Encyclopaedia Britannica [13, 14 ed.]

Table of contents :
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Title
Initials of Contributors
JER
JES
JEW
JEW
JOC
JOH
JOI
JON
JOW
JUL
JUR
JUT
KAI
KAN
KAR
KAV
KEM
KEN
KHA
KIL
KIN
KIT
KNI
KNO
KOM
KRA
KUR
LAB
LAB
LAC
LAK
LAM
LAN
LAN
LAN
LAN
LAR
LAT
LAT
LAW
LAW
LEA
LEA
LEC
LEG
LEL
LEN
LEO
LER
LEV
LIB

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THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA

FOURTEENTH

EDITION

|

Ls

ON aN

Fy

THD EXE

TS

soe

pena

SoAD

Korea (in part);

of Oxford. Member of the editorial staff, London, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britan- |Lao-Tse (in part). nice. Author of The Oceanic Theory of the Origin ofthe Japanese Language and People.

A. P. W.

CoLONEL ARCHIBALD PERCIVAL WAVELL, C.M.G., M.C.

A. S.

A SAFRASTIAN.

A. Sa.

Sm James ARTHUR SALTER, K.C.B.

Late the Black Watch. General Staff Officer, War Office, London. British Military Lemberg, Battles of. Attaché on the Caucasus Front, Nov. 1916 to June 1917. General Staff Officer and Brigadier General, General Staff, with Egyptian Expeditionary Force, 1917-20.

}Kurdistan (in part).

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Bitlis, Kurdistan. Director of the Economic and Finance section of the League of Nations.

General

Secretary to the Reparations Commission, 1920-2. Secretary of the British Depart- pLeague of Nations (in järi. ment of the Supreme Economic Council, 1919. Author of Allied Shipping Control: an Experiment in International Administration. Vv

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

ALEXANDER STUART MURRAY, LL.D. Archaeologist and former Keeper of the Department of Greekand Roman Antiquities in the British Museum. Author of White Athenian Vases; Designs from Greek Vases;

Lamp (i part).

etc.

ARTHUR SYMONS. Poet and Critic. Author of Days and Nights; Studtes in Two Literatures; Charles Baudelaire; etc. See the biographical article: Symons, ARTHUR.

ALEXANDER TAYLOR INNES, M.A., LL.D. Scotch Advocate. Author of John Knox; Law of Creeds in Scotland; Studies in Scottish History; etc.

A. V. W.

A. V. Wittiamson, M.A.

A. W. M.

REv. ARTHUR WOLLASTON Hutton, M.A. Formerly Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside. Life of Cardinal Manning; etc. A. Watts Mvers, C.B.E. Lawn Tennis Editor of The Field.

A. Wo.

A. W. R.

Author of Life of Cardinal Newman;

International Captain South African Team.

Professor of Logic and Scientific Method in the University of London. Sometime Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge. Fellow of University College, London. Author of The Oldest Biography of Spinoza; Textbook of Logic. Editor of the Philosophy and Psychology section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

SIR ALEXANDER Woop RENTON, G.C.M.G., K.C., M.A., LL.B. Court, and Procureur and Advocate

General

Mauritius,

1901-5; Ceylon, 1905-15. Chief Justice, 1914. Treasurer of Gray’s Inn, 1925. Author of Law and Practice of Lunacy. Editor of Encyclopaedia of English Law; etc.

ALLYN Younec, Pu.D. Late Professor of Political Economy in the University of London.

A. Z.

ae

Tennis and Tennis (in

part).

Laughter; Law. ——

Landlord and Tenant (in part); Letters Patent.

——“~~—_

SIR ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD. Late Professor of History and English Literature in Owens College, Manchester; Vice-Chancellor of Victoria University; Master of Peterhouse, Cambridge University.

A. Yo.

-Leo XIII. (in part).

ABRAHAM Wo tr, M.A., D.LITT.

Puisne Justice Supreme

A. W. Wa.

-Knox, John.

i Karachi.

Lecturer in Geography, University of Leeds,

A. W. Hu.

Leconte de Lisle, Charles Marie René.

Jonson, Ben (ix part). Labour; Land.

rome {em

ALFRED ZIMMERN.

A. Z. R.

Deputy Director, League of Nations Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, Paris. League of Nations and Director, Geneva School of International Studies. Political Intelligence Department, Foreign Office, 1918-9. Wilson Professor of International Politics, University College Education. of Wales, 1919-21. Author of Europe in Convalescence; The Third British Empire. ALFRED Z. REED, A.M., Pu.D. Staff Member in charge of the Carnegie Study of Legal Education, Carnegie Foundation for Advancement of Teaching, New York. Author of Territorial Basts of Govern- pLawyer. ment under the State Constitutions; Training for the Public Profession of the Law; Present-Day Law Schools.

FREDERICK EDWIN SMITH, IST EARL OF BIRKENHEAD, P.C., K.C. Laws Relating to Real Secretary of State for India, 1924-8. Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain, 1919-22. Propertyand Conveyancing Author of International Law; Contemporary Personalities; etc. (in part). BENJAMIN B. Kenoricx, M.A., Pa.D. Professor of History, North Carolina College for Women, Greensboro, N. C. Author }Johnson, Andrew. of The Journal of the Jount Committee on Reconstruction, 1865-7. Basti E. ALLEN, A.R.C.A. Head of Metal Work and Enamelling Department, Kensington.

B. F.C. A. B. F. S. B-P.

Royal College of Art, South

B. F. C. ATKINSON, Px.D.

Under-Librarian, University Library, Cambridge. Major Baven F. S. BADEN-POWELL, F.R.A.S., F.R.MET:S.

/Lead in Art.

bf L;

Leleges.

Inventor of man-lifting kites. Formerly President of Aeronautical Society. Author of >Kite-Flying (i part),

B. Ma.

Ballooning as a Sport; War in Practice; etc. BRONISLAW MALINowskI, PH.D., D.Sc. Professor of Anthropology in the University of London.

B. M. P.

B. M. PICKERING, M.A. Sometime Scholar of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, and Hebrew Master at >Joel.

B. W. Ba.

C.

A.

M.

|Kinship.

Merchant Taylor’s School.

Rev. BENJAMIN WISNER Bacon, A.M., D.D., Professor of New Testament Criticism and Director of American School of Archaeology, in Research and Debate; The Founding of the CARLILE AYLMER MACARTNEY. Scholar of Trinity College,

1921-6.

Cambridge.

Lirt.D., LL.D. Exegesis in Yale University. Formerly Jerusalem. Author of The Fourth Gospel Church.

H.B.M.

Jude, Epistle of.

Acting Vice-Consul for Austria,

Passport Control Officer for Austria, 1922-5. Intelligence Officer, League of pKun, Bela (in pari).

Nations Union, 1926. Author of The Social Revolution in Austria; Survey of International Affairs for 1925, Part II (in part).

C. A. Sc.

REV. CHARLES ANDERSON Scott, M.A., D.D. Dunn Professor of the New Testament, Theological College of the Presbyterian }Jesus Christ (in part).

C. B. B.

C. BARRINGTON BrowN, M.C., M.A., A.R.S.M.

Church of England, Cambridge.

©- C. A. M.

Author of Christianity According to St. Paul; etc.

Consulting Oil Geologist. C. C. A. Monro, M.A. Assistant in the Zoological Department of the British Museum (Natural History).

iJoints. }Leech.

INITIALS C. E. CL C. El.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

vil

CHARLES E. Crarx, M.A., LL.B.

Dean of the Law School, Yale University. Author of Code Pleadings. Co- Author[Landlord and Tenant (in part). Probate Law and Practice in Connecticut. SIR STARTER NORTON POE Error, G.C.M.G., P.C., C.B., M.A. rincipal of the Universityof Hong Kong, 1912. H.M. High Commissioner, Siberia, . > 1918-9. British Ambassador to Japan, 1919-26. Author of A Finnish Grammar; Khiva (în part). Turkey in Europe; Hinduism and Buddhism; etc.

C. E.T.

Ceci Epear Trey, B.Sc., Pu.D., F.G.S.

C. F.-Br.

SIR Sete

}rabrado

Lecturer in Petrology, University of Cambridge.

ee

a TO

pene

Rectan

arrister of Lincoln’s Inn. Chief Registrar, Lan egistry, 1900-23. Served on : . a ea pare on Registration of Title in Scotland. Author of Registraizon of Land Titles (in part).

tile to

Land; etc.

CHARLES FERNAND REY.

Commander of the Star of Ethiopia. Assistant Secretary, Ministry of Labour, London. Author of Unconquered Abyssinia as It Is Today.

CHARLES GIDE.

Professor at the Collège de France. Editor of La Revue d'Economie Politique. Author

>Kaffa.

ne d

>Land Nationalization.

of Political Economy; etc.

C. Ga.

CLEMENT GATLEY, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. Of the Inner Temple and South-Eastern Circuit, Barrister-at-Law.

C. H.

CHARLES Host, F.R.G.S., F.R.C.1., F.R.S.A.

C. Ho.

Sır CHARLES HOLROYD. Painter and Etcher. First Keeper of the National Gallery of British Art (Tate Gallery); Late Director of the National Gallery.

}Legros, Alphonse (in part).

C. J. C.

C. Jonn Cotomsos, LL.D. Of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law. Territorial Waters; etc.

pLaws of War.

C. Mij.

C. MIJATOVICH. Senator of the Kingdom of Serbia. Serbian Minister to the Court of St. James, 1895- |Karajich, Vuk Stefanovich

Author of The

Law and Practice of Libel and Slander in a Civil Action; etc.

C. Mon. C. of C.

C. O. L. C. R.

CRB.

i

i }Libel and Slander.

Hon. Fellow, Jesus College, Cambridge. Formerly in Service of Rajah of Sarawak. Kayans; Member of the Supreme Court of Sarawak (1904). Member of the Sarawak State |Kenyahs; Advisory Council at Westminster (1919). Director of Agricultural and Industrial {Klemantans; Exhibits, Sarawak Pavilion, British Empire Exhibition, Wembley (1924). Author of | Labuan (in part). many books and articles.

~

Author of A Treatise on the Law of Prize;

1900, and 1902-3; Rumania, 1894; Turkey, 1900. Minister of Foreign Affairs and Finance, 1880. Author of Serbia and the Serbians. WiıLLram Cosmo MONKHOUSE. Author of The Earlier English Water-Colour Painters; The Italian Pre-Raphaelites; In the National Gallery; etc. See the biographical article: MOoNKROUSE, WILLIAM Cosmo. EpGAR ALGERNON ROBERT CECIL, 1ST VISCOUNT CECIL OF CHELWOOD, K.C., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, 1924-7. Parliamentary Under-Secretary for Foreign Affairs, 1915-6, and Assistant Secretary of State, 1918-9. Lord Privy Seal, 1923-4. Representative of Great Britain on the League of Nations Commission at the Peace Conference, 1919. Representative of South Africa at the Assembly of the League of Nations at Geneva, 1920.

C. O. LEE.

Honorary Ceci Rorty, ee Republic;

Secretary of the English Lacrosse Union. B.Litt., M.A., D.Px., F.R.Hist.S. Exhibitioner of Merton College, Oxford. etc.

(in part).

Leighton, Frederick

Leighton, Baron. ;

pLeague of Nations (in part) -

}Lacrosse (in part). Author of The Last Florentine

f pJews (in part).

CHARLES RAYMOND BEaz_LEy, M.A., D.Litt., F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S.

Professor of History, University of Birmingham; late Fellow of Merton College and University Lecturer in History and Geography, Oxford. Formerly on Council of R. G. S. and of Hakluyt and African Societies, and a Member of the House of Laymen. Member of Advisory Committee of British Labour Party for International Affairs and for Education. Member of Executive of Birmingham Labour Party.

C. S. F.

CYRIL S. FOX.

C. W. B.

Cari W. BISHOP.

C. We.

CECIL WEATHERLY. Formerly Scholar of Queen’s College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.

D. D. W.

Davip Duncan WALLACE, Pu.D., Litr.D., LL.D. Professor of History and Economics, Wofford College, Spartanburg, South Carolina. Author of Constituttonal History of South Carolina; Civil Government of South Carolina

Leif Ericsson

.

}Laterite.

Superintendent, Geological Survey, India.

a

Associate Curator of the Freer Gallery of Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington. Author of numerous articles on Chinese art.

:

Korea (in part).

EA and Chivalry (in part). Laurens, Henry.

and the United States; Life of Henry Laurens.

D. F.T.

DonatD Francis Tovey, M.A., Mus.Doc.

Reid Professor of Music in Edinburgh University.

14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Editorial Adviser, Music section,

Author of Essays on Musical Analysis, com-

prising The Classical Concerto; The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works.

Lasso, Orlando.

Vill D. Ga.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

Painter. Mabaa Member of e Faculty, PaPennsylvania Acad Academy of f FineFine Arts,Arts, Philadel iladelphia, P

Pa. Awarded numerous prizes for paintings including First Altman Prize for Land-

Grk

5

Landscape Painting (én part).

scape Painting.

D. G. H.

DAVID OE ORGE Late

Oxford.

ee

Keeper of

the

oe

Ashmolean

ee

Museum,

Fellow of the British Academy.

1889 and 1903; Ephesus, 1904-5; Assiut, 1906-7. 1897-1900.

ee ord.

OETA. Fellow

o

agdalen

College,

Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis,

Director, British School at Athens,

Lawrence, Thomas Edward

(in part).

Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899.

Davip HANNAY.

r

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal Navy,

1217-1688; Life of Don Emilio Castelar. Doris Mary STENTON, B.A.

;

pJunius (in part).

Lecturer in History in the University of Reading. Hon. Secretary and Editor of the Justiciar Pipe Rolls Society. Author of The Earliest Lincolnshire Anise Rolls; The Reign of if Henry II.; etc. CAPTAIN EDWARD ALTHAM, C.B., R.N. Secretary and Chief Executive Officer, Royal United Service Institution since 1927. Senior Naval Officer, Archangel River Expeditions, 1918-9. Secretary and Editor of pJutland, Battle of. the Journal of the Royal United Service Institution, Editor of the Naval section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

E. Br.

EDUARD BRECK, Pu.D. Formerly Foreign Correspondent of the New York Herald and the New York Times.

Ed. M.

EDWARD MEYER, D.Litt.

: . , pKite-Flying (in part).

Author of Wilderness Pets.

Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin.

Author of Geschichte des

Alterthums; etc.

E. E. K. E. E. L.

E. E. Ls.

E. F. S.

KELLETT. E. E.Author of Suggestions,

Literary Essays; The Appreciation of Literature.

ava

}Jew, The Wandering (in

pari). , Formerly Director of Eastern Propaganda. Officer in Charge Eastern Section, News| Jokjakarta; Department, Foreign Office, 1918-21. Formerly Editor of The Indian Datly Tele- -Kei Islands; graph; The Rangoon Times. The Times (London) Correspondent in Northern India. | Lampongs, The. Also on the staff of the Singapore Free Press. EDWARD EUGENE Loomis, LL.D. lLehigh Valley Railroad, President, Lehigh Valley Railroad, New York. Lieut.-COLONEL EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE, C.B.E. Kõrin, Ogata; Late Keeper of Woodwork, Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Author of Alpha- Kyösai, Sho-Fu; bets, a Handbook of Lettering; Japanese Illustrations; The Colour Prints of Japan; Lacquer (in part). Flowers and Plants for Designers and Schools;- etc. Sır Eomund Gosset, M.A., LL.D., Hon.Lirt.D. Librarian, House of Lords, 1904-14. Sometime Assistant Librarian, British Museum.

EDWARD E. Lone, C.B.E.

Clark Lecturer in English Literature, Trinity College, Cambridge, 1884-90. President

of the English Association, 1921. Author of History of Etghteenth Century Literature; Books on the Table; etc. See the biographical article: Gossz, Sir EDMUND.

E. H. N.

E. H. Norrav, B.S. Chemical Superintendent, E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Co., Fabrikoid Division,

E. J.T.

Epwarb J. Tgomas, PuE.D. Translator, Vedic Hymns. Author of The Life of Buddha as Legend and History. ErLrwoop Meran, M.S., LL.D.

The.

Kyd, Thomas (in pari). , pLeather, Artificial.

Newburgh, New York.

E. Me.

Commissioner, Bureau of Reclamation, Department of the Interior, Washington.

}Lamaism.

}Land Reclamation (in part).

Jericho; Jezreel; E. Ro.

Joppa;

EDWARD ROBERTSON, M.A. Professor of Semitic Languages, University College of North Wales.

Kerak; Killis;

Lachish; Latakia.

E. S.

EDWARD SALMON, O.B.E. Editor of United Empire, Journal of the Royal Empire Society. Staff of the Saturday Review.

E. S. R.

E.T.

F. A. M. W.

F. B.M.

Author of Life of General Wolfe; etc.

Formerly on the

Labuan (in part).

EDWARD STANLEY ROSCOE. Barrister-at-Law. Official Law Reporter in Admiralty Court, 1883; Admiralty Registrar, 1904; Registrar of Prize Court, 1914. Author of Admiralty Law and Practice. Epwarp Tutsiryt, M.A., P.D. Professor of History, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. Author of Government of Kentucky.

EDWARD VERRALL LUCAS. Writer and Chairman of Methuen and Company, Publishers. the Works and Leiters of Charles and Mary Lamb. CAPTAIN F. A. M. WEBSTER.

Laws Relating to Seamen (in part).

Kentucky.

Editor of an edition of pLamb, Charles (in part).

}Jumping. Joint-Editor of The Blue Magazine, London, and writer on athletics. Major GENERAL SiR FREDERICK Barton Maurice, K.C.M.G. ; Director of Military Operations, Imperial General Staff, 1915-8. Professor of Military Studies, London University, 1927. Author of Robert E. Lee, the Soldier; The Russo- -Lee, Robert Edward. Turkish War, 1877-8; Forty Days in 1914; The Last Four Months. Contributor to the Cambridge Modern History.

F. G. M. B. F. G. P.

IX

OF CONTRIBUTORS

NAMES

AND

INITIALS

FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BECK, M.A. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. SEER ase r eee F.R.C.S., F.S.A.

i Kent.

University of London. President, Anatomical Society of Great rofessor of Anatomy, Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on Anatomy at St. Thomas’ Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.

° : a and Ligaments (i part). :

J

jig:

FRED HORNER.

F. H. Br.

83 Consulting Engineer. Contributor to The Times Engineering Supplement; EngineerLathe. ing; Machinery. : . FRANK HERBERT Brown, C.IL.E. Lala. Member of the Staff of The Times, London. London Correspondent of The Times of Lajpat Rai, India. Formerly Editor of The Indian Daily Telegraph.

F. H. H.

FRANKLIN Henry Hooper.

F. H. Ha.

FREDERICK Henry Hatcu, Pu.D., M.Inst.C..

F. H.

,

Liberty Loans.

Assistant Editor of The Century

Editor of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

ae

tctionary.

Past President, Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. ing to the Mines Department.

Adviser on Metalliferous Min-

\yaolinite

Author of The Mineral Resources of Natal (Report to

Natal Government); The Iron and Steel Industry of the United Kingdom Under War

Conditions; The Past, Present and Future of the Gold Mining I ndustry of the Witwatersrand, Transvaal.

F. Mo.

FRANCES MORRIS.

F. P. V.

FLETCHER P. VertcH, D.Sc., M.S.

Fr. Br.

Fritz BRÜÖGEL, D.Pu.

F. R.C.

FRANK RICHARDSON Cana, F.R.G.S.

F. T.

Associate Curator, Department of Decorative Art, Metropolitan Museum New York. Vice-President of the Needle and Bobbin Club.

F. v. H.

Kautsky,Karl. }

lene

Kenya Colony; Editorial Staff, Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903-11 and 1914-5. Staff of The Times, | Lagos; London, since 1916. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union; The Liberia (in part). Great War in Europe; The Peace Settlement. F. Twyman, F.R.S. Managing Director of Adam Hilger, Ltd. Inventor of Instruments used in Chemical pLens. Writer on optical instruments, etc.

aaa

Francis T. HunTER, B.S.

Davis Cup Player. Author of Tennis Player. Baron F. von HUGEL. Member of Cambridge Philological Society. Member of Hellenic Society. The Mystical Biema of Religion; etc.

Mayor F. W. W. Gwynne.

G. A. R. C.

GETE

A. R.

aSE,

ecretary to the

Society

for

Nautical

Research

tTke inai

ha Author ohohn

Apostle);

(The

John, Gospel of St.

e

and

Eroi

e

;

Professor at the

Nava

Koyal

Battle of (in :

:

S The Battle of (în é

3

Guy Corwin Rosson, M.A.

|Lamellibranchia.

Assistant Keeper in the Department of Zoology, British Museum.

G. D. H.

G. D. Hicks. Professor of Philosophy, University College, University of London.

G. E. B.

GEORGE EARLE BUCKLE, M.A., LL.D. Editor of Letters of Queen Victoria. Author of The Life of Disraeli. article: BUCKLE,

Tennis and Tennis

}Lena Goldfields Limited.

EED

a ro

E

(in part).

A director of Lena Goldfields, Limited, London.

College, Greenwich.

G. F. K.

ee

pLace (in part).

of Art,

Director of the Research Institute of Social Problems, Vienna.

F.W. W.G.

G. C. R.

i

Principal Chemist in Charge of Industrial Farm Products Division, Bureau of Chem- Leather, Care of. istry and Soils, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington. Author of numerous articles on Soils, Fertilizers, Tanning Material, Leather Paper.

and Physical Researches.

F. T. Hu.

°

} Knowledge, Theory of. See biographical

GEORGE EARLE.

GEORGE FREDERICK Kuxz, A.M., Px.D., Samy

i

as

i

Law, Andrew Bonar.

iceistory. Natura Museum ot Hon. Curator of Precious Stones, American 1879. Author of Gems since York, New Co., & Tiffany Expert, Gem and President and Precious Stones of North America; The Curious Lore of Precious Stones.

; r Lapidary and Gem Cutting.

Formerly froLecturer on Naval History, University College, University of London. Sea, Land fessor of Fortification at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Author of and Air Strategy; Memories of a Marine. Editor of The Study of War.

re +. Latvia (in part).

oe

MAJOR-GENERAL SIR GEORGE G. ARTN o

op

l GEORGE Gorpon CovLTON, M.A., D.Litt. and Fellow of St. CathUniversity Lecturer in English, Fellow of St. John's Collegeand His England, etc. erine’s, Cambridge.

Author of Mediaeval Studtes; Chaucer

REV. GEORGE Hersert Box, M.A., Hon.D.D. Rector of Sutton, eee Hon. sae *St. ment Studies in the University of London.

Exegesis, King’s College, London, 1918-26.

en . calaoe oe Pavo estamen Hebrew an Protessor ot

G. L. S.

GEORGE L. SHIEBLER.

G. M. McB.

oe Grorce M. McBripe, Px.D. University of California at Los Angeles, California, Communities of Highland Bolivia.

De

y. Sports Editor, Bureau of Public Information, New York Universit

f Author of Agrarian Indian

; and Chivalry

; sae :

ohn the Baptist; Ts: : :

Libertines, Synagogue of the. |Lacrosse (in part). pLa Paz.

INITIALS G.R. C.

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

G. Rowrand Corrs, A.M., M.B.A. Professor of Marketing and Assistant Dean of New York University School of Com- >Jobber. merce, Accounts and Finance.

G. Ro.

ommandant ofAR the Artillery ee a

G.S. L.

GEORGE SOMES LAYARD.

A

M

T

EE

E

Headquarters at Messina. Formerly Chief of the Italian . Military Mission to Hungary for the Armistice. Commendatore of the Crown of | Kun, Bela (in part). Italy.

G.T. M.

,

ae

Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Author of Charles Keene; Shirley Brooks; etc. GILBERT T. Morcan, O.B.E., D.Sc., F.I.C., F.R.S.

Charles Samuel (in

part).

Director, Chemical Research Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, London. Formerly Mason Professor of Chemistry, University of Birming- | wetenes: ham, Professor in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry, Royal College of Science for Re ctanaa: Ireland and Professor of Applied Chemistry, Technical College, Finsbury. Author of )

Organic Compounds of Arsenic and Antimony. Contributor to Thorpe’s Dictionary of Applied Chemisiry. Editor of the Chemical section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

G. W. Ki. G. W.T.

Lactic Acid.

GEORGE WASHINGTON KrrcHwey, LL.D.

Head of Department of Criminology, New York School of Social Work. Formerly pJuvenile Offenders (in part). Warden of Sing Sing Prison, Author of Readings in the Law of Real Property, REV. GRIFFITHS WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. , Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N. S. W.

Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old >Jurjāni.

Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.

H. A. Sc.

H. Bi.

H. A. ScorTT.

Eor 25 years Music and Dramatic Critic of the Westminster Gazette, London. Staff, London, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. HENRI Brpov. Member

Honour.

H. Cl.

of the Staff of Le Journal des Débats, Paris.

RäitoriatLeitmotiv.

Joffre, Joseph Jacques

Chevalier of the Legion of

Césaire;

Lanrezac, Charles Louis.

Sir Hues Crirrorp, G.B.E., G.C.M.G., F.R.G.S. Governor of the Straits Settlements.

High Commissioner for the Malay States and

British Agent for Borneo since 1927. Governor of Ceylon, 1925-7. Author of Further

India and many other works. Joint-Author (with Sir Frank tionary of the Malay Language.

H. C.R.

H. C. RAVEN.

H. D. K.

Natural History, New York. Harry DEexter Kitson, A.M., Pa.D.

Associate Curator, Department of Comparative Anatomy,

Swettenham) ofa Déc-

American

Museum

;

Johor (in part).

of Kangaroo.

Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. Author Job Analysis, of How to Use Your Mind; Scientific Study of the College Students; The Psychology of Vocational Adjustment.

H. G. D.

H. G. Dowe.

H. Got.

HucH GOITEIN.

}

Of Gray's Inn, Barrister-at-Law.

;

Kent’s Cavern.

Hon. Secretary, Torquay Natural History Society, The Museum, Torquay.

,

Jurisprudence; Author of Primitive Ordeal and Modern Law; etc.

esermerly ney LitLiterary Editor Editor of o The e Daily Daily News,News, Ch Chicago, Lise Book Critic for Harper's Magazine. otnts.

the NewNew York and d now of f the Yor Author of The Adventures of the Fourteen

Srr Harry Hamitton Jounston, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., Sc.D., F.R.G.S. Commissioner and Consul General in British Central Africa, 1891.

Consul-General|

in the Regency of Tunis, 1897-9. Special Commissioner, Commander-in-Chief and

Governor-General for the Uganda Protectorate, 1899-1901. Author of British Central Africa; The Uganda Protectorate; The Nile Quest; Liberia; etc.

H. H. L. B.

Huc Hare Lerca BerrLor, M.A., D.C.L.

H. J. L.

HAroLD J. LASKI.

H. J. R.

HERBERT JENNINGS Rost, M.A,

Jurisprudence,

(in part).

Comparative

: Lawson, Victor Fremont.

rLiberia (in part).

'

Late Associé de l’Institut de Droit International, Honorary Secretary, International Law Association, and Grotius Society. Formerly Acting Professor of Constitutional | Justiciarus Capitalis Angliae; Law University of London and Secretary, Breaches of the Law of War Committee. {King’s Bench, Court of. acd of Commerce in War; The Pharmacy Acts; Permanent Court of Internattonal ustice.

Professor of Political Science, University of London. eretgnty; A Grammar of Politics; etc.

Professor of Greek, University of St. Andrews, Fife.

,

Author of Foundations af Sov- pLaissez-Faire. Fellow and Lecturer of Exeter

College, Oxford, a te Associate Professor of Classics, McGill University, 1911-5. , Professor of Latin, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, 1919-27. Author of -Latin Literature (in pari). The Roman Questions of Plutarch; Primitive Culture in Greece; Primitive Culture in Italy; A Handbook of Greek Mythology, and several articles in Hastings’ Encyclopaedia

of Religion and Ethics; and various periodicals.

H.

M.

C,

Hector Munro Cxapwicx, M.A., Hon.D.Lirt., F.B.A. Elrington and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon, Cambridge. College, Formerly University Lecturer in Scandinavian. Saxon Institutions; The Herote A ge.

H. M. J. L.

H. M. J. LOEWE.

Fellow of Clare Author of Studies in Anglo-

University Lecturer in Rabbinic Hebrew, Oxford University.

Jutes.

. | Jerusalem (im pari); Jd

“ part);

INITIALS H. Sa.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

H. SAKURAZAWA.

Xi

Korea, Bank of. t

London Representative of the Bank of Chosen, Japan.

HENRY SIEDEL CANBY, Litt.D., Pu.D. Editor, Saturday Review of Literature. Member of the English Department, Yate bLewis, Sinclair. University. Author of The Short Story in English. H. St. J. B. P. HARRY ST. Joun BRIDGER Purrsy, C.I.E., F.R.G.S., B.A., I.C.S.(retired).

H. S. C.

H. W. Bea.

H. W. C. D.

Explorer in Arabia. Author of The Heart of Arabia; Arabian Mandates; The Truth about Arabia. H. W. Brearces, B.S. Co-Chief, Division of Weights and Measures, Bureau of Standards, Washington. Author of A Fundamental Basis for Measurements of Length; Unilateral and Bilateral Tolerances as Applied to Interchangeable Manufacture.

Sır HENRY YULE, K.C.S.1. z : ab Do a

IsRAEL ABRAHAMS,

oan

Author of poet and the Way Thither; The Book of Ser Marco

M.A.

A ges; Judaism; etc.

IrmA A. RICHTER. Artist and Writer. Isaac Husk, A.M., P.D., LL.B. Professor of Philosophy, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.

A History of Mediaeval Jewish Philosophy; etc.

J. Bry.

J. B. Wa.

;

ra a ,ano L on- Stenhën z

Stephen.

angton,

Champion of Lawn Tennis and Tennis (im part).

Formerly Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. Author of A Short History of Jewtsh Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle

I. L. B.

f

:

Late, Director of the Dictionary of National Biography, Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford, and Regius Professor of Modern History. Fellow of All Souls,

Women’s National Tennis Champion, United States, 1923-4-5-7-8. England and France, 1928. Author of Tennis.

I. H.

Jolly Balance

HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS Davis, M.A. Oxford, 1895—1902. HELEN WILLS.

I. A. R.

pn t uwait.

K ublai. Khan;

Lhasa (in part).

.

P

,

.

Po

Leon, Moses

’

de.

Pees of Ghent; Liberale, Antonio. I Author of -Jewish Philosophy.

J

ISABELLA L. BisHop, F.R.G.S. yon of Korea and Her Neighbours; etc.

See the biographical article:

BisHop,

Korea (in pari).

SABELLA. Rt. Hon. JAMES Bryce, 1st Vrıscount Bryce, O.M., G.C.V.O., D.C.L., D.Lırrt. Statesman, Jurist and Author. Author of Holy Roman Empire; The American Com- >Justinian I. (in part). monwealth; etc. See the biographical article: BRYCE, JAMES. Joun BARKER Warre, A.B., LL.B. Professor of Law, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Author of Patent Law; i re of Sales; Cases on the Law of Patents, and articles on Criminal Law in Atlantic

Larceny

y

(in

part) part).

onthiy.

J. Car.

JACQUES CARTIER, B-Ès-L.,

CROIX DE GUERRE.

:

Chairman of Cartier, Ltd.

Jewellery (in part).

J. C. McG.

James CLarkK McGuire, JR. Engineering Assistant, Port of New York Authority, New York. and Landing Fields.

J. Ev.

Joan Evans, B.Lirr. Formerly Librarian, St. Hugh’s

J. F. S. J. G. B.

College, Oxford.

Author of Airports

: -Le Bourget Airport.

Author of English Jewellery; yJewellery. (in part).

Magical Jewels of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance; Life in Mediaeval France; etc.

J. F. Srennine, M.A., C.B., C.B.E. Warden of Wadham College, Oxford, and University Reader in Aramaic.

J. G. Butiocxe, M.A.

} sae Leviticus.

asbaer The Battle of (in

J. H.A. H. J. H. B.

Civilian Lecturer, Royal Naval College, Greenwich. part). Jonn HENRY ARTHUR Hart, M.A. I i ; i Formerly Fellow, Lecturer and Librarian of St. John’s College, Cambridge. Josephus, Flavius (in part). Josera H. BONNEVILLE, A.M. ; . Department of Banking and Finance, New York University School of Commerce, Joint Account;

J.H. D.

J. H. DRIBERG.

}

J.H.F.

Joun Henry FREESE, M.A.

\Julian (én part);

J. H. H.

J. H. Hurron, D.Sc., C.LE.

J. H. Hz.

Accounts and Finance.

Author of Elements of Business Finance.

Author of The Lango: A Nilotic Tribe of Uganda. Formerly Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge.

Kiting Cheques.

Lango.

f

Leo VI.

Khasi and Jaintia Hills (in

Director, Ethnology, Assam. Deputy Commissioner, Naga Hills. Author of The| part); Angami Nagas; The Sema Nagas, and many papers in Journal of the Royal Anthropoing; logical Institute. Kuki.

VERY REV. Josera HERMAN Hertz, Pz.D., Litt.D. Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the British Empire.

Chairman of the Administrative Board, Institute of Jewish Studies, University of Jerusalem. >Jews (in part). President of the Jews’ College, London. Author of The Jew in South Africa; A Baok on Jewish Thought; etc.

Sır James Horwoop Jeans, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. ae Secretary of the Royal Society, London. President, Royal Astronomical Society, Kinetic Theory of Matter. London. Professor of Applied Mathematics, Princeton University, 1905-0. Joun Horace Rovnp, M.A., LL.D. Late Historical Adviser to the Crown. President, Essex Archaeological Society,[night Service 1916-21. Author of Feudal England; Peerage and Pedigree.

INITIALS

Xl J. I. P.

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

J. I. Pratt, M.Sc., F.G.S.

iJura.

Lecturer in Geology, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth.

J. Ja.

Josera Jacoss, Litt.D. Professor of English Literature in the Jewish Theological Seminary, New York. Formerly President of the Jewish Historical Society of England. Corresponding Jew, The Wandering (in part). Member of the Royal Academy of History, Madrid. Author of Jews of Angevin England; Studies in Biblical Archaeology; etc. —

J. J. D.

James Jonn Davis, LL.D.

J. Le.

James LEGGE, LL.D.

J. L. W.

Chinese Scholar. Late Professor of Chinese Language and Literature, Oxford Uni- Lâo-Tse (in part). VKH versity. See the biographical article: LEGGE, JAMES. Jesse L. WEsTON, Liırrt.D. Lancelot. Author of Arthurian Romances.

J. M. de N.

J. M. DE NAVARRO, M.A.

United States Secretary of Labor, Washington.

Author of Selective Immigration.

La Téne.

Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.

J. M. La. J. Mof.

J. Pa.

Land Titles (in part);

J. M. Laxnnrs, A.B., LL.B. Professor of Legislation, Harvard Law School.

Ja

Law of Highway, The (in Nae ee part).

fesor of History in rofessor o Church urch History in U Union Theological Theological S Seminary, NewNew York. York. Former! Formerly Professor of Church History, U. F. College, Glasgow. Author of Critical I ntroduction to New Testament Literature.

JOHN PALMER. Formerly Dramatic Critic and assistant editor of The Saturday Review. Peter Paragon; The Happy Fool; etc.

J. P. E.

J. P. P.

J. R. M. J. S. F. J. S. W.

Author of Cours élémentaire d'histoire du

Sir JOHN Smite Frett, K.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S. Director, Geological Survey of Great Britain and Museum of Practical Geology. Joun STEPHEN WiLtison, LL.D., F.R.S.

J. W.

JoHN WESTLAKE, K.C., LL.D., D.C.L.

J. W. A.

J. W. ALEXANDER.

J. Wh.

J. WiL

Lettres de Cachet

:

Joun PERCIVAL Postcate, M.A., Lirr.D. Late Professor of Latin in the University of Liverpool, Fellow of Trinity College, Juvenal Decimus J. J. (in part); Cambridge and Fellow of the British Academy. Editor of the Classical Quarterly. Latin Literature (in part). Editor-in-Chief of the Corpus Poetarum Latinorum; etc. Rt. Hon. James Ramsay MacDona.p, P.C., LL.D. q Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury, 1929. Prime Minister, First nhor fabour Party, The of the Treasury and Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, Jan.—Nov. 1924. Author of Socialism and Society; Labour and the Empire; etc.

Editor of The News, Toronto. Canadian Correspondent Author of Sir Wilfrid Laurier and the Liberal Party; etc.

J. W. Cun.

° John, The Epistles of.

Author of }Lenormand, Henri-René.

JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHÉMAR ESMEIN. Late Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Late Member of the Institute of France. drott français.

Labour Law (in part). Naeem a

of The Times, London.

Laccolith; Lamprophyres. .

:

pLaurier, Sir Wilfrid.

Professor of International Law, Cambridge, 1888-1908. One of the members for : United Kingdom on-International Court of Arbitration under The Hague Convention, Landlord and Tenant (in 1900-6. Author of A Treatise on Private International Law, or the Conflict of Laws;| 27+ ). Chapters on the Principles of International Law. |

|Knots

Professor of Mathematics, Princeton University, Princeton, N. J.

Joan Wirrrram CUNLIFFE, M.A., D.Litt.

i

} Schools of (în Author of Journalism, part)

Director of the School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York. English Literature During the Last Half Century; Modern English Playwrights.

J. WHatmoucs, M.A. Professor of Comparative Philology in Harvard University. Sometime Faulkner Fellow of the University of Manchester and Research Student (Craven Award) of the University of Cambridge. Author of The Pre-Iialic Dialects of Italy: Part II. JointEditor of Liber Glossarum.

j pLatin Language.

, Jaxæs Wırrams, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. i } Relating to Seamen Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln’s Inn. Formerly All Souls Reader in Roman Law, Uni- Laws (in part) versity of Oxford, and Fellow of Lincoln College.

K. B.

KARL BALLOD.

L. A. Wa.

LAURENCE AUSTINE WADDELL, C.B., C.I.E., LL.D., M.B.

L. Cam.

Rev. Lewrs CAĮmPBELL, D.C.L., LL.D.

|Latvia (in part).

Professor of Economics, University of Riga. Lieut.-Colonel Indian Civil Service (retired),

Author of Lhasa and Its Mysteries.

Fellow and Tutor, Queen’s College, Oxford, 1855-8. Professor of Greek and Gifford Tauren University of St. Andrews, 1863-94. See biographical article: CAMPBELL, EWIS.

L. C. M.

Str LEo Cuiozza Money, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. Author and Journalist. Member of the War Trade Advisory Committee, 1915-8. Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Shipping, 1916-8. Chairman ‘of the Tonnage Priority Committee, 1917-8.

}Lhasa (tm part).

{

Editor of the Economics, Engineering and Indus-

Jowett, Benjamin (in pari).

pLever Brothers Limited.

tries section of the 14th Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. L.

D.

Louis Marre OLIvIeR DucHESNE, D-&s-L.

French Scholar and Ecclesiastic. Late Professor at the Catholic Institute in Paris, Lecturer at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes and Director of the French School

of Archaeology at Rome. See biographical article: DucaEsng, L. M. O.

Liberius (i 1) ("4 NE part).

NAMES

AND

INITIALS

xili

OF CONTRIBUTORS

L. E. H.

SIr LEONARD ERSKINE HILL., M.B., F.R.S. Director of the Department of Applied Physiology, National Institute of Medica Kata Thermometer.

L. H. D. B.

L. H. Dupiey Buxton, M.A.

Research, London.

Formerly Professor of Physiology, London Hospital.

Jews (in part);

Author of Peoples of -Kirghis;

Reader in Physical Anthropology in the University of Oxford.

Kish.

Asia.

L. J. S.

L. J. Spencer, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.S. Keeper of Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, South Kensington. | Lapis Lazuli; Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge and Harkness Scholar. Editor ( Leucite.

L. R.

Srr LEonNARD Rocers, C.I.E., M.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.

L. R. B.

Lypra Ray BALDERSTON, M.A. Instructor Household Arts, Teachers College, Columbia

of The Mineralogical Magazine.

Kala-Azar:

Member of Medical Board, India Office, London. Physician and Lecturer, London L School of Tropical Medicine. Late Professor of Pathology, Medical College, Calcutta. J +©PTOSY-

University,

New

?

Laundry Work.

York.

Author of Laundering; Housewtfery.

L. R. M.

Lioyp R. MILLER.

L. S. OM.

L. S. O’Mattey, C.LE.

L. Tr.

Lev TROTSKY.

Policyholders’ Service Bureau, Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, New York.

}Labour Turnover.

espe and Jaintia Hillis (17 part).

Author of History of Bengal; Bihar and Orissa Under British Rule.

Lenin.

Formerly Head of the Central Committee for Concessions, Union of Soviet Republics, and People’s Commissar for Foreign Affairs, and Commissar for War, Moscow.

THOMAS BABINGTON MACAULAY, IST BARON MACAULAY OF ROTHLEY.

Historian, Essayist and Politician.

Author of Lays of Ancient Rome; History of Johnson, Samuel (in part).

England; etc. See biographical article: MacavLay, T. B.

M. B.

Mırrar Burrows, B.D., Px.D. ‘Associate Professor of Biblical Literature and History of Religions, Brown Univer- >Job.

M. C.

Max Cary, M.A., D.Litt.

sity, Providence, Rhode Island.

;

i

M. C. L.

Reader in Ancient History in the University of London. Secretary to the Classical pJustin i. Association, I91I-4. M. C. Lams, F.C.S., F.R.M.S. Analytical Chemist and Consulting Expert to the Leather Trades. Member of the pLeather. Societies of Public Analysts and Leather Trades Chemists.

M. C. M.

Max Cornits MANGELS. Legal member of the department for administering the Kiel Canal.

M. G. O.

Miss M. G. OSTLE.

M. N.T.

Marcus Nriesunr Top, M.A.

}Kiel Canal.

}Kindergarten (in part).

.

Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, and Reader in Greek Epigraphy, University of Leonidas (in part). Oxford. Joint-Author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. LEON JACQUES MAXIME PRINET. Directeur d’Etudes a l'Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes. Auxiliary of the Institute Joinville (in part). of France (Academy of Moral and en Franche-Comié.

Political Sciences).

Author of L'I ndustrte du sel

Nina C. VANDEWALKER, B.S., M.PD.

Specialist in Kindergarten Education, United States Bureau of Education, Washington. Author of The Kindergarten in American Education; Bureau of Education Bulletins; An Evaluation of Kindergarten.

NoRMAN E. CRUMP.

.

Statistical Correspondent to the Financial Times, London. of the Royal Statistical Society.

Kindergarten (in part).

Member of the Council Kran.

Nıcuoras G. Gepye, 0.B.E., B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E.

Consulting Civil Engineer. Formerly Chief Engineer, Tyne Improvement Commis- | Jetty; sion, Served B. E. F. Lieut.-Colonel (late R.E.). Chief Civil Engineer for Docks, (Land Reclamation Harbours and Inland Waterways, Ministry of Transport. Otto JesPERSON, Pu.D., Hon.Litt.D., LL.D. Professor of English in the University of Copenhagen, 1893-1925. Author of Lan- pLanguage. guage, Its Nature, Development and Origin. WALTER GEORGE FRANK PHILLIMORE, 18ST BARON Purtitimore, G.B.E., P.C.,

D.C.L., LL.D. Judge of Queen’s Bench Division of High Court of Justice, 1897-1918. Appeal, 1913-7. Author of Ecclesiastical Law: International Law; etc.

P. Bo.

P. C. P. Gr.

Justice of

(in part).

Judge-Advocate of the Fleet.

Laws Relating to Real Percy BorvWELL, LL.M., Pu#.D Property and Professor of Law, State University of Iowa! Author of Law of War between BelligConveyancing (in part). . erents; etc.

PIERRE CHAMPION. Author of Procès de condamnation de Jeanne d'Arc; Vie de Charles d'Orléans. PHILIP GRAVES. pee

Foreign Editor of The Times, London.

Author of The Land of Three

iJoan of Arc. :

Lebanon (in part).

atths; etc.

P. Vi.

Sre PAvL Vinocraporr, D.C.L., LL.D.

Late Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence in the University of Oxford, and Honorary Proféssor of History in the University of Moscow. Author of Villeinage in England; English Society in the r1th Century; etc.

Jurisprudence, Comparative (in part); Law of Succession.

INITIALS

XIV

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS Kerman;

P. Z. C.

MAJOR-GENERAL SIR Percy Z. Cox, G.C.M.G., K.C.S.I., F.R.G.S.

Khurasan;

Acting British Minister to Persia, 1918-20. High Commissioner in Mesopotamia, | Khuzistan; 1920-3.

Secretary, Foreign Department,

Government of India, 1914.

Political Agent, Muscat, Arabia, 1899-1904.

Consul and { Kuchan;

Kurdistan (in part); Laristan.

rend oe te ms of rL Logic, U University of f GI Glasgow, 1895-1902. 8 Author hilosopher. Professor Author o of Th e . ; tig aia of Modern Philosophy and other Essays. See biographical article: ADAM- Kantian Philosophy. SON

Ruts DEAN.

R. De.

i

Practising Landscape Architect, New York. Author of The Livable House—lIts Garden.

R. Frrts, M.A., Px.D. Member of the Polynesian Society.

R. F.

an

R. H. Ch.

aori.

Architecture (in

part).

Author of Primitive Economics of the New Zea-

Labour, Primitive.

Rev. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., Litt.D.

Canon of Westminster. F ormerly Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Jubilees, Book of (in part); Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Professor of Biblical Greek at Trinity Judith, The Book of (in pari). College, Dublin, 1898—1906. ——_

Str HENRY Rew, K.C.B. Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 1898. Assistant Secretary, 1906-18. President, Royal Statistical Society, 1920-2. Secretary to the Ministry of Food, 1916-7. Chairman, Inter-Departmental Committee on Unemployment Insurance in Agriculture, 1925-6. Author of A Primer of Agricultural Economics; etc.

R. H. Sm.

REGINALD HEBER SuitTH, A.B., LL.D. Chairman, American

Legal Aid.

Bar Association

Author of Justice and the Poor; Growth of Legal

Aid Work in United States; The Criminal Courts of Cleveland.

R. L. Ht.

Agrarian Aspects (in part).

a aT

Member of firm of Hale and Dorr, Boston.

Committee on Legal Aid Work.

Land Tenure: Economic and

——

R. L. Harrerr, E.M. National Lead Company, New York. Author of Paint Industry Section of Representative Industries in the United States; Tin Section of Handbook on Non-Ferrous

Metallurgy.

Lead (in part). ,

——

R. L. W.

Ray Ly{man WILBUR, A.M., M.D., LL.D., Sc.D. Leland Stanford Jr Secretary of the Interior, Washington. President of Leland Stanford Jr. University,} : : f

R. McK.

RODERICK MACKENZIE, M.A.

Palo Alto, California.

University.

Fereday Fellow of St. John’s College, Oxford, and Assistant Editor of the 9th Edition

}Lettish Language.

of Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon.

R. M. F.

Miss R. M. FLEMING.

Librarian, The Geographical Association, Aberystwyth.

from Many Lands; Stories from the Early World; etc. R. Mu.

Ramsay Morr.

R. N. B.

RoseERtT NISBET BAIN. Assistant Librarian,

Kamchatka:

Author of Ancient Tales

Latvia

(i

’

atvia (in part).

Formerly Professor of Modern History in the Universities of Manchester and Liver- Liberal Party pool. Member of Parliament for Rochdale, 1923-4. Author of A Short History of the i British Commonwealth; etc.

British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia—The | Kisfaludy, ae Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, Eo a A. B. (in a Slavonic Europe—The Political History of Poland and Russta from 1460 to part). I790;

etc.

R. ‘Par.

RAYMOND PARMER, A.B., LL.B.

R. Po.

pe

eae Relating to Seamen (im part).

Of the firm of Kirlin, Woolsey, Campbell, Hickox and Keating, Lawyers, New York}

eee arter

eng Professor of

rete ares

aD

Jurisprudence an

uos ean of

Law

1 it Schoo

arvard Universit

Author of The Spirit of the Common Law; Introduction to the Philosophy of Lao. Interpretation of Legal History.

.

.

Legal Education (in part).

R. R. M.

R. R. Marert, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.I. Rector of Exeter College, Oxford. University Reader in Social Anthropology. Author} aw (Primitive).

R. S. C1.

R. S. Cray, B.A., D.Sc. Principal, Northern Polytechnic, Holloway, London, N. Fellow of the Institute of >Kaleidoscope. Physics. Author of Practical Exercises in Light; Treatise on Practical Light.

R.T. E.

RICHARD THEODORE Ety, Px#.D., LL.D. Research Professor of Economics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Il. Director, Institute for Research in Land Economics and Public Utilities. Author of Taxation z American States and Cities; Iniroduction to Political Economy; Monopolies and

of Anthropology; Psychology and Folklore.

Land Tenure: Economic

and Agrarian Aspects (in part).

rusts.

R. W. P.

RAYMOND WILLIAM POSTGATE.

14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Author of T Theory; Revolution from 1789-1906; The Builders’ History; ed. Pulte tireBattle of.

Editorial Staff, London,

pa enerts

Jesus Christ (in part); S. A.

C.

STANLEY ARTHUR CooK, M.A., Litt.D.

JT r par: Joshua,

Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac and Fellow of Gonville and Caius Colle ge, Cambridge. University Lecturer in Hebrew and Aramaic, Cambridge. Co-editor ò Fthe Combridce Ancient History. Author of Religion of Ancient Palestine; ete.

Jude = Bok a gnp P ne aE of: oe. ee

J Levites (Gn part).

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

XV

Str SIDNEY COLVIN, M.A.

S. C.

Literary and Art Critic. Late Slade Professor of Fine Art, Cambridge University. Keeper of the Department of Prints and Drawings, British Museum, 1884-1921. See the biographical article: CoLvin, SIDNEY C.

S. C. R.

SKDN

a

S. E. L.

S. E. LELAND, A.M., PE.D.

S. Ga.

STEPHEN GASELEE, C.B.E., M.A., F.S.A.

ellow of Cambridge

Roptsrs, Ma

Corpus Christi College, Cambridge. Secretary to the Syndics of the University Press. Author of The Story of Doctor Johnson; Boswell’s

Leonardo da Vinci (tn part). .

. Johnson, Samuel (in pari).

Tour tn Corsica; etc.

bLand Taxes (in part)

Associate Professor of Economics, University of Chicago.

Librarian and Keeper of the Papers at the Foreign Office since 1920. Author of Latin Literature in part). Anthology of Mediaeval Latin; Oxford Book of Mediaeval Latin Verse, and many articles on classical and oriental studies.

S. R. R.

ue R. Pose ren ttorney-at-Law.

ee

B.S.

nice

Vice-President, Albert

M.

i

Greenfield and

e

Company,

Sei

Philadelphia.

Author of The Rule-Making Authority in the English Supreme Court; The English County Courts; Commercial Arbitraiton in England.

Soray SANGER.

S. S.

T. A.

T. E. R. P.

LH

>

+

Judicial Reform (in pari).

H

, : Chief of section in the International Labour Office of the League of Nations, Geneva, 1920-4. Secretary of British section, International Association for Labour Legisla- Labour Law (in part). tion, 1906-19, and Editor of the English edition of the Bulletin of the International Labour Office (Basle). Tuomas Asusy, D.uitt., F.B.A., F.S.A., Hon.A.R.I.B.A. Formerly Director of the British School at Rome. Author of Turner's Visions of| Lavinium: Rome; The Rome Campagna in Classical Times; Roman Architecture, Revised and Leghóra ? completed for press a Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (by the late Prof. eguor, J. B. Plattner). Author of numerous archaeological articles. REv. THEODORE EVELYN REECE Purtires, M.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.MET.Soc. Secretary, Royal Astronomical Society, 1919-26; President, 1927 and 1928. Director of the Jupiter Section of the British Astronomical Association; President, 1914-6. Joint-Editor of The Splendour of the Heavens; etc.

Tuomas Hunt Morean, M.S., P.D., LL.D. Professor of Biology, California Institute of Technology.

Kabul; Author of {Kalat.

Formerly Professor of Ex-

perimental Zoology, Columbia University, New York. Author of Evolution and Adaptation; Heredity and Sex; Mechanism of Mendelian Heredity; Critique of the Theory of Evolution; etc.

T. H. Ma.

`

COLONEL SIR Tuomas HuncERrord Hotprcu, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., Hon.D.Sc. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-8. H. M. Commissioner for the PersoBaluch Boundary, 1896. President, Royal Geographical Society, 1916-8. The Indian Borderland; etc.

T. H. M.

Jupiter

Tomas H. Mawson, F.L.S.

Consultant to the firm of T. H. Mawson & Sons.

Planning Institute, England.

of the Town Formerly President

Author of The Life and Work of an English Landscape

,

pLamarckism.

.

Landscape Architecture (in part).

Architect; etc.

Jeroboam;

THEODORE H. Rosryson, M.A., D.D.

Professor of Semitic Languages, University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire.

Mayor T. J. EDWARDS.

Secretary to the Honours and Distinctions Committee,

Joseph; Josiah; Lamentations;

Levites (in part).

The War Office, London. \y ance.

Author of The Perforated Map and The Non-Commissioned Officer's Guide to Promotion in the Infantry. Rev. THomas KELLY CHEYNE, D.Lrrt., D.D.

Oriel Professor of the Interpretation of the Scripture, Oxford University, 1885-1908. Author of The Prophecies of Isaiah; etc. See biographical article: Cazyne, T. K , THEODORA KIMBALL HUBBARD, M.S.

rJonah.

Associate Editor, Landscape Architecture. Contributing Editor, City Planning. Special

Adviser of Library, School of Landscape Architecture, Harvard University. Hon. Landscape Architecture part) Librarian, American City Planning Institute. Co-Author of Introduction to Study of ° Landscape Design; Landscape Architecture Classification. Author of Manual of Information on City Planning; Annual Survey of City and Regional Planning in the United States.

T. Ki. T. S.

Tomas Kirxup, M.A., LL.D.

a (im part);

l

Lassalle, Ferdinand. Author of An Inquiry into Socialism; Primer of Socialism; etc. Txomas' SECCOMBE, M.A. Late of Balliol College, Oxford, Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck | Lever, Charles James (ix Colleges, University ofLondon. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson, etc.

r. W.

(in

Joint Author of Bookman History of English Literature, À THomAs WOODHOUSE. n of Weaving and Textile Designing Department of the Technical

College,

part).

Jute.

undee.

V. H. B.

VERNON HERBERT BLACKMAN, F.R.S., Sc.D.

V.S. J.

nology, London, Editor of the Botany section, 14th Vernon S. Jones, LL.B.

Professor of Plant Physiology and Pathology, Imperial College of Science and Tech-

Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Member of firm of Kirlin, Woolsey, Campbell, Hickox and Keating, Lawyers, New York,

Leaf ae Lig (in pari); ar

es or Lianas .

ao

to Seamen

XVI W. A. P.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

W. ALISON PHILLIPS.

Lecky Professor of Modern History, Dublin University.

Contributor to the Cam- Hing

bridge Modern History; etc.

W. B. P.

WILLIAM BELMONT PARKER, A.B. Editor of South Americans of Today.

W. B. Pal.

Mrs. WINTHROP B. PALMER. President, Junior Leagues of America, 1921-8.

W. C. B.T.

W. C. B. TUNSTALL, M.A.

W. de B. H.

W. DE Bracy HERBERT.

Jiménez de Quesada, Gonzalo; kiCasas, Bartolomé de; Leguía, Augusto B. Ea Leagues of America, The Association of. i

Civilian Lecturer, Royal Naval College, Greenwich.

W. D. L.

Barrister-at-Law.

La Hogue, Battle of (in part).

-

Recorder of Newcastle-under-Lyme.

Larceny (in part).

WILLIAM DRAPER Lewis, LL.B., PH.D.

Dean of the Law School, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

American Lawyers; etc.

W. Ds. W. E. Cx.

W. GI.

na

,

Editor of Great >Judicial Reform (in pari).

WILiramM Davis, M.A. }Lace (in part,. Professor of Textile Industries, University College, Nottingham. WARREN E. Cox. }Lamp (in part). Art Editor, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. SIR WILFRED GRENFELL, K.C.M.G., M.D., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. J.P. Colony of Newfoundland. Author of An Autobiography of a Labrador Doctor; pLabrador. Labrador Looks at the Orient; etc.

W.H.C W. H. D. W. Ho. W. J. Gr.

W. H. Coates, LL.B. Secretary of Nobel Industries, Ltd. (London). WILLIAM HENRY DinEs, F.R.S. Director of Upper Air Investigations, Meteorological Office, London. Wiiiiam Hopson, A.B., LL.B.

Legacy Duty and Succession Duty.

|Kite-Flying (in part). ak and Legitimation

Executive Director, Welfare Council of New York City, New York. WALTER J. GREENLEAF, A.M., PH.D.

Specialist in Higher Education, Department of Interior, Washington. Author of Landgrant Colleges and Universities.

W.K.L.C.

WILLIAM KEMP LOWTHER CLARKE, D.D.

W. L.

WALTER LANDELLS.

W. L. B.

WILLIAM LEWIS BLENNERHASSETT, D.S.O., O.B.E.

W.L. W.

Author of >}Joseph of Arimathaea.

|

iJobber (Stock Exchange).

London Stock Exchange.

Formerly Acting British Vice-Consul at Kovno, Lithuania. Stock Exchange. Rev. W. L. WArDLE, M.A., D.D. l

Member of the London -

Lecturer in Biblical Criticism and Exegesis of the Old Testament, Manchester University. Principal of Hartley College, Manchester.

W. O. E. O.

Rev. W. O. E. OESTERLEY, M.A.; D.D

i

Professor, Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, King’s College, London University. Author of The Books of the Apocrypha: Their Origin, Contents and Teaching, and many other works.

WILLIAM PRICE JAMES.

University College, Oxford.

Universities DIN. i

.

Editorial Secretary of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. St. Basil the Great; etc.

(in part). Land-Grant Colleges and

Barrister-at-Law.

Cardiff. Author of Romantic Professions; etc.

Lapland (in part). Lamech.

} Jubilees, Book of (in part); Judith, The Book of (in part).

EN

i

High Bailif of County Courts, pKipling, Rudyard (in part). f

WILDS PRESTON RICHARDSON.

Colonel (retired), United States Army, Washington. Author of Reports of Alaska Road p Juneau. Commission and magazine articles on development and needs of Alaska. WILLIAM PETERFIELD TRENT, LL.D., D.C.L. i : Professor of English Literature, Columbia University, New York. Author of English pLanier, Sidney. Culture in Virginia; A Brief History of American Literature.

W. R. Hopexmson, Pu.D., F.R.S.E.

Formerly Professor of Chemistry and Metallurgy, Artillery College, Woolwich, and

Principal Demonstrator in Chemistry at Royal College of Science.

Valentine Hodgkinson’s Practical Chemistry; etc.

W. Ropertson Suitu, LL.D.

:

Part-Author of Lead Azide. :

Scottish Philologist, Physicist, Archaeologist, Biblical Critic. Editor of the ọth Judges, The Book of (in Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica, See the biographical article: SMITH, WILLIAM part). yn ROBERTSON.

Witiiam Ritcure Sortry, M.A., Lirt.D., LL.D.

W. S. L.-B.

`

Knightbridge Professor of Moral Philosophy in the University of Cambridge. Fellow Leibnitz, Gottfried Wilhelm of King’s College, Cambridge. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow.o (im part). Trinity College. Author of The Interpretation of Evolution; A History of. English Philosophy; etc. easter WALTER SypNEY Lazarus-BaRtow, B.A., M.D., F.R.C.P. i oe Member of the Cancer Committee, Ministry of Health. Formerly Professor of Experimental Pathology, Middlesex Hospital Medical School, London University. Author. of A Manual of General Pathology; Elements of Pathological Anatomy an Histology. Latency in Infective Disease. JoruE; Editor of the Medicine section of the 14th Edition of the Encyclopedia ritannica, »

U——_

t

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

W. Tho.

WALLACE THompson, B.Sc., Lirr.D.

W. W. Sk.

WALTER WILLIAM SKEAT, Litt.D., LL.D., D.C.L.

W. Y.S. Y. A. Y. K.

Editor-in-Chief of Ingenieria Internacional, New York. Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. Author of The People of Mexico; Trading with Mexico; etc. Philologist. Late Elrington and Bosworth Professor of Anglo-Saxon, Cambridge University. Author of Etymological English Dictionary. See the biographical article: SKEAT, W. W.

Wrtram Younc SELLAR, LL.D. Classical Scholar. YARNALL ABBOTT. Artist, Painter.

Late Professor of Humanity in Edinburgh University.

Holder of Fellowship of Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts.

YOUNGHILL KANG, Ep.M., B.S. Instructor, Comparative Literature, New York University. Poetry at Labor Temple School, New York,

Initial used for anonymous contributors.

XVII

OF CONTRIBUTORS

5

i

pLeôn.

Layamon

(in part).

1 Juvenal (in part);

f Latin Literature (in part). Painting (in m part).

Lecturer in ChineseHorea (in part).

THE

ENCYCLOPA: DIA BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH

EDITION

VOLUME 13 JEREZ DE LA FRONTERA TO LIBERTY PARTY EREZ DE LA FRONTERA (formerly XERES), a town of southern Spain, in the province of Cadiz, near the right bank of the river Guadalete, and on the SevilleCadiz railway, about 7 m. from the Atlantic

coast. Pop. (1920), 64,861. Jerez is built in the midst of a fertile plain. It has been variously identified with the Roman MuniL cipium Seriense; with Asido, perhaps the original of the Moorish Sherish; and with Hasta Regia, a name which may survive in the designation of La Mesa de Asta, a neighbouring hill. Jerez was taken from the Moors by Ferdinand III. of Castile (1217-1252); but it was twice recaptured before Alphonso X. finally occupied it in 1264. Towards the close of the r4th century it received the title de Ja Frontera, i.e., “of the frontier,” common to several towns on the Moorish border. The most characteristic features of Jerez are the huge bodegas, or wine-fodges, for the manufacture and storage of sherry, and the

vineyards which surround it on all sides. The old English word sherris is the exact 16th century pronunciation of the name Jerez. The demand for sherry diminished very greatly during the last quarter of the rgth century, especially in England, which had been the chief consumer. Few towns of southern Spain display greater commercial activity than Jerez.

JEREZ DE LOS CABALLEROS, a town of south-western Spain, in the province of Badajoz, situated on two heights overlooking the river Ardila, a tributary of the Guadiana, 12 m. E. of the Portuguese frontier. Pop. (1920) 13,526. The town is said to have been founded by Alphonso IX. of Leon in 1229; in 1232 his son St. Ferdinand gave it to the knights templar. Hence the name Jerez de los Caballeros, “Jerez of the knights.” Vasco

Núñez de Balboa, discoverer of the Pacific, was born here. The old town is surrounded by a Moorish wall with six gates; the newer portion is well built, and planted with orange and other fruit trees.

JERICHO, an ancient town of importance in the Dead sea valley, 5 m. N. of the Dead sea. According to the account given in Joshua it was the first Canaanite city to be attacked by the Israelites. The view has recently been put forward, based on the excavations, that Jericho was destroyed in the r4th century B.C.

and that it was already a heap of ruins in the time of Joshua. Its refortification was due to Hiel, a man of Bethel (1 Ki. xvi. 34), and is depicted later as the headquarters of a prophetic school

(2 Ki. ii.). Elisha cured the poisonous waters of its spring, now known as ‘Aim es-Sultén. It was at Jericho that the Babylonians

scattered Zedekiah’s army (2 Ki. xxv.) and brought to an end the kingdom of Judah. In the New Testament Jericho comes to mind in the stories of blind Bartimeus, the publican Zacchaeus of small stature, and the good Samaritan. Bacchides and Aristobulus took it and Pompey encamped here on his way to Jerusalem. Herod and Vespasian severally caused panic amongst the inhabitants and flight at their approach. Herod made it his winter residence, built a palace, baths, theatre and a fortress, and in Jericho he died. The city changed its site several times. The mound of Tell es-Sultin, excavated by Sellin 1907-09, covers the site of the Canaanite city. The Roman, Herodian and Crusaders’ cities were on different sites. Modern.—Er-Riha, the site of the Crusaders’ city, lies 825 ft. below sea-level; pop. about 1,000 (900 Muslims). Under settled government it is now showing signs of prosperity. It possesses a Russian hospice, Greek church, Latin chapel and several hotels. Following the lead of Herod the Great, it could be made into a magnificent winter resort. It has lately become a popular weekend resort for British officials and the richer Arabs of Jerusalem. Palms, oranges, bananas, figs, etc., grow and ripen early. See C. F. Lehmann-Haupt, “Jericho,” Klio. 14 (1914) 264; C. Watzinger, “Jericho: Die Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen” (z D.M.G.) (1926), 131% seg., W. J. Phythian-Adams, “Israelite Tradition and the Date of J oshua,” Pal. Expl. Fund Quart. Stat. (1927) 34 seq. (E. Ro.)

JERITZA, MARIA, soprano, was born at Brünn, Austria.

Making her début at Olmetz in 1909, she was engaged by the Vienna Volksoper and then appeared at the Imperial Opera House, Vienna, 1912, where she sang until she went to the United States. Her American début was made at the Metropolitan Opera House in 1921 as Marietta in Die tote Stadt by Erich Korngold. There she repeated her Viennese successes. Her most notable rôles have been in La Tosca, Die tote Stadt, Tannhäuser, Fedora, Thaïs, Der Rosenkavalier and Turandot, in which last of Puccini’s operas she sang at the first New York production Nov. 16, 1926. Her autobiography, Sunshine and Music, appeared in 1924.

JERKIN, a short close-fitting jacket, made usually of leather, and without sleeves, the typical male upper garment of the r6th and 17th centuries. In architecture the term “‘jerkin-roofed” is applied to a particular form of gable end, the gable being cut off half way up the roof and sloping back like a “hipped roof” to the edge.

2

JEROBOAM—JEROME JEROBOAM is the name, in the Bible, of two kings of north-

ern Israel. rt. Son of Nebat (roth century B.c ). A corvée overseer under Solomon, who incurred the suspicion of the king as an instrument of the popular democratic and prophetic parties. He fled to Egypt, but was recalled by the northern tribes on the refusal of Rehoboam, son of Solomon, to accept the constitutional terms offered to him at his accession. To counteract the political influence of the sanctuary of the house of David at Jerusalem, he established (or perhaps, rather, especially favoured) the bullcults of Bethel and Dan, a step which the later historian regarded as responsible for all the religious failings and political disasters of the north. The inevitable war between Jeroboam and Rehoboam seems to have gone at first in favour of the South, but the power of Judah was permanently checked by an Egyptian invasion under Sheshonk, who captured a number of cities in Palestine (not including Jerusalem) and exacted an enormous tribute from Rehoboam. 2. Son of Joash (8th century B.c.). The last of the great kings

of Israel, after whose death the country fell into confusion and ultimate servitude. Aided, perhaps, by Assyrian pressure from the east, he brought to an end the long struggle between Syria and Israel, and definitely established the superiority of the latter over Damascus. The record in 1 Kings xiv. 23 states that his kingdom extended from the borders of Hamath on the Orontes to the Dead Sea, and it seems clear that he recovered territory in Transjordania, which had long been in the hands of Damascus. Two cities in that district are apparently mentioned in Am. vi. 13—Ashtoreth-Karnaim and Lodebar—as having been recently captured in 760. The reign of Jeroboam II. saw the greatest success and outward prosperity which Israel had known since the days of Solomon, though the social conditions depicted by Amos meant a national rottenness that could only end in

disaster.

JEROME,

ST.

(T. H. R.)

(Hmronymus, in full Eusrsrus SopHro-

NIus HIERONYMUS) (c. 340-420), was born at Strido (modern Strigau?), a town on the border of Dalmatia, destroyed by the Goths in A.D. 377. Jerome appears to have been born about 340; his parents were Christians, orthodox though living among people mostly Arians and wealthy. He was at first educated at’ home, Bonosus, a life-long friend, sharing his youthful studies, and was afterwards sent to Rome. Donatus taught him grammar and explained the Latin poets. Victorinus taught him rhetoric. He attended the law-courts, and listened to the Roman advocates pleading in the Forum. He went to the schools of philosophy, and heard lectures on Plato, Diogenes, Clitomachus and Carneades; the conjunction of names shows how philosophy had become a dead tradition. His Sundays were spent in the catacombs in discovering graves of the martyrs and deciphering inscriptions. Pope Liberius baptized him in 360. Jerome returned to Strido, a scholar, with a scholar’s tastes and cravings for knowledge. From Strido he went to Aquileia, where he made friends among the monks of the large monastery, notably Rufinus. From Aquileia he went to Gaul (366-370). He stayed some time at Treves studying and observing, and then

. returned to Strido, and from Strido to Aquileia: He settled down

secular mss. I deny thee,” and he made a resolve henceforth to devote his scholarship to the Holy Scripture. “David was to be henceforth his Simonides, Pindar and Alcaeus, his Flaccus, Catullus and Severus.” Fortified by these resolves he betook himself to a hermit life in the wastes of Chalcis, S.E. from Antioch (373379). Chalcis was the Thebaid of Syria. Jerome discovered and copied mss., and began to study Hebrew. There also he wrote the life of St. Paul of Thebes. Just then the Meletian schism, which arose over the relation of the orthodox to Arian bishops and to those baptized by Arians, distressed the church at Antioch (see MELETIUS OF ANTIOCH), and Jerome joined the fray. He was guided by the practice of Rome and the West; having discovered what was the Western practice, he set tongue and pen to work with his usual bitterness (Altercatio luciferiani et orthodoxt). At Antioch in 379 he was ordained presbyter. From there he went to Constantinople, where he met Gregory of Nazianzus, and with his aid tried to perfect himself in Greek. His studies resulted in the translation of the Chronicon of Eusebius, with a continuation’ of twenty-eight homilies of Origen on Jeremiah and Ezekiel, and of nine homilies of Origen on the visions of Isaiah. In 381 Meletius died, and Pope Damasus interfered in the dispute at Antioch. Jerome was called to Rome in 382, and was made secretary during the investigation. Damasus saw how his vast scholarship might be made of use to the church. Damasus suggested to him to revise the “Old Latin” translation of the Bible; and to this task he henceforth devoted his great abilities. At Rome were published the Gospels (with a dedication to Pope Damasus, an explanatory introduction, and the canons of Eusebius), the rest of the New Testament and the version of the Psalms from the Septuagint known as the Psalterium romanum, which was followed (c. 388) by the Psalterium gallicanum, based on the Hexaplar Greek text. Jerome was a zealous defender of that monastic life which was beginning to take such a large place in the church of the 4th century, and he found enthusiastic disciples among the Roman ladies. A number of widows and maidens met together in the house of Marcella to study the Scriptures with him; he taught them Hebrew, and preached the virtues of the celibate life. His arguments and exhortations may be gathered from many of his epistles and from his tract Adversus Helvidiwm, in which he defends the perpetual virginity of Mary against Helvidius, who maintained that she bore children to Joseph. His influence over these ladies alarmed their relatives and excited the suspicions of the regular priesthood and of the populace, but while Pope Damasus lived Jerome remained secure. Damasus died in 384, and was succeeded by Siricius, who did

not show much friendship for Jerome.

He found it expedient to

leave Rome, and set out for the East in 385. His letters (especially Ep. 45) are full of outcries against his enemies and of indignant protestations that he had done nothing unbecoming a Christian, that he had taken no money, nor gifts great nor small, that he had no delight in silken attire, sparkling gems or gold ornaments, that no matron moved him unless by penitence and fasting, etc. His route is given in the third book In Rufinum; he went by Rhegium and Cyprus, where he was entertained by Bishop Epiphanius, to Antioch. There he was joined by two wealthy Roman ladies, Paula, a widow, and Eustochium, her daughter,

one of Jerome’s Hebrew students. They came accompanied by a band of Roman maidens vowed to live a celibate life in a nunnery in Palestine. Accompanied by these ladies Jerome made the tour of Palestine. From Palestine Jerome and his companions went to Egypt, long tour in the East. The epistle to Rufinus (3rd in Vallarsi’s remaining some time in Alexandria, and they visited the convents enumeration) telis us that they passed Thrace, visiting Athens, of the Nitrian desert. When they returned to Palestine they all Bithynia, Galatia, Pontus, Cappadocia and Cilicia, to Antioch. settled at Bethlehem, where Paula built four monasteries, three for nuns and one for monks. She was at the head of the nunneries until At Antioch the party remained some time. Innocentius died of a fever, and Jerome was dangerously ill. her death in 404, when Eustochium succeeded her; Jerome preThis illness induced a spiritual change, and he resolved to re- sided over the fourth monastery. Here he did most of his literary nounce whatever kept him back from God. His greatest tempta- work and, throwing aside his unfinished plan of a translation tion was the study of the literature of pagan Rome. In a dream from Origen’s Hexaplar text, translated the Old Testament directly Christ: reproached him with caring more to be a Ciceronian than a from the Hebrew, with the aid of Jewish scholars. He mentions Christian. He disliked the uncouth style of the Scriptures. “O a rabbi from Lydda, a rabbi from Tiberias, and above all Rabbi Lord,” he prayed, “thou knowest that whenever I have and study 1Cf. Schoene’s critical edition (Berlin, 1866, 1875).

to literary work in Aquileia (370-373) and composed there his first original tract, De muliere septies percussa, in the form of a letter to his friend Innocentius. Some dispute caused him to leave Aquileia suddenly; and with a few companions, Innocentius, Evagtius, and Heliodorus being among them, he started for a

JEROME—JEROME OF PRAGUE Ben Anina, who came to him by night secretly for fear of the Jews. Jerome makes the synagogue responsible for the accuracy of his version: “Let him who would challenge aught in this translation,” he says, “ask the Jews.” The result of all this labour was the Latin translation of the Scriptures, which afterwards became the Vulgate or authorized version; but the Vulgate as we have it now suffered a good deal from changes made under the influence of the older translations; the text became very corrupt during the middle ages, and in particular all the Apocrypha, except Tobit and Judith, which Jerome translated from the Chaldee, were added from the older versions. (See Brste: O. T. Versions.) Earlier in life Jerome had a great admiration for Origen, and translated many of his works, and this lasted after he had settled at Bethlehem, for in 389 he translated Origen’s homilies on Luke; but he came to change his opinion and wrote violently against two admirers of the great Alexandrian scholar, John, bishop of Jerusalem, and his own former friend Rufinus. At Bethlehem also he found time to finish Didymi de spiritu sancto liber, a translation begun at Rome at the request of Pope Damasus, to denounce the revival of Gnostic heresies by Jovinianus and Vigilantius (Adv.

Jovinianum lib. II. and Contra Vigilantium liber), and to repeat his admiration of the hermit life in his Viża S. Hilarionis eremitae, in his Vita Malchi monachi captivi, in his translations of the Rule

of St. Pachomius (the Benedict of Egypt), and in his S. Pachomii et S. Theodorici epistolae et verba mystica. He also wrote at Bethlehem De viris illustribus sive de scriptoribus ecclesiasticis, a church history in biographies, ending with the life of the author; De nominibus Hebraicis, compiled from Philo and Origen; and De situ et nominibus locorum Hebraicorum.? At Bethlehem, too, he wrote Quaestiones Hebraicae on Genesis,’ and a series of commentaries on Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, the Twelve Minor Prophets, Matthew and the Epistles of St. Paul. About 394 Jerome came to know Augustine, for whom he held a high regard. He engaged in the Pelagian controversy with more than even his usual bitterness (Dialogi contra pelagianos); and his opponents forced him to flee and to remain in concealment for nearly two years. He returned to Bethlehem in 418, and after a lingering illness died on Sept. 30, 420. Jerome “is one of the few Fathers to whom the title of Saint

JEROME,

JEROME

3 KLAPKA

(1859-1927),

English

author, was born on May 2, 1859. He was educated at Marylebone Grammar School, and was by turns clerk, schoolmaster and actor, before he settled down to journalism. He made his reputation as a humorist in 1889 with Idle Thoughts of an Idle Fellow and Three Men in a Boat. He was co-editor (1892—97) of the

Idler with Robert Barr, and editor (1893-97) of To-Day. A one-act play of his, Barbara, was produced at the Globe theatre in 1886, and was followed by others, but his greatest success was scored with The Passing of the Third Floor Back (1907), with Forbes-Robertson in the principal réle. He died on June 14, 1927. See his My Life and Times (1926).

JEROME, city in the copper and gold-mining district of Yava-

pai county, Arizona, U.S.A., near the Verde river, 90 m. N. of Phoenix. It is served by the Verde Tunnel and Smelter railroad, connecting at Clarkdale (6-5 m. E.) with the Santa Fe. The population was 4,030 in 1920, and had increased to 4,932 by the year 1930. Copper production in the county in 1925, most of it from the Jerome district, amounted to 154,017,340 lbs. The city was incorporated in 1899.

JEROME

OF PRAGUE

(d. 1416), an early Bohemian

church-reformer and friend of John Hus. Jerome is stated to have belonged to a noble Bohemian family and to have been a few years younger than Hus. After beginning his studies at the University of Prague, Jerome proceeded to Oxford in 1398. There he became greatly impressed by the writings of Wycliffe, of whose Dialogus and Trialogus he made copies. He soon proceeded to the University of Paris and afterwards continued his studies at Cologne and Heidelberg, returning to Prague in 1407. In 1403 he is stated to have undertaken a journey to Jerusalem. At Paris his advocacy of the views of Wycliffe brought him into conflict with John Gerson, chancellor of the university. In Prague Jerome gave offence by exhibiting a portrait of Wycliffe in his room. Jerome became a friend of Hus, and took part in all the controversies of the university. When in 1408 a French embassy to King Wenceslaus of Bohemia proposed that the papal schism should be termi-

nated by the refusal of the temporal

authorities

further

to

recognize either of the rival popes, Wenceslaus summoned the members of the university. The re-organization of the university appears to have been given in recognition of services rendered to was also discussed, and as Wenceslaus for a time favoured the the Church rather than for eminent sanctity. He is the great Germans, Hus and Jerome, as leaders of the Bohemians, were Christian scholar of his age, rather than the profound theologian threatened with death by fire should they oppose the king’s will. or the wise guide of souls.” His great work was the Vulgate, but In 1410 Jerome went to Buda, where King Sigismund of Hunhis achievements in other fields would have sufficed to distinguish gary resided, and, though a layman, preached before the king him. His commentaries are valuable because of his knowledge of denouncing strongly the rapacity and immorality of the clergy. Greek and Hebrew, his varied interests, and his comparative free- Sigismund shortly afterwards received a letter from the archbishop dom from allegory. To him we owe the distinction between canon- of Prague accusing Jerome. He was imprisoned for a short time. ical and apocryphal writings; in the Prologus Galeatus prefixed to Appearing at Vienna, he was again brought before the ecclesiastical his version of Samuel and Kings, he says that the church reads authorities. He was accused of spreading Wycliffe’s doctrines, and the Apocrypha “for the edification of the people, not for con- his general conduct at Oxford, Paris, Cologne, Prague and Ofen firming the authority of ecclesiastical doctrines.” He was a pio- was censured. Jerome vowed that he would not leave Vienna till neer in the fields of patrology and of biblical archaeology. In he had cleared himself from the accusation of heresy. He then controversy he was too fond of mingling personal abuse with legit- secretly left Vienna, declaring that this promise had been forced imate argument, and this weakness mars his letters, which were on him. He went first to Vottau in Moravia, and then to Prague. held in high admiration in the early middle ages, and are valuable In 1412 the representatives of Pope Gregory XII. offered indulfor their history of the man and his times. gences for sale at Prague, the object being to raise money for the Editions of the complete works: Erasmus (9 vols., Basle, 1516-20) ; pope’s campaign against King Ladislaus of Naples. At a meeting Mar. Victorius, bishop of Rieti (9 vols, Rome, 1565-72); F. Calixtus and A. Tribbechovius (12 vols., Frankfort and Leipzig, 1684-90); J. Martianay (5 vols., incomplete Benedictine ed., Paris, 1693-1706) ; D. Vallarsi (x1r vols., Verona, 1734-42), the best; Migne, Patrol. Ser. Lat.

of the members of the university both Hus and Jerome spoke

strongly against the sale of indulgences. The fiery eloquence of Jerome obtained for him greater success even than that of Hus, (xxii—xxix.). The De viris illust. was edited by Herding in 1879. A particularly among the younger students. Shortly afterwards selection is given in translation by W. H. Fremantle, “Select Library of Jerome proceeded to Poland—it is said on the invitation of King Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers,” 2nd series, vol. vi. (New York, 1893). Biographies are prefixed to most of the above editions. See also lives by Ladislaus. He again met with opposition from the Roman F. Z. Collombet (Paris and Lyons, 1844); O. Zockler (Gotha, 1865) ; Church. E. L. Cutts (London, 1878); C. Martin (London, 1888); P. Largent During his stay in northern Europe Jerome received the news (Paris, 1898); F. W. Farrar, Lives of the Fathers, ii. 150-297 (Edin- that Hus had been summoned to appear before the council of burgh, 1889). Additional literature is cited in Hauck~Herzog’s RealConstance. He wrote to his friend advising him to do so and encyk. fir prot. Theol. viii. 42. adding that he would also proceed there to afford him assistance. 2Compare

the critical edition of these two

Onomastica sacra (Gotting. 1870).

3See Lagarde’s 1868).

;

works ;

in Lagarde’s

edition appended to his Genesis Graece

ss

(Leipzig,

Contrary to the advice of Hus he arrived at Constance on April 4, 1415. Advised to fly immediately to Bohemia, he succeeded in reaching Hirschau, only 25 m. from the Bohemian frontier. He was here arrested and brought back in chains to Constance, where

JERROLD—JERSEY

4-

he was examined by judges appointed by the council. His courage failed him in prison and, to regain his freedom, he renounced the doctrines of Wycliffe and Hus. He declared that Hus had been justly executed and stated in a letter addressed on Aug. 12, 1415 to Lacek, lord of Kravaf—the only literary document of Jerome that has been preserved—that “the dead man (Hus) had written many false and harmful things.” Full confidence was not placed in Jerome’s recantation. He claimed to be heard at a general meet-

ing of the council, and this was granted to him. He now again maintained all the theories which he had formerly advocated, and, after a trial that lasted only one day, he was condemned to be burnt as a heretic. The sentence was immediately carried out on May 30, 1416, and he met his death with fortitude. See all works dealing with Hus; and indeed all histories of Bohemia contain detailed accounts of the career of Jerome. The Lives of John Wiclifie, Lord Cobham, John Huss, Jerome of Prague and Zizka by William Gilpin (1765) still has a certain value.

JERROLD, DOUGLAS WILLIAM

(1803-1857), English

dramatist and man of letters, was born in London on Jan. 3, 1803. His father, Samuel Jerrold, actor, was at that time lessee of the

little theatre of Wilsby near Cranbrook in Kent, but in 1807 he removed to Sheerness. Dec. 1813 the son joined the guardship “Namur,” and served as midshipman until the peace of 1815. He saw nothing of the war save a number of wounded soldiers from Waterloo; but till his dying day there lingered traces of his early passion for the sea. The peace of 1815 ruined Samuel Jerrold; there was no more prize money. On Jan. 1, 1816, he removed with his family to London, where the ex-midshipman began the world again as a printer’s apprentice, and in 1819 became a compositor in the printing-office of the Sunday Monitor. Jerrold soon began to write for the press, and then for the stage. His first piece was a comedy More Frightened than Hurt (Sadler’s Wells, 1821), and he was presently engaged by Davidge at the Coburg theatre to produce dramas and farces at a few pounds a week. In 1829 he made a resounding success with the three-act melodrama, Black-eyed Susan (Surrey theatre). He now achieved a salary of £5 a week as dramatic writer, and was independent enough to. refuse to do adaptations. The Bride of

Ludgate (Dec. 8, 1831) was the first of a number of his plays produced at Drury Lane. The other patent houses threw their doors open to him also (the Adelphi had already done so); and in 1836 Jerrold became co-manager of the Strand theatre with W. J. Hammond, his brother-in-law. The venture was not successful, and the partnership was dissolved. While it lasted Jerrold wrote his only tragedy, The Painter of Ghent, and himself appeared in the title-réle. He continued to write sparkling comedies till 1854, the date of his last piece, The Heart of Gold. Meanwhile he was a contributor to the Monthly Magazine, Blackwood’s, the New Monthly, and the Athenaeum. To Punch, the publication which of all others is associated with his name, he contributed from its second number in 1841 till within a few days of his death. He founded and edited for some time, though with indifferent success, the Illuminated Magazine, Jerrold’s Shilling Magazine, and Douglas Jerrold’s Weekly Newspaper: and under his editorship Lloyd’s Weekly Newspaper rose from. almost nonentity to a circulation of 182,000. Douglas Jerrold died at his house, Kilburn Priory, in London, on June 8, 1857.

His eldest son, WILLIAM BLANCHARD JERROLD (1826-1884), was editor of Lloyd’s Weekly Newspaper from 1857 to 1883. During the Civil War in America he strongly supported the North, and several of his leading articles were reprinted and placarded in New York by the Federal Government. Four of his plays were successfully produced on the London stage, the popular farce

Cool as a Cucumber (Lyceum, 1851) being the best known.

Among his books are A Story of Social Distinction (1848), Life and Remains of Douglas Jerrold (1859), Up and Down in the World (1863), The Children of Lutetia (1864), Cent per Cent (1871), At Home in Paris (1871), The Best of all Good Company (1871-73), Life of Napoleon III. (1874), and The Life of George Cruikshank (1882).

JERSEY, EARLS OF.

Sir Edward Villiers (c. 1656-1711),

son of Sir Edward Villiers (1620-89), of Richmond, Surrey, was created Baron Villiers and Viscount Villiers in 1691 and earl of Jersey in 1697. His grandfather, Sir Edward Villiers (c. 15851626), master of the mint and president of Munster, was halfbrother of George Villiers, 1st duke of Buckingham, and of Christopher Villiers, rst earl of Anglesey; his sister was Elizabeth Villiers, the mistress of Wiliam III., and afterwards countess of Orkney. Villiers was knight-marshal of the royal household in succession to his father; master of the horse to Queen Mary; and lord chamberlain to William III. and Queen Anne. In 1696 he represented his country at the congress of Ryswick; he was ambassador at The Hague, and after 1697 in Paris. In 1699 he was made secretary of state for the southern department, and on three occasions he was one of the lords justices of England. After his dismissal from office by Anne in 1704 he was concerned in the Jacobite schemes. He died on Aug. 25, 1711. The 2nd earl was William (c. 1682—1721), son of the above, an adherent of the exiled house of Stuart. The 3rd earl was the

latter’s son William (d. 1769), who succeeded his kinsman John Fitzgerald (c. 1692-1766) as 6th Viscount Grandison. The 3rd earl’s son, George Bussy, the 4th earl (1735-1805), was the “prince of Maccaronies” at the Court of George III. The 4th earl’s son, George, 5th earl of Jersey (1773-1859), married Sarah Sophia (1785-1867), daughter of John Fane, roth earl of Westmorland, and granddaughter of Robert Child, the banker. She inherited her grandfather’s wealth, including his interest in Child’s bank, and with her husband took the name of Child-Villiers. Victor Albert George Child-Villiers (b. 1845) succeeded his father George Augustus (1808-59), as 7th earl of Jersey in 1859. He was governor of New South Wales in 1890-93.

The ninth earl,

grandson of the above, succeeded his father on Dec. 31, 1923.

JERSEY

(British), the largest of the Channel islands, is the

southernmost of the more important islands of the group. Its chief town, St. Helier, on the south coast (in 49° 12’ N., 2° 7” W.), being only 40 m. from St. Malo, on the north coast of Brittany. It is ro m. long and 64 m. broad; area is 45 sq.m. Pop.

(1931), 50,455.

The island is highest (nearly 500 ft.) in the north, where there is fine cliff scenery, and slopes southward, thereby raising its temperature. The east, south and west coasts consist of a succession of large open shallow bays, separated by rocky headlands.

The principal bays are Grève au Lançons, Grève de Lecq, St. John’s and Bouley bays on the north; St. Catherine’s and Grouville bays on the east; St. Clement’s, St. Aubin’s and St. Brelade’s bays on the south; and St. Ouen’s bay, the wide sweep of which occupies nearly the whole of the west coast. The sea in Among the best known of his numerous works are: Men of Character (1838), including “Job Pippin: The man who couldn’t help it,” many places has encroached on the land, but there are large acand other sketches of the same kind; Cakes and Ale (2 vols., 1842), a cumulations of drift and blown sand on the west coast. collection of short papers and whimsical stories; some more serious The surface of the country is broken by valleys, the heads of novels—The Story of a Feather (1844), The Chronicles of Clovernook which are characteristic sites for churches. The soil is generally (1846), A Man made of Money (1849), and St. Giles and St. James (1851); and various series of papers reprinted from Punch—Punch’s loam, but in the west is shallow, light and sandy. The subsoil is Letters to his Son (1843), Punch’s Complete Letter-writer (1845), and usually gravel. The average annual rainfall is 32-7 in., 4 in. less the famous Mrs. Caudie’s Curtain Lectures (1846). See W. B. Jerrold, Life and Remains of Douglas Jerrold (1859) ; and than that of Guernsey. Plants indigenous to warm climates flourW. Jerrold, Douglas Jerrold (2 vols., 1914). A collected edition of his ish in the open. The typical form of settlement is that of sepawritings appeared in 1851-54, and The Works of Douglas Jerrold, with rate farms with enclosed fields, which, on the introduction of a memoir by his son, W. B. Jerrold, in 1863-64; but neither is complete. Among the numerous selections from his tales and witticisms are two edited by his grandson, Walter Jerrold, Bons Mots of Charles Dickens and Douglas Jerrold (new ed. 1904), and The Essays of Douglas Jerrold (1903), illustrated by H. M. Brock. See also The Wit and Opinions of Douglas Jerrold (1858), ed. W. B. Jerrold.

root crops in the 17th century, superseded open fields with scattered holdings. Traces of Palaeolithic man have been found in Jersey, and there is abundant evidence of his presence in Neolithic and Aeneolithic times. Among its many megalithic monuments, La Hougue Bie is specially noted. Celtic saints have left

JERSEY CITY—JERUSALEM their mark in place names, notably in the fisher-havens of St. Brelade, St. Aubin and St. Helier. St. Aubin became the chief port of the island, but from the 17th century onwards St. Helier developed at its expense. Roman remains are scarce. In addition to important local fisheries, Jersey helped in the exploitation of the Newfoundland area, owning a fishing-bank and a fleet. Industries consequent on this activity were the knitting seys” with wool imported from England, ship-building furniture-making with tropical woods for inlaying. The of the soil, long maintained by the use of “Vraic,” or

of “‘jerand fine fertility seaweed, was further increased by the introduction of the parsnip and the turnip (17th century) which necessitated a deep plough worked by co-operative effort. This gave rise to social festivals associated with La Grande Charrue. Agricultural improvement expressed itself in the 18th century in the building of fine farm houses. The possibility of winter feeding led to improved stock-raising. The island is famous for its breed of cows; all others are excluded, and early in the roth century a public herd book was instituted. In Jersey 28% of the males are agriculturalists. Owing to climatic advantages, Jersey is able to concentrate on outdoor,

intensive cultivation, especially of potatoes followed by crops of tomatoes. Glass houses take a secondary place for the cultivation of grapes, flowers, etc. Orchards have been improved and much wall fruit is also grown, Communications with England are maintained principally from Southampton and Weymouth, and there are regular steamship services from St. Malo. The Jersey railway runs from St. Helier through St. Aubin, to Corbiére; and the Jersey Eastern railway follows the southern and eastern coasts to

Gorey. The island has a network of good roads and a motor-bus service. Jersey is under a form of government distinct from that of the bailiwick of Guernsey. (See CHANNEL IsLANnps.) There are 12 parishes, that of St. Helier being the chief town. Pop. (1921), 26,418. The population of the island nearly doubled between 1821 and 1891, but has since declined alittle. Architecture, other than domestic, is poorly represented. St. Brelade’s church, probably the oldest in the island, dating from the r2th century, shows some Norman style, St. Helier’s is 14th century work.

Amongst

very early chapels

(roth century or

earlier) are the Chapelle-és-Pécheurs at St. Brelade’s, and the chapel in the manor of Rozel. The castle of Mont Orgueil, of which there are remains, is believed to be founded upon the site of a Roman stronghold, and Grosnez Castle is said to have been built as a place of refuge, probably in the rath century.

JERSEY CITY, city, eastern New Jersey, U.S.A., on a peninsula between the Hudson river and New York bay on the east and the Hackensack river and Newark bay on the west, opposite the lower end of Manhattan island, with which it is connected by the Hudson river tunnels, the Vehicular tunnel (opened 1927), and four ferries; the county seat of Hudson county, the second

city of the State in size, and the 23rd in the United States (1930). It is served by the Baltimore and Qhio, the Central of New Jersey, the Erie, the Hudson and Manhattan, the Lehigh Valley, and the Pennsylvania railways, and for freight also by the Lackawanna and the New York Central; and by so steamship lines which have their terminals either within the city limits or near by. The population was 298,103 in 1920 and 316,715 in 1930, of whom 233,574 were native white (73-7%), 70,313 were foreign-born white (22-22%), and 12,575 negro (4.0%).

The city has an area of 20-2 sq.m. and a waterfront of 11 m. Bergen hill, a southerly prolongation of the Palisades, extends through it from north to south, rising at the north end to nearly 200 ft. Along the crest runs the fine Hudson County boulevard, 1g m. long and roo ft. wide. The eastern waterfront, and part of the western, is occupied by manufacturing and shipping, while the better residential sections are on the hill, which since the opening of the Hudson tubes in 1909 has been brought close to the financial district of New York city. A conspicuous feature of the Hudson river front is the immense electric clock, visible for many miles, on one of the Colgate-Palmolive-Peet factories. The dial is 38 ft. across, and the minute-hand (weighing nearly a third of a ton) moves 23 in, every minute. The public school

5

system includes 40 elementary, a junior high and two high schools, a training school for teachers, vocational and evening schools, a school for crippled children, and special classes for mentally defective, incorrigible, retarded and anaemic children and for children defective in sight and in hearing. Children defective in speech are under the care of a special supervisor. Physical examinations and training are provided throughout the system. There are 20 parochial and ro other private schools in the city. Jersey City has a large foreign and coastwise shipping trade, but since it is a part of the Port of New York no separate statistics are available.

Its manufacturing industries are numerous, large,

and highly diversified, producing some 5,000 different articles. Among the leading products are meat, sugar, cigars and cigarettes, locomotives and railroad supplies, soap and toilet articles and electrical apparatus. A growing industry of recent origin is the manufacture of radio apparatus and supplies. The aggregate output of the factories in 1927 was valued at $270,842,000, Bank deposits on Jan. 1, 1926, approximated $220,000,000, The assessed valuation of property for 1926 was $605,098,400. Since 1913 the city has operated under a commission form of government.

The site of Jersey City was part of the patroonship of Pavonia granted to Michiel Pauw in 1630. At that time it was a small sandy peninsula (an island at high tide) known as Powles (Paulus) Hook. Settlement began in 1633, and a small agricultural and trading community grew up. In 1764 a new post route between New York and Philadelphia passed through it, and a direct ferry

to New York was established. Early in the Revolution, Powles Hook was fortified by the Americans, but they abandoned it soon, after the battle of Long Island, and on Sept. 23, 1776, it was occupied by the British. On Aug. 19, 1779, in one of the most brilliant exploits of the war, the British garrison was taken by Maj. Henry Lee (“Light Horse Harry”). In 1804 Powles Hook (117 ac., with perhaps 15 inhabitants) was acquired by three enterprising New York lawyers, who laid it out as a town and formed a corporation for its government. The town was incorporated in 1820 as the City of Jersey, a part of the township of Bergen. In 1838 it was reincorporated as a separate municipality, and in 1855 as a city. From time to time the area was increased by annexations of territory and by filling in the tidal lands, until the present city is over 100 times the size of Powles Hook. The population, which had grown to 6,856 in 1850, was quadrupled in the following decade and tripled in the next, reaching 32,546 in 1870. It continued to increase rapidly until 1920, since when the growth has been slower.

JERSEY

SHORE,

a borough of Lycoming

county, Pa.,

U.S.A., on the Susquehanna river, 12m. W.S.W. of Williamsport, in a fertile agricultural region. It is served by the New York Central and the Pennsylvania railways. The population was 6,103 in 1920 (96% native white) and was 5,781 by the Federal census in 1930. The borough has railroad shops and other manufacturing industries. It was settled about 1780 and incorporated in 1825.

JERUSALEM is the seat of the Government of Palestine

under the mandate given to Great Britain m July 1922 and the chief town of its province. Pop. (1922), 62,678, of whom 33,971 were Jews. Letters found at Tell-el-Amarna in Egypt, written by

an early ruler of Jerusalem, show that the name existed under

the form Urusalim, i.e., “City of Salim” or “City of Peace,” in pre-Israelite days, The emperor Hadrian, when he rebuilt the city, changed the name to Aelia Capitolina. The Arabs usually

designate Jerusalem by names expressive of holiness, such as Beit el Makdis and El Mukaddis or briefly El Kuds, 2.¢., the Sanctuary.

The city stands on a rocky plateau consisting of thin beds of hard siliceous chalk (misse) which overlie a thick bed of soft white limestone (meleke). The plateau projects southwards from the main line of the Judean hills, at an average altitude of

2,s00ft. above the Mediterranean and 3,800ft. above the level of the Dead sea. On the east the valley of the Kidron separates this plateau from the ridge of the Mount of Olives, which is 10a to 200ft. higher, while the Wadi Er Rabahi bounds Jerusalem on the west and south, meeting the Valley of Kidron near the lower Pool of Siloam. Both valleys fall rapidly as they approach their

point of junction. Originally, the plateau was intersected by a

6

JERUSALEM

deep valley, called Tyropoeon by Josephus, which followed a course first south-east and then west of south, and joined the two main valleys of Kidron and Er Rababi at Siloam. Another shorter valley, taking an easterly direction, joined the Tyropoeon; while a third ravine passed across the northern part of the Haram enclosure and fell into the valley of the Kidron. The exact form of these three interior valleys, which had an important influence on the construction and history of the city, is being gradually revealed by exploration. During the summer months the heat on the plateau is tempered by a sea-breeze, and there is usually a

sharp fall of temperature at night; but in spring and autumn the oppressive east and south-east winds blow across the heated depression of the Ghor. A dry season, which lasts from May to October, is followed by a rainy season. Snow falls two years out of three. The mean annual temperature at Jerusalem is 62-8°, the maximum 112° and the minimum 25°. The mean monthly temperature is lowest (47-2°) in February and highest (76-3°) in August. The mean annual rainfall is about 26 inches, the precipitation occurring mostly from November to April. Many factors have made the traditions of holiness that have grown around this city. It became important at an early date as a fortress at the side of the trade-routes that ran from Hebron to Bethel and Shechem, or branched from the Bethel road to Jericho and across Jordan, or ran along the western side of the Dead sea. Melchisedek, the priest king of Jerusalem, held an important position among his neighbours in the story in Genesis. The city set on the Judean hills held out for a long time against the

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and military interest the city itself hag come to mean less and less, but around it memories have grown up, in men’s minds, visions of an ideal city and a perfect order of society. The Modern City.—Prior to 1858, when the modern building period commenced, Jerusalem lay wholly within its 16th century walls. At present Jerusalem without the walls covers a larger area than that within them. The growth has been chiefly towards the north and north-west; but there are large suburbs on the west, and on the south-west near the railway station on the plain of Rephaim. Since 1917 much good work has been done, particularly in the re-organization of the water supply. The ancient aqueduct leading from the springs of Birket-el--Arub, 14m. distant, to Solomon’s Pools has been cleared, and is used in part to lead the water to a large reservoir, whence it is distributed by gravity to Jerusalem. There is a second reservoir at Lifta. A town plan and civic survey have been made and several garden villages in the neighbourhood designed. A chamber of commerce has also been formed. The Government department of antiquities has the archaeological schools of the different nations under its control, with the assistance of an advisory board of representatives from the schools. Over 6,c00 specimens have been catalogued as a nucleus of a Palestine museum at Jerusalem. Roads fit for motor traffic all the year round have been made to Jaffa, Jericho, Hebron and Damascus. An Armenian patriarch was elected in 1921, with the formal approval of the British king,

and the position of the Orthodox patriarch of Jerusalem has been confirmed by a British commission. BrsLiocraPHy.—Pal. Exp. Fund Publications: Sir C. Warren, Jerusalem, Memoir (1884); Clermont-Ganneau, Archaeol. Researches (vol. i 1899) ; Bliss, Excavns. at Jerusalem (1898); Conder, Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (1898), and The City of Jerusalem (1909), an historical survey over 4,000 years; Le Strange, Pal. under the Moslems (1890); Fergusson, Temples of the Jews (1878); Hayter Lewis, Holy Places of Jerusalem (1888); Churches of Constantine at Jerusalem. (1891); Guthe, “ Ausgrabungen in Jer.” in Zeitschrift d. D. Pal. Vereins (vol. v.); Tobler, Topographie von Jerusalem (1854), Dritte Wanderung (1859) ; Sepp, Jerusalem und das heilige Land (1843), Rohricht, Regesta Regni Hierosolymitani; Bibliotheca Geographica Palaestinae (1890); De Vogiié, Le Temple de Jérusalem (1864); Sir C. W. Wilson, Golgotha and the Holy Sepulchre (1906), publications of the Pal. Pilgrims’ Text Society and of the Soc#été de POrient latim; papers in Quarterly Statements of the P. E. Fund, the Zeztschrift ‘de D. Pal. Vereins, Clermont-Ganneau’s Recueil d’archéologie orientale and

Etudes d’arch, orientale, and the Revue Biblique; Baedeker’s Hand-

book to Palestine and Syria (1906); Mommert, Die hi. Grabeskirche zu Jerusalem (1898); Golgotha und das Al. Grab zu Jerusalem (1900);

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Plans, ‘Ordnance

Survey,

revised

ed.; Ordnance

Survey

revised by

Dr. Schick in Z.D.P.V. xviii., 1895). See also Sir G. A. Smith, Jerusalem, The Topography, Economics and History from the Earliest Times to 70 AD., 2 vols.

Jerusalem, University of.—The idea of creating a university in Jerusalem was first put forward in 1882 by Dr. Schapira. After preliminary steps it was approved by the 11th Zionist Congress in 1913, and a committee of the congress purchased a site on Mt. Scopus (near the Mount of Olives) in 1914. The foundation stone was laid in 1918 by Dr. C. Weizmann, the president of the Zionist ' organization, and the university was formally opened by Earl Balfour on April r, 1925. The object of the university was twofold: to carry out research in all departments, and to teach especially in the departments of Jewish and Oriental studies, for which the university should be a world-centre. Departments of chemistry, including physical chemistry, microbiology and Jewish studies, are in existence, and there is an important agricultural research institute at Tel-Aviv in connection with the university. The library already contains over 136,000 volumes. The scientific research is especially directed with a view to the material ‘develop-

Israelites. When it-fell to David it had already a long tradition. ment of Palestine. (X.) of holiness, and the conqueror’s great concern was to build a HISTORY temple. Remains have been found of the north wall and tower of Jerusalem is the product of human effort, not of geographical the Jebusite city. To the Jews in exile it became the idealized city, and on their return it was the capital of their traditions. configuration. Her site is not specially distinguished. Some faAfter the fall of the city to the Romans its religious meaning led mous towns seem, from their beginning, to have been designed by it to become a glorious memory in the West, and later rulers nature for their ultimate purpose. Inevitably, by reason of their used this to gather enthusiasm to send out armies to capture what position, they have suggested to their earliest inhabitants the ideal was still an important focus of trade. Apart from this political capital, fortress or port destined to exercise influence and com;

JERUSALEM mand afar. Jerusalem has not attained her importance automatically. She has been assigned a situation that is typical of her subsequent history, a situation responsive to the hand of man but needing to be discovered, developed and adapted to her function in the world. Jerusalem is the meeting place of east and west; poised on the watershed between the desert and the sea she has united them. “Central, but aloof, defensible but not commanding . left alone by the main currents of the world’s history, Jerusalem had been but a small highland township, her character compounded of the rock, the olive and the desert. Sion, the Rockfort, Olivet and Gethsemane, the Oilpress, the Tower of the Flock and the wilderness of the Shepherds, would still have been names typical of her life, and the things they illustrate have remained the material substance of her history to the present day. But she

became the bride of kings and the mother of prophets” (G. A.

Smith, op. cit. inf., i., 4). While yet an insignificant hill-fort, known as Urusalim or burg of safety, she served as an outpost for the mighty Pharaoh, with whom Abdi Khiba, her king, corresponded in the cuneiform script, the highest form of polite letters of the age. For she lay close to the desert and her soldiers could traverse the wilderness of Judea in a day and soon reach the trade routes they were bound by treaty to defend. Jerusalem could control the desert but was and is influenced by it, for the desert reaches almost to her walls.

She is between the sea and

the western trade route by the maritime plain on one side and the trans-Jordanic caravan road on the other. Hence she was not naturally an entrepot; when she subsequently played her part in commerce her influence was military or political. Her water supply has always been poor and her timber scanty. Her industries were local and her main visitors were pilgrims. Jerusalem faces the east and calls the east westward. Her call has been answered in peace and war. In her 33 centuries of history she has suffered at the hands of nature and of man. She has been rocked by earthquakes and sacked by invaders. She has endured over 20 sieges and blockades, about 18 reconstructions and two periods of desolation, after Nebuchadrezzar and Hadrian, when history is silent: six times has she passed from one religion to another. Her valleys have been filled and her hills levelled, her streets and buildings destroyed and her people slain and exiled, But Jerusalem has remained. Her spirit is eternal. Early History.—The history of Jerusalem goes back to the Stone age. About 2500 B.C. Semites settled in Palestine from Arabia and numerous flint weapons have been found near Jerusalem. Abcut 1400 B.c., before Joshua’s invasion of the country, the city was a vassal of Egypt. Among the Tell-el-Amarna tablets (g.v.) there are some seven which are from Urusalim, as the city was then called, which speak of coming attack and ask for BY COURTESY OF HAROLD J. SHEPSTONE, Egyptian