-gas producers from the jurisdiction of the Federal Power Commission. During the debate on tidelands oil in 1952 he maintained that Texas had owned its offshore lands as a sovereign nation before it had joined the Union and had never transferred its rights to those lands to the federal government. Vice-President. In 1960 Johnson sought his party's nomination for president. The Texas legislature in 1959 had revised the state election laws to enable a candidate to seek two offices at once, thus making it possible for Johnson to run for president (as it turned out, for vice-president) at the same time that he ran for a third term in the Senate. Johnson delayed formal announcement of his candidacy until July 5, 1960, six days before the Democratic national convention opened in Los Angeles, Calif. Running on a platform of "proven leadership," Johnson tried hard to win the nomination but his regional identification and John F. Kennedy's head start were too much to overcome. Kennedy won the nomination for president and then announced that he favoured Johnson as the candidate for vice-president. Johnson was nominated by voice vote on July 14. Most political observers agreed that without Johnson on the ticket Kennedy would probably have lost the election in November, for Johnson helped carry some of the Southern states. Johnson's presence on the ticket helped to offset the anti-Catholic feelings that Kennedy's candidacy engendered, for Johnson was a member of the Christian Church. In Washington he often attended the Episcopal Church because his wife and daughters were Episcopalians. As it was, the Democratic ticket won by the slimmest popular-vote margin in the 20th century. On the same day that he was elected vice-president Johnson was reelected to the Senate but he resigned his Senate seat on Jan. 3, 1961.

—

As

vice-president, besides presiding frequently over the Senate,

Johnson conferred regularly with President Kennedy and served on the National Security Council as well as on its executive com-

Cuban missile Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity and in that post was credited with effective public and behind-the-scenes efforts to improve Negro employment opportunities. He was chairman of the National Aeronautics and Space Council and was thus able to pursue his interest in space exploration and missile development. He attended weekly White House conferences with legislative leaders, briefing

ences,

He was chairman

sessions

of the president's

held with

the

president

before press

and meetings of the secretaries of

state

confer-

and defense

on security problems. He also traveled extensively to represent the United States abroad; his journey to Berlin in 1961 was to reassure the citizens of West Berlin of continued U.S. support. President. Johnson was sworn in as president on Nov. 22, 1963, after the announcement of President Kennedy's death. The oath of office was administered by a federal district judge, Sarah T. Hughes, aboard the presidential plane on the ground at Love Field, Dallas, Tex. President Johnson immediately returned to Washington, and on Nov. 27 delivered a message to Congress in which he urged all Americans to "put an end to the teaching and the preaching of hate and evil and violence." His most forceful request of Congress was for the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill then pending in the House Rules Committee. In addition, he urged continued action on all aspects of the program proposed by his predecessor, stressing enactment of the tax-reduction bill, foreign aid legislation, education bills, and the youth employment opportunities bill. He pledged Congress that his administration would be one of the utmost thrift and frugality without neglecting "unfilled needs or commitments." Immediately after the assassination Johnson had asked all the members of the Kennedy Cabinet to remain at their posts. The only important innovation during his first year in office was a call for a "war on poverty." He appointed R. Sargent Shriver, director of the Peace Corps, to head the Office of Economic Opportunity, which was created to administer the antipoverty program. Johnson's success in promoting the legislative objectives of the Kennedy administration in Congress was remarkable. The tax-reduction bill, for example, was enacted in February 1964, much sooner than had been predicted. In June the Senate invoked cloture to stop a filibuster and within a few weeks, under strong pressure from President Johnson, passed the most comprehensive civil rights bill to be enacted since the Reconstruction period. The methods by which Johnson stimulated this congressional activity were demonstrated soon after he took office as president. He kept in touch by telephone with leading members of both the House and Senate and invited every member of Congress to the White House at least twice during his first year in office. The most notable function of this type was the "Salute to the 88th Congress," a reception held on the White House lawn on Aug. 19. It was generally agreed that his relations with Congress were the best of

—

.

.

.

any president in modern times. Johnson soon showed himself

to be a vigorous president bent on pursuing a liberal legislative program and at the same time holding the middle ground of American politics. While advocating Democratic programs that were regarded by Republicans as too expensive, Johnson submitted a budget that was lower than anticipated and asserted that, "I will insist that the Government get a His emphasis on government dollar's value for a dollar spent." economy, even to the point of turning out unneeded lights in the White House, created a favourable impression in the business community. While he pushed strongly for passage of the civil rights bill, his forceful and repeated condemnation of violence and rioting in racial demonstrations had a reassuring effect in the South and other areas that were concerned about racial integration. Despite strong opposition to many aspects of his domestic program, the president received substantial congressional response to his call to create a "Great Society." In addition to approving the civil rights and tax-reduction bills, Congress in 1964 adopted the president's antipoverty program and approved such longsought measures as the Wilderness Bill, a food-stamp program, extension of the Hill-Burton Hospital Construction Act, a pay increase for federal employees, and an urban transportation pro-

JOHNSON, LYNDON gram. Outside the legislative field the president's principal domestic triumph came in April with the settlement of the longstanding labour dispute in the railroad industry. In foreign affairs the president showed equal vigour in reassuring representatives of foreign governments who were shaken by the assassination of President Kennedy and concerned over the future course of U.S. policy. Although the president declined to leave the country during his first year (except for a brief trip to Canada in September 1964) because of the absence of a vice-president, he frequently entertained representatives of foreign governments. He repeatedly reaffirmed U.S. support for the United Nations and the various alliances to which the U.S. was a party. The one major personnel change that Johnson made at the top level of the Department of State was the appointment of a longtime associate,

Thomas

C.

Mann,

as assistant secretary of state for

Latin American affairs and coordinator of the Alliance for Progress program. This was taken as an indication that Johnson would pursue a vigorous policy of aid and reform in Latin America. The first foreign policy crisis the new president had to deal with occurred early in January 1964 when Panama severed diplomatic relations with the United States following anti-American rioting. The president soon made a conciliatory statement at a press conference, saying that the United States was willing to engage "without limitation or delay in a full and frank review" of the Panama situaThe crisis ended on April 3 when Panama and the United tion. States signed a joint declaration providing for immediate resumption of diplomatic relations

and adoption of procedures for elimi-

nating the causes of the dispute.

The situation in Vietnam required the constant attention of the administration in 1964. On June 23 the president appointed Gen. Maxwell D. Taylor, at that time chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, as the new U.S. ambassador to South Vietnam to replace Henry Cabot Lodge, who had resigned. This appointment was

considered a measure of the administration's deep concern with Southeast Asia. The Vietnam crisis reached a peak Aug. 2 and 4, when North Vietnam torpedo boats attacked U.S. destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin. After conferring with his advisers, President Johnson ordered a retaliatory air strike the military situation in

against the torpedo boat bases and other targets in

The president emphasized

North Vietnam.

the limited nature of the attacks but

said "repeated acts of violence against the

armed

forces of the

United States must be met not only with alert defense but with positive reply." At the president's request, Congress quickly approved a resolution supporting his action. Political criticism of Johnson during the year centred on two

main factors the Baker case and the Johnson family fortune. The former involved the financial affairs of Robert G. Baker, who was :

forced to resign as secretary to the Senate majority in October 1963 when an investigation revealed the full extent of the many business interests he had built up while in that position.

Baker had

been a Johnson protege and attempts were made to associate the two. The investigation of the Baker case by a Senate committee provided ammunition for the presidential election campaign. Criticism of the Johnson family's ownership of radio and television companies stressed the fact that these concerns were subject to regulation by the Federal -Communications Commission and greatly increased in value while Johnson was a senator and majority leader of the Senate. President and Mrs. Johnson on Nov. 29, 1963, placed the family holdings in irrevocable trust during the period that Johnson should hold federal elective office or until his death.

As expected, the Democratic national convention, meeting in Atlantic City, Aug. 24-27, selected Johnson by acclamation as the party candidate for a the still

22nd Amendment

full

four-year term as president. (Under Constitution, Johnson would

to the U.S.

be eligible for another term in 1968.)

There was no opJohnson entered the convenimmediately after his nomination, and an-

position to Johnson's nomination.

tion hall on Aug. 26, nounced to the delegates that his choice for the vice-presidential nomination was Sen. Hubert H. Humphrey of Minnesota. In his acceptance speech the president emphasized his belief in a strong national defense, world peace, and "fair play for all of

43

our people" at home. These themes were to play important roles campaign, during which both Johnson and Humphrey spoke throughout the country. On Nov. 3 Johnson was elected with the largest popular vote and by the widest popular margin in U.S. history. In the electoral college he lost Arizona, his opponent's home state, and five states of the normally Democratic Deep South. He carried with him substantial majorities in both the House and Senate. He was inaugurated on Jan. 20, 1965. Johnson's first year as president in his own right was marked by the same energy he had shown when he took office. In his state of the union message, delivered Jan. 4 before a joint session of Congress, he outlined his "Great Society" program based on exin the

panded federal assistance in the fields of health, education, and welfare. This was followed by a series of special messages on a variety of subjects, including federal aid to education, medical care for the

aged under social security, housing and urban development,

conservation, immigration, intensification of the "war on poverty," medical research, excise-tax reduction, and a constitutional amend-

ment providing

for presidential disability.

An

area of particular delicacy and concern for a Southern president was that of civil rights. On March 15, with national attention focused on racial violence and massive demonstrations taking place

with a voter registration drive in Selma, Ala., Johnson made a dramatic speech before Congress urging passage of a law ensuring voting rights for Negroes. Johnson followed up his speeches and messages with considerable pressure on congressional leaders and individual senators and congressmen. By mid-October, Congress had approved almost every important item on the president's lengthy legislative agenda. The only major administration defeat of the session, the failure of Congress to repeal the "right-to-work" provisions of the TaftHartley labour law, occurred after the president had entered the Naval Hospital at Bethesda, Md., to undergo surgery for removal of his gall bladder and a kidney stone. In foreign affairs, Johnson was less successful in maintaining the broad national "consensus" that he desired. His dispatching of U.S. troops to the Dominican Republic when revolution broke out there in April 1965 was widely criticized as undue interference in the internal affairs of another country. In Europe the North Atlantic Treaty Organization was threatened by Pres. Charles de Gaulle's announced intention of ending French participation. At the same time, the U.S. -Soviet detente that had marked the last months of the Kennedy administration showed signs of deterioration, chiefly because of the U.S. involvement in Vietnam. It was the Vietnamese war, however, that overshadowed other foreign and domestic matters from early 1965 onward and caused the greatest dissension, including criticism from within Johnson's own party. Beginning in February 1965, when the president orin connection

dered retaliatory air strikes against selected military targets in North Vietnam, the U.S. commitment in Vietnam grew steadily, with sharp increases in the number of U.S. troops engaged in combat.

Johnson attempted to maintain a middle ground between those desired U.S. withdrawal from Southeast Asia and those who wished to intensify the war effort in an attempt to gain immediate victory. While reaffirming the U.S. policy of helping the South Vietnamese people resist Communist aggression, he repeatedly offered to negotiate with North Vietnam. To this end, bombing of North Vietnam was suspended for a short time in April 1965 and again in late 1965 and early 1966, when an intensive but ultimately unsuccessful diplomatic effort was made toward bringing about an end to hostilities. Johnson also placed considerable emphasis on socioeconomic reform in South Vietnam. This was one of the principal topics discussed at a meeting between Johnson and his chief advisers and South Vietnamese government leaders held in Honolulu in February 1966. In his state of the union message to Congress in January 1966 Johnson announced his determination not to let the war in Vietnam divert resources and attention from his "Great Society" objectives. Nevertheless, many congressional leaders expressed an overriding concern with the war and with signs that the war effort was leading to inflationary pressures within the economy.

who

JOHNSON, RE VERDY- -JOHNSON, SAMUEL

4-4

During the year, as fear of inflation heightened, the administraand Congress suspended temporarily the 7% investment tax credit and certain methods of accelerated depreciation for corporations' machinery and equipment. In addition, the president called for reductions in federal spending and delay in some grants-in-aid. But by the beginning of 1967 there were signs that the rate of growth of the economy was slowing somewhat, and calls for measures against inflation diminished. In his state of the union message of Jan. 10, 1967, President Johnson disclosed his intention of asking for a 6% surcharge on tax bills, a much smaller tax increase Even then, there was some proposal than had been expected. doubt whether the 90th Congress would grant the request. The Vietnam war and its increasing costs dominated the presidency in 1966. While Johnson repeatedly announced his readiness for "unconditional negotiations," there was little he could offer in his state of the union message beyond "more cost, more loss, more tion

agony." In other foreign developments, the president stressed the importance of moving toward a detente with the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, a move that was inhibited by the Vietnam conflict. The president asked Congress for action on his 1966 proposal for East-West trade and on the U.S.-Soviet consular treaty. A significant step was taken on Jan. 27, 1967, when the United States, the Soviet Union, and other members of the United Nations signed a treaty on the peaceful use of space. Also, active talks were underway during 1966 and 1967 on a proposed treaty to stop the spread of nuclear weapons beyond those nations already possessing them. In the background of U.S. foreign policy developments lurked the massive mystery of China (q.v.), where the turbulent events surrounding an apparent power struggle presented an alarming and puzzling sight for the rest of the world. In April 1966 Johnson paid a brief visit to Mexico, his first trip outside the country since the 1964 election. The visit was interpreted as an indication of his desire to promote good will

among

the nations of the Western Hemisphere and to strengthen

the Alliance for Progress.

A

17-day trip beginning Oct. 17 took

American Samoa, New Zealand, Australia, Manila, Thailand, Vietnam (for a 2^-hour visit with U.S. troops), Malaysia, and Korea; the principal purpose of the Asian trip was to attend a conference of seven Asian and Pacific nations "to consider the conflict in South Vietnam and to review their wider purposes in Asia and the Pacific." Johnson's visit to Vietnam was the first by an incumbent president to a foreign battle zone since Franklin D. Roosevelt reviewed U.S. troops in Casa; the president to Honolulu,

blanca in 1943. On Nov. 16 the president underwent abdominal and throat surgery. The necessary rest preceding the operations precluded his

campaigning at the last minute before the Nov. 8 elections. The results of these were disappointing to him and his party, giving the Republicans eight new governorships, three new Senate seats, and 47 additional seats in the House of Representatives. For current developments, see Britannica Book of the Year. (T. N. S.) JOHNSON, (1796-1876), U.S. lawyer, senator and diplomat, was born at Annapolis, Md., on May 21, 1796. Admitted to the bar in 1816, he appeared in a number of famous cases

REVERDY

He

of Louisville, Ky., in 1780.

was admitted to the bar in 1802 and soon became prominent as a lawyer and Democratic politician.

He

served in the U.S. house of representatives and in the senate for

many

During the War a Ken-

years.

of 1812 he

commanded

tucky regiment of mounted

men

at the Battle of the

(1813).

From 1837

rifle-

Thames

to 1841 he

was vice-president of the United States while Martin Van Buren was president. He was elected to this position by the senate when none of the four vice-presidential candidates had received a majority of the electoral votes, the first

BY COURTESY OF THE LIBRARY OF CONGRESS

such

RICHARD

instance

in

The opposition

to

U.S.

history.

Johnson within

the party greatly increased during his term,

and the Democratic national convention of 1840 adopted

the unprecedented course of refusing to nominate anyone for the

vice-presidency.

In the ensuing election Johnson received most

of the Democratic electoral votes, but was defeated by the candidate, John Tyler. He died on Nov. 19, 1850.

JOHNSON, SAMUEL

(1709-1784), English poet,

critic,

and the greatest clubman of 18th-century London, was born at Lichfield, Staffordshire, on Sept. 18, 1709. His father, Michael Johnson, was a prominent citizen of Lichfield, being sheriff of the city at the time of Samuel's birth. As a bookhe conducted a substantial but not very profitable business. a healthy child. His eyes were weak and he was the victim of a tubercular infection in the glands of the neck, commonly known then as "the King's evil." In the hope that the cure for this disease lay in the royal touch, Mrs. Johnson traveled to London in March 1712 and Samuel was duly touched by Queen Anne. His memories of the ceremony were naturally slight, but he retained "a sort of solemn recollection of a lady in diamonds and a long black hood." It is not recorded that he derived any physical benefit from the royal touch, but the gold amulet which the queen hung round his neck remained there until his death. Michael Johnson was a high churchman with Jacobite sympathies. His wife, Sarah (daughter of Cornelius Ford, a Warwickshire yeoman), was a devout woman with leanings toward Calvinism. It was she who taught her son to learn the collect for the day by heart and expounded to him the contrast between heaven and hell. In 1717 Johnson entered Lichfield grammar school and began the study of Latin under Humphrey Hawkins. One of his schoolfellows, Edmund Hector, recalling in later years Johnson's "uncommon abilities for learning," wrote: "His ambition to excel was very trifling was great, though his application to books his dislike to business was so great that he would procrastinate his seller,

Samuel was not

.

.

.

.

exercises to the last hour."

.

.

It

remained with Johnson throughout his long

was

a disposition that

literary career.

When he was promoted to the upper school, Johnson came under the discipline of the headmaster, John Hunter, a scholar but a tyrant who beat his boys indis"to save them from criminately As Johnson later the gallows." said, "My master whipt me very well. Without that, Sir, I should ." After a have done nothing.

(1875).

RICHARD MENTOR

Whig

essayist, lexicographer

before the U.S. Supreme Court, including Brown v. Maryland (1827), Wheeling Bridge (1852 and 1856), Dred Scott (1857), Virginia v. West Virginia (1871), and Railroad Co. v. Maryland

Johnson also served in the U.S. Senate, both as a Whig (1845-49) and a Democrat (1863-68). Dubbed "the trimmer," he could argue on either side of an issue with equal force. After voting for a wartime test oath, for example, he later was instrumental in having test oaths declared unconstitutional. He opposed extreme measures during the Civil War and sought a moderate policy of reconstruction. As minister to Great Britain (1868-69), he helped settle issues that arose between that country and the U.S. during the war. He also appeared for the defendant in cases under the Enforcement Act of 1870. In United States v. Cruikshank (1875) the Supreme Court held that law to be unconstitutional. Johnson died on Feb. 10, 1876. (C. Fn.; X.) JOHNSON, (1780-1850), ninth vice-president of the United States, was born near the present site

JOHNSON, LITHOGRAPH

M.

PORTRAIT, 1840

—

.

.

period at the grammar school at Stourbridge, where he worked under the Rev. John Wentworth and took some part brief

OF BY COURTESY GALLERY, LONDON

THE

NATIONAL

PORTRAIT

JOHNSON, DETAIL OF A PORTRAIT BY SIR JOSHUA REYNOLDS

DR.

in

the teaching of the younger

JOHNSON, SAMUEL boys, Johnson helped his father in the bookshop. Rambling along his father's shelves, he read widely and with the instinct of an in-

— "not voyages and

travels, but all literature, Sir, manly." Thus, by the time that he entered Pembroke college, Oxford, in 1728, he was familiar with many works unknown at the universities; and when he was first introduced to the tutor of the college his own contribution to the conversation was a quotation from Macrobius. The tutor was William Jorden. Johnson thought little of his scholarship, but praised his goodness of heart. William Adams, fellow and later master of Pembroke, meant more to Johnson and remained his friend through many years. He had some good friends, too, among the undergraduates of his own generation. He was near to his old schoolfellow, John Taylor of Ashbourne, at Christ Church, and among Pembroke men he had the reputation of being gay and frolicsome. But Frustrated and embittered by poverty, he it was a forced gaiety. defied authority and "thought to fight his way on his literature and his wit." One example of his scholastic facility survives from his undergraduate days a Latin translation of Pope's Messiah, which was included in a Miscellany edited by John Husbands and published at Oxford in 1731. How the impecunious Michael Johnson was enabled to send his son to college is not wholly clear. Possibly a small legacy received at the time by Mrs. Johnson may have helped. But, in any event, Johnson was compelled to leave Oxford in Dec. 1729 after a residence of four terms. His prospects were poor. He had no degree or other qualification; his father's business was declining; an apHis plication for an ushership at Stourbridge was unsuccessful. father died at the end of 1 731 and in the following year Samuel accepted a post as undermaster in the grammar school at Market Bosworth. The work brought him neither health nor happiness and he resented the arrogance with which he was treated by Sir Wolstan Dixie, in whose house he lived. Through the influence of his old friend Edward Hector, who had become a surgeon in Birmingham, Johnson secured the task of translating into English the French version of A Voyage to Abyssinia, With a Continuation of Johnson's the History of Abyssinia, by Father Jerome Lobo. preface gives an early indication of his instinctive sympathy with the natives of an invaded country. The invaders of Abyssinia were missionaries, but they preached the gospel with swords in their hands. The preface also gives an authentic foretaste of Johnson's prose style: "The Reader will discover, what will always be discover'd by a diligent and impartial Enquirer, that wherever Human Nature is to be found, there is a mixture of Vice & Virtue, a contest of Passion and Reason, and that the Creator doth not appear Partial in his Distributions, but has balanced in most Countries their particular Inconveniences by particular Favours." Johnson's sojourn in Birmingham brought him something more than a fee of five guineas for his first book it brought him a wife in the person of Elizabeth, widow of Harry Porter, a mercer. She was 20 years older than Johnson and it is not easy to determine the grounds of mutual attachment. Johnson, in later years, used to speak of his wife's beautiful blonde hair and whatever the lady thought of Johnson's looks ("lean and lank the scars of the scrofula deeply visible") or of his "convulsive starts and odd gesticulations," she at least appreciated the vigour and good sense of his conversation. The marriage took place at Derby in 1735 and one solid fact was that the bride brought with her a dowry of about £700. On the strength of this and with the encouragement of his friend Gilbert Walmesley (registrar of the eccle-

cipient scholar

all

ancient writers,

all

—

.

.

.

—

.

.

.

siastical court of Lichfield) Johnson decided to set up at Edial, near Lichfield, a school of his own at which young gentlemen could be boarded and taught the Latin and Greek languages. He pre-

pared an elaborate curriculum, but only a few young gentlemen, among whom was David Garrick (q.v.), came as pupils, and at the end of two years Johnson had to admit failure. But in spite of ill-health, of melancholia, of his lack of a degree and of the collapse of his school, the desire to be known as a scholar and a writer remained clear in his mind.

While

schoolboy he had written of .

.

.

And

the young Authour, panting after fame, the long honours of a lasting name

still

a

45

marriage he had written to Edward Cave 1731 had successfully founded the Gentleman's Magazine, offering to fill a column, on reasonable terms, with poetry, dissertations, critical remarks on ancient and modern authors

and

in the year before his

(q.v.),

who

in

and other material. Furthermore, with plenty of time on his hands he embarked, again with the encouragement of Gilbert Walmesley, upon the writing of a tragedy. It was based on the story of Sultan Mahomet II and the beautiful Greek maiden Irene, as told by Richard Knolles in his General History of the Turks. But the work was not finished and Johnson, facing the fact that he must write something for which an editor or a bookseller would pay, decided to seek his fortune in London. So, in company with David Garrick, he rode to London in March 1737. "Two such candidates for fame," wrote Arthur Murphy (in An Essay on the Life and Genius of Samuel Johnson, 1792), "perhaps never before They brought with that time, entered the metropolis together. them genius, and powers of mind, peculiarly formed by nature for the different vocations to which each of them felt himself inclined .... In three or four years afterwards Garrick came forth with talents that astonished the publick .... Johnson was left to toil in the humble walks of literature." Early Work. The Gentleman's Magazine offered him the first at Edial,

—

opportunity of humble tic ability

toil. Cave quickly recognized his journalisand Johnson contributed a number of pieces in prose

and verse

odes, epigrams, reviews, as well as a series of concise

—

In the later part of 1737 he returned to Lichfield, tragedy Irene, and brought his wife to London. Meanwhile, his ambition to be a writer of something more than ephemeral pieces for periodicals remained and in 1738 his first

biographies. finished

his

substantial

poem, London, was published. It was written in imitaand in it Johnson embodied his pro-

tion of Juvenal's third Satire

test against political corruption: let those reign, whom pensions can incite vote a patriot black, a courtier white;

Here

To

against the dangers of the

London

streets:

Their ambush here relentless ruffians lay, And here the fell attorney prowls for prey; Here falling houses thunder on your head, And here a female atheist talks you dead.

more acutely personal feeling, unknown and impecunious author:

and, with the

against the miseries of

is ev'ry where confess'd WORTH, BY POVERTY DEPRESS'D. London, published anonymously, had an immediate success. It went quickly into three editions and won high praise from Pope. But Johnson's fee was but ten guineas and again he thought of schoolmastering as an alternative to being "starved to death in translating for booksellers." The headmastership of Appleby school in Leicestershire was offered to him, subject to his obtaining the degree of M.A., but negotiations for its conferment broke down both at Oxford and at Dublin; similarly, his lack of a degree in law frustrated his application for permission to practise as an advocate. To this period of embittered disappointment belong his two most violent and satirical strictures upon the Walpole ministry: the first was Marmor Norfolciense (1739), an essay upon a Latin rhyme supposed to have been discovered in Walpole's county, Norfolk, and the second A Complete Vindication of the Licensers of the Stage (1739), an ironical defense of the suppression of Henry Brooke's play Gustavus Vasa. Both satires are the protests of an angry young man rebelling against authority and striving, as he had striven at Oxford, to fight his way out by his wit. Johnson was no sentimental Jacobite, but his scorn of the Hanoverian government was never more bitterly explicit than in Mar-

This mournful truth

SLOW

RISES

mor Norfolciense: Then

World

shall Discord stretch her wings; Laws, and Kingdoms change their Kings. The story that a warrant was issued for Johnson's arrest has never been verified; but, meanwhile, as a member of Cave's staff, he was required to treat contemporary politics in more sober style. Reports of parliamentary debates had been a feature of the Gentleman's Magazine since 1732, but shortly after Johnson's arrival in London the house of commons forbade publication of their pro-

o'er the

Kings change

their

—

JOHNSON, SAMUEL

46

Cave, however, contrived to continue the publication "Debates in the Senate of Magna Lilliputia" and in the first instance Johnson was employed to assist William Guthrie in editing and expanding the reports; but from 1740 to 1743 the "Debates" were entirely Johnson's own work. He was not a reporter in the modern sense and was only once inside the house of commons. Sometimes he had a few notes supplied by other reporters; sometimes nothing more than the subject of debate and the names of the speakers; sometimes, he confessed, the "Debates" were the mere coinage of his own imagination, and in later years he had some prickings of conscience about his freedom of invention. As a journalistic feat, they were a remarkable tour de force. He would shut himself up in a room at Cave's headquarters in St. John's gate and deliver three columns for the Magazine in an hour. His famous remark that he took care that the Whig dogs should not have the best of it has perhaps been given undue importance. His reports have been well described as leading articles on both

There mark what ills the scholar's life assail, Toil, envy, want, the patron, and the jail. See nations slowly wise, and meanly just,

ceedings. of

sides of the question rather than records of the cut-and-thrust of

debate and the short speech put into the

mouth

of

the end of the debate on the motion for his removal is

a remarkably objective record of a minister

dignity and restraint in his

own

Walpole at from office

speaking with

defense.

One of Johnson's closest companions in his early years in London was Richard Savage (q.v.). Savage had in his time been actor, playwright and poet. He claimed to have been nobly born and had had many friends among the great whose hospitality he persistently abused. Two qualities at least he shared with Johnson poverty and patriotic indignation against the Walpole administration. When their fortunes were at their lowest, they would spend whole nights in "a perambulation round the squares of Westminster when all the money they could both raise was less than sufficient to purchase for them the shelter and sordid comforts of a night cellar." When Savage died, Johnson lost no time in commemorating his friend. Written con amore and at a white heat, the Account of the Life of Mr. Richard Savage, anonymously published in 1 744, was the first of Johnson's prose works to captivate the public. Fielding called it the best treatise in the language on the excellencies and defects of human nature Sir Joshua Reynolds could not put the book down until he had finished it. The Theatre. In addition to a great variety of hack work, Johnson was now turning his attention to Shakespeare. In 1 745 he published his Miscellaneous Observations on the Tragedy of Mac.

.

.

;

—

beth, coupled with preliminary proposals for his

own

edition of the

from further Shakespearean work he was deflected by the suggestion that he should compile a dictionary of the English language. That a syndicate of booksellers should have chosen

plays, but

Johnson for so gigantic a task

had London. In those same years David Garrick had made more rapid and more brilliant progress. Deserting the law for the theatre, he had made his mark as an actor in 1741 and by 1747 had become the patentee of Drury Lane theatre. For the first performances under Garrick's management Johnson wrote a prologue and, although he commonly spoke with contempt of actors and their profession, he was willing, for

made

is

a tribute to the position he

for himself during his ten years in

friendship's sake, to plead their cause:

Ah

!

let

not Censure term our Fate our Choice,

The Stage but echoes back the publick Voice, The Drama's Laws the Drama's Patrons give, For we that live to please, must please to live. At

this time, moreover, Johnson had a personal interest in dramatic production. His tragedy Irene, completed shortly after he had come to London, had long lacked a publisher or a producer. Garrick, when he came into power, agreed to do his best for his old master and Irene was produced "with a display of Eastern magnificence" in 1749. It ran for nine nights. It was essentially a moralist's play and although it was said to be "universally admired in the closet," it has never been revived. More permanent was Johnson's second didactic poem, The Vanity of Human Wishes (1749), in which the careers of Galileo, Wolsey. Charles XII of Sweden and others are shown to illustrate the hazards of political ambition, the futility of military conquest and the miseries of authorship:

To

buried merit raise the tardy bust.

dreams yet flatter, once again attend, Hear Lydiat's life, and Galileo's end. At the time of its publication, The Vanity of Human Wishes had a much less rapid sale than London. But it is Johnson's greatest If

poem.

Its

manner and

is

that of

its

period.

But Johnson's panorama

of scholars and philosophers, of statesmen and kings, in the modern as well as the ancient world, is inspired by that "high seriousness" which endows the poem with universality. of the rise

fall

But the record of disillusionment is not the end. Must helpless man, in ignorance sedate, Roll darkling

down

the torrent of his fate?

No, says Johnson, he must pray for the love and patience and faith of the Christian.

The "Rambler."— The lish

contract for the Dictionary of the Engin 1746 and Johnson published his

Language had been signed

Plan of an English Dictionary in the following year. He made no complaint of what the booksellers offered him, but it was not enough to keep the wolf from the door. So, in 1750, he embarked upon the Rambler, a twopenny sheet published twice a week and containing a single anonymous essay. The Rambler is of fundamental importance in any estimate of Johnson's approach to literaBefore he embarked on the work, he prayed that he might ture.

promote the glory of God and the salvation of himself and others. The Rambler, in short, was not an entertainer but an instructor, and 19th-century critics tended to dismiss his essays as lay sermons. Johnson had recently founded his first club (the Ivy Lane chub) and from his tavern chair would take a prominent part in contributing to what he called "colloquial entertainment." But a printed essay demanded "more accurate thought and more laboured beauties." Talking for victory was legitimate; with the printed word came the moralist's responsibility and, in Johnson's literary creed, the basic article of belief was that it was always a writer's duty to make the world better. This sense of responsibility determined the style of the essays. "To trifle agreeably," as he wrote "is a secret which schools cannot impart" and the Rambler was for the most part a detached and generalizing commentator. He created no character comparable to that of Addison's and Steele's Sir Roger de Coverley in the Spectator and the essays bear little rela-

On the other hand, they frequently reflect the social and literary conditions of the time: there is scorn for the virtuoso and the overdomesticated hostess; an objective picture of the prostitute's life; a vigorous protest against- the death sentence for robbery; and, inevitably, a grimly humorous presentation of the journalist's lot. The Rambler appeared twice a week for two years (1750-52). A few days after the issue of the last number, Johnson's constitutional melancholy was deepened by the death of his wife. The full story of his married life must necessarily be conjectural. None of Johnson's friends in his early London period appears to have met Mrs. Johnson and there are but few contemporary references to her. That the marriage was based on mutual admiration and affection is reasonably clear. From the beginning Mrs. Johnson had relished the quality of her husband's conversation and she had a special admiration for the Rambler ; Johnson, on his part, appreciated her intelligent reading of comedy. But, domestically, they were not well suited. Johnson was as insistent about the quality of his food as he was careless and untidy about the house. What was more serious was that in her later years Mrs. Johnson became addicted to strong liquor and to drugs and was unable to satisfy her husband's physical desires. Something of this may be read between the lines of Johnson's prayers and meditations about her death. Nevertheless, Johnson's affection, tinged with some remorse, remained sincere and its sincerity is not impaired by the discovery that on April 22, 1753, he purposed "to try to seek a new wife without any derogation from dear Tetty's memory." The precise direction of his search is not known, but it is interesting that he contemplated an adventure which he was later to de"Formosa, culta, scribe as the triumph of hope over experience. ingeniosa, pia" ("a woman of beauty, elegance, ingenuity, and tion to current events or current literature.

.

.

.

i

—

:

JOHNSON, SAMUEL —

so Johnson described his Tetty on the gravestone which piety") he placed in Bromley parish church more than 30 years later. In lapidary inscriptions, as he said, a man is not upon oath. In 1752 Johnson was a lonely man, but he had made some good friends. At the Ivy Lane club he was delighted "to pass those hours in a free and unrestricted interchange of sentiments, which otherwise had been spent at home in painful reflection." There were ten members, including Sir John Hawkins (q.v.), who lived to be Johnson's executor and biographer; John Hawkesworth (q.v.), editor of the Adventurer, to which Johnson himself contributed a number of essays; John Ryland. one of the few of Johnson's early friends who lived to attend his funeral; John Payne, publisher of the Rambler; and Richard Bathurst, the physician whom Johnson loved better than any other creature. It was at the Ivy Lane club that Johnson celebrated the publication of Mrs. Charlotte Lennox's first book by "a whole night spent in festivity." Hawkins was worried by reflecting how nearly the party had re sembled a debauch. It is not surprising that it was for Hawkins that Johnson coined the word "unclubable." The Dictionary. Johnson had published his Plan for the DicAt Dodsley's suggestion, it was dedicated to tionary in 1747.

—

Lord Chesterfield, who at first showed some interest and made some suggestions for revision. But Chesterfield paid no further attention to the work and Johnson resolved to part company with him but Johnson did not forget. In April 1753 he was beginning work upon the second volume of the Dictionary and he had still to write the Preface, the Grammar and the History. Two years later the work was finished. It had occupied Johnson and his amanuenses for eight and one-half years and its accomplishment was described by Sir James Murray, editor in chief of the Oxford English Dic-

—

tionary, as a marvelous one.

It surpassed earlier dictionaries not but in precision of definition and in literary illustration (see Dictionary). Its 40,000 words were, in fact, rather less than those in the work of his predecessor, Nathaniel Bailey; but what distinguished Johnson's work was the range of reading by which he exemplified the different shades of the meaning of a particular word. "I applied myself," he wrote in his preface, "to the perusal noting whatever might be of use to ascertain of our writers or illustrate any word or phrase." Certain books (Bacon's Essays, South's Sermons and others) have survived with Johnson's underlinings and indications of the passages chosen for quotation. His assistants copied the quotations on separate slips and these were pasted below Johnson's own definitions. At the beginning Johnson had looked forward to hours which he would revel away in feasts of literature and ransack the obscure recesses of northern learning. But he soon realized that these were "the dreams of a poet doomed at last to wake a lexicographer." To the weariness of copying was added the vexation of expunging, and Johnson, having set practical limits to his work, was acutely conscious of its imperfections. His orthography was admittedly controvertible and his etymology uncertain; and. even while the dictionary was hastening to publication, some words, as he said, were budding and some were falling away. Nevertheless, the claim made in the final paragraph of his preface one of the finest examples of his prose style was abun-

in bulk,

.

.

.

—

—

dantly justified In this work, when it shall be found that much is omitted, let it not be forgotten that much likewise is performed and though no book was ever spared out of tenderness to the author, and the world is little solicitous to know whence proceeded the faults of that which it condemns yet it may gratify curiosity to inform it, that the English Dictionary was written with little assistance of the learned, and without any patronage of the great not in the soft obscurities of retirement, or under the shelter of academick bowers, but amidst inconvenience and distraction, in sickness and in sorrow. ;

;

;

Today

the ordinary reader

may

tend to remember the "wild blun-

ders," the "risible absurdities," the frankly personal prejudices

shown in the definitions of "oats" ("A grain, which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people"), "excise," "pension" and other well-known examples. But Johnson's enrichment of the definition

and by

wordbooks of

English literature was an enduring lexicography.

his predecessors

linguistic illustration

by judicious

from the whole range of

monument

in the history of

On

the

title

47

page of the Dictionary, Johnson had the satisfaction

of describing himself as a master of arts of the University of

award was made in consideraand moral value of his essays. The degree, in short, was conferred upon the Rambler. The Dictionary was well received and opposition came only from "the Criticks of the coffeehouse whose outcries are soon dispersed in the air and are thought on no more." But there was one outcry of enthusiastic praise which Johnson did not allow to be dispersed. In two papers in the World, Lord Chesterfield, seeking to make amends for his previous neglect, hailed Johnson as the supreme dictator of the English language and so provoked the most famous Oxford and

it is

significant that the

tion of the religious

of

all

Johnson's letters:

notice which you have been pleased to take of my labours, had been early, had been kind; but it has been delayed till I am indifferent, and cannot enjoy it; till I am solitary, and cannot impart it; till I am known and do not want it

The

it

.

.

Journalism — "The Idler." —Johnson was soon .

at

work upon

an abridged edition of the Dictionary, but fame as a lexicographer had not relieved him of pecuniary distress. In March 1756 he was under arrest for the sum of £5 I85. Normally he would have appealed to one of the printers for whom he worked William Strahan or Andrew Millar but they were not available, and it was the printer-novelist Samuel Richardson who sent him six guineas. So,

—

—

He edited Sir (1756), wrote prefaces to William Payne's Introduction to the Game of Draughts (1756) and Richard Rolfs Dictionary of Trade and Commerce (1761) and contributed many articles to journals. In the Literary Magazine Jonas Hanway's "Essay on Tea" provoked Johnson's description of himself as a "hardened and shameless tea-drinker" who had drunk of it for 20 years without hurt and therefore believed A more important review was that of Soame it not to be poison. of necessity, his activity as a journalist continued.

Thomas Browne's

Christian Morals

Jenyns' Free Enquiry Into the Nature and Origin of Evil (1757), in which, with massive irony, he demolished the conjecture of a superior race of beings deceiving and tormenting men for their own pleasure: "The only end of writing is to enable the readers it: and how will either of power by him who tells us that we are

better to enjoy life or better to endure

those be put

more

in our

puppets, of which some creature not much wiser than ourselves manages the wires?" Nor could Johnson swallow the bland assertion that poverty was generally compensated by better health and a

more

exquisite relish of the smallest enjoyments.

"Life," he re-

"must be seen before it can be known." These were topics on which he wrote with peculiar depth of feeling and, as always when he felt deeply, his style became more simple. Neither Johnson's interests nor his writings were confined to the problems of literature and ethics. To the Literary Magazine of 1756 he contributed two articles on the political situation "An Introduction to the Political State of Great Britain" and "Observations on the Present State of Affairs." In both he writes with scorn of the power politics inherent in both English and French colonialism. The dispute between the two countries in America was "the quarrel of two robbers for the spoil of a passenger," and even those who had settled in the new world on the fairest terms had no other merit than that of "a scrivener who ruins in silence over a plunderer that seizes by force." Nor was he afraid of asserting that the French sent out better governors and that they treated the natives better than did the English. It was ridiculous, he wrote, to imagine that the friendship of nations, whether civil or barbarous, could be gained or kept but by kind treatment, and it was this basic mistrust of the motives and methods of colonizers that provoked his later and better-known outburst against colonial claims. Meanwhile, he had projects of his own in hand or in view. He issued his proposals for his edition of torted,

Shakespeare in 1756, emphasizing, not for the first time, that his motive was not desire of fame but want of money. In April 1757 he wrote to his old friend Edmund Hector, in Birmingham, that the subscriptions, if slightly disappointing, were satisfactory: but early in 1758 he was obliged to borrow £40 from Jacob Tonson, the bookseller.

About the same time he undertook

to contribute a

weekly essay,

:

—

JOHNSON, SAMUEL

48

"The Idler," to the Universal Chronicle. Of these essays it may be said that the reader who has been nurtured in the tradition that, while Johnson's talk is magnificent, his writings to be entitled

(other than the Lives of the English Poets) are unreadable, would Though the be well advised to turn his attention to "The Idler.

work

of Johnson's which obtained an immediate

larity in his lifetime.

and wide popu-

It satisfied the taste of the

18th-century reader for "impressive truth in splendid fiction drest" and not only of the English reader. In a variety of translations, its fame

—

-

'

moralist and the social reformer (especially on such topics as debtors' prisons and vivisection) are still evident, he is willing to turn aside to the human comedy: for instance, to the female

bargain hunter ("whatever she thinks cheap, she holds it the duty of an economist to buy") or to the publisher ("Some never dealt with authors others had their hands full some had never known such a dead time; others had lost by all that they had published for the last twelvemonth.'"). There are also some character ;

:

;

sketches, of which the

most memorable

is

that of

"Mr. Sober"

Mr. Sober's chief pleasure is conversation there is no end of his talk or his attention; to speak or to hear is equally pleasing; for he still fancies that he is teaching or learning something, and is free for the time from his own reproaches. But there is one time at night when he must go home, that his friends may sleep; and another time in the morning when all the world agrees to shut out interruption. These are the moments of which poor Sober trembles at the thought. ;

and convincing, piece of self-portraiture. Every week two years, with a few exceptions when he secured another contributor, Johnaou delivered his "Idler" essay to the printer. Rasselas. In the midst of his work and worn- came news of his

It is a rare,

for

—

mother's guineas.

On

Jan. 13. 1759. he contrived to send her 12 But he knew that he would need more and on the same

illness.

day (Jan. 20) that he wrote

his last tender tribute to his

mother he

implored Strahan. the printer, to let him have £30 on account of "a thing he was preparing for the press." The thing was to be entitled "'The choice of Life, or The History of Prince of Abissinia." better known as Rasselas. Written in the evenings of a week with the impending expenses of his mother's funeral in mind, it explores and exposes the vanity of the human search for happiness. The setting was no doubt prompted by Johnson's recollection of Jerome Lobo's Voyage to Abyssinia and the work is addressed to those who "listen with credulity to the whispers of fancy and pursue with eagerness the phantoms of hope." Impelled by such eagerness. Rasselas. with his sister, leaves his happy valley because its pleasure has ceased to please and because he is fired with a desire to do something. He meets with men of varied occupations and interests and earnestly explores their manner of life scholars, astronomers, shepherds, hermits, poets. With Imlac. the poet, he ranges over many of the basic problems of art and life, but gains little satisfaction from the answers he receives. Imlac's catalogue of the necessary qualities of the poet is so overwhelming that Rasselas concludes that no human being can ever be a poet; a comparison between European and Eastern happiness leads to the conclusion that, although the advantage may rest with the Europeans, "human life is everywhere a state in which much is to be endured, and little to be enjoyed." At his first entry into city life. Rasselas meets everywhere with gaiety and happiness, but closer association reveals a picture of levity and intemperance. From the extravagance of youth, he turns to an inspiring lecture on morality, only to find that the lecturer's philosophy collapses at the first stroke of personal misfortune. When he passes hopefully to scenes of pastoral simplicity, he finds the shepherds cankered with discontent since they are condemned to labour for the luxury of the rich; when he seeks advice from a hermit, he is disappointed to be told that "the life of a solitary man will be certainly miserable, but not certainly devout." So the journey of disillusionment continues, until Imlac protests: "While you are making the choice of life, you neglect to live" which is, perhaps, the most important moral to be drawn from

—

the tale.

Of all Johnson's writings, none is more intensely characteristic than Rasselas. It is a remarkable example of his fluent productivity when he had a definite object and a definite date before him, but speed did not debase either the solemnity of his subject or the dignity of its treatment. Johnson allowed his imagination to wander into Abyssinia and Egypt, but fundamentally Rasselas is a spiritual autobiography. Furthermore, it was the one prose

spread over Europe and beyond. Johnson's Circle. In spite of his struggles and sorrows. Johnson was. by this time, no longer a lonely hack writer. His writings, though they did not make his fortune, had brought him many friends. Sir Joshua Reynolds, who had been enthralled by Johnson's Life of Savage, was no less enthusiastic about his conversation and his counsel; Charles Burney warmly commended the Dictionary and encouraged the edition of Shakespeare; Bennet

—

Langton came to London at an early age for the express purpose of meeting the author of the Rambler. Johnson also cherished his Oxford friendships. He spent some time there in 1754 and again in 1755 and 1759 and. after the conferment of his degree, took a keen pleasure in wearing his gown. Among his friends at Oxford were Robert Chambers of Lincoln college and Thomas Warton of Trinity. It was at Trinity in 1759 that Bennet Langton introduced

him to Topham Beauclerk. Even so. Johnson was still at the beck and call of authors and editors and friends for the writing of introductions, reviews and. especially, dedications. Of James Bennet's edition of Roger Ascham's works he was virtually the editor and contributed a life of

Ascham he wrote the loyal address presented to George III on by the painters, sculptors and architects; he revised ;

his accession

John Gwynn's pamphlet on the proper route for the coronation work on Man'. Queen of Scots, and

procession; he reviewed a

wrote a dedication for Giuseppe Baretti's Italian Dictionary. Meanwhile his edition of Shakespeare tarried. In 1762 the unexpected happened. He was informed of the gracious intention of his majesty the king to confer on him a pension of £300 a year. Could he in decency take it. after defining "pension" in his Dictionary as "pay given to a state hireling for treason to his country"? At least, he felt, he must consult his friends. But Reynolds reassured him and Lord Bute told him that the award was made not for anything he might do but for what he had already done. So. from a full heart. Johnson thanked his lordship for sparing him "the shame of solicitation and the anxiety of suspense." Meeting With James Boswell. The following year was to provide yet another landmark in Johnson's life, for on May 16, 1763. his accidental meeting with James Boswell (q.v.) in the back

—

parlour of Thomas Davies' bookshop in Covent Garden inaugurated one of the most famous companionships in history. Boswell, the eldest son of Lord Auchinleck. a Scottish judge, had studied law at Edinburgh and Glasgow and had a passionate desire to

His mind was dominated by to be a famous author himself. Staying in a country house in the previous year, he had read aloud, with enthusiastic comment, some of the Rambler essays and. in the list of celebrities whom he wished to meet, the author of the Rambler stood high. A little daunted by Johnson's brusque rejoinders at their first meeting. Boswell was nevertheless encouraged by Davies to persevere and a week later he waited, with some apologies, upon Johnson. Johnson cut him short. "I am obliged." he said, "to any man who visits me." So Boswell stayed and listened in rapture. "His conversation." he wrote in his diary "is as great as his writing." He could give no higher praise. To Johnson new friendships were always welcome, and especially with young people, for such friendships lasted longest. To the charm of BosTogether they enjoyed well's enthusiasm he quickly succumbed. suppers at the Mitre tavern and excursions on the Thames, but the signal mark of Johnson's favour was his offer to accompany Boswell in the coach to Harwich, whence Boswell was to embark on his continental tour. Johnson gave him much sound advice. In particular, he urged him to keep a diary and it is to Boswell's diary Many that the world owes its intimate knowledge of Johnson. others left valuable records of his fife and character, but it was Boswell who johnsonized the land. In 1764 Johnson was happy to concur with Sir Joshua's suggestion for the foundation of what is still the most famous of London taste the felicities of

two ambitions

dining clubs

—

to

—The

London

life.

meet famous men and

Club.

Among

the original members, besides

:

:

JOHNSON, SAMUEL Reynolds and Johnson, were Edmund Burke, Topham Beauclerk, Bennet Langton and Oliver Goldsmith, and nine years later it was one of the proudest moments of Boswell's life when he was admitted to membership. Johnson was characteristically frank in describing the circumstances of the election. If they had refused Boswell, he would have kept every other candidate out. Edition of Shakespeare. Meanwhile, he had been working upon his edition of Shakespeare. Adumbrated in 1745 and formally announced in 1756, it had occupied him for much more than the two years in which he had hoped to complete it and the long delay had provoked some satire by the scurrilous Charles Churchill

—

He for subscribers baits his hook And takes your cash but where's ;

The book,

the

book?

volumes, appeared at length in 1765. Johnson had been a student of Shakespeare all his life. He was no idolater

and

in eight

his basic criticism is that of the moralist:

"He

is

so

gard and affection for her remained constant. When she died in 1783, he mourned a companion to whom he had had recourse for domestic amusement for 30 years. Shortly after Mrs. Johnson's death, Johnson's beloved friend Richard Bathurst presented to him Francis Barber, a Negro slave who had been freed by Bathurst's father. Johnson made Francis his friend as well as his servant, sent him to school at Bishop's Stortford and provided for him

handsomely in his will. Another humble friend was Robert Levett, "an obscure practiser in physick amongst the lower people," who was given a room at the top of the house in Johnson's court. Johnson insisted that Levett was indebted to him for nothing more than house-room, a share of a penny loaf at breakfast and an occasional Sunday dinner. His death provoked one of Johnson's most moving

poems Well try'd through many a varying year See Levett to the grave descend;

much

careful to please than to instruct, that he seems to write without any moral purpose. ... He carries his persons indifferently through right and wrong, and at the close dismisses them without further care, and leaves their examples to operate by chance. This fault the barbarity of his age cannot extenuate; for it is always a writer's duty to make the world better." As an editor, Johnson set out, first, to correct textual corruptions; second, to elucidate obscurities of language; and, last, in treating of Shakespeare's sources, to examine the very books which Shakespeare consulted. Of the critics' complaint of Shakespeare's neglect of the unities of time and place he made short work. The demand for these unities arose from "the supposed necessity of making the drama credible," but in Johnson's view no drama was

more

either credible or credited.

"The truth

is

that the spectators are

always in their senses, and know, from the first act to the last, that the stage is only a stage, and that the players are only players." Johnson recognized that Shakespeare wrote his plays not for the reader at his desk, but for an audience in the theatre. But Johnson himself could never appreciate the contribution made by the actor to dramatic interpretation. For him the actor was a reciter who said his piece "with just gesture and elegant modulation" and it was not in the theatre but in his study that he was most deeply moved by "the perpetual tumult of indignation, pity and hope." "He that peruses Shakespeare," he wrote about Macbeth, "looks round alarmed and starts to find himself alone" and he was so deeply shocked by his first reading of Cordelia's death that he could not bear to read it again until he revised the play as an editor. By the romantic critics of the 19th century Johnson's work on Shakespeare was depreciated but Walter Raleigh's prophecy that he would receive more respect in the 20th century has been abundantly fulfilled by modern editors. It was in the year of the publication of his Shakespeare that Johnson received the degree of LL.D. from Trinity college, Dublin; his own university ;

him a similar honour ten years later. Johnson's Household. In whatever literary work Johnson was engaged, his greatest terror was solitude, and the composition of his household reflects his efforts to avoid it. He had many habitations in London of which the most famous is the house in Gough square, just north of Fleet street, .in which he lived from 1749 to 1759. When Boswell first called upon him in 1763 he was at No. 1 Inner Temple lane. From there he moved back to Johnson's court (No. 7 Fleet street) in 1765 and in 1776 to Bolt court, which was his home until his death. The house in Gough square, thanks to the foresight and generosity of Cecil (later Lord) Harmsworth, has been well preserved. There the Dictionary was compiled; there the Rambler, the Idler, Rasselas and much else was written; there his wife died in 1752. Even before her death and long before the grant of his pension, he had begun to make his house a refuge for the poor and the unfortunate. Anna Williams, daughter of Zachariah Williams, whom Johnson helped to write his Longitude at Sea in 1755, had come to London in the hope of being cured of a cataract, but later became totally blind. She was a constant visitor in Mrs. Johnson's lifetime, and, after her death, came to live in the house. For the rest of her life she had either a room in Johnson's house or lodgings near at hand. Blindness made her peevish in manner, but Johnson's redid

—

49

Officious, innocent, sincere,

Of every

friendless

name

the friend.

Yet another beneficiary was Mrs. Desmoulins, daughter of Dr. Swynfen, Johnson's godfather, who joined the household in the early London years. After Mrs. Johnson's death she appears to have been in charge of the cooking. But she quarreled constantly with Anna Williams and in the kitchen anarchy reigned. The Thrales. It was from this domestic background that in 1765 Johnson was introduced to a family that was to provide one of the most comforting friendships of his life. Henry Thrale, owner of a Southwark brewery, had been married to Hester Lynch

—

Salusbury (see Piozzi, Hester Lynch) in 1763. Two years later he was elected member of parliament for Southwark and his wife became a famous hostess and, in particular, "the provider and conductress of Dr. Johnson." For the first time in his life Johnson, who was invited not only to dine but to spend weeks, or even months, at Streatham, was free to enjoy the luxury of solid comfort. No man, as he said, is a hypocrite in his pleasures and at Streatham he could enjoy them all a good library, intelligent conversation, pretty women, late hours, tasteful cookery. Furthermore, he became the confidant and counselor of both parents and children a room was set apart for him at the Southwark house as well as at Streatham; he was one of the family. Political Pamphlets. Already his pension had made two important differences in his way of life: he was no longer obliged to write for a living and he could afford the time and money for holidays. Not that he was entirely idle as a writer. Shakespeare and the Dictionary called for revision; friends called for dedications and prologues (he wrote one for Goldsmith's The GoodNatur'd Man) and he was also moved to write a series of political pamphlets. Of these tracts, or at least of three of them, the general view was, for long, that they exhibited the sad spectacle of a great man giving vent, unworthily, to the abusive expression of

—

;

—

;

Tory prejudice trouble

is

against the rights of the people.

Today, more

taken to understand, though not necessarily to approve,

Johnson's point of view. The False Alarm (1770) was written not so much to defend the right of the house of commons to refuse re-admittance to a member already expelled, as to protest against the absurdity of raising the controversy to the level of a constitutional crisis comparable to that of the 17th century. What the country was arguing about, he said, was whether Middlesex should be represented, or not, by a criminal from jail. To raise the cry that liberty was in danger was to raise a false alarm. The Patriot (1774), a short piece written just before the election of that year, defines the qualities of the true patriot and contrasts them with the behaviour of those who had unjustifiably arrogated the title to themselves. The man, for instance, who sought to deprive the nation of its authority over its own colonies was no true patriot. As for the supposed defenders of liberty of conscience, had they not opposed the act of parliament which gave the Catholics of Quebec the right to practise their own religion?

No Tyranny

a more elaborate development and here it is important to remember that Johnson was unsympathetic toward colonies and

Taxation

(1775)

is

of the case against the Americans,

JOHNSON, SAMUEL

5°

colonists ab initio. Colonists to him were discontented sectaries or mercenary adventurers who. of their own volition, had left the country. They had settled on the other side of the Atlantic under English protection and with the authority of English charters. That they had no representation at Westminster was their own fault. They had the protection of English arms. Why should they not pay for it? And. if there were 3.000.000 Whigs in America "fierce for liberty." why were the loudest yelps for liberty heard among the drivers of Negroes? Thoughts on the Late Transactions Respecting Falkland's Islands

(1771) is in rather a different category. Writing in reply to Junius (q.v.). Johnson reviews the history of the islands and defends the government's policy in agreeing that British possession should not preclude later discussion of Spain's theoretical rights. This leads him to an apt and realistic description, in splendid

—

war the sufferings of the common and the profits of contractors. Unlike the other tracts. Thoughts on Falkland's Islands has more than an ephemeral value. For Johnson, these tracts were an opportunity of expounding

prose, of the actualities of soldier

his essentially

pragmatic philosophy of

politics.

vine right neither to kings nor to people.

He

ascribed di-

Talk about liberty

the abstract or about "natural" rights he dismissed as cant.

in

What

was essential for a civilized community was a stable government and respect for its laws. But he clearly recognized that there was an ultimate safeguard. If government abused its power, mankind would not bear it; against a tyrant the people would rise and cut off his head. The politics of the 1770s did not deter Johnson from the enjoyment of his new-found liberties. With the Thrales he spent weeks at Brighton as well as at Streatham and his "annual midland ramble"' included long visits to Oxford, to Lichfield and to his old friend John Taylor at Ashbourne. Journey to the Western Islands. In 1773 he was persuaded by Boswell to accompany him on a more exciting expedition. He had wanted to visit the western islands of Scotland for longer than he could remember and now felt that Boswell's "gaiety of conversation and civility of manners were sufficient to counteract the inconveniences of travel." The travelers left Edinburgh on Aug. 18 and followed the coast road. At St. Andrews Johnson's sadness at the sight of archiepiscopal ruins was mitigated by the kindness of the professors at Aberdeen he was made a freeman of the city and gave Scotland credit for the absence of a petty officer bow-

—

:

ing for a fee; dining with the governor of Ft. George, he talked

learnedly about gunpowder.

After Inverness, horses were substi-

tuted for the post-chaise, and by the shore of Loch Ness Johnson encountered an old woman, who could speak very little English, boiling goat's

Glenelg.

flesh

There

the}-

in

a

kettle.

had rain

They

Skye from time and were warned

crossed

for the first

to

was not to be expected for In the island of Raasay they found "nothing but civility, elegance and plenty" and Johnson was delighted with the patriarchal life which he had come to see. Similarly, at Dunvegan he "tasted lotus." On the voyage to Mull, they were driven by a stormy sea into Coll. where, to Boswell's delight. Johnson strutted about one night with a broadsword and target. But they were that a succession of three dry days

many months.

weather-bound for a week and Johnson began to long for the main"to go on with existence." It was Boswell. not Johnson, who insisted on visiting Iona. but Johnson's comment is one of the most famous paragraphs in all his writings: "That man is little to be envied, whose patriotism would not gain force upon the plain of Marathon, or whose piety would not grow warmer among the ruins of Iona." On the way back to Edinburgh, a visit was land

—

paid to Boswell's father at Auchinleck. where, to Boswell's distress. Johnson did not succeed in avoiding controversial topics. After a fortnight's stay in Edinburgh. Johnson returned to

London and

declared that his tour was the most pleasant journey he had ever

made.

From many points

of view the tour

was

a triumph.

Dunvegan and his endurance pony down the rough tracks of

Johnson had

his 64th birthday at

of the physical

strain of riding his

Mam

of sleeping in Highland huts

on stormy seas was in

itself

Rattigan.

and of being tossed in small boats remarkable. Socially, with rare ex-

ceptions, the tour was a complete success, both from Johnson's point of view and from that of his hosts. For Boswell. of course,

opportunity for him to write what was, instalment of his Life of Johnson. Johnson himself was moved, for once, to write a book for its own sake. It

it

was a

glorious

in effect, the first

at Anoch in Glenmoriston on Aug. 31. 1773. that the travelers "entered a narrow valley not very flowery, but sufficiently verdant." While the horses grazed. Johnson sat down on a bank "such as a writer of Romance might have delighted to feign" and conceived the thought not of a romance but of an account of his journey. Of course, he did not attempt to compete with Boswell whose diary he read, and approved, at intervals. For an intimate personal record of the "minute particulars" of Johnson's behaviour and conversation, the reader naturally turns to Boswell's The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides, published after Johnson's death. Johnson, in his own Journey to the Western Islands ('1775) was concerned to describe the customs, religion, education, trade and agriculture of a society that was new to him. His narrative is far from being impersonal, but it contains no gossip. It was in his many letters to Mrs. Thrale that he wrote more freely. In one letter he offered her a definition of travel highly characteristic of his general approach to life: "The use of travelling is to regulate imagination by reality, and instead of thinking how things may be. to see them as they are." Not long after his return. Johnson was saddened by the death of Oliver Goldsmith. They had first met in 1761 and Johnson had been one of the first to recognize the quality of Goldsmith's writings. He had contributed a famous couplet to The Traveller, and She Stoops to Conquer had been dedicated to him. He frequently crushed Goldsmith in argument at The Club and elsewhere, but his

wa?

final judgment was sincere: "Let not his frailties be remembered." he wrote to Bennet Langton. "he was a very great man." Johnson's intimacy with the Thrales at this time is clearly to north Wales illustrated by his joining them in two long tours in 1774 and to France in the following year. On the way to Wales,

—

he was able to introduce them to his Lichfield friends and some time was spent in the Vale of Clwyd. where Mrs. Thrales ancestors had lived. On the return journey Johnson was interested to see Matthew Boulton's "enginery" at Birmingham and at Oxford the party was entertained in the hall of University college. In France, he was interested more in people than in places. He admired some of the cathedrals, but his most significant comments were on social conditions and particularly on the gulf between rich and poor. There was no provision for the maintenance of the poor and there was no comfortable middle class. The "Lives of the English Poets." In 1777. three booksellers waited upon Johnson and asked him to write a series of Lives for an "elegant and accurate" edition of the English poets which they

—

and others had in preparation. Johnson agreed. The choice of the poets had already been made and he strongly objected to the volume being described as "Johnson's Poets." Only five names (and

some of them rather odd names) were added at his suggestion. Though he said that he wrote his pieces "dilatorily and hastily, unwilling to work and working with vigour and haste." it was in this work that he came nearest to actual enjoyment of writing. The Lives are not a series, but a miscellany. They follow no

On certain major poets Milton. Dryden. Pope and others") Johnson wrote long essays which remain as part of the stock-in-trade of English criticism. He was led on. he said, by "the honest desire of giving useful pleasure." Thus, in writing of Cowley, he seized the opportunity of a lengthy examination of the characteristics of the metaphysical poets, those poets who were "more desirous of being admired than understood." On the other hand, in a laconic piece of 300 words on Richard Duke, he concluded that his poems "were not below mediocrity." When he came to James Thomson (one of his own additions) he praised his Seasons highly, but of the poem Liberty he wrote: "When it first appeared, I tried to read and soon de." sisted. The biographical part of I have never tried again. literature was what Johnson loved best and he made no attempt If he to separate the poetry from the man who had written it. disapproved of the man, he found it difficult to be a detached

plan: they have no uniformity of design. (

.

.

—

JOHNSON, SAMUEL critic of his work. The Lives of Milton and Gray are the two most notorious instances of this. In Paradise Lost Johnson found all the knowledge, morality, piety, subqualities required of an epic poet limity; and, in spite of his prejudice against blank verse, he wished It was against Lycidas that he for no other form of the poem. allowed his prejudices to have full play; and the primary source of .his indignation may be sought in the biographical portion of There Milton's religion and politics are scornfully the essay.

—

—

exposed he was not a member of any church and, politically, Furthermore, he was an acrimonious and surly Republican. Lycidas was a pastoral a form of poetry which Johnson regarded as appropriate only to descriptions of country life. PerTo the Elegy sonal dislike is also evident in the Life of Gray. Johnson paid a famous tribute of genuine admiration, but he approached his other poems with "the neutrality of a stranger and the coldness of a critick." In fact, he was far from neutral in his harsh and niggling criticisms of Gray's linguistic inversions and antiquarian epithets. It was Gray's attitude to life and literature One who had spent 30 years in Grub that irritated Johnson. street could have little patience with a fastidious scholar who asked for leisure to be good and wrote only when he was in the humour. Last Years. Publication of the Lives was completed in 1781 and a storm of criticism broke out. But Johnson was too old a campaigner to be disturbed by criticism and, in fact, the Lives remain the best-loved, or the least neglected, of Johnson's works. What distressed him far more than unfavourable reviews was the death of Henry Thrale. No loss, since that of his wife, had so much oppressed him; he felt like a man beginning a new course of life. To some extent he was saved from brooding over his loss

—

—

by

his attention to his duties as executor.

Always interested

in

trade and commerce, he had enjoyed discussing brewery policy

with Thrale in his lifetime and now, in the words of the famous story, he was dealing not with parcels of boilers and vats, but with "the potentiality of growing rich beyond the dream of avarice." To his disappointment, but to Mrs. Thrale's delight, the brewery was sold to "a knot of rich Quakers" for £135,000. For a time Johnson continued to regard Streatham as his home, but in Aug. 1782 Mrs. Thrale told him of her decision to sell the house. On his last visit in October he humbly thanked God for the comforts he had enjoyed there. A room was allotted to him in the house which Mrs. Thrale took in Argyll street, but the intimacy of the Streatham days was weakening. For long a victim of asthma and dropsy. Johnson had a paralytic stroke in June 1783, from which he did not properly recover until the spring of the following year. Mrs. Thrale wrote to him with "the attention and tenderness of ancient time," but she dared not tell him that she had for long been trying to decide whether or not to marry Gabriele Piozzi, an Italian musician. When, at the end of June 1784, Johnson heard of her decision to marry, he wrote a letter of angry condemnation; but a week later he recognized that Mrs. Thrale's marriage (which was, in fact, a happy one) was her own affair and thanked her for the kindness which had soothed 20 years of a life radically wretched. Johnson was now bereft of many old friends and he was a sick man, but to the end he fought untiringly against his worst enemy solitude and the melancholy which it induced. In Dec. 1783 he had formed yet another club in Essex street, which was conveniently near his house in Bolt court, and in the following July he set out upon his last Midland ramble. At Lichfield everyone was pleased to see him; he stayed for two months at Ashbourne, where he was comfortable, but "hungry for conversation," for Taylor went to bed at nine at Birmingham he talked over old times with Hector; at Oxford he was welcomed to his old college by the master. On Nov. 16 he returned to London. Though his mind remained alert, his bodily state grew worse and he died on Dec. 13, One 1784. A week later he was buried in Westminster abbey. journalist noted that there was only one man of hereditary title ;

among the mourners; but he added, rightly, that he who was followed by Reynolds and Burke did not go unhonoured to the grave. Reputation and Character. The history of Johnson's fame is curious. In his own day he was acknowledged as a literary dictator; his death left a chasm that could not be filled. Today his

—

fame

51

After Shakespeare, he is perhaps the best-known and the most frequently quoted writer in the whole range of English literature. Yet it is not his published works that are quoted. Johnson is familiar to, and loved by, the English-speaking persists.

figure

peoples not for his writings but for the unique record of his life, his personality and his conversation, preserved in the pages of Boswell's Life. The more that is discovered about Boswell's liter-

ary workmanship, the more remarkable his accuracy, his skill and judgment in compiling his diaries are seen to be. His most fascinating pages are those which reproduce the personalities and the atmosphere of a tete-a-tete at the Mitre or an evening at The Club or a dinner party at Mr. Dilly's. Here, the reader feels that he has got at the very heart of Johnson's temperament and opinions. But Boswell would have been the first to agree that this is not the whole Johnson. Arguing and refuting argument in congenial company after a good dinner, Johnson was at his happiest. It was not necessarily a talker's duty to make the world better; in the rough and tumble of disputation many kinds of exaggeration and inconsistency were permissible; one might even take the wrong side. his

But Johnson was a moralist by temperament and profession and

it

is

a writer

by

in his writings that a properly balanced pic-

ture of his approach to literature and politics and religion must be sought. The Vanity of Human Wishes and Rasselas may not be easy bedside reading, but they are essential for the comprehension of the depth of Johnson's thought and feeling; and it is to be remembered that when Boswell and others were listening to Johnson, they had no thought in their minds of a contrast between the talker and the writer. They were listening to the author of the Rambler. Johnson's oracular pronouncements on political questions (on Whigs and Liberty and Patriots and Americans) are quoted with appreciative relish by modern readers, but they are seldom corrected or supplemented by reference to his written work. Johnson was frequently roused to political passion, but it was not a passion for the Tory or any other party. It was a passion for order in church and state, not an order decreed by God or by nature, but a rational constitution safeguarded on the one hand against tyranny and on the other against mob rule. Of the poor and the oppressed he was the consistent champion and he denounced slavery at a time when it was generally regarded as part of the order of nature. Johnson was not only a moralist, but a Christian moralist. The sinfulness of man and his need of redemption by the passion of Jesus Christ were the basis of his personal faith. His constitutional melancholy deprived him of a feeling of joy in his religion and the sin of which he was most deeply conscious was idleness. In his Prayers and Meditations (1785), published after his death, his repentance and his good resolutions, constantly repeated but seldom kept, show the sincerity of his heart-searching and his humility. But his faith prevailed and in his last days he refused to take opiates because he had prayed that he might render his soul to God unclouded. Born in a bookshop, Johnson had the qualities, and the conBy the writing of books he strove to earn science, of a scholar. his daily bread; by the reading of books he sought to enlarge the range of his ideas and of his scholarship. And what, he asked in Few men later years, should books teach but the art of living? have left finer examples of the art of living than Samuel Johnson. See also references under "Johnson, Samuel" in the Index.

—

Bibliography. The standard bibliography is that by W. P. Courtney and D. Nichol Smith (1915), re-issued in 1925 and supplemented by R. W. Chapman and A. T. Hazen in the Proceedings of the Oxford Bibliographical Society (1939) The Catalogue of the R. B. Adam Library Relating to Dr. Johnson and His Era, 4 vol. (1929-30), contains facsimiles of many manuscripts and letters. The Johnsonian items in this collection now form part of the library of Donald and Mary Hyde at Somerville, New Jersey. J. L. Clifford, Johnsonian Studies 18871950 (1951), a handlist of books, pamphlets and articles, gives striking evidence of the growth of interest in the subject in the 20th century. Collected Editions: The Oxford ed., 9 vol. (1825), with two supplementary volumes of Debates is the best the Yale ed. of the early collections was inaugurated by Johnson's Diaries, Prayers and Annals (1958), ed. by E. L. McAdam with Donald and Mary Hyde and containing a ;

;

diary of 1765-84 not previously published; vol. II (1963) contains the

;

JOHNSON,

52

WALTER—JOHNSON, WILLIAM

Idler and Adventurer, ed. by W. J. Bate, J. M. Bullitt and L. F. Powell. Of the collected Poems the standard ed. is that of D. Nichol Smith and E. L. McAdam (1941) which includes Irene and the Latin poems; of the Letters, that of R. W. Chapman, 3 vol. (1952). Selections: There have been many popular books of selections, beginning with the Beauties of Johnson (1781). Among later selections are: Select Essays, ed. by G. Birkbeck Hill, 2 vol. (1889); Selections from Johnson, ed. by C. G. Osgood (1909) Samuel Johnson, ed. by ;

A. Meynell and G. K. Chesterton (1911) Johnson, Prose and Poetry, Samuel Johnson, Writer, ed. by S. C. ed. by R. W. Chapman (1922) Roberts (1926). The best and most comprehensive anthology is Johnson, Prose and Poetry, ed. by Mona Wilson (1950), which, however, takes no account of Johnson's letters. More specialized selections are J. E. Brown, The Critical Opinions of Samuel Johnson (1926), and A. T. Hazen, Samuel Johnson's Prefaces and Dedications (1937). Individual Works: Lobo's Voyage to Abyssinia, ed. bv Henry Morley (1887) The Vanity of Human Wishes, ed. by E. J. Payne (1876) London and The Vanity of Human Wishes, reprinted with an introduction by T. S. Eliot (1930) Rasselas, ed. by G. Birkbeck Hill (1887) and by R. W. Chapman (1927), who also edited A Journey to the Western Islands, together with Boswell's Tour to the Hebrides (1924). The standard edition of the Lives of the English Poets is that of G. Birkbeck Hill, they have also been included in the World's Classics, ed. 3 vol. (1905) by A. Waugh, 3 vol. (1896), and in Everyman's Library, ed. by L. Archer-Hind (1925). Many Lives have been separately published and the "Six Chief Lives" (Milton, Dryden, Swift, Addison, Pope, Gray) was ed. by Matthew Arnold (1878) a later selection is that of S. C. Roberts (1963). The Prayers and Meditations were first ed. by G. Strahan in 1785; later editions are those of H. Higgins (1904) and H. E. Savage (1927). Johnson's Account (or Annals) of his early life, Diary of a Journey into North Wales, ed. by ed. by R. Wright (1805) R. Duppa (1816) and reprinted in A. M. Broadley's Dr. Johnson and Mrs. Thrale (1910) The French Journals of Mrs. Thrale and Dr. Johnson, ed. by M. Tyson and H. Guppy (1932). Selections from individual works include Johnson on Shakespeare (1908), (the Proposals, Preface and Notes with an introduction by Walter Raleigh); Selected Letters, ed. by R. W. Chapman (1925); Selections From the Rambler, ed. by W. Hale White (1907) Papers From the Idler, ed. by S. C. Roberts (1921) Johnson's Dictionary, a modern selection ed. by E. L. McAdam. Jr., and George Milne (1963). Biography and Criticism: The number of biographical and critical studies of Johnson is enormous. Apart from Boswell's The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides (1785) and The Life of Samuel Johnson (1791), there are a number of contemporarv authorities including the Life (1787) by Sir John Hawkins, abridged ed. bv B. H. Davis (1961); H. L. Piozzi, Anecdotes (1786), ed. by S. C. Roberts (1925) T. Campbell, Diary of a Visit to England in 1775, ed. by S. Raymond (1854) and by J. L. Clifford from the newly discovered manuscript (1947); Lives by Arthur Murphy (1792) and Robert Anderson (1795) portions of these and manv other anecdotes are included in Johnsonian Miscellanies, ed. by G. Birkbeck Hill (1897) C. B. Tinker, Dr. Johnson and Fanny Burney (1912), assembles the relevant portions of the diary and letters of Miss Burney. Two of the most famous essays on Johnson were those of Lord Macaulay one a review of J. W. Croker's edition of Boswell (Edinburgh Review, 1831) in which the depreciation of Johnson as a writer set the fashion for many years the other, a better balanced account, in the Encyclopcedia Britannica, 8th ed. (1856). Among the shorter studies of Johnson are Lives bv Leslie Stephen (1878) and F. Grant (1887) T. Seccombe, The Age of Johnson (1900) C. Hollis, Doctor JohnJ. Bailey. Dr. Johnson and His Circle (1913) son (1929) R. Lynd, Dr. Johnson and Company (1928) S. C. Roberts, Doctor Johnson (1935) M. J. C. Hodgart. Samuel Johnson and His Time (1962); J. W. Krutch, Samuel Johnson (1944), is a more substantial work. J. L. Clifford, Young Sam Johnson (1955), throws new light on Johnson's early career and D. J. Greene, The Politics of Samuel Johnson (1960) is an interesting re-appraisement. A. L. Reade, Johnsonian Gleanings, 10 vol. (1909-52), is an encyclopaedia of remarkable detail about Johnson's family and early life, and P. H. Houston, Dr. Johnson: a Study in Eighteenth-Century Humanism (1923), examines Johnson from the scholastic point of view. Walter Raleigh, Six Essays on Johnson (1910), is an important re-statement, correcting Macaulay 's view. Other volumes of essays are B. H. Bronson, "Johnson Agonistes," in Johnson and Boswell: Three Essays (1944), containing an illuminating analysis of Johnson's temperament R. W. Chapman, Johnsonian and Other Essays (1953) S. C. Roberts, Doctor Johnson and Others (1958) New Light on Dr. Johnson, ed. by F. W. Hilles (S. C. R.) (1959). ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

;

considered by players, managers and umpires to have the fastest ball of all time. His blinding speed earned him the nickname of the "Big Train." High lights of his career included: an unparalleled feat of pitching three shutouts in four days, in 1908; 16 straight victories, in 1912; 56 consecutive scoreless innings (an all-time record), in 1913; and a no-hit, no-run game (v. Boston), in 1920. He won 32 games in 1912; 36 games in 1913.

He was

nonplaying manager for Washington (1929-32) and the Cleveland Indians (1933-35). He died in Washington, D.C., on (D. Sr.) Dec. 10. 1946. (1715-1774), Indian superinJOHNSON, SIR tendent and frontiersman of colonial New York, was born at Smithtown, County Meath, Ire., and emigrated to America about 1737. He settled on the estate of his uncle. Peter Warren, on the southern bank of the Mohawk river. In 1739 he purchased a tract on the northern side of the Mohawk, the beginning of acquisitions that eventually made him one of the largest landholders in British America. His estate, Mount Johnson, became a centre of Indian trade and a shelter for the Mohawk Indians. Deerskins and beaver and raccoon pelts were acquired in exchange for blankets, ruffled shirts, ammunition and other items, and were held in John-

WILLIAM

son's storehouse.

About 1739 Johnson apparently married a German girl, Catharine Weisenberg. After her death a Mohawk Indian woman, Caroline, bore him three children. Caroline was followed by Molly Brant, another Mohawk woman, the sister of Joseph Brant, leader of the Iroquois during the American Revolution. Johnson's friendship with the Indians helped him acquire furs and tribal lands, and there is much evidence to show that Warraghiyagey. as he was called by the Indians, was a sincere friend of the neighbouring Iroquois in the whole era of the French and Indian War. As Old Hendrick. the Mohawk sachem, said. Johnson ". has Large Eyes and sees a great way, and conceals nothing from us/' Because of Johnson's skill as an Indian diplomat. Gov. George Clinton of New York in 1 746 made him colonel of the Six Nations (the Indian confederacy of Iroquois tribes). This office gave him authority in the management of Indian affairs. He also took responsibility for provisioning Ft. Oswego, and afterward .

.

assumed command of

a

New York militia.

After a dispute with the New York assembly, Johnson resigned as Indian manager and devoted himself to fur trading and agriculIn 1754 he attended the famous Albany conference to reture. port on Indian affairs. One year later Gen. Edward Braddock appointed Johnson superintendent of the Six Nations Iroquois

and

their allies. Commissioned as a major general. Johnson defeated French forces under Baron Dieskau at Lake George on

Sept. 8, 1755. Largely as a result of this victory, he was made a baronet and in 1756 reappointed northern Indian superintendent, a post he held until his death on July 11. 1774. In 1759 he commanded a force that captured Ft. Niagara and then in 1 760 joined Sir Jeffrey Amherst's victorious assault on Montreal. He was also active during the Indian uprising of 1763-64 and negotiated the terms of the Indian boundary settlement at the treaty of

,

;

;

;

Stanwixin 1768. Johnson was constantly called upon to mediate in disputes between whites and Indians and gained a reputation for honesty and fairness. Though remembered as a distinguished pioneer of the Mohawk valley, his chief service was in keeping the Six Nations Iroquois neutral and even friendly during the long period of Favouring educational and missionary conflict with the French. work among the tribes, he was a man of versatile interests, as indicated by references to science, literature and agriculture in his Ft.

correspondence.

JOHNSON, WALTER PERRY

(1 88 7-1

s

946 ), one of baseball's greatest pitchers, was born at Humboldt, Kan., on Nov. 6, 1887. He was one of the first of five baseball immortals voted into the Baseball Hall of Fame at Cooperstown, N.Y., in 1936. He was a right-handed thrower and batter for the Washington Senators, of the American league, from 1907 to 1927. During this period he won more games (414), struck out more batters (3.497), pitched more innings (5,923) and compiled more shutouts (113) than any major-league pitcher of the 20th century. He was

James See Wilbur R. Jacobs. Diplomacy and Indian Gifts (1950) Flexner, Mohawk Baronet, Sir William Johnson of New York (W. R. J.) (1959). ;

Thomas

JOHNSON, WILLIAM justice of the

(1771-1834), U.S. jurist, associate United States supreme court, to whom, more per-

haps than to any other, goes credit for establishing in the court the principle of dissent and the enduring practice for the rendering of opinions, was born in Charleston, S.C., on Dec. 27, 1771. He was graduated in 1790 from Princeton, read law with the

«

JOHNSON CITY—JOHNSTON Charleston Federalist Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and was admitted to the bar in 1793. Aligning himself with the new Jeffersonian Republican party, he was elected in 1794, 1796 and 1798 to the South Carolina legislature. In his third term he served as speaker, and in Dec. 1799 was elected to the state's highest court, to remain there until 1804. During his 30 years on the supreme court of the United States, Johnson affected lastingly both the practices and the decisions of that body. On the eve of Thomas Jefferson's inauguration as president in 1801. the defeated Federalist leaders had secured the appointment of Secretary of State John Marshall as chief justice. There ensued a protracted tug-of-war between the solidly Federalist court under Marshall and the Jefferson administration, which regarded the court, now asserting the power of judicial review, as a threat to its program. When at last a vacancy occurred on the court. Jefferson, in March 1804. appointed Johnson, who appeared to be firm in his Republican convictions. Johnson was 32 when he shouldered the burden of counteracting Federalist decisions. For a century after Marshall's death in 1835, the great chief justice was widely regarded as having totally dominated his court. In trying to make the court the acknowledged spokesman of the law and the constitution, Marshall not only wrote the opinions in most major cases but sought, often with success, unanimous court support for them. After 181 1 only two Federalists remained on a bench of seven, yet in such epochal decisions as McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) Marshall spoke for the whole court. Jefferson himself probably contributed to the prevailing conception of Marshall's dominance, for he deplored the manner in which opinions were "huddled up in conclave" and "delivered as if unanimous, and with the silent acquiescence of lazy or timid associates, by a crafty chief judge.

." .

.

Later researches disclosed, however, the occasional existence of In a court minority, with Johnson as its principal spokesman. 1822 Jefferson wrote Johnson, insisting that the justices were duty bound to record their opinions and votes on decisions and

recommending

resort to seriatim, or separate, opinions.

In reply

Johnson expressed partial agreement and related the difficulties he had encountered when he had first appeared on the court and attempted to file his own opinions. "I persevered," he wrote, "until I got them [the justices] to adopt the course they now pursue which is to appoint someone to deliver the opinion of the majority, and leave it to the discretion of the rest to record their opinions or not ad libitum." Johnson's own separate opinions were for that time numerous while Marshall was writing nearly half the majority opinions, Johnson, in delivering 21 concurring and 34 dissenting opinions, wrote half the individual utterances. He spoke out alone most frequently and effectively during his last decade, after his correspondence with Jefferson. Johnson, and indeed all the judges of the Marshall court, were generally agreed on the scope of power attributable to the national government. With rare exceptions, they all extended broad construction to the powers of congress over commerce and other matters and to the authority of the federal government to effectuate its policies through its own instrumentalities, free from state control. Here Johnson sided consistently with Marshall, yet the unique priority he assigned congress under the constitution had Jeffersonian overtones. Thus, in Anderson v. Dunn (1821), which upheld power in congress to punish for contempt, he based the implied powers of congress on a government's need of broad discretion in properly serving the people, and on elections as a check on arbitrary action. By contrast, in seeking to narrow the range of the court's jurisdiction and likewise to widen the sphere of powers reserved to the states, Johnson differed from the majority. Said he, "State rights or United States rights are nothing, except as they contribute to the safety and happiness of the people." In concurring in Gibbons v. Ogden (1824), he defended broad regulative powers in congress; similarly, in Ogden v. Saunders (1827), over a rare dissent by Marshall, he supported power in the states to relieve distress. His emphasis on governmental power to regulate economic affairs, and on the advantages of co-operation between federal and state governments, anticipated developments of the 20th century. ;

53

Johnson exhibited his judicial independence most clearly while holding circuit court in his native Charleston. There, despite opposition, he declared illegal a ship clearance order of the Jefferson administration (1808), a state law severely regulating Negro seasponsors of state nullification of federal laws to refer the constitutionality of a protective tariff Learned and often prophetic, he was deeply to a jury (1832). concerned with legal justice for individuals and with the strength-

men (1823) and an attempt by

ening of the federal union; yet his restlessness, sensitiveness and impetuous manner of advocacy often enmeshed him in public controversy. Besides pamphlets and many articles in the press, he published Sketches of the Life and Correspondence of Nathanael Greene (2 vol., 1822). He died following surgery, in Brooklyn, N.Y., on Aug. 4, 1834. Bibliography. For a full-length account of Johnson and a list of his writings, see Donald G. Morgan, Justice William Johnson, the First Dissenter: the Career and Constitutional Philosophy of a Jeffersonian Judge (1954). See also articles on Johnson: by D. G. Morgan in Harvard Law Review, vol. 57 (1944) by A. J. Levin, in Michigan Law Review, vol. 42, 43, 44, 46 and 47 (1944-49) and by Oliver

—

;

;

Schroeder, Jr., in University of Pennsylvania Law Review, vol. 95 (1946-47). The role of the minority on the Marshall court is analyzed in D. G. Morgan's chapter in W. Melville Jones (ed.), Chief Justice John Marshall: a Reappraisal (1956). Johnson's own collection of private papers remains undiscovered. (D. G. Mn.) CITY, a city of Broome county, south-central

JOHNSON

New

York, U.S., on the Susquehanna river, near the Pennsylvania It is situated between Binghamton (q.v.) and Endicott, the three comprising an industrial area known as the Triple cities. Johnson City is a leading centre for footwear and is significant also for felt goods, textile and wire spools, photoreproduction equipment and confectioneries. Surrounding agricultural lands are important chiefly for dairy products. Formerly part of the Boston Ten townships, the site remained rural until the 1880s, when a shoe company constructed a new factory where Johnson City is located. The city was incorporated in 1892. For comparative population figures see table in New York: Population. (R. C. He.) border.

JOHNSON

CITY, a city of Washington county, Tenn., U.S., located in the ridge and valley province of the northeastern part of the state, 21 mi. S.E. of Kingsport (q.v.) and 24 mi. S.W.

is

of Bristol (q.v.). Early settlers moved into the area in the 1760s; soon thereafter farmers cultivated the land along the riverbanks, and ironmongers built forges and furnaces. The Washington county settlers' interest in politics and government was manifested by their participation in the formation of the Watauga association (1772) and the state of Franklin (1784-88) (see Tennessee: History). Johnson City started as a town in 1856 when a settler, Henry Johnson, for whom the city is named, built a warehouse at the junction of a stage road and a railroad. It was chartered as a city in 1869; this was revoked in 1879, and in 1885 a new charter was granted. The city has a council-manager form of government, in effect from 1939.

A number

of industries, including

hardwood

flooring, textiles,

hardware, chemicals, plastics, foundries, bedding and brick tile, have been developed. The county has small, diversified farms which also provide a supply of labour for industry. Educational facilities include East Tennessee State college, established in 1909. A large Veterans administration unit (Mountain home) serves a five-state area. Nearby mountains and Tennessee Valley authority (TVA) lakes provide recreational facilities. For comparative population figures see table in Tennessee:

Population.

JOHNSTON, ALBERT SIDNEY

(F. B.

W.)

(1803-1862), Confederate general of the American Civil War, was born in Washington, Ky., on Feb. 2, 1803. He attended Transylvania university beAfter eight years of service, fore entering West Point in 1822. including action in the Black Hawk War, Johnston resigned his commission because of his wife's illness and engaged in farming. In 1836 he emigrated to Texas. Upon the outbreak of the Texas revolution against Mexico, Johnston enlisted as a private in the Texas army and finally rose to the rank of commander in chief. He became secretary of war of the Republic of Texas in 1838, a position he held until he retired again to his farm in 1840. During

JOHNSTON

5+ the Mexican

War

(1846—48) Johnston served as inspector general

of a Texas division of volunteers fighting under Gen. Zachary

command in the Monterrey campaign. In 1849 he returned to the U.S. army as a paymaster with the rank of major and six years later assumed command of the 2nd (later 5ih) U.S. cavalry in which his lieutenant colonel was Robert E. Lee. Command of an expedition against the Mormons followed in 1857, and Johnston became a brevet brigadier general for his successful suppression of Mormon opposition without bloodshed. Although placed in command of the Pacific department, he resigned his commission when Texas seceded from the Union in Taylor's

1861.

After a harrowing summer march across the desert Johnston reached Texas and eventually arrived in Richmond. Va. He was appointed second-ranking general in the Confederate army by Jefferson Davis, whom he had known at West Point. He assumed

command

of the Western department on Sept. 10, 1861. and succeeded in raising and organizing an army to guard a long and weak line from the Mississippi river to the Allegheny mountains. His forces were no match for the superior numbers of the North, which caused the retreat from forts Henry and Donelson and from Bowling Green and led to the fall of Nashville on Feb. 25. 1862. Bitter criticism of Johnston did not affect Davis' confidence in him. Johnston concentrated his army at Corinth, Miss., determined to attack Grant at Pittsburg Landing. His strategy was almost successful in the surprise assault upon the Federals at Shiloh on April 6 and 7. 1862. but Johnston was mortally wounded in the first afternoon's battle.

many times. '"When Sidney Johnston was the turning-point of our fate; for we had no other hand to take up his work in the West." Subsequent events in this area proved the difficulty of finding a replacement who had the confidence of civilian and military leaders of the Confederacy, although it is doubtful whether even the skill of Johnston, who has been overrated, would have been sufficient to crush the overwhelming economic and military resources of the Northern invaders. See also Aiiericax Civil War. Jefferson Davis repeated

fell, it

See William Preston Johnston's biography of his father. Life of GenJohnston (1878) Avery C. Moore, Destiny's Sol(J. R. Co.)

eral Albert Sidney dier (1958).

;

JOHNSTON, ARTHUR

(1587P-1641), Scottish writer of

Latin verse, was the chief rival of George Buchanan (g.v.) in this art. He was born at Caskieben. Aberdeenshire; studied and practised medicine in Germany. Italy and France; and after his return to Scotland was made royal physician. He died at Oxford in 1641. Johnston's Latin verse has a strong regional and Scottish flavour, and ranges from tragic to satirical and farcical themes. See A. Johnston (ed.), Delitiae poet arum Scotorum (1637); W. Benson (ed.). Psalmi Davidici (1741) Sir W. D. Geddes (ed.), Musa Latina Aberdonensis, vol. i and ii (1892-95). (E. G. M.) ;

JOHNSTON, SIR HARRY HAMILTON

(1858-1927),

and explorer who was the first commissioner of Nyasaland. was unconventionally educated and gained his early African experience as a painter, natural history collector and freelance journalist. He was in Tunis in 1879-80. on the eve of the French occupation. In 1882-83 he traveled in Angola and up the Congo river, where H. M. Stanley was then laying the foundations of the Congo Free State. In 1884 he undertook a botanical expedition to Mt. Kilimanjaro, whence he advocated schemes for colonization and brought back a small land concession which proved of great importance in the delimitation of east Africa into British and German spheres. In 1885 Johnston joined the consular service and spent three British administrator

years in eastern Nigeria as a pioneer administrator in the Oil Rivers protectorate. Returning to London in 1S88 he attracted the attention of Lord Salisbury, the British prime minister and foreign secretary, through

whom

he exercised

much

influence on

British policy in Africa during the crucial years 1888-91.

In parhe became temporarily a close friend of Cecil Rhodes, and the intermediary between Rhodes and Salisbury in the extension of British rule over central Africa. In 1889-90 Johnston made a remarkable journey to obtain the ticular,

on which British claims to Nyasaland and Northern RhoIn 1891 he returned to Nyasaland as the first commissioner of the new protectorate, and in six years performed a brilliant feat of administration with few assistants and small funds. He was knighted in 1896. at the age of 38, and a great career was predicted for him. It never materialized. After two years as consul general in Tunis he was appointed special commissioner in Uganda (1899-1901), where he ruled with great distinction. Yet he was never again given a public post and spent his last 25 years in busy retirement as a scholar and writer. He was perhaps too brilliant and versatile in intellect, too sprightly and unconventional in manners to make a high official. During his active career he had written several descriptive works, of which British Central Africa (1897) and The Uganda Protectorate (1902) are still well known. In retirement he added books and articles on history, politics, zoology, biography, autobiography, even novels. The greatest work of his later years was his Comparative Study of the Bantu and Semi-Bantu Languages (1919— 22), an achievement of collection and classification which has earned him an enduring name among philologists. (R. A. Ol.) (1807-1891), ConJOHNSTON, JOSEPH federate general of the American Civil War. was born near Farmville. Va.. on Feb. 3, 1807. He entered West Point in 1825 and graduated in the same class with Robert E. Lee. After being commissioned in the artillery he held minor assignments along the Johnston reeast coast and participated in the Seminole War. signed from the army in May 1837 but the outbreak of Indian war again in 1838 led him to return to the service as a topographiDuring the Mexican War (1846-48) he fought in cal engineer. the Veracruz expedition, gaining the rank of brevet colonel for Assignments with the engineers followed, meritorious conduct. and in June I860 Johnston became quartermaster general of the U.S. army. At the outbreak of the Civil War. Johnston resigned his commission and offered his services to Virginia. He became a brigadier general in the Confederate army in May 1861 when he took command of the Confederate army of the Shenandoah. As ranking Confederate officer at the first battle of Bull Run Manassas). Johnston was credited with this first important Confederate victory (July 21. 1861). He was then promoted to the rank of general but was dissatisfied that he ranked fourth in seniority. When the Peninsula campaign began in April 1S62. Johnston withdrew south to defend Richmond. Although objecting to the strategy" prescribed by Pres. Jefferson Davis. Johnston fought well He was severely wounded at Fair against the northern forces. Oaks (Seven Pines), May 31, 1862, and was replaced by Robert treaties

desia were based.

EGGLESTON

(

E. Lee. In May 1863 Johnston assumed personal control of forces in Mississippi threatened by Grant's advance upon Vicksburg. He warned Gen. J. C. Pemberton to evacuate the city immediately to avoid Grant's trap, but President Davis ordered Pemberton to hold it at all cost. Lacking sufficient troops. Johnston could not relieve Pemberton. and Vicksburg fell on July 4, 1863 (see VicksBitterly criticized, particularly by President Davis, burg).

Johnston nonetheless took active command of the army of Tennessee in Dec. 1863. as the combined armies of the North advanced toward Atlanta. For the main outlines of the famous campaign between Sher-

man and

Johnston, see American Civil War. Although subsequent events demonstrated the soundness of Johnston's strategy, new criticism caused his replacement on July 17, 1864, by Gen. J.

B. Hood.

He remained

inactive until restored to duty by Lee on Feb. 23, Taking command of his old army, now in North Carolina, Johnston succeeded in delaying Sherman's advance at Bentonville (March 19—21, 1865). Lack of men and supplies caused continued withdrawal, however, and Johnston signed an armistice on April 18 and then surrendered to Sherman at Durham Station,

1865.

N.C.. on April 26. After the war Johnston engaged in business ventures, wrote his in congress (1879-81) and was appointed U.S. commissioner of railroads by Pres. Grover Cleveland. He

war memoirs, served

JOHNSTON—JOHORE March 21, 1891, in Washington, D.C. Johnston was a superior organizer, well liked by his men, but a long-standing feud with Jefferson Davis caused him professional His strategy was generally sound and more advanced difficulty. His inability in design than that of most Confederate generals. to convince others of the wisdom of his position lessened his military effectiveness and was perhaps his chief defect. See also references under "Johnston, Joseph Eggleston" in the died on

Index. Bibliography. Directed,

— E. Johnston, Narrative of Military Operations, During the Late War Between the States (1874); B. T. J.

Johnston (ed.), A Memoir of the Life and Public Service of J. E. Johnston (1891);' R. M. Hughes, General Johnston (1893); D. S. Freeman, Lee's Lieutenants (1942-44); Gilbert E. Govan and James W. Livingood, A Different Valor (1956). (J. R. Co.)

JOHNSTON, RICHARD MALCOLM

(1822-1898), U.S. educator and author of local-colour fiction, was born near Powelton, Ga.. on March 8, 1822, the son of a plantation owner. He graduated from Mercer university at Penfield (later at Macon), Ga., in 1841, read law in Augusta, Ga., and was admitted to the bar in 1844. Professor of rhetoric and belles-lettres at the University of Georgia at Athens, 1857-61, Johnston established a boys' school near Sparta, Ga., in 1862. It became known particularly for its disciplinary system, which incorporated features of the honour system. After the Civil War he moved his school to Chestnut Hill, near Baltimore, Md., where he conducted it under the name Pen Lucy school for a number of years. From 1896 a clerk in the bureau of education, Washington, D.C, he prepared a study on early education in middle Georgia. In his humorous stories Johnston vividly portrayed the people and country of his native state of Georgia, but at times he virtually ignored action and plot. Dukesborough Tales, four of which had been previously published as Georgia Sketches in 1864. was first published in 1871 and revised in a number of later editions. Other works included Old Mark Langston, a Tale of Duke's Creek (1884), a novel; Mr. Billy Downs and His Likes (1892), six stories; and Autobiography of Col. Richard Malcolm Johnston (1900) (he had received the courtesy title of colonel during the Civil War). Johnston died on Sept. 23, 1898. JOHNSTONE, a small burgh of Renfrewshire, Scot., 9 mi. W. of Glasgow. Pop. (1961) 18,369. The town, though well planned on land at Easter Cochran, by the Black Cart river, in about 1781 by George Houstoun, the local laird, soon became a product of the Industrial Revolution as the cotton industry, suited to the moist air, made raids into the scenery. It became a burgh in 1857 and after World War I was much improved. Industries include engineering and the making of textiles, paper, nylon fishing lines, bootlaces and vermin traps. The village of Elderslie (1 mi. E.) is the reputed birthplace of Sir William Wallace, the Scottish patriot.

JOHNSTOWN,

leading steelmaking centre in America. ing blow on

May

1800, it first became important as the western terminus of the Portage railroad, a series of inclined planes whereby canal barges on the state-owned Pennsylvania canal were transported piggyback on railway cars for 36 mi. over the summit of the Allegheny mountains. In 1861 the modern steel industry was born at Johnstown with the use of the Kelly converter (see Converter Steel) Other steel firsts developed at Johnstown include the first blooming mill for the breaking rails to

down

of steel ingots and the

be produced commercially.

By

first steel

1873 Johnstown was the

city suffered a crush-

and wire are fabricated. Inside the Johnstown market area a significant portion of the U.S. production of soft coal is mined yearly.

as steel plate, wheels, axles, freight cars

Johnstown

college, a junior college

branch of the University

was opened in 1927. A municipal stadium seats 17,000, while the Cambria County War Memorial building has

of Pittsburgh,

a seating capacity of 5,500.

The Johnstown area has several parks. Many visitors join citizens in riding the inclined-plane passenger car that rises 500 ft. at a 71% grade from the business to the residential district. (R. L. Le.)

JOHN WILLIAM

FRISO (1687-1711), prince of NassauDietz and of Orange, born at Dessau, in Anhalt, on Aug. 14 (new style; 4, old style), 1687, the son of the stadholder and captain general of the Dutch provinces of Friesland and Groningen, Henry Casimir II. At his father's death in 1696 the young boy succeeded to his functions under the guardianship of his mother, Henriette Amalia of Anhalt-Dessau. He grew up in Leeuwarden and later studied at the universities of Franeker and Utrecht. His first cousin once removed, the childless William III of Orange (also king of England), in his testament of 1695, named John William as his successor in all his hereditary possessions on the European continent. After William Ill's death (1702) the provinces of the Netherlands, of which he had been hereditary stadholder, refused to appoint John William to that function, and Frederick I of Prussia (William Ill's first cousin) disputed the succession to the personal inheritance and to the title prince of Orange. In 1707 John William was declared of age. He distinguished himself as a general in the War of the Spanish Succession but failed completely to acquire political influence outside his own provinces. He was accidentally drowned on July 14, 1711, when crossing the Hollands Diep on his way to The Hague. In September his wife gave birth to a son, William IV of Orange, afterward stadholder general of the United Provinces. (E. H. K.) a state of the Malaysia federation and a constitutional sultanate. The southernmost of the states of Malaya, it is the third largest of these in area (7,330 sq.mi.) and in population (estimated at 1.064,800 in 1961). The capital is Johore Bahru.

JOHORE,

least typically

population figures see table in Pennsylvania: Population. Approximately 6% of the population is foreign-born and slightly more than 3% is Negro. Although Johnstown was founded in

The

a

Johnstown is. no longer pre-eminent in steel production, but within this industrial complex coal is mined, coke is produced, open-hearth and blast furnaces operate and such finished products

much

celerated rate thereafter, largely as a result of the mechanization of coal mining and the reduced market for coal; for comparative

31, 1889,

million dollar flood-control program.

The

city 53,949; metropolitan area 280,733. The population of the city decreased slightly between 1920 and 1940 and at an ac-

when

major upstream reservoir burst and sent a great wall of water crashing down the narrow river Over 2,300 persons were drowned; 777 unidentified vicvalley. Flood tims are buried in a single plot in Grandview cemetery. property damage exceeded $10,000,000. Following another disastrous flood in 1936, the Conemaugh river was tamed by a multi-

a city of Pennsylvania, U.S., 70 mi. E. of Pittsburgh, at the headwaters of the Conemaugh river. The business-industrial district lies within the narrow river valley, but of the residential section is located several hundred feet above the central city. Located in a steelmaking and coal-mining area, Johnstown is the centre of a standard metropolitan statistical area comprising Cambria and Somerset counties. Pop. (1960)

55

terrain

is

swamp which

two-thirds forested and includes large areas of

and prevented rapid development.

farm

rice.

Malaya Hence Johore's economy is the

historically hindered links with the rest of

Malay in the federation. Less than 1.000 persons The state has more than 1,000,000 ac. of rubber, half

and its rural population is 79% Chinese, a larger proportion than any other sultanate, though in the state as a whole the Chinese constitute only 42%. Johore Malays (48%) were fishermen until early in the 20th century; many were Malays of Sumatran stock who had entered in the previous 60 years. Chinese immigration giving rise to a western-style economy began in the mid- 19th century as a penetration from the coast along the rivers by pepper farmers, and became a great flow when the railway from the tin and rubber belt was extended through Johore in 1919 Commodity movements are now mainly by to reach Singapore. road, including a west coast route to Malacca, an inland route to Kuala Lumpur and an east coast route to Mersing, all radiating from the causeway to Singapore. The state's economy has depended on Singapore's trading facilities, its own shallow coasts Mersing, Bandar Penggaram being without good harbourage. in small holdings,

(Batu Pahat) and Bandar Maharani (Muar) are fishing towns and traffic. Along both railways and roads are strung Chinese-populated market towns, the largest being Kluang ferry points for road

JOHORE BAHRU—JOINERY

56

(51,000) and Segamat (18,000), both central to rubber-growing regions and retaining a pioneer atmosphere. During the guerrilla

warfare in the Johore jungles from 1948 to 1952. Chinese smallholders were resettled into dozens of new villages constructed along the roads, thereby increasing Chinese political significance. Tin is unimportant but most of the Malayan bauxite produced is from Telok Ramunia in southwest Johore and iron mining goes on behind Batu and Endau. Large plantations of oil palm are near Labis and Kulai in central Johore and most Malayan commercial pineapple production is from small holdings behind Pontian.

Johore

is

relations with in the vicinity

mostly part of Singapore's hinterland,

ham. with which there islands

lie

its

economic

Pahang to the north being negligible. Production of Segamat was increasingly drawn to Port Swettenis

good road connection.

Several rocky

offshore in the South China sea. unused except

Malay fishermen.

swampy

Off Pontian to the west the

by

island of

Pulau Pisang has a population of Chinese fishermen trading with Singapore. A substantial amount of fish, pigs, eggs and fruit moves from Johore into the Singapore markets. See also Johore Bahru; Malaysia. (E. H. G. D.) the capital of Johore state in the Malaysia federation, stands on low hills beside the strait which separates Malaya and Singapore Island. At this point all Malayan transport crosses a stone causeway, the sole route across the strait which there narrows to \ mi. and is mangrove-free. Pop. (1957) 74,909

JOHORE BAHRU,

(49%

Chinese).

Johore Bahru has long been a trade outlet from the mainland to Singapore. The town has a semirural atmosphere, its people using the amenities of Singapore city, of which it is almost a satellite. There is a boulevard along the strait. Johore Bahru. barely a century old. has replaced Johore Lama (Old Johore). now a village (pop. 3.400). about 18 mi. E. (E. H. G. D.) JOINERY, a term defining all the exposed woodwork in a building and including all wrought timber items which are primarily fittings and not part of the essential structure of the building (see Carpentry) joinery also includes, however, a number of essential structural items in a building such as doors, windows ;

A.

REED

ELEMENTS OF JOINERY CONSTRUCTION: (A) METHOD OF BUILDING UP LARGE FLAT AREA ON BASIC MORTISE-AND-TENON FRAME USING SINGLE BOARD. JOINTED BOARDS AND BOARDS WITH SLOT-SCREWED JOINTS: (B) PANEL WITH ELEMENTS FREE TO MOVE IN REBATED FRAME: (C) PANEL WITH FREE BATTENS; (D) PANEL WITH PLYWOOD SKIN ON FRAME FIG. 2.

staircases, as well as fittings such as paneling. Most joinery items are made in a workshop and taken to the building site, where only adjustment and final fixing are required. Although

and

much joinery is made by hand, the greater part is produced by machinery. But it is the material rather than the special techniques required for machine or hand manufacture which plays the greatest part in the production of joinery work. Wood, being a natural material, is not uniform in quality. The moisture content, present in the tree as an element of growth, is uneven in the cut wood. Most building materials are subject to moisture and thermal movement this is often quite small and can frequently be accurately predicted. Absorption and loss of moisture subject timber to considerable and variable movement, to which the joining and framing of joinery' members must be closely related. Because wood is widely distributed and locally available it has always been popular as a building material and its working has reached a high standard of finish and design. The first signs of improvement in domestic comfort are associated with the increased use of timber for paneling, seats and flooring. Man's experience has helped him produce the most suitable joints and framings for the joiner's standard tasks and many of these, together with the tools used, have hardly changed in centuries. But in a useful material such as wood, experience and study have shown better or more efficient ways of working, and the 20th century has seen extensive developments in joinery associated particularly with machine production and the use of plywood, veneers and new types ;

Sr^"

^^fr.

j\

y^

t\

jP I

IvL

,

m $i

sapwood

*

(live cells)

ft

y*?-* --

'

-'

...

vf

-

}\

'

-*!

IJ

m

y$£r

m ]m

"

vT_

"

\

Yi

Jj»

^SsL_

-±Jr

D

of glue.

—

Joinery Tools. In his work the joiner uses a great variety hand tools that have been modified only by slight improvement from time to time and by the advantage that modern steel can give to cutting edges. The principal groups are: Planes. Used for removing rough surfaces and for reducing to size, planes are made of wood or iron in a wide variety of sizes. of

—

A.

REED

—

FIG. I. CONVERSION OF TIMBER: (A) PARTS OF GROWING TREE: (B) CROSS SECTION OF TREE BOLE SHOWING HOW TANGENTIAL SAWING RESULTS IN GREATER WARPING THAN RADIAL CUT: (C) RADIAL OR OUARTERSAWING METHOD OF CONVERTING TIMBER; (D) THROUGH AND THROUGH METHOD:

(E)

TANGENTIAL METHOD

Special plow or grooving planes are used for forming channels and grooves and a wide variety of planes has been traditionally

used for running special moldings. Saws. Hand saws are used for cutting either with or across the grain, while tenon and dovetail saws are used for fine accurate work. The bow saw, keyhole saw and pad saw are used for spe-

—

JOINERY

57

work out and keep it true. This group includes: Try square, for testing the right angle between surfaces and for

the

squaring lines across material. Bevel, for testing angles other than right angles and for marking lines inclined to the surfaces of the material. Gauges, for marking lines parallel to the surfaces of the material.

Powered hand tools, a wide range of tools used by hand but powered electrically. These enable specialized work to be carried out quickly where it would not be easy or economical to use a large woodworking machine. They are also useful on building sites for repetition cutting where hand labour would take too much time. Woodworking machines, a wide range of shop machines for planing, thicknessing, drilling, etc., and for carrying out grooving operations, usually called routing, formerly done by hand. Selection of Timber for Joinery. The particular characteristics of different timbers should be understood, for they vary enormously both in appearance and in the ease with which they

—

can be worked. Correct selection is necessary both in regard to For example, some timbers come in certain use and economy. standard size limits and designing in these must always take into account the amount of waste which any particular section will Some timbers have long traditional associations: the produce. native English oak was used almost without exception for both framing and joinery work in the middle ages and has come to be regarded as a suitable material for church work, etc. before World War I, Honduras mahogany was widely used for high-quality fin;

and commercial buildings. In the 20th century better means of transport and conversion have allowed well-forested areas previously unexploited to be opened up. Notable in this category is the extensive range of joinery timbers now exported from east and west Africa. Timber for joinery is usually classified under the terms softwood and hardwood. Softwood includes the timbers of the pine and fir families and comes generally from the Baltic, Scandinavian and North American areas. The timber is converted in the country of origin and exported in scantling; i.e., lengths of rectangular section

ishing in public

A.

REED

—

BASIC TIMBER JOINTS: (A) HAUNCHED MORTISE AND TENON. WITH CROSS SECTION SHOWING ALTERNATIVE FOXTAIL WEDGING; (B) STUB TENON; (C) BAREFACED TENON; (D) DOWELED TENON; (E) DOWELED JOINT; (F) HAND-CUT COMMON DOVETAIL; (G) LAPPED MACHINE-CUT DOVETAIL; (H) REBATED JOINT; (I) THREE VARIETIES OF HOUSED JOINTS FIG. 3.

cial

tasks involving cutting curved surfaces or forming holes.

away wood not required in the formation of joints. There is a wide variety of sizes according to the work to be done. The gouge is a special form of chisel for Chisels are used for cutting

A.

circular cutting.

Hammer,

and pliers screws and driving

mallet, screwdriver, bradawl, gimlet, pincers

are small tools used for

making

holes, fixing

nails.

There

is

also

an extensive group of tools used to help to

set

REED

—

4. BASIC CORNER AND BUTT JOINTS; (A) HAUNCHED TENON WITH MOLDING MITRED; (B) MORTISE AND TENON WITH MOLDING SCRIBED; (C) HAUNCHED TENON WITH SPLAY SCRIBED; (D) COMBED JOINT WITH SPLAY SCRIBED; (E) COMMON BUTT JOINT; (F) BUTT JOINT WITH LOOSE TENON; (G) TONGUE-AND-GROOVE JOINT

FIG.

—

JOINERY

58

sapwood under the bark in each growing season, forming the well-known annual rings. As the tree grows, the inner rings no longer convey the sap or mois-

of

and the

ture,

cells in these rings

become inactive. This wood is known as heartwood and is the part of the timber used by the joiner. The part which still contains sap-bearing cells is known as sapwood.

Since

it

contains softer

and more food, it is liable to early attack by fungus and wood-boring beetles and is material

therefore not used in the best

work.

A

converted by sawing ways; the simplest and most economical, since it produces the least waste, is termed "through and through" or flat it

log

is

in various

The other main method by radial or quartersawing. The method of sawing affects not only the way in which the board sawing. is

will

shrink but also

ance; this

is

its

appear-

especially true in the

case of hardwoods having elaborate fibre (grain) formation.

It

can be seen (fig. 1) that the sawing of boards causes the distribution of the fibres (grain) to vary considerably. At the extremes, the board is sawed either tangentially or radially.

COMMON DOOR TYPES WITH DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION: (A) LEDGED AND BRACED DOOR: (B) FRAMED AND PANELED DOOR; (C) FLUSH PLYWOOD ON HOLLOW CORE; (D) PLYWOOD ON SOLID LAMINATED CORE FIG. 5.

Since a

tangentially sawed board shrinks

more than

a radially

sawed one,

a flat-sawed board will tend to

Softwood of this type is used for framing and for much joinery that is to be painted, although selected timber of this sort can be treated with clear varnishes or polishes and left exposed. The trade in hardwood is much more complicated as there are innumerable varieties grown in many countries. Hardwood timber tends to have specialized uses and it is therefore exported and marketed in many forms. Often it is held by the merchant in log form or sawed into special sizes associated with the uses to which it will be put. The timber may, on the other hand, be exported as strip for flooring or in veneer form. Hardwood timbers tend to vary much more than softwoods both in physical quality and colour, and selection is often an important element in any job. Movement in Timber. As already mentioned, the problem of movement in timber is of the greatest importance, and knowledge of the way in which it takes place is essential in the proper design of joints and members. A tree is an elaborate and complicated structure of cells which extract food from the soil in water solution. At the moment a living tree is felled for timber it contains a large amount of water. The subsequent extraction of this water. a process known as "seasoning.'' causes the cells to shrink. Seasoning should continue until the amount of moisture in the timber has been reduced to a point at which the subsequent shrinkage is so small as not materially to affect the dimension of the timber after it has been worked and incorporated into a piece of joinery. Shrinkage is not. however, a simple process. Trees are built up in circular form and. most timber sections being rectangular, the fibres of the wood are found at greatly varying positions even in the same piece of wood. The process of "conversion" or reduction of the tree to plank or scantling is therefore complicated, since the same timber will shrink in different ways according to the manner in which it is cut from the log. A tree (see fig. 1) grows by the process of building up a layer usually graded for quality.

—

warp more than is more wasteful

Thus although quartersawing produces more stable timber and is preferred for

a quartered board. it

good work.

The amount

of moisture in timber

is

expressed as the ratio of In a tree

the weight of water to wood, the moisture content.

time of felling this

at the

is

likely to be

30^

or more.

Exposure

to drying in the air (natural seasoning) will reduce this to about state at which an equilibrium is reached with the relahumidity of the atmosphere. Modern centrally heated buildings, however, have a lower relative humidity and the moisture content of joinery timbers to be used under such conditions must be further reduced artificially in kilns to about 8% or 9%. The moisture content of timber then can be controlled by natural or artificial means with some ease. However, if the moisture-laden cells of timber can be induced to part with water, they are only too ready, when circumstances change, to reabsorb it. In addition to this, the condition of a building into which joinery is placed is not in itself stable, and there is a continual and ever-changing adjustment between the timber and its surroundings as to the amount of moisture the timber contains and therefore the amount of movement which is likely to take place in any particular member

18%, the

tive

of a joinery framing. In the selection of timber, a balance must be achieved between the type of the timber, a reasonable degree of control over its moisture content and the design of joints and members to reduce the movement in the wood. It is

form

common

all

practice to cut the

members them

the joints, etc., and then leave

of a joinery unit, for several

weeks

to allow further air seasoning to take place before the joints are

Timber will always give up moisture after completed. machining and will therefore be liable to shrinkage because more cells are exposed to the air nor is time in itself entirely a cure for English oak will shrink and distort if reworked or repaired this. even though it might be several hundred years old.

finally

:

JOINERY —

Principles of Construction. Long experience in the characwood and in the behaviour of joinery units has produced accepted methods for making the most commonly used joinery items. If no special instructions are given, most joiners will make a casement window and frame or a door of traditional design in the same way. Joinery members, to be satisfactory from a structural point of view, should have the necessary strength and therefore must be put together with the most suitable joints so that the inherent disadvantages of timber itself are reduced to a minimum. This situation is further complicated by the fact that in order to teristics of

movement in members, most joinery units are composed number of small members and consequently the number of

reduce of a

joints required is

is

A

increased.

balance of these factors in design making and assembling the parts. the construction of frames for doors,

required, together with skill in

There are two basic elements windows, panel surrounds, etc.; and the construction of flat areas such as the panels of doors, wall paneling and the tops of cabinets. :

In the frame, the objective is to join four pieces of wood so that the frame remains square and there is as little shrinkage as possible. Shelves are examples of flat areas and are often small enough to be obtained

from

single pieces of

wood. Where must be joined.

larger flat

This may be done in such a way that each individual piece may move on its own, or the large area will move as one piece (see fig. 2). In the latter type of framing, battens are formed with screwed joints in slots to permit one member to move relative to the other. Many of the disadvantages of large flat areas formed in this way may be eliminated by the use of plywood skins on frames or laminated areas are desired, two or

boards.

Basic

Timber

members together

Joints.

more

pieces

—The

object of the joint

is

to fix

so that the joint has the greatest possible

chanical strength and

two me-

There are few basic groups, being variations and elaborations on fundamentally simple ideas (see fig. 3). Practically all are based on hand work and with few exceptions most machine-made joints follow the traditional patterns; most joints rely to a considerable extent on a combination of mechanical fit and the use of glue for their strength. Some are only dependent on wedging or pinning and a few only on gluing. Almost the only joint which is of machine origin and which relies on glue for its ultimate strength is the "combed" joint (see fig. 4). The actual joint must be made in the wider dimension of the member. If it relies on the use of glue, the areas available for gluing should be as extensive as possible and if used externally must be designed to resist dampness. Junctions should be as nearly invisible as possible so that if there should be shrinkage due to moisture movement, the gap will not be apparent. Allowance must be made for movement and for the insertion of wedges to tighten up the joint. From the point of view of economy, joints should be designed that do not waste wood or require a large number of operations in making or assembly. Animal (or Scotch) glue is still widely used; it must be used hot but its chief disadvantage is that it is not waterproof. For this reason the development of modern glues has been in the direction of greater strength and weather resistance, as seen notably in casein glues and synthetic resin glues. (See also Adhesives.) Mortise and tenon joint, to join a horizontal member with the vertical member of a frame, is one of the most widely used joints.

many many

is

as unobtrusive as possible.

joints in use although they fall into only a

59

a single tenon but the reduction in the size of the tenons offers more opportunity for wedging and less danger of twisting. Doweled joint, an alternative form of mortise and tenon, is

commonly used

in

factory-made joinery and mass-produced

Combed

joint, as

mentioned above,

is

especially adapted to

Dovetail joint, used for joining two flat members together at drawer construction or at the corners of a bookcase, may be cut by hand or machine. Rebated joint is easily made but not very strong; it is suitable for light construction such as boxlike members and for receiving the backings to fitments; it is also used in small drawers. Housed joint is widely used in furniture and fitment construcIt is not tion; for example, to take the shelves in a bookcase. mechanically strong but conceals the end grain of the housed member and provides support for light loads. For joining flat boards to form table tops or similar large areas, edge-to-edge or butt joints (see fig. 4) are often used. They rely only on the adhesion of the glue; to make the joint stronger, tongued (loose) or tongued and grooved boards are used. Doors.— One of the commonest joinery items, doors may be made in several ways (see fig. 5) but the essential requirement is that the frame should remain square and not sag away from the hinge. The ledged and braced door is the simplest form, the covering usually being tongued, with grooved boarding nailed to horizontal ledges. Braces keep the shape and prevent sagging. The framed and paneled door is the simplest form employing a framed construction. It has twin tenons and may be elaborated in various ways by the addition of extra rails and panels the latter may be either filled with wood or similar solid flat members, or glazed. The flush door is very popular because of its freedom from ledges and other dust traps. It is ideally suited to mass factory producright angles, as in

;

''/M HEAD OF FRAME

j.

/

^^V

TOP RAIL OF SASH -£t-i^ |

|

^A

tenon, usually a third of the total thickness of the member, passes into the slot or mortise so that there is enough timber at the top and bottom to enable wedges to be driven in to tighten

A pin or dowel may also be used to secure the joint. the vertical member (stile) does not continue past the horizontal member (rail) as in the top and bottom members of a the joint.

Where

door (see fig. 3), the tenon must be "haunched" in order to leave enough timber at the top of the stile for wedging. In cabinetmaking and highly finished joinery, foxtail wedging may be used. There the wedging is "secret" or hidden it is expensive and requires ;

assembly

is made, it cannot be taken apart. In thick sections, as in heavy doors and frames, tenons are often doubled; in wide members, twin tenons

may

skill in

also be used (see

fig.

5).

as,

once the joint

The

principle

is

the

same

as for

ma-

chine production.

The

considerable

fit-

tings.

JOINT BETWEEN JAMB AND SILL

FIG.

6.

CONSTRUCTION DETAILS OF CASEMENT SASH WINDOW

—

JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF—JOINTS

6o

and large numbers are produced in standard sizes. Two main types are made: those having a light frame covered with a plywood skin, and those with a solid core built up of narrow strips of softwood with a plywood covering. Glazed areas may be protion

The edges with a hardwood

Mild

tric current.

cially

there tion.

suitable

steel is espe-

for

joints

when mo-

not continuous rapid

is

Where such motion

occurs,

vided, as well as fixings for locks, etc.

of flush doors

a

of either type are usually lipped

strip.

bronze, or either of these metals

—

Windows. For the joiner the most difficult task in window construction (see fig. 6) is to ensure good weather resistance and Careful adjustment is necessary to ensure that air tightness. the

window

is

same time

close-fitting but at the

not stick be-

will

bushing

or

layer

of

brass,

coated with a low-friction alloy, such as white metal, is inserted (fig. 4) The joint then possesses .

the good

f rictional

qualities of the

cause of the swelling of the wood from exposure to rain. Windows are particularly vulnerable to changes in weather conditions since they are usually exposed to considerable variation in temperature

bush surface. Leakage past moving metal joints can be prevented

and moisture condition on each face. Weather checks must be incorporated in the bottom rails and underneath sills. Bibliography. R. L. Davies and D. J. Pettv, Building Elements

to

—

(1956); W. B. McKay, Joinery (1946); W. E. Kelsey, Carpentry, Joinery, and Woodcutting Machinery (1954) J. Eastwick-Field and H. E. Desch, J. Stillman, The Design and Practice of Joinery (1958) Timber: Its Structure and Properties (1953). (A. Rd.) the principal military advisers ;

;

JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF,

and (JCS) was

to the president of the United States, the secretary of defense

The

the national security council.

joint chiefs of staff

created in 1942 to assist the president in directing the U.S. forces World War II. After the war the JCS was given statutory rec-

in

ognition and a full-time

—the army chief of

The JCS

staff.

consisted of four

members

force chief of staff, chief of naval

staff, air

operations and a chairman. The commandant of the marine corps was authorized to sit as a member of the JCS when matters of direct concern to his corps were discussed. See Staff. Military. JOINT FIR Joint Pine see Ephedra. JOINTS, in engineering, are places or parts which join stationary or moving parts. They may function to prevent leakage, transI

>

by cutting the surfaces accurately fit

each other.

slide valves

and

Steam-engine their seats,

and

piston packing rings and the cylinders in which they work may be

A subsidiary compressible packing is sometimes employed in stuffing boxes, cited as examples.

which fluids

prevent through

the

escape of Fixed

joints.

—

ftg- z. split-ring connector metal joints are made fluid-tight by: (1) caulking a riveted joint, i.e., by hammering in the edge of the metal with a square-edged chisel; (2) the insertion between the surfaces of a layer of various jointing compounds; (3)

the insertion of a layer of soft solid substance called packing, insertion or gasket. Metal parts may also be joined by soldering, brazing or welding. Soldered joints are used mainly for electrical

:

mit force or both.

Wood

They

joints are nearly all stationary.

fluid-tight

made

are

partly

by grooving and tenoning and by caulking with oakum or similar material. swells

when

joints

become

The wood

saturated with water, the edges of the joints press closer together and the it

is

Where

tighter.

timber is used structurally to transmit loads, compression joints can be simply formed. The contact surfaces should be accurately fitted and should be

normal or nearly normal

to the di-

rection of the force transmitted.

Owing

weak

the

to

strength of

wood

shearing

parallel to the

grain, tension joints will be satis-

made

using suit-

able metal connectors.

These are

factory only of

the

plate

if

following

(fig.

types:

1). split-ring

shear (fig.

2)

and bulldog (fig. 3). The bolts, where used, do not bear on the timber but serve only to hold the joint assembled. In the case of the shear-plate connection the fig. i.— steel shear. plate con. load is transmitted in shear by the NECTORS bolt, but the bolt bears only on the metal shear plate to transmit this force. If the timber pieces, in tension, which are to be jointed are simply bolted together with steel bolts, the stresses become extremely localized in the immediate neighbourhood of the bolts. This will tend to cause both bearing and shear failures in the timber.

FIG.

3.

— DOUBLE-SIDED

connections and are made by heating the parts to be joined and adding molten solder, which, on cooling, solidifies and adheres to The metal both metal surfaces, thus jointing them together. faces to be joined must be first cleaned and smeared with a suitMost metals able flux. The solder is an alloy of tin and lead.

can be joined by soldering; aluminum and its alloys, however, require special solders. The brazing process is similar to the soldering process, but brass or bronze is used as the added molten material

HOUSING

may lar

Welding instead of solder. also be carried out in a simi-

manner, but the added metal

in this case will be identical

with

that of the parts joined, usually steel.

Lead

satisfactorily

way

Steel and the other commonly used metals possess in variously high degrees the qualities desirable in jointing materials. The joint ends of metal pieces can be fashioned to any desired form or size. Metallic surfaces can be machined evenly to ensure the closest fit over their whole areas of contact. This is of the highest impor-

tance, especially in joints designed to transmit a force or an elec-

AND SINGLE-SIDED BULLDOG CONNECTORS

(lead-burning).

bushing

The

neces-

provided by a torch supplied with oxygen and acetylene, hydrogen or other inflammable gases under pressure (gas welding), and the added metal sary heat

fig. 4.

plumbing can be welded in the same

in

is

—

JOINTS—JOINTS AND LIGAMENTS

61

Jointing cannot extend to a very great depth: for toward the base of the zone of fracture, estimated by the U.S. geologist, C. R. Van Hise (1857-1918) at about 12 km. in rigid rocks, joints and faults

1.6

cannot form since the rocks tend to flow in relief of strain. In unweathered rocks, joints, though present, are inconspicuous, but on weathering become marked, especially in a soluble rock, such as limestone. Sedimentary rocks usually show two sets of joints perpendicular to the bedding and to one another, one set in the direction of dip, the other of strike. The more prominent set, if well developed and running for long distances, forms a set of master joints. Individual fissures cannot be traced very far, since joints run into one another, though their approximate general parallelism is evident. The distance between joints varies from an

d

FIG. 5.

— SNAPHEADED

RIVET

melted from a filler rod or wire. Alternatively the heat may be supplied by an electric arc. The arc may be struck between the work piece on one hand and either the filler wire or a separate electrode (usually of tungsten) on the other. The arc and the pool of molten metal must be protected from the atmosphere. This is achieved either by means of a flux coating of the filler rod when this is used as an electrode or by means of an envelope of inert gas, such as argon, helium or carbon dioxide, when a separate electrode is used. A third type of weld is termed a pressure weld, in which no metal is added. The parts to be joined, which must be of similar metal, are heated by flame or electric current to a welding (almost melting) temperature and pressed together. Local spot welds are made using round pointed copper electrodes and continuous seam welding by using copper wheels as electrodes. Pressure welds may be made in aluminum at room temperature.

Apart from the above joints and glued or cemented joints, most joints are formed by cutting one or more holes in the ends of The the pieces to be joined and inserting pins in these holes.

word "pin" is technically restricted to mean a cylindrical pin in a movable joint. The word "bolt" is used when the cylindrical pin is screwed up tight with a nut so as to be immovable. The word "stud" is used when the pin is screwed into or welded to one part, and a second part is held by a nut screwed on to the other end of the pin. When the pin is not screwed, but is fastened by being beaten down on either end, it is called a rivet (fig. 5). The pin is sometimes rectangular in section and tapered or parallel lengthwise {e.g., gibs and cotters). Bolts are also used in friction grip joints, e.g., in the connection of the two members of a strucIn this case the shanks of the bolts do not act members providing the compressive force The degree to which the nuts are across the friction surfaces. tightened in this type of bolted joint is of direct importance tural steel frame.

as pins but as tension

to the strength of the joint.

For

reason various methods are used to bring on the nuts to the

inch or so to several yards: in alternating strata the degree of jointing may vary from bed to bed. In igneous rocks jointing is

generally quite irregular, but in granite two vertical sets at right angles to one another, with another set of cross joints approxi-

mately horizontal, are frequently found. These cross joints are of a different origin they are the effect of weathering since they conform to the surface of the ground and die out with depth. Intrusive sills and dikes in many places show a columnar structure perpendicular to the cooling surfaces, where jointing has been so symmetrical that the sheets weather out into polygonal prismatic columns. In the Giant's Causeway (q.v.) the columns are hexagonal, implying three equally developed sets of joints. :

surface, joints are more or less open, especially in limeSolution by percolating water controlled by joints has led to the formation of large caves and underground rivers several miles in length. Highly jointed rocks are objectionable as a

Near the

stones.

source of potable water, since such water is likely to be contamiQuarrying operations are much nated by surface impurities. helped by the presence of a well-developed joint system combined with the bedding planes of weakness. Large monoliths are obtainable from granite where the vertical jointing, widely spaced, is

not interrupted by cross jointing. Origin of Joints. The principal cause of jointing in both stratified and igneous rocks is crustal movement. Certainly stratified rocks subjected to compression, tension and torsion must crack and fissure in the upper parts of the earth's crust. Thus

—

strike and dip joints would originate along the axes of folds. The passage of earthquake waves would account for jointing in undisturbed horizontal strata, which is otherwise hardly explicable if folding is absent. Contraction on drying or crystallization also contributes to minor irregular jointing, as do also expansion and contraction due to epigene agents or the intrusion of heated igneous rocks. The columnar structure of basalt is due to the cooling effect of the walls between which it has been intruded and to which the structure is always at right angles. (C. B. B.)

JOINTS

this

desired tightness.

ods

fall

These meth-

into three groups:

(1) the use of a torque wrench to

GROOVE OR THROAT

BOLT TURNED TO TIGHTEN JOINT UNTIL BOLT SHEARS OFF AT -THROAT

6.

joint, or articulation, is

fibrous strands that secure the relationships of the bones of the joints; ligaments also support the internal organs.

tension of the bolt beyond the

called diarthroses.

nut,

by means of which the

may

be tightened into the nut un-

bolt

the extension shears off at the

-TORQUE-CONTROLLED groove JOINT

This shearing (fig. 6). occur at a predetermined torque; (3) the use of a small area of material in compression inserted between the nut and the joint; this material will yield at the predetermined tension in the bolt. The inserted material can take the form of raised areas on the underside of the nut. (A. Rd.) JOINTS, in geology, are the dividing planes by which nearly all rocks are traversed more or less completely and which extend in various directions and at various inclinations, generally . In 1543. with his family and an abundant retinue, he established himself in Basel under the name of

KATSURA TREE: see Cercidiphyllum. KATTEGAT (Cattegat; Scand. "cat's throat"),

a

strait

forming part of the connection between the Baltic and North seas. It extends north and south between Sweden and Denmark, and connects north with the Skagerrak and south through the Sound. Great Belt and Little Belt with the Baltic. Length about 241 km. (150 mi.); extreme breadth about 142 km. (88 mi.); area 25,486 sq.km. (9.840 sq.mi.) mean depth not more than about 14 fathoms. See Baltic Sea. Katwijk aax Zee), a seaside resort in the province of South Holland. Neth.. is located at the mouth of the Oude Rijn (Old Rhine) river. 8 km. (5 mi.) X.W. of Leiden. Pop. (1964 est.) 31,914 (mun.). It has a 17th-century lighthouse and the 15th-century church of St. Andrew. There is a wide beach with a mile-long promenade. Besides tourism, the chief industry ;

KATWIJK

is

I

the herring fishery and related trades.

Remnants

Horticulture

is

prac-

Roman and

Franconian settlements of the 1st and 7th centuries have been excavated. Katwijk aan den Rijn. 1.6 km. (1 mi.) S.E., has a 15th-century church with tised in the vicinity.

a

of

monument by Rombout Vefhulst. KATYDID, the name applied generally

(J. P. v. B.)

in

North America

to

certain large insects of the orthopterous family Tettigoniidae. but

properly restricted to members of the subfamily Pseudophyllinae. A katydid may be recognized by the very long, threadlike antennae and the swordlike ovipositor of the female. The group is noted for chiefly its loud stridulation a rasping, repetitive "katy-did" given at night, caused by rubbing the filelike underside of the left forewing against a ridge on the upper surface of the right forewing; each species has a characteristic call. The true katydids (Pseudophyllinae). bush katydids (Phaneropterinae). meadow grasshoppers Conocephalinae) and cone-headed grasshoppers (Copiphorinae) are chiefly green, long-winged, bush, tree and grass inhabitants. The shield-bearers (Decticinae) most often occur on the ground or in low vegetation, are usually nearly wingless and Winged forms infrequently are predominantly brown or gray. jump, usually moving from place to place in slow flight. The eggs, frequently flattened and large, are laid in bark, on twigs or inserted in the edges of leaves between the upper and lower surfaces. Most species overwinter in the egg stage, maturing in the north quite late in summer. Katydids feed chiefly on plant matter, but some take a varied diet that includes other insects. See also Orthoptera; Insect. (H. J. G.) a city in the East Allgau mountains of Germany, which after partition of the nation following World War II was in the Land (state) of Bavaria. Federal Republic of Germany. It is located on the Wertach. 89 km. (55 mi.) S.W. of Munich. Pop. (1961 est.) 34.686. Founded about a.d. 800. it was a free imperial city from 1286 to 1803 when it passed to Bavaria. There are medieval walls and towers. Gothic Blasius chapel with valuable paintings 0480) and a Franciscan convent with the tomb of Kreszentia Hoss (a place of pilgrimage). The medieval centre of the city is surrounded by modern residential area and public parks. Industries include textile mills, sawmills, breweries, printing works and the manufacture of office machinery. Gablonz glassware and

—

—

(

KAUFBEUREN,

costume jewelry.

Dairy produce

KAUFFMANN,

is

(MARIA

also significant.

ANNA)

(F. St.)

ANGELICA

(1741-1807), Swiss-born historical and portrait painter, one of members of the Royal Academy, was born at Coire

the original

(Chur). Switz., on Oct. 30, 1741. Her father, John Joseph Kauffmann, was a painter. She was a very gifted child and showed marked talents as a musician and painter at an early age; in her 12th year she had become a notability. In 1754 her father took her to Milan; in 1763 she visited Rome, and then passed to Bologna and Venice, where she was feted as much for her personal charms as for her talents. She was induced by Lady Wentworth, wife of the English ambassador, to accompany her to London, and arrived there in 1766. One of her first works was a portrait of David Garrick. exhibited in the same year at "Mr. Moreing's great room in Maiden Lane." She was well received wherever she went, and was particularly favoured by the royal family. One of her great friends was Sir Joshua Reynolds, with whom her name was romantically linked. In 1766 he painted her, and she returned the compliment with her "Portrait of Sir Joshua

Reynolds," aged 46. In 1767 she married an adventurer who posed as a Swedish count (the count de Horn), from whom she was soon separated. During 1766-67 she contributed to the Free Society of Artists a number of pastoral and mythological compositions, and her name is found among the signatories to the famous petition to the king for the establishment of the Royal Academy. In its first catalogue of 1769 'she appears with "R.A." after her name (an honour she shared with another lady and compatriot, Mary Moser) and she contributed "The Interview of Hector and Andromache" and three other classical compositions. From this time until 1782 she was an annual exhibitor. In 1773 she was appointed by the Academy, together with Reynolds, George Dance. Benjamin West. James Barry and G. Cipriani, to decorate St. Pauls, and it was she who, with Biagio Rebecca, painted the Academy's old lecture room at Somerset house. In 1781, after her first husband's death, she married Antonio Zucchi (1728-95). a Venetian artist then resident in England. Shortly afterward she retired to Rome, where her numerous friends included Goethe and J. G. von Herder. She continued to contribute to the Academy until 1797. She died on Nov. 5, 1807, and was honoured with an elaborate funeral under the direction of Antonio Canova. The entire Academy of St. Luke, together with numerous ecclesiastics and virtuosos, followed her to her tomb in S. Andrea delle Fratte, and, as at the burial of Raphael, two of her best pictures were carried in the procession. During the 1770s, Angelica was one of a team of artists who supplied the painted decorations for Adam-designed interiors, and She painted it is for this work that she is chiefly remembered. numerous portraits and self-portraits, of which the best are to be seen in Munich, in the Uffizi, Florence, and in the National Portrait gallery, London. Her life has been used as the basis of a romance by Leon de Wailly, 1838, and it prompted the charming novel contributed by Mrs. Richmond Ritchie to the Cornhill Magazine in 1875 under the title of "Miss Angel." ;

See Giovanni de Rossi, Angelica cup, Angelica (1954).

KAUFMAN, GEORGE

Kauffmann (1810); Adeline Hart(Aa. B.)

(1889-1961), U.S. playwright and stage director, who was the most successful craftsman of the U.S. theatre in the era between World Wars I and II. was born in Pittsburgh.. Pa.. Nov. 16, 1889. After attending public school in Pittsburgh and Paterson. N.J.. he found himself miscast as a salesman. He contributed to the satirical column run by Franklin P. Adams "F.P.A." in the Nem York Mail, and in 1912. on Adams' I

S.

I

recommendation, was given a column of his own in the Washington Times. He was with the drama department of the New York Times, as writer and then editor, 1917-30. His first successful play, written in collaboration with Marc Connelly, was Dulcy (1921). based on a character created by Adams. He succeeded on his own with The Butter and Egg Man His plays with Connelly (1925). but preferred collaboration. included To the Ladies (1922) and Beggar on Horseback (1924). Among his collaborations with other writers were Of Thee I Sing 1931) with Morrie Ryskind and Ira Gershwin (with music by George Gershwin: winner of Pulitzer prize in drama. 1932); Dinner at Eight (1932) and The Land Is Bright (1941) with Edna Ferber; The Solid Gold Cadillac (1953) with Howard Teichmann; and a number of hits with Moss Hart that included Once in a

—

KAUFMANN— KAUNITZ It With You (1936; Pulitzer and The Man Who Came to Dinner (1939). Kaufman once denned satire as "something that closes on Saturday night," but this did not apply to his own brand, in which mordant wit was cushioned with "belly laughs." He died in New York city, June 2, 1961. (J. Ay.) KONSTANTIN PETROVICH (1818-

Lifetime (1930),

You Can't Take

prize in drama, 1937)

KAUFMANN,

1882), Russian general of Baltic

German

extraction, the conqueror

Bukhara, Khiva and Kokand, was born at Majdany, near Deblin, in Poland, on May 3 (new style; April 21, old style), 1818. He received his training in the engineering school in St. Petersburg and then served in the Caucasus. During the Crimean of

War

he

commanded Kars

a sappers' battalion and participated in the

Turkish Armenia

Thereafter he held In 1865 he succeeded the elder M. N. Muraviev as governor general in Lithuania, where he continued the policy of "depolonization" already inaugurated. In 1867 he became governor general of Turkistan. As governor siege of

important

in

offices in the

in

1855.

war ministry.

he enjoyed remarkable freedom of action in his dealings with the central Asian states, and his administration marked the completion of the Russian absorption of the area. His first advance was against the khanate of Bukhara, and in 1868 he captured In 1873 the khanate of Khiva and in the city of Samarkand. 1875 that of Kokand were reduced to vassalage. These conquests brought Russia close to the British colonial interests in Afghanistan and occasioned strong protests from Great Britain, particularly since the Russian government had previously given assurances that Khiva lay outside the Russian sphere of influence. Although Alexander II refused to sanction further plans for advance supported by Kaufmann, little was done to prevent local Russian commanders from proceeding on their own account. Thus Kaufmann was still engaged in expansionist activities when he died, at Tashkent, on May 16, 1882. (B. J.) (1805-1874), German painter and illustrator who gained his greatest fame as a muralist, was born in Arolsen, Oct. 15, 1805. From 1822 he studied under Peter von Cornelius at the Dusseldorf Art academy. When Cornelius became director of the Bavarian Academy in Munich in 1825 he brought Kaulbach with him. In 1849 Kaulbach succeeded Cornelius in the directorship of the academy, an office held until his death in Munich on April 7, 1874. His prodigious output included melodramatic illustrations to Reynard the Fox (1841) and the poetry of F. Klopstock, Goethe and Shakespeare. As a muralist, he had facility in covering acres of walls in Munich and Berlin. His vast history paintings, such as the "Destruction of Jerusalem," the "Battle of the Huns," the "Crusaders" and the "Reformation," make up in heroic pose what they lack in artistic imagination. The fact that he was one of the most renowned artists of his time testifies more to the capriciousness of the history of taste than to the intrinsic merit of his work. Bibliography. H. Miiller, Wilhelm von Kaulbach (1893); F. von Ostini, Wilhelm von Kaulbach (1906) J. Diirck-Kaulbach, Errinerungen an Wilhelm von Kaulbach und sein Haus (1922). (P. H. S.)

KAULBACH, WILHELM VON

—

;

KAULBARS, ALEKSANDR VASILIEVICH

(in Ger-

man, Wilhelm, Freiherr von Kaulbars) (1844-1929), Russian general and explorer of central Asia, was born of Baltic German extraction in St. Petersburg on May 23 (new style; May 11, old style), 1844, the younger brother of N. V. Kaulbars (q.v.). As a general staff officer he traveled in central Asia between 1869 and 1873. He explored the Tian-Shan and was a member of Count Agenor Goluchowski's expedition in the Amu-Darya region. His important contributions to the knowledge of these regions were published in the Proceedings of the Russian Geographical society (1874-88). From 1882 to 1883 Kaulbars was war minister in Bulgaria under Alexander (q.v.) of Battenberg. In 1894 he was commander of the Plock army corps in Poland, but three years later he was given the command of a cavalry corps. In 1900 he served in China. In 1904 he became commander of the Odessa army corps. In 1904-05 he held an army command in the Russo-Japanese War, after which he returned to the Odessa

command,

retiring in 1909.

Kaulbars died

in Paris in

1929.

253

KAULBARS, NIKOLAI VASILIEVICH (in German, Reinhold, Freiherr von Kaulbars) (1842-1905), Russian general of Baltic German extraction, chiefly remembered for his role in the affairs of Bulgaria (q.v.), was the elder brother of A. V. Kaulbars (q.v.). He was born in St. Petersburg on June 3 (new During the Russo-Turkish War style; May 22, old style), 1842. of 1877-78 he served on a divisional staff. After the congress of Berlin he was a member of the Turkish-Montenegrin boundary

commission. In 1881 he was appointed military attache in Vienna. In 1886 he was sent to Bulgaria, in fact in order to consolidate Russian interests there after the fall of Alexander of Battenberg, but ostensibly in order to assist the Bulgars. He tried to postpone the election of Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha as prince of Bulgaria by the national assembly, but his tactless behaviour merely alienated the Bulgars. He was put in command of the Warsaw army corps in Poland in 1889, but was transferred to the Helsinki army corps in Finland in 1891. In 1899 he was appointed the head of the intelligence department of the Russian general staff. He died in St. Petersburg on Dec. 3, 1905. (Ger. Kauen; Pol. Kowno; Rus. Kovno), a city in the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic, U.S.S.R., is located at the confluence of the Neman (Nemunas) and Viliya (Neris) rivers, 55 mi. W.N.W. of Vilnius. Pop. (1959) 214,348. The old town at the river confluence contains many ancient churches representing

KAUNAS

a variety of architectural styles, among them the basilica (1413), the Vytautas church ( 1400) the church of the Holy Trinity ( 1 634) ,

and the Jesuit church and monastery (1666). From Napoleon hill Napoleon is said to have watched his troops cross the Neman into Russian territory in 1812. A river port and railroad junction of considerable importance, Kaunas has numerous industries including metal goods, textiles, paper, furniture and foodstuffs. It is the seat of a state university. Kaunas was first established in 1030 as a fortress and acquired a municipal charter in 1408. Lying on the highroad to the east and at a vital navigation point, it was repeatedly attacked and destroyed by the Teutonic Knights. At the third partition of Poland in 1795 it was given to Russia. With the traditional Lithuanian capital of Vilnius in Polish hands, Kaunas was the de facto capital of independent Lithuania between World Wars I and II, and its industrial development dates largely from this period. The formerly large Jewish population was almost entirely eliminated during the

World War

German occupation

1941-44.

of

II Kaunas, with the rest of Lithuania,

After

was incorporated

into the U.S.S.R.

KAUNITZ, WENZEL ANTON VON

( 1

71 1-1 794) prince ,

von Kaunitz-Rietberg from 1764, was Austrian state chancellor from 1753 to 1792 and the principal adviser on foreign affairs of the Holy Roman empress Maria Theresa and her sons. He was born in Vienna on Feb. 2, 1711, the second son of the aulic councilor Maximilian Ulrich, Graf von Kaunitz, and his wife Marie Ernestine, Grafin von Rietberg. He was at first destined for the church, but his inclinations did not

lie

in that direction.

After a

short study of law at Leipzig and the usual grand tour of western

Europe and Italy, he was appointed to the aulic council (q.v.), in which he spent five trouble-free years (1735-40). In 1740 he entered the diplomatic service, the only career that corresponded to his gifts. In 1742, during the War of the Austrian Succession, Kaunitz was sent as ambassador to the court of Charles Emmanuel of Sardinia at Turin, at that time the high school of diplomacy.

There he learned those hard principles of unscrupulous power politics which he was to apply later as chancellor. In 1744 Maria Theresa sent him as political adviser to the regents of the Austrian Netherlands, Prince Charles of Lorraine and his wife Maria Anna, Maria Theresa's beloved sister. In 1748 he represented Austria at the peace congress of Aix-la-Chapelle. There he first conceived the plan of freeing the Habsburg monarchy from its dependence on the maritime powers, Great Britain and the United Provinces of the Netherlands a dependence painfully obvious at the congress and of allying Austria with France and Russia in order to destroy the growing power of Prussia. The empress approved of his program in 1749, and he was sent to Paris as ambassador in 1750 with the task of initiating this new foreign policy. Having gained Maria Theresa's full confidence, he was made head of Austrian

—

KAURI PINE— KAVA

^5+

and on May 1. 1756. Austria and France concluded the so-called first treaty of Versailles, the defensive alliance which led to the fruition of all his long efforts. It was Kaunitz's diplomatic masterpiece first to have bound France to Austria, against all the traditions of French policy, and then, when the Seven Years' War (q.V.) broke out. not only to bring France. against all French interests, to fight for Austria against Frussia. but also to make even the Russians use their power for interests quite alien to their own. With the accession of the emperor Joseph II, Kaunitz ceased to be the almost independent director of Austria's foreign affairs, but he remained the crown's most important adviser, to whose influence must be ascribed the steady continuation of the anti-Prussian policy. The French Revolution terminated the system of alliance for which he stood: and the emperor Leopold II's treaty of Reichenbach (July 27. 1790) changed Austria's relations with Prussia. When Francis II came to the throne. Kaunitz was pushed into the background. His resignation was accepted on Aug. 19. 1792. and he died in Vienna on June 27. 1794. state chancery in 1753:

G. Kiintzel. Fiirst Kaunitz-Rietberg als Staatsmann (1923); Xovotny. Staatskanzler Kaunitz als geistige Persbnlichkeit (1947) Walter. Manner urn Maria Theresia (1951). (Fh. Wr.)

See A. F.

;

KAURI PINE

[Agathis australis). a coniferous tree native of New Zealand, where it is found in diminishing numbers in the North Island. The stands are rapidly disappearing because of use of the trees as timber and destruction by fires. It is a tall resiniferous tree, usually ranging from 80 to 100 ft. in height, with a trunk 4 to 10 ft. in diameter, but reaching 150 ft., with a diameter of 15 to 22 ft.; it has a straight columnar trunk and a rounded bushy head. The thick bark falls off in large flat flakes. The leaves, which persist for several years, are very thick and leathery: on young trees they are lance shaped. 2 to 4 in. long and 4, to \ in. broad, but on mature trees they are shorter and broader. The ripe cones are almost spherical, erect and two to three inches in diameter; the broad, flat, rather thin cone scales fall from the axis when ripe. Each scale bears a single compressed seed with a membranous wing. The timber is remarkable for its strength, durability and the ease with which it is worked. The resin, kauri gum. is an amber-like deposit dug in large quantities from the sites of previous forests, in lumps generally varying in size from that of a hen's egg to that of a man's head. The colour is of a rich brown or amber yellow, or it may be almost colourless and translucent. Because of its peculiar qualities of hardness and durability, the resin, called Kauri copal or Kauri gum, is used in making varnishes and lacquers. 1854-1938), the leading Marxist theoretician of the German Social Democratic party before World War I. was born in Prague. Oct. 16. 1854. of a Czech father and a German mother. He studied history and science in Vienna, where he joined the Austrian Social Democratic party as a student. In 1SS0 he published a pamphlet steeped in Darwinian ideas on the relation between the growth of population and social progress. Going to Zurich in 1880. he became a convinced Marxist under the influence of Eduard Bernstein; and in London he made the acquaintance of Friedrich Engels. All his subsequent writings aimed at diffusing and popularizing Marxist ideas. In 1S83 he founded the Stuttgart scientific socialist journal Die Xeue Zeit, which he edited (chiefly from London in the 1880s) until 1917. He achieved his greatest success with the book Karl Marx' okonomische Lehrcn 1887: frequently reprintedV His proposals formed the basis for the theoretical part of the "Erfurt program" 1891) of the German Social Democratic party. Several of his works tried to apply Marxist methods to the writing of history, among them the essay written in London. Thomas More nnd seine Utopie 188S). His friendship with Engels. close but not untroubled, lasted for more than a decade: and after Engels' death 1S95 Kautsky was generally recognized as the most important protagonist of Marxist doctrine. The German Social Democrats accepted his pronouncements as decisive in ideological quarrels, and his authority was also recognized by the other parties of the Second International; hence he has been called the pope or praeceptor mundi of international

KAUTSKY, KARL




Kautsky's conception of history, analyzed

out His interpretation narrowed the revolutionary dialectical Marxism to an undialectical pseudoscientific metaphysics of evolution. At the decisive points his interpretation of Marx kept within the limits of his pre-Marxist political education; it presented a synthesis of enlightened progressive thought and social Darwinism. This synthesis dominates even his late two-volume philosophical work Die materialistische Geschichtsauffassung (19271. The revolutionary Marxist terminology was emasculated into a theoretical, nonobligatory verbal radicalism; this is the ideology called 'orthodox Marxism." which should more correctly be called Kautskyanism. as it is in reality an offshoot of social Darwinism. This ideology determined the general drift of the 'Erfurt program" and corresponded to the ambiguous position of the Social Democratic party in the German empire it affirmed the "implacable" to differ considerably

critically, turns

from that of Marx and Engels.

:

Democrats against the existing social and political structure but at the same time justified their political passivity, since the victory of socialism was expected to come about through an inevitable "evolution" and by "the force of cirprotest of the Social

cumstances."

However,

just

because

it

did not oblige

anybody

thing practical. Kautskyanism proved valuable:

ideology of integration which could embrace

all

it

to doing any-

served as an

the various fac-

tions within the party. Hence it is easy to understand why Kautsky opposed so bitterly the "revision" of Marxism demanded by Bernstein and the "reformists." Yet the official radicalism of the majority, which Kautsky provided with intellectual arguments,

scarcely disguised a virtual policy of gradualism. In the last years before World War I Kautsky was the spokesman

of the "Marxist centre" and actively opposed the left wing of the

Democrats which pressed

an

revolutionary In this struggle too he rescued his revolutionary terminology, maintaining that the Social Democratic party was "a revolutionary party but not a party which makes revolutions." while according to his "Marxist convictions the revolution is a natural phenomenon whose coming can neither be hastened nor delayed." When the German Social Democratic party was split over the voting of credits for World War I. Kautsky's pacifist conviction led him to join the Independent or Minority Social Democrats. After Lenin had seized power in Russia. Kautsky began his intelSimilarly, after revolectual fight against Bolshevik despotism. lution had broken out in Germany, he warned the revolutionary Social

for

effective,

policy and threatened to split the party.

movement

When

against

deviation into left-wing, radical

tendencies.

the Independents themselves veered to the left he grew in-

creasingly isolated. However, after the most of the Independents had joined the Communist party, the Majority and Minority wings of the Social Democratic party reunited a result for which Kautsky had laboured from the start. After 1 Q24 Kautsky lived in

—

Vienna, occupied with literary work. When the German army occupied Vienna in 193S he was forced to flee. He died in Amsterdam on Oct. 17. 1938. His autobiography is printed in VolksU'irtschaftslehre der Gegenwart in Selbstdarstellungen. vol. i

(1924L

—

Bibliography. Der lebende Marxismus. Festgabe zum 70, Geburtsvon Karl Kaut^kv, ed. by O. Jensscn (1924^: K. Renncr. Karl Kautskv (1929); W. Blumenberg. Karl Kautskys literarischrs Werk (E. M.v) (I960),' bibliography. tag

KAVA erage,

Cava or Ava), a nonalcoholic, euphoria-producing bevmade from the root of the pepper plant, principally piper I

methysticum, in most of the South Pacific islands. It is yellowgreen and opaque in appearance. The flavour is bitter but it leaves a pleasant, clean taste in the mouth. Consumption of the beverage takes place in the kava ceremony, which is rigidly prescribed and includes the ritual making and drinking of kava and eating the ceremonial feast. Occasions for

—

a gathering of chiefs, a visit of a the kava ceremony can be social chief from a neighbouring island, a gathering before battle or bethe conclusion of a public or ceremonial fore pigeon snaring

—

—

assemblage presided over by a chief or king, the inauguration of a new chief, a meefing with a god or gods for divination, etc.

at

KAVADH—KAVIRONDO In the preparation of kava, the roots are first chewed. The mathen placed in a bowl, water or coconut milk is poured over it and the mixture is thoroughly stirred. The woody matter is then removed and the resulting liquid is ready for consumption, which proceeds according to ritual. Intoxication follows in about terial is

20 minutes (for those not inured to choly, silent

and drowsy character.

its

The

use) and is of a melanactive ingredient in the

beverage is apparently alkaloidal in nature. It seems likely that the substance is present as a glycoside, which is split into the free alkaloid and sugar by one of the enzymes in saliva. (H. J. Gn.) (Kobad), name of two kings of the Sasanian dynasty in Iran. Kavadh I (reigned a.d. 488-496 and 498 or 499-531), son of Firuz (q.v.), was a far-sighted and energetic ruler, though best known for an unhappy association with the heterodox religious sect of Mazdak, son of Bamdad. Time spent in youth as a hostage in the hands of the Hephthalites {q.v.) after their first defeat of his father gave Kavadh valuable military experience and connections, which he later turned to good use. After the deposition of his uncle Balash in a.d. 488 he was called to the throne, but at first was largely dependent on the feudal chief Zarmihr (elsewhere called Sokhra, perhaps the family name). He contrived to eliminate this over-powerful protector, but the consequent hostility of the nobles, with tribal unrest in Armenia and western Iran, led to his deposition in favour of a brother, Jamasp. Kavadh was incarcerated in the "Castle of Oblivion" in Susiana. Thence he escaped (in a romantic version his wife takes his place in the dungeon), and helped by a nobleman, Siyavush (Seoses). fled to the Hephthalites. Their king gave to Kavadh in marriage a daughter by the Persian, princess Firuzdukht (the daughter of Firuz captured in the disaster of a.d. 484), with a powerful army to recover the Persian throne. This Kavadh accomplished without opposition in a.d. 498 or 499. He next applied to the Byzantine emperor Anastasius I for subsidies with which to placate his auxiliaries. Payment being refused, he led his troops against Anatolia, and seized the cities of Theodosiopolis (Erzurum) and Amida (Diyarbakir). Under an eventual armistice Kavadh returned Amida against a heavy indemnity. When Justin I succeeded at Constantinople in a.d. 518 Kavadh's main concern was to ensure the succession of his favourite son, Khosrau (later Anushirvan), by a peace under which he would be adopted and sponsored by the emperor. Justin rebuffed the proposal and a new breach resulted. In a.d. 526 the general Belisarius was involved in fighting against the Persian king. Kavadh was by this time deeply influenced by the sect of the Mazdakites, who by preaching community of wives and property angered the traditionalists (see Mazdakism). The sectaries are represented as favouring the succession of the prince Kaus, while Khosrau enjoyed the support of his father and the Zoroastrian clergy. Kavadh, at last persuaded of the harmfulness or danger of the Mazdakites. had them assembled, as for a meeting, and then shockingly massacred with their leader. Having already drafted the fiscal reforms which won fame for his successor, Kavadh died on Sept. 13, 531. His written testament sufficed to place Khosrau

KAVADH

on the throne.

Kavadh

II

Shiruya

(Siroes), a son'of

Khosrau

II,

was crowned

628 in opposition to his father, who persisted in war with Heraclius (q.v.) despite heavy defeats. His father and 18 brothers were executed and negotiations with Heraclius opened in his name, but Kavadh died after six months, by plague or poison. in Feb.

See, for Kavadh I, A. Christensen, Le Regne du communisme mazdakite (1925) and L'Iran sous les

(1944).

KAVAFIS

Kawadh I et le Sassanides, rev. ed. (A. D. H. B.)

roi

KONSTANTINOS PETROU

(Cavafy), (1863-1933), Greek poet, developed an individual style in his poetry which struck a new lyric note not only for Greece, but for the whole of Europe. He remained uninfluenced by the main currents of contemporary Greek literature. In his evocations of the Greek and. in particular, of the Hellenistic past he blended reflection, sensuality and irony and gave them the solidity and variety which he found in his own cosmopolitan surroundings, for he was born at Alexandria on April 17, 1863, and spent most of his life there. He wrote much, but published little about 200 poems in

—

all.

255

The work of Kavafis falls into two groups, poems written bewhen he was still absorbing the influence of the roman-

fore 1910,

the Parnassians and the Symbolists; and those written after 1910, which represent the most important part of his output. Thus he could say with some justification: "I am a poet of old age." tics,

is a strange mixture of the refined and stilted Greek, the katharevoiisa, inherited from the Byzantines, and the demotic

His language

or spoken tongue.

His style is relaxed, almost conversational; it avoids exaggerated imagery and is realistic. In honouring courage and character he draws his examples from history, religion and politics. The dramatic handling of his material enables him to enter strange recesses of the human soul, but his skepticism was not morbid and his poetry does not preach the futility of life. He died in Alexandria on April 29, 1933. After his death his influence became strongly felt in Greece. Bibliography. Kavafis' poems were first published without date before World War II and reprinted in 1949 Eng. trans., The Poems of C. P. Cavafy, by J. Mavrogordato (1951). See also C. M. Bowra, The Creative Experiment (1949). (Ce. A. T.)

—

;

KAVALLA, lies

121

a walled town and seaport of Greek Macedonia, on the Bay of Kavalla at the northern edge of the Aegean sea,

km. (75 mi.) E. of Salonika.

It is the capital of the

nomos

(department) of Kavalla and seat of the metropolitan bishop of Philippi, Neapolis and Thasos. Pop. (1961) 44,517 (town), 140,751 (nomos). The town is built on a promontory stretching south into the bay. and opposite the island of Thasos. There is a harbour on each side of the promontory, which is surmounted by a medieval castle. Numerous Roman and Byzantine remains have been found in the neighbourhood, of which the chief is the large aqueduct on two tiers of arches which connects the promontory with the mainland. The immediate hinterland is a rich tobacco-growing country, and Kavalla is the main centre of the tobacco industry in eastern Macedonia. It is on the road from Salonika to Alexandroupolis and is connected by a branch line to the railway linking these towns.

Kavalla has been identified with Neapolis, the port where Brutus stationed his fleet before the battle of Philippi, and at which St. Paul landed when on his way from Samothrace to Philippi (Acts xvi, 11). Under the name of Christoupolis it was one of the most important Macedonian fortresses of the Byzantine empire. It fell to the Turks in 1387, but passed to Greece after the Balkan War of 1912-13. From 1916 to 1918 the town was occupied by Bulgarian troops, who committed numerous atrocities. It was coveted by Bulgaria as a maritime outlet, and during the negotiations over the peace treaty of Neuilly (1919) with Bulgaria, Eleutherios Venizelos offered to connect Kavalla with the already existing narrow-gauge railway in the Struma valley, running from the Bulgarian side of the frontier to Sofia. No action was taken, however. In 1941. after the German invasion of the Balkans, it was again occupied by Bulgaria, but was restored to Greece in 1944. (D. M. N.) the area stretching around the northeastern corner of Lake Victoria from Mt. Elgon to the Tanzania border in east Africa. The peoples with whose territory Kavirondo most nearly coincides are the group of related Bantu speakers that includes, from north to south, the Gisu (Gishu, Gesu) and Samia of the Bugishu and Bukedi districts of Uganda; the Luhya {q.v.), a term of recent coinage referring to the Vugusu, Wanga, Tsotso, Tiriki, Marama, Nyala, Kabras, Hayo. Marach, Holo and Logoli of Elgon Nyanza and North Nyanza districts of Kenya; and the Gush (Kisii) of South Nyanza district of Kenya. The Kulya (Kuria, Tende) peoples, extending southward into Tanzania, are probably members of the group linguistically, though their culture has been influenced by that of the Masai. Besides the Bantu peoples, who numbered (not counting the Kulya) more than 1.000,000 in the 1960s, there were in the area numerous Nilotic peoples, including about 757.000 Luo (Lwo, Jaluo) living around the Kavirondo gulf. Smaller groups of Nilo-Hamites, such as the Nandi, Sebei and Kipsigis, live in and around the area. All these peoples have intermarried and mutually influenced one another (see Nilotes).

KAVIRONDO,

KAW— KAWASAKI

256 The Bantu peoples

of Kavirondo are primarily cultivators of

sorghum, plantain and maize (corn), though livestock are seen everywhere and are of major importance among the Vugusu. The most important modern cash crops are maize among the Luhya groups and coffee among the Gusii and Gisu. Land shortage has stimulated labour migration, especially among the Luhya. The most important social unit among the Bantu peoples was the patrilineal descent group and in most tribes political authority did not extend beyond it. The Tiriki. however, who were in close contact with the Nandi, had a developed system of age grades. The largest scale political unit in the area was achieved by the Wanga, who produced a dynasty of paramount chiefs; one chief. Mumia, was able to extend his authority over neighbouring peoples with the help of Swahili traders and British officials. See also Luo; Victoria, Lake; Kenya; Tanzania, United millet,

Republic of; Uganda.

—

J. S. LaFontaine, "The Gisu of Uganda," InternaInstitute Ethnographic Survey of Africa (1959) P. Lineage Principle in Gusii Society," International African

Bibliography. tional African

Mayer, "The Institute

;

Memorandum XXIV

Kavirondo,

KAW

G. Wagner, The Bantu of North (L. A. Fs.) people of Keng Tung, the most eastern (1949)

;

2 vol. (1949, 1956).

(Akha), a hill of the Burma Shan states. Ethnically they are closely related to the Lahu (Muhso) and Kwi who are classed as Yi (q.v.) by the Chinese, and also to the Lisu (q.v.), who are usually classed as Kachin (q.v.). The 1931 census of Burma listed 40,407 Kaw, 27,184 Lahu and 3,832 Kwi. Their languages belong to the Tibeto-Burman family. Similar people are also found on the

Mekong river in Laos where they are usually Kha (pop. [1955 est.] 258,000). Kha is a term

eastern side of the classed

among

the

used by the Thai-speaking peoples of this region to denote all non-Thai and means roughly hill barbarian; similarly Muhso is Thai for hunter. French sources distinguish more than 80 varieties of Kha but despite striking and picturesque differences of costume the various names do not denote distinct tribal groups. Like most of their neighbours, Kaw subsist mainly by the cultivation of dry rice on temporary hillside clearings. For hunting they make use of crossbows and poisoned arrows. No precise details of social organization have been reported but K. G. Izikowitz' study of the neighbouring Lamet indicates the general style of ecology and technological adaptation. J. H. Telford remarks on the general similarity of Kaw and Kachin. Whereas the Thai of the valleys are Buddhists living by irrigated rice agriculture, the Kha, living at altitudes of 1,500 to 6.000 ft., have a religion embodying various forms of ancestor worship. In the 1960s economic conflicts between the hill people and the more sophisticated valley dwellers constituted a bility

throughout the area.

—

major factor

in the political insta-

Burma; Shan State; Kha. Burma and Beyond (1932) C. M.

See also

Bibliography. Sir J. G. Scott, D. Enriquez, Races of Burma (1933); J. H. Telford, "Animism in Kengtung State," /. Burma Res. Soc, vol. 27 (1937) K. G. Izikowitz, Lamet, Hill Peasants in French Indochina (1951). (E. R. L.) ;

;

KAWABATA

YASUNARI ( 1899) Japanese novelist whose melancholy lyricism represents a remarkably successful adaptation of an ancient Japanese strain, was born near Osaka on June 11, 1899. The loneliness of which most of his mature writing is a description must derive in some measure from an unusually lonely childhood. He was orphaned in infancy and soon lost his ,

grandparents as well. His first published writings appeared shortly after his graduation from Tokyo Imperial University. "The Izu Dancer" (Izu no Odoriko ; 1925) made his name for him; it tells of a university student who finds brief consolation in the company of a strolling dancer an outcast. The school of writing with which Kawabata was early associated has been held to derive from postwar French literature. Doubtless there is an affinity in the abrupt transitions and in imagery which frequently startles by mixing incongruous impressions and juxtaposing the beautiful and the ugly; but the same qualities are present in Japanese prose of the 17th century and the linked verse of the 15th century. It is to this last that Kawabata 's fiction seems to draw nearer in later years. As with linked verse, it moves in brief, lyrical episodes and The beauty is that is without a clear beginning, middle, and end.

—

Kawabata's method of help account for this peculiarity: his best novel, Country (Yukiguni; 1947), the story of a forlorn country

of the links, not the form as a whole.

may

composition

Snow

was begun in 1935 and completed, after two unsuccessful attempts at a conclusion, 12 years later; and Thousand Cranes (Sembazuru) a series of episodes centred upon the tea ceremony and hagridden by the past, was begun in 1949 and never really completed. The Sound of the Mountain (Yatna no Oto; 1949-54) has to do with the comfort an old man who cannot abide his own geisha,

,

children gets from his daughter-in-law.

The

following of Kawabata's works

translation

(unless

Seidensticker)

:

may be

otherwise noted, the

Snow Country

read in English

translator

(translation

is

Edward

Thousand

1957);

Cranes (1959); excerpts from "The Izu Dancer," The Atlantic, 195, no. 1, pp. 108-114 (1955); excerpts from The Sound of the Mountain, in Japan Quarterly, vol. xi, no. 3, pp. 309-329, and no. 4, pp. 446-467 (1964) "The Mole" (Hokuro no Tegami; 1940), Japan Quarterly, vol. ii. no. 1, pp. 86-93 (1955); "The Moon on the Water" (Suigetsu; 1953), translated by George Saito, in Ivan Morris (ed.), Modern Japanese Stories (1961) and "One Arm" (Kataude, 1963), Japan Quarterly, vol. xiv, no. 1, pp. 60-70 (E. G. Se.) (1967). (1879-1946). probably the leading Marxist theoretician of Japan during his lifetime, was born on Oct. 20, 1879, in Iwakuni, Yamaguchi prefecture. His father had been a low-ranking samurai (warrior) of the Choshu clan, which played an important role in the Meiji restoration. As a consequence, he began his life under the influence of the strongly nationalist ideology prevailing in Japan at that time, an ideology from which he never entirely escaped. After receiving his degree in economics from Tokyo Imperial University in 1902, he pubfished a series of articles entitled "A Discourse on Socialism" ("Shakai-shugi Hyoron"), which excited much controversy, and translated into Japanese E. R. A. Seligman's Economic Interpretation of History, the first analysis of dialectical materialism to appear in that language. He later became an instructor of economics at Kyoto Imperial University and then studied in Europe (1913-15) for a doctorate in law; this helped to elevate him to a full professorship in economics at Kyoto, a post he held until vol.

;

;

KAWAKAMI HAJIME

1928,

when

his

political

activities

forced

his

resignation.

was enhanced by the publication of his Tales of Poverty (Bimbo Monogatawi; 1917), an account of some of Japan's economic ills. W^hile at Kyoto University he also began publishing his own magazine, Studies on Social Problems (Shakai Mondai Kenkyu). which he used as a vehicle to educate students and workers in Marxist economics. During the 1920s Kawakami gradually moved more directly into

Kawakami's reputation

as a social critic

running unsuccessfully for the National Diet as He also became engaged in the activities of the outlawed, hence underground, Japan Communist Party. His arrest for illegal political activities under the so-called Peace Preservation Laws ended his_ active involvement in politics. Upon his release from jail in 1937 he began writing his Autobiography {Jijoden, 4 vol.; 1947^48), a masterpiece in politics, including

a candidate of the Proletarian Party.

which he clearly indicates his deep commitment to various causes and ideologies beginning with Tolstoian nationalism, through humanitarianism, and, after much searching, arriving at authentic Marxism. His writing, including Outline of Economics (Keizaigaku Taiko; 1928) and the "Introduction" to the Japanese edition of Das Kapital (Shihon Ron, 5 vol.; 1927-29), played a crucial role in guiding the development of theoretical economics in Japan during the 1920s and 1930s. He died of malnutrition during the

on Jan. 30, 1946. Four volumes of (H. H. Ba.) were published posthumously in 1946. KAWASAKI, a major Japanese industrial city and port, located on Tokyo bay between and continuous with Tokyo and Yokohama, is the centre of the Keihin industrial area. The city expanded rapidly during the 1930s, was almost completely destroyed in World War II and has since been rebuilt. Three industrial zones have developed: heavy industry along the coast, the machine and tool industry in the centre of the city and fight chemical industries (C. A. Mr.) in the northwest. Pop. (1965) 854,776. terrible winter of 1945-46,

his poetry

;

KAY— KAYAN KAY, JOHN

(1704-1764?), English machinist and engineer,

inventor of the "flying shuttle," was born on July 16, 1704, near Bury, Lancashire, the son of a woolen manufactory owner. Educated abroad, he returned to England while still quite young and

was placed in charge of his father's mill. His mechanical ability enabled him to make many improvements in dressing, batting and carding machinery, and he received his first patent when he was 26 years old. The patent that brought him fame, however, was the one that he received three years later, on May 26, 1733, for a "New Engine or Machine for Opening and Dressing Wool" that running on incorporated his famous "new invented shuttle four wheels ... a small pull at the cord casts the new invented shuttle from side to side." The rapidity with which the shuttle could operate gave it the name of "flying shuttle." The weavers were quick to adopt the new invention but organized a protective club to avoid the payment of a royalty to Kay. After he lost most of his money in litigation to protect his patent, Kay moved to France. In 1764 his son, Robert, wrote to the London Society of Arts and Manufactures seeking a premium for his father for the invention, but his efforts were as unavailing as those of Kay himself. The details of Kay's later years are obscure. He is said to have died in France in 1 764 or thereafter, in obscurity and want, having received little for the invention that proved to be of great importance to the weaving industry and so increased yarn consumption that it spurred the invention of spinning machines. (G. R. Co.) (1917), U.S. composer, whose music is characterized by lyricism, distinctly thematic textures, and tonal orientation (though latterly his music became more chromatic), was born in Tucson, Ariz., on Jan. 7, 1917. His father was a barber; his mother, a sister of the New Orleans jazz trumpeter Joe ("King") Oliver. Oliver encouraged him in music, and the young Kay was soon playing jazz saxophone. However, jazz failed to sustain his interest, and he turned to serious music. He was educated at the University of Arizona (B.A., 1938), the Eastman School of Music (M.Mus., 1940), the Berkshire Music Center (1941), Yale University (1941-42), and Columbia University (1946-49). His principal teachers were Bernard Rogers and Paul Hindemith. Following naval service during World War II as a performer, composer, and arranger for dance bands, Kay settled in New York City. Significant scores from this period include his Suite for Strings (1947), Concerto for Orchestra (1948), and music for the film The Quiet One (1948). A Prix de Rome and a Fulbright Fellowship enabled him to live in Italy from 1949 through 1952. In 1958 he was a member of the first group of American composers to participate in a cultural-exchange mission to the Soviet Union. He was awarded a Julius Rosenwald Fellowship, a grant from the National Institute of Arts and Letters, and a Guggenheim Fellowship. He served as visiting professor at Boston University and the University of California at Los Angeles, and from 1953 he was consultant to Broadcast Music, Inc. During much of his career Kay composed for films and television; a notable exam.

.

.

KAY, ULYSSES SIMPSON

ple of his

work

tribute to Pres.

An Essay on Death (1964), a Kennedy. Among his orchestral works

for television

John

F.

is

are a Serenade for orchestra (1954), "Fantasy Variations" (1961), "Umbrian Scene" (1963), and "Markings" (1966), a tribute to

Dag Hammarskjold.

He also wrote string quartets and other chamber music; choral works, including the cantatas "Song of Jeremiah" (1947), "Phoebus Arise" (1959), "Choral Triptych" (1962), and "Inscriptions from Whitman" (1963); organ and piano music; short band pieces; and two operas, The Boor (1955; after Chekov) and The Juggler of Our Lady (1956). See N. Slonimsky, "Ulysses Kay," in American Composers Alliance (L. R. Ba.)

Bulletin (Fall, 1957).

KAYAH

STATE, of the Union of Burma, formerly known as Karenni states (q.v.), is bounded on the north by the Shan state, on the southeast by Thailand and on the southwest by the Karen state. Area 4,506 sq.mi. The country consists of a series of chains of hills, intersected by deep valleys, through which run from north to south the two main rivers, the Salween and its tributary the Pawn, and their

257

feeder streams.

It is crossed

The

by several

tracks, passable only for

is on the Loi unnavigable because of its rocky bed, but the Salween is navigated by large native craft. The population was formerly classed by the Burmese as Karen-ni ("red Karen") it consists of small tribal groups, distinct in language and custom but little studied. The Padaung, Bre and Zayein are among the more important. Little of their history is known, but probably Bawlake was originally the chief state of the whole country, though Kantarawadi under Papawgyi early became the most powerful. The latter's ruler Sawlapaw, having Sawlawi defied the British government, was deposed in 1889. was then appointed myoza, and received a sunnud, or patent of appointment, on the same terms as the chiefs of the Shan states The independence of the western Karenni {see Shan State). states, Kyebogyi and Bawlake, had been guaranteed by the British government in a treaty with King Mindon Min in 1875. They were, however, formally recognized as feudatories in 1892 and were presented with sunnuds.

pack animals.

Lun

ridge (7,112

principal peak east of the Salween

The Pawn

ft.).

is

;

The

constitution of the

Union of Burma of Sept.

24, 1947, pro-

claimed that the three above-mentioned states (total pop., 1941, 70,493) should form a constituent unit of the union and be known as the Karenni state.

name changed

was constituted on Jan.

It

Kayah

14, 1952,

and

its

comprises the four substates of Kantarawadi, Bawlake, Kyebogyi and Mong Pai, pop. (1962 est.) Care should be taken not to confuse Kayah state, 103,252. formerly Karenni, with the Karen state {q.v.). The chief town Loiis Loi-kaw, which was provided with an airstrip in 1959-60. kaw and Mawchi are both linked by road with Toungoo and other roads were under construction in the early 1960s, though the hilly to

state.

It

forested country was making their building difficult. The Mawchi mines in Bawlake were an important source of tungsten and in 1939 produced 3,530 long tons of tungsten concentrates (W0 3 ) For 15 years following World War i.e., 16% of the world's output. II conditions were too disturbed to permit regular working. (L. D. S.) see Boat. an indigenous people of central Borneo, grouped with the Kenyah {q.v.) or under the general name Bahau. In Sarawak the Kayan (pop. [1960 census] 7,899) are settled in the headwaters of the Baram, Bintulu and Rajang rivers, together In Kalimantan (Indonesian with Kenyah and allied peoples. Borneo) the Kayan live mainly near the headwaters of the Mahakam and Kapuas rivers. The total Bahau population was estiIn many of the Kayan mated about 70,000 in the 1960s. communities it is said that they came from the Apo Kayan, near the remote headwaters of the Kayan river, a region now occupied by Kenyah. According to A. C. Haddon, Kayan belong to a brachycephalic proto-Malay race. They have a distinctive language that is known as Busang in the Kapuas and Mahakam regions. The Kayan live on the banks of rivers navigable by canoes in long houses that individually may contain 50 or more

KAYAK: KAYAN,

—

—

family apartments.

The

extensive quarters of the chief, often

decorated with carvings and murals, are in the centre of the house. Several houses may be grouped to form a village. The Kayan have a subsistence economy based on shifting cultivation, hill rice being grown on clearings in the rain forest. Sago is a subsidiary crop; fishing, hunting and the collection of forest produce are Many of the Kayan are other important economic activities. skilled blacksmiths and they are noted for their fine craftsmanship and traditional art. Kayan society is cognatic but has a class system, class endogamy being marked among the aristocrats. Both men and women may become chiefs although male chiefs are in the majority. Formerly the Kayan practised head-hunting and were in frequent conflict with the Iban and other Dayak The Kayan have an elaborate traditional religion with a tribes. pantheon of gods, a wide range of animistic beliefs and such ritual institutions as

Kayan

shamanism

{q.v.),

augury and hepatomancy. Many See also Borneo The People.

of Sarawak are Christians.

—

:

A. W. Nieuwenhuis, Quer durch Borneo (1904); Hose and W. McDougall, The Pagan Tribes of Borneo, 2 vol. (J. D. Fn.) (1912); G. Arnold, Longhouse and Jungle (1959).

Bibliography.

C.

KAYE— KAZAKH

258

SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC

KAYE, NORA

(Nora Koreff) (1920), U.S. dramatic noted for her penetrating interpretations of the leading roles in Antony Tudor's Pillar of Fire and Lilac Garden, Agnes de Mille's Fall River Legend and Jerome Robbins' The Cage. Born in New York city, she studied at the Metropolitan Opera After further Ballet school and danced in the opera ensemble. training under Michel Fokine and George Balanchine, she joined the Ballet Theatre at its formation (1939). Her first major success came in 1942 with her creation of the role of Hagar in Pillar (Ln. Me.) of Fire. As a dramatic dancer Kaye is unrivaled. ballerina,

is

KAYSER, HEINRICH GUSTAV JOHANNES

(1853-

1940), German physicist whose name is associated with his work in spectroscopy, was born at Bingen on the Rhine on March 16, 1853. He was educated at Strasbourg and Berlin and was assist-

ant in the Physical institute, Berlin (1878-85); professor in the Technische Hochschule, Hanover (1885-94); and professor of physics at Bonn (1894-1920). His early research work was on sound, and he published papers on the determination of the ratio of the specific heats of air by measuring the velocity of sound in air, effect of intensity on the velocity of a sound wave, the velocity of sound in wood and other similar subjects. Much of his work on spectroscopy was done in conjunction with C. D. T. Runge.

Kayser and Runge carefully mapped a large number of spectra of the elements, using a Rowland grating, and discovered the existence of series in the spectra of the elements. They developed a formula connecting the wave length of the lines with constants depending on the element. About the same time J. R. Rydberg used the data of other workers and developed a similar formula. Kayser died at Bonn on Oct. 14, 1940. He wrote Lehrbuch der Spectralanalyse (1883); Lehrbuch der Physik fur Studierende (1890); Handbuch der Spectroskopie, 8 vol. (1900-34); Tabelle der Schwingungszahlen (1925); and Tabelle der Hauptlinien der Linienspektra aller Elemente nach Wellenlange geordnet (1926). (ancient Caesarea Mazaca), a town and capital of the il (province) of the same name in central Turkey. Pop. (1965) 126,913. The town lies in a flat plain at the foot of Erciyas Dagi (Mt. Argaeus; 12,848 ft.), an extinct volcano. As successor to Roman and medieval cities, it has a well-preserved citadel, built of volcanic stone on a Roman foundation in the 13th century, and many important monuments, mostly of the Seljuk period, in one of which, the Huand Hatun Medresesi, the local museum is housed. Other Seljuk monuments include the Huand Hatun Camii and other mosques and medreses, as well as numerous circular or octagonal turbes (tomb chambers), the best known being the Doner Kumbet. South of the citadel is the old town with its impressive covered bazaar and Great Mosque (Ulu Cami) the more modern quarter is disposed around a boulevard running north from the central square to the railroad station. Kayseri is linked by railway to Istanbul, Erzurum and Adana, but the direct motor road from Ankara to Adana bypasses it. Its industries include textiles, cement, sugar and especially carpets; and there is an aircraft factory. Twelve miles northeast of the town on the Sivas road is the site called Kultepe (q.v.), where excavations have recovered tens of thousands of clay tablets inscribed in cuneiform writing from the business archives of an Assyrian commercial colony (karum) outside the ancient city of Kanesh, dating from the first half of the 2nd millennium B.C., and from the city itself. They are the earliest written records found in Turkey and give a detailed picture of the

KAYSERI

;

commercial life of the period. Mazaca, the residence of the kings of Cappadocia, was later called Eusebea (perhaps after Ariarathes Eusebes), and named Caesarea, probably by Claudius. The site shows only a few traces of the ancient town. Caesarea Mazaca was taken by Tigranes (early 1st century B.C.) and destroyed by the Persian king Shapur I after his defeat of Valerian in a.d. 260. In the 4th century St. Basil the Great (who was born there), when bishop, established an ecclesiastical centre on the plain about 1 mi. to the northeast, and this gradually

supplanted the old town.

A

portion of Basil's

new

was surrounded with strong walls and turned into a fortress by Justinian. The town was captured by the Seljuk sultan Alp Arslan in 1064 and by the Mongols in 1243, before passing to the Osmanli Turks. city

Kayseri of 536,912.

an area of 6,533 sq.mi. and a population (1965) Situated on the central Anatolian plateau, where it is

il has

drained by the Kizil Irmak (Halys), it has a continental climate. Principal agricultural products are rye and millet and fruits, including raisins and apricots. Lignite and iron are mined. Stock raising is of some importance. (S. H. Ll.)

KAZAKH

(Kazak, Qazaq), a Turko-Mongol people inhabitKazakh Soviet Socialist Republic and the adjacent parts of the Sinkiang-Uighur Autonomous Region of China. The Kazakhs emerged in the 15th century from an amalgam of Turkic ing mainly the

who entered Transoxiana around the 8th century and of Mongols who entered the area in the 13th century. Kazakhs speak a Turkic language but are Mongoloid in physical type (see Turkic Peoples; Turkic Languages). There are about 3,600,000 Kazakhs in the Soviet Union (77% in Soviet Kazakhstan) and about tribes

400,000 in Sinkiang. The Kazakhs were pastoral nomads (q.v.) dwelling the year round in portable dome-shaped tents (yurts) constructed of dismountable wooden frames covered with felt, and migrating seasonally to find pasturage for their livestock. The horse was the prestige animal, and the wealthy had herds numbering in the thousands. Sheep and goats constituted the basic livestock, however; some camels were kept and in the 19th century cattle were raised for sale to the Russians. The diet consisted largely of milk products supplemented by mutton. Fermented mares' milk (kumiss) and horse flesh were highly esteemed, but usually available only to the prosperous. Felt made the tent snug inside and out and was used for cloaks. Hides provided clothing, containers and thongs; horsehair was braided into rope, while horn was used for ladles and other utensils. Metal objects, such as the iron pot that hung from a tripod over the fire in every yurt, were made from imported metals by itinerant smiths and in the 19th century garments came to be made from imported cloth of printed cotton and silk. Kazakhs believed themselves to be descended from a progenitor who had three sons from whom sprang the main divisions of the Kazakhs: the Great, Middle and Little hordes (ordas) that occupied the eastern, central and western parts respectively of what is the Kazakhstan of modern times. These ordas were subdivided into smaller groups; the basic unit was the extended family, embracing married sons and their wives and children, who camped together. Groups at various levels in the tribal hierarchy had chiefs, but only rarely was the Kazakh nation, or even one of the ordas, united under a single chief.

Nomadic life was gradually curtailed by encroachment on the In the 19th century an increasing number of pasture lands. Kazakhs along the borders began to plant some crops. After the Revolution in Russia (1917) wealthy Kazakhs fled with their herds and the remaining nomads were settled on cattle-breeding collective farms. By 1934 only one nomadic group remained in the Soviet Union. There were many nomadic Kazakhs in Sinkiang in the 1960s, however; several hundred of them, the remnant of a much larger group that had fled with incredible hardship across the mountains to Kashmir, undertook a new pastoral life in Turkish Anatolia. Bibliography. A. E. Hudson, Kazak Social Structure (1938); P. Price, "The Great Kazak Epic," Royal Central Asian Journal, 41: 249-252 (1954); T. G. Winner, The Oral Art and Literature of the Kazakhs of Russian Central Asia (1958) J. W. Wardell, In the Kirghiz to Sinkiang or Afghanistan,

—

;

(El. B.)

Steppes (1961).

KAZAKH SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLIC

(KazakhSKAYA SOVETSKAYA SOTSIALISTICHESKAYA RESPUBLIKA Or KAZAKHSTAN), a republic of the U.S.S.R. formed on Aug. 26, 1920, as an autonomous republic within the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, and on Dec. 5, 1936, as a union republic. Situated in the southwest of Soviet Asia, it is bounded on the north and west by the Russian S.F.S.R., on the south by the Turkmen, Uzbek and Kirgiz soviet socialist republics, and on the east by Sinkiang-Uigur Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China. In territory Kazakhstan is the next largest republic in the union to the Russian S.F.S.R., the total area being 1,048,300 sq.mi. Physical Features. Kazakhstan is essentially a steppe area Much of it is characterized in a region of increasing desiccation. by salt lakes, some temporary and rapidly drying, by closed inland

—

KAZAKH SOVIET

SOCIALIST REPUBLIC

259

drainage basins and by rivers which lose themselves in the desert The country can be divided into three natural regions: the low Caspian depression and Turan lowlands in the west, higher uplands in the centre, and a high mountain belt in the east and

reach 50° (122°). In western and central Kazakhstan the average July temperatures vary between 19° C. (67°) in the north and 28° C. (82°) in the south. The temperature of the desert sands sometimes reaches 70° (158°). In the eastern mountain valleys

southeast.

more healthful and Alma-Ata (2,405 ft.) has an -8° C. (17°) in January and 23° C. (74°) Precipitation varies according to seasons and regions. in July. From November to March it is about 12 in. in the north, from 2 to 4 in. at Aral'sk and there is only a trace in the south; from April to October it is about 10 in. in the north and from 1.2 to 3 in. in the south; in the mountainous areas, it is from 12 to 16 in. in winter and from 28 to 32 in. in summer. Vegetation and Animal Life. There are forests of fir, pine and spruce in the mountains, birch and aspen groves in the lower altitudes and clusters of poplar, willow and pseudo-acacia along the streams. Shrubs such as the wild cherry and dwarf almond grow

sands.

the climate

Western Kazakhstan comprises the Caspian depression and the Turan lowlands separated by the Mugodzhar hills, the southernmost spur of the Urals, with Mt. Bogtybay (2,152 ft.) as the highest peak. Although the level of the Caspian sea is about 85 ft. below that of the Black sea. in the southwestern corner of Kazakhstan there are two even lower depressions, one of 230 ft. and another of 433 ft. This part of the country comprises also the western half of the Ust-Urt plateau (Plato Ustyurt), a waterless and desolate desert. The Turan lowlands lying east and north of the Aral sea include the Turgay tableland. Western Kazakhstan is watered by the Ural (Yaik) and Emba rivers emptying into the Caspian, and the Irgiz and Turgay rivers which flow into the salt lake of Chelkar-Tengiz. The latter is separated from the Aral sea by the Kara-Kum (Black Sands) desert, not to be confused with a The rivers, frozen desert of the same name in Turkmenistan. from November to mid-March, are full in spring, but otherwise are shallow and not navigable. The Ubagan and the Turgay thus flow in opposite directions although together their valleys form a long, narrow depression called the Turgay gates (Turgayskiye Vorota), the highest point of which is only about 300 ft. above sea level. This suggested to Soviet engineers the idea of building a dam on the Irtysh {q.v.) north of Tobolsk to divert toward the Turgay steppe and the Aral sea {q.v.), the huge masses of water otherwise lost in the Arctic ocean. During the glacial period the Turgay steppe was covered by the Caspian-Aral sea. Central Kazakhstan is part of the Hercynian upland consisting of a series of moderately high, deeply eroded short ranges and a few separated granite, porphyry or slate hill formations, Kyzylray (5,134 ft.) and Chingiz-Tau (4,268 ft.), north of Lake Balkhash (q.v.), being the highest. The Ishim {q.v.) river has its source in the centre of the upland, flows west, then north, and empties into the Irtysh; the Nura, which has intermittent connections with the Ishim southwest of Tselinograd, discharges into Lake Tengiz. In the south, between the lower Syr-Darya river and Lake Balkhash, lies the vast Bet-Pak-Dala, a plateau 450 ft. above sea level, the Two rivers, the surface of which consists of cracked clay. Sary-Su in the west of Bet-Pak-Dala, and the Chu in the south, flow respectively to the southwest and to the west, but lose so much water through evaporation and ground permeability that they disappear without reaching the Syr-Darya. South of the Chu lies a

smaller

Muyun-Kum

desert.

Eastern and Southeastern Kazakhstan

is composed of parts of four higher mountain massifs of central Asia extending westward, and three wide valleys lying between them. On the north is the Altai massif, and farther south the Tarbagatay range, reaching 9,813 ft. Farther south still is the Dzhungarskiy Alatau rising to

14,642 ft. and the Tien Shan (Tyanshan) system. Between Altai and Tarbagatay lies Lake Zaysan, 1,266 ft. above sea level, through which flows the Irtysh; between Tarbagatay and the Alatau are the Alakol' and Sasykkol' lakes on the route from the Dzungarian Gate (Dzhungarskiye Vorota), the historic main invasion route from Mongolia and China. Farther south, between Alatau and the Tien Shan, flows the Hi river, one of the rivers which gave the geographical and historical region of Semirechye ("seven rivers") its name, and which have their sources in the Alatau and Tien Shan and discharge into Lake Balkhash. The rivers of eastern Kazakhstan are suitable for hydroelectric power stations and irrigation. However, only the Irtysh is navigable and this is frozen for five months. In the north is a narrow belt of black earth, covering about 7% of the country, where agricultural settlements

on a larger scale are possible. Climate. The climate is everywhere continental and dry. The January temperatures, except in the extreme south, are below freezing point. At Ural'sk, in the west, the average January temperature is -16° C. (3° F.), and the July temperature 23° C.

—

(73°).

At Semipalatinsk,

are not

uncommon, while

in the east, frosts of in the

summer

-42°

C.

(-44°)

the temperature

may

is

average temperature of

—

on the hilly slopes, wormwood covers the clayey soil of the centre and saxaul, an oddly shaped, gnarled and apparently leafless tree, grows in the sandy steppes. In the forests there are bears, and wild boars exist in the thickets surrounding the lakes. There are also the caracal lynx (Felis caracal), Pallas's cat (F. manul), the steppe fox, the sable, the saiga antelope, the jerboa and two kinds Among the characteristic birds are woodcocks and of marmot. owls in the forests, pheasants and eagles on the steppes, wild geese, cranes, herons and lapwings around the lakes. There are many locust-breeding grounds, also scorpions and tarantulas, in the deserts. In the Aral Sea and Lake Balkhash fish are abundant, especially sturgeon and carp in the former and white perch and a carplike fish called marinka in the latter. History. (For the origin of the Kazakhs see Kazakh; Turkic Peoples.) Russian domination over the Kazakh lands began in 1731 when the Little Horde under its leader Abulkhair submitted The Russians had already built three forts on the to Russia. Irtysh river and the fighting which went on between Kazakhs and Kalmyks weakened both and facilitated further Russian penetration. During the period 1783 to 1797 the Kazakhs of the Little Horde under Srym Datov rose against the Russians and against Nur Ali Khan, son of Abulkhair, who was pro-Russian. After the Napoleonic Wars, the Russians continued their conquest of Kazakh lands. At that time they referred to the Kazakhs as Kirgiz in order to distinguish them from the Cossacks (in Russian Kazaki), while the real Kirgiz were described as Kara-Kirgiz. In 1830 the Russians built a fort at Akmolinsk (now Tselinograd) and began This reto settle Russian and Ukrainian peasants on the land. sulted in a series of resistance movements, the most important being that of the Middle Horde led by Kenesary Kasymov who was eventually killed in 1847 by the Kirgiz near Issyk-Kul lake. In 1853 the Russians took Ak-Mechet (now Kzyl-Orda) and founded the fortress of Verny (now Alma-Ata). The country was broadly described as the "steppe region" and was divided into four provinces: Ural'sk, Turgay, Akmolinsk, Semipalatinsk. Under the tsarist government there was no question of eventually granting self-determination to the Kazakhs; but a small na-

—

tionalist

movement

started at the beginning of the 20th century,

and after the 1905 Revolution Kazakh deputies were elected to the The first Kazakh newspaper, first and second duma (parliament). Aykan, appeared in 1910, followed by Kazakh in 1913. When in 1916 the government ordered the mobilization of all males between 19 and 43 for auxiliary army service, the Kazakhs rose. under Abdulghaffar and Amangeldy Imanov. The revolt was suppressed by Russian troops with heavy loss of life. In Nov. 1917 Kazakh nationalists led by Ali Khan Bukei (Bukeikhanov) demanded full autonomy for Kazakhstan and in 1917 a nationalist government known as the Alash Orda was formed. In 1919-20 the Red army defeated the "White" Russian forces and occupied Kazakhstan, and on Aug. 26, 1920, a Kazakh (still erroneously described as Kirgiz) autonomous soviet socialist republic was formed with a temporary capital at Orenburg. In 1925 the name of the republic was changed to Kazakh and the capital was moved first to KzylOrda, and in 1929 to Alma-Ata. From 1927 onward the Soviet government pursued a vigorous policy of transforming the nomads into a settled population and of Russian and Ukrainian coloniza-

KAZAN

260 tion.

Kazakh

protests against the latter led to the execution of

Kulumbetov, a Kazakh deputy premier, and 18 other leading Kazakhs for "bourgeois nationalism." In 1936 Kazakhstan became a soviet socialist republic, and in June 1937 the Kazakh Communist party, then containing 51,440 members, held its first congress. During World War II a Kazakh, Zhumabay Shayakhmetov, was appointed first secretary of the Kazakh Communist party. He was replaced in 1954 by a Russian, P. K. Ponomarenko, on account of his unsatisfactory attitude toward the New Lands campaign launched in the year. This campaign, involving a further large influx of Russians and Ukrainians into Kazakh territory, has been a major event in Kazakh history. Also of great significance was the selection of the Karaganda area in the flinty desert of central Kazakhstan near Baykonur, about 150 mi. N.E. of the Aral sea, as the site of the cosmodrome where Soviet cosmonauts and space vehicles are launched into space for exploration and orbital flights around the earth. Population and Administration. According to the 1959 census, the population of the republic was 9,309,847 including 2,794,966 Kazakhs (30.0%), 3,974,229 Russians (42.7%), 762,131 Ukrainians (8.2%), 191,925 Tatars (2.1%), 136,570 Uzbeks (1.5%), 107,463 Belorussians (1.2%), 74,019 Koreans (0.8%), 59,840 Uigurs (0.6%), 53,102 Poles (0.6%), 38,362 (0.4%) Azerbaijanis and 9,980 Dungans (0.1%). There has been a remarkable fall in the Kazakh population since the 1926 census when the number was given as 3,968,289. No official reason has ever been given for this decrease, but it is believed to be caused partly by excess of deaths over live births and partly to emigration into China. There has been a very great increase in the urban population, that of the capital, Alma-Ata (q.v.), having risen from 45,395 in 1926 to 456,481 in 1959. Other main towns are Karaganda (397,083), Semipalatinsk (156,110), Chimkent (153,241), Petropavlovsk (131,453), Ust'-Kamenogorsk (150,371), Ural'sk (103,914) and Tselinograd (qq.v.; 102,276). The government of the Kazakh S.S.R. is the standard one for union republics. It consists of a supreme soviet and of a council of ministers headed by a president. Of the 450 deputies elected on March 1, 1959, 309 were members or candidate members of the Communist party, 141 were nonparty and 146 were women. There is a presidium of the supreme soviet consisting of a president, deputy president, secretary and 16 members, about half of whom

—

are Kazakhs.

Control over every form of administrative, economic, social

and cultural activity is exercised by the Communist party, which on Jan. 1, 1960, contained 318,000 members and candidates for membership. The bureau of the executive committee consists of 9 members of whom at least 5 were Russians in 1960. In Dec. 1960 a new territorial administrative unit, Tselinnyy ("virgin lands region"), was formed out of the five provinces

Kray

which the New Lands campaign operated, namely, Tselinograd, Kustanay, Kokchetav, Pavlodar and North Kazakhstan. Following this precedent two more krays, West Kazakhstan and South Kazakhstan were established in May 1962. The three krays mentioned above, however, were later abolished by decree of the Supreme Soviet, the West and South Kazakhstan krays in December 1964 and the Tselinnyy Kray in 1965. The Kazakh S.S.R. is divided into 15 oblasts: Aktyubinsk, Alma-Ata, Chimkent (formerly South Kazakhstan Oblast'), Dzhambul, East Kazakhstan, Gur'yev, Karaganda, Kokchetav, Kustanay, KzylOrda, North Kazakhstan, Pavlodar, Semipalatinsk, Tselinograd (formerly Akmolinsk) and Ural'sk (formerly West Kazakhstan Oblast'). In the early 1960s there were 44 towns and 140 settlements of town type. The capital of the republic is Alma-Ata. Although it is described as "fully sovereign" Kazakhstan has no individual diplomatic, economic or consular representation outside the Soviet Union. In the early 1960s there were more than 10,400 primary, sevenyear and middle schools with nearly 2,000,000 pupils. The prinin

cipal higher-education establishments are the

Kazakh

S.

M. Kirov

State university (founded 1934) at Alma-Ata, and the Alma-Ata agricultural, medical, teachers' training, mining and veterinary institutes.

The Kazakh Academy

of Sciences

was founded

in 1946.

The republic has more than 6,300 parks of culture and recreation.

Economy.

—The

libraries,

20

museums and 30

economy was

controlled in the 1960s (Sovnarkhor), administering seven regional councils. Before the Revolution and for some years afterward livestock breeding formed the most important part of the republic's economy. In agriculture this has now yielded its place to food grains; but industry, both light and heavy, has been so greatly developed that it is now given first place in the country's

by

republic's

a republican economic council

economy.

—

Agriculture. In 1913 only 10,374,000 ac. of arable land were under cultivation; by 1953 this area had increased to 16,796,000 ac. Because of the grain shortage in the U. S.S.R. the Soviet government decided to treble the cultivated area of Kazakhstan. By the early 1960s about 54,600,000 ac. were said to be under grain. Livestock breeding maintained its dominant position until 1928, but production then decreased. From 1953, however, there was a renewed upward trend. Between 1953 and 1960 large horned cat-

increased from 4,135,000 to 5,543,000; pigs from 500,000 to 1,776,000; and sheep and goats from 18,378,000 to 28,067,000. By the early 1960s there were in the republic about 1,500 kolkhozy

tle

and 850 sovkhozy ("state farms"). Mining and Industry. The country is rich in mineral

("collective farms")

—

particularly of nonferrous metals.

deposits,

producer of lead in the Soviet Union and holds second place in the production of copper. Coal production, mainly at Karaganda, rose from 85,000 tons in 1920 to 4,150,000 tons in 1938 and more than 32,000,000 tons in the early 1960s. Oil production in the Ural-Emba basin was 117,600 tons in 1913, 649,500 tons in 1938 and now exceeds 1,600,000 tons. The main copper deposits are at Dzhezkazgan and Kounradskiy, and those of lead and zinc at Leninogorsk, Zyryanovsk and in the Karatau range, which is also rich in phosphates. There are large deposits of chromite near Aktyubinsk, of nickel at Batamshinskiy, and of manganese at Marganets. There are steel works at Temir-Tau, copper foundries at Balkhash and Karsakpay and lead foundries at Leninogorsk and Chimkent. A large hydroelectric power station at Ust'-Kamenogorsk, on the The chemical industry has Irtysh, started production in 1953. been greatly developed particularly in respect of phosphates for Production of fertilizers rose from 22,300 tons in 1950 fertilizers. to more than 500,000 tons in the early 1960s. Communications. There are more than 6,000 mi. of railways. During the fifth five-year plan (1951-55) the following lines were built: Mointy-Chu, Tselinograd-Pavlodar, Zashchita-Zyryanovsk. The track was doubled on 500 mi. of the Tselinograd-Kartaly line; 370 mi. of narrow-gauge line and 200 mi. of broad-gauge were laid in the virgin lands region. During the sixth five-year plan (195660) the following lines were laid: Alma-Ata to Gosgranitsa, Gur'yev-Astrakhan, Yesil'-Turgay, Omsk-Ekibastuz, KustanayKokchetav, and a second track on the line Barnaul-Semipalatinsk. The main motor roads are: Alma-Ata to Frunze, Chimkent to Tashkent, Gur'yev to Ural'sk, Semipalatinsk to Pavlodar to Omsk, Karaganda to Tselinograd via Temir-Tau, and the "Vostochnoye Ust'-kamenogorsk-Kokpekty-GeorgiKol'tso" ("eastern ring") yevka-Ust'-kamenogorsk. There is water transport on the Caspian and Aral seas, on lakes Balkhash and Zaysan and on the Irtysh, Syr-Darya, Ural, Hi, Ishim and Karatal rivers. Civil aviation has It is the biggest

—

:

been greatly developed. See Istoriya Kazakhskoy Soviet Kazakhstan (1958).

S.S.R., 2 vol.

(1943, 1959); P. Alampiev, (G. E. Wr.)

KAZAN,

the capital of the Tatar Autonomous Soviet SoRepublic of the U. S.S.R., stands on the left bank of the Volga, at its confluence with the small stream Kazanka and at the point where the Volga alters its course sharply from eastward to southward, 450 mi. E. of Moscow. Pop. (1959) 646,806. The town stretches for about 12 mi. along hills much dissected by raFormerly a low flood plain, 2\ mi. wide and often inunvines. dated, separated Kazan from the Volga, but with the completion cialist

in 1957 of the giant

Kuibyshev barrage, the waters of

its

370-mi.-

long reservoir now reach the edge of the town itself. Ancient Kazan (Iski Kazan) was founded in the 13th century by the Tatars of the Golden Horde, after the overthrow of the

KAZAN RIVER—KAZINCZY Bulgar kingdom on the middle Volga, and was located about 28 mi. upstream on the Kazanka. The town was transferred to the mouth of the Kazanka at the end of the 14th century. In the 15th century the khanate of the Golden Horde began to break up and Kazan became the capital of an independent khanate. It developed as an important trading centre, controlling as it did the Volga route from Muscovy to the Caspian and central Asia and the Kama route to the Urals, the Kama flowing into the Volga only about 50 mi. downstream from Kazan. Annual fairs were held on an island in the Volga, opposite the town. In 1469 Ivan III captured Kazan, but the puppet khan he established, Makhmet Amin, in 1 504 organized a massacre of all Russians in the town. In the 16th century Kazan was engaged in conflict with the khanate of the Kasimov Tatars, who allied themselves with the grand dukes of Muscovy. In 1552 Ivan IV, the Terrible, captured Kazan after a long siege and subjugated the khanate. Thereafter the town became the main Russian centre on the Volga below Nijni-Novgorod (now Gorki) and an advanced base for the extension of Russian power south and east into the TransVolga and Urals. The old Tatar fortress was rebuilt as a Russian kremlin, which survives. The trading importance remained and, indeed, greatly increased as Siberia was opened up. In the 18th century industry developed, especially in leather goods and shipbuilding. Kazan and the "government" (province) of which it was the administrative centre sent large quantities of naval timber to By the end of the century there were about 30,000 the Baltic. inhabitants. Kazan was seized by Emelyan Ivanovich Pugachev (g.v.) in his revolt of 1773-74 and much of the city was burned Catherine II (the Great) rebuilt it on a gridiron to the ground. pattern.

From

the 18th century dates the cathedral of St. Peter

By

the end of the 19th century Kazan was one of the chief manufacturing towns of Russia, with a population in

and

St. Paul.

1897 of 130,000. By 1917 this was 200.000. of whom perhaps Tatars (a percentage that had doubled by 1959). In 1920 it became the capital of the Tatar A.S.S.R. Since the Revolution industrial growth has continued even faster. In its wide range of industries some ancient ones still flourish on a large scale leather working, shoemaking, fulling and felting and the preparation of furs. New industries include oil refining, using petroleum from the Second Baku (q.v.), the vast oil-bearing region between the Volga and the Urals, electrical and precision engineering and chemicals (photographic film and carbolic acid). Linen and foodstuffs are also produced. Power is supplied by the Volga hydroelectric plants and Kazan's own thermal plant, while natural gas is piped from Minnebayevski, 190 mi. to the east. Kazan is a major transportation centre on the Moscow-Sverdlovsk-Trans-Siberian trunk railway with a busy river port and an airport. Kazan is also a major cultural and educational centre. The Kazan V. I. Ulyanov (Lenin) state university was founded in 1804. The mathematician Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevski (q.v.) was its rector from 1827-46 and among those who studied there were Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoi, Mili Alekseevich Balakirev and Lenin; the latter was expelled for his part in student disturbances. There are also a branch of the Academy of Sciences, a conservatoire, medical, veterinary, agricultural, aviation, chemical-technological, petroleum engineering, pedagogic and economic institutes. Kazan has a theatre of Tatar opera and ballet, theatres of Tatar and Russian drama, a philharmonic society and a noted Tatar museum. Zelenodolsk, 25 mi. W., is an industrial centre (shipyards, woodworking and sawmilling, rail ties) developed since the 1930s. (R. A. F.)

15% were

—

KAZAN RIVER, in Keewatin district, Northwest Territories,

Can., rises in

Kasba

elevation of 1,130

lake, near the

Saskatchewan border, at an

northeastward 455 mi. across the Barren Grounds (q.v.) to Baker lake which drains into Hudson bay through Chesterfield inlet. The river's channel is shallow, bouldery and interrupted by rapids and cascades; it widens into many small lakes, and drains lakes Ennadai, Angikuni and Yathkyed. The name Kazan is Indian for "white partridge." (B. V. G ) KAZANTZAKIS, NIKOS (1885-1957), Greek writer, achieved his greatest success as a novelist. Born in Crete on Dec. ft.

It flows

261

1885, he was educated in Athens and later in Paris, where he read Endowed with unusual breadth of vision, Kazantzakis read and wrote a great deal, leaving an impressive volume and variety 2,

law.

of work. He published philosophic essays (the most important is the Salvatores Dei), tragedies, travel books and epic and lyric

His Odyssey, a philosophic poem of 33,333 lines, which striking passages, is an outline in epic form of the author's spiritual journey through life. He translated into Greek certain western classics, notably Dante's Divine Comedy and Goethe's Faust. With his novels he won an international reputation and a number of his books (Alexis Zorbas, Chris tos Xanastavronetai, Kapetan Michales, Phtochoules tou Theou and Telephtaios Peirasmos) have been translated into many European languages. It is possible to follow in his writings influences varying from primitive mysticism to the most advanced realism, kneaded together by the power of Kazantzakis' personality; a vein of pessimism, occasionKazantzakis is ally amounting almost to nihilism, can be traced. one of the great masters of the modern Greek language, the vigour and variety of which he illustrated with remarkable skill. He died on Oct. 26, 1957, at Freiburg, Germany, and was buried on Nov. 5 poetry.

contains

many

in Crete.

was translated as Zorba the Greek by C. Wild(1952) and Christos Xanastavronetai as Christ Recrucified (U.S. ed., The Greek Passion) by J. Griffin (1954). The Odyssey was translated by Kimon Friar (1958). (Ce. A. T.) one of the highest mountains of the Caucasus in northern Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic, U.S.S.R., 16,558 ft. above sea level, is surpassed only by the Elbrus, Shkhara, DykhTau, Koshtan-Tau and Dzhangi-Tau mountains. It stands in the centre of the main range of the Greater Caucasus (Bolshoi Kavkaz), just west of the Georgian military highway to Tbilisi. The mountain is an extinct volcano with a double conical form and lava flows up to 1 ,000 ft. thick. It is covered by ice fields from which rise headstreams of the Terek. Kazbek has been celebrated In the in the poetry of Aleksandr Pushkin and M. Y. Lermontov. village of Kazbegi at the foot the Georgian writer Aleksandr Kazbegi was born. The village stands on the site of a Bronze Age settlement. (R. A. F.) the chief town of Kazerun shahrestan in southwestern Iran, in the ostan (province) of Fars, is situated on a plain among high limestone ridges on the north-south trunk road, 70 mi. W. of Shiraz and 96 mi. N.E. of Bushire. Pop. (1964 est.) 43,660. The town is extensive and has well-built houses. The water supply is from wells. Daryacheh-ye Famur, a brackish lake teeming with fish, lies 8 mi. E. The town is surrounded by groves of date palms, citrus orchards and wheat and tobacco fields. Rice, cotton and vines are also grown. Wild almond trees are numerous in the mountains and the nuts are harvested. Horses and mules are bred in the district, mostly by Kashgai nomads. The ruins of the ancient city of Shahpur (12 mi. N.) have Sassanid bas-reliefs and, in a lofty cave, a statue of Shapur I. Southeast of Kazerun on a high mound are the ruins of Qal'eh-ye Gabr, (H. Bo.) the castle of the fire worshipers. KAZINCZY, (1759-1831), Hungarian man of letters whose reform of the language and attempts to improve literary style had great influence, was born at Ersemlyen, Oct. 27, 1759, He learned German and of a well-to-do family of the nobility. French as a child and entered the famous Protestant college at Sarospatak in 1769. While there he published his first book, a small geography of Hungary (1775). Later he studied law, and became a civil servant. Imbued with the ideas of the Enlightenment, he was at home in the progressive administration introduced by Joseph II, but during the reactionary period under Francis I, he joined the opposition. Although he played only a minor part in the conspiracy organized by the liberal abbot Ignaz Martinovics, he was arrested (Dec. 1794) and condemned to death. His sentence was commuted to imprisonment and he was released in June 1801, a middle-aged man standing on the threshold of a new life which it was his intention to devote entirely to the improvement of Hungarian literature. He had already tried his hand at transAlexis Zorbas

man

KAZBEK,

KAZERUN,

FERENC

lations, including Salomon Gessner's Idylls (1788), Hamlet (1790) and works by such varied authors as Metastasio, Lessing, Klop-

—

KAZVIN— KEAN

262

Kazinczy gradually realized that only and by teaching authors how to satisfy it could Hungarian literature be raised to contemporary European standards. The task was difficult, as political and social conditions were not such as to encourage the development of a living culture and the tastes of even the small reading public were unrefined. Although attempts to remedy this had been made by others, and by Kazinczy himself before his imprisonment he had launched two short-lived periodicals, Magyar Museum these had been unsuccessful. His (1788) and Orpheus (1790) stock, Moliere and Goethe.

by creating

a

demand

played at Belfast opposite Mrs. Siddons. who disliked him but thought he acted well. In 1808, while a member of Beverley's strolling players, he married Mary Chambers of Waterford, Ire. Kean and his family endured a life of privation for years, until in 1814 he went to Drury

for quality

—

longing for progress, denied political outlet, was

to the service of literature and, living with his wife

children on the small income

from

his estate, he tried,

and seven

There, on Jan. 26, 1814, as Shylock, he roused the audience to His uncontrollable enthusiasm. subsequent appearances as Richard III, Hamlet. Othello and

through a

voluminous correspondence with other writers and his own writbiting epigrams, published in Tovisek es virdgok (1811) and many sonnets, a poetical form which he introduced into Hungary He to banish from literature everything vulgar and uncouth. also had a strong dislike of popular poetry. His position as self-styled censor involved Kazinczy in endless controversies. His most famous battle was fought to improve the language: he initiated reforms of grammar, spelling and style which made Hungarian an outstanding medium for literary expression. He was one of the committee set up in 1828 to found the Hungarian academy, and was elected a member in 1830. Although the development of Hungarian literature was not ultimately in line with Kazinczy's ideas, and by the time of his death at Szephalom, Aug. 21, 1831, the leadership had already passed to Karoly Kisfaludy, representing the ideals of romanticism, his influence cannot be overestimated. Without him, modern Hungarian would never have evolved as a literary medium, and later writers, who drew their strength from the untapped reserves of peasant life, would have lacked their essential equipment of language and ings

Lane theatre as an experiment to try and mend his fortunes.

now turned wholly

—

—

BY COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF

MUSEUM, PHOTOGRAPH JOHN

ISH

R

["HE

BRIT.

FREEMAN

EDMUND KEAN

IN "RICHARD III"; ENGRAVING BY R. COOPER. 1822, FROM A PAINTING BY G. CLINT

Macbeth

established

him

as the

greatest tragedian of his day and

perhaps of any other. He appeared for the first time in New York on Nov. 29, 1820, and his North American tour was an im-

edited

mense success. On his return to England his wildness of character him into difficulties. After he had been corespondent in the divorce case of Cox v. Kean his wife left him and the public attacked him violently both at home and in the United States, where he returned in 1825. His last performance in New York city was on Dec. 5. 1826, and after his return to England the public hostility had vanished. But his great powers were failing, and the process was hastened by his irregular habits. His last appearance on the stage was at Covent Garden, on March 25, 1833. when he played Othello to the Iago of his son Charles. At the words, "Villain, be sure," in scene 3 of act iii, he suddenly broke down, and crying in a faltering voice, ''O God, I am dying. Speak to them, Charles," fell insensible into his son's arms. He died at Richmond,

in

Surrey, on

style.

Of many editions of Kazinczy's works, the first, in five volumes, by L. Abafi. appeared in 1879-84. His letters were edited 21 volumes by J. Vaczy (1890-1921). (Ds. Sr.)

KAZVIN

got

was

May

15, 1833.

(Qazvin), a city of Iran in the Central (Teheran) ostan (province), lies in a wide and largely fertile plain at the southern foot of the Elburz range, 90 mi. N.W. of Teheran. Pop. (1964 est.) 88,096. It is a regional and road centre, connected by road and railway with Teheran and Tabriz and by good roads with Rasht and Bandar-e Pahlavi (on the Caspian sea) and with Hamadan. Grain, pistachios and vines are the principal products of its region, besides carpets, and it has a transit trade. There are textile and flour mills and oil presses. The city was founded by Shahpur II in the 4th century and was a flourishing place in early Muslim times when it was used as a base for the

impersonation of the great Shakespearean characters that the varied beauty and grandeur of the acting of Kean were displayed in their highest form, although probably his most powerful performance was in the part of Sir Giles Overreach in Massinger's A New Way to Pay Old Debts, the effect of his first impersonation of which was such that the pit rose en masse, and even the actors and actresses themselves were overcome by the terrific dramatic illusion. His only personal disadvantage as an

Deylaman and Gilan. Though ruined by the Mongol

was as nearly as possible perfect. Coleridge said, "Seeing him act was like reading Shakespeare by flashes of lightning." The range of character in which Kean attained supreme excellence was narrow, but no one except Garrick has been so successful in so many

islamization of the fierce inhabitants of

Harun al-Rashid showed

it

favour.

it revived again under the Safawids. (1524-76) made it his capital; Abbas I adorned it with several buildings but transferred the seat of government to Isfahan. (H. Bo.) KEA: see Parrot. KEAN, (1787-1833), one of the greatest English actors, was born in London. March 17, 1787. His father is presumed to have been Edmund Kean, an architect's clerk, and his mother Ann Carey, an actress. He made his first stage appearance in his fourth year as Cupid in J. G. Noverre's ballet of Cymon. At seven he was sent to school, but ran away to sea. Liking this even less, however, he got free from his ship by counterfeiting deafness. His uncle Moses Kean, a general entertainer, encouraged him to study Shakespeare, and Miss Tidswell. an actress who had known him from infancy, taught him to act, taking entire charge of him when his uncle died. He was adopted by a wealthy couple, but ran away to the stage. When only 14 he played leading characters such as Hamlet. Hastings and Cato at York for 20 nights. He then joined a strolling company attached to Richardson's show and had the honour of reciting before George III. He joined Saunders' circus, where as an equestrian he broke both his legs. However, he learned music from Charles Incledon, dancing from D'Egville and fencing from Angelo. In 1807 he

invasion in the 13th century,

Shah Tahmasp

I

EDMUND

It

in the

Kean specially excelled as the exactor was his small stature. ponent of passion. In Othello, Iago, Shylock and Richard III, his identification with the personality, as he had conceived it,

great impersonations.

Kean's eccentricities at the height of his fame were numerous. Sometimes he would ride recklessly on his horse Shylock throughout the night. He was presented with a tame lion with which he might be found playing in his drawing room. The prizefighters Mendoza and Richmond the Black were among his visitors. The Irish statesman Henry Grattan was his devoted friend. Bibliography. Playfair,

Actor (1950)

Kean

—H. W. Hillebrand, Edmund Kean

Kean (1939) and Kean: ;

M.

Willson Disher,

(1933)

;

Giles

W.

and Paradox of the Great Genius: a Biography of Edmund

the Life

Mad

(1950).

Charles John Kean (1811-1868), younger son of Edmund Kean, was born at Waterford, Ire., Jan. 18, 181 1. Educated at Eton, he was offered in 1827 a cadetship in the East India company's service, which he would have accepted if his father had agreed to settle an income of £400 on his mother. On his father's refusal, the son, too. became an actor, making his first appearance at Drury Lane theatre, Oct. 1, 1827, as Norval in Home's Douglas. He visited the United States in 1830 and on returning to London made a success at Covent Garden in 1833 as Sir Edmund Mortimer He then devoted his activities to the in Colman's The Iron Chest.

KEAN— KEARNY Returning to Drury Lane in Jan. 1838 he made an In 1842 he married the actress Ellen Tree (see Kean, Ellen) and with her visited the United In England once more, he apStates again, during 1845-47. peared with much success at the Haymarket theatre. In 1850, in partnership with Robert Keeley, he became lessee of the Princess' theatre, London. There he rose to the head of his profession and added much to the artistic production of both Shakespearean and modern plays. Never a great tragic actor, Kean was at his best in melodramatic roles such as the king in Boucicault's adaptation of Louis XI and in The Corsican Brothers. He returned to London in 1866 in broken health, after an extended tour abroad, (W. J. M.-P.) and died on Jan. 22, 1868. (nee Tree) (1805-1880), English acKEAN, tress, considered one of the finest actresses of her day (her best part having been that of Gertrude in Hamlet), was born of EngShe first appeared lish parents in southern Ireland in Dec. 1805. as an actress in Covent Garden in May 1823, as Olivia in Shakespeare's Twelfth Night. From 1824 to 1826 she performed at Bath, from 1826 to 1829 at Drury Lane and from 1829 to 1836 at Covent Garden. During 1836-39 she traveled in America, playIn 1842 ing in Covent Garden again on her return (1839-42). she married the actor Charles John Kean, and the two were closely associated for the remainder of his life. In 1845 they returned to America, touring the country and taking the leading roles in many In 1850 Kean and a of the plays in their extensive repertory. friend leased the Princess' theatre, where he and his wife filled most of their engagements thereafter. In 1868, when Kean died, his wife retired from the stage. She died in London, Aug. 20, 1880. JOSEPH (1839-1918), U.S. Roman CathoKEANE, lic archbishop and educator, was born in Ballyshannon, County Donegal, Ire., on Sept. 12, 1839. When he was seven years old In 1866 he was ordained his family settled in the United States. a priest and made a curate of St. Patrick's, Washington, D.C.; in 1878 he was consecrated bishop of Richmond, Va. During service at Washington and Richmond, Bishop Keane founded churches and schools for Negroes and established the Confraternity of the Holy Ghost. From 1887 to 1896 he was rector of the Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C., which he did much to build. He was then called to Rome and raised to archiepiscopal rank, serving in 1897-99 as canon of St. John Lateran, assistant at the pontifical throne, and consultor to the Congregations of Propaganda and of Studies. In 1900 he was appointed archbishop of Dubuque, la., resigning this see in 1911. Archbishop Keane actively participated in the Catholic temperance movement and in the Americanism and Cahenslyism controversies. A selection of his writings, largely on educational subjects, edited by M. F. Egan, was published under the title Onward and Upward, in 1902. He died in Dubuque on June 22, 1918. provinces.

outstanding success as Hamlet.

ELLEN

JOHN

See Patrick H. Ahern, The Life of John J. Keane (1955).

KEARNEY,

a city of Nebraska, U.S.,

(P. H. A.) and the seat of Buffalo

county, is located 135 mi. W. of Lincoln, the capital, in the southcentral portion of the state just north of the Platte river at an altitude of 2,146 ft. The east-west, transportation route pro-

vided by the Platte river valley attracted the railroads as it had the overland wagon trails, and Kearney owes its origin to the junction of the Burlington with the Union Pacific railroad. Kearney Junction was established at the meeting point in 1872 and incorporated as Kearney in Dec. 1873.

The town was named for Fort Kearny, a military post that had been maintained 6 mi. S.E. of the present city on the Oregon trail from 1848 until 1871. The fort had been named for Gen. Stephen Watts Kearny. Popular usage added an "e" to the spelling. Kearney had some of the aspects of a cow town in the 1870s and was the scene of an occasional conflict between cowboys and townspeople. An abortive movement was launched to locate the national capital at Kearney on the strength of its midway position between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. The surrounding area developed into farming communities and Kearney grew slowly until the latter 1880s when promoters created a short-lived "boom." In a frantic period of expansion, factories, including a

263

cotton mill, were built and an electric street railway was constructed. The projects collapsed in the 1890s. Kearney is in a productive agricultural region in which many of the farms are irrigated. Corn, alfalfa, soybeans, sugar beets, potatoes, small grains and livestock are shipped from there. A

growing industrial development produces a variety of products, many related to agriculture. The Burlington and Union Pacific railways pass through the city, and Kearney is also served by national and state highways and a commercial airline. The state tuberculosis hospital, the state industrial school for boys and Kearney State Teachers college are located there. (See also Nebraska: Education.) For comparative population figures see (D. F. D.) table in Nebraska: Popidation. PHILIP (1814-1862), U.S. Army officer, was born in New York City on June 1, 1814. He graduated from Columbia College in 1833 and received a cavalry commission in 1837, serving on the frontier under his uncle, Gen. Stephen Watts Kearny. In 1839 the War Department sent him to France to study cavalry tactics, and upon his return he prepared a standard cavalry manual for the U.S. Army. In the Mexican War he lost his left arm at Churubusco while leading a charge of a cavalry company he had personally raised and equipped. He resigned from the Army in 1851 and, after spending some time in Europe, settled in what In the Italian War of 1859 he served with is now Kearny, N.J. French cavalry at Magenta and Solferino, and was the first American to be awarded the Cross of the Legion of Honour. During the American Civil War he was first a brigade and then a divisional commander of infantry in the Army of the Potomac, saving the day for the Federals at Williamsburg and Seven Pines during McClellan's peninsular campaign. Reconnoitering at Chantilly on Sept. 1, 1862, he unintentionally entered the Confederate lines and was killed attempting to flee. His chivalric bearing and supreme courage inspired enthusiasm in his subordinates and led Gen. Winfield Scott to call him the "perfect soldier." (L. H. Fi.) (1794-1848), U.S. soldier who played a leading role in the winning of the west, particularly during the Mexican War, was born on Aug. 30, 1794, in Newark, N.J. He left Kings college (now Columbia university) to serve in the War of 1812 and spent most of the next 30 years on frontier duty with the army. After 1836 he was the commander responsible for maintaining law and order over most of the Great Plains region. At the beginning of the Mexican War in May 1846 Kearny was ordered to lead an expedition from Ft. Leavenworth, Kan., to conquer New Mexico and to seize California for the United States. His 1,700-man army of the west captured Santa Fe on Aug. 18. During the following month he established a civil government in New Mexico, deputizing lawyers from his command to translate and codify the provincial laws, bringing them into consonance with

KEARNY,

KEARNY, STEPHEN WATTS

American constitutional law. The resulting Kearny code, of New Mexico law, was proclaimed on Sept. 22. On Sept. 25 Kearny started for California. Having formed that Commodore R. F. Stockton and Lt. Col. J. C. (qq.v.) had already conquered California, he took only goons with him.

He

the basis

been

in-

Fremont 120 dra-

arrived in southern California in early De-

cember

to discover that the Mexican-Californians had risen against Stockton and Fremont, and controlled almost the entire province. Marching to San Diego to join Stockton, on Dec. 6 Kearny's men fought a violent, inconclusive action against a larger force of

Mexicans at San Pasqual. They joined Stockton's sailors and marines outside San Diego on Dec. 10. Stockton, who had proclaimed himself governor of California, refused to accept Kearny's authority. To preserve harmony in a desperate situation, and because Stockton's men constituted the bulk of available American forces, Kearny accepted this situation, and led the combined army-navy command from San Diego to Los Angeles, defeating the Mexicans at San Gabriel, on Jan. 8, 1847, and at the Mesa, just outside Los Angeles, on Jan. 9. This latter victory broke the back of Mexican-Californian resistance, and an uneasy peace was established. Kearny's controversy with Stockton was now complicated by the insubordination of Fremont, who persuaded Stockton to appoint

him governor.

With

the arrival of reinforcements,

Kearny was

KEATS

264.

impose his will on Fremont, carefully avoiding force At the same time he pacified California, establishKearny returned to ing a stable and efficient civil government. Fort Leavenworth, arriving on Aug. 22. Fremont, under protest, accompanied him. Kearny then placed Fremont under arrest, preferred charges and sent him to Washington, D.C. Fremont's trial lasted from Nov. 2, 1847, to Jan. 31, 1848; the defense counsel was his father-in-law. Sen. Thomas Hart Benton. During the trial Benton and Fremont assailed Kearny's bravery, The court, nevertheless, found integrity and military ability. Fremont guilty of mutiny, disobedience and improper conduct, sentencing him to dismissal. The court added that Kearny's "honor and character are unimpeached." Kearny was then ordered to Mexico, where he was military commander of Veracruz and later of Mexico City. After recovering from a severe attack of yellow fever he returned to the United States in poor health. In Sept. 1848 he was promoted to the rank of major general, confirmed by the senate despite Benton's 13-day diatribe. Kearny died on Oct. 31, 1848. See also Kearney. finally able to

or bloodshed.

See D. L. Clarke, Stephen Watts Kearny, Soldier of the West (1961) Bernard De Voto, The Year of Decision—1846 (1943). (T. N. D.) (1795-1821), one of the three great poets, KEATS, with Shelley and Byron, of the second generation of English Romantics. (See English Literature: The Romantic Period.) He was born in London on Oct. 31, 1795, the son of a livery-stable keeper. His family was of modest station and he had relatively However, there was always the closest little formal education. sympathy between himself and his sister, Fanny, and two brothers, George and Tom; and his schooling gave him most of what he needed. He went to a school at Enfield kept by the Rev. John Clarke, whose son Charles Cowden Clarke (q.v.) did much to encourage his literary aspirations. After the death of their father in 1804 and of their mother in 1810, their grandmother, with whom ;

JOHN

they and their mother had lived at Edmonton, put the affairs of Keats and his brothers and sister in the hands of a guardian, Richard Abbey. At Abbey's instigation Keats was apprenticed to a surgeon at Edmonton in 1811. He broke his apprenticeship in 1814, and went to live in London where he worked at Guy's and His literary interests had declared themSt. Thomas' hospitals. selves early, and after 1817 he devoted himself entirely to poetry. From this time till his early death his history is largely the history of his work. Early Works. Cowden Clarke had sent the young Keats to Spenser and the Elizabethans, and they were his earliest loves. His best early poem is the sonnet "On First Looking Into Chapman's Homer" (1815). Clarke also introduced him to Leigh Hunt (q.v.), liberal journalist, lively miscellaneous essay-writer and also a poetaster of a glib and sentimental kind. Keats made friends in Hunt's circle, notably J. H. Reynolds and Benjamin Haydon {q.v.), the painter, and he owed much to it of companionship and literary encouragement but he also acquired there a slipshod and somewhat vulgar conception of poetry which he later found it necessary to outgrow. His first book, the Poems of 1817, was written largely under "Huntian" influence. This is evident in a rather relaxed sentiment, and in the use of a loose form of the heroic couplet, with much overflow and light, sometimes disyllabic, rhymes. The most interesting poem in this volume is "Sleep and Poetry," the middle section of which contains a prophetic view of Keats's own poetical progress. He sees himself as at present plunged in the delighted contemplation of sensuous beauty; but realizes that he must leave this for an understanding of "the agony and strife of

—

;

human

hearts." The same poem also includes in little the Romanversion of English poetical history, in which the greatest glories go to the Elizabethans; the Augustan age is an unfortunate interregnum and the ancient splendours are to be revived by the modtic

ern school. Otherwise the volume is remarkable only for some delicate natural observation, and obvious Spenserian influences. Endymion. In 1817 Keats left London briefly for the Isle of Wight and Canterbury, and began work on Endymion, his first long poem. On his return to London he moved into lodgings in Hampstead with his brothers. Endymion appeared in 1818. It is a version of the Greek legend of Diana's love for Endymion, a mortal

—

shepherd, but Keats lays the emphasis on Endymion's love for Diana rather than on hers for him. The tale in fact is transformed into an expression of the widespread Romantic theme of the at-

tempt This

realized through fantastic

luxuriant description. is

been glimpsed in vision. and discursive adventures and

to find in actuality a love that has

is

In his wanderings in quest of her

Endymion

guilty of an apparent infidelity to his visionary moon-goddess,

and falls in love with an Indian maiden to whom he is attracted by human sympathy. But in the end Diana and the Indian maiden turn out to be the same. The poem has thus an allegorical meaning clearly connected with what is said in the middle section of "Sleep and Poetry." Keats was dissatisfied with the poem as soon as it was finished, and in the preface, a remarkable piece of selfcriticism, he anticipates all the objections that could be justly made against its unformed youthful sentiment. Attack on Early Poems. Relationship With Fanny Brawne. In the summer of 1818 Keats went on a walking-tour in the Lake district and Scotland with his friend Charles Brown, and exposure and overexertion brought on the first symptoms of the tuberculosis of which he was to die. On his return to London a brutal criticism of his early poems appeared in Blackwood's Magazine, followed by a similar attack on Endymion in the Quarterly. Contrary to popular belief, Keats's attitude to this was robust, and he went on writing steadily all the time. But there were family troubles. Keats's brother Tom had been suffering from tuberculosis for some time, and in the autumn of 1818 the poet nursed him through his last illness. About the same time he met Fanny Brawne, a near neighbour in Hampstead. with whom he was soon to be hopelessly and tragically in love. The relation with Fanny had a decisive effect on Keats's development. She seems to have been an unexceptional young woman, of firm and generous character, and kindly disposed toward Keats. But he expected more, perhaps more than anyone could give, as we can see from his overwrought letters. Both his uncertain material situation and his failing health in any case made it impossible for his love to run a normal course. After Tom's death (George had already gone to America), Keats moved into Wentworth place with Brown; and in April 1819 Fanny Brawne and her mother became his next-door neighbours. In about Oct. 1819 Keats became engaged to Fanny. The Year 1819. "Isabella," an adaptation of the story of the "Pot of Basil" in Boccaccio's Decameron, had been written in 1817-18, soon after the completion of Endymion, and again Keats was dissatisfied with it. It was during the year 1819 that all his "Lamia," "The Eve of St. Agnes," greatest poetry was written the great Odes ("On Indolence," "On a Grecian Urn," "To Psyche." "To a Nightingale," "On Melancholy" and "To Autumn") and the two versions of Hyperion. This poetry was composed under the strain of illness and growing passion for Fanny Brawne and it is an astonishing body of work, marked by careful and considered development, technical, emotional and intellectual. "Isabella," which Keats himself called "a weak-sided poem," continues some of the emotional weaknesses of Endymion; but "The Eve of St. Agnes"

—

—

—

;

be considered the perfect culmination of Keats's earlier manWritten in the first flush of his meeting with Fanny Brawne, before sickness and misunderstanding had begun to cast their shadows, it is full of a dreamy sensuous happiness. It is pictorial romantic narrative, of a kind that was to have immense influence in the 19th century, and that the 20th century has been inclined to undervalue. Its clear pictorial quality looks forward to the Pre-

may ner.

Raphaelites. All the senses are alert in this poem, and their reBut there is no ports are presented with unrivaled delicacy. marked intellectual advance. "Lamia" is another narrative, and a

some of the technical weaknesses of Keats has studied Dryden, and now makes use of a far tighter and more disciplined couplet, of a firmer tone and more "Do not all controlled description. The implied theme, however charms fly at the mere touch of cold Philosophy?" does not accord with the ripest phase of Keats's thought. The Odes. The Odes are Keats's most distinctive poetical achievement. They are essentially lyrical meditations, owing little or nothing to former neoclassic conceptions of the ode (q.v.). All were composed between March and June 1819 except "To Audeliberate attempt to reform

Endymion.

—

—

—

KEATS tumn," which is from September. Though they are not formally connected, traces of a common theme can be found in them the theme of transience and permanence, contemplated in a variety of aspects. The subject was forced upon him by the painful death of his brother and his own failing health; it is profoundly thought and felt, but it is not argued about. Keats believed that "man

—

should not dispute or assert, but whisper results to his neighbour";

and he admired what he called Negative Capability, "that

man

is,

when

capable of being in uncertainties, mysteries, doubts, without any irritable reaching after fact and reason." "On Indolence" enshrines a moment when sensuous happiness seems to be complete and sufficient and its own justification. But it is only a moment; and in the "Ode to a Nightingale" a visionary happiness in sharing a

seen not as a time of decay, but as a season of complete ripeness and fulfillment, a pause in time when everything has reached fruition, and the question of transience is hardly raised. These poems, with their rich and exquisite sensuous detail and their meditative depth, are among the greatest achievements of the Romantic age. With them should be mentioned the ballad "La Belle Dame Sans Merci." of about the same time, and revealing the obverse destructive side of the idyllic love seen in

Hyperion.

is

the bird's life is contrasted with the dead weight of human grief and sickness, the transience of youth and beauty strongly brought home to Keats in recent months by his brother's death. A kind of resolution is found in the song of the nightingale, seen as a symbol of art which outlasts the individual mortal life. This theme is taken up more distinctly in the "Ode on a Grecian Urn." Keats had always been profoundly affected by Greek mythology, mostly in a Renaissance dress; here we have a direct influence from Greek plastic art more probably the Elgin marbles, to which Haydon. who had fought to get them housed in the British museum, had introduced him, and on which he had earlier written a sonnet, than any actual vase that he had seen. At all events, the figures depicted on the urn become for him the symbol of an enduring beauty, "all breathing human passion far above." And the message that the urn leaves with us is the celebrated "Beauty is truth, truth beauty." The "Ode on Melancholy" recognizes that sadness is the inevitable concomitant of sensuous happiness; the transience of joy is a part of its nature. But the rich, slow movement of this and the other odes suggests an enjoyment of such intensity and depth that it makes the moment eternal. The "Ode to Autumn" is essentially the record of such an experience. Autumn is

—

—

265

—This poem

revision of the style

first

which makes

in the

autumn

poem

is

exists in

"The Eve of

St.

Agnes."

two versions, the second being a

new The poem was begun

with the addition of a long induction in a

it

into a different

poem.

of 1818, and all that there is of the first version (the a fragment) was finished by April 1819. In September

Keats wrote to Reynolds that he had given up Hyperion but he appears to have continued working on the revised version, The Fall of Hyperion, and the writing of the induction, during the autumn

The detailed chronology is not clear; but the two verHyperion cover the period of Keats's most intense experience, both poetical and biographical. The poem is his last attempt, in the face of increasing illness and frustrated love, to come to terms with the conflict between absolute value and mortal decay that appears in other forms in his earlier poetry. The subject is the supersession of the earlier Greek gods, the Titans, by the later Olympians; and it was apparently intended that it should be treated in the epic manner. The desire to write something unlike the luxuriant wandering of Endymion is clear, and Keats puts of 1819. sions of

himself to school to Milton. The poem opens with the Titans already fallen, like Milton's fallen angels. Hyperion the Sun-god is the one hope of further resistance, like Milton's Satan. And the opening scene is followed by a council like that in Book II of Paradise Lost. There are numerous Miltonisms of style too, though a closer examination will show that they are detachable rather than organic. They are in fact detached in the revised version, as Keats felt unhappy with them; and the basis of the writing

more austere and

disciplined version of not enough of the narrative to make its ultimate direction clear; but the general tenor seems to be that the supersession of the old gods by the new is just ". for first in beauty must be first in might." It seems also that the hero was to be the young Apollo; and Apollo is the god of poetry. So, as Endymion was an allegory of the fate of the lover of beauty in the world, Hyperion was perhaps to be an allegory of the poet as creator. Certainly this theme is taken up explicitly in the new induction to the second version. This added opening places the existing Hyperion in the setting of a vision a vision experienced by the poet himself. It is one of the most remarkable pieces of writing in Keats's work, and only an excessive concentration on the luxuriant sensuous side of his art can have given rise to the 19th-century opinion that it was written in the decline of his powers. The blank verse has a new energy and rapidity, and the vision is presented with a spare grandeur, rising to its height in the epiphany of the goddess Moneta, who reveals to the dreamer the function of the poet in the world. It is his duty to separate himself from the mere dreamer, and to share in the sufferings of humankind. The theme is not new to Keats; it appears in his earliest poetry; but it is here realized far more intensely. Yet with the threat of approaching death upon him Keats cannot advance any farther in the direction that he foresees as the right one, and the poem remains a fragment. Last Years. There is no more to record of Keats's poetical history. His last, unfulfilled, ambition was to write "a few fine plays." The poems "Isabella," "Lamia," "The Eve of St. Agnes," Hyperion and the Odes, were all published in the famous 1820 volume, the one that gives the true measure of his powers. It appeared in July, by which time Keats was evidently doomed. He had been increasingly ill throughout 1819 and by the beginning of 1820 the evidence of tuberculosis was clear. He realized that it was his death warrant, and from that time sustained work became impossible. His friends Brown, the Hunts and Fanny Brawne and her mother proved assiduous, and they nursed him through the Shelley, hearing of his condition, wrote offering him hosyear. pitality in Pisa; but Keats did not accept. When he was ordered

is

revealed after

Keats's

all

as a

own manner. There

is

.

—

—

BY COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY,

LONDON

KEATS, PORTRAIT BY JOSEPH SEVERN, 1821

.

—

KEBLE— KECSKEMET

266

south for the winter Joseph Severn undertook to accompany him to Rome. They sailed on Sept. 18, and on the way landed briefly at Lulworth, on the Dorset coast, where Keats wrote his last sonnet, "Bright Star, Would I Were Steadfast as Thou Art." From Naples they went to Rome, where on Dec. 10 Keats had a relapse. Faithfully tended by Severn to the last, he died there on Feb. 23, 1821. Letters. The prime authority both for Keats's life and for his This correpoetical development is to be found in his letters. spondence with his brothers and sister, Fanny, with his close friends and with Fanny Brawne gives the most intimate picture of the admirable integrity of Keats's personal character, and enables us to follow closely the development of his thought about poetry his own and that of others.

—

A

human

compared to a mansion of many apartments repeats the lesson of "Sleep and Poetry." Another distinguishes the true poetical character from "the Wordsworthian or egotistical sublime" he writes of his own kind of imagination "it has no self it is everything and nothing celebrated letter to Reynolds in which

life is

:

—

has as much delight in conceiving an Iago as an Imogen. What shocks the virtuous philosopher delights the camelian poet." We find everywhere a profound thoughtfulness combined with a quick, sensitive, undidactic response. Spontaneous, informal, deeply thought and deeply felt, these are probably the best letters written by any English poet. Apart from their interest as a commentary on his work they have the right to independent status. Reputation and Poetic Stature. Keats's reputation grew steadily throughout the 19th century; though as late as the 1840s Holman Hunt, the Pre-Raphaelite painter, could refer to him as "this little-known poet." His influence is found everywhere in the decorative romantic verse of the Victorian age, from the early Tennyson onward. His general emotional temper and the minute delicacy of his natural observation were deeply sympathetic to the Pre-Raphaelites, who both echoed his poetry in their own and il-

...

It

—

lustrated

it

in their paintings.

Though

his friends

were

political

Keats stands apart from the social and revolutionary enthusiasms of his age. His devotion was to his art; and he was steadily seeking a way by which that devotion might become more inclusive. His 19th-century followers on the whole attached their affections to the more superficial aspects of his work; and it has been largely left for the 20th century to realize the full range of his achievement. It is impossible to say how much has been lost by Keats's early death. What his work, incomplete as it is, begins to show is a way of reconciling the claims of art as an autonomous realm with those of art as the interpreter of a more comprehensive

liberals

human

;

experience.

—

Life, Letters and Literary Remains, ed. by Lord (1848), 1 vol., World's Classics (1931); The Keats Circle: Letters and Papers, 1816-78, 2 vol. (1948) and More Letters and Poems (1955), both ed. by Hyder E. Rollins; Poetical Works, ed. by E. de Selincourt (1905; rev. ed. 1936, with valuabale critical introduction) Poetical Works, ed. by H. W. Garrod (1939; definitive ed., 1958); Letters, ed. by Buxton Forman, 2 vol. (1931), 1 vol. (1952). See also Svdney Colvin, Keats: His Life and Poetry, "English Men of Letters Series" (1917; the best short life) H. W. Garrod, Keats (1926; 2nd ed. 1939); J. Middleton Murry, Keats (1955); R. Gittings, John Keats: the Living Year (1954). (G. G. Hh.)

Bibliography.

Houghton,

2 vol.

;

;

KEBLE, JOHN

(1792-1866), Anglican priest, theologian and

poet, shared with J. H. Newman and E. B. Pusey the leading role in the origins of the Oxford movement (q.v.), and by the quality life and character exercised a profound influence on the Church of England during the 19th century. Born on April 25, 1792, at Fairford, Gloucestershire, Keble was the second son of an old-fashioned Tory high churchman, John Keble. His whole life was molded by devotion to his father and to the religious tradition in which he grew up. As a boy, Keble showed outstanding intellectual ability; a scholar of Corpus Christi college, Ox-

of his

ford (1807), he obtained double

first

class

honours (1810) and

was elected a fellow of

Oriel college (1811), at that time the centre of the intellectual life of the university. In 1815 he was or-

dained deacon and in 1816 priest. Despite his affection for Oxford, in 1823 he withdrew from the university in order to assist his father with his parochial work. During the following years Keble often had undergraduate pupils to live with him during the summer vacations, and the impression that he then made on a number

men was to prove of great importance in In 1827 he published The Christian Year, a volume

of outstanding young later years.

of poems for the Sundays and festivals of the church year. This book achieved an enormous circulation and did more than any other one book to make the ideas of the high church movement widely known. Keble was professor of poetry at Oxford, 1831-41 his lectures, published in 1841, reveal clearly the affinity between Keble's thought and that of the romantics. It was in 1833 that Keble came prominently into the public view, when, on July 14, he preached the assize sermon in the university church. The title of the sermon was "National Apostasy," and its occasion the decision of the Liberal government to suppress ten Irish bishoprics.

The

action of the government, in itself entirely

reasonable, called forth from Keble a strong and uncompromising assertion of the church's divine right and of its supernatural origin,

from the Lord himself. Newman sermon as marking the beginning of the Oxford movement, and his judgment has been generally endorsed. derived by

its

apostolic descent

always considered

this

1833 to 1845, when Newman entered the Roman Catholic Church, Oxford was the scene of a brilliant and creative movement for the renewal of Catholic thought and practice within the Church of England. The movement has been called Tractarian, on account of its best-known publications, the 90 Tracts of the Times, of which Keble wrote 9. The actual direction of the movement tended to be in the hands of Newman and a group of younger men. But Keble stood behind them as an inspiration and guide. The same years saw an outburst of theological activity, both in the reprinting of 17th-century Anglican theology and in the editing and translating of the Fathers of the Church. In both these works Keble took part, in 1836 producing an edition of the works of R. Hooker and in 1838 sharing in the inauguration of The Library of the

From

Fathers.

The fact that the whole of this movement did not collapse in 1845 when Newman left the Church of England is due above all to the constancy of Pusey and Keble. While to many the movement had appeared revolutionary, to Keble it had seemed only the expression in fuller form of the convictions in which he had been brought up. In 1835, after the death of his father, he married, and in 1836 became vicar of Hursley, near Winchester, where for the rest of his life he continued to live and work as a country parson. Keble's influence was not due so much to his considerable intellectual ability as to the singular quality of his character. His unbending religious convictions and great strictness with himself, combined as they were with a remarkable spontaneity and sensitivity, created an impression at once unworldly and yet attractive. Keble died in Bournemouth on March 29, 1866. In 1869 Keble college. Oxford, was founded in his memory. (A. MacD. A.) See G. Battiscombe, John Keble (1963).

KECSKEMET, a centre of Bacs-Kiskun

town in central Hungary and administrative megye (county), lies about 105 km. (65 mi.)

Pop. (1960) 66,842 (mun.). It is surrounded farming country and to the southeast is the noted sandy by Bugac puszta, or wasteland, with arid, salt-impregnated soils. Kecskemet dates back to the days of the Arpad dynasty (see Hungary: History) and in the 14th century it was one of the specially privileged towns. Part of the Franciscan church dates from Arpad times and the Reformed church was built in the 17th century by S.E. of Budapest. flat,

permission of Sultan Mohammed IV. The dramatist Jozsef Katona (1791-1830) was born at Kecskemet. The town developed rapidly with the vigorous farming of the 19th century and the population steadily increased, but municipal rather than private estates became noted for certain crops, especially fruits.

The town's famous "dawn market"

in the

summer

midnight to keep the fruit fresh. Sugar beet is grown; the sandy neighbourhood also produces vines resistant to phylloxera, and from the town's vineyards wines of good quality

months begins

are made.

at

Prior to the collectivization policies of the 1950s the

Kecskemet municipality owned the Bugac steppe, where the big, white Hungarian draft cattle were reared. The railway and road from Budapest to Szeged go through Kecskemet as does the railway from Budapest via Cegled; good roads from the Danube and Tisza valleys converge on the town.

KEDAH— KEENE Agricultural machinery, textiles, leather apricot brandy are

among

work and

the distilling of

(H. G. S.) a state of the Malaysia federation in northwestern Malaya with a constitutional sultan, was under Thai suzerainty unArea 3,660 sq.mi. til 1909 when it accepted a British adviser. Pop. (1961 est.) 783,993. Kedah includes to its east ranges so uniformly steep and thickly forested that they virtually isolate the state from Perak and Kelantan and from south Thailand. The developed part is a lowland about 10 mi. broad between these ranges and west coast. Two short rivers (Kedah and Muda) cross the The north plain bringing occasional floods from the mountains. Kedah plain is of young alluvium in parts, with tall fresh-water swamp forest, but a few rocky "islands" of limestone jut through. Malay agriculture developed first along the Kedah-Muda streams and then along the foothill margins, working out into the swamps which were drained and brought under paddy mostly during the 19th century by the Malays; at mid-20th century vast works were being engineered for draining and irrigating 75,000 ac. at Kubang Pasu. The sector of the lowlands round the Muda is hillier and was first used for rubber estates early in the 20th cenThe western plain now contains almost the entire acreage tury. of paddy and rubber, and produces about 190,000 tons of rice and 61,000 tons of rubber each year, carrying over 100,000 workers on the paddyfields and 38,000 workers on the rubber estates. Coconuts are grown for domestic use. The shallow coast is dangerous, yet a considerable tonnage of fish is landed by Chinese at the mouth of the Kedah river for transport by truck to Butterworth. The plain has arterial road and rail connections south into the tin and rubber region of Malay drawing this old Malay state its

industries.

KEDAH,

into

commerce.

Some

rice

moves

into internal trade

and small

Chinese rice mills stand along the highway. The rubber-growing zone has many Tamil Indians who form 20% of the population of Sungei Patani. The state is 68% Malay in population, only 13% of the rural population being Chinese and Indian though Chinese are prominent in all the market towns. Alor Star, the state capital (pop. [1957] 52,915) lies in the centre of the paddy growing area and is unapproachable from the sea 12 mi. away. About 20 mi. offshore are the spectacular islands of

Langkawi (pop. [1957] 16,617), of little commercial significance, linked to Kuala Kedah by occasional launch services. (E. H. G. D.)

KEDIRI, a

former residency (regency) in the province of East Java, Indon., bounded east by Malang, west by Madiun, north by Surabaja and Bodjanegara and south by the Indian ocean. Area 2,555 sq.mi. Pop. (1957 est.) 3,420,451. The central area is hilly, with high mountains (Mt. Wilis, 8,409 ft., and Mt. Kelud, 5,679 ft.), and in the extreme south low limestone hills shut off nearly all the coast from the interior. There are no harbours in the south and access to the sea is northward by the navigable Brantas river.

The

interior has fertile plains bordering the Brantas.

Rice, sugar

cane, cotton, cassava, maize, peanuts, coconuts

and soybeans are grown; estate crops are coffee, cocoa, quinine, tobacco and indigo. Teak is obtained from the forests. Sugar and tapioca are processed.

From

the 11th to the 13th century- this region was a separate kingdom, comprising the western half of the kingdom of Erlangga (d.

1049).

Kediri,

nth

from

Originally its capital.

known as Pandjalu, it was later named Under Raja Djojobojo of Kediri (mid-

century) Djanggala, the eastern part of Erlangga's kingdom,

was seized, but in 1222 Kediri was defeated by the raja of Singosari and incorporated into his territory. Remains of this period include a wall from Mt. Kawi to south of Karangkates, and a statue of the Hindu God Ganesha, the "remover of obstacles." Kediri became a residency in 1830, after the war in central Java. (See Java: History.) Kediri town (pop. [1961] 158,918), the capital of the residency from 1830, stands on the Brantas and is a centre of the sugar industry. There are Hindu temple remains in the neighbourhood. Other towns are Blitar (62,972), with the ruins of Panataram temple (Hindu) nearby, Tulungagung (31,767), Kertosono and Papar. These towns are linked by the Surabaja-Tulungagung railway. Steam tramways link the small towns of Wates, Para and Kepung.

267

JAMES EDWARD

KEELER, (1857-190°), U.S. astronomer, best known for his spectroscopic studies of Saturn's rings and He was his observations of nebulae using a reflecting telescope. born in LaSalle, 111., Sept. 10, 1857. At an early age he developed an interest in astronomy and showed great ingenuity in constructFor five ing his own instruments and in making observations. years after his graduation from Johns Hopkins university, Baltimore, Md., he served as assistant to Samuel Pierpont Langley at the Allegheny observatory, with an interruption of one year for study in Germany. From 1886 until 1891 Keeler was on the staff of the Lick observatory, first as assistant to the Lick trustees, and later as astronomer in charge of the spectroscopic program. Among the outstanding results of his work were the measurement of the lineof-sight velocities of the Orion nebula and 13 planetary nebulae. The measures showed that these objects have motions similar to those of the stars and are, therefore, members of our stellar system. In 1 89 1 Keeler went to the Allegheny observatory as director, and while there he demonstrated by means of the spectroscope that the rings of Saturn revolve about the planet like a multitude of small independent satellites. In 1898 he returned to the Lick observatory as director, and undertook photographic observations of nebulae with the recently acquired Crossley reflector. This work established the reflecting telescope as the supreme instrument for photographing faint celestial objects.

Among

the results of the

program was the

dis-

covery that the spiral form is dominant among the nongaseous nebulae now known as external galaxies. He died on Aug. 12, 1900. For a complete bibliography see National graphical Memoirs, vol. v, p. 233 (1905).

Academy

of Science Bio(C. D. S.)

KEELING ISLANDS: see Cocos (Keeling) Islands. KEELUNG, Formosa see Chi-lung. KEEN, WILLIAM WILLIAMS (1837-1932), U.S. :

sur-

geon, a specialist in surgery of the brain and the nervous system and a pioneer in performing successfully new and difficult operations in this field, was born at Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 19, 1837. He

graduated from Brown university (1859) and Jefferson Medical college (1862), and served as a surgeon during the American Civil War. After study abroad, he started practice in Philadelphia, where he conducted the Philadelphia School of Anatomy (186675) lectured on pathological anatomy at Jefferson Medical college (1866-75); and was professor of surgery at Woman's Medical college (1884-89) and at Jefferson (1889-1907). Keen wrote several surgical and other works, and was editor of many works including Gray's Anatomy and Keen's Surgery. He died June 7, ;

1932.

KEENE, CHARLES SAMUEL black-and-white

artist,

English

(1823-1891),

book and magazine

illustrator,

was born

Hornsey on Aug. 10, 1823. His earliest known design is the The Adventures of Dick Boldhero, etc. In Dec. 1851 he made his first appearance in Punch and, after nine years of steady work, was called to a seat at the famous table. It was

at

frontispiece to

during this period of probation that he first gave evidence transcendent qualities which make his work at once the despair of his brother craftsmen. On the starting of Once in 1859, Keene's services were requisitioned, his most

of those

joy and a

Week,

notable

Reade's (afterward rechristened The Cloister and the Hearth) and to George Meredith's Evan Harrington. There is a quality of conventionality in the earlier of these which later disappears. In 1872 Keene made the acquaintance of Joseph Crawhall, who had been in the habit for many years of jotting down any humorous incidents he might hear of or observe, illustrating them series in this periodical being the illustrations to Charles

A Good

Fight

own amusement. These were placed unreservedly Keene's disposal, and inspired at least 250 of his most successful drawings in the last 20 years of his connection with Punch. A list of more than 200 of these subjects is given in G. S. Layard's The Life and Letters of Charles Keene of "Punch." In 1881 a volume of his Punch drawings was published as Our People. He died on Jan. 4, 1891. (G. S. L. X.) (Mary Moss) (c. 1820-1873), EnglishKEENE, U.S. actress, first important woman theatre manager in the United

at leisure for his at

;

LAURA

KEEP—KEIGWIN

268

London, and served her apprenticeship with J. W. Wallack saw her at the Olympic theatre in 1851 and engaged her for his New York company. She made a successful debut at Wallack's in 1852 but soon left, first to manage a Baltimore theatre, then to tour as far as San Francisco and Australia. She returned to New York in 1855 and opened the Metropolitan theatre as Laura Keene's States,

Mme

was born

in

Vestris. the singer-actress-manager.

Varieties.

In 1856 she began eight years of management in her own theatre with a first-rate company. She was admired for her acting of

comedy and of pathetic heroines contemporary melodrama. One of her successes was Tom Taylor's Our American Cousin, in which E. A. Sothern as Lord Dundreary and Joseph Jefferson as Asa Trenchard made their first great hits. Her company was playing this play at Ford's theatre, Washington, D.C., the night Pres. Abraham Lincoln was assassinated. In 1872 she helped found and edit a short-lived monthly magazine, The Fine Arts. Her early marriage to John Taylor ended in separation; after Taylor's death she married John Lutz, her business manager. She died at Montclair, N.J., Nov. 4, 1873. (B. Ht.) KEEP, an English term corresponding to the French donjon elegant ladies in classical English

in

for the strongest portion of the fortification of a castle, the place of last resort in case of siege or attack. It was either a single tower or a larger fortified enclosure, sometimes approximately

round, and then known as a shell keep, as in Berkeley castle, or Windsor. The most famous of the Norman keeps of England is the White Tower of London of the nth century, supposedly designed by Gundulf, bishop of Rochester.

KEEWATIN, the most

easterly district of the three divisions

Northwest Territories of Canada. It is bounded on the east by Hudson bay and Foxe channel, on the west by the district of Mackenzie (longitude 102° W.) and on the south by Manitoba (latitude 60° N.). Area 228,160 sq.mi. Pop. (1961) 2,345. The district is wholly within the Canadian shield physiographic division, and only the extreme southwest of it is forested, and that sparsely. The remainder is a tundra area, with frequent rock outcrops and many lakes and marshes. It lies well to the north of any present area of development. Before the present boundaries of the three prairie provinces were established the name was applied to a more extensive region. See Northwest Territories. KEF, LE (Arabic El- Kef, "the rock"), a town of Tunisia, is situated on the High Tell 170 km. (105.6 mi.) S.W. of Tunis and 35 km. (21.7 mi.) from the Algerian frontier. Pop. (1956) 14,743 (mun.). The town occupies the site of the ancient Sicca Veneria, a Carthaginian town which became a Roman colony, and is built in the form of an amphitheatre on the southwestern slopes of the Jebel Dyr at the foot of a rock which is crowned by a Turkish kasbah, built from ancient ruins and restored by the French. There are crumbling remains of a rampart, fragments of Roman baths and a temple and large, ancient cisterns which were fed by the same spring that now supplies the town. The Arab town contains several mosques and there are remains of a Christian basilica, excavated by the French, of which the apse is intact and the narthex serves as a church. The Roman colony extended beyond the present town to the south; its name was derived from a temple dedicated to an oriental goddess, identified by the Romans with Venus. By the middle ages Le Kef was just a large village, but Turkish rule and the creation of a frontier between the regencies of Tunis and Algiers made it an important stronghold. It was occupied without incident by the French Logerot expedition sent from Algeria in April 1881. The town is a regional market place and a road junction occupying a position of strategic importance on the route to Algeria. The mining railway passes 30 km. (18.6 mi.) to the south. Le Kef Governorate (pop. [1960 est.] 269,000; area 3,112 of the

sq.mi.) includes the delegations (administrative districts) of Le Kef, Le Sers, Maktar, Robaa, Siliana and Tadjerouine and covers

most of the High Tell, except for the areas round Teboursouk in the northeast and Thala in the south. It includes the wooded mountains of the Ouargla in the northwest; the grain and cattleraising areas of the plains of the Kef, Krib, Zouaourine, Sers and

Siliana, with the intervening ranges; the central region of the Dorsal chain with its forests and mountain villages to the east; and the mining region of the frontier belt to the west, with iron (Djerissa), phosphates (Kalaa Djerda) and lead. (J.-J. Ds.) KEH-LAO, an ethnic group of southwest China living in remote mountain valleys of Kweichow province. Their total population, combined with that of the neighbouring and related Mu-lao people, was estimated at about 5,000 in the 1960s. They are also reported to live in small numbers in northwest Hunan province a few families have migrated to Indochina. The Keh-lao are of small stature, with broad faces and wide, low-bridged noses; the Mongolian (epicanthic) fold is absent or only slight. As remnants of the once widespread Lao people whose history dates to the Han dynasty (202 b.c.-a.d. 221), the Keh-lao are related to the Tu-lao of Yunnan province, and are regarded as belonging to an Austroasiatic stratum (represented by the Wa [q.v.~\ and the Puman and Palaung of Yunnan). Spoken in different dialects, the monosyllabic Keh-lao language is an isolating type (see Language; Austroasiatic Languages). Together with the languages of the ;

Hainan

and the aboriginal Laqua and Lati (q.v.) of northit has been grouped into the Kadai language family, bridging Thai and Indonesian. Numerous place names indicate the former wide distribution of the Keh-lao; most of their territories were yielded to invading Chung Chia, Miao and Chinese. Considerably sinicized in the 1960s, they were living either as tenants of Chinese and practising wet-rice agriculture or, where they tilled their own stony and remote lands, were planting maize as a staple. The traditional costume of short coat, poncho-style tunic (both embroidered) and pleated hemp skirt was no longer being worn; formerly the Kehlao understood the technique of batik (see Textiles). However, such ancient Lao practices as tooth breaking and haircutting as initiation rites were still well remembered. Li,

western Indochina,

—

Bibliography. I. de Beauclair, "The Ken Lao of Kweichow, and Their History According to the Chinese Records," Studia Serica, vol. v (1946), "The Representatives of the Lao in Kweichow Province," AnP. Benedict, "Thai, Kadai and nals of Academia Sinica, no. 3 (1956) Indonesian: a New Alignment in Southeastern Asia," Amer. Anthrop., vol. 44, no. 4 (1942) W. Eberhard, "Kultur und Siedelung der Randvolker Chinas," T'oung Pao, supplement to vol. xxxvi (1942), A History of China, Eng. trans, by E. W. Dickes, 2nd ed. (I960). (I. de B.) ;

;

KEIGHLEY,

a municipal borough of the West Riding of Yorkshire, Eng., 10 mi. N.W. of Bradford by road. Pop. (1961) 55,852. It is in a deep valley near the confluence of the Worth and the Aire and is served by the Leeds and Liverpool canal, which affords water communication with both Liverpool and Hull. The parish church of St. Andrew, dating from the time of Henry II, was much modernized in 1710, rebuilt with the exception of the

tower in 1805 and again rebuilt in 1878. The grammar school was founded in 1713, established in 1871 a trade school for boys and for girls. The technical school was founded in pal manufactures are woolen goods, spinning

and machine

tools.

and from

it

The town was incorporated

machinery, looms in 1882 and con-

siderably extended in 1938. It includes the quaint village of worth (q.v.), famous as the home of the Bronte family.

KEIGWIN, RICHARD

were

grammar school 1870. The princia

Ha-

(d. 1690), British naval officer and East India company, leader of "Keigwin's rebellion," was a son of Richard Keigwin of Penzance, Cornwall. On May 4, 1673, as a lieutenant in H.M.S. "Assistance," he led the assault on the Dutch-held island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic, the landing place still being known as "Keigwin's rock." In 1676 he went to Bombay as a free merchant, but soon entered the East India company's service. As commandant in 1679 he distinguished himself in battle against the Maratha navy. In 1683 discontent with the company's economies broke into revolt which Keigwin headed. For nearly a year he ruled Bombay vigorously in the king's name, but finally he surrendered the island to the company on the king's orders, in Nov. 1684, after obtaining a free pardon for himself and his followers, and returned to England in 1685. As commanding officer of H.M.S. "Assistance" he was killed on June 21, 1690, while leading the assault on the island officer of the

KEIHIN— KEITH of St. Kitts in the Leeward islands. See R. Strachey and 0. Strachey, Keigwin's Rebellion (1916). (T. G. P. S.)

KEIHIN, kohama and

the collective

name

for the ports of

developed along the 25 mi. coast line

(q.v.) that cities.

See

Tokyo; Yokohama.

REINHARD

(1674-1739), German composer of KEISER, operas and church music, was baptized at Teuchern, near WeissenHe received his early education from his fels, on Jan. 12, 1674. father, an organist, afterward attending the Thomasschule in Leipzig. About 1697 he settled in Hamburg and became the most celebrated opera composer of his day. His many operas include Octavia (1705), written to compete with Handel's lost opera Nero; Der angenehme Betrug, with arias by Christoph Graupner (1707; revived in an arrangement by F. Tutenberg, 1931); Croesus (c. 1710) and the comic opera Der laecherliche Printz Jodelet (1726; ;

In 1700 he started a series of winter concerts in form of a combination of concert and banquet. In 1712 he married a well-known singer, Barbara Oldenburg, and in 1728 became cantor and canon of Hamburg cathedral. He died in Hamburg on Sept. 12, 1739. Reiser's outstanding gifts for melody foreshadow the style galant. Each of his operas, based on a mythological or historical subject, contains a profusion of arias, originally in German but later in Italian. With his colleagues Johann Mattheson and G. P. Telemann, he attempted to establish at Hamburg a distinctively German form of baroque opera. His early operas were entirely in German but gradually, with the return of Italian arias, his newly established style declined. In Die verdammte Staat-Sucht (1703) In his there were 56 German arias as opposed to 11 in Italian. last opera, Circe (1734), there were 21 German arias and 23 in Italian, some written by Leonardo Leo, J. A. Hasse and Handel. Though he long remained a favourite with the public, his aims remained unfulfilled. In his later years he turned to church music, written in a more severe style, including oratorios, motets, cantatas and psalms. revived 1930).

Hamburg

that took the

See R. Petzoldt, Die Kirchenkompositionen und weltlichen Kantaten Reinhard Keisers (1935) H. C. Wolff, Die Barockoper in Hamburg, ;

2 vol.

(1957).

KEITEL, who was

WILHELM

(1882-1946), German army

chief military adviser to Adolf Hitler in

officer,

World War

II,

was born at Helmscherode in central Germany on Sept. 22, 1882. Keitel had staff assignments in World War I and mostly administrative duties in the Reichswehr thereafter. In Feb. 1938, when Hitler took personal command of the armed forces, Keitel was appointed to the new post of chief of the armed forces high command, equivalent to minister of war. He held that post until the end of the war. Keitel participated in all major conferences, dictated the armistice terms to the French in June 1940, and signed operational orders, including those requiring the shooting of hostages and other acts considered illegal under international law. He was a member of the "court of honour" which brought about the death sentences of

many

high-ranking officers in connection with the unsuccessful

plot to assassinate Hitler, July 20, 1944. After the war he was convicted by the International Military Tribunal in Niirnberg of

planning and waging a war of aggression, of war crimes and of crimes against humanity. He was hanged on Oct. 16, 1946. Keitel was generally regarded as a weak officer who had little tactical military experience and served chiefly as Hitler's lackey.

KEITH,

the

name

(P. N. T.) of a Scottish family that derived its name

from the barony of Keith in East Lothian, said to have been granted by Malcolm II, king of Scotland, for services against the Danes. Possession of the Keith lands and of the office of great marshal (marischal) of Scotland (afterward hereditary in the Keith family) was confirmed by Robert I the Bruce to Sir Robert Keith, who commanded the cavalry at the battle of Bannockburn and was

Cross (1346). At the close of the 14th century Sir William Keith, by exchange of lands with Lord Lindsay, obtained Dunnottar in Kincardineshire where he built the castle that became the Keith stronghold. Belater killed in the battle of Neville's

tween 1446 and 1458 a later Sir William Keith was created Lord Keith and earl marshal; these titles remained in the family until forfeited in 1716.

Tokyo and Yo-

Kawasaki between the two

the industrial area centring on

269

of

William (d. 1581), 4th earl marshal, was one of the guardians Mary Stuart. Later he was an adherent of the Reformation;

he retired to Dunnottar in 1567, gaining the sobriquet "William of the Tower," and was reputed to be the wealthiest man in Scotland. His daughter married the regent Moray. His grandson George (c. 1553-1623), 5th earl marshal, one of the most cultured men of his time, was educated at King's college, Aberdeen, and under Theodore Beza at Geneva. He was a firm Protestant and took an active part in church affairs. He acted as special ambassador to Denmark to arrange the marriage of James VI with the Princess Anne. In 1593 he founded and endowed Marischal college in the University of Aberdeen. From an uncle, the last abbot of Deer, he inherited the title of Lord Altrie about 1590. William (c. 1614-71), 7th earl marshal, was a covenanter and the most powerful opponent of the marquess of Huntly. He cooperated with the marquess of Montrose against the Gordons and signed the bond of Cumbernauld in 1640, but took no active steps until 1648, when he joined the duke of Hamilton in his invasion of England, escaping after the rout at Preston. In 1650 he entertained the future Charles II at Dunnottar where in 1651 the Scottish regalia were left for safekeeping. Taken prisoner in the same year and committed to the Tower of London, he was excluded from Cromwell's Act of Grace. He was made a privy councilor at the Restoration and died in 1671. Sir John Keith (d. 1715), brother of the 7th earl, was created hereditary knight marshal of Scotland at the Restoration and earl of Kintore in 1677 a reward for his share in preserving the regalia which were secretly conveyed by

—

the minister's wife from Dunnottar to Kinneff kirk, when the castle was besieged by Cromwell's troops. From him are descended the earls of Kintore (now chiefs of the name of Keith) whose seat is

at Keith hall in Aberdeenshire.

George

(c.

1694-1778), 10th earl marshal, was,

like his

brother

Francis, a zealous Jacobite, taking part in the rising of 1715, after which he escaped to the continent. In 1716 he was attainted, his

and titles being forfeited to the crown. He lived at first and after 1745 in Prussia, where he and his brother enjoyed the friendship of Frederick the Great. Frederick employed him in diplomacy and George is said to have conveyed information to the earl of Chatham, for which he received a pardon from George II. In 1761 he visited London. From the Keith family through the female line was descended the distinguished British admiral George Keith Elphinstone, afterward Viscount Keith (q.v.), whose titles became extinct at the death of his daughter Margaret, Baroness Keith, in 1867. estates

in Spain,

(T. I.)

KEITH, SIR

ARTHUR

(1866-1955), Scottish anatomist and physical anthropologist, a leading specialist on fossil man, was born Feb. 5, 1866, at Old Machar, Aberdeen. Educated at Aberdeen university, University college (London) and Leipzig university, he received doctoral degrees in medicine, science and law. He became professor at the Royal College of Surgeons in 1908, was president of the Royal Anthropological institute (191 2-14), professor of physiology at the Royal institution (1917-23) and rector at the University of Aberdeen (1930-33). While continubecame expert at reconstructing early

ing his medical research, he

hominid forms, working particularly on fossils from Europe and north Africa, and on the important skeletal groups from Mt. Carmel, Palestine (Israel). Chiefly a morphologist, Keith tended to overemphasize the "tooth and claw" or competitive factor in his writings on evolution, and confused culturally conditioned attitudes with inherited traits in his interpretation of racial and national prejudices as inborn. Sir Arthur died Jan. 7, 1955, at

Downe, Kent. Keith's major works include The Human Body (1912); Antiquity of Man (1915; 2nd ed., 1925) Nationality and Race (1920) ;

New Discoveries Relating to the Antiquity Theory of Human Evolution (1948); An

;

Man

(1931) A New Autobiography (1950). KEITH, (1879-1944), eminent British constitutional lawyer and Sanskrit scholar, was born at of

ARTHUR BERRIEDALE

;

; ;

KEITH—KEKULE VON STRADONITZ

270

Portobello. Edinburgh, on April

5th,

Educated

1879.

at

first

Edinburgh, he continued a brilliant academic career at Balliol colIn 1901 lege, Oxford, where he studied classics, Sanskrit and Pali. he passed first into the civil service, where he developed his interest in law. being called to the bar at the Inner Temple in 1904. Throughout his career the two interests of Sanskrit and law continued to exercise equal attraction for him. From 1914 until his death. Keith was professor of Sanskrit and comparative philology in the University of Edinburgh. He was a member of a number of important commissions, such as the Committee on Home Administration of Indian Affairs (1919). He published both works on constitutional law and history and works on Indian literature and philosophy, including Vedic translations. In 1922 the University

Edinburgh created for him a lectureship

of

in

the constitution

of the British empire, which he held concurrently with the chair of Sanskrit.

He

died in Edinburgh on Oct.

included: Responsible

volumes (1928);

A

Government

in the

6,

1944.

Keith's works

Dominions, 3rd

ed.,

two

History of Sanskrit Literature (1928). (J- Br.) '

KEITH,

GEORGE KEITH ELPHINSTONE,

Viscount

(1746-1823), British admiral, distinguished in the Napoleonic Wars, fifth son of the 10th Lord Elphinstone, was born at Elphinstone near Stirling, Scot., on Jan. 7, 1746. He entered the navy in 1761 and served as a midshipman under John Jervis, later Earl St.

Vincent,

who became

his lifelong friend.

lieutenant in 1770 and captain in 1775.

He

He was promoted

served throughout the

War by land and sea, distinguishing himcapture of Charleston, S.C. At the outbreak of the French Revolutionary Wars he served under Lord Hood at the capture of Toulon and was rewarded by being promoted rear admiral in 1794 and vice-admiral in 1795. In that year he was sent out to capture the Cape of Good Hope and in 1796 he made his fortune with the prize money won at the capture of a Dutch squadron at Saldanha bay. On his return in 1797 he was created Baron Keith in the peerage of Ireland. At the time of the naval mutinies he was sent to suppress the outbreaks at the Xore and at Plymouth (1797). In 1798 he went out to the Mediterranean as second-incommand to St. Vincent. He has been blamed for the escape of the French fleet under Etienne Eustache Bruix, but this was the result of circumstances beyond his control. When ill-health compelled St. Vincent to resign. Keith became commander in chief, to American Revolutionary self at the

the annoyance of Nelson

who was then

Genoa surrendered because

a junior admiral.

In 1800

of Keith's close blockade, but he

was

compelled to withdraw after the defeat of the Austrians at Marengo. In 1801 he and Gen. Sir Ralph Abercromby drove the French out of Egypt. On the renewal of war in 1803 he was appointed to the North sea station, which extended from Selsey to Scotland. Until he resigned in 1807 he thus bore the main responsibility for the defense of the shores of Great Britain against Napoleon's invasion schemes. From 1812 to 1815 he commanded the channel fleet, and it was to a ship under his command. H.M.S. "Bellerophon" (Capt. Frederick Maitland), off Rochefort, that Napoleon surrendered after Waterloo. Under Keith's personal supervision he was transferred to the "Northumberland" for the voyage to St. Helena. Keith then retired from the sea and died in 1823. He married Jane Mercer in 1787 and Hester Thrale (Samuel Johnson's "Queenie") in 1808. In 1814 he had been created a viscount of the United Kingdom. He died at Tulliallan, Fifeshire, on March 10, 1823. Though he never fought a pitched battle at sea, Keith reached the highest rank and occupied the most responsible posts in the navy because of his ability as an administrator. See the Keith Papers, ed. by the

Navy Records

W.

G. Perrin and C. Lloyd, published by (C. C. L.)

Society, 3 vol. (1927-55).

KEITH, WILLIAM

(1838-1911), U.S. painter, best known was born at Old Meldrum, Aberdeen-

for his California landscapes,

on Nov. 21, 1838, and settled in California in 1859. Encouraged by critical approval and sales of his first landscapes, Keith spent the years 1869-70 in study abroad. For 40 years thereafter -his San Francisco studios produced thousands of conventional woodland scenes and serene mountain landscapes, composed from his field sketches of the Sierra Nevada, California live shire, Scot.,

oaks and the Yosemite. His work reveals his debt to both Constable and Corot and reflects his appreciation of George Inness (the Elder), with whom Keith is properly compared. He died at Berkeley, Calif., on April 13, 1911. There are two Keith galleries

Mary's College, Moraga, and

in California, at St.

at the

Oakland

Art museum. He is also represented in the collections of the Metropolitan museum, the Corcoran gallery, and the Cleveland Art

museum. Bibliography. Keith, the

Man

—Art

in California (1916) ; Eugen Neuhaus, William Artist (1938) ; Brother Cornelius, Keith, Old

and the

Master of California (1942).

KEITH,

(D. C. B.)

burgh of Banffshire, Scot., lies in Strath Isla, 50 mi. N.W. of Aberdeen by road. Pop. (1961) 4,208. The town, regularly planned, consists of Old and New Keith, on the east bank of the Isla, linked to Fife-Keith on the west bank by two bridges (one dating from 1609). Old Keith fell into gradual decay; New Keith was founded about 1 750 by the 5th earl of Findlater; and Fife-Keith grew up after 1816. In the Roman Catholic church there is an altarpiece presented by Charles X of France. James Gordon Bennett, founder of the New York Herald, was born at Newmill, 1^ mi. N. Keith is an important agricultural centre. The principal industry is the manufacture of tweeds and woolen goods. Oatmeal and cereals are prepared and there is a large distillery. Keith was long famous for its Summer Eve fair, a name derived from that of St. Summarius, patron saint of the town. KEKCHI, an American Indian group speaking the QuicheKekchi form of Maya, located mostly in the Alta Verapaz department of Guatemala and estimated to number 136,000 in the 1960s. Kekchi speakers in Izabal and El Peten departments and British Honduras may raise this to 200,000. The Kekchi are predominantly oriented to rural settlement; only 6% are town dwellers. Originally the Kekchi and neighbouring Indians (see Quiche) resisted efforts to bring them under Spanish rule, and the area became known as the "Land of War." In 1537 the Dominican missionary Bartolome de las Casas gained permission to attempt a small

peaceful subjugation of the region over a five-year period. This was so successful that an additional ten-year tenure was granted Charles V named the area Verapaz ("True Peace") in in 1539. Kekchi christianization was recognition of Dominican success. complete by the early 1550s, and Charles V executed a royal cedula (1555) approving Dominican methods and closing the area to Spanish exploitation and rule; Dominican control continued until 1821. Some authorities maintain that the Dominican organization of the Kekchi served as a model for the South American missionary states. Exploitation of the area following independence was slowed by poor communication and absence of valuable raw The introduction of plantation coffee cultivation materials. brought national economic policies that placed the Kekchi under the power of Ladino and German plantation owners during the late 19th century.

The Kekchi have maintained

a rural orienta-

placed on the cultivation of small They are for the most part monolingual, and, though there fields. is increasing ladinization, they retain a clearer Indian identity than most Mesoamerican Indians. See also Guatemala; Maya Intion with great emphasis

still

dians, Indian, Latin-American.

—

Bibliography. B. de las Casas, Historia de las Indias (1875-76) R. Burkitt, "Guatemalan Myths," Mus. J., Philad., vol. vi, no. 3 (1915) K. Sapper, Mittelamerikanische Reisen und Studien (1902); E. Pop, Doctrina en Lengua Kekchi (1935) Tiburtius Kaal et al., Hills and the Corn, trans, by Robert Burkitt, University of Pennsylvania Museum (1921) X. L. Whetten, Guatemala: The Land and the People (1961) H. Davies (ed.), The South American Handbook 1961-1962, 2 vol. (A. R. K.) (1962). ;

;

KEKULE VON STRADONITZ, FRIEDRICH AUGUST (1829-1896), German chemist who laid the groundwork modern theory of structure in organic chemistry, was born Darmstadt on Sept. 7, 1829. He entered the University of Giessen with the intention of becoming an architect but after coming under the influence of Justus von Liebig decided to become a chemist. It seems probable that his early training in architecture helped him conceive the structure theories he later proposed. He received his doctorate from Giessen in 1852 and then studied in Paris, where he met Charles F. Gerhardt, from whose type theory for the

at

KELANT AN— KELLER of organic structure he later developed his

own

ideas.

He

next

spent some time in London and in 1856 became a lecturer at the University of Heidelberg, where he worked out his first major theories. In 1858 he became professor of chemistry at Ghent and

moved

Bonn, where he spent the rest of his life and by which he added von Stradonitz to his name. He died in Bonn on July 13. 1896. During 1850-58 organic chemistry had fallen into a state of great confusion. Although Edward Frankland had proposed the doctrine of valence in 1852 and Hermann Kolbe was writing a form of structural formula that included the main ideas of later formulas but was based on false assumptions, most chemists were unable to comprehend how a large number of carbon atoms could be accommodated in an organic compound. In 1858 Kekule showed that carbon was tetravalent and was able to link with itself to form long chains, and this opened the way to an understanding of the nature of aliphatic compounds. The theory was announced almost simultaneously, but independently, by the Scottish chemist A. S. Couper. who in some respects wrote formulas that resembled more closely those used by later chemists than did the formulas written by Kekule. The details of modern structural theory were worked out later by A. M. Butlerov and soon were accepted by all in

1865 he

received the

title

to

of nobility

chemists.

The problem compounds

and the numerous remained unsolved. In 1865. by a brilliant inspiration, Kekule realized that the structure of benzene could be explained by assuming that a chain of six carbon atoms could be closed into a ring. All the facts of organic chemistry known up to that time now fell into place. After Wilhelm Korner. ring

of the structure of benzene related to

it

Kekule's assistant, showed how the position of substituents in the ring could be determined, the whole field of aromatic chemistry was opened. The great German dye industry of the latter half of the nineteenth century was based on this work. Kekule wrote a textbook of organic chemistry, Lehrbach der organise/ten Chemie, that was published in four volumes in 1861— 87. He also carried out valuable work on mercury fulminate, unsaturated acids and thio acids. However, it is on his ability to visualize the combinations of carbon compounds that his fame rests.

See Chemistry: History of Chemistry: Organic Compounds (1858-1900); Chemistry: Organic Chemistry: The Structure of Organic Molecules (Kekule-Couper); see also references under "Kekule von Stradonitz. Friedrich August" in the Index. Bibliography. The standard biography of Kekule is that of R.

—

Anschutz, August Kekule, 2 vol. (1929). Shorter biographies include those by F. R. Japp, the Memorial Lecture in /. Ckem. Soc. (1898) by R. VVinderlich in G. Bugge (ed.), Das Buck der grossen Chemiker (1930) and by R. Anschutz in Eduard Farber (ed.), Great Chemists (1962). (H. M. L.) ;

;

KELANTAN,

a state of the Malaysia federation in northeastern Malaya, under a constitutional sultan. Area 5,780 sq.mi. Pop. (1965 est.) 636,812. Kelantan is almost entirely formed by the

long valley of the Kelantan river and about 19% is forested; mountainous jungles form its boundary with Thailand in the north, with Perak on the west and with Pahang on the south. Until 1909

and again during the Japanese occupation (1942-45) the state was under Thai suzerainty, but its people are Malay by race and Muslim by religion, more homogeneously so than in any other Malayan state.

Its agricultural

Kelantan river

economy

centres on the

paddy

fields

of the

used square mile being 340 persons. The state has about 174,000 ac. under paddy and 103,000 under rubber, producing 72,000 tons of rice and 22,000 tons of rubber in a normal year. Along the sandspits and lagoons of the coast much coconut is grown in conjunction with inshore fishing, despite the shallow seaward approaches which oblige even small coastwise steamers to anchor half a mile offshore. During the wet season (October-January) strong northeasterly winds whip up heavy seas, preventing all sea-borne activity. Historically Kelantan was colonized by Javanese who came by canoe, and the state retains a dialect, customs and traditions different from those of Malays in surrounding states, Kelantanese having been isolated by their difficult hinterland uncrossed by delta, the density per

On

roads.

tributaries

the delta

271 movement

which periodically

is

restricted

by the Kelantan

flood, a great risk in

dis-

November and

December when rainfall averages an inch a day on the delta and two inches in the hills. The state capital. Kota Bharu ("new fort" l. stands on the east levee of the main channel of the Kelantan. inaccessible from the sea which is 8 mi. away and the focus of a fan of short roads, the valley road ending at Kuala Krai and the coast road only negotiable to Trengganu. A ferry links Kota Bharu to the west-bank road to the outport at Tumpat and to a single-track railway running south to Gemas and the Malayan railway and also to Sungei Golok, the Royal Thai railway connection to Bangkok and west Malaya. See also Malaysia. (E. H. G. D.) FATHERS, the name by which the Society of the Sacred Mission is known, was started in 1891 by Herbert H. Kelly as an Anglican religious community whose members take the vows of poverty, chastity and obedience. The society's main aim is the training of men for mission work at home and abroad in close co-operation with the local diocesans. The mother house at Kelham. near Newark, Nottinghamshire, contains a theological college where boys are received from the age of 15. The training leads either to ordination or to lay service. A similar house and college were founded at Adelaide in Australia in 1947. The society also maintains a number of smaller branch houses in England and South Africa, some with charge of parishes. From its beginning the society has been closely concerned with work for Christian

KELHAM

unity.

Bibliography. Kellv,

An

—P. F. Anson, The Call of the Cloister (1955)

Idea in the Working, 3rd ed. (1953), and

(1960).

KELLER, GOTTFRIED

;

H. H.

No

Pious Person

(A.

MacD.

A.)

(1819-1890), the greatest German-

Swiss narrative writer of the realistic school. Keller's brilliant imagination drew upon a deep and humorous sympathy with men and things; and his shrewd knowledge of the world, combined with his creative gift, gave him his standing in German-speaking countries and beyond. He was also a notable lyric poet, some of his poems belonging to the permanent heritage of German literature. Keller was born on July 19, 1819, in Zurich, the son of a turner. After being expelled from the secondary school he became a landscape painter, but an unsuccessful one, for two years' study in Munich (1840-42) could not disguise that his talent was slight. Necessity drove him back to Zurich and in 1843 he discovered his gift for the lyric, publishing three years later a volume of poems

and the spirit of the age. From 1848 to 1850 he was able with the help of the Zurich government to study in Heidelberg, concentrating on philosophy under L. Feuerbach. From largely on nature

1850 to 1855, being ambitious to write for the stage, he lived in Berlin so that he could study the theatre. There, besides some drafts for plays which were never worked up, he wrote the fourvolume novel Der griine Heinrich (1854-55; Eng. trans. Green Henry, I960), in which he painted a largely autobiographical picture of the childhood and development of an artist. In 1879-80 he published it in a revised version with a new, happy ending. While still in Berlin he completed the first volume of Die Leute von Seldwyla (1856), stories full of deep insight into the life of the people. The most famous is the beautiful and tragically intense "Romeo und Julia auf dem Dorfe." A second volume appeared in 1874 (Eng. trans, of both volumes, The People of Seldwyla, 2nd ed. 1931). When Keller returned to Zurich in 1855 he lived for a time as an independent writer and was then from 1861 to 1876 clerk to the canton. In spite of his extensive duties he was an exemplary civil servant he published in 1872 the charmingly gay Sieben Legenden (Eng. trans., Seven Legends, 2nd ed. 1931). In 1878 there followed Zuricher Novellen, the Das material for which he took from Zurich's social history.

—

—

Sinngedicht (1881) is a cycle of love stories closely knit together In 1883 Keller published his Gesamin a surrounding "frame." melte Gedichte and in 1886 his last novel, Martin Salander, a work showing his concern for truth in human and political life. Before his death Keller had already achieved a great reputation. He died in Zurich on July 15, 1890. His Gesammelte Werke ap-

peared in 10 volumes in 1S89.

)

2

KELLER— KELLGREN

7-

—

Critical edition of Sdmtliche Werke, 17 vol. ed. by Frankel, 7 vol. by C. Helbling, contains all Keller's available works, including journals, criticism and political writings, with commentary (1926-49) Gesammelte Briefe, ed. by C. Helbling, with selected letters to Keller and commentary, 4 vol. (1950-54). See also E. Ermatinger, Gottfried Kellers Leben, a critical biography with extensive bibliography, 8th ed. (1950); E. Ackerknecht, G. Keller, Geschichte seines F. Baldenspergcr. G. Keller. Sa vie et ses Lebens, 3rd ed. (1961) oeuvres (1899) A. Frew Erinnerungen an G. Keller (1919) A. Koster. G. Keller (1923) P. Schaffner. G. Keller als Maler (1923 and 1942); A. Zach. G. Keller hn Spiegel seiner Zeit (1952); C. Zippermann, Eine G. Keller-Bibliograpkie, 1844-1934 (1935). As well as English translations mentioned above see selections by K. Freiligrath-Kroeker (1891 and 1894). (C. He.)

Bibliography.

J.

;

;

;

;

;

KELLER, HELEN ADAMS

(1880), a U.S. blind deaf-mute, whose education and training represent the most extraordinary accomplishment ever made in the education of persons so handicapped, was born at Tuscumbia, Ala., on June 27, 1880. By severe illness, at the age of 19 months, she was deprived of sight and hearing and soon became mute. When she was about six years old her parents appealed to Alexander Graham Bell (q. v.) for counsel regarding her education, and as a result, Anne MansMrs. John A. Macy) began on March 2, 1887, to instruct the child. Miss Sullivan, then 20 years old, formerly blind but partially cured of blindness, was a graduate of the Perkins School for the Blind at Boston. Mass. Within a month she had imparted the gift of language to her pupil. Under Miss Sullivan's constant teaching and with instruction at the Horace Mann School for the Deaf, Boston, and the Wright-Humason Oral school, New York city, Miss Keller not only learned to read, write and talk, but became exceptionally proficient in the ordinary educational curriculum. In 1900 she entered Radcliffe college, from which she graduated cum laude in 1904. Miss Sullivan, whose ability as a teacher was almost as marvelous as the talent of her pupil, was a devoted companion until her death in 1936. Miss Keller wrote many books and articles, among the most important being The Story of My Life (1902). Optimism (1903), The World I Live In (1908), Song of the Stone Wall (1910). Out field Sullivan (later

of the

Dark (19 13),

My

Religion (1927), Midstream

(1929),

Peace at Eventide (1932), Helen Keller's Journal (1938) and Let L's Have Faith (1940). Her best biographies are her own

Carnot vouched for his loyalty to the Revolution; and on Aug. 28, 1792, Kellermann was at Metz as general in chief of 22,000 men, mainly regulars, of the army of the Moselle. He was reluctant to march to help Gen. C. F. Dumouriez in the plains of Champagne and even more reluctant to pass under his orders, but was compelled to do so (Sept. 4). Placed by Dumouriez at Valmy in a position which he did not think strong, he found the Prussian army on his front on Sept. 20. The Prussians did not launch the expected infantry attack; cannonading began instead, and in this the French artillery matched the Prussian. Kellermann rode round with his hat on the point of his sword, and his troops felt that he was an obstinate man who would stay where he was. The Prussians retired. The battle of Valmy had cost the French 240 casualties.

In Nov. 1792 Kellermann was sent to command the army of commander. Gen. A. P. de MontesquiouFezensac. had deserted it after seizing Savoy from the Sardinian royal forces. In summer 1793 he was called away to help in the reduction of rebellious Lyons, but had to return to deal- with the Alps, whose previous

the Sardinian counterinvasion of

Savoy from Piedmont.

On

go-

ing back to the siege of Lyons, however, he found himself mis-

trusted by the committee of public safety in Paris

(Edmond Du-

who had

believed in him, had been replaced by Georges Couthon as representant en mission). Recalled to Paris,

bois-Crance.

he was imprisoned in Nov. 1793.

Kellermann was released after the reaction of Thermidor (July command the army of the Alps and

1794) and was sent back to also the

army

of Italy in spring 1795.

His battle of Vado against

the Austrians and Sardinians in June was a well-judged withdrawal from exposed positions. In Oct. 1795, however. B. L.

Scherer was given command of the army of Italy; and by 1797 Kellermann's army of the Alps ceased to exist.

Henceforth Kellermann was employed on inspection and organiAfter the coup d'etat of Brumaire (Nov. 1799) he was made a senator. He proved so good an administrator that Napoleon kept him in charge of reserve forces, mainly at Mainz, zation.

until 1814, in spite of his age.

He was

who were made marshals in Valmy in June 1808. He voted tors

the

first

of the four sena-

1804. and was created due de for Napoleon's abdication in

1814 and took no part in the Hundred Days. Under the second M. E. F. (1879-1951), German Restoration he sat in the chamber of peers until his death in Paris novelist who achieved international success with Der Tunnel on Sept. 13, 1820. His son Francois Etienne Kellermann (1770-1835) was one (1913; Eng. trans.. The Tunnel, 1915). a sensational technicalUtopian novel. He was born at Fiirth. Bavaria, on March 4. of Napoleon's best cavalry officers: he made the decisive charge It was he who signed the convention of 1879. and was a painter before settling down as an independent at Marengo (1800). writer. His early novels. Y ester und Li (1904). Ingeborg (1906) Sintra (1808) with the British in Portugal {see Marengo. Batand Der Tor (1909; Eng. trans., The Fool, 1925), are in the neo- tle of; Peninsular War). He also had a cavalry corps in (I. D. E.) romantic impressionist manner. Der neunte November (1920; France in 1814 and at Waterloo. Eng. trans., The 9th of November, 1925) was inspired by the Swedish (1 751-1795) German revolution of 1918. and Das blaue Band (1938) was poet and critic, an outstanding literary personality of the Gustavian based on the '"Titanic" disaster. Kellermann also wrote a num- period of Swedish literature, was born at Floby, Vastergbtland, ber of travel books and was a war correspondent in World War I. Dec. 1, 1 75 1. He studied at Turku (Abo) where he was apFrom 1945 onward he was a leading figure in the German Demo- pointed lecturer in aesthetics in 1774. With Carl Lenngren. the cratic Republic's cultural league. He died at his home near Potshusband of Anna Maria Lenngren. he founded in 1778 the powerdam on Oct. 17. 1951. (H. M. Wa.) ful literary journal Stockholmsposten, of which he was editor from FRANCOIS CHRISTOPHE, Due de 1780 to 1784 and from 1788 until his death. In 17S5 he became Valmy (1735-1820). French general of the ancien regime who private secretary to King Gustavus III, and when Gustavus made his name in the French Revolutionary Wars (q.v.) and be- founded the Swedish Academy (1786), was one of the first 18 came one of Napoleon's marshals, was born May 28, 1735. at members. He died in Stockholm. April 20. 1795. Strasbourg in Alsace, of a family of the judicial nobility. An Kellgren's first poems (elegant odes showing French influence) officer in one of the new mixed units of light infantry and cavalry appeared in 1773. but he won fame with his satiric poem Mina from 1752, he did well in the Seven Years' War and was sent on a Lojen ("My Smiles"; 1778). in which, a true spokesman of the mission to Poland and to the Tatars of eastern Europe in 1765. Enlightenment, he combines Voltaire's skill in mockery with Pope's In 1772 he defended Cracow with the French auxiliaries of the power of attack. His principal poem of this period. Vara V ill or insurgent Confederation of Bar. The due d'Orleans (the future ("Our Illusions"; 1780), while proclaiming the transience of Philippe Egalite) secured him to form a new hussar regiment in human ideals, claims that the imagination, by providing ideals In the 17S0S he 1782. He was a general by seniority in 1788, noted as a good and toward which men may strive, enriches life. very active officer. He spoke bad French with a strong Alsatian wrote a number of verse dramas, on themes suggested by Gustavus III. This collaboration culminated in Gustaf Yasa (17S6). accent. The first governments of the Revolution took little notice of a successful patriotic opera in which the powerful choruses exKellermann. who as a regular officer did not approve of the vol- press both the king's concern for national greatness and the poet's writings.

(

KELLERMANN, BERNHARD

KELLGREN, JOHAN HENRIC

KELLERMANN,

unteer forces.

After the

fall

of the

monarchy, however, Lazare

feeling for liberty.

In 1787, in a spirit of enlightened rationalism.

KELLOGG— KELLY both prose and verse on the superstitious and the vulgarized Swedenborgianism. with its emphasis on animal magnetism, which was spreading among the bourgeoisie, and achieved considerable success in purifying Swedish society. Later, his work acquired greater profundity, and Den nya skapelsen ("The New Creation"; 1789), his greatest poem, exalts the power of the imagination in describing a rich experience of love. Formally, its strength lies in its blend of romantic imagery and a form of classical simplicity and purity. In his prose of this later period, especially in the trenchant articles contributed to the Stockholmsposten after 1790, he expresses a vision of Sweden as an enlightened, unified society, and appeals to his literary contemporaries to strive for an age when their aim shall be to guide popular taste and to pursue lasting fame and honour rather than ephemeral popularity. Kellgren's Samlade Skrifter in three volumes, revised by himself, appeared in 1796 (new ed., 1884-85). A critical edition, by S. Ek, A. Sjdrding and O. Sylwan, was begun in 1922: text in six volumes (1923-47); commentary (1936- ). he began

his attack in

practices of the court and upper classes

See O. Sylwan, /. H. Kellgren, 2nd ed. (1939) S. Ek, Skdmtare och Allvarsman (1952), and in Ny Illustrerad Svensk Litteraturhistoria, ;

(S. E.)

II (1956).

KELLOGG, FRANK BILLINGS

(1856-1937), U.S. diplomat and lawyer who helped formulate the Kellogg pact (q.v.) to outlaw war, was born at Potsdam, N.Y., on Dec. 22, 1856. In 1865 he went to Minnesota with his parents. He studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1877 and practised in St. Paul. After the turn of the century he undertook antitrust prosecutions for the U.S. government. Success in the Standard Oil trust case in 1911 marked him as one of the country's leading lawyers, and he became president of the American Bar association in 1912. In 1916 he won election to the U.S. senate, where he served until 1923. He was ambassador to Great Britain from 1923 to 1925. Kellogg served as secretary of state in the cabinet of Pres. Calvin Coolidge from 1925 to 1929. Toward Mexico, where U.S. property had been expropriated, he acted with forbearance. In China, which was going through a period of revolutionary turmoil, he refused to use force to defend American interests. Toward Europe he pursued a general policy of isolation. He helped bring about a naval conference at Geneva, Switz., in 1927 with Great Britain and Japan to limit the auxiliary categories of vessels (cruisers, destroyers, submarines) but the conference failed because of British refusal to give the United States parity in cruisers.

Kellogg's greatest diplomatic achievement was the Kellogg pact

by which the nations of the world renounced and outlawed war as an instrument of national policy and promised to settle disputes by peaceful means. Kellogg received the Nobel peace prize for 1929 and served as a member of the Permanent Court of International Justice, 1930-35. He died on Dec. 21, 1937, in St. Paul, Minn. (or Pact of Paris)

KELLOGG

PACT, also known as the Kellogg-Briand Pact and Pact of Paris, inspired by the American outlawry of war movement, originated officially in a pr.oposal of June 20, 1927, by Aristide Briand, French minister of foreign affairs, that the U.S. and France conclude a bilateral treaty renouncing war as an instrument of national policy and agreeing not to seek the settlement of any dispute or conflict except by peaceful means. In reply, the U.S. secretary of state, Frank B. Kellogg, suggested that a multilateral pact to the same effect be opened to ratification by all nations. The treaty was formally proclaimed on July 24, 1929, and subsequently ratified by 63 nations. See War; International Law, Public; see also references under "Kellogg Pact" in the Index.

KELLS

(Ceanannus Mor),

a market town and urban disRepublic of Ireland, is situated on the Blackwater, 39 mi. N.W. of Dublin by road. Pop. (1961) 2,193. The house of St. Colmcille (or Columba), originally an oratory but later converted into a church, was built about 807. The bell tower of the present church (otherwise modern) was rebuilt in 1578. Near the church is a round tower, about 95 ft. in height, and there are several ancient crosses, the finest being that trict of

County Meath

in the

now

273

erected in the market place.

Kells was originally a royal

name Ceanannus is of doubtful derivation but kenlis, whence came Kells, means head fort. There Conn of the Hundred Fights resided in the 2nd century, and there was residence; the ancient

Other places a palace of Dermot, king of Ireland in 544-565. in Ireland named Kells are probably derived from cealla, "church." In the 6th century Kells was granted to St. Colmcille and be-

came a centre of learning. The town owes its chief ecclesiastical importance to the bishopric founded about 807 and united to

Meath

in the 13th century. The Book of Kells (see Illuminated Manuscripts), an illuminated copy of the Gospels in Latin and containing also local records, was probably written there, and pos-

sibly in part at Iona, in about the 8th century in the library of Trinity college, -Dublin.

and

It is said to

is preserved be the finest

extant example of early Christian art of its kind. The dun, or fortification, of Dimor is the principal erection of a series of defenses on the hills about 6 mi. W. of Kells.

KELLY,

HOWARD ATWOOD

(1858-1943), U.S. physi-

and surgeon, noted especially for his contributions to the practice of gynecology and for the invention of a number of useful diagnostic tools, was born at Camden, N.J., on Feb. 20, 1858, and received his M.D. degree from the University of Pennsylvania cian

He developed a gynecologic dispensary clinic at the 1882. Episcopal Hospital, Philadelphia, Pa., during his internship there, and later founded the Kensington Hospital for Women in that city. He was professor of obstetrics at the University of Pennsylvania, 1888-89, and professor of obstetrics and gynecology at Johns Hopkins University and gynecologist-in-chief to Johns Hopkins Hospital from 1889 to 1919. In 1892 he established a sanatorium, later the Howard A. Kelly Hospital, Baltimore, Md. Kelly was a pioneer in the use of radium for treatment of cancer and in the use of cocaine for local anesthesia. He devised an improved cystoscope, a rectal and vesical speculum, and an operative technique, which bears his name, for fixation of the uterus to the

in

wall, correcting retroposition. A prolific writer, he contributed about 500 articles to medical journals and wrote books on various aspects of medicine. He died on Jan. 12, 1943.

abdominal

KELLY,

HUGH

(1739-1777), Irish dramatist, critic, and was Oliver Goldsmith's rival in the London theatre, was born, most probably, in Dublin. In 1760, encouraged by traveling English actors whom he had met in his father's Dublin tavern, he emigrated to London. Within a year he was contributing regularly to The Gazetteer, The Lady's Museum, and Owen's Weekly Chronicle; from 1761 to 1765 he edited The Court Magazine. His "Babler" essays in Owen's were later collected and reprinted in several editions. Thespis (2 vol. 1 766— 67) confirmed his reputation as a sound but highly controversial critic. In 1767 he published a short epistolary novel, Memoirs of a Magdalen; or, the History of Louisa Mildmay. As editor of The Public Ledger, a London daily, he was, during the Wilkes troubles, a prominent spokesman for the ministries of George III. The resounding triumph of his first play, False Delicacy (1768), staged with the patronage of David Garrick and in competition with Goldsmith's The Good-Natur'd Man, cost him Goldsmith's friendship and begot the enduring resentment of Samuel Johnson, who had attended the rehearsals and written the prologue for Goldsmith's play. For weeks, before the openings, the town talk had been of the impending test of strength between the two authors and their sponsors. The presentation of Kelly's second comedy, A Word to the Wise (1770), was thwarted by his political journalist,

who

for a time

;

enemies, Theatre.

who

rioted against

him

for three nights in the

Drury Lane

A

blank verse tragedy, Clementina (1771), was unsuccessful; but a third comedy, The School for Wives (1773), and an afterpiece, The Romance of an Hour (1774), were well received. Kelly's reputation as a dramatist derived from his blend of comic and satiric scenes with earnestly sentimental materials. After the failure of a final comedy, The Man of Reason (1776), he retired from the theatre to practise law; he had been called to the bar in 1773. He died in his home in Gough Square, London, on Feb. 3, 1777. (T. K. O'L.)

KELLY, NED

(Edward) (1855-1880), the most famous of the Australian bushrangers (q.v.), was born at Beveridge, near

.

KELP— KELSO

274

Wallan Wallan, Victoria, in June 1855. He was the third child and eldest son of John Kelly, who had been transported from BelNed Kelly was asfast to Tasmania in 1842, and Ellen Quinn. sociated with the bushranger Harry Power in 1870 and served jail sentences for horse and cattle stealing before he was 21. In April 1878 he wounded a constable who was attempting to arrest his brother Dan on similar charges and both men then took to the There they were joined by Joe Byrne and Steve Hart, the hills. other two members of what came to be known as the Kelly gang. In Oct. 1878 the gang surprised a patrol party of four policemen and shot and killed three of them. Despite a government price of up to £2,000 each on their heads, Kelly and his gang roamed the borderland of Victoria and New South Wales for two years, holding up banks and townships. After they had shot a police informer, Aaron Sherritt, in June 1880, the gang took possession of the township of Glenrowan, tearing up the railway line outside the town in anticipation of a special trainload of police being sent The train crew was warned by the local to deal with them. schoolmaster Tom Curnow and the police reinforcements were able to surround the hotel where the gang had established themselves. In the fighting that followed three members of the gang died inside the hotel, but Ned Kelly, who emerged in an improvised suit of armour, was shot in the legs and captured. He was tried at Melbourne and was executed there on Nov. 11, 1880. Ned Kelly is not always regarded in Australia as a mere criminal: often he evokes some feeling of sympathy as a symbol of protest against arbitrary authority and privilege. See Frank Clune, The Kelly Hunters, with bibliography (1954). (J. F. C.)

KELP,

a popular

name

for

any of the large seaweeds belong-

ing to the order Laminariales of the

brown

algae (Phaeophyta).

and Antarctic forms, the giant kelps (Macrocystis and Nereocystis species), being more than 100 ft. in length. Other kelps, common in the colder seas, include species of Alaria, Laminaria and Pelagophycus. Several species of kelps are of eco-

These are the

largest of all algae, certain Pacific

nomic importance {see Algae: General Features)

The term kelp

also applies to

the ash produced

by incineration

of various kinds of coarse seaweeds. Until early in the 19th century the ash obtained from seaweed was an important source of potassium and iodine; recovery of these elements from sea-

weeds

is

now

unprofitable

{see

Iodine: Sources). The kelp ash industry, formerly centred on the coast of Brittany in France and on the west coasts of Ireland and Scotland,

still

exists at relatively

low ebb in Japan. Seaweeds burned for kelp ash included both those cast ashore in windrows after storms and those cut from rocks at low tide. See Algae: Survey and Classification: Brown

(G.

M. S.;X.) (1881-

tional law.

Kelsen's concentration on the form of law recognizes the legitiof sociological investigations and the study of values in reference both to the contents and the making of law. Equally, his philosophical relativism of values is entirely compatible

macy

with his strong stand for democracy and the ideals of western culture.

A complete bibliography appears in Kelsen, Theorie pure du droit (1953). See also General Theory of Law and State (1945) The Law Principles of International Law of the United Nations (1950-51) (1952); Society and Nature (1943); What Is Justice? (1957). (J. L. Kz.) ;

;

KELSO,

and market town of Roxburghshire, bank of the Tweed by its junction with the Teviot. is 43 mi. S.E. of Edinburgh and 23 mi. S.W. of Berwickupon-Tweed by road. The railway station is south of the town and the Tweed. Kelso lies at the head of the Merse, the rich agricultural plain south of the Lammermuirs. Pop. (1961) 3,968. An ancient market town with a large market square, Kelso was a stop for coaches on the London-Edinburgh route. Like many of its neighbouring towns, Kelso suffered from border warfare. It had a burghal status quite early, and was confirmed a burgh of barony Scot.,

a small burgh

on the

left

in 1634.

The abbey was founded in 1128 by David I for monks from Tiron in Picardy, whom he transferred from Selkirk, where they had been installed 15 years before. It was dedicated to the Virgin and St. John. The abbey, completed toward the middle of the 13th century, became one of the most powerful in Scotland, claiming precedence over the other monasteries and disputing the supremacy with St. Andrews. The abbey suffered damage in numerous English forays, was pillaged by the 4th earl of Shrewsbury in 1522, and was reduced to ruins in 1545 by the earl of Hertford (afterward the Protector Somerset). In 1602 the abbey lands passed into the hands of Sir Robert Ker of Cessford, 1st earl of Roxburghe. The transept of the abbey church was covered over and made into a parish church after the Reformation and remained as such until 1771, and one vault was long used as the town jail. The abbey was presented to the nation in 191 9 by the duke of Roxburghe who retained burial rights in the cloisters. RestoraThe remains intion was undertaken by the ministry of works. clude most of the tower, nearly the whole of the walls of the south transept, less than half of the west front, the north and west sides of the north transept and a remnant of the chancel. The predominant feature is the great central tower, which, as seen from a dis-

Austrian-U.S. legal scholar, n. 1881, at Prague and educated in Heidelberg, Berlin and Vienna. Author of the Austrian constitution of 1920 and judge of the Austrian supreme constitutional court (1920-30), he served for 30 years as a professor at Vienna, Cologne, Geneva and Prague German university before emigrating to the U.S. in 1940. He taught at Harvard, the University of California and the Naval War college. Kelsen's "pure theory of law" was first presented in his fundamental work, Hauptprobleme der Staatsrechtslehre (1911). His),

creator of the "pure theory of law," was born on Oct.

Norman

keep. crossed at Kelso, where several great floods have taken place, by a bridge of five arches constructed in 1803 by John Rennie. It is said to have been his test for the old Waterloo Buildings include the burgh chambers, Tait bridge in London. hall (1935) and the Cross Keys hotel, a social centre in coaching

The Tweed

GIANT KELP GROWING ON THE SHORE See also V. J. Chapman, Seaweeds OF ONEOF THE KERGUELEN ISLANDS, and Their Uses (1950). ANTARCTIC OCEAN

KELSEN, HANS

based philosophically on the strict distinction between "is" and "ought." It is a normative and positive doctrine, opposed both to sociologism (law as a fact) and to natural law. But it is a critical positivism, showing the limitations of the positivistic approach; hence his "basic norm" is a presupposed norm, giving validity to the whole legal order. His positivism is a formal analysis of the legal norm, of its elements and of the architecture of the legal order. It reaches a climax in a grandiose vision of unity achieved in a pluralism of legal orders through a supraordinated interna-

tance, suggests a

EDGAR AU6ERT DE LA RUE

Algae.

torically it has a certain relation to John Austin's "analytical jurisprudence," although Kelsen became acquainted with Austin's work for the first time in 1940. The pure theory of law is a formal-logical analysis of the law, considered as a system of norms,

is

days; a school occupies the site of the one which Sir Walter Scott attended in 1783. The public park lies in the east of the town and the racecourse at Berrymoss to the north of it. Trade in Kelso is largely agricultural; the Kelso ram sales in Springwood park have a reputation far beyond the border. The ancient St. James's fair is held on Aug. 5. James and John Ballantyne, friends of Scott, set up a press about the end of the 18th century, from which were issued, in 1802, the first two volumes of the

James Ballantyne also Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border. founded, in 1797, the Kelso Border Mail as a rival to the Kelso

KELVIN— KEMAL Chronicle.

The

latter

is

the oldest border newspaper, founded in

1783. In 1949 the Mail and the Chronicle were amalgamated under the title The Border Counties and KelsO Chronicle and Mail. On the peninsula formed by the junction of the Teviot and

Tweed stood the formidable castle and nourishing town of Roxburgh from which the shire took its name. No trace exists of the town, and all that is left of the castle are a few ruins shaded by ancient ash trees. Built by the Northumbrians, after the consolidation of the kingdom of Scotland it became a favoured royal residence; the town beneath its protection reached its most prosperous days under David I and formed a member of the Court of Four Burghs with Edinburgh, Stirling and Berwick. It possessed a court of justice, a mint, mills and, what was remarkable for the Alexander II was married and 1 2th century, a grammar school. Alexander III was born in the castle. During the long period of border warfare, the town was repeatedly burned and the castle captured. The castle was finally razed to the ground in 1460. During the siege the king, James II, was killed nearby by the explosion of a huge gun called "the Lion." On the fall of the castle the town was abandoned in favour of the rising burgh of Kelso. About 1 mi. W. of Kelso is Floors or Fleurs castle, a seat of the duke of Roxburghe. The mansion as originally designed by Sir John Vanbrugh in 1718 was severely plain, but in 1849 W. H. Playfair converted it into the Tudor style. Sandyknowe or Smailholm tower, 6 mi. W. of Kelso, dating from the

the 15th century,

northeast of Kelso

is is

a fine example of a border peel. the pretty village of

Two

miles

Ednam (Edenham,

"the

on the Eden"), the birthplace of the poet James Thomson, to whose memory an obelisk, 52 ft. high, was erected on Ferniehill village

in 1820.

KELVIN, WILLIAM THOMSON, Baron

(1824-1907),

thermodynamics instruments, was born

British physicist, discoverer of the second law of

and inventor of telegraphic and scientific At the age of 11 he entered at Belfast, Ire., on June 26, 1824. the University of Glasgow, where his father was professor of mathematics. Leaving Glasgow without taking a degree, in 1841 he entered Peterhouse, Cambridge, and in 1845 took his degree as second wrangler and won the Smith's prize. At that time there were few facilities for the study of experimental science in Great Britain. Thomson therefore had recourse to Paris, and worked in the laboratory of Regnault {see Regnault, Henri Victor), who was then engaged in his classical researches on the thermal properties of steam. In 1846, on the death of Meikleham, he accepted the chair of natural philosophy in the University of Glasgow, which he

filled for

One

53 years.

Thomson's earliest papers dealt with the age of the earth. His calculations on the conduction of heat showed that at some time between 20,000,000 and 400,000,000, probably about 100,000,000, years ago the physical conditions of the earth must have been entirely different from those which now obtain. This led of

to a long controversy with geologists.

In 1847 Thomson first met James Prescott Joule, whose views of the nature of heat strongly influenced Thomson's mind. In

1848 Thomson proposed his absolute scale of temperature, which independent of the properties of any particular thermometric

is

substance, and in 185 1 he presented to the Royal society of Edinburgh a paper on the dynamical theory of heat, which reconciled the work of N. L. Sadi Carnot with the conclusions of Count von

Rumford,

Sir H. Davy, J. R. von Mayer and Joule, and placed the dynamical theory of heat and the fundamental principle of the conservation of energy in a position to command universal acceptance. It was in this paper that the principle of the dissipation

of energy, briefly summarized in the second law of thermodynamics (q.v.), was first stated. Although his contributions to thermodynamics may properly be regarded as his most important scientific work, it is in the field of electricity, especially in its application to submarine telegraphy, that Lord Kelvin is best known to the world at large. From 1854 he is most prominent among telegraphists. The stranded form of conductor was due to his suggestion; but it was in the letters which he addressed in that year to Sir G. G. Stokes, and which were published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society

275

(1855), that he discussed the mathematical theory of signaling through submarine cables, and enunciated the conclusion that in long cables the retardation due to capacity must render the speed of signaling inversely proportional to the square of the cable's length. Thomson set to work to overcome the difficulty by improvement in the manufacture of cables, by the production of copper of high conductivity and the construction of apparatus which would readily respond to the slightest variation of the curThe mirror galvanometer and the siphon rent in the cable. recorder, which was patented in 1867, were the outcome of these Thomson's work in connection with telegraphy led researches. to the production in rapid succession of instruments adapted to the requirements of the time for the measurement of every electrical quantity,

a

new

and when electric lighting came to the front was produced to meet the needs of the

set of instruments

electrical engineer.

When W. Weber in 1851 proposed the extension of C. F. Gauss's system of absolute units to electromagnetism, Thomson took up the question, and, applying the principles of energy, calculated the absolute electromotive force of a Daniell cell, and determined the absolute measure of the resistance of a wire from the heat produced in it by a known current. In 1861 Thomson induced

the

famous committee

for the determination of electrical standards.

British

association

to

appoint

its

first

The

oscillatory character of the discharge of the Leyden jar, the foundation of the work of H. R. Hertz and of wireless telegraphy,

were investigated by him in 1853. It was in 1873 that he undertook to write a series of articles for Good Words on the mariner's compass. He wrote the first, but so many questions arose in his mind that it was five years before the second appeared. In the meanwhile the compass went through a process of complete reconstruction in his hands, a process which enabled both the permanent and the temporary magnetism of the ship to be readily compensated, while the weight of the 10-in. card was reduced to one-seventeenth of that of the standard card previously in use, although the time of swing was increased. Thomson also invented his sounding apparatus, whereby soundings can be taken in shallows and in deep water. Thomson's tide gauge, tidal harmonic analyzer and tide predicter are famous, and among his work in the interest of navigation must be mentioned his tables for the simplification of Sumner's method for determining the position of a ship at sea. Thomson published more than 300 original papers bearing upon nearly every branch of physical science. The firm of Kelvin and White, in which he was a partner, was formed to manufacture his inventions. In 1866 Thomson was knighted. He was raised to the peerage in 1892 with the title of Baron Kelvin of Largs. In 1890 he became president of the Royal society and in 1902 received the Order of Merit. Much of Kelvin's time after his retirement (1899) was given to writing and revising the lectures on the wave theory of light which he had delivered at the Johns Hopkins university, Baltimore, Md., in 1884 (published 1904). In 1904 he was elected chancellor of the University of Glasgow. Kelvin died on Dec. 17, 1907, at his residence, Netherhall, near Largs, Scot., and was buried in Westminster Abbey. In addition to the Baltimore lectures, he published with P. G. Tait a standard but unfinished Treatise on Natural Philosophy (1867). A number of his scientific papers were collected in his Reprint of Papers on Electricity and Magnetism (1872), and in his Mathematical and Physical Papers (1882, 1883 and 1890), and three volumes of his Popular Lectures and Addresses appeared in 1889-94. See also references under "Kelvin, William Index.

Thomson"

in the

See Andrew Gray, Lord Kelvin (1908) S. P. Thompson, Life of Lord Kelvin (1910), which contains a full bibliography. (1840-1888), Turkish writer and poet, who greatly influenced the Young Turk and nationalist movements, and the westernization of Turkish literature. An aristocrat by birth, he was educated privately and later learned French in Istanbul where, as a result of his articles in the newspaper Tasvir-i ;

KEMAL, NAMIK

—

KEMAL ATATURK

276

Efkar, he incurred the displeasure of the authorities. He fled to London and there, with the help of the poet Ziya Pasha, published the revolutionary newspaper Hiirriyet.

Later, returning to Istanbul, he continued his revolutionary writings in the Ibret and produced his patriotic play Vatan. This

imprisonment

Cyprus (1873-77).

After his release and a further period of virtual exile he died as governor of Chios (1888). His writings comprised poems, plays, articles, historical works and novels, including Intibah (1874) and Cezmi (1880). Patriotism and hatred of tyranny were themes common to all his writings, and his style, though more restrained in the articles, was normally passionate and romantic. (F. I.) (1881-1938), Turkish army officer and president of Turkey (1923-38), was born in Salonika, Greece, the son of a customs officer. He decided early on a military career and went to the Harbiye staff college in Istanbul. He was an exceptional student in mathematics and as a tribute to his ability was given the name Kemal, which means "perfection" in Arabic. In 1906, with the rank of captain, he was sent to the Damascus cavalry regiment. In Sept. 1907 he was appointed In April 1909 he was to the staff of the 3rd army in Salonika. on the staff of Mahmud Shevket Pasha, the army commander, when the army marched on Istanbul to depose the sultan AbdulHamid II. In 1911 Mahmud Shevket, then war minister, brought him to the war office. In 1911 the Italo-Turkish War broke out, and Mustafa Kemal served for some months in Libya, returning to Istanbul in Oct. 1912, when four Balkan countries attacked Turkey. He was then appointed chief of staff of a division at Gallipoli. When the Balkan allies started fighting among themselves, he was with the force that retook Adrianople (Edirne) for Turkey. He was then sent as military attache to Sofia. World War I. At the outbreak of World War I, Kemal considered that Turkey should remain neutral and doubted the possibility of German victory over Great Britain, France and Russia. On the other hand, he did not want to see Russia strengthened. He was given command of the 19th division at Gallipoli and was put under Gen. Otto Liman von Sanders, the German inspector general. It is generally accepted that the Turkish success at Gallipoli was largely inspired by Kemal's courage and clear-sightedness. Kemal spent the winter of 1915-16 in Istanbul. His relations with Enver Pasha, then war minister, grew steadily worse. He also made no secret of his dislike of the Germans. Enver so feared led to his

in

KEMAL ATATURK, MUSTAFA

—

March

him away from

May 9, 1919, Kemal arrived in Samsun. From there he moved inland to Amasya. He was joined by Rauf Bey and, along with two others, signed a declaration calling for an independent Turkish nation free from foreign control. It was decided to call a conference of all organizations sympathizing with this idea. The conference met at Erzurum and Kemal was elected chairman of it. Another conference was then held at Sivas and approved of a "national pact" to create an independent Turkey. Early in 1920, delegates to a national assembly began to arrive in Ankara, which became the centre of resistance. On April 23 the assembly elected

became

of 1920 he

Kemal

During the summer Ankara and organized the treaty of Sevres and to the

its

president.

the dominant figure in

resistance to the terms of Greeks who were now invading western Anatolia. Kemal then appointed Ismet Pasha {see Inonu, Ismet) to be second-in-command under him against the Greeks. He decided to evacuate a large tract of country and withdraw to a line on the Sakarya river. His action proved effective. Ismet won the battle of Inonu and halted the Greek advance. In 1921 the Greeks were defeated at the battle of the Sakarya and an armistice was signed at Mudanya on Oct. 11, 1922. {See Greco-Turkish War [1921-22].) On his return to Ankara, Kemal received a vociferous welcome and was given the title of ghazi (victorious). Even so, he regarded the crises as not yet over and, after some difficulty, succeeded in getting the national assembly to let him have dictatorial powers renewable every three months. Meanwhile, in Nov. 1923, a peace conference had met in Lausanne, where Ismet represented Turkey. Between them Kemal and Ismet succeeded in getting nearly everything that they wanted, and Turkey's position as an independent nation was recognized internationally once more.

{See Lausanne, Conferences of.)

The Turkish Republic. met on Aug.

elected and

A new

—A new national assembly was

11, 1923.

Kemal was

then

again elected

its

was passed empowering him to appoint his own prime minister. Considering that the time was ripe for further changes, he proposed to the national assembly the aboThe aslition of the sultanate and the declaration of a republic. sembly hesitated but finally agreed, electing Kemal president of the republic (Oct. 30), an office he held until his death. He also founded at that time the Republican People's party out of various societies and groups that had started the National Liberation movement and became its president too. Seeing the danger of religious president.

constitution

Istanbul,

reaction through the influence of the mullahs, he got the assembly

he appointed him to command the XVI army corps in eastern Anatolia. There, in the autumn of 1916, Kemal fought a successful campaign against the Russians in the region of Lake Van. Meanwhile, trouble was starting for Turkey in the Arab provinces. Kemal was sent to take command of the 2nd army at Diyarbakir. In Dec. 1917 he wrote a report on the military and political situation on the eastern front. It was an outspoken piece of writing: the Germans should not, he said, be put in command of Turkish armies but should be there as advisers only; it was useless to go on trying to defend the non-Turkish parts of the empire; withdrawal to the Turkish parts was necessary to organize the defense of the motherland in Anatolia; no single Turkish soldier should be Enver sacrificed for the empire any more but saved for Turkey. Pasha rejected the report and sent Kemal home on indefinite sick

March 3, 1924, abolishing the caliphate and the dervish sects, declaring Turkey a secular republic and exiling the members of the imperial family. Kemal now became a powerful but very lonely man. He had nearly unlimited political power, for which he was not well quali-

his influence that in

1916, to get

As the military situation grew worse, Kemal was again appointed to command: this time the 7th army in Palestine. He succeeded in extricating this army and withdrew to Aleppo. There he prepared defense lines 10 mi. N. of the city, which he evacuated on Oct. 26, 1918. He brought all the eastern armies back to the fronleave.

to accept a law on

because his genius was military. Yet he tried to keep his mind listen to the views of others. He was determined that the old Ottoman empire should go and that the country should be completely modernized and that women should be emancipated. There was much opposition, and he was all the more lonely because his mother and his cousin, Fikriye, for whom he had great affection, both died at this time; moreover he divorced his wife, Latife, a woman from Izmir. Without family, without religious belief, without friends, he only had Ismet as his prime minister and confidant and his burning belief in Turkey's future as an independent nafied,

open and to

tion

—

as well as the unswerving support of the

mass

of the people,

including the peasants.

Istanbul, where he threw himself into politics and organized resist-

a severe crisis, in which he condemning to death some of his former colleagues and members of the Committee of Union and Progress; but when the immediate crisis was past, he threw himHe abolished self with renewed energy into modernizing Turkey. the Arabic alphabet, introduced the Latin one and started a big campaign, in which he took part personally, to fight illiteracy among the people. He also introduced the use of surnames in the

ance to the Allies. The new sultan, Mohammed VI, respected Kemal but wanted to get him out of Istanbul and so appointed him inspector general of the armies in eastern and northeastern Anatolia. The Allies tried to stop this appointment, but failed; and on

western style for Turks, taking for himself that of Atatiirk ("Father of Turks") in Nov. 1934. In his ceaseless efforts he finally wore himself out. The hard life that he had lived in his many campaigns and the hard drinking in which he had at times indulged

tiers of Anatolia.

The National Movement and the Greco-Turkish War. Meanwhile Turkish resistance collapsed elsewhere, an armistice was signed at Mudros and a new Turkish government was formed to carry out the terms of this armistice.

Kemal now returned

to

In 1924

showed a

Kemal passed through

certain ruthlessness in

;

.

KEMBLE—KEMENY had undermined his health. bahche palace, in Istanbul.

On Nov.

10, 1938, he died at DolmaHis death was a signal for unprece-

dented national mourning.

Mustafa Kemal Atatiirk was largely responsible for bringing Turkey through the greatest crisis in its history. His methods were dictatorial, but it is doubtful if he could have achieved what he did without them; and he always sought the possibility of bringing back democratic forms. He even went so far as to create an oppo-

He successfully re-established sition in the national assembly. Turkey's international position and ended the age-long enmity with the Greeks. He made treaties of friendship with the U.S.S.R., with his Balkan neighbours and also with Iran, Afghanistan and Iraq. Finally he re-established on a firm basis Turkey's friendship with the two western democracies, France and Great Britain, which had been broken in World War I. See also Turkey: History.

—

Bibliography. Kemal's own statement to members of the party, Ankara, Oct. 15-20, 1927, official trans. Die Neue Turkei H. C. Armstrong, Grey Wolf (1932) I. and M. Orga, Atatiirk (M. Lord Kinross, Atatiirk (1964) ;

KEMBLE,

People's (1928) (1962) P. P.)

name

of a family of English actors and acmost famous were Sarah Siddons (q.v.) and her brother John Philip Kemble, the eldest of the 12 children of Roger Kemble (1 721-1802), a strolling player and manager, who in 1753 married an actress, Sarah Ward. John Philip Kemble (1757-1823), the second child, was born at Prescot, Lancashire, on Feb. 1, 1757. He was educated for the Roman Catholic priesthood at a seminary near Wolverhampton and at the English college at Douai, France. But he had no vocation and on his return to England joined a theatrical company, his first appearance being as Theodosius in Lee's tragedy at Wolverhampton on Jan. 8, 1776. In 1778 he joined the York company of Tate Wilkinson, appearing at Wakefield, at Hull and at York. Kemble played Hamlet in Dublin on Nov. 2, 1781, and was engaged at Drury Lane theatre, where he made his debut on Sept. 30, 1783, in the same part. The Drury Lane public was moderately enthusiastic, but his performance with his sister, Mrs. Siddons, in Macbeth (March 31, 1785), established him as a popular favourite. He married (Dec. 8, 1787) Priscilla Hopkins Brereton (17561845), the widow of an actor and herself an actress. Kemble's appointment as manager of Drury Lane in 1788 gave him full opportunity to dress the characters less according to tradition than in harmony with his own conception of what was suitable. In his own version of Coriolanus, which was revived during his tresses, of

first

the

whom

the

season, the character of the "noble

Roman"

exactly suited

His tall and imposing person, noble countenance and solemn and grave demeanour were uniquely adapted for the Roman characters in Shakespeare's plays. Kemble excelled in declamation, but physically he was incapable of giving expression to impetuous vehemence and searching pathos. Because of the eccentricities of Richard Brinsley Sheridan, the proprietor of Drury Lane, Kemble withdrew from the management, and, although he resumed his duties at the beginning of the season of 1800-01, he finally resigned connection with it at the

his powers.

close of 1802.

In 1803 he became manager of Covent Garden theatre, in which he had acquired a sixth share for £23,000. The theatre was burned down on Sept. 20, 1808, and the raising of the prices after the opening of the new theatre, in 1809, led to riots, which practically suspended the performances for three months. Kemble was saved from ruin only by a loan, afterward converted into a gift, of £10,000 from the duke of Northumberland. Kemble's last performance was as Coriolanus on June 23, 181 7. His retirement was probably hastened by the rising popularity of Edmund Kean. He died at Lausanne on Feb. 26, 1823. See Harold H. Child, The Shakespearian Productions of J. P. K. Herschel Baker, J.P.K.: the Actor and His Theatre (1942). ( J 935) ;

George Stephen Kemble (1758-1822),

the second

son of Roger, was rather an indifferent actor, eclipsed by his wife and fellow player, Elizabeth Satchell Kemble (c. 1763-1841), and a man of such proportions that he played Falstaff without padding. He managed several theatres, including Drury Lane. Charles Kemble (1775-1854), the youngest brother of John

277

and Stephen, was born at Brecon, South Wales, on Nov. 25, 1775. He, too, was educated at Douai. He made his first recorded appearance at Sheffield as Orlando in As You Like It in 1792. His first London appearance was on April 21, 1794, as Malcolm to his Ultimately he won independent fame. His brother's Macbeth. Laertes and Macduff were hardly less interesting than his brother's Hamlet and Macbeth. In comedy he was ably supported by his wife, Maria Theresa de Camp (1 774-1838), whom he married on July 2, 1806. His visit, with his daughter Fanny, to North America during 1832 and 1834 aroused much enthusiasm. The later period of his career was clouded by money embarrassments in connection with his joint proprietorship in Covent Garden theatre. He formally retired from the stage in Dec. 1836, but his final appearance was on April 10, 1840. For some time he held the office of examiner of plays. He died on Nov. 12, 1854. Elizabeth Whitlock (1761-1836), who was a daughter of Roger Kemble, made her first appearance on the stage in 1783 at Drury Lane as Portia. In 1785 she married Charles E. Whitlock, went with him to America and played with much success there. She had the honour of appearing before President Washington. She retired about 1807 and died on Feb. 27, 1836. Frances Anne Kemble (Fanny Kemble; 1 809-1 893), actress and author, was Charles Kemble's elder daughter; she was born in London on Nov. 27, 1809, and educated chiefly in France. She first appeared on the stage on Oct. 25, 1829, as Juliet at Covent Garden. Her attractive personality at once made her a great favourite, her popularity enabling her father to recoup his losses as a manager. She played all the principal women's parts, notably Portia, Beatrice and Lady Teazle; Julia in Sheridan Knowles's The Hunchback, especially written for her, was perhaps her greatIn 1832 she went with her father to North America, est success. and in 1834 she married there a southern planter, Pierce Butler. They were divorced in 1848. In 1847 she returned to the stage, and later, following her father's example, appeared with much success as a Shakespearean reader. In 1877 she returned to England, where she lived until her death in London on Jan. 15, 1893. Fanny Kemble was a popular figure in London society. Besides her plays, Francis the First, unsuccessfully produced in 1832, and The Star of Seville (1837), a volume of Poems (1844) an d a book of Italian travel, A Year of Consolation (1847), sne published a volume of her Journal in 1835 and another (dealing with life on the Georgia plantation) in 1863, and also a volume of Plays (1863), including translations from Dumas and Schiller. Her various vol-

umes

of reminiscences contain

much

valuable material for the so-

and dramatic history of the period. See M. A. Armstrong, Fanny Kemble: a Passionate Victorian (1938). Adelaide Kemble (1814-1879), Charles Kemble's second daughter, was an opera singer of great promise, whose first London appearance was made in Norma on Nov. 2, 1841. In 1843 she married Edward John Sartoris, a wealthy Italian, and retired after a brief but brilliant career. She wrote A Week in a French Country cial

House (1867). Mention may

also be made of Charles Kemble's grandson, (1848-1907), a popular London actor. ZSIGMOND, Baron (1814-1875), Hungarian novelist whose difficult style has prevented full appreciation of He his gifts as a portrayer of character and of atmosphere. was also prominent as a journalist and politician. He was born at Alvinc in June 1814 of a family which included among its ancestors a prince of Transylvania. By his father's early death he lost many of the advantages of his birth; but his private means and title gave him easy access to political life. This he approached through journalism, first in his native Transylvania, and from 1847 on the staff of the Pesti Hirlap. In 1855 he became editor of

Henry Kemble

KEMENY,

the Pesti Napld and made it influential in Hungarian politics. partisan of Ferencz Deak, Kemeny prepared the way for the

A

compromise (1867) between Hungary and the Habsburgs. His mind, always eccentric, became unbalanced, and in 1868 he had to abandon the editorship of his paper. He died at Pusztakamaras, Dec. 22, 1875. Kemeny wrote a number of historical novels: Gyulai Pal (1847),

KEMEROVO— KEMPE

278

Ozvegy is lednya (1855; "The Widow and her Daughter"), A rajongok (1858; "The Fanatics") and Zord ido (1862; "Grim Times"). These were praised by critics, but little appreciated by the public. They make heavy reading, since emphasis is on description rather than action and the style is difficult. Their atmosphere is, moreover, depressing. His heroes, entangled in personal and historical conflicts, move, inexorably, toward destruction. Kemeny's masterly motivation and fine evocation of the historical background are not enough to make his novels popular. His social novels, e.g., Ferj is no (1852; "Husband and Wife"), show an exaggerated romanticism, but are also, basically, works of minute psychological analysis. (Ds. Sr.) an oblast (established 1943) in the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic of the U.S.S.R., includes part

KEMEROVO,

Kuznetsk basin industrial area western Siberia. Area 36,873 sq.mi.

mountain

of the

in the

the roughly north-south valley of the

The axis of the Tom, headstreams

of which

Shoriya uplands in the south of the oblast.

East of

rise in the

the

Tom

oblast

is

valley the land rises to the mountains of the Kuznetski

Alatau, which reach 7,146 the west

foothills of

is

ft.

(2,178 m.) in Mt. Verkhni Zub.

To

the considerably lower Salair ridge (Salairski Kryazh),

which does not exceed 2,000 ft. In the north the land falls away to the great West Siberian lowland and the steppe vegetation appears there, but the natural cover of most of the oblast is thick coniferous forest, giving way higher up to mountain meadow pastures. The population (mostly Russians, also Shorians) by the 1959 census was 2,785.906 (77.6% urban), making this the most densely populated part of Siberia, with 76 persons per square mile. In all, 2,160,794 persons live in 17 towns and 46 urban districts. The largest are the great steel town of Novokuznetsk (376,730), the administrative centre of Kemerovo (277,671), Prokopyevsk (281,958),Leninsk-Kuznetski (132,156), Kiselevsk (130,002), AnzheroSudzhensk (115,628), Belovo (106,894), and the new coal town of Mezhdurechensk (54,513). This large urban population reflects the great mineral wealth and industrial development of the oblast, which is a major area for coal mining and iron and steel production. Coal Measures underlie the whole oblast between the two flanking ranges, and are mined from Osinniki and Kaltan in the south to Aazhero-Sudzhensk in the north. The coal has a rather high ash content and many pits have associated enriching plants. About

40%

is

suitable for coking.

On

the basis of these coal supplies,

heavy industry has developed. Iron and steel production uses ores from the south of the oblast, round Temir-Tau and Tashtagol. and from the adjoining Khakass Autonomous oblast to the east. Lead, zinc, barium, arsenic and gold are also exploited, but quantities of these are not large. Associated with the coal and iron and steel production is a wide range of heavy engineering, machine-building and since the start of the five-year plans in 1928, large-scale

chemical industries.

The

ploited to supply pit props

forests of the oblast are intensively ex-

and other industrial needs.

The Trans-

Siberian railway, which crosses the northern part, gives access to

other parts of the U.S.S.R. From it. at Yurga, a line runs south through the industrial area as far as Tashtagol, with branches to Kemerovo, Novosibirsk, Guryevsk and Barnaul. A new line from Novokuznetsk crosses the Kuznetski Alatau to Abakan in the Khakass Autonomous oblast. (R. A. F.) a town and the oblast centre in the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic of the U.S.S.R., stands on the Tom river, near the foothills of the Kuznetski Alatau range about 2,000 mi. E. of Moscow. Pop. (1959) 277,671. It is one of the

KEMEROVO,

largest cities of the Kuznetsk basin industrial area. A major coalmining centre, with pits in and round the town, Kemerovo is also one of the most important chemical towns of the U.S.S.R., producing nitrogenous fertilizers, plastics, paint, pharmaceutical goods and various coke by-products. Its engineering industries make coal-mining equipment and agricultural machinery, especially threshers and grain driers. Sawmilling and timberworking are based on timber rafted down the Tom. and pit props form a large part of the output. Kemerovo stands on a branch railway linking Barzas to the main Kuzbass axial line from Novokuznetsk to the Trans-Siberian railway at Yurga. The town's education facilities

are particularly directed to serving the needs of local industries.

with mining and medical institutes and mining and coke-chemical

The

technical schools.

village of

Kemerovo was founded

in the

1830s and the modern town was called Shcheglovsk until 1932. (R. A. F.) KEMI, a town of Finland in Lapin ladni (Lapland county) lies on the Gulf of Bothnia at the mouth of the Kemi river 55 mi. N.N.W. of Oulu. Pop. (1960) 28,847. It is a major centre for the pulp and timber industries. The Isohaara hydroelectric power station distributes electricity not only for the whole of north Finland but also for part of the south. Kemi is also a seaport handling most of the export trade of the Gulf of Bothnia and has air connections to Helsinki and Rovaniemi. Town rights were granted in 1869, and the railroad connecting with Tornio and ,

Oulu was completed

in 1903.

(E.-S.

Ku.)

KEMMERER, EDWIN WALTER

(1875-1945), U.S. economist whose principal contributions were in monetary matters. As adviser to 14 governments reorganizing their currencies, he was known as the "money doctor." Born at Scranton, Pa., on June 29, 1875, and educated at Wesleyan university, Middletown, Conn. (A.B., 1899) and Cornell university, Ithaca, N.Y. (Ph.D., 1903), he taught economics at Purdue university (1901-03), at Cornell (1906-12) and Princeton (1912-43). He served as financial adviser to the U.S. Philippine commission in 1903 and was chief of the division of currency, Philippine Islands, 1904-06. He was financial adviser to the governments of Mexico, 1917, and Guatemala, 1919; chairman of the Commission of American Financial Advisers in Colombia, 1923, Chile, 1925, Poland, 1926, EcuaIn 1926 he was dor, 1926-27, Bolivia, 1927 and China, 1929. president of the American Economic association. He served on the Gold Standard Inquiry committee for the Union of South Africa, 1924-25. and as expert on currency and banking to the Dawes committee, 1925. He died at Princeton, N.J., on Dec. 16, 1945.

The

best

known

many books

of his

is

The

Reserve System (1918).

ABC

of the Federal (Fk. L. K.)

KEMP, JAMES FURMAN

(1859-1926), U.S. geologist, was born in New York city on Aug. 14, 1859. He graduated from Adelphi academy, Brooklyn (1876), and later studied in Amherst and at Columbia university. After studying at Leipzig and Munich, he returned to

who

specialized in the study of ore deposits,

the U.S. to

become

a

sity,

member

of the teaching staff at Cornell uni-

89 1 he was called to Columbia univerwhere he remained until his death, at Great Neck, L.I., on

versity (1886-91).

In

1

Nov. 17, 1926. While at Cornell,

Kemp was one of a group of 13 who organized the Geological Society of America and was president in 192 1.

He was

considered a leading authority on ore deposits, and was number of textbooks and many scientific papers. (c. 1380-1454). English cardinal, archbishop of Canterbury and chancellor, was born about 1380 near Ashford, Kent, and educated at Merton college. Oxford. Having become doctor of laws, he practised as an ecclesiastical lawyer with such the author of a

KEMPE, JOHN

distinction that in 141 5 he was made dean of the court of arches. After several diplomatic missions in the royal service. Kempe was made chancellor of the duchy of Normandy. He was consecrated bishop of Rochester at Rouen on Dec. 3, 1419- In 142 1 he was During the mitransferred to Chichester and then to London. nority of Henry VI, Kempe held a prominent position in the EngIn 1426 he was lish council as a supporter of Henry Beaufort. appointed archbishop of York and succeeded Beaufort as chancellor.

His main task as chancellor was to keep Humphrey of

Gloucester in check, and his resignation, Feb. 28, 1432. was a conStill enjoying Beaufort's favour, he was cession to Gloucester. sent in 1435 to the congress of Arras, where a settlement with

France was unsuccessfully attempted under the auspices of the papal legates. Kempe continued to support the peace treaty and led a second embassy to the conference of Calais in 1438. In 1439 he was created cardinal. Although he supported Suffolk over the king's marriage with Margaret of Anjou, they later fell out over

Kempe's nephew to the bishopric of London. In 1450 Kempe was again chancellor and pronounced final senHe suppressed Cade's rebellion and for four tence on Suffolk. the nomination of

KEMPENER— KENDAL In years maintained the king's authority against the Yorkists. July 1452 he was rewarded with a promotion to Canterbury, receiving the title of cardinal bishop of Santa Rufina from Pope

His political influence declined with the rise of Nicholas V. Richard of York, and his fall seemed imminent when he died on March 22, 1454. He was buried at Canterbury in the choir.

—

Bibliography. Williams, Lives of the English Cardinals (1868) Hunt, The English Clergy in the Middle Ages (1901) J. Gairdner, Preface to the Paston Letters (1872). (T. L. C.) ;

;

KEMPENER

(Kempeneer),

PETER DE

(Pedro Cam-

503-1 580), Flemish religious painter and designer of tapestries, was chiefly active in Seville, Spain, where he was called Pedro Campana. Born in Brussels, he traveled in Italy and was in Bologna in 1529, working on a triumphal arch for the entry of Charles V; he visited Venice and probably Rome, where he must have studied the works of Michelangelo and Raphael. By 1537 Kempener had settled in Seville and apparently remained there until shortly before 1563, when he was appointed

pana)

( i

director of the tapestry factory in Brussels.

—

Kempener's most

important works are in Seville cathedral the "Descent from the Cross" (1547) and the "Purification of the Virgin," an altarpiece with portraits of the donor and his family (1555). His style, combining Italianate composition with Flemish realism and genre, considerably influenced the school of Seville. He was greatly admired by Francisco Pacheco, master of Velazquez, who described him as an architect

and sculptor as well as a painter.

See D. Angulo Iniguez, Pedro de

Campana

(1951).

(E. Hs.)

KEMPENFELT, RICHARD

(1718-1782), British admiral, whose death is commemorated in Cowper's poem "The Loss of the Royal George," was born in London, at Westminster, in 1718, the son of Magnus Kempenfelt, a Swede. His first naval service was at the siege of Porto Bello in 1739. From 1740 to 1780, when he was promoted to rear admiral, he saw service in the East Indies and many other parts of the world. In 1781 he gained a brilliant victory with an inferior force over a French fleet under the comte de Guichen off Ushant. In 1782 Kempenfelt hoisted his flag on board the "Royal George," which formed part of the channel fleet under Lord Howe. In Aug. 1782, when the fleet was refitting at Portsmouth, the shifting of weights on board the "Royal George" when she was heeled over for cleaning caused part of her bottom to fall out because of rotten timbers and she sank with 800 men on board, including the admiral. As an officer, Kempenfelt was noted for the care he took of the health of his men by the "divisional" system, as well as for his introduction of French tactical ideas and signals into the British navy. (C. C. L.) a city of Germany which after partition of the

KEMPTEN,

World War II was in the Land (state) of Bavaria, Federal Republic of Germany. It is situated on the Iller river in the heart of the Allgau mountains 80 mi. S.W. of Munich. Pop. (1961) 43,116. The major railway junction of the Allgau and centre of the Allgau dairy industry, Kempten is one of the oldest nation following

towns of Germany.

During the Celtic period the town was the Romans its commerce was developed. The Benedictine abbey, founded in the middle of the 8th century and richly endowed by Hildegard, the wife of Charlemagne, was raised to the status of a principality in 1348. The town, which became an imperial city in 1289, was in constant conflict with the abbey and after 1525 became solidly Protestant. A new town grew up round the Catholic foundation after the Thirty Years' War and in 1714 gained its civic rights. The imperial city and the abbatial town were united in 1818 after they had both come under the jurisdiction of Bavaria in 1803. Industries include butter and cheese exchanges of the Allgau, textile factories, paper factories, engineering works and light industries, and breweries. Places of interest are the stone town hall (1474); St. Mang's church (Evangelical, 1426, restored); St.

known

as

Cambodunum and under

Laurence's church (Roman Catholic, 1652) the ducal residence (1651-74, with treasure rooms of the rococo period); and a museum with an extensive Roman collection. (F. Zo.) ;

KEN, THOMAS

(1637-1711), English bishop and hymn writer, was one of the seven bishops who in 1688 refused to publish James II's Declaration of Indulgence. Born at Berkhamsted,

279

Hertfordshire, in July 1637, Ken was educated at Winchester college and New college, Oxford. After ordination about 1661 he held

becoming in 1669 prebendary of WinchesIn 1674 he compiled a Manual of Prayers for the boys of Winchester college, to the seventh edition of which, in 1700, were added Ken's familiar hymns, "Awake, my soul, and with the sun" and "Glory to Thee, my God, this night." In 1679 Ken was appointed chaplain to Princess Mary of York, wife of William of Orange. In 1680 Charles II made him a royal chaplain. Soon after this he made his famous refusal to vacate his house in Winchester to accommodate Nell Gwyn, the king's mistress. In 1683 Ken, with Samuel Pepys, accompanied Lord Dartmouth's expedition to Tangier, and two years later he was nominated bishop of Bath and Wells. The Monmouth rebellion occurred that same year (1685), and Ken was among those who ministered to the defeated duke before his execution. When James II, in 1688, issued his Declaration of Indulgence, Ken was one of the bishops who, refusing to publish it in their dioceses, were sent to the Tower of London, tried and triumphantly In spite of this Ken loyally supported James when acquitted. William of Orange landed at Torbay and, after James had fled to France, suffered deprivation in 1691 as a nonjuror rather than swear allegiance to William. Ken died at Longleat, the house of his Oxford friend Thomas, Viscount Weymouth, where he had spent the 20 years of his retirement, on March 19, 1711. Ken was gentle and generous in disposition, fearless in opposing what he deemed to be wrong, loyal where his word was pledged. Not a scholar of the first rank, and a poet of only moderate inspiration, Ken could yet lay claim to greater qualities of mind and spirit. He was a loving pastor and a faithful friend. In an age of excessive political and ecclesiastical opportunism, he stands out for disinterested and uncompromising inseveral preferments, ter.

tegrity.

—

-J. T. Round (ed.), The Prose Works of Thomas L. Anderton, Life of Thomas Ken, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1854) E. H. Plumptre, Life of Thomas Ken (1878) J. W. C. Wand, The High Church Schism (1951) ; H. A. L. Rice, Thomas Ken, Bishop and Non-Juror (1958). (H. A. L. R.)

Bibliography.

Ken (1838);

J.

;

;

KENDAL, EHRENGARDE

MELUSINA, Duchess of (1667-1743), mistress of the English king George I who had considerable political influence during his reign. She was a close friend of Robert Walpole, who said that she was "as much queen of England as ever any was." The daughter of Gustavus Adolphus, count of Schulenburg (d. 1691), she was born at Emden on Dec. 25, 1667, and was later attached to the household of the electress Sophia. She became George's mistress about 1690, followed him to England in 1714, and usually managed to retain precedence over his other principal mistress, Charlotte Sophia, baroness von Kilmannsegge, afterward countess of Darlington. Titles were freely bestowed on her in 1716 she was created duchess of Munster in the peerage of Ireland; in 1719 she was created duchess of Kendal, countess of Feversham and baroness of Glastonbury; and in 1723 the emperor Charles VI made her a princess of the empire. In England she was mainly renowned for her cupidity and lack of good looks. Her thin somewhat wooden figure caused her to be nicknamed "the Maypole" (in contrast to her more corpulent rival who was dubbed "the Elephant"). She was very unpopular with the people of London and invariably met with ribaldry and abuse when she rode through the streets. Her desire for money was apparently insatiable. She made a fortune out of buying and selling South Sea stock, and freely used her influence with the king to sell titles and public offices. She also sold patent rights, one of which gave rise to the introduction of Wood's halfpence into Ireland. After George's death she lived at Kendal house, Isleworth, Middlesex, until her death on May 10, 1743. She had two daughters by the king: Petronilla Melusina (c. 1693-1778), who was created countess of Walsingham in 1722 and married the great earl of Chesterfield; and Margaret Gertrude (1703-73), countess of Lippe. :

KENDAL, WILLIAM HUNTER (William Hunter Grimston) (1843-1917), English actor who, with his wife, Margaret (Madge) Brunton Robertson (1849-1935), did much as an actor, manager and trainer to raise the standards of the profes-

KENDAL— KENILWORTH

28o sion.

He was born in London on Dec. 16, He made his first stage appearance

painter.

Prior to his work with cortisone Kendall had isolated the ac-

1S43. the son of a in

Glasgow

in 1S62,

tive constituent (thyroxin) of the thyroid gland

and had

crystal-

and joined the Haymarket company in London in 1866. playing in In London he met everything from burlesque to Shakespeare. Madge Robertson, the sister of the dramatist T. W. Robertson and After their mara splendid actress with a distinguished career. riage in 1869 the Kendals appeared together on the stage and were inseparable. Their joint management with Sir John Hare at the St. james*s brought fame and prosperity to that theatre, and dur1S79 to 1888) many of their notable successes ing those years were made, such as The Squire, Impulse, The Ironmaster, A Scrap For many years they of Paper and The Elder Miss Blossom. toured the provinces and the United States and trained many actors and actresses who afterward attained eminence. Mrs. Kendal was a better actress than her husband was an actor, but they made a wonderful pair. He died in London in 1917: she was made a dame of the British Empire in 1926 and died in 1935. W. J. M.-P.) KENDAL, a market town and municipal borough in Westmorland. Eng.. 22 mi. N. of Lancaster by road. Pop. (1961) The largest town in the county and its administrative IS. 599. centre. Kendal stands on the main road from London to Scotland via Carlisle and on the river Kent about 3 mi. S.E. of the Lake District National park. Four road bridges cross the river at Kendal, which is irregularly built of gray limestone. The unusually large parish church, the oldest part dating from 1200. has five aisles and a square tower. The county hall was opened in 1939. In the town hall are paintings by George Romney. who died in Kendal, and a book of devotions that belonged to Catherine Parr: the clock tower contains a carillon. The museum has a good geological collection. The grammar school was founded in 1525, and Sandes hospital for widows was built in 1659. Castle dairy, in YVildman street, was rebuilt in 1564 and is preserved as a Tudor

chemist, co-winner with

house.

prize for chemistry for his elucidation of the structure of

(

(

Roman fort is traceable at Watercrook. On Castle How. an artificial mound probably of pre-Xorman origin, an obelisk was raised in 1788 in memory of the revolution of 1688. The

outline of a

The barony and

castle of Kendal, held by Turold. were granted by Ivo de Taillebois. but the barony was divided into three parts in the reign of Richard II. one part with the castle passing to Sir William Parr, ancestor of Catherine Parr who was born there. After the death of Catherine's brother, William, his share of the barony reverted to Elizabeth I. The castle, which is east of the town, was in ruins by 1586. Burgesses in Kendal are mentioned in 1345. and the town received charters in 1472 and 14S4: it was incorporated in 1575 and further charters were granted in 1636 and 1684. A weekly market on Saturday, granted by Richard I to Roger Fitz Reinfred. was bought by the corporation from the lords of the manor in 1SS5 and 1886. There were many fairs recorded from the 14th century onward. The woolen manufactures of Kendal have been noted since 1331 when a Flemish weaver settled there: the borough motto. Pannus mihi Panis, commonly translated "Wool is My Bread." recalls the former importance of wool. Although the coarse cloth known to Shakespeare as Kendal green is no longer made, carpets and cards for wool and cotton are manufactured and there are woolen and paper mills outside the town. Other industries include boots and shoes, water turbines and pumps, laundry machinery and a quarry and lime works. There has been a tobacco and snuff trade since the 16th century, when cotton goods were exchanged for tobacco with America and the West Indies. The Elizabeth Levens hall with ornamental gardens is 5? mi. S:, and 3 mi. S. is Sizergh castle with a 14th-century peal tower and a Tudor great hall. (1886), U.S. biochemist, who. with Philip S. Hench (q.v.), isolated cortisone, was born March 8, 1886, at South Xorwalk, Conn. He received his Ph.D. in 1910 from Columbia university. From 1910 to 1914 he made investigations concerning the thyroid, and in the latter year joined the Mayo clinic staff as head of the section of biochemistry. From 1915 to his retirement in 1951. Kendall was head of the division of biochemistry in the Mayo clinic acting also as head of the laboratory of biochemistry from 1945 to 195 1. Later he was visiting professor of chemistry at Princeton.

William

I to

KENDALL, EDWARD CALVIN

chemical nature. From the thyroid gland he turned his attention to the adrenal cortex, and in 194S he achieved partial synthesis of the adrenal hormone cortisone. Another of his products from the adrenal cortex was hydrocortisone. For their work in isolating cortisone and applying it clinically in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. Kendall and Hench received the Xobel prize in physiology and medicine in 1950, with Tadeusz Reichstein (q.v.) of Switzerland. See also Adrenal Glands; Hormones; Steroids. (J. R. En.; X.) lized glutathione

and established

its

KENDALL, (THOMAS) HENRY (CLARENCE)

( 1

839-1 88 2

one of the

1.

first

Australian poets to find inspiration

at Kirmington. Xew South Wales. April 18, 1839. an d baptized Thomas Henry, but seems to have later taken the name Clarence. He began to publish poems in 1857 and his first collection appeared in 1862. He entered the

was born

in his country's landscape,

and was transferred to the colonial secrethrough the interest of Henry Parkes (q.v.), a lifelong friend. After Parkes lost office. Kendall moved to Melbourne to make his living by writing. He struggled against poverty and alcoholism, but after a period of homeless wandering (187273) and breakdown began to succeed. In 1881 he became inspector of forests but died at Sydney. Aug. 1. 1882. Leaves from an Australian- Forest (1869) and Songs from the Mountains (1880) contain his best work: despite unevenness. it sometimes achieves high lyrical quality. His poems were edited with introduction by P. J. Holdsworth (1886); selections were edited by T. Inglis Moore (1957). (C. M. H. C.) British H 91 7), civil

service in 1863.

tary's office in 1S66

KENDREW, JOHN COWDERY M.

F. Perutz (q.v.) of the 1962

Xobel

myo-

oxygen and gives it up to the muscle cells when needed. He was born at Compton. Berkshire. Eng.. on March 24. 1917. and was educated at the Dragon school. Oxford, at Clifton college. Bristol, and at Trinity college, Cambridge, receiving his doctorate in 1949. During World War He II he was attached to the ministry of aircraft production. became reader (lecturer) at the Royal institution. London, in 1954. deputy director of the Medical Research council's unit for molecular biology at Cambridge in 1954 and scientific adviser to the British ministry of defense in 1960. He was made a fellow of the Royal society in 1960. Myoglobin comprises a polypeptide chain of 151 to 153 amino acid residues and an iron-containing heme group that is concerned with the capacity to bind oxygen. The structure of myoglobin was elucidated by X-ray diffraction analysis. Special techniques were devised for producing a spatial (three-dimensional) representation of molecules as large as proteins, and in Kendrew's myoglobin studies 1959) nearly 10.000 X-ray reflections were used to provide the mathematical data that gave a resolution of 2 A. Later work by Kendrew with 25,000 reflections was designed to produce globin, a protein in muscles that stores

(

iD. T. El.)

a resolution of 1.4 A.

KENILWORTH,

an ancient town and urban

district of

War-

X. of Warwick and 6 mi. S.S.W. of Coventry by road. Pop. (1961) 14.449. The town is famous for the ruins of its castle, begun in the 12th century, whose walls originally enclosed seven acres. The 16th-century gatehouse is now a dwelling. Caesar's tower in the wickshire. Eng.. on a tributary of the

Avon

5 mi.

keep, the only portion built by Geoffrey de Clinton in the 12th century and still extant, has walls 16 ft. thick. Remains of the outer walls with four towers, the great hall built by John of Gaunt,

and the Leycester buildings, added for domestic purposes by Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, who also built the gatehouse, also survive. Sir Walter Scott's novel Kenil-^orth describes the Xear the castle are the ruins castle in the time of Elizabeth I. of an Augustinian prion founded in 1122 and afterward made an abbey. The Xorman doorway of St. Xicholas' church is thought The to have been the entrance of the former abbey church. -

Abbey

60 ac. are fields Kenilworth (Chiriewrde (

)

a public pleasure ground. in

Domesday Book) was granted by

KENITES— KENNEDY Norman whose son probably and whose grandson released his right to King John. remained with the crown until Henry III granted it to

Henry

I to

Geoffrey de Clinton, a

built the castle

The castle Simon de Montfort,

earl of Leicester, then governor. The Dictum de Kenilworth was proclaimed there in 1266. After the battle

Evesham

of

a siege of six

the rebel forces rallied at the castle, which after months was surrendered. It was in the great hall

was made to resign the crown in 1327. Through John of Gaunt the castle came to Henry IV and remained in royal hands until granted by Elizabeth I in 1562 to Robert Dudley; on his death in 1588 it again reverted to the crown. Later it was held by the Careys and the Hydes. During the Civil War the castle was dismantled by the soldiers of Oliver Cromwell and from that time abandoned. It was given to the nation by Lord Kenilworth in 1937. The only mentions of Kenilworth as a borough occur in a charter of Henry I to Geoffrey de Clinton and in the charters of Henry I and Henry II to the church of St. Mary of Kenilworth. that

The

Edward

II

chief local industry

KENITES,

is

agriculture.

related to the Midianites and Amalekites iqq.v.). frequently mentioned in the biblical narraThe name was derived tives about the early history of Israel. from Cain, whose descendants they were believed to be (Gen. iv). Since small deposits of copper and iron ore occur in the area south of the Dead sea. it is probable that Israelite traditions connected them with the archaeologically attested metalworking Egyptian reliefs of the 19th century B.C. picture in that area. Asian nomads with blacksmiths' tools arriving in Egypt. It is probable that Kenites were a pariah people who eked out a livelihood as shepherds and traveling tinkers. After Moses' murder of an Egyptian overseer, he took refuge with Jethro (q.v.). "the priest of Midian." and married his daughter. Zipporah. Judg. i. 16 identifies the father-in-law of Moses as a Kenite (see Ex. ii, 11-22; hi, 1). Jethro subsequently established peaceful relationships with the Israelites, and suggested Kenites a legal organization which Moses accepted (Ex. xviii). accompanied the Israelites in the desert (Num. x. 29-32), but refused to join them in the occupation of Palestine. Judaeans, Amalekites and Canaanites had Kenites living in their midst (Judg. a

clan

closely

Sam. xv. 6; Judg. iv, 11, 17). In view of the close relationship indicated, suggestions have been made that Yahweh, the God of Israel, was originally the i,

16; I

Kenite tribal deity, but this is highly speculative. It is possible that the narrative about Cain in Gen. iv indicates a tradition that the Kenites were under the protection of Yahweh, though not under Israelite religious law. By the time of David, Kenites seem to be almost a part of Judah (I Sam. xxvii, 10; xxx, 29), and in subsequent history disappear entirely, though I Chron. ii, 55 seems to connect them with the Rechabites (q.v.). (G. E. Me.)

—

F. M. Abel, Geographie de la Palestine, vol. i, p. 273 W. F. Albright, Archaeology and the Religion of Israel, 2nd ed. M. Noth, Geschichte Israels, vol. i-iii (1950-56). KENITRA (Mina Hassan Tani; formerly Port-Lyautey), a seaport of Morocco on the Atlantic, lies on the left bank of the Sebou river 10 mi. from the mouth, and 24 mi. N.E. of Rabat

Bibliography.

(1933) (1954)

;

;

by

rail and road. Pop. (1960) 86,775. Prior to the French protectorate (1912-56) Kenitra ("the little bridge") was a fort held

by Moroccan troops; the town and the port date from 1913. In 1933 the town was named Port-Lyautey after Marshal L. H. G. Lyautey (q.v.) but reverted to its old name after Moroccan independence. It was renamed Mina Hassan Tani in 1962. In World War II, U.S. troops landed there on Nov. 8, 1942, suffering losses in the Sebou estuary from opposing fire from the fort at Mehdia. A U.S. naval and air base was maintained there until 1963. The northern hinterland consists of the Gharb or Rharb plain, formerly an unhealthy swamp but now fertile cultivated land (cereals, vines, citrus fruits, vegetables, rice).

In the south the Mamora forest, chiefly of cork oaks, yields cork, tannin and timber. This produce, together with lead and zinc ores from the Midelt region, is shipped through the port, which can accommodate ships of up to 13 ft. draft and 300 ft. length alongside quays which extend to about 1,300 yd. After Casablanca and San it is the third largest port of Morocco. The main imports are coal,

281

machinery, iron and

and upstream of the port area, with manufactures of paper, tobacco and fertilizers and with textile mills and fish-processing plants. A favourite resort is the Chenaie park formed in the fringe of the Mamora forest south of the town, with a racecourse and sports stadium. (A. Am.) agricultural

petroleum

fuels.

The

steel,

building materials

industrial quarter lies

KENMURE, WILLIAM GORDON,

6th Viscount

(d.

1716), Scottish Jacobite, remembered for the inept part he played in the 1715 rebellion, was the son of Alexander (d. 1698), 5th Alexander was suspected of sympathizing with the viscount. covenanters in the reigns of Charles II and James VII, and he fought at Killiecrankie in 1689 for King William. His eldest son

was of the opposite persuasion and was in his youth at the exiled Stuart court in France. But as a Protestant he found its Catholic atmosphere uncongenial. His Jacobitism, however, remained and cannot entirely be attributed to the influence of his wife Mary who was sister to the 6th earl of Carnwath, since the marriage did not take place until 1711. Kenmure had no military ability but was nonetheless obliged to lead the rising of 1715 in southern Scotland. At Lochmaben on Oct. 12, he proclaimed King James VIII but seemed unable to think of a second step. Finally, on Oct. 18, he crossed the border with a small force of about 200 men to join the Northumberland rebels under Thomas Forster (q.v.). The joint force of about 1,400 foot and 600 horse entered Scotland and was reinforced by a Highland detachment. The leadership of Kenmure in Scotland and later of Forster in England was feeble, and after an abortive march into Lancashire, Forster surrendered at Preston on Nov. 14. Kenmure was tried with several other rebel lords, but only he and the earl of Derwentwater were executed on Tower hill on Feb. 24, 1716. By a stratagem the estate was preserved by Kenmure's widow, although the title was forfeited. It was revived for a descendant in 1824, but became dormant in 1847. Dalzell,

—

See A. and H. Tayler, 1715: the Story of the Rising (1936).

(W. Fe.) famous and powerful family that southwest Scotland by the 13th century. Groups of

KENNEDY, settled in

the

name

of a

Kennedys settled in other districts, even in Orkney, the Hebrides and Ireland, but the name is most closely associated with southern Ayrshire and Wigtownshire. The landed families of the name are generally thought to have sprung from the Kennedys of Dunure, but those of Blairquhan, Bargany and Bennan may have originated separately. John Kennedy of Dunure (fl. 1346-83), was probably descended from the earls of Carrick and was confirmed in the chiefship of the clan by Robert II in 1372. His grandson, James (d. 1408), married Mary, daughter of Robert III, and one of their sons, Gilbert (d. c. 1479), was created Lord Kennedy in 1457 or 1458. Another son, James (c. 1406-65), bishop of St. Andrews, was a distinguished statesman under James II and James III. The poet Walter Kennedy was one of Lord Kennedy's sons. (d. 1513), 3rd Lord Kennedy, was created earl of Cas1509 and fell at the battle of Flodden. His grandson, Gilbert (1515-58), 3rd earl, was one of the nobles who intrigued with Henry VIII but he returned to his allegiance after the battle of Pinkie (1547) and was made lieutenant of the South (1548-50) and lord treasurer (1554-58). His son, Gilbert (d. 1576), 4th earl, was a staunch Roman Catholic who fought for Mary Stuart at Langside and supported her cause long after her imprisonment in England. He was accused by contemporaries of torturing Alan Stewart, commendator of Crossraguel abbey, to

David

sillis

in

extort a

title

to the

abbey

lands.

In the time of John (1568-1615), 5th earl, the rivalry between the houses of Cassillis and Bargany for supremacy in Carrick cul-

minated in 1601

in the murder of Gilbert Kennedy of Bargany by Cassillis and the murder of the earl's uncle, Sir Thomas Kennedy

of Culzean. in revenge in 1602.

Thereafter the Cassillis faction century the Kennedy power greatly declined. Most of the Kennedys were strong covenanters. John (d. 1668), 6th earl, was a prominent leader of the Scots against Charles I and attended the Westminster assembly in 1643. His son John (d. 1701), 7th earl, joined the resistance to Charles

was supreme.

During the

17th

KENNEDY

282

and had 1 .500 of the Highland Host quartered on his estates in Debts and fines forced him to sell his Wigtownshire and part of his Ayrshire lands. John (1700-59), 8th earl, died childless and the Cassillis title went, after long litigation, to Sir Thomas Kennedy of Culzean (d. 1775). He and his brother David (d. 1792). 10th earl, built the present Culzean castle to Robert Adam's designs. Archibald (1770-1846), 12th earl, was created marquess of Ailsa in 1831 and was ancestor of Archibald David (1925), II

1678.

a great deal of traveling during his school and college years, culminating early in 1939 in living at the U.S. embassy in London, where he could watch the darkening war clouds at first hand, and in a long trip through eastern Europe, Russia and the near east.

was subjected

president of the United States, the youngest man and the first member of the Roman Catholic faith to be elected to that office,

some of the leading most of them internationally minded, at a time when Nazi aggression was forcing young men throughout the world to turn from their personal concerns to the threat of Hitlerism. Kennedy's studies and observations came to a focus his senior year in his thesis, which described Britain's slow response to German rearmament as due to the narrow self-interest of business and labour, the influence of pacifism and the excessive economizing of government budget-balancers. Shortly after the fall of France in 1940 this thesis was published in Britain and the United States as a book, Why England Slept, and became a best seller in both countries. Graduating cum laude from Harvard in June 1940, Kennedy at-

was born May 29, 1917, in Brookline, Mass., a suburb of Boston. On Nov. 22, 1963, he became the fourth U.S. president in history to die by an assassin's bullet when he was shot by a sniper in

tended Stanford university, Stanford, Calif., graduate school of business for a few months and traveled in South America. Late in 1941 he enlisted in the U.S. navy and, as commander of a motor

Dallas, Tex.

torpedo (PT) boat, took part in operations against the Japanese in the Solomon Islands in the southwest Pacific. In this area in Aug. 1943 a Japanese destroyer rammed and sank his PT boat. Kennedy and the other survivors, after a desperate swim of three miles, managed to find refuge on a small, unoccupied island, from which they were rescued several days later by friendly natives. Awarded the navy and marine corps medal and the Purple Heart,

who succeeded to the title in 1957. The Kennedys of Kirkhill, later styled of Dunure, produced Thomas Kennedy (d. 1754) lord advocate and baron of the exchequer, Thomas Kennedy (d. 1819), agriculturalist and builder of Dunure harbour, and Thomas Francis Kennedy (1788-1879), who was a prominent Whig member of parliament. (Ja. F.) 7th marquess,

KENNEDY, JOHN FITZGERALD

(1917-1963), 35th

—

Family Background. Kennedy was descended from immigrants who left Ireland when that country was racked by the potato blight

and other economic

nedy, emigrated from

His great-grandfather, Patrick KenRoss in Ireland about 1850 and settled

ills.

New

in East Boston. Patrick became the father of four children, the youngest of whom, Patrick J. Kennedy, entered the liquor trade, started a saloon and then branched out into Democratic party politics at a time when the Irish were beginning to gain control of the political life of Boston. More successful in Boston politics was another son of Irish immigrants, John F. Fitzgerald, who steadily climbed the local political ladder from city councilman to member of congress, ultimately winning election as mayor of Boston. The two men, often allied politically, were further united in 1914 when Kennedy's eldest son, Joseph P., married Fitzgerald's daughter, Rose. The couple had nine children, the second of whom

was named John Fitzgerald Kennedy. Joseph P. Kennedy, the father of the future president, was a man of great vigour and drive. Graduating from Harvard in 1912, he decided against a political career and instead entered banking. During the 1920s he made a large fortune in the motion-picture industry, real estate and other activities. Always somewhat hostile to the conservative Republicans who dominated Massachusetts politics and business and who often ostracized Irish Catholics, Kennedy increasingly operated outside Boston, chiefly in New York and California. He supported Franklin D. Roosevelt's candidacy for president in 1932 and later served in important posts in the New Deal. In 1937 he was appointed ambassador to Great Britain.

Youth.

—John Kennedy began

life in a

lower middle-class sec-

Boston and gradually moved to more substantial homes in and New York city areas as his father prospered: He grew up in a happy, lively family, supervised by maids and nurses, with more and more young sisters and brothers to play with. He tion of

the Boston

attended local private schools; at the age of 13 he left home New Milford, Conn., a Catholic boarding school taught by laymen. After a year at Canterbury he went to a nonsectarian school, Choate, in Wallingford, Conn. He was a normal youngster, enjoying a variety of sports, occasionally getting into small mischief and continually being urged by his father to work harder and to improve his grades. At 18 he entered Princeton but his freshman year was cut short by illness, and the following autumn he transferred to Harvard. In his first two years at Harvard Kennedy was more interested in athletics than in his classes, but in the last two years he seemed He received better grades, took part in to grow intellectually. first

for Canterbury,

university club activities and as a major in government

absorbed

in

an undergraduate thesis on the

failings

became

of British

Several things may account for the trend of Kennedy's interests at Harvard. His father had long impressed upon him the importance of history and politics by discussing current affairs at the dinner table. Too, Kennedy had done foreign policy in the 1930s.

Finally, he

to the influence of

historians and political scientists at Harvard,

navy

Kennedy was

invalided

home

sequent attack of malaria. Congressional Career.

as a result of his injuries

and a sub-

—

Discharged from the navy in April not decided upon a career. It had been generally assumed that his older brother, Joseph P. Kennedy. Jr., would enter politics, but Joseph, a naval pilot, was killed in 1944 in 1945,

Kennedy had

still

an attack against German submarine pens on the Belgian coast. It was partly because of this loss that John decided on a political career. He entered political life in East Boston, where his grandfathers had been active several decades before. Early in 1946 he announced his candidacy for the Democratic nomination for congress in the 11th congressional district, a water-front area populated largely by immigrants. Backed by navy and Harvard friends, Kennedy campaigned so long and so hard that he readily defeated the veteran city politicians seeking the Democratic nomination, and he went on to vanquish his Republican opponent without difficulty in this heavily Democratic area. Kennedy entered the house of representatives in Jan. 1947 at a time when the house was Republican for the first time in 16 years. He was only 29 years old. Representing a low-income district, from the first he supported the New Deal-Fair Deal social

Both in Washington welfare policies of Pres. Harry S. Truman. and in his district he fought for public housing programs, higher federal minimum wage levels, broadened social security programs and protection for labour's right to organize. On foreign policy, however, he took a position somewhat independent of President Truman. He backed the Truman doctrine for financial and military aid to Greece and Turkey, as well as the Marshall plan authorizing aid to western Europe, but he also criticized what he felt to be Truman's indecisive interference in China, without, however, making clear just what alternative policy he favoured. He based his views not so much on an isolationist philosophy as on the belief that the European nations should make a greater contribution to recovery and defense than they were doing. During these first years in congress, however, Kennedy was less concerned about domestic and foreign policy than he was about servicing the special

needs of people in his district. So vigorous was the young congressman in his legislative and district activities that he easily won renomination and re-election to his house seat in 1948 and 1950. He felt rather limited in the lower chamber, however, and he decided to run in 1952 against Republican Sen. Henry Cabot Lodge for the latter's seat in the U.S. senate. It was a daring step, for he was not well known outside the Boston area, and Lodge was a formidable campaigner.

But Kennedy

entere'd the contest early,

campaigned day after day

—

KENNEDY many months, enlisted the help of thousands of volunteers throughout the state, including his own large and personable famHe won in the ily and narrowly defeated Lodge in Nov. s 1952. face of a heavy vote for Dwight D. Eisenhower for president in Massachusetts and in the nation. During his early years in the senate Kennedy followed much the same legislative course as he had in the house. He paid special attention to the interests of textile workers, longshoremen, fishermen and other major groups in Massachusetts; as a member of the senate committee on education and public welfare he worked hard on social and economic legislation; and he continued to keep in In Sept. 1953 close touch with his Massachusetts constituents. he married Jacqueline Lee Bouvier, of a wealthy Rhode Island family. The following year the senator was compelled to enter the hospital for treatment of a war-aggravated spinal disorder Surviving two dangerthat had been giving him increasing pain. ous operations, Kennedy was laid up for over six months. During his convalescence he wrote Profiles in Courage (1956), a study of American politicians who had shown exemplary political courage in taking positions that were unpopular with their constituents. Kennedy contended that in choosing legislators the voters consciously wanted leaders who would not simply work for the voters' narrow interests but who would rather do the right thing for the nation's long-term good. The book sold widely and was awarded the Pulitzer prize for biography in 1957. Recovering from his illness by the spring of 1955, Kennedy, like the politicians he described in his book, seemed to become more concerned with problems of the nation and the world and less preoccupied by state and sectional matters. Some of his critics, however, contended that Kennedy lacked the courage of the heroes of his book. They cited in particular his failure to take a position on a motion before the senate to censure Sen. Joseph R. McCarthy of Wisconsin for certain activities that were deemed harmful to the dignity of the senate. Actually, Kennedy had been prepared to speak and vote for censure, but he was in the hospital with his back injury when the vote finally was taken. For some time afterward the senator refused to state how he would have voted, but eventually he went on record retroactively as favouring the censure motion. Kennedy's entrance onto the national political scene came in Aug. 1956 shortly after Adlai E. Stevenson was nominated for the second time to run against President Eisenhower. When Stevenson decided to throw the choice of his running mate open to the delegates instead of making it himself, Kennedy, who had been conducting a halfhearted campaign, redoubled his efforts. In a contest witnessed by millions of television viewers, Kennedy almost won the vice-presidential nomination, only to be defeated by a fellow senator, Estes Kefauver of Tennessee. Not long after the defeat of Stevenson and Kefauver by Eisenhower and his running mate, Richard M. Nixon, Kennedy decided to run for the presidency in 1960. Once again he used his tested formula of starting early and campaigning hard. Each weekend after the senate completed its deliberations he flew to some city to make appearances. Even during his campaign for re-election as senator from Massachusetts in 1958, which he won by 874,608 votes (the largest margin ever accorded to any candidate in either party in Massachusetts), he found time to stump for Democratic for

candidates in other states.

Kennedy

did a great deal of writing

and newspapers; countless articles were written about him as an unusually young and vigorous candidate and pictures of his attractive wife and himself appeared on the covers of popular periodicals. He also drew special notice because of his Catholicism. The only previous major party Catholic nominee, Alfred E. Smith, had been defeated in 1928, and there was wide speculation that Kennedy's religion was an insurmountable barrier to his nomination and election as president. Although Kennedy's candidacy was unannounced, it was plain for all to see; between 1956 and 1960 he became one of the best-known political figures for magazines

;

United States. In the senate during this period,

in the

Kennedy took an increasingly and internationalist position. While continuing to back expanded social welfare programs, he spoke up more strongly in liberal

favour of

283 civil rights

and individual liberty. In 1957 he supported would authorize the federal government to

a civil rights bill that

enforce the racial desegregation of all-white schools. He urged the repeal of provisions requiring certain persons seeking federal aid or services to sign noncommunist affidavits. He also showed himself to be something of a traditionalist as to procedure; for example, he aroused the opposition of some civil rights supporters

when he refused ment

bypass an anti-civil and again when he supported an amend-

to vote to enable the bill to

rights senate committee,

to the civil rights bill requiring jury trials in certain criminal

contempt

cases.

Kennedy was

especially active

and articulate

in foreign policy

during these years. He adhered sufficiently to the Democratic party foreign policy line to gain a position on the senate committee on foreign relations; he supported foreign economic and military programs; and like other Democrats he urged the expansion of aid programs in the underdeveloped nations of Asia, Africa and South America. On other matters he followed a more independent course. Perhaps the most notable example was his speech to the senate criticizing French policy in Algeria and urging, in effect, that the French grant independence to the Algerians a speech received with dismay by leading Democrats as well as by Republi-

—

cans.

The Massachusetts senator showed

a particular interest

problems of Asia and Africa. He urged that the United States grant extensive economic aid, especially to India, as a means of demonstrating that democratic societies could develop their economies more effectively and humanely than could communist nations. Other important foreign policies favoured by Kennedy included: development of closer economic and cultural relations with Poland and other communist satellite nations, more emphasis on the UN and other world agencies for administering aid programs in underdeveloped nations and more generous economic aid to Latin America. On the issue of negotiating with the Russians he contended that the U.S. must negotiate with Moscow but could do so effectively only from a position of economic, military, technological and educational strength. Election as President. By the time Kennedy formally announced his candidacy for the Democratic nomination for president, in Jan. 1960, he had become the acknowledged front-runner among the several aspirants. He never lost his leading position. He won all the presidential primary contests in which his name was entered, and gained the endorsement of many state conventions. His selection on the first ballot of the Democratic national convention in Los Angeles in July 1960 testified to the enormous work that Kennedy and his workers had accomplished in four years, to his arresting political personality and to the tremendous publicity he had won in magazines and newspapers. Above all, his nomination was a tribute to his ability at political organization an ability that was soon tested in a broader arena. In the presidential campaign Kennedy benefited from the wider popularity of the Democratic party and from the aid of thousands of political in the intensifying

—

—

volunteers. In the Nov. 8 election,

Kennedy won a plurality of fewer than He car150,000 of the nearly 70,000,000 popular votes cast. ried most of the traditionally Democratic southern states and most northern industrial areas but lost nearly all the western states. In the electoral college he received 303 votes to 219 for Republican Richard M. Nixon. Sen. Harry F. Byrd of Virginia, who had not been a candidate in the election, received 15 electoral votes. Kennedy was inaugurated on Jan. 20, 1961. Presidency. The new president set the tone of his administration in an inaugural address that pledged his best efforts to help the "peoples in the huts and villages of half the globe" to help themselves, proposed that the free world never fear to negotiate with the communist world but never negotiate out of fear, and urged Americans to "ask not what your country can do for you ask what you can do for your country." The high calibre of his cabinet and other major appointments and the boldness and breadth of his legislative proposals won the president wide political support during the early months of his administration. His zest, energy and wide-ranging interests, combined with the attractiveness of the young family in the White

—

KENNEDY

284 House, also helped produce the atmosphere of a

political

honey-

tensions

moon.

harmful

Foreign problems brought this first phase to an end by early An attempt to aid Cuban emigres to invade Cuba and overthrow its dictator. Fidel Castro, ended in failure when the administration declined to back the invasion with full military sup-

fallout.

summer.

Communist and

port.

tensified

their

guerrilla forces in

Laos and Vietnam

;

power and

versatility.

when congress gave

its

He won

a

major

legislative victory

approval to a program to reduce

tariffs

and

stimulate international trade.

The administration's domestic efforts also brought mixed results. Forthright executive action along a broad front helped produce an in 1961 but it lost momentum in 1962. The president made vigorous use of his executive authority and influence in opposing a rise in steel prices in April 1962. He won the approval of congress for legislation to expand federal housing activ-

economic revival

ities,

raise

most of

his

minimum wages and broaden welfare programs. On major new proposals, however, the president was de-

feated. In spite of its Democratic majority, congress refused to support a general aid-to-education bill, tax reform, medical care for the aged under social security, a new farm program, creation of a new cabinet-level department of urban affairs and authority to finance long-term loans to underdeveloped nations by borrowing

from the treasury. President Kennedy entered into the 1962 election campaign in behalf of congressional candidates who were likely to support the policies of his administration, but his speaking tour was abruptly cut off two weeks before the election when intelligence reports

revealed that Soviet long-range missiles and other offensive weapons were being installed on the island of Cuba. The president immediately returned to Washington, addressed the nation by radio

and television to explain the nature of the threat to the nation's security, and announced a naval '"quarantine" of Cuba to prevent the arrival of additional weapons. He called upon the Cuban government and the Soviet Union to remove all offensive weapons from the island at once. After a brief period of tension the Soviet ships carrying additional weapons turned back and Premier Nikita Khrushchev announced that rockets and missiles already in Cuba would be withdrawn. Negotiations in which U Thant. acting secretary-general of the United Nations, took part, continued for an effort to work out details for the verification of and the administration was subjected to continuing criticism on the ground that large numbers of Soviet troops remained in Cuba months later. In Jan. 1963 President Kennedy sent a budget message to congress calling for a total of $98,800,000,000 in expenditures during the fiscal year beginning July 1. 1963, and anticipating a large deficit. The president proposed a substantial reduction in income tax rates to stimulate the economy, and that reforms be made in the tax laws. He also called for federal aid for dealing with the problem of mental health and for a medical care program for the aged financed through social security taxes. All of these proposals were received with some coolness in a congress dominated by a coalition of conservative Democrats and Republicans. Some Democratic leaders urged the president to challenge the conservative coalition, but he clung to the traditional presidential methods of influencing congress, partly because he wanted to keep the nation as united as possible on foreign policy. These methods were most successful during 1963 in connection with the test-ban treaty. The treaty, initialed in Moscow in August and formally ratified by the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. in September, obligated the signatories to conduct no further tests of nuclear devices in the atmosphere, in space or under water. Its supporters hailed it as a major advance toward lessening cold war

some time

^^^J^S^^^^ ^^^^Ar ^

operations without major counteraction by the The Berlin crisis came close to explosion when the

;

greater

President

in-

United States. East German communist regime sealed off West Berlin with a wall; hostilities were averted but the deadlock over the city tightened. On the other hand, the president launched a well received Alliance for Progress to promote economic development and social reform in Latin America increased economic aid to other underdeveloped areas; created a Peace Corps {q.v.) and gave to the armed forces

in

the removal of the weapons,

and

'

-

'

eliminating of

effects

the

radioactive

Kennedy

visited

Texas on a speaking tour in November. arriving in Dallas on Nov. 22. At about 12:30 p.m., as 'the presidential motorcade proceeded from the Dallas airport to a luncheon, three shots rang

Two

and Texas Gov. John B. Connally who. with Mrs. Kennedy and Mrs. Connally. was riding with the president in an open car was wounded. The president's death was officially WIDE WORLD announced at about 1 :30 p.m., JOHN F. KENNEDY AT A PRESS CON- whereupon Yice-Pres. Lyndon B. FERENCE. 1961 Johnson, who had been riding in another car of the motorcade, took the presidential oath of office and returned to Washington. Meanwhile. Dallas police apprehended Lee Harvey Oswald. 24 years old. a self-styled Marxist, and charged him with the murder. There was evidence that he had fired the fatal shots from a sixth-floor window of a building overlooking the assassination scene. On Nov. 24, as Oswald was being transferred to the Dallas county jail, a man identified as Jack Ruby (1911-67). a night-club operator, shot and fatally wounded him. The shooting took place in the basement of the Dallas police department building in full view of a nationwide television audiout.

bullets

struck

killed the president.

ence.

President Kennedy's body, after lying in state for one day beneath the Capitol rotunda, was buried in Arlington National cemetery on Nov. 25.

—

Warren Commission. On Nov. 29, President Johnson appointed a commission to investigate the circumstances surrounding The the assassination of Kennedy and the shooting of Oswald. chairman of the commission was the chief justice of the United States, Earl Warren; the other members were two U.S. senators, Richard B. Russell of Georgia and John Sherman Cooper of Kentucky: two members of the house of representatives, Hale Boggs of Louisiana and Gerald R. Ford of Michigan; and two men from private life, Allen W. Dulles, former director of the Central Intelligence agency, and John J. McCloy, former president of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. After months of investigation the commission submitted its findings to President Johnson in Sept. 1964, and they were immediately made public. The commission reported that the bullets that had killed President Kennedy were fired by Lee Harvey Oswald from a rifle pointed out The a sixth-floor window of the Texas School Book Depository. commission also reported that it had found no evidence that either Oswald or Ruby was part of any conspiracy, foreign or domestic, (This conclusion of the comto assassinate President Kennedy. mission was later challenged in a number of books and articles.) The commission described in detail its investigation of Oswald's life to provide a basis for determining his motives but did not The commission also itself attempt to analyze Oswald's motives. proposed strengthening the Secret Service organization: adopting improved procedures for protecting the president and enacting :

legislation to offense.

make

The

killing the president or vice-president a federal

report was published by the U.S. Government PrintReport of the President's Commission

ing office under the title

on the Assassination of President John F. Kennedy (1964). (J. MacG. B.; X.) Family. President and Mrs. Kennedy had a daughter. Caroline Bouvier (b. 1957). a son. John F., Jr. (b. 1960). and an infant son. Patrick Bouvier. who died (Aug. 9) two days after birth on Aug. 7, 1963. The president had three brothers and five sisters. Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr. (1915-1944). was killed in World War

—

II.

Robert Francis Kennedy (1925Nov.

20, 1925.

), born in Brookline on graduated from Harvard in 1948 and from the Uni-

KENNETH— KENSETT versity of Virginia law school in 1951.

He

entered public service

department of justice (1951-52), resigning to manage his brother's campaign for the U.S. senate. He served on the staffs of several senate committees, from 1957-60 as chief counsel of the select committee on improper activities in the labour or management field. In 1960 he managed his brother's presidential nomination and election campaigns. He was appointed attorney general of the United States in 1961 and became the administration's chief strategist in civil rights activities and in antitrust and antiracketeering litigation. He continued in the cabinet under President Johnson until 1964, when he resigned to campaign in New York for the U.S. senate; he was elected in November of that year. By 1966, when he campaigned for many Democratic candidates, he had emerged as a major national leader and a spokesman for the liberal wing of his party. Edward Moore Kennedy (1932- ) was born in Brookline on Feb. 22, 1932. and graduated from Harvard in 1954 and from the University of Virginia law school in 1959. He managed his brother John F.'s campaign for a second term in the senate, in 1958, and with Robert helped to win John F.'s presidential nomination and election in 1960. In 1962 Edward was elected to fill the last two years of his brother's unexpired term in the senate, and he was elected to a full term in 1964. Edward and Robert Kennedy became the second pair of brothers to serve in the U.S. senate at the same time, the other brothers being Dwight Foster of Massachusetts and Theodore Foster of Rhode Island, 1800-03. Rosemary Kennedy (1918- ) suffered from mental retardaas an attorney for the criminal division of the U.S.

tion.

Kathleen Kennedy (1920-1948), married in 1944 to William Cavendish, marquess of Hartington (d. 1944), was killed in an airplane crash in France in 1948. Eunice Kennedy (1921Shriver, Jr.,

first

was married in 1953 to R. Sargent director of the Peace Corps and head of federal )

had been slain by the Britons of Strathclyde. Kenneth began his reign by ravaging the Britons, probably as an act of vengeance, though his forces suffered severe losses. The Pictish chronicle has an obscure reference to his fortifications to protect the approaches to some fords, probably across the Forth; and to two plundering raids into Northumbria, in which he secured a royal captive. On the other hand his name is included among a group of northern and western kings said to have made submission to the Anglo-Saxon king Edgar in 973, perhaps at Chester; and the chronicler Roger of Wendover (Flores Historiarum, under the year 975), who has preserved much ancient material, states that shortly afterward Kenneth received from Edgar all the land called Lothian; i.e., between the Tweed and the Forth. This is the first mention of the Tweed The as the recognized border between England and Scotland. records for his reign are meagre, but he presented the "great foundation" of Brechin to the church and in 977 he slew Olaf (Amlaimh) son of Indulf, probably a rival heir to the throne by the law of tanistry. Kenneth was slain, apparently by his own subjects, at Fettercairn in the

Jean Kennedy (1928-

)

was married

in 1956 to

Stephen E.

—

;

;

name of two kings of the Scots. MacAlpin (d. 858), the first king of

F.

Mearns

Skene,

in 995.

Chronicles of ;

KENNINGTON,

a well-populated district in the south of

London, Eng., within the London Borough of Lambeth (q.v.). It contains Kennington Oval, the ground of the Surrey County Cricket club, and Kennington park, anciently the common, the site of a gallows until the end of the 18th century and meeting place of the Chartist demonstrators in 1848. cient royal palace of

No

trace remains of the an-

Kennington where the Black Prince is supViscount Montgomery of Alamein was born

posed to have lived. Mark's vicarage in 1887. KENO: see Bingo.

in St.

KENOSHA,

Smith. Bibliography. Most of Kennedy's speeches will be found in the Congressional Record (1947-60). Allan Nevins (ed.), The Strategy of Peace (1960) is a collection of his major foreign-policy pronouncements; James M. Burns, John Kennedy: a Political Profile (1960), covers his life through 1959; Joseph McCarthy, The Remarkable Kennedys (1960) deals with the whole family. Two estimates of Kennedy as president appeared in 1963: Hugh Sidey, John F. Kennedy, President, was generally favourable; Victor Lasky, J.F.K.; the Man and the Myth, was critical. See also Pierre Salinger and Sander Vanocur (eds.), A Tribute to John F. Kennedy (1964) Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., A Thousand Days, John F. Kennedy in the White House (1965) Theodore C. Sorensen, Kennedy (1965); Evelyn Lincoln, My Twelve Years with John F. Kennedy (1965).

KENNETH,

—W.

the Picts and Scots (1867), Celtic Scotland, 2nd ed. (1886-90); A. O. Anderson, Early Sources of Scottish History (1922) H. M. Chadwick, Early Scotland (N. K. C.) (1949).

Bibliography.

antipoverty programs.

Patricia Kennedy (1924- ) was married, 1954-66, to Peter Lawford, a motion-picture actor.

285

a city of southeastern Wisconsin, U.S., situated

on Lake Michigan at the estuary of the Pike river, about 30 mi. The city was S. of Milwaukee; the seat of Kenosha county. founded in 1835 at the time of the first main American settlement of southeastern Wisconsin.

The population was mainly of New England and New York After being known both as Pike Creek village and Southport, it was incorporated as a city with the name Kenosha (an Indian word meaning "pike" or "pickerel') in 1850, by which derivation.

population of 3,448 was foreign born. had grown to 54.368 and in 1960 it was 67.899. Population (1960) of the Kenosha standard metropolitan statistical area (Kenosha county) was 100.615. Most of Kenosha's relatively large foreign-born population came from Italy, Germany, Poland, Lithuania, Russia, Denmark and Czechotime about one-third of

One hundred years

its

later its population

slovakia.

Kenosha

known, though tradition credits him with a signal victory over by whom he was killed three months later (c. 834). Kenneth succeeded him in Dalriada and ruled in Pictavia also,

1840s pioneered in creating the first effecsystem in Wisconsin, and it was the first Wisconsin city to adopt the council-manager form of government, in effect from 1922 to 1958. The city is an important industrial centre, producing automobiles, furniture, mattresses, hosiery, tools and brass, copper and various other metal products. Three-fourths of all wage earners

ruling for 16 years, but perhaps only in Dalriada for the first 6 of

in the city

The period is obscure. Part of Pictavia may have come to Kenneth by inheritance, and the whole later as a result of conquest. The Dalriadic records of these conquests echo the hyperbolic panegyric poetry of the Dalriadic bards. The gradual union

tion of an extension centre of the University of Wisconsin.

Kenneth

I.

the

the united

Scots of Dalriada (q.v.) and the Picts, and so of Scotland north of and the Clyde. Of his father, Alpin, little

a line between the Forth is

the Picts

these.

two kingdoms from 843 doubtless owes much to intermarriage. By the Pictish marriage custom inheritance passed through the female. Nevertheless Kenneth probably made some conquests among the eastern Picts, and possibly invaded Lothian and burned Dunbar and Melrose. After attacks on Iona by Vikings he removed relics of St. Columba, probably in 849 or 850, to Dunkeld, which became the headquarters of the Scottish Columban church. He died in 858 at Forteviot, not far from Scone in Pictish territory, and was buried on the island of Iona. Kenneth II (d. 995), son of Malcolm I, became king (971) of the united Picts and Scots in succession to Indulf's son Cuilen. who

in

the

tive free public-school

work

in

manufacturing plants.

The

city

is

the locaIt

has

Lake Michigan and possesses a fine city centre and a substantial recreational area. For comparative population figures see table in Wisconsin Population. a pleasant location overlooking

:

of the

KENSETT, JOHN FREDERICK

(Re. H.) (1816-1872), U.S.

Hudson River school, who established a reputation one of the country's leading landscape painters, was born on March 22, 181 6. at Cheshire. Conn. He was trained as an engraver by his father. Thomas Kensett. and his uncle Alfred Daggett, of New Haven, Conn. In 1838 he went to New York city to work for a bank note company; but two years later, in company with Asher B. Durand. John W. Casilear and Thomas P. Rossiter, he went to Europe to study painting. He remained abroad for seven years, traveling and studying in England. France. Germany and Italy. painter of the

as

KENSINGTON AND CHELSEA— KENT

286

Returning to America in 1847, he was elected to the National Acadin 1849. He made his home in New York city but spent much time on painting trips to the mountains of New York and New England, the New England coast and once as far afield as Colo-

emy

rado.

Kensett died in New York city on Dec. 14, 1872. The contents of his studio were sold at auction soon after his death for $150,000. Many of his works are in the Metropolitan museum, New

York

city.

See F. A. Sweet, Hudson River School and the Early American Landscape Tradition (1945). (D. H. \V.)

KENSINGTON AND

CHELSEA, one of the 32 London boroughs constituting Greater London. Eng., is bounded west by Hammersmith, north by Brent, east by the City of Westminster, and south by the Thames. This inner London borough was established on April 1, 1965 under the London Government Act 1963 by the amalgamation of the former Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea with the Royal Metropolitan Borough of Kensington (see London) By the grant of Queen Elizabeth II the borough became a royal borough in 1965. Area 4.6 sq.mi. (12 sq.km.). Pop. (1965 est.) 216,810. The borough comprises three parliamentary constituencies: North Kensington, South Kensington, and Chelsea. The chief administrative offices are in the Town Hall, Kensington. The parish churches are St. Mary Abbots (Kensington, 1869) on a site that has borne a church for many centuries, and St. Luke's (Chelsea, 1820-24). Chelsea Old Church suffered heavy damage from bombs in 1941 but was rebuilt and reconsecrated as the .

Church of All Saints in 1958. The borough includes Notting Hill, Earl's Court, Brompton, and part of Knightsbridge. South Kensington lies between Earl's Court and Brompton. Chief thoroughfares are Harrow Road (the northern boundary), Holland Park Avenue, Kensington High Street, Cromwell Road, Fulham Road, and King's Road (named in 1713 after Charles II). Southbound roads join with the Chelsea, Albert, and Battersea bridges over the Thames. Chelsea Embankment stretches for more than a mile between Chelsea and Battersea bridges with Cheyne Walk at its west end. Kensington High Street, Knightsbridge, and Sloane Street are famous shopping centres, and King's Road is known for its varied and often Bohemian life. Portobello Road street market, North Kensington, is a hunting ground for antique collectors. Many new buildings have been erected since World War II and much redevelopment was taking place in the mid-1960s. As part of slum clearance schemes, massive residential tower blocks have appeared in the north. An area at Notting Hill Gate has been transformed by the erection of tall blocks of flats and modern shopping accommodation. The Central Library (1960), in Homton Street, The Comis one of the largest public library buildings in London. monwealth Institute (1962), in Kensington High Street, replaced the former Imperial Institute and has a hyperbolic paraboloid copper-sheathed roof. Other new buildings include the West London Air Terminal and Baden Powell House (headquarters of the Boy Scout Organization), both in Cromwell Road, the Carlton Towers Hotel at Knightsbridge, the Royal Garden Hotel (1965) beside Kensington Gardens, and new college buildings for the Chelsea Polytechnic in King's Road and Manresa Road. Other buildings, important for their

size or associations, are the

motor works of the Rootes Organization

in the northwest; Charles

House, a huge civil service office block on the west border, adjacent to Olympia; and Holland House, built by Sir Walter Cope (1605-1607), later acquired by marriage by Henry Rich, 1st earl of Holland (1624) after whom it is named. Holland House was damaged by bombs in 1940, acquired as public property after the war, restored on a smaller scale, and its extensive gardens opened as a public park. Kensington Palace is an enlargement of Nottingham House (pre-1660), bought by William III in 1689 and rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren, William Kent, and others. It was the royal palace of William III, Anne, George I, and George II. Queen Yictoria was born there (1819) and it is still lived in by

members of the royal family. The London Museum occupies part of the state apartments but was scheduled to move to the City of London

in the 1970s

and merge with the Guildhall Museum.

The

main building (1937) of the Earl's Court Exhibition area is on the southwest border of the borough. South Kensington is the site of the well-known (Brompton) Oratory of St. Philip Neri. the British Museum of Natural History, the Science Museum and Library, the Yictoria and Albert Museum, the Geological Museum, the Institut Franc,ais de Londres, and the Royal College of Science. Ranelagh (q.v.) in the second half of the 18th century and Cremorne Gardens in the mid- 19th were famous places of entertainment. Cremorne Gardens were closed in 1877 and the site was built over, but Ranelagh, although out of fashion by 1805, fives on in the grounds of the Royal Hospital, and its gardens are used for the annual flower show of the Royal Horticultural Society. The Chelsea Royal Hospital (q.v.) for invalid soldiers (now army pensioners), initiated by Charles II but largely the conception of John Evelyn (the diarist), was built between 1682 and 1692 and is one of Wren's masterly achievements. Beside the Royal Hospital is the Botanic Garden, one of the oldest in the country, given to the Society of Apothecaries by Charles Cheyne, lord of the manor of Chelsea in 1673. Cottonseed from the garden sent in 1732 helped to establish the American cotton industry. North of the hospital stands the Duke of York's Headquarters (1801) founded originally as a school for children of regular soldiers. Crosby Hall, with new buildings adjacent to it, -was opened in 1927 as an inter-

women.

It was built by Sir John and was moved thence intact to a Sir Thomas More's former garden in Chelsea in 1910 to save it from demolition. The names Chelsea (Caelichyth, c. 785), Kensington (Chenesit',

national hostel for university

Crosby site on

1086),

in Bishopsgate in 1446

Brompton (1290), Notting

Hill (Knottynghull, 1356) are

may be a Middle English borrowing from Old Norse. The Manor of Chelsea was, in early times, in the possession of Westminster Abbey but little is known of Anglo-Saxon origin, though the last

Tudor times. Henry VIII acquired it, together with the estate of Sir Thomas More, in 1536 and gave it to his wife, Catherine Parr. It passed afterward to the Howards and the of its history until

Cheynes and came later to the Cadogan family. The history of Kensington can be traced from the reign of Edward the Confessor. After the Norman Conquest it became the property of the De Veres, later earls of Oxford. The manorial court of the De Veres Aubrey de Vere made is preserved in the name of Earl's Court. a grant in the 12th century to the abbot of Abingdon and the memory of the submanor remains in the name of St. Mary Abbots, the parish church.

Many famous names are connected with the borough which has long been and remains a favourite quarter for artists, writers, musicians, and statesmen. A very short selection of those of the past includes Erasmus, Holbein, Saint-£vremond, Sir Isaac Newton, Sir Hans Sloane, Joseph Addison, Sir Richard Steele, Jonathan Swift, T. G. Smollett, Frangois Chateaubriand, Sir David Wilkie, J. M. W. Turner, Leigh Hunt. Thackeray, Macaulay, D. G. Rossetti and nearly all the "pre-Raphaelite brotherhood," Thomas Carlyle, Algernon Swinburne, Lord Leighton, James Whistler, Oscar Wilde, William Frith, P. W. Steer. John Sargent, G. K. Chesterton, John Galsworthy, T. S. Eliot. Sir Winston Churchill spent his last years at his home in Hyde Park Gate, Kensington. As development of the district did not take place until the mid19th century, there are few traces of industry. The celebrated Chelsea china factory, founded in 1745, moved to Derby within 40 years. The present major occupation is retail merchandising, although there are many administrative offices and, in the north, a few factories. See William Gaunt, Chelsea (1954) and Kensington (1958) (although these are little more than brief introductions, both give bibliographical sources, the first in its preface, the second in an appendix). (St. C. H.)

KENT, EARLS

AND DUKES

OF. The first holders of Kent were Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and Hubert de Burgh. The title was revived in July 1321 for Edmund of W oodstock (1301-30), youngest son of Edward I. Edmund supported his brother Edward II until 1326, when he the English earldom of t

He returned with her to England in 1327 and supported Edward's deposition, but, soon involved in a

joined the queen in France.

KENT conspiracy against the queen and her lover Mortimer, was arrested and was executed on March 19, 1330. His elder son Edmund (1326-31) was recognized as earl of Kent in Dec. 1330, but died He was succeeded by his brother John before Oct. 5, 1331. (1330-52), who died childless in Dec. 1352, and the title then passed to their sister Joan (c. 1328-85), "the fair maid of Kent." Joan married first (c. 1339) Sir Thomas de Holand (d. 1360) and secondly (1361) Edward the Black Prince, by whom she was the mother of Richard II. Her eldest son by Holand, Thomas de Holand (c. 1350-97), was styled earl of Kent in 1380. He was marshal of England from 1380 to 1385 and was high in the favour of Richard II. He died on April 25, 1397, and was succeeded by his elder son Thomas (1371-1400) who in Sept. 1397 was created duke of Surrey. He was degraded from his dukedom in Nov. 1399 and was beheaded on Jan. 7 or 8, 1400, for conspiring against Henry IV. Thomas' brother Edmund (1383-1408) was allowed to succeed to the earldom of Kent, but the title became extinct on his

death (Sept. 15, 1408). was revived in 1461 for

It

William Neville

(c.

1405-63),

and a younger son of Ralph Neville, 1st earl of Westmorland, by his second wife Joan Beaufort, daughter of John of Gaunt. William made a valuable contri-

Lord Fauconberg

in right of his wife,

bution to the future

Edward

IV's victory at

Towton March 1461) (

and was rewarded by being made steward of the household, earl of Kent (Nov. 1461) and admiral of England (July 1462). He died without legitimate male issue on Jan. 9, 1463, when his title be-

came extinct. The earldom was next bestowed (May 30, 1465) upon Edmund Grey (1416-90) (see Grey of Wilton and Grey of Ruthyn). His son George (d. 1503), 2nd earl, married (1483) Anne, sister of Elizabeth Woodville, consort of Edward IV. George died on Dec. 16, 1503, and was succeeded by his son Richard (d. 1523), His descendant Henry (1594-1651), 10th earl, was 3rd earl. speaker of the house of lords from 1647 until its abolition in 1649. He died on May 28, 1651, and was succeeded by his eldest surviving son Anthony (1645-1702), 11th earl, whose son Henry (16711740), 12th earl, was created earl of Harold and marquess of Kent in 1706 and duke of Kent on April 28, 1710. These titles became male issue on June 5, 1740. Edward (1767-1820), fourth son of George III, was created duke of Kent in 1799. Born in London on Nov. 2, 1767. he subsequently made his career in the army and saw service at Gibraltar, Canada and the West Indies, where he was renowned as a severe disciplinarian. Like most of his brothers he was not on good terms with his father, and for most of his life was heavily in debt. In 1817 the death of the prince regent's daughter, Princess Charlotte, caused some anxiety about the future succession to the throne, and the duke felt it his duty to forsake the lady who had been his mistress for many years and to contract a lawful marriage. This he did in 1818 with Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg. the widow of the prince of Leiningen. Their only child was Queen Victoria. Edward died at Sidmouth in 1820. George (1902-42), fourth son of George V, was created duke of Kent on Oct. 9, 1934, shortly before his marriage to Marina (1906- ), daughter of Prince Nicolas of Greece. He was killed on active service during World War II when the aircraft in which he was traveling crashed in Scotland on Aug. 25, 1942. He was succeeded by his elder son Edward (1935- ). KENT, JAMES (1 763-1847), U.S. jurist, whose decisions and written commentaries on U.S. law strongly influenced AngloAmerican legal development, was born in Fredericksburgh, N.Y., July 31, 1763. On his graduation from Yale college in 1781 he studied law at Poughkeepsie, N.Y., where he practised from 1785 to 1793- In I7Q3 he moved to New York city, where in the same year he was made a professor of law at Columbia college through recognition of his ability by John Jay and Alexander Hamilton. He lectured at Columbia until 1798, when he became a justice of the supreme court of New York. He became chief justice of this court in 1804 and chancellor of the New York court of chancery in 1814, a position he held until compulsory retirement in 1823. Kent's opinions appear in William Johnson's Reports for New York (1709-1823). Because Kent undertook to base all decisions extinct at his death without

287

possible on the learning of the old English

common

law, these re-

ported cases were used as the basis of law in other states. Kent was an admirer of Lord Mansfield (q.v.), and his own commercial cases reported in Johnson's reports reflect Mansfield's influence. On his retirement from the chancellorship in 1823. Kent resumed his professorship at Columbia. Out of these lectures came Kent's Commentaries on American Law, 4 vol. (1826-1830), which ran into six editions under his own editorship and won for him a high and influential place wherever Anglo-American law was studied. Kent's Commentaries were cited by English courts and counsel as

much as by U.S. courts and counsel. He admired the Roman or civil-law system; and

in topics in his

Commentaries where common-law precedent was weak or lacking, Kent turned to Roman law for first principles. Common-law courts citing Kent thus adopted many Roman law principles. Thus the statement in the Napoleonic code concerning the water rights of riparian owners was stated as a basic principle by Kent, and this was adopted as the English common law in such cases as v. Owen (6 Ex. 353 [1851]). Kent's Commentaries substantially differed from Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England (4 vol., 1769) in content and organization. Blackstone, for example, devoted only 45 pages to business contracts, whereas Kent devoted almost one of his

Embrey

four volumes to commercial contract subjects. Kent was a militant Federalist and a strong conservative both in politics

and law.

He

expressed his

criticism of the attempt of his friend to prepare a penal code for Louisiana

tarian reforms proposed in England Lord Hardwicke or Lord Mansfield times as much practical good sense Godwin and Jeremy Bentham."

Dec.

own position best Edward Livingston

on the

lines of the

in his

(q.v.)

humani-

by Jeremy Bentham: "I think or Burke or Pitt possessed ten

and sound wisdom as William Kent died at New York on

12, 1847.

See J. T. Horton, James Kent: a Study in Conservatism, 1763-1847 (A. Dm.) (1939).

KENT, ROCKWELL

(1882-

).

painter,

U.S.

starkly realistic paintings and dramatic illustrations of the

best-known

artists

of his time,

was born

whose

made him one at

Tarrytown

Heights, N.Y., on June 21, 1882. He studied architecture at Columbia university but turned to painting and was a pupil of William M. Chase, Robert Henri, Kenneth Hayes Miller and Abbott Thayer. In the course of a varied career he worked as an architectural draftsman, as a lobsterman and carpenter on the coast of Maine and as a ship's carpenter. He explored the waters about Tierra del Fuego in a small boat, and lived in Newfoundland. Alaska and Greenland. He drew upon these experiences for his paintings and travel books.

COLLECTION OF THE WHITNEY MUSEUM OF AMERI

•THE TRAPPER'' BY ROCKWELL KENT. CAN ART, NEW YORK

IN

THE WHITNEY MUSEUM OF AMERI-

KENT

288 Among

his

notable works in public collections are "Snow Roller" Andover, Mass.). "The Trapper" (Whitney mu-

(Phillips gallery,

New York city). "Maine Winter" (Metropolitan Museum of New York city). "Deer Season" (Art Institute of Chicago) "Mother and Children" (Brooklyn museum). He illustrated

seum. Art.

and works of Melville. Shakespeare, Chaucer and many others. His writings include Wilderness (1920), Voyaging (1924), iV by E (1930). Rockwellkentiana, with Carl Zigrosser (1933), Lord This Is My Own (1940) and an autobiography, It's Me (D. H. W.) (IQ55 >• (1877-1952), U.S. classical KENT, scholar and authority on Indo-European linguistics, was born in Wilmington, Del., on Feb. 24, 1877. He was educated at the Friends' school there, and then at Swarthmore college and at the Universities of Berlin and Munich, at the American School of Classical Studies in Athens, and at the University of Pennsylvania Ph.D. 1903). First lecturer, and then assistant professor, he was professor of comparative philology (later of Indo-European linguistics) from 1916 to 1947 at Pennsylvania. He took an active part in the foundation and organization of the Linguistic Society of America (1925). His interests were chiefly in classical and Iranian studies, especially linguistics; but he was no narrow specialist, as the list of his published writings. Language, vol. 29, pp. 4-13 (1953), shows. He edited the De lingua latina of Varro (2 vol., 1938, 1949) among his other works are Old Persian, a grammar with texts and vocabulary (1950) and two rather mechanical textbooks, The Sounds of Latin, 3rd ed. (1945) and The Forms of Latin (1946). Like all good scholars he knew his own mind; but he was kindly withal. Kent died on June 27, 1952. in Bryn

ROLAND GRUBB

(

;

Mawr,

Pa.

KENT, WILLIAM

(J.

Wh.)

686-1 748), a major English architect, interior designer, painter and landscape gardener, was born at Bridlington, Yorkshire, in 1686. Said to have been apprenticed to a coach painter in Hull, at the age of 20 he came to London. Yarious Yorkshire patrons, impressed by his talent, sent him to study painting in Rome, where he stayed from 1709 to 17 19, and where he met his future patron and friend, the earl of Burlington. Burlington brought Kent back to England in 17 19 and employed him in decorative painting at Burlington house, Piccadilly, London. Through Burlington's influence he was commissioned to decorate the Cupola room at Kensington palace. London. In 1725 his patron secured him the post of master carpenter in the office of works. In 1735 he was appointed master mason and deputy surveyor and in 1739 portrait painter to the king. Kent's development as an architect began about 1724, when he undertook to edit Designs of Inigo Jones, which included designs by Burlington and himself and was published in 1727. This book shows that Kent's early work was confined to designing features (c.

1

and it was in this capacity that he worked Burlington house and Chiswick house, London (1727), and

of interior decoration, at

Houghton

hall, Norfolk (1726-31). Kent's architecture accords with the strictest principles of Burlington's Palladianism; and although the style had already been formalized before the start of Kent's career, he became its most brilliant exponent. English Palladianism looked back to classical Roman architecture and sought its model in the work of the 16thcentury north Italian architect Andrea Palladio (q. v.) and that of his English follower Inigo Jones. Burlington, aided by Kent, determined to restore English taste to sound and moral classical principles, which he considered lost since the time of Jones. A major

part of their scheme was to rebuild London's public architecture,

thereby setting an example which would raise both the taste and the prestige of the nation. The royal mews, Trafalgar square (1732); the treasury buildings, Whitehall (1734-36); and the Horse Guards building, Whitehall, executed between 1750 and 1758, after Kent's death, were all part of this plan, together with designs for other important buildings never executed, such as those for the houses of parliament (1732-39), a national memorial temple and a royal palace in Hyde park. Among other public buildings built by Kent and later demolished were the queen's library, St. James's palace, London (1737), and Kew palace, Surrey (1730). Kent's domestic architecture was largely inspired by Palladio's

neighbourhood of Yicenza, Italy, depending for its efon good proportion and grouping, the solidity of the buildings being emphasized but given life by the use of niches, recessed windows and rusticated stonework. No. 44 Berkeley square, London (1742-44), shows in its interior Kent's ability to create a palatial effect in a comparatively small house. Holkham hall, Norfolk, started in 1734 for Thomas Coke, earl of Leicester, was Kent's masterpiece. Kent designed not only the house but also the interior decoration and the furniture, being the first English architect to plan a house in one unified scheme. Kent's furniture, in an Italianate baroque style, heavily carved and gilded with boldly exaggerated motifs, was perfectly suited to the heavy magnificence of his architectural interiors. Though later neoclassic architects, such as Robert Adam, were to criticize Kent's work as "immeasurably ponderous," his influence on them was considerable, and the splendour of Holkham is an overwhelming answer to such criticism, both in its general conception and final villas in the

fect

detail.

Despite the inconsistency with Palladian principles. Kent was one of the first architects of the 18th-century Gothic revival. He made alterations and additions in the Gothic style to Esher place, Surrey (c. 1730), to Rousham hall, Oxfordshire (1738-41), and built the east range of the clock court at Hampton court. Surrey, in the

As

Tudor

style (1732).

Kent freed the English garden from new romantic design, in which the wild-

a landscape gardener,

formality, introducing a

ness of nature was contrasted with the classical severity of his

His gardens at Rousham hall. Oxfordshire, and Stowe house, Buckinghamshire, where winding paths and open

architecture. vistas

lead

wooded

to

glades,

small

classical

temples scattered informally

show how Kent sought

in

to bring the natural land-

scape within the garden. Kent's versatility as a designer included a number of monuments. Gothic screens at Westminster hall (1739) and Gloucester cathedral (1741), stage scenery, a royal state barge, and illustrations for Spenser's The Faerie Queene and John Gay's Fables.

Kent died on April

12, 1748,

and was buried

at

Chiswick, London.

H. See Margaret Jourdain, The Work of William Kent (1948) Colvin, A Biographical Dictionary of English Architects (1954). ;

(J.

KENT,

M.

E. Le.)

county of England, is bounded northwest by Greater London, north by the Thames and its estuary, east and southeast by the English Channel, southwest by Sussex, and west by Surrey. Area (geographical) 1,524.9 sq.mi. (3,949 sq.km.);

a southeastern

(administrative)

—

1,432.5 sq.mi.

(3,710 sq.km.).

Physical Features. Kent is divided from west to east by the chalk hills of the North Downs, which near Westerham reach a height of more than 800 ft. (244 m.) but are lower toward the east. At three points the Downs have been cut through by rivers in the west by the Darent, which joins the Thames at Dartford; near Maidstone by the Medway, which enters the Thames at Sheerness; in the east by the Stour, which cuts through the Downs between Ashford and Canterbury. The area between the North and South Downs is called the Weald. Its northern edge is formed by the Gault and Lower Greensand which, emerging from below the chalk, run across the county as bands of varying width from Westerham to the coast between Folkestone and Hythe. The Lower Greensand forms a ridge, variously known as the Greensand Hills, Quarry Hills, and Ragstone Ridge, which rises at Toys Hill, southwest of Westerham. to 801 ft. To the south of these hills the Weald Clay forms a further broad band. The southwest of the county is crossed by a line of hills, the continuation of the Forest Ridge of Sussex, which have a height varying from 200 ft. to 500 ft. (60-150 m.) and consist of the Hastings beds, the oldest :

rock formations exposed in the county.

Along the Thames the coast is alluvial and generally low and marshy, embankments being necessary in several places to prevent inundation. At a few points, however, as at Gravesend. the river shore is of chalk sufficiently high to be secure from flooding. The Isle of Sheppey is divided from the mainland by the Swale low clay cliffs form its north coast. (bridged at Kingsferry) The marshes extend along the Swale to Whitstable, whence ;

KENT and sandstone cliffs toward the Isle There the chalk cliffs are lofty and grand, extending round the North Foreland southward to Pegwell Bay. The North Foreland, the Promontorium Acantium of the Romans, is the most easterly part of Kent and has been the site of a lighthouse since 1636. The coast from Sheppey to Margate and south of Ramsgate is skirted by numerous flats and sands, and there are extensive sandbanks off the coast north of Thanet and stretches a low line of clay of Thanet, a chalk outlier.

east of Deal, including the dangerous

Goodwin Sands.

The lower

and the depression from Sarre to Reculver is composed of alluvium and marks the course of the Wantsum which used to separate Thanet from the mainland. South of Deal the valley of the Stour

coast rises again into chalk

cliffs,

the eastward termination of the

North Downs.

These cliffs continue round the South Foreland [90 m.] high, with a lighthouse) to Folkestone, where they fall away and are succeeded west of Sandgate by 'a flat, shingly shore. To the south of Hythe this shore borders the wide expanse of Romney Marsh, overlooked by a line of abrupt hills, the eastern end of the Lower Greensand. Romney Marsh, drained by many channels, seldom rises more than a dozen feet above sea level. At (300

ft.

southeastern extremity, and at the extreme south of the county, is the shingly promontory of Dungeness. Within historic times much of this marsh was covered by the sea, and the valley of the River Rother, entering the sea at Rye harbour, was represented by its

some distance inland. Archaeology, History, and Architecture. Kent, from its commanding geographical position facing the continent, has from

a

tidal estuary for

—

the earliest times attracted invasion, settlement, and transit. Large-scale commercial excavations for brick earth, chalk, and gravel have disclosed abundant relics of its prehistory. Particularly important are the Paleolithic flint tools from the stratified

Thames and Stour river who lived in the great

terraces

and the

skull of

Swanscombe man,

Many

thousands of an agricultural population which was widespread except in the forested Weald. Antiquities of that period include the well-known Kits Coty House, on the slope of the Downs above Aylesford. This and other megaliths of the Medway Valley and a long barrow at Chilham in east Kent all have affinities with the Netherlands and northern Germany. Continental influences are seen again in the distribution of Beaker pottery and in the types of late Bronze Age pottery and implements. The Belgic invaders left their mark in the notable hill fort of Bigbury near Canterbury, while at Oldbury near Ightham is another fort used about the same time by the older inhabitants. The Belgic urn fields at Swarling near Canterbury and at Aylesford have given Neolithic

their

interglacial period.

flint tools testify to

names

to a recognized Iron

Age

culture.

Julius Caesar, in the course of his Gallic campaigns,

made

ex-

Each time he landed near Deal and on the second occasion marched across peditions across the English Channel in 55 and 54 B.C.

289

probably Bigbury, on the way. then made and, as a result of the tribal wars that soon followed, Kent was for a time in the kingdom of the Belgic Cunobelinus (Cymbeline) who had his capital at Colchester. In a.d. 43 Claudius took advantage of the turmoil following Cunobelinus' death to land in Kent and begin the subjugation of Britain. Richborough (q.v.), then at the southern end of the Wantsum channel, was the chief supply port, with additional bases at Dover and Lympne, while Canterbury was an administrative centre. Roads were built radiating from Canterbury (Durovernum) Watiing Street to Dover (Dubris) and to London via Rochester (Durobrivae) and Springhead (Vagniacae) Stone Street to Lympne (Portus Lemanis) and other roads to Richborough (Rutupiae) and Reculver (Regulbium) at the northern end of the Wantsum. A Roman theatre and baths have been excavated at Canterbury (q.v.) and many Roman villas have been disthe county, capturing a

hill fort,

No permanent Roman settlement was

:

;

;

covered, the most notable being at Darenth and at Lullingstone, which is also the earliest known place of Christian worship in Britain.

During the later 3rd century, when the coast was troubled by Saxon raids, the Romans built new forts at Richborough, Reculver, Dover, and Lympne. There are still extensive remains of the first After the departure of the Romans early in the 5th century the so-called Jutes landed at Ebbsfleet and extended their rule first to east Kent and then to all southeastern England. They brought with them the Frankish laws which subsequently formed the basis of many early Kentish laws. These, including the of these.

custom of gavelkind (q.v.), remained the established law of the county even after the Norman Conquest. Kent was one of the seven kingdoms of Anglo-Saxon Britain and retained its identity, though not always its independence, until 825 when it was absorbed by Wessex. (See also Kent, Kingdom of.) King Aethelberht in 597 welcomed the mission led by Augustine to convert the English. Augustine founded an abbey, richly endowed and later known by his name, outside the walls of Canterbury; it came to rank as the second Benedictine house in all Europe but little of the buildings except the foundations have survived. A few years later he founded a second monastery, likewise endowed, within the walls and made its church, Christ Church, the cathedral of his diocese of Canterbury. In 604 a second diocese was formed in Kent with its cathedral at Rochester (q.v.). There was a lapse into paganism under Aethelberht's successor, Eadbald, in 616, but. following his conversion monasteries were founded at Dover, Folkestone and Lyminge, and later at Minster in Sheppey and Minster in Thanet. By 765 Kent had become subject to the kings of Mercia, and so it remained until, in 825, Mercia and Kent were absorbed in the kingdom of Wessex. According to the chronicles, Danish raids laid waste much of north and east Kent during the next 50 years. Canterbury and Sandwich were pillaged then, and again in the 20 years following 993 when even Archbishop Alphege was among the victims. In 1013 an invading army led by Sweyn Forkbeard, king of the Danes, landed at Sandwich. Dover, because of its strategic value, was the first town secured by William I after the Battle of Hastings. The ancient laws and liberties of Kent were allowed to continue. In 1067 a Kentish rebellion was crushed by Odo, bishop of Bayeux, who was made earl of Kent and given large estates in the county. In 1088 he joined in a conspiracy against William II which resulted in his

The Normans built castles at several places in the Dover (q.v.) and Rochester are the most notable remaining. The rebuilding of Rochester and Canterbury banishment.

county, of which those at

cathedrals on a grander scale was begun, but the only

work now surviving of Barfreston with

is

the nave of the former.

The

Norman

small church

one of the finest examAmong important monastic remains are the buildings attached to Canterbury cathedral, the ruins of St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury, and of the Carmelite priory at Aylesford (q.v.), now reoccupied by members of ples of

Norman

its

elaborate carvings

is

architecture in England.

NOEL HABGOOD

that order.

AYLESFORD VILLAGE ON THE RIVER MEDWAY WITH ITS 14TH-CENTURY BRIDGE: NORMAN CHURCH OF ST. PETER IS IN THE BACKGROUND

In 1170 Thomas Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered in his cathedral. The miracles reported as occurring at his

290

KENT

tomb led to his speedy canonization, and a constant stream of pilgrims came to Canterbury bringing offerings to his shrine and trade to the places along the route. These offerings paid for the rebuilding of the eastern parts of the cathedral by 1184. Their numbers were greatest when, in the late 14th century, Geoffrey Chaucer wrote the Canterbury Tales. An earlier pilgrim, William, a baker from Perth, was murdered in 1201 near Rochester and buried in the cathedral there. His tomb also became a centre of pilgrimage, and the offerings made there paid for the rebuilding, in the 13th century, of the eastern parts of the cathedral and of the church of Stone near Dartford, which is outstanding for the delicacy of Old Soar Manor at Wrotham, a knight's house, was its details. built about 1290, while the earliest parts of both Penshurst Place and Ightham Mote date from the mid- 14th century. Cooling Castle has a 14th-century gatehouse, and an unspoiled bridge of this period is at East Farleigh. During the conflict between King John and the barons, Rochwas captured by the king in 1215 and Dover Castle was besieged by the barons without success in 1216. In the next year the navy of the Cinque Ports (q.v.) defeated a French force that was supporting the barons. Four of the five head ports and many of the members forming this confederacy lay in Kent, which remained of considerable importance for national defense until the ester Castle

16th century. Many refugee Flemings settled in the Weald during the 14th century and helped to establish a clothing industry. The Peasants' Revolt of 1381 traditionally began at Dartford. The leader, Wat Tyler, who may have been Kentish, took Rochester Castle be/ore his fruitless march on London. In 1450 another Kentish insurrection was led by Jack Cade in support of the complaints of the county's yeomen. He won a battle at Sevenoaks but was not suc-

march on London. Between the Conquest and the 14th century the earldom of Kent was held by several families

cessful in his

(see

Kent, Earls and Dukes of).

Fine examples of the Perpendicular Period can be seen in the nave, tower, and cloisters of Canterbury Cathedral. Among many parish churches those at Maidstone and Cranbrook are, respectively, good early and late products of the style. Hever Castle, the home of the Boleyn family, though much altered, was built

mostly in the mid-1 5th century. Sissinghurst Castle, with its Tudor tower, is a fragment of a large early 16th-century mansion. With the Reformation, the numerous religious houses in Kent were dissolved and most of their estates broken up. The shrine of St. Thomas at Canterbury was destroyed and the pilgrimages came to an end. During the reign of Henry VIII defensive coastal castles were built at several places, the best preserved being that at Deal (q.v.). Naval dockyards were established at Chatham (q.v.) under Elizabeth I and at Sheerness (q.v.) in 1665. In 1554 Sir Thomas Wyat of Allington near Maidstone led a rising in protest against the Spanish marriage of Mary I. Under Elizabeth I many French and Walloon weavers were allowed to settle at Canterbury, Sandwich, and Maidstone and practise their trade. Several great country houses were built at that period including Cobham Hall and the greater part of Knole near Sevenoaks. During the Civil War Kent was held for Parliament and there was little fighting in the county except a brief royalist rising in 1648 which was broken by General Fairfax at Maidstone. It was at Dover that Charles II landed on his restoration in 1660. In 1667, Sheerness, Gravesend, and Chatham were attacked by a Dutch fleet and much damage was done. James II, when making his escape from England in 1688, set sail first from Sheerness, and afterward successfully from Rochester. The best 17th-century churches are those at Groombridge (1623) and Tunbridge Wells (1682-90), while good examples of secular buildings are Chilham Castle (1616), Groombridge Place (c. 1660), and Broome Park in Barham (1635-38).

Of 18th-century churches there are good examples at Mereworth (1744-46), Deal (1715), and Gravesend (1731). Of civil buildings the most important is Mereworth Castle (1723), a fine Palladian-style mansion by Colin Campbell. In the 19th century the threat of invasion by Napoleon led to the construction of additional fortifications at Chatham and Dover,

of the Royal Military Canal between Hythe (q.v.) and Appledore, and of the so-called Martello towers along the coast. New industries developed in place of weaving, including papermaking, the manufacture of cement and bricks, and, after World War I, coal mining. The coming of the railways brought prosperity and in-

creased population, especially to the coastal resorts. During World Wars I and II, particularly the latter, Kent suffered as a result of proximity to the continent, and for the same

reason its ports were of great value. In both wars the port of Richborough was developed and extensively used for war supplies, and large sections of the Mulberry (artificial) Harbour used in the invasion of the continent were constructed there in World War II. Since the war an atomic power station has been built on the promontory of Dungeness. Of 19th- and 20th-century architecture there are few outstanding examples. The church at Strood (c. 1814) was the first by Sir Robert Smirke. There are early 19th-century churches by Decimus Burton at Riverhead, Tunbridge Wells and Southborough, and a good example of town planning, the Calverley Estate (182852), at Tunbridge Wells. A. W. N. Pugin regarded as his finest work the unfinished St. Augustine's Abbey (1846-51) at Ramsgate, which was built near his own house, the Grange. The church at Speldhurst (1871) has windows by Sir Edward Burne- Jones. An early work by William Butterfield is St. Augustine's College, Canterbury (1844). The airport buildings at Ramsgate (193537) and the County Library building at Maidstone (1964) are good examples of modern work.

—

Population and Administration. The proximity of London and the extension of its suburbs into the county have greatly influenced the growth of population. In 1889 the area and population of Kent were reduced by the transfer of the northwestern part to the County of London. The population of the administrative county remaining after this and a few other minor changes has, with the city of Canterbury, been as follows: 808,736 (in 1,141,666 (1921); 1,564,324 (1951); 1,701,851 (1961). the extension of the Greater London boundary in 1965 the pop-

1891);

By

ulation

The

was reduced by about 450,000. origin of the expressions "Kentish

men"

(people living north

and west of the Medway) and "men of Kent" (those living south and east of the Medway) probably lies in the very early division of Kent into two kingdoms or tribal areas. The ancient county of Kent included Charlton, Eltham, Greenwich, Kidbrooke, Lee, Lewisham, Plumstead, Woolwich, and most of Deptford. A small area on the north shore of the Thames was part of Woolwich. All these places were incorporated in the new county of London in 1889 and formed into the metropolitan boroughs of Deptford, Greenwich, Lewisham, and Woolwich, now the London boroughs of Lewisham, Greenwich, and part of Newham (qq.v.). Penge, which had been part of Surrey, was added Under the London Government Act 1963 (see to Kent in 1900. London) the former boroughs of Beckenham, Bexley, Bromley, and Erith, and the urban districts of Chislehurst and Sidcup, Crayford, Orpington, and Penge were formed into the new London boroughs of Bexley and Bromley (qq.v.). Kent contains the greater part of two dioceses, Canterbury, founded in 597, and Rochester, 604. In 1845 a large part of RochIn 1904 there was ester diocese was transferred to Canterbury. some parishes though boundaries, the old to almost reversion a became part of Southwark diocese and the deanery of Croydon was transferred to Canterbury. From about the 15th century the county was divided for the administration of justice, and separate courts of quarter sessions

were held at Canterbury and Maidstone for east and west Kent. This division ceased in 1965 and there is now only one court of quarter sessions for Kent although sittings are still held at both The shire moot and later the county court met on centres. Penenden Heath near Maidstone, the county town. For purposes of assize the county lies in the southeastern circuit. Maidstone is the assize town, though Rochester was also used in the 18th cenThe Cinque Ports of Dover, Hythe, New Romney, and tury. Sandwich were exempt from the normal administrative and judicial arrangements of the county. Canterbury in 1461 was given the

KENT which the city retained till it was made county borough in 1889, the only one in Kent. Formerly, separate assizes were held for the city. The drainage area of Romney Marsh also formed a separate judicial liberty until 1889. Nine boroughs have separate commissions of the peace and seven have By the Representation Act separate courts of quarter sessions. of 1918 the county was divided into 11 parliamentary divisions, increased to 19 in 1949 and reduced by the London Government Act to 13. After April 1, 1965, there were 19 municipal boroughs, 11 urban districts, and 294 rural parishes grouped into 18 rural districts. (J. M. P. F.; Fx. H.) Agriculture, Industries, and Communications. Cherries are said to have been imported from Flanders and first planted in Kent in the reign of Henry VIII, and from that period the culture of fruits (especially apples and cherries) and of hops spread rapidly over the county. Orchards of all kinds are found chiefly rh the Medway Valley and in north Kent. More than half of the English acreage devoted to hops is in the county. Market gardening is extensively practised, mainly for London markets. Barley, much of it of high quality for malting, is the most important arable crop, followed by wheat, oats, and potatoes. About half the agricultural land is under grass. Cattle are grazed in considerable numbers on the marshlands, and dairy farms are numerous. Kent is one of the chief counties in England for sheep rearing; a breed peculiar to the district, known as Kent or Romney Marsh, has been exported to many countries. The county is well wooded. New plantations of conifers and hardwoods are replacing the older oak and beech. Important research and educational centres are East Mailing Research Station, National Fruit Trials at Faversham, Wye College, and the Farm Institute at Hadlow, near Tonbridge. (R. Dn.) Among the principal industries are papermaking (one of the first paper mills in England was set up at Dartford before 1588), carried on along the Darent, Medway, and neighbouring streams; engineering, chemical, and other works along the Thames; and manustatus of a separate county

a

—

(made at Wye in the 14th cenand cement, especially on the lower Medway and the Swale. Chalk and ragstone are quarried. There are large oil refineries on the Isle of Grain, and at Ashford are railway workshops. Several industries are connected with the government establishment at Chatham. Deep-sea fishing occurs all round the coast. Shrimp, sole, and flounder are taken in great numbers along the north coast and off Ramsgate. The principal oyster beds, some of which were known in Roman times, are near Whitstable, Faversham, Queenborough, and Rochester. The coal area (about 206 sq.mi.) runs inland from south of Ramsgate to near Canterbury, and thence southward to the coast east of Folkestone. The county is served by British Rail's Southern Region whose principal lines radiate from London leading through Chatham and Canterbury to Dover, with a branch from Faversham to the seaside resorts of Margate and Ramsgate; and through Tonbridge and Ashford to Folkestone, Dover, and Sandwich. A third line links Ashford to London via Maidstone. Motorways bypass Maidstone and the Medway towns. Dover and Folkestone are ports for traffic with the continent and an air ferry service was begun after World War II with Ferryfield near Lydd as its English terminal. There are municipal airfields at Ramsgate and Rochester. The county is factures of plastics, bricks, tiles

tury), pottery,

practically without inland water communications, excluding the

Thames.

(J.

M.

P. F.; Fx. H.)

—

Bibliography. W. Lambarde, A Perambulation of Kent 1570 (1576, later ed. 1826) E. Hasted, The History and Topographical Survey of Kent, 4 vol. (1778-99), 2nd ed. in 12 vol. and atlas (17971801) S. W. H. Ireland, England's Topographer History of Kent, 4 vol. (1828-30); R. Furley, The History of the Weald, 2 vol. .

.

.

;

.

.

.

;

.

.

.

.

.

.

(1871-74); S. R. Glynne, Notes on Churches of Kent, ed. by W. H. Gladstone (1877) R. F. Jessup, Archaeology of Kent (1930) Victoria County History of Kent, 3 vol. (1908-32); Archaeologia Cantiana (1858- ) L. D. Stamp, Land of Britain, part 85, Kent (1943); D. Gardiner, Companion Into Kent, 2nd ed. rev. (1947) F. W. Jessup, A History of Kent (1958); T. K. Wallenberg, Kentish Place-Names (1931), The Place-Names of Kent (1934) J. M. Harrison, The Birds of Kent, 2 vol. (1953); R. H. Goodsall, Kentish Stour (1953); Kent Archaeological Society, Archaelogia Cantiana (1955) A. A. Thomson, Great Men of Kent (1955) W. K. Jordan, Social Institutions in Kent 1480-1660 (1961). ;

;

;

;

;

;

;

291

KINGDOM

KENT, OF, one of the kingdoms of AngloSaxon England, the dimensions of which seem to have corresponded with those of the present county. According to tradition, the first Anglo-Saxon settlers, led by Hengist and Horsa (see Hengist and Horsa), landed at the invitation of the British king Vortigern at Ebbsfleet in Kent, an event dated by Bede between 446 and 454. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, perhaps using a lost list of Kentish kings, says that Hengist and his son Aesc began to reign in 455, and Nothing further is that Aesc reigned alone from 488 to 512. known of Kentish history until the reign of Aethelberht (q.v.), who came to the throne in 560 and was defeated and driven back into Kent by the West Saxons at a place called Wibbandun (Wimbledon) in 568. By 595, however, he had become overlord of all the English kingdoms south of the Humber. He married Berhta, daughter of Charibert, king of Paris, and she brought with her a Christian bishop, Liudhard. It may have been on this account that Kent was chosen as the landing place of Augustine's mission After Aethelberht's conversion to Christianity, he gave a dwelling place in Canterbury to the missionaries, and hence this became the archiepiscepal see of the English church. A second in 597.

was created at Rochester in 604, a fact which suggests that Kent was already divided into East and West Kent, which is clear in later records. Under ecclesiastical influence, Aethelberht issued see

the

first

On

written code of Anglo-Saxon laws.

death in 616, Aethelberht was succeeded by his son Eada heathen and who married his stepmother, but was shortly afterward converted by Laurentius, Augustine's successor. Eadbald married his sister Aethelberg to Edwin of Northumbria, who had obtained the supremacy over the lands south of the Humber, except for Kent. No kings of Kent ever recovered the overlordship held by Aethelberht. Eadbald's son Ercenberht, who succeeded in 640, was the first king to enforce the acceptance of Christianity in his kingdom. His son Egbert, who reigned from 664 to 673, was king in Surrey as well as Kent, and founded the monastery of Chertsey. He was succeeded by his brother Hlothhere, in whose reign Kent was raided by Aethelred of Mercia in 676, and ten years later Aethelred still had some power in Kent. Hlothhere issued a code of laws, together with his nephew Eadric, but in 685 the latter brought an army from Sussex against his uncle and early in 685 Hlothhere died of wounds received in battle. On Eadric's death in 686 Kent was divided among a number of kings, one of whom was Sigehere of Essex and another Ceadwalla of Wessex, who founded a monastery at Hoo, Kent. Ceadwalla's bald,

his

who was

brother Mul was burned by the men of Kent in 687, and the Kentish royal line was re-established about 690 by Eadric's brother Wihtred, though at first a member of the East Saxon royal house reigned with him. He seems to have soon gained the whole kingdom, and reigned until 725, recognizing no overlord. He too issued a code of laws (695). Wihtred was succeeded by three sons, Aethelberht II, Eadberht and Alric. In the middle of the century the first two and EadAethelberht died in berht's son Eardwulf were reigning jointly. Later kings, 762 and there is no later mention of the others. Sigered in 762, Eanmund a little later, Heahberht in 764 and 765, and Egbert from 765 to 779, are not known to belong to the royal line. Meanwhile Offa of Mercia was establishing his power in Kent. He appears as overlord of Heahberht and Egbert, and deals alone with Kentish lands in 774. The men of Kent fought the Mercians at Otford in 776, probably with success, for there is no sign of Offa's influence in Kent for the next ten years and a king Ealhmund (father of Egbert of Wessex) appears to have been independent of Offa in 784. But from 785 until his death (796) Offa was supreme in Kent. In 787 he persuaded the pope to divide the province of Canterbury by making Lichfield into an archiepiscopal see. On Offa's death Kent revolted, setting up a king called Eadberht Praen, who was captured by Coenwulf of Mercia in 798. The latter's brother, Cuthred. was king of Kent until 807; Coenwulf then ruled Kent directly, and no king of Kent is heard of until Baldred. who was reigning in 825 when Kent was conquered by Egbert of WesCoenwulf abolished the archbishopric of Lichfield in 802. sex. Henceforward. Kent was a province of Wessex. but for some time it was ruled as a subkingdom along with Surrey, Sussex and

KENTIGERN—KENTUCKY

292

by Egbert's son Aethelwulf, and then, in 839, by the son Aethelstan, last heard of in 851. Aethelwulf relinquished Wessex to his son Aethelbald and resumed the rule of Kent in 856, and on his death this passed to his third son Aethelberht, who united it with Wessex when he succeeded to that kingdom in 860. In the later 9th century Kent was controlled by two ealdormen, but in the later Saxon period by a single ealdorman. The social organization of Kent has many features peculiar to it. which support Bede's statement (Historia ecclesiastica, i, 15) that its inhabitants were a different tribe from the Angles and Saxons, namely the Jutes (q.v.). Whether these were, as Bede believed, from Jutland, or, as archaeological evidence may suggest, from a district near to Frankish territory, is disputed. Instead of the two noble classes (gesithcund) of Wessex and Mercia, Kent had only one (eorlcund), and the Kentish ceorl had a wergild twice Essex,

first

latter"s

as high as that of the

same

There were

class elsewhere.

of persons called laets, probably freedmen,

who

also classes

are not mentioned

kingdoms. Moreover Kentish customs in later times, especially with regard to the tenure of land, show many peculiarities. For administrative purposes, Kent was divided into lathes, apparently attached to royal vills and under the control of reeves. See F. M. Stenton, Anglo-Saxon England, 2nd ed. (1947) J. E. A. Jolliffe, Pre-Feudal England: the Jutes (1933). (D. Wk.) in other

;

KENTIGERN

(Mungo),

SAINT

(d.

c.

a.d.

western Scotland.

Little

him

in lives written

down

cen-

His feast day is Jan. 13. According to legend he was of royal descent and his mother had a miraculous escape from death while with child. He is reputed to have been a noted preacher, energetic in combating the Pelagian heresy. He is said to have been taken up by the king of Strathclyde and to have established a see for that kingdom at Glasgow. The next king of Strathclyde, Rydderch, was soon overthrown by In the a pagan reaction led by Morken, who exiled Kentigern. legend he then went to Wales, met St. David, and was given land at Llanelwy to found a monastery, the ancestor of the modern cathedral of St. Asaph. Rydderch, however, with the aid of King Aidan, is supposed to have overthrown the pagan party in Strathclyde, and recalled Kentigern c. 573. Kentigern is supposed to have collaborated with St. Columba and to have appointed St. Asaph to succeed him at Llanelwy. See K. Jackson, "The Sources for the Life of St. Kentigern," in N. K. Chadwick (ed.), Studies in the Early British Church (1958) J. MacQueen, "Yvain, Ewen, and Owein ap Urien," in Transactions of the Dumfriesshire and Galloway Natural History and Antiquarian Society, turies later.

;

vol. xxxiii,

107-131 (1956).

KENT'S CAVERN, Eng.

(Er. J.) a large limestone cave near Torquay,

which yielded some of the

earliest evidence of

classified typologically into five stages:

Acheu-

Aurignacian, proto-Solutrean and Magdalenian {see Archaeology: Prehistory: Culture History of the Pleistocene for a description) There appears to be little doubt that the hand axes and several of the flakes belong to a Levalloisian phase of the Mousterian, widespread over northern France and eastern and southeastern England. The Middle Aurignacian stage depends on a group of not very typical implements, whose resemblance to the Middle Aurignacian of western France is somewhat superficial. At Solutre, near Macon, there is an "evolved Solutrean" overlying a typical Middle Solutrean, and it is to this lean,

Mousterian,

Middle

.

The

animals, apart from the bones of cave bear found in layer appear to have come mainly from the red cave earth and are Upper (Late) Pleistocene. Among the species represented are 6,

the

mammoth, wooly

rhinoceros, bison, reindeer and giant deer

{Megaceros). Several human fragments have been found but in the 1960s they had not yet been equated with the archaeological phases.

See D. A. E. Garrod, The Upper Palaeolithic Age in Britain (1926), with a full bibliography; K. P. Oakley, Man the Toolmaker (1957), for examples of Kent's cavern artifacts. (Jo. W.)

KENTUCKY, popularly

known

a south central state of the United States,

is

as the "Bluegrass state" because of the abun-

dance of bluegrass found

Commonwealth

in the central part,

but

officially

known

Kentucky. Situated immediately west of the Allegheny Mountains, it is bounded northwest and northeast by the low-water mark on the far side of the Ohio which separates it from Ohio and Illinois, and from Indiana except for a thin sliver of land beyond the low-water mark east of Evansville, Ind. east by Virginia and by the Big Sandy River and its east fork, the Tug, which separates Kentucky from West Virginia; southeast and south by Virginia and Tennessee; and west by the Mississippi River, which separates it from Missouri. Area, 40,395 sq.mi.; of this, 532 sq.mi. are water surface. Kentucky ranks 37th among the states in size and 22nd in population. On June 1, 1792, Kentucky became the 15th state of the Union, the second after Vermont to be joined with the original 13 FrankThe official fort has been the capital city since December 1792. state bird is the cardinal; the state flower is the goldenrod; and

as the

of

;

;

the state tree

is

the tulip tree (yellow poplar).

displays the state seal with the motto, "United

We

Fall,"

the

Kentucky River, which

on a

field of blue.

The name,

"My

We

The

state flag

Stand, Divided

of Indian origin,

is

from

flows about 250 mi. into the Ohio in

the north central part of the state. lins Foster's

The

state song

is

Stephen Col-

Old Kentucky Home."

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

J.

don, and in the museum of the Natural History society, Torquay. The deposit has been divided into six layers from top to bottom, as follows: layer (1), Roman, Iron and Bronze Age shards; layer (2), stalagmite with Neolithic pottery; layer (3), black band of burned bones and ash; layer (4), red cave earth; layer (5), stalagmite floor; and layer (6), bone and pebble breccia. The imple-

ments have been

Belgium.

man's co-

McEnery, who investigated the upper deposits (1825-29), was perhaps the first man to proclaim this fact. In 1840 Robert A. C. Godwin- Austen confirmed McEnery's view; and excavations (1865-80) carried on by William Pengelly, on behalf of the British association, completed the proof. Excavations were resumed in 1926. Collections are in the British museum and the Natural History museum, Lon-

The Rev.

existence with extinct animals.

dalenian, occurs mainly, but not solely, in the black band; one harpoon comes from the black band, and two from the upper part of the red cave earth (layer 4). These implements and a small bone needle are typical of a late stage of the Magdalenian. The flint implements from the black band and immediately below it consist mainly of small blades with blunted backs or oblique blunted ends. This blade assemblage occurs in several other British caves, such as Aveline's hole in the Mendips and at Creswell crags {q.v.) in Derbyshire, and is typical of the late Magdalenian of the regions of northern Germany, the Netherlands and

612?), tradi-

Glasgow and the evangelist of southfurther is known of his life, though there

tionally the first bishop of

are various dubious stories about

material that the Kent's cavern should be referred rather than to the classic regions of western France. The last group, the Mag-

is

—

From mountain heights on the east the much furrowed plain, sloping gently to the toward the Ohio River. The state lies within

Physical Features. surface

largely a

west and declining

the Mississippi basin and within the special division of the Ohio / Valley between the extremes of approximately 36°30 and 39°9' and 82° and 89°34' W. A small part in the southeast contains

N

the

Cumberland and Pine mountains. is Big Black Mountain (4,145 ft.)

The

highest point in the

Harlan County; the lowest point is on the Mississippi River (257 ft.) in Fulton County. The average elevation is about 750 ft. The entire eastern quarter of the state, conterminous with the eastern coal field, is the region of the mountains, but properly speaking almost all except the Cumberland and Pine mountains of the disturbed region of the Alleghenies belongs to the Allegheny plateau province, a rugged region with narrow valleys and sharp ridges seldom more than 1,500 ft. above sea level. The remainder of the area east of the Tennessee River is comprised of the eroded bluegrass region and, to the south, the Highland Rim plateau, which covers one-half of the state. It slopes from an elevation of 1 ,000 to 1,200 ft. or more on the east to about 500 ft. on the northwest and is less rugged than the Allegheny plateau. One feature of the southern portion is the numerous "sink holes" and caves, the best known being Mammoth Cave and the Flint Ridge Cave system, including Colosstate

in

KENTUCKY

293

cherty or stiff with clay and of inferior quality. On the mountains and the Allegheny plateau much of the soil is very light and thin. D. C.) (E. T; W. W. Js.; Vegetation. The eastern mountains present the greatest variety of plant life with rhododendron (including azalea and great laurel, or mountain rosebay), blueberry and huckleberry, magnolia, and many ferns. Dogwood, redbud, and the tulip tree are native

T

—

to

the state;

trillium,

bloodroot, birdsfoot violet, Jack-in-the-

and dozens of other wild flowers, reeds and grasses (including bluegrass, mentioned above) range from mountain varieties to those native to the Mississippi River swampland. Lying in the great eastern hardwood forest region, three-fourths of the state once was covered with sycamore, oak, hickory, chestnut, walnut, tulip, ash, cherry, linden, and pine. Animal Life. The animal life, like the plant life, ranges from the subboreal in the mountains to the marsh in the river-bottom Bison, once plentiful on Kentucky's central plains, and forests. puma have disappeared. Small mammals rabbits, squirrels, fox, woodchuck, raccoon, and opossum, for example exist in considerable numbers. Bear and deer have been restocked. The wild turkey has been reestablished in some places and egrets, great blue herons, and other waterfowl breed in the marshes along the Kenpulpit,

—

—

RAT SCOTT AND THE NATIONAL PARK CONCESSIONS,

INC.

FROZEN NIAGARA. AN ONYX FORMATION

IN

MAMMOTH CAVE

tucky-Tennessee border. Cavern, cut in beds of limestone. The Highland Rim plateau drops 200 ft. or more to the bluegrass region, in which erosion has developed on limestone a gracefully undulating surface resembling Especially within a a park marked by rounded hills and dales. radius of 20 mi. around Lexington, bluegrasses (Poa compressa and Poa pratensis) add to the unusually luxuriant vegetation. About the middle of June the bluegrass blooms and the hue of its seed vessels gives the landscape a bluish tinge. A small part of the state west of the Tennessee River at the Tennessee boundary forms another lowland area, once a part of the coastal plain, with an elevation below 500 ft. The chief rivers wholly within the state are the Licking. Kentucky. Rockcastle, Salt, Green, and Tradewater. The Cumberland, after flowing through the southeast and south central parts of the state, enters Tennessee at a point near the centre of the southern border of the state. In the extreme southwest the Cumberland, which re-enters Kentucky, and the Tennessee with only a short distance between them cross Kentucky and enter the Ohio River at Smithland and Paducah respectively. The major hydroelectric power sites are Kentucky Dam on the Tennessee River, Barkley Dam on the Cumberland River, Dix River and the Wolfe Creek Dam on the Cumberland. The drainage of the region under which the caverns He is mostly underground. Some traces of the last glacier period are visible in Boone and Clark sal

counties.

Climate.

—The

milder and more even than that of The mean annual temperature, about 50° F (10° C) on the mountains of the southeast and 60° F west of the Tennessee, is about 55° F for the entire state; the thermometer seldom registers as high as 100° F or as low as —10°

some of

F.

climate

is

the neighbouring states.

The mean annual

precipitation ranges

the northeast to 50 in. in the south, and

is

from about 38 about 46

in.

in.

in

for the

entire state with normally even distribution throughout the year

and with comparatively little moisture as snow. The prevailing winds blow from the west or southwest, as do most rain-bearing winds, and the cold waves, often destructive of early orchard blooms and the fruit industry, come from the north or northwest. Soil. Except for the strips of alluvial land along the rivers, Kentucky soils developed from the decay of underlying rocks; hence, they have more of a local character than soils north of the Ohio, where glaciers brought new material. The best soils are the alluvium along some of the larger rivers and the soils of the blue or Ordovician limestone in the bluegrass region. Within a radius of 20 mi. of Lexington it is especially rich and enduring. Next in

—

fertility is the

Lower Carboniferous (Mississippian),

or "cavern

limestone," found over much of the central and western part of the state. The soils of the Highland Rim plateau and of the lowland west of the Tennessee River vary greatly, but the commonest

some carbonate of lime and a sandy loam. the escarpment around the bluegrass region the soils are largely

are a clay containing

On

—

Migration routes for waterfowl follow

the Mississippi, Ohio, and Tennessee rivers while land birds follow

Kentucky and many song birds reside in Fish include the muskellunge (called the jackfish or jack salmon), bass, and channel and blue catfish and there are several species of blind and semiblind cave fish. a route through central

the state.

Parks and Recreation.

—

Kentucky maintains more than 50 In many instances both recreational and historic interests are served on a single site. Largest of the state parks is that bordering the big Kentucky Lake created by the parks and historic

sites.

Tennessee Valley Authority's Kentucky Dam. Cumberland Falls Park at the Great Falls of the Cumberland is a large natural recreational centre where, on moonlight nights, the famous moonbow of the falls is clearly visible above the mist of the cataract. Among the historic sites are the battlefield of the Blue Licks, the Butler home in Carroll County, the Wilderness Road Park, and the Columbus battlefield on the Mississippi. Boonesboro, newest of the state parks, is the original site of Fortress Boonesboro. Three of the interesting historic sites not in the park system are Big Bone Lick in Boone County, the Buried City near Wickliffe, and Indian Fort Mountain near Berea. The Big Bone Lick was one of the best known early landmarks in the state. The monstrous bones of huge prehistoric animals found about the lick were curiosities for Indian and white alike. The Buried City near Wickliffe is an opened Indian burial mound and the Indian Fort Mountain site is that of a prehistoric encampment and possibly a battleground.

One of the most popular parks is Federal Hill at Bardstown. home was the family seat of the Rowan family who were re-

This

Legend has grown up that Foster comthis beautiful house and grove. However, there has been no contemporary evidence produced to prove that Foster ever visited Federal Hill. Possibly the most accurate thing that can be said is that the house and grounds are a fitting tribute of the people of Kentucky to the composer. More than 10.000 ac. of the Cumberland Gap National Historical Park, established in 1955, are in Kentucky. The traditional lated to Stephen Foster.

posed

"My Old Kentucky Home" at

Abraham Lincoln is in the Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site at Hodgenville. Mammoth Cave National Park (q.v.) in west central Kentucky was established in

birthplace cabin of

1941 (see also Flint Ridge Cave System). Annual events held in Louisville are the Kentucky State Fair and the Kentucky Derby run at Churchill Downs in May.

HISTORY

—

Early History. Archaeologists and anthropologists have uncovered evidence that there were two. if not three, layers of culture existing before the arrival of the first settlers. An ancient agricultural and hunting civilization left kitchen middens and burial mounds. Indians of a later period hunted in the region,

;

KENTUCKY

29+

already left Kentucky in 1771 when the long hunters, so-called because of their extended trips, from the Yadkin Valley of North

Carolina were crossing the mountains to raid the territory for

and furs. Settlement. Land hunters were as persistent as those who hunted for game, and by 1774 surveyors were already platting

skins

—

lands in at least three locations in the state.

One party was

at

the falls of the Ohio, later the site of Louisville,

the

bluegrass

another was in

area,

and James

Harrod, a Pennsylvania trader, led a party to the headwaters of the Salt River to begin the first

permanent settlement. A brief interruption caused by an Indian outbreak known as Lord Dunmore's war forced Harrod to leave Kentucky, but the following year settlers returned to the

Richard Henderson had purchased a claim to the land south of the Ohio and between CHURCHILL DOWNS. LOUISVILLE, WHERE THE ANNUAL KENTUCKY DERBY HAS BEEN RUN SINCE 1875 the Kentucky and Tennessee and on the fringes of present Kentucky established small villages rivers from the Cherokee Indians in the Treaty of Sycamore and trading posts. The Shawnees and their neighbours from above Shoals, and it was at the signing of this treaty that the disgruntled the Ohio hunted in the region, and the Cherokees came up from young Cherokee chief Dragging Canoe assured Henderson that the south. The great Warrior's Trace ran diagonally across the the land would be "a dark and bloody one." The land was named Kentucky Transylvania and in 1775 Daniel Boone and Henderson led a band state from near Portsmouth, 0., to Cumberland Gap. was largely a no man's land for the Indians of both regions. They of settlers across the mountains to establish Boonesboro on the hunted and warred back and forth for its possession. south bank of the Kentucky River. Soon other forts and stations Exploration. French and Spanish explorers no doubt saw the were established in the region. Already the pressure of the Ameriregion at an early date, but the often repeated statement that can Revolution was being felt in the west, and British-inspired Rene Robert Cavelier, sieur de la Salle, explored the Ohio rim Indian raids almost destroyed the infant Kentucky settlements. must be discounted as legend. He no doubt saw that part of the From 1775 to 1782 Kentuckians fought Indians from Detroit to state bordering on the Mississippi. In 1671 Thomas Batts and a Kaskaskia. George Rogers Clark (q.v.) launched his campaign small party of Virginians crossed over into the Ohio Valley in from Harrodsburg and Corn Island in the Ohio River above the search of the great western river and John Peter Sailing visited falls. While Clark was in the northwest fighting British and Inthe region in 1742. The baron de Longueuil came across country dians, Boone and his fellow settlers repulsed the Shawnee chieftain to the Ohio in 1739 when he visited some of the landmarks deBlack Fish and his British ally, A. D. DeQuindre, from the setscribed by Indians. In 1749 Celoron de Blainville came from tlement at Boonesboro. The last of the Indian raids on Kentucky Montreal to make formal claim to lands along the Ohio. While occurred when Estill's Fort and Bryan Station, near Lexington, Frenchmen were burying leaden plates at the mouths of the Ohio were raided by a band led by the British officer Caldwell, and the tributaries as evidence of their claims, Virginians and others were settlers were defeated in a skirmish at the Blue Licks on Aug. 19, preparing to enter Kentucky. No doubt both Virginia and Penn1782. sylvania traders previously had visited the region. In 1749 the Toward Statehood. Internally, another struggle had gone on Ohio Company (g.v.) was organized to lay claim to a large block Virginia and North Carolina maintained rival claims over Kenof Ohio Valley lands; a year later the Loyal Land Company- of tucky. The Virginia Assembly, which in 1776 created Kentucky Virginia was ready to begin its search for lands. Thomas Walker County, practically coterminous with the present state, annulled traveled down the Appalachian range in April 1750 to discover the Henderson's claim in 1778, Henderson and his associates receiving Cumberland Gap. His journey into Kentucky, however, was con- 200,000 ac. of land to be located in present Henderson County as fused and he left the area without reaching the rich bluegrass compensation, and all sales to actual settlers were confirmed. In plateau. In October 1751 Christopher Gist came by way of the 1780 Kentucky County was divided into Fayette, Jefferson, and Ohio and Miami rivers scouting for the Ohio Company. Deterred Lincoln counties, and in 1 783 the name Kentucky was given to the by confusing geography and by Indians, he too left the state with- judicial district which was then organized for these counties. out seeing the central plateau. From 1775 to 1784 population increased from 100 to almost 30,Further exploration of Kentucky was delayed by the French and 000. Following the American Revolution the roads swarmed with Indian War (q.v.). John Finley, a Virginian trader, had visited immigrants from east of the mountains, largely from Virginia, the region before the war began, and in 1755 he described it to Maryland, Pennsylvania, and the Carolinas. These were predomiDaniel Boone while the two were serving as wagoners on the Brad- nantly of English, Scottish, Irish, German, and French backdock expedition. In 1767 Boone set out to explore the Kentucky grounds. There were also some Negro slaves. The pioneers came region alone, but he became lost. Guided by Finley, Boone re- over the famous "Wilderness road" which led from Cumberland turned with a small party in 1769. For two years he wandered Gap to Boonesboro, Harrodsburg, Danville, Lexington, and the in the region, much of the time alone. Meanwhile, settlers were Ohio. Many came down the Ohio by canoe and flatboat to land moving down the valleys; they had broken through the Appala- at Limestone Creek (now Maysville), at the mouths of the Licking chian barrier to Tennessee and had established a settlement on the and Kentucky rivers and at the falls of the Ohio. This tide of setWatauga, a headstream of the Tennessee River. Boone had tlement continued to rise until about 1775. Quickly, towns like station.

JAMES

N.

KEEN

—

—

KENTUCKY Lexington, Harrodsburg, Louisville, Paris, Maysville, Georgetown, and Stanford gained respectable populations. Historically, Kentuckians have made a special point of the ruggedness of their pioneer background and of their heritage of strong individualism. Pioneering in Kentucky was rugged, but whether more so than elsewhere is open to question. Influences of the frontier were deeply ingrained in the lives of the people, a fact which can still be noted. Hardly had the last Indian warrior fled across the Ohio in 1782 before settlers were expressing varying degrees of dissatisfaction with the management of political affairs. By 1784 this unrest had developed into the beginning of a separaNine conventions were called in Danville to tion movement. discuss separation from Virginia, an act which did not occur until 1792. Among those present at the great conventions debates were James Wilkinson, Caleb Wallace, George Nicholas, Isaac Shelby, Benjamin Logan, Samuel McDowell, and David Rice. Wilkinson was in communication with the Spanish governor Esteban Miro in New Orleans and he stood to profit considerably by a friendly decision on the part of Kentucky toward the Spanish authorities. No historian knows fully the truth about the Spanish conspiracy, but it did disturb the proceedings at Danville. On June 1, 1 792, Kentucky was admitted to the Union. Its constitution had been drafted in April and May in a short convention, in contrast to the interminable separation meetings. Possibly one of the most interesting facts about this early frontier document was that it contained a verbatim copy of the bill of rights from the second Pennsylvania constitution of 1790. Isaac Shelby was chosen the first governor, and the state government was organized in the Sheaf of Wheat tavern in Lexington. A special committee chose Frankfort on the Kentucky River to be the permanent site

of the capital.

—

Internal Turmoil. By the time Kentucky was admitted to Union its fields were producing large quantities of farm products. Grain, meat, flour, hempen goods, hides, tallow, and distilled spirits were major stocks in trade. Thousands of tons of these products were drifted by flatboats to market in New Orleans each year. There was, however, a constant restlessness over the interference of the Spanish with this trade. Actually there was constant danger that Spanish officials would close the Mississippi River to Kentucky traffic. As a result Kentucky frontiersmen developed a more-than-usual interest in national politics. There arose, because of the proposed Jay-Gardoqui Treaty of 1786, a dislike and suspicion of New Englanders. In the rivalry between Thomas Jefferson and the Federalists, the Kentuckians quickly sided with Jefferson. Possibly their state of mind was more clearly revealed in their resistance to the Alien and Sedition Laws of 1798 (see United States [of America]: History). In Lexington, George Nicholas and Henry Clay campaigned successfully against the federalist laws. John Breckinridge brought from Virginia, and largely from the hand of Jefferson, the Kentucky resolutions (adopted by the General Assembly in 1798) which, briefly, prothe

295

Ohio, the British in the northwest posts were accused of stimulatWilliam Henry Harrison (q.v.) was helping to open Indian lands to the settlers who were flocking across the

ing Indian troubles.

and Chief Tecumseh of the Shawnees, who looked upon this life or death for tribesmen, attempted to organize the Ohio Valley and southern Indians into a confederacy. While he was away in Alabama, Harrison marched against the Shawnees and engaged them in battle at the mouth of Tippecanoe Creek on the Wabash (Nov. 7, 1811). This was for Kentucky the river

pressure as one of

beginning of the War of 1812. The War of 1812.— Since 1805 Henry Clay had stimulated antiBritish sentiment in Kentucky. By 1811 he and his fellow "warhawk" Richard M. Johnson of Georgetown had stirred public sentiment to a boil in the state. Kentuckians played a major role in the fighting around Detroit and on the Great Lakes. Among the officers who fought with General Harrison in that area were Isaac Shelby, Green Clay, and Richard M. and James Johnson. Almost as many native sons fought with General Jackson at New Orleans under the command of Gen. John Adair as in the northwest. The War of 1812 was to have an enormous bearing on the history of Kentucky. There was an urgent need for supplies in the war and farmers and manufacturers produced huge quantities of goods. Prices were inflated and a period of speculation endangered the entire economy of the state. People lost all reason and cau-

When British goods were dumped on the U.S. market after war the Kentuckians were brought close to bankruptcy. In 1818 the General Assembly had passed a law permitting the chartering of approximately 50 branches of the Bank of Kentucky, and each branch was permitted to issue its own currency. By 1819 deflation caused such a serious devaluation of state bank paper that almost everybody was ruined financially. To correct its original mistake the legislature passed two moratoriums to permit debtors either to pay their obligations with state bank currency or to delay payment for a period of two years. This came at the time the U.S. Supreme Court was handing down its famous Dartmouth College v. Woodward decision which involved the right of contract. The Kentucky Court of Appeals upheld a circuit court that found the state laws unconstitutional, and, in a struggle known as the "Old Court-New Court" fight, the legislature repealed the laws establishing the Court of Appeals and established a new court. Partisans were divided between those who opposed relief of delinquent debtors (the "Old Court" supporters) and those who favoured it (the former eventually winning). This division was to mark the difference between the Whig and Democratic parties. Henry Clay became the major Whig leader, with various relief partisans and Jacksonians leading the Democrats. tion.

the

posed the nullification of the distasteful federal laws. Kentuckians were stimulated in this early protest partly by the so-called French conspiracy. In 1793 agents had visited Kentucky in behalf of Edmond Genet, French minister to the United States, in an effort to arouse opinion in favour of the French Republicans in the Ohio Valley.

Hardly had the Alien and Sedition argument developed before Kentuckians were aroused over the issue of reviewing and possibly redrafting their constitution. A political division was to occur over this issue which has largely characterized Kentucky politics ever since. The slaveholders and businessmen were aligned against the farmers and the antislavery forces who favoured rewriting the document. Finally the conservative forces saw they would lose, and assumed leadership of the campaign for a new convention and proscribed the changes which could be made. On June 1, 1800, the state began operation under its second constitution.

The 19th century brought many changes. Rich lands had paid big bounties and society in the more populous areas was rapidly losing its raw frontier character. Concern over the use of the Mississippi was settled

by the purchase of Louisiana.

Beyond

the

BY COURTESY OF THE KENTUCKY DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION

SITE OF FIRST PERMANENT WHITE SETTLEMENT IN KENTUCKY. FT. HARROD AT HARRODSBURG HAS BEEN RECONSTRUCTED AS A HISTORIC SITE BY THE

STATE

KENTUCKY

296

1852 and the place of honour which he had long held was taken by John Jordan Crittenden, James Guthrie, and John C. Breckinridge. disintegrated

came

The Whig Party and

in

place

its

the confusion of the

Know-

Nothing era. Breckinridge, a Democrat, was elected to the vice-presidency of the United States and Crittenden became a senatorial leader.

In the presidential election of 1860, two of Kentucky's native sons were candidates:

Breckin-

nominated by the proslavery Democrats who seceded from ridge,

the

national

party

convention,

and Abraham Lincoln.

HORSE FARM

IN

THE BLUEGRASS AREA

—Possibly the most disturbing

single social and poKentucky from 1820 to 1860 was that of slavery. Farmers in the fertile bluegrass and in the productive lands of the Pennyroyal in western Kentucky were the major slaveholders, but there were few large slaveholders in the state, and in some counties there were few slaves. From 1820 until slavery was abolished in 1865, the interstate slave trade yielded a fairly large income to both farmers and slave traders. In 1833 the General Assembly enacted a law forbidding slaves to be brought into Kentucky to be resold to the South. This became a highly controversial law that figured in every political campaign until the end of the Civil War. As the state is on the Ohio River, Kentucky slaveowners suffered from the activities of the Underground Railroad (q.v.).

saw slavery

critics,

including Harriet Beecher Stowe, often

Kentucky and they aimed their criticisms at the state. The Kentucky slaves were finally freed by the adoption of the 13th amendment in 1865. Since 1820 efforts to call a new constitutional convention had been resisted by conservative proslavery forces, who were afraid that a new convention would destroy their property. The issue of revising the constitution rose again in 1849 and a convention was called. The slavery issue was made the central argument in the election of delegates and only proslavery men were elected. One liberalization of the constitution was made: an educational clause was written into the document for the first time. To counterfirst in

balance this a highly restrictive provision forbade the contracting of state debt in excess of $500,000. In 820-60 a major economic shift occurred. Capt. Nicholas Roosevelt brought the first steamboat, the "New Orleans," down]

stream from Pittsburgh in November 1811, and by 1820 there was a thriving traffic between New Orleans and the falls of the Ohio. This trade throttled Lexington's economic life and Louisville became the major city of the state. Too, Kentucky trade was centred on the Ohio. It was not until the coming of the railroad, the first one in the 1830s. and the development of new transportation lines across the state after the Civil within the state was restored.

A

Border State in the Civil War.

War

—

that a trade balance

Kentucky was a border had about as much intercourse with the states north of the Ohio as with those in the lower south. In 1850-60 Kentucky businessmen faced the distressing dilemma of possible civil war. Definitely war was not to their advantage. It would disrupt their trade and would possibly bring complete ruin. Politically the leadership in Kentucky was shifting. Henry Clay died in

state.

It

for

compromise,

cast

The peo-

a

even

meant extending slavery

litical issue in

Too, antislavery

however,

majority vote for the John Bell-Edward Everett Constitutional Union Party ticket. Lincoln and Hamlin, the Republican nominees, received only 1,366 votes in Kentucky. Prevailing sentiment was

JERRY COOKE FROM PHOTO RESEARCHERS

1820-1860.

ple,

if

this

into the

new western

territories. Kentuckians participated in a series of peace conferences hoping to preserve the Union. Ultimately there was a division of sentiment between the North and South. The General Assembly took no positive action in early 1861 it refused to provide for the calling of a sovereignty convention which might well have been stampeded into favouring the South. Reasons why Kentucky adopted a course of neutrality are many. Gov. Beriah Magoffin, though a Democrat, saved the state from seceding. President Lincoln in Washington also approached the problem of Kentucky with great care and understanding. Neutrality did not prevent invasion of Kentucky by both sides, first by the Confederate Gen. Leonidas Polk at Columbus, and then by the Unionists distributing "Lincoln guns." The Confederate Army occupied western Kentucky until February 1862, and Grant's army moved down the Cumberland after skirmishing at Paducah. In 1862 Braxton Bragg and Edmund Kirby-Smith. generals of the Confederate Army, invaded Kentucky. Kirby-Smith pushed up from the Cumberland Gap. winning the Battle of Richmond en route. Bragg invaded from the Nashville area and pushed toward Frankfort, where he attempted to swear in a Confederate governor. Bragg was pursued by Gen. Don Carlos Buell. and the two commands engaged in a battle near the village of Perryville in Boyle County on Oct. 8, 1862, where the Confederates were defeated. John Hunt Morgan's raiders entered Kentucky on three different occasions and there was skirmishing in many places, but after the Battle of Perryville the major part of the war was fought ;

in othei states.

By

35,000

men

end of

hostilities the state

More

men

to the Confederacy.

Strife.

War. Kentucky had supUnion Army, and about Almost immediately upon the

the end of the Civil

plied approximately 73.000

to the

became pro-Confederate

in sentiment.

—The process of reconstruction did not leave Ken-

The free Negro proved to be an issue and there was some Ku Klux Klan activity. The race issue in the Reconstruction period was quickly settled, the Negro was allowed to vote, and the former slaves settled down to a life of tenant farming or working in the towns and industries as wage hands. Too, the patterns of Kentucky economic development changed. Tobacco supplanted hemp as a major field crop and with the introduction of the new burley-type tobacco this industry came to be a mainstay for farmers. Railroads were built across the state from north to south, and the rich eastern coal fields were opened by the extension of rail lines into the rugged mountain valleys of Harlan, Bell, and Pike counties. Marked social strides made in the postwar years included the tucky altogether untouched. for three or four years,

KENTUCKY organization of a public-school system with state support, the founding in 1865 of the Agricultural and Mechanical College (which evolved into the University of Kentucky) in Lexington,

and the establishment of a

fairly effective public health depart-

Lexington, Louisville, Covington, Owensboro, and Paducah grew rather rapidly, and some industry was located Kentucky wholesale in the major towns, especially in Louisville.

The

ment.

cities of

merchants found a prosperous trade in the lower south and drummers from their business houses canvassed the region with great diligence.

Kentucky was not

to escape the panics

and agrarian turmoil of

Agrarian forces undertook the latter half of the 19th century. to dominate the state government with near disastrous results in Nevertheless there continued a bitter fight between the 1880s. the corporations and the farmers. In 1899 the railroads, textbook companies, and bankers joined with the Gold Democrats, who had seceded from the Democratic Party, to support the gold standard (see McKinley, William) and Republicans against the farmerRepublican Greenbackers in a bitter gubernatorial campaign. William S. Taylor seemed to have won but the election was disputed and the legislative committee on contests decided in favour of the Democratic candidate, William Goebel. Goebel, shot by an assassin on Jan. 27, 1900, died after being sworn into office on Feb. 3 and Lieut. Gov. J. C. W. Beckham filled out the term and

was reelected

in 1903.

Delegates to a fourth constitutional convention had drafted the present constitution in 1891, but Kentucky was not to see peace within its borders for a long time to come. Mountain feuds raged in the east, some of them caused by friction of a state divided in the Civil War. At the same time farmers in western Kentucky were frustrated by the repeated failures of tobacco prices to pay cost of production and from 1903 to 1910 they carried on the socalled night-riders

war against the big companies and farmers

who

refused to cooperate in controlling the production and marFarmers' barns were burned or their crops keting of tobacco. destroyed and armed bands invaded market towns to burn ware-

297

criticism. In 1966 the General Assembly passed a strict strip-mine law to ensure restoration of the natural contour of the land and its reforestation. The depression of the 1930s followed by the impact of World War II went far to bring major changes in Kentucky's social and economic conditions. The construction of better roads, the generation of cheap electrical current, and the improvement of educational facilities revolutionized Kentucky life. After 1920 major changes occurred in the population base, with more than half of the state's 120 counties losing people to the industrial northwest

stirred bitter public

and the

rising

(T. D. C.)

urban centres.

GOVERNMENT The fourth constitution was adopted in 1891. It provides for number of elective officials and denies eligibility for im-

a large

mediate reelection. A convention to revise the constitution or to draft a new one meets on the call of two successive legislatures, ratified by a majority of the popular vote if that majority is at least one-fourth of the votes cast at the preceding general elecOrdinary amendments require a three-fifths majority in tion. each house and popular approval. This was the method used in 1955 when Kentucky lowered the voting age to 18 years, the second state (after Georgia) to do so. The legislature in 1960 established a constitution revision committee as an agency of the legislative research commission to carry on a program of "study, review, examination and exposition" of the state constiIn 1965 Gov. tution and report annually to the commission. Edward Breathitt appointed delegates to a constitutional convention to meet in Frankfort to draft a new constitution. The Franklin Circuit Court and the Court of Appeals upheld the constitutionality of the convention despite the fact its delegates had not been elected by the people. The people, however, had ample opportunity to study the new constitution before they voted to accept or reject it. In the general election, 1966, they rejected the new document by an overwhelming majority. Clearly they revealed an emotional and partisan rather than a rational reaction.

houses of the "tobacco trust." In a more constructive manner an able cluster of writers and newspapermen were able to bring distinction to their state.

Henry

Watterson, editor of the Louisville Courier- Journal from 1868 to 1918, made that paper nationally famous. James Lane Allen, John Fox, Jr., Annie Fellows Johnston, Alice Hegan Rice, Madison Cawein, Irvin Cobb, and Eleanor Mercein Kelly produced books and poetry of more than local importance. Alben Barkley (1877-1956) of Paducah served as vice-president of the United States, and as majority leader of the U.S. Senate.

World War of change. coal

fields

I ushered in an era' Although the eastern were opened much

this period saw marked expansion of the industry. Between 1918 and 1945 this indusearlier,

try

grew rapidly.

Its

history,

however, was marred by strikes called by the United Mine Workers. The eastern fields were again torn by labour strife in the years 1957-59. Mechanization gradually reduced the human factor in coal production. In both the western and eastern coal fields from 1940 the practice of strip mining was accelerated and

BY COURTESY OF THE KENTUCKY DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION

Kentucky capitol complex, frankfort. domed building the governor's mansion is at lower left

is

the capitol. office annex

is

behind

it,

and

.

..

KENTUCKY

2C)-A

Kentucky: Places of 5,000 or More Population {I960 Census)*

what they said they opposed by continuing to centre the major governmental powers in the hands of the governor and the state commissions. After 1920 the general assembly constantly lost ground in making major political deactually accomplished

They

governor, lieutenant governor, secretary of state, attorney general, treasurer, auditor of public accounts, commissioner of agriculture, labour and statistics, and superintendent of public instruction. The legislature can repass over the governor's veto any measure by a simple majority of

The

cisions.

the total

chief executive officers are:

membership

in

each house.

A

majority of the total membership of each house is necessary for appropriation bills and bills creating debts. All revenue measures must originate in the House of Representatives, but the Senate may introduce amendments.

membership of the house.

There are detailed restrictions on

Total state

Ashland

.

Bellevue

.

....

Bowling Green

*

Campbellsville

Corbin Covington Cynthiana Danville

1960 3,038,156 31,283 9,336 28,338 6,966 7,119 60,376 5,641

.

Senators serve four years, one-half retiring every two years; representatives serve two years. There are 38 senators and 100 The Senate sits as a court for the trial of imrepresentatives. A majority of either house constitutes a peachment cases. quorum, but ordinary bills, on the third reading, must receive a majority of the quorum which must be at least two-fifths of the total

Population Place

local

and special

legislation.

The

judiciary consists of a court of appeals, circuit courts, county courts, justice of the peace courts, and police courts. The Court of Appeals, composed of seven judges, one from each ap-

The

pellate district, serves for eight years.

senior judge presides

Dayton

.

Elizabethtown Erlanger .

Florence Fort Thomas Frankfort Franklin .

.

Georgetown Glasgow Harrodsburg Hazard Henderson .

Hopkinsville

Lexington Louisville

Ludlow Madisonville Mayfield Maysville .

Middlesborough

Mount Sterling Murray .

Newport Owensboro Paducah .

.

as chief justice.

Judicial circuits consist of groups of counties

with those containing more than 150,000 people constituting sepaEach district has a judge and a commonwealth's rate districts. attorney.

The

coroner, surveyor, and

clerk,

attorney,

four years. municipalities are divided into six classes according to

sheriff, jailer,

The

—judge, assessor —serve

elective county officials

which permits much special

population, a classification lation despite constitutional inhibition.

The

local legis-

division lines are

under 1.000 respectively. Finance. The Reorganization Act of 1936 brought about a considerable realignment of Kentucky's administrative system. One of the major units created at that time was the Department of Finance, which is divided into five major divisions budget,

—

—

The

Richmond Russell ville St.

Matthews

Shively

.

Somerset

.

Valley Station

....

is

the governor.

sources are sales, motor fuels, and individual income taxes. Motor fuel and motor licence fees are appropriated to highway maintenance.

POPULATION The population of Kentucky in 1790 was 73.677; in 1820 it was 564.317: in 1S60. 1,155,684; in 1900. 2.147.174; in 1950. 2.944,806: and in 1960. 3.03S.156. This last figure represented an increase of 3.2°^ over the population in 1950. The population per sq.mi. in 1960 was 75.2. as compared with 72.9 in 1950, and with 49.6 for the United States in 1960.

Of the population, 1.353.215 or 44.5% were classed as urban as compared with 36.8% in 1950. The state has two standard metropolitan statistical areas, Louisville and Lexington. These areas had a total population of 857,045 or 28.2% of the total population of the state in 1960.

The number of households in 1960 was 851,867, as compared with 779.608 in 1950. The average population per household had declined from 3.8 in 1950 to 3.5 in 1960. The population of the state was distributed by colour and nativity as follows: 92.3% native white; 0.5% foreign-born white; and 7.2% nonwhite. almost all Negro. There were 98.9 males per 100 females in the native white population, and 95.6 in the Xegro population; 9.6% of the population were 65 years old or over; and 48.5% of the population 14 years old and over were in

1940

1920

1900

2,845,627 29,537 8,741 14,585 2,488 7,893 62,018 4,840 6,734 8,379 3,667 2,416 776 11,034 11,492 3,940 4,420 5,815 4,673 7,397 13,160 11,724 49,304 319,077 6,185 8,209 8,619 6,572 11,777 4,782 3,773 30,631 30,245 33,765 6,697

2,416,630 14,729 7,379 9,638

2,147,174 6,800 6,332 8,226

1,535

1,341 1,544

5,388 10,268 4,529

5,389

—

3,983

3,689 5,622 3,124

2,401 7,097

1,273 6,154

1,325

10,870 11,916 4,343 5,516 7,025 5,262 6,985 16,837 12,526 55,534 369,129 6,374 11,132 8,990 8,632 14,482 5,294 6,035 31,044 33,651 32,828 6,912

—

—

3,406 57,121 3,857 5,099 7,646 2,530 711

268 5,028 9,805 3,154 3,903 2,559 3,765 4,348 12,169 9,696 41,534 234,891 4,582 5,030 6,583 6,107 8,041 3,995 2,415 29,317 17,424 24,735 6,310

—

—

—

— — 4,672 —

9,226

8,594

8,333

—

42,938 3,257 4,285 6,104 1,861

453

—258 9,487 2,166 3,823 2,019 2,876

—

10,272 7,280 26,369 204,731 3,334 3,628 4,081 6,423 4,162 3,561 1,822 28,301

13,189 19,446 4,603

—

2,556 4,653 2,591

— — 3,384 —

5,964

*Populations are reported as constituted at date of each census. Xote: Dash indicates place did not exist during reported census, or data not available.

the labour force. Of the total number of employed males. 18.9% were engaged in agriculture, 7.5% in construction, 13.1% in manufacturing, and 19.8% in transportation and trade.

EDUCATION

division of the

under the direction of the commissioner of finance and The commissioner of finance has wide powers, even to seeing that the local branches of government conform to an Kentucky draws its tax income established budgetary practice. from selected sales excises, licence fees, taxes on individual incomes, on property, and on corporations, death and estate taxes, severance levies, and documentary and transfer fees. The largest budget

Pleasure Ridge Park Princeton

Winchester

100.000 or more for class one; 20.000; 8,000; 3.000; 1.000; and

accounts, personnel, purchase, and services.

Paris.

9,010 9,050 9,641 7,072 5,837 14,896 18,365 5,319 6,986 10,069 6,061 5,958 16,892 19,465 62,810 390,639 6,233 13,110 10,762 8,484 12,607 5,370 9,303 30,070 42,471 34,479 7,791 10,612 5,618 12,168 5,861 8,738 15,155 7,112 10,553 10,187

1950 2,944,806 31,131 9,040 18,347 3,477 7,744 64,452 4,847 8,686 8,977 5,807 3,694

Public Schools.

—The

third constitution (1849) provided for

the creation and support of a public-school system.

This program was interrupted by the Civil War. and from 1865 to the first decade of the 20th century the General Assembly gave the schools most meagre financial aid. The great "whirlwind campaign" of 1908, conducted by school people and interested citizens to call attention to the public schools and to bring about their improvement, brought about the reorganization and revitalization of the public-school movement. The state assumed a larger share of public-school support and required local districts to levy a school tax and to make a maximum effort to finance schools. State funds were used to aid public schools in their operation throughout the state. The Reorganization Act of 1908 established two teachers colleges, provided for. a department of education in the Kentucky State College (University of Kentucky") and provided for a series Kentucky led the Southern states in of teacher qualifications. the passage of a compulsory school law (1898), and from 1900 on it encouraged consolidation of small schools into larger and more .

efficient units.

A series of legislative acts and constitutional amendments have brought about revision of the administration of the public schools. The state has had limited tax resources from which to draw funds and people in many areas have made only minimum efforts to support their schools. In 1941 a constitutional amendment was adopted to permit the distribution of funds in excess of the per capita appropriation, but not more than 10% of the general state school funds to equalize educational opportunities in the poorer This plan was revised in 1953 by a second constitudistricts. tional amendment to permit the adoption of a minimum foundation plan. In this latter provision emphasis is placed upon a minimum standard of educational effort rather than making a dole approIn addition, appropriation of state funds is priation to schools.

;

KENTUCKY

BY COURTESY OF THE

made of

297B

KENTUCKY DEPARTMENT OF INFORMATION

EAST DIAMOND MINE OF THE WEST KENTUCKY COAL COMPANY, university (BELOW) A MECHANICAL COAL DIGGER OPERATING Western enrolled in schools MUHLENBERG COUNTY.

children

instead of children counted in the Increased state school census.

IN

AN EASTERN KENTUCKY MINE

Eastern

becoming University,

program law, no school district receives less than $80 in state aid

Colored Persons for (1886) at Frankfort was left unchanged. Besides these schools Kentucky maintains two junior School

per child maintaining an average In the 1960s daily attendance. Kentucky spent $300 per capita on students actually enrolled in school.

About three times

and vocational schools in (Mayo State) and Covington (Northern Kentucky colleges

Paintsville

as

children are enrolled in the

Degree-granting colsupported either by municipal or private funds include the University of Louisville, esState).

grade as there are in the The scale breaks sharply 12 th.

first

and eighth grades. Desegregation. A federal district court decision, Johnson v. University of Kentucky (1948), opened the doors of the graduate and specialized schools of the University of Kentucky to Negroes. In essence this decision nullified the Day Law of 1904 which had prohibited coracial education in Kentucky. The subsequent Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 removed the last of the racial barriers in the public-school system. Gov. Lawrence Wetherby stated immediately that Kentucky would respect the decision of the Supreme Court and many local school boards began making plans to desegregate their schools. By 1960, of the 215 school districts in the state, about 170 had Negro students, and there were approximately 220,000 white students and 30,000 Negro students enrolled in desegregated schools. In these districts approximately 5,500 white and 170 Negro teachers instructed about 133,000 white and 12,000 Negro students in mixed classes. By September 1966 sharp revisions had been made in racial practices, and the Kentucky schools were completely desegregated for both pupils and teachers. This did not come, however, until the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare rejected the plans of several counties and cities. Total enrollment exceeded 700,000 pupils, of whom about 60,000 were Negro. Higher Education. In the field of higher education, Kenafter the fifth

leges

—

—

tucky maintains eight four-year colleges including a university. At the head of the educational system is the University of Kentucky, located in Lexington. This school was chartered in 1865, but did not open its doors in its present location until 1881. It was first the Kentucky Agricultural and Mechanical College, and after a series of name changes it became the University of Kentucky in 1918. The university is a land-grant institution main-

University,

Murray State University, and Morehead University. State Kentucky State College, formerly Kentucky State Normal

appropriations provide that under the minimum foundation

many

status,

Kentucky Kentucky

to local districts on the basis (ABOVE)

tablished as Jefferson Seminary in 1798, at Louisville;

Asbury (1890), nonsectarian,

at

Wilmore;

Berea (1855), nonsectarian, at Berea; Centre College of Kentucky (1819), Presbyterian and United Presbyterian, at Danville; Georgetown (1787), Southern Baptist, at Georgetown; Cumberland (1889), Southern Baptist, at Williamsburg; Campbellsville (1906), Southern Baptist, at Campbellsville; Transylvania (1780), Disciples of Christ, at Lexington; Pikeville (1889), United Presbyterian, at Pikeville; Union (1879), Methodist, at Barbourville and Kentucky Wesleyan (1858), Methodist, at Owensboro. Roman Catholic colleges include Nazareth (1920), for women, Ursuline (1938), for women, and Bellarmine (1950), for men, all

and Villa Madonna (1921), coeducational, at CovBesides these, there are the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary at Louisville, the Lexington Theological Seminary (formerly the College of the Bible) at Lexington, the Louisville Presbyterian Theological Seminary, and the Asbury Theological

at Louisville;

ington.

Seminary

Wilmore.

Among

the junior or community colleges Kentucky centres at Ashland, Covingr Cumberland, Elizabethtown, Fort Knox, Prestonburg, HenderHopkinsville, and Somerset, and Paducah Junior College at at

are the nine University of ton,

son,

Paducah. Private junior colleges are Lees at Jackson, LindseyWilson at Columbia, and Sue Bennett at London. Alice Lloyd College (formerly Caney Junior College) at Pippa Passes was elevated to the status of a four-year college in 1964.

HEALTH, WELFARE, AND CORRECTIONS

taining a rather strong liberal-arts tradition. There are 13 colleges, including the professional schools of law, medicine, pharmacy, architecture, dentistry, and nursing. In addition, there are the

The benevolent, charitable, corrective, and penal institutions of the state are under the supervision of the Department of Welfare created in 1936. The institutions include Eastern State Hospital, Lexington; Central State Hospital, Lakeland; Western State Hospital, Hopkinsville; Kentucky Training Home, Frankfort;

experiment station and the agricultural extension service. In 1966 the Kentucky General Assembly revised the state's system of colleges and universities. Western Kentucky State College (1906) at Bowling Green; Eastern Kentucky State College (1906) at Richmond; Murray State College (1922) at Murray; and Morehead State College (1923) at Morehead were elevated to

Kentucky Children's Home, Lyndon; Kentucky State Hospital, Kentucky Houses of Reform, Greendale; Kentucky State Reformatory, La Grange; Kentucky State Penitentiary. Eddyville; and Women's Prison, Pewee Valley. The Department of Welfare is administered through four major divisions, each headed by a director corrections, probation and parole, hospitals

:

Danville;

—

KENTUCKY

298

and mental hygiene: public assistance; child welfare; and division of engineering. The 1948 General Assembly transferred to a new department of economic security the division of public assistance (administering aid to the aged, blind and disabled, and aid to dependent children), formerly parts of the welfare department. At

same time it transferred the division of engineering Kentucky building commission. the

to

the

THE ECONOMY

—

Agriculture. No phase of Kentucky economic life has changed more rapidly than its agriculture. Trends decreasing number of farms and acres in cultivation, increasing size and value per farm and per acre, the shifting of ownership and the drop in tenancy reflect the changes brought about by increasing mechanization of farms. Each year there has been a shrinkage in the farm population. In 1930 there were 246,000 farms; within 30 years the number had dropped to fewer than 150,000. At the same time the number of acres had dropped from more than 19,225.000 to about 17,000,000 while land values increased from about $870,000,000 to more than $1,700,000,000. During and after World War II the average size per farm increased from 80.2 to 113 ac. and value per farm rose from $3,070 to over $15,000, with an increase in acre value from about $38 to over $135. The number of tenants decreased from about 49,000 to less than 25,000, or about 16% of the farm population. In spite of these changes Kentucky is still characteristically rural. In 1950 out of a population of 2,944,806 persons, 1,084,070 were urban, 886,566 rural nonfarm, and 974,170 rural. In 1960 out of a population of 3,038,156 persons, 1,353,215 were urban, 1,137,118 rural nonfarm, and 547,823 rural. Both urban and nonfarm represent a strong mixture of rural inhabitants. Reasons for shifting of the farm base in Kentucky are many. Restrictions on tobacco acreage have pushed tenants off farms and mechanization of both cultivating and harvesting operations has reduced substantially the need for farm labour. The growth of industry in many parts of the state and in other states in the middle west

—

—

has robbed the submarginal farms of their labour, as has an expanding urbanization about Louisville, Owensboro, Paducah, Lexington, Covington, and Ashland. Farm crops have become more highly diversified than at any time in the state's history. The total annual farm crop income in the second half of the 20th century was about $440,000,000; of this amount tobacco yielded more than $275,000,000; corn returned more than $85,000,000, and hay almost $60,000,000. These three crops represented about 90% of the total income from sale of farm produce. Kentucky farmers were cultivating about 3,125,000 ac. with 1,100,000 ac. being planted in corn, 1,600,000 in hay, 300,000 in soybeans, and 200,000 in tobacco. Kentucky tobacco farmers faced grim facts in the 1960s. There was demand for their product, but rising expenses associated with shrinking tobacco acreage and the resultant pressure to increase production per acre by heavy fertilization, the high risk of loss due to the vagaries of weather and other factors, and the high cost of farm labour were driving many farmers out of tobacco growing. In areas where small farmers grew an acre or so of tobacco, the land was being returned to forest or pasture. In the bluegrass country farmers were turning more to nonrow crops more easily managed with machines. Other crops were wheat, potatoes, fruits, vegetables, and small grains. Livestock farming increased after 1950, the value of all livestock on Kentucky farms reaching more than $300,000,000 in the 1960s. Again Kentucky assumed the lead in livestock production in the southeast. Cattle constituted the major gains, totaling more than three-fifths that returned by hogs and lambs. Indicative of the remarkable change that came over Kentucky agriculture in the 1950s and 1960s, the number of horses and mules dwindled from 313.000 to 145,000, although large thoroughbred breeding and training farms still flourished in the bluegrass region. The American Thoroughbred Breeders Association, which operates a research program to obtain knowledge of probability in horse-breeding, has its headquarters in Lexington. The mule is on its way to extinction in a state which once received a big income from the breeding industry. The Kentucky experiment station made no provision for horses and mules on its new Eden Shale Belt farm, and were it not for sentimental reasons it is doubtful that the Kentucky State Fair would any longer exhibit jacks, jennets, and mules. A more shocking fact in Kentucky agricultural history is that farm proprietary income has dropped below 10% of the entire state income since 1950. Manufacturing. Although much of its population is still rural (56.5% in 1960), and its basic economic tradition is agrarian in origin, nevertheless Kentucky tends annually toward developing a rich manufacturing industry. By the 1960s there were approximately 3,000 manufacturing plants employing more than 180,000 individuals. Payrolls totaled more than $950,000,000 and capital expenditures over $225,000,Value added by manufacture, in the neighbourhood of 000.

—

$1,500,000,000 in the 1950s, exceeded $2,460,000,000 in the 1960s. Not only is industry yielding a bigger income in the state, it is becoming more highly diversified. Production of 25% of U.S. -manufactured cigarettes, the long established tobacco industry, centred largely in Louisville (ranked as the second largest

manufacturing

cigarette

centre in the nation) and Lexington,

is

expanding

its

manufactur-

ing facilities.

Among newer

industries

are

the chemical plants located along the Ohio River, the aluminum industry in Louisville, the smaller metal factories about the state,

and the

electrical typewriter in-

dustry

in

Lexington.

manufacturing

is

still

While located

KENYA along the Ohio shoulder, industries are moving into other areas of The larger industrial centres are Ashland, Bowling the state. Green, Covington, Frankfort, Lexington, Louisville, Newport,

Owensboro, Russellville, Calvert City, and Paducah. The leading industries are foods, tobacco, metals, electrical equipment, chemicals, farm equipment, electric typewriters, and printing and publishing. Other manufactures include lumber, textiles, wood products, garments and beverages of all types, largely distilled liquors. Minerals. Leading mineral products are bituminous coal, petroleum, natural gas, stone, fluorspar, and clays. In the second half of the 20th century Kentucky ranked second among the states

—

299

Days

in the Bluegrass (1935). Social life: William R. Thomas, Life Among the Hills and Mountains of Kentucky (1926); James O. Nail, The Tobacco Night Riders of Kentucky and Tennessee (1939) John W. Coleman, Slavery Times in Kentucky (1940); Francis G. Davenport, Ante-bellum Kentucky: a Social History (1943) Harry M. Caudill, Night Comes to the Cumberland: a Biography of a Depressed Area (1963). Economy: Publications of the Bureau of Business Research, College Howard W. of Commerce, University of Kentucky (1928 et seq.) Beers (ed.), Kentucky: Designs for Her Future (1945) Thomas Ford (ed.), The Southern Appalachian Region: a Survey (1962). ;

;

;

;

Education: Kentucky School Journal; James F. Hopkins, The UniKentucky (1951); Moses E. Ligon, A History of Public Education in Kentucky (1942) F. L. McVey, The Gates Open Slowly versity of

;

(about 25% of the U.S. total), third in bituminous coal production, and fourth in fluorspar production. Once settlers obtained their own salt from salt licks and processed saltpetre deposits in Mammoth Cave and elsewhere in the production of ball clay

for gunpowder. Some lead and iron was mined as late as the 1870s. Coal mining began early in the 19th century, continuing in the second half of the 20th century in the western, Big Sandy, Kentucky River, and Cumberland River regions. Trade. A good share of Kentucky's income is derived from the retail and distributive business. In the second half of the 20th century there were about 30,000 mercantile establishments with annual sales of $3,000,000,000. About 3,600 wholesale establishments had annual sales of more than $3,000,000,000. Services such as automobile repairs, recreation, business services, and hotels and motels increasingly yielded additional income.

—

—

Transportation. In 1775 Daniel Boone marked a trail through the Cumberland Gap that became the Wilderness Road which, with the Ohio River, served the early settlers. Streams and turnpikes afforded fair service until the railroad era. The first short railway was started in 1830. Growth of steam railways was slow until 1880, when mileage was only 1,530. In the second half of the 20th century the mileage in operation was about 3,500, all diesel.

Most

of the lines run south or southwest

(1942). Physical features: Reports of Kentucky Geological Survey. Current statistics on production, employment, industry, etc., may be obtained from the pertinent state departments; the principal figures are summarized annually in the Britannica Book of the Year. (E.T.; W.W. Js.; T. D. C.)

KENYA,

an independent state in east Africa and member of of Nations, is bounded east by the Indian ocean and the Somali Republic, north by Ethiopia and the Republic of the Sudan, west by Uganda and south by Tanganyika. Situated astride the equator, Kenya has a total area of 224,960 sq.mi., inthe

Commonwealth

cluding 5,171 sq.mi. of water. The coastlands from the Tanganyika frontier to Kipini to a depth of ten nautical miles inland, with

Mombasa, Lamu and other

I.

1.

Geology and Drainage

Relief

Climate Vegetation and Animal Life The People 1. Ethnic and Tribal Groups 2. Religion and Languages 3. Population History 3.

4.

a dif-

undertaking for Kentucky, largely because of the state's rugged terrain and numerous stream crossings. The state, however, sits across the main north-south and east-west lines of travel. In the second half of the 20th century Kentucky had a total mileage of roads of almost 70,000 mi. including about 5,500 mi. of primary roads. There are approximately 50,000 mi. of surfaced roads in the state. Support for highways and for maintenance of farm-to-market roads comes from a gasoline tax and from funds appropriated by the federal aid program. Three major interstate routes cross Kentucky. Again the Ohio, Tennessee, and Cumberland rivers have come into their own as major channels of transportation. After August 1966 the Cumberland River was made a more adequate transportation channel by the Barkley Dam. The Markland Dam on the Ohio increased the transportation efficiency of that stream. Many extra-long articles, such as the equipment for astronautical flight, are transported to and from the Redstone Arsenal by way of the rivers. Pipelines crisscross the state bearing natural gas and crude oil to market. Truck and tank ficult

III.

1.

2.

3. 4. 5. 6.

The Power of the Masai The Imperial British East Africa Company The East Africa Protectorate The Uganda Railway and European Settlement World War I and Its Aftermath World War II and After

IV. Administration and Social Conditions 1. Central and Local Government 2. Political Parties 3.

Trade Unions

4.

Social Conditions

5.

Health

6.

Justice

7.

Education Defense

8.

V. The Economy 1. Production 2.

3.

Trade and Finance Communications

car lines also transport large quantities of gas and oils. See also references under "Kentucky" in the Index.

I.

—

1.

Bibliography. General: J. W. Coleman, A Bibliography of Kentucky History (1949) Robert L. Kincaid, The Wilderness Road (1947) Arthur Moore, The Frontier Mind (1957); A. M. Miller, Kentucky Geology (1919) A. C. McFarlan, Geology of Kentucky (1943) Kentucky University Bureau of School Service, Kentucky's Resources, rev. ed. (1958); John E. Reeves, Kentucky Government, 4th ed. (1960). Histories: William S. Lester, The Transylvania Colony (1935) Thomas D. Clark, A History of Kentucky, 4th ed. (1961); E. D. Warfield, The Kentucky Resolutions of 1798, 2nd ed. (1887). Civil War period: Ellis M. Coulter, The Civil War and Readjustment in Kentucky (1926); "Campaigns in Kentucky and Tennessee" in vol. vii of Papers of the Military Historical Society of Massachusetts (1908); Thomas Speed, The Union Cause in Kentucky (1907); Basil W. Duke, History of Morgan's Cavalry (1867) Register of the ;

;

;

;

;

;

Kentucky Historical Society (1903 et seq.) publications of the Filson Club of Louisville. Early routes: Thomas Speed, The Wilderness Road (1886) Archer B. Hulbert, Boone's Wilderness Road (1903) William A. Pusey, The Wilderness Road to Kentucky (1921) John W. Coleman, Stage-Coach ;

;

;

;

protectorate as distinct

Physical Geography 2.

II.

Highway construction and maintenance has always been

Kenya

from the colony, but when the country became independent in Dec. 1963 the protectorate was integrated with the rest of Kenya. The country takes its name from Mt. Kenya, from the Kikuyu KereNyaga ("mountain of whiteness"). The capital is Nairobi (q.v.). This article contains the following sections and subsections:

from Cincinnati

and Louisville.

small islands, were leased from the

sultan of Zanzibar and formed the

Geology.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

—The gneisses and

schists of the

provide the geological foundation of

Basement system

Kenya and contain

kyanite,

Over the and mica among their minerals. greater part of the country the Basement rocks are overlain by younger material. In western Kenya the Pre-Cambrian Nyanzian and Kavirondian systems form the covering and are in turn blanketed by the Kisii series of Bukoban age. The Nyanzian and Kavirondian systems were intensively folded and extensively invaded by granites gold and copper are the most important of their economic minerals. A succeeding phase of geological stability and graphite, asbestos

;

prolonged denudation culminated in the formation of the CreIn what are now the eastern lowlands of taceous peneplain. Kenya deposition occurred, and the Duruma sandstones, of CarboPermian and Triassic age, were followed after an unconformity by the marine Jurassic sediments of the coast; and Mesozoic sediments cover a large area in the extreme northeast.

KENYA

3°°

Nyika give place to those of the Basement farther west, where steep-sided inselberge occur in the Teita hills and

of the eastern

in western Machakos. In the narrow Yatta plateau, in the Chyulu range and on the northern flanks of Kilimanjaro young volcanics rest upon the ancient rocks of the Basement. Low plateau, for the most part below 2.000 ft. above sea level, extends over the vast areas of eastern and northern Kenya. In the area east of Lake Rudolf the volcanic piles of Kulal 7.520 ft.) and Marsabit (5.593 ft.) rise out of an extensive waterless waste. In the East Kenya highlands the steep eastern wall of the Rift valley is flanked eastward by high country, especially in its central portion where the Aberdare range has an average height of 11.000 ft. and culminates in Sattimma (13.104 ft.) and Mt. Kinango'p (12.816 ft.). To the north lies the Laikipia escarpment, mostly over 6.000 ft. and south of Nairobi are the lower-lying Athi and Kapiti plains. The Aberdares slope gradually eastward and southeastward, providing a fine example of an immature, consequent drainage pattern, before the ground rises again to the mighty cone of Mt. Kenya, 17.058 ft., with its well-developed radial drainage. Northeast of Meru the Nyambeni range marks an extension of the volcanic extrusion. The Rift valley varies in width from 30 to 40 mi. and its floor is 2,000-3.000 ft. lower than the country on either side. In the highest, central portion, between Nakuru and Naivasha. the floor is over 6.000 ft. above sea level, but it falls away northward and southward to less than 2.000 ft. The Rift valley is diversified by the north-south line of the Kamasia hills to the north of the equator, and to the south by craters of which Menengai (7.475
*LL

*' •

,

Other ancient communities are Jews. Nayars and Muslims Moplahs of Arab origin. In the hills are tribespeople such as the Kadirs (Kadars). probably of Negrito stock. Administration. There is a state governor, appointed by

headquarters and central teaching faculty are at Trivandrum, it has affiliated colleges there and in other towns. Under the contributory employers' state insurance scheme medical aid and cash benefits for sickness, maternity and employment injury are provided for factory workers. Free medical treatment Its

and

is

available in

The

many

hospitals and dispensaries.

program for the social amelioration of and backward communities includes the provision of schools, mobile medical units and welfare centres, as well as cottage industries and free grants for buying agricultural implements. state government's

tribal

The Economy. flourishes.

—Along

(S. B. L.

N.)

the coasts and in the lagoons, fishing

Besides being a country with a large rice and coconut

production, Kerala includes the famous old Malabar coast (q.v.) where pepper, cardamoms and other spices are still produced; also rubber, tea (from the hills), cashew and areca nuts, tapioca and oilseeds. The forests afford teak, ebony and a variety of other woods. Kerala has a wide range of minerals: beach sands yield

monazite, ilmenite, zircon and other minerals of economic importance; there are deposits of white clay, and products from the old rocks include mica, graphite and limestone.

The preparation

of coir

from the husks of coconuts

ing cottage industry or occupation and other

home

is

a lead-

industries are

organized on a co-operative basis. Most modern industrial concerns are state-owned or state-sponsored: there is a wide range of manufactures from textiles, ceramics and chemicals to electrithough for the most part on a small cal goods, glass and paper

—

—

scale.

For centuries small ports shipped timber and spices, but until improvement of Cochin the area's external trade on a modern scale relied mainly on the long rail haul across the peninsula to Madras. Landward access to the state, both road and rail, is largely through the Palghat gap from Madras and the more difThe ficult Shencottah gap across the Cardamoms in the south. wet country is difficult for road construction and maintenance. The main road route serves the southern coast from Trivandrum northward to Cochin; then from Ernakulam to Madras. Broad-gauge railway lines with termini at Mangalore (just within the Mysore boundary in the extreme north) and Cochin harbour (Ernakulam) join in the middle of the state to pass through the Palghat gap to Madras. The Mangalore line hugs the coast for all but 30 mi. of its 190-mi. length and serves administrative centres and small roadstead ports such as Kozhikode (Calicut), Mahe, Tellicherry. Cannanore and Kasaragod. On the Cochin spurline are the industrial towns of Trichur (cotton manuA metrefactures, tiles) and Ernakulam (soap, rice-milling). gauge line follows the more difficult Shencottah route to Quilon and Trivandrum and the two systems are linked by a further metregauge route from Quilon northward to Ernakulam. Cochin and (L. D. S.) Trivandrum have domestic airports. the

—

the president of India, but practical administration is exercised by a chief minister and cabinet of departmental ministers drawn

P. K. P. Menon, History of Kerala, ed. by T. K. (1924-31); E. H. Warmington. Commerce Between the Roman Empire and India (1928) P. K. S. Raja, Mediaeval Kerala (1953) R. A. Nilakanta Sastri, History of South India, 2nd ed. (1959) R. C. Bristow, Cochin Saga (1959) A. R. Gopalan, Kerala Past and Present (1959); "Rerala" in O. H. R. Spate. India and Pakistan: a Regional Geography, pp. 626-635 (1954), with bibliographical refer-

from the majority party

ences.

(

)

—

Bibliography.

Menon, 4

vol.

;

;

;

;

is

in the legislative assembly.

This assembly

elected on a constituency basis under universal adult suffrage,

normally every

The

was reorganized in 1958-59 to provide eight districts. Alleppey, Cannanore. Palghat, Quilon. Trivandrum. Kottayam. Kozhikode. and five years.

local

government of the

state

Trichur (qq.v.). in place of the previous five; in the process the name of Malabar disappeared from the political map. There is a state high court of justice and public service commission in Trivandrum. (X.) Education and Social Welfare. Kerala leads India in literacy, with more than 50. Md.. Aug. 1. 1779. He attended St. John's college. Annapolis. Md.. 1789-96. Upon graduation, he studied law in Annapolis, and began to practice in 1801 in Frederick. Md. In 1805 Key moved to Georgetown. D.C.. where he became a partner of his uncle Philip Barton Key. In Sept. 1814. after the burning of the city of Washington by

War of 1S12. Key was sent to the British Chesapeake bay to secure the release of his friend. William Beanes. who had been captured after the defeat of the U.S. forces at Bladensburg. Md. Key was detained on his ship during the shelling of Ft. McHenry. one of the forts that successfully defended Baltimore. During the night of the bombardment, Sept. 13-14. Key's anxiety was at high pitch, and in the morning when he discerned the American flag still flying over the fortress, he the British during the

fleet in

wrote "The Star-Spangled Banner." Released that day. he rewrote the poem in a Baltimore hotel. It was immediately printed anonymously under the title "Defence of Fort M'Henry." and on Sept. 20 was published by the Baltimore Patriot. Set to the tune of the English drinking song. "To Anacreon in Heaven." it soon became popular throughout the nation. It was later adopted by the army and navy as the national anthem, but it was not until 1931 that congress officially adopted it. Key died in Baltimore on Jan. 11, 1843, and was buried in Mt. Olivet cemetery in Frederick. (Ja. B. R. I

KEY: see Keys and Keyways; Lock; see also Harmony. KEYES, ROGER JOHN BROWNLOW KEYES, 1st

hieh,

director.

They soon developed

and

an important botanical

in-

which by the early 1960s contained

stitution with a herbarium,

more than 6.000.000

into

sheets exceptionally rich in "type" specimens,

There are three 55.000 volumes. economic plant products and a labora-

specialized library of

a

museums

largely devoted to

tory where, in addition to cytogenetical investigations, the structure of plants is studied, especially in relation to classification.

The

comprise more than 40.000 different kinds of plants. Among the greenhouses, which provide for the less hardy plants, the largest are the Temperate house, about an eighth of a mile in length, and the Palm house, built in 1848, both from designs by Decimus Burton and housing magnificent collections living collections

and cycads. The collections of tropical orchids, succulents and tropical ferns are exceptionally fine, and the Australian house, erected in 1952 and built of aluminum alloy, contains numerous plants native to Australia.

of tree ferns

Kew

originated the plantation industry of rubber and

an important role

in plant introduction

Its publications include

numerous

and as

still

plays

a quarantine station.

basic floras of

commonwealth

Kew Bulletin and the Index Kewensis, for which supplements are periodically issued. See also Botanical Gardens. (E. J. S. G. T.) KEY, ELLEN (KAROLINA SOFIA) (1849-1926). Swedish essayist and educationalist whose radical ideas exerted a wide influence. She was born on Dec. 11. 1849. at Sundsholm. the daughter of the landowner and politician Emil Key (1822-92). Family misfortune obliged her to take up teaching in Stockholm in the late 1870s and for the next 20 years she also lectured at the workers' institute there. Barnets arhundrade (1900; Eng. trans.. The Century of the Child, 1909) made her world-famous. Both this and Lifslinjer (1903-06; Eng. trans.. Lines of Life) were areas, the

;

translated into many languages. In 1903 she started lecture tours abroad, particularly in Germany. She also propagated her ideas

through an enormous correspondence and many young authors were influenced by her. Her liberal and radical opinions in most fields of cultural life, and especially on love and marriage, led to controversy. She died at Strand, on Lake Vattern. April 25. 1926. Bibliography. Articles by G. Monod in La Revue bleu (1907) and E. Faquet in La Revue latine (1907); M. Leche-Lofgren, Ellen Key (1930) U. Wittrock, Ellen Keys vag frdn kristendom till livstro (1953). (U. K. T. W.)

—

;

KEY, FRANCIS SCOTT

(1779-1843). U.S. lawyer and author of the national anthem. "The Star-Spangled Banner." was

Baron raid


.

British admiral

on the German base

who planned and

at Zeebrugge. Belg.

directed the

(April 23. 1918),

and thus helped to close the Straits of Dover to German submarines. Born at Tundiani Fort. Punjab. India, on Oct. 4. 1S72, he entered the navy in 1SS5 and was promoted commander for bold action during the Boxer uprising of 1900. From 1912 to 1915 he was commodore in charge of submarines, being responsible for the scheme which led to the battle of Heligoland Bight q.v.). In
74> and Hendrick (1613-65) became sculptors, and (1596/97-1667) was an outstanding portrait painter.

Thomas

;

KEYSER, THOMAS DE

(1596/1597-1667), Dutch painter, was born at Amsterdam, Aert the son of the architect and sculptor Hendrik de Keyser. Pietersz. Cornelis van der Voort, Werner van Yalckert and Nicolas Elias are accredited by different authorities with having developed his talent. De Keyser chiefly excelled as a portrait painter, though he also executed some historical and mythological pictures, such as the "Theseus" and "Ariadne" in the Amsterdam town hall. His portraiture is full of character and often, as in the "Old Woman," is distinguished by a rich golden glow of colour and

known

for his masterly portraiture,

Rembrandtesque chiaroscuro.

Some

of his portraits are life size.

but the artist generally preferred to keep them on a considerably smaller scale, like the famous "Group of Amsterdam Burgomas-

Marie de' Medici in 1638. Among his other works are a characteristic portrait group of a "Merchant With His Clerk"; a magnificent "Portrait of a Savant"; and a fine ters" assembled to receive

Arch and Vault.

HERMANN ALEXANDER,

Graf

(1880-1946), German philosophical writer whose ideas enjoyed considerable popularity after World War I largely because of his forceful personality and the troubled atmosphere of the times, was born at Kbnno in Livonia on July 20. 1880. He studied at several universities in Europe before beginning, in 191 1. a world tour which provided the material for his best-known work. Das Reisetagebuch eines Philosophen (1919; Eng. trans. The Travel Diary of a Philosopher, 1925). Dispossessed of his family property by the Russian Revolution, he moved to Berlin, where he married one of Bismarck's granddaughters (1919). Thereafter Keyserling lived mainly at Darmstadt, although between 1927 and 1932 he frequently lectured abroad. He died at Innsbruck on April 26, 1946. Keyserling's approach to philosophy

essentially nonaca-

is

the southernmost set-

(

1

1

tropical plant life includes bougainvillea. royal poinciana or flam-

boyant

many

tree, sea grape, breadfruit,

Spanish lime, coconut palm and

tropical flowers.

There is a unique blend of Cuban. West Indian. Bahamian and American atmosphere in the city. It was incorporated in 1S28. Its history is told in old buildings and residences. pre-Civil War forts, churches and monuments set amid trees and shrubbery na-

who among the

Tourists

tive to a coral isle.

of income;

visit the island

contribute a

attractions are the aquarium,

museum, garden

centre, library and public beaches. Sports fishing and commercial fishing are other sources of income: over 20.000.000 lb. of food fish, crabs, lobsters, shrimp and Throughout its history the sea turtles are marketed annually. city has been the seat of naval activity and the largest single payroll comes from the several U.S. naval installations which employ large numbers of navy personnel and civilian workers.

The name Key West

derives from

position as the westernmost

its

of the Florida keys and the Spanish cayo, "small island"; Spanish

named it Cayo Hueso ("key of bones") because of the human bones found there. The city has a council-manager form explorers

of government, in effect from 1945.

For comparative population

figures see table in Florida: Population.

KHA, was

city of Florida. U.S..

tlement within the continental limits of the United States. It is located 100 mi. from the mainland of the state at the end of a long string of keys on an island S\ mi. long and 1 mi. wide. 157 mi. S.W. of Miami and 90 mi. X. of Havana. Cuba. It is the seat of Monroe county and has served as a port of entry from 1822, when a naval depot was established there. A modern highway, which terminates there, connects the keys with long bridges over vast expanses of water. The weather is tropical, varying from an average of 70° F. (21.1° C.) in January to an average of 84° 2S.9° ) in August. The lowest temperature c 5° and the highest was 97° (36.7°). The ever recorded was 41

major source

portrait of "Claes Fabricius."

KEYSERLING,

See also

KEY WEST, a

See Architect ura Moderna ojte Bouwinge van onsen tyt (a book of Elisabeth Neurdenburg, engravings published in Amsterdam, 1631) (S. Se.) Hendrik de Keyset (1931).

best

rated with bosses often occur where two ribs intersect.

ing to

the generic

Moi

in

name

(J.

E. D.)

for the hill tribes of Laos, correspond-

Vietnam and Pnong

in

There are nu-

Cambodia.

Rade and Lamet). speaking

demic, and his ideas, which centred on the theme of spiritual re-

merous

generation, were often platitudinous or obscure.

His other works include Das Gefiige der Welt (1906); Unsterblichkeit (1907; Eng. trans.. Immortality, 1938); Schopferische Erkennttiis (1922; Eng. trans., Creative Understanding, 1929); Wiedergeburt (1927; Eng. trans.. The Recovery of Truth, 1929); America Set Free (1929); and Siidamerikanische Meditationen (1932; Eng. trans., South American Meditations, 1932). KEYSTONE, in architecture, the central stone of an arch; although of no more structural importance than any of the other voussoirs. or wedge-shaped stones of which the arch is built, its position at the centre makes it a unit that can be advantageously accented. Thus, in Etruscan. Roman and Renaissance work it is frequently projected beyond the face of the rest of the arch and decorated with S-scrolls, masques or figures. In Gothic architecture the pointed arch is usually built with a joint at the centre, so that no keystone exists. In vault ribs, however, keystones deco-

several different languages,

±Jm*JQIU.XmA*&S#*AZZB*S*f.XteX, rising from a plateau at about 3,000 ft. to 19.340 Like ft. at Kaiser Wilhelm Spitze. the highest point in Africa.

the

Kenya

Mt. Kenya. 200 mi. N., Kilimanjaro is associated with Tertiary faulting and lies about 100 mi. E. of the Great Rift valley (q.v.), whose fault lines intersect a west-southwest-east -northeast line of volcanic cones, including Mt. Meru (14,979 ft.), 40 mi. W. of Kilimanjaro. The massif extends approximately east-west for 50 mi. and comprises three principal volcanoes. Kibo, the youngest, retains the form of a crater and is joined by a saddle at about 15.000 ft. with Mawensi (17,564 ft.). 7 mi. E.. which is the older core of a former

summit,

its

crater walls

Shira ridge (13.140

ft.)

removed by denudation. Westward the is but the remnant of an earlier crater.

There are several zones of small parasitic cones. The oldest exposed rocks are trachybasalts covered by more recent lavas including nepheline phonolites.

Kibo appears from the plains as a snow-clad dome, but subsidence has created a caldera mi. across and 600 ft. deep on the southern side, where the rim is highest. Within this is an inner cone inside whose crater is an ash cone with a crater 370 yd. across and about 400 ft. deep. Soljatari in the inner crater indicate

H

residual volcanic activity.

One

of the large disjointed glaciers

around Kibo breaks the rim on the west and remnants of the

ice-

cap survive as isolated blocks within the crater. The vertical weathering and fluting of the ice walls and nieve penitente are characteristic of tropical ice forms. During the last Upper Pleistocene pluvial period the glaciers descended to 12.000 ft., but they have receded to 15,000 ft. on the southwest slopes and descend little below the summit on the dry northern side. The rapid shrinkage of the glaciers, caused partly by warmer climatic conditions and possibly in some degree by increased volcanic activity, suggests that they may disappear within a century or two. Below the saddle the mountain slopes in a typical volcanic curve to the plains below. In contrast with Kibo, Mawensi is highly eroded, jagged and precipitous, and is cleft by the gorges of the east and west Barrancos. the former 4.000 ft. deep. Mawensi carries no permanent ice and only a few semipermanent snow patches. The southern and eastern slopes are furrowed by streams feeding the Pangani river and Lake Jipe (south) and the

Tsavo

river (east).

Like other east African mountains, Kilimanjaro presents welldefined altitudinal zones of vegetation. Above the semiarid scrub of the plateau the well-watered southern slopes between 4.000 and 6,000 ft. are cultivated (bananas, coffee, vegetables) by the Chagga

and by European settlers farther from 6.000 to 9,000 ft. on the but narrows northward and almost disappears on

(q.v.) with elaborate irrigation,

west.

Dense cloud

southern slopes, the dry northwestern slopes.

and open moorland

experience.

Kilimanjaro was discovered by the German missionaries Johannes Rebmann and Ludwig Krapf in 1848. It was visited by Baron K. K. von der Decken in 1861 and 1862, by Charles New, who reached the snow line in 1867, by Sir H. H. Johnston (1884) and others and studied by Hans Meyer, who made the first ascent of Kibo with Ludwig Purtscheller in 1889, and Fritz Jaeger (1907). Mawensi was first climbed by Fritz Klute in 1912. Important work was done by R. Reusch (1927), in the 1940s by J. J. Richard (volcanological investigations) and Lieut. Comdr. P. C. Spink (measuring retreat of glaciers) and in the 1950s by expeditions from the University of Sheffield, Eng. (geological surveys). The economic possibilities of sulfur deposits have been investigated by the Tanganyika geological survey. ;

—

Bibliography. C. Dundas, Kilimanjaro and Its People (1924) P. C. Spink, articles in Geogr. J., vol. 106 (1945), Weather, vol. 2 (1947), vol. 3 (1948), vol. 7 (1952) C. Gilman, "A Bibliography of KilimanG. Salt, "A jaro," Tanganyika Notes and Records, no. 18 (1944) Contribution to the Ecology of Kilimanjaro," /. Ecol., vol. 42 (1954) W. H. Wilkinson, "Preliminary Notes on the Geology of Kilimanjaro," Geol. Mag., vol. 93 (1956) D. L. Busk, "Kilimanjaro," Alp. J., vol.

DISTANT

:

;

;

;

;

60 (1955).

(J.

M.

KILIMANJARO REGION, TANGANYIKA,

Ke.) estab-

May

1963 following a reorganization of administrative units in Tanganyika, comprises Kilimanjaro (Moshi) district, formerly part of Northern (Arusha) region, and Pare, district, formerly part of Tanga region. It is bounded on the north and east by Kenya, southeast and south by Tanga region, and west by Northern region. Area c. 5.000 sq.mi. Pop. (1957) 473,859. Running southeastward from the volcanic Mt. Kilimanjaro (19.340 ft.) are the Pare mountains, consisting of ancient, metamorphosed rocks. Streams rising on Mt. Kilimanjaro flow northward to Lake Amboseli or to the Tsavo river in Kenya and southeastward to the Pangani river. The plains lying to the northeast of the Pare mounMean annual rainfall varies contains have little running water. siderably: the southern and eastern slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro, which are exposed to the prevailing winds, are well watered (70 lished in

whereas the Pare mountains are relatively dry. Maximum Temperature varies with occurs during March-May. altitude above the hot plains near-temperate conditions are found on the highlands, and snow and ice on the summit of Kilimanjaro. The volcanic soils on the mountain slopes are among the most fertile in the country; red earths are found on the foot slopes. Vegetation ranges from wooded savannas to montane forests and Afro-alpine communities at high altitudes. The largest tribe is the Chagga (314.800 in 1957), who live on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro. In the Pare district are the Pare tribe (113,900). In this district also is an ethnologically interesting tribe, the Mbugu (11.800), of Nilo-Hamitic descent. There is a small European settlement on the slopes of Mt. Kilimanjaro. Regional headquarters are at Moshi (pop. [1957] 13.726) at the southern slope of Mt. Kilimanjaro, which is connected by rail with Tanga and is also linked with the Kenya railway. Kilimanjaro is an important coffee-producing area, the crop being grown by both Africans (the Chagga have a Kilimanjaro A factory at Native Co-operative union) and non-Africans. Arusha Chini extracts "sugar from cane grown under irrigation. :

LTD.

the forest rainfall diminishes

is

flank of Mawensi. Elsewhere above 13,000 ft. is alpine desert with vegetation in dwarfed patches, and above 16,000 ft. only mosses and lichens occur. The Kilimanjaro massif forms a game reserve (720 sq.mi.) containing elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, antelope and much small game. The mountain is easily accessible from the south at Moshi, which lie's 228 mi. W. of Mombasa and 225 mi. S. of Nairobi, Kenya, by road. Climbing facilities are organized by the Mountain Club of East Africa. The ascent of Kibo, although exhausting, is without mountaineering difficulty but Mawensi demands climbing

rainfall

THE TWO PRINCIPAL VOLCANIC PEAKS OF KILIMANJARO: (LEFT) MAWENSI; (RIGHT) KIBO; (LEFT BACKGROUND) MERU, ANOTHER MOUNTAIN 44 MI.

Above

characterized by giant heather and by tree groundsels that extend to 15,700 ft. on the sheltered southwest

in.),

CAMERA PRESS

forest extends

KILIS— KILKENNY Other crops include sisal, maize (corn), beans, bananas, and European and sweet potatoes. The cattle trade and timber production are also important.

KILIS, a town of Gaziantep il (province), southern Turkey, 60 mi. N. of Aleppo, Syr., and near the Syrian border. By the Franco-Turkish convention of May 30, 1926, it was assigned to Turkey. Pop. (1960) 33,005. Kilis is connected to the main railway from Turkey to Baghdad. Iraq, by a branch line from Gaziantep and also lies on the road from Aleppo to Gaziantep and Birecik. The country around is fertile; olives, grapes and pistachios are cultivated.

cotton manufacture.

The

principal industries are silk

(N. Tu.

;

S.

Er.

;

and

E. Tu.)

KILKENNY

(Contae Chill Choinnigh), a county of the Republic of Ireland in the province of Leinster and territory of Ossory, is situated on the southeastern fringe of the central plain. It is bounded north by Leix, east by Carlow and Wexford, south by Waterford and west by Waterford and Tipperary. Pop. (1961) 61,668. Land area 796 sq.mi. The principal rivers are the Barrow, the Suir and the Nore, all with alluvial soils along their banks. The Barrow forms the boundary with Wexford and part of Carlow; the Suir forms the boundary with Waterford. The climate is mild with an average temperature of over 4.4° C. (40° F.) in January and 15.6° C. (60° F.) in July. The annual rainfall is under 40 in. Roughly two-thirds of the county is of limestone origin, covered with loam, and with some sandstone in the south. Dunmore cave, 7 mi. N. of Kilkenny city, has large stalagmite chambers and a splendid stalagmite column, the Market Cross. Reafforestation has been carried on for many years and the country is well wooded. There are several state forests. Wildlife

includes the fox, hare, rabbit, stoat, badger, hedgehog and otter,

birds and wild duck. The Nore is a salmon river. At Kiltorcan, near Ballyhale, are quarries which yielded plant fossils from sandstone of Devonian age and, associated with these, one of the earliest known fresh-water mollusks. Archanodon jukesii. In the worked-out Jarrow Channel coal seam an assemblage of amphibian fossils was found. There are many prehistoric sites, including the Iron Age fort at Freestone hill built on the site of a Bronze Age burial mound, ogham stones, incised Celtic crosses, cromlechs and souterrains. At Harristown in the south is one of the largest dolmens in Ireland, called Leac an Scail, the "flagstone of the warrior." Kilkenny means the church or cell of St. Canice, who founded his cell and church on the site of the present St. Canice's cathe-

game

The first record of the name dates to 1085 when the king of Ossory ruled the territory, but after a battle in 1169 the king of Leinster wrested all their property from the Ossorians. Dunmore is mentioned in the Annals oj the Four Masters which states that in a.d. 928 the Vikings of Dublin raided Dunmore (Derc Ferna) and 1,000 persons were killed there. In 1170 Strongbow came to Ireland and immediately married Eva, the only child of the king of Leinster. Isabel, their daughter, who married William Marshal (created earl of Pembroke) in England in 1189, came with him to Kilkenny in 1191 to enter into possession of the vast estates of Ossory. {See also Pembroke, Earls of.) Kilkenny was erected into one of the counties of Leinster in 1210 but for centuries before was a place of great importance, having in it the see of Ossory founded by St. Kieran in the 5th dral in the 6th century.

347

been incorporated into a Protestant church, and at Ballyragget, a town on the Nore, are remains of an Ormonde castle. For parliamentary purposes County Kilkenny is united with the adjoining County Carlow to form one constituency, returning five members to the ddil eireann. For local government and all administrative purposes County Kilkenny is a separate entity. Barley, wheat, oats, potatoes, peas, turnips, mangels and sugar beet are grown. Wheat and sugar beet acreages increased considerably after World War II. The southwestern end of the county is noted for apple growing. The principal breeds of cattle used for dairying and beef production are Shorthorns and Herefords and a small number of Friesians. The breeding of thoroughbred horses is carried on to a limited extent. Sheep, pigs and poultry are raised. There is salmon and trout fishing in the rivers. Linen manufacture, introduced in the 17th century, has long been extinct, but the woolen trade is moderately important. The black marble for which Kilkenny was famous is no longer worked. The brewing of ale and malting of local barley has been carried on since the 13th century. Corn milling, bacon curing, iron founding and the manufacture of boots and shoes, lingerie, factory and mill equipment, tractor trailers, tire remolds, handcraft and pottery historic

are the chief industries.

In the middle of the 16th century lead was mined in large mine about a mile from Stoneyford contained a percentage of silver. Iron ore, coal and other minerals were mined in Castlecomer between 1620 and 1740. Anthracite coal is quantities; a lead

still

worked

in the area.

The county

served by

rail and by buses. Carrigan, The History and Antiquities oj the Diocese of Ossory, 4 vol. (1905) ; Transactions of the Kilkenny Archaeological Society (1850-55), continued as Journal oj the Royal Society of Antiquaries oj Ireland (1892) J. Hogan, Kilkenny (1884). (M. E. S.) (Cill Choinnigh), a city and municipal boris

Bibliography.

—W.

;

KILKENNY

ough and the capital of County Kilkenny in the Republic of Ireland, lies on both banks of the Nore, 73 mi. S.W. of Dublin by road. Pop. (1961) 10.159. The ancient capital of the kingdom of Ossory, known as Cill Choinnigh ("the church of St. Canice"), Kilkenny in Norman times had two townships Irishtown, which had its charter from the bishops of Ossory and was governed by a portreeve, and Englishtown, which was established by William Marshal, earl of Pembroke (g.v.), and had its charters from the earls marshal; in 1609 it was raised to the status of a city. Irishtown and Englishtown were united under the Municipal act of :

1843.

The castle stands on an eminence 100 ft. over the Nore; its site had been chosen by the kings of Ossory for a palace. Strongbow occupied the castle soon after his marriage to Eva, daughter of the king of Leinster. It was burned in 1 1 75 but was rebuilt about 1 1 92 by Strongbow's son-in-law, William Marshal. In 1391 the 3rd earl of

Ormonde bought

the castle, which remained with the Butler uninhabited. Its collection of historical documents is in the National library at Dublin. There were many parliaments held in Kilkenny from 1293 to 1408. The Confederation of Kilkenny represented the native Irish and the Anglo-Norman family, though

it is

century.

Catholics and functioned as an independent Irish parliament for meeting was in May 1642. Oliver Cromwell attacked Kilkenny in 1650 and the town surrendered on honourable terms.

Of the numerous old castles, some were built by the Irish and some by the Anglo-Normans. There are five round towers, one ad-

1192 and

joining St. Canice's cathedral in the city of Kilkenny

Tullaherin, Kilree, Fertagh and Aghaviller.

and others at

Freshford has a per-

fect Hiberno-Romanesque doorway and at Knocktopher are the remains of a Carmelite priory founded in 1356. Thomastown, founded early in the 13th century by Thomas FitzAnthony, has many historic remains, and at Jerpoint are some of the finest Cistercian ruins in Ireland; the abbey was founded in 1158 by Donough MacGillapatrick, king of Ossory. Graiguenamanagh has the remains of a Cistercian abbey founded in 1204 by William Marshal, earl of Pembroke; part of it is used as a church. There are the remains of Augustinian priories at Inistioge, Callan and Kells. The ruins of the ancient Collegiate church at Gowran have

six years; the first

St.

Canice's cathedral (Church of Ireland) was begun about is believed to occupy the site of a 6th-century church

founded by St. Canice. It is of considerable size (226 ft. long") and has within its walls a chapter house and a chapel of the Blessed Virgin. In the nave and choir are sepulchral monuments of famous churchmen and noblemen. The round tower close to the south transept is over 100 ft. high. St. Canice's library has many 16thand 1 7th-century books. The bishop's residence was founded about 1360. The Roman Catholic cathedral of St. Mary (1843-57) is a cruciform building with a 200-ft.-high tower. A Dominican "Black abbey," founded by William Marshal in 1225, is still used but a Franciscan abbey, founded by Marshal in 1234 on the banks of the Nore, is in ruins. The churches of St. Mary and St. John (both Church of Ireland) date to the 13th century. The Tholsel (1761)

KILLALOE— KILLER WHALE

+8 used for corporation meetings, and

is

the Liber Primus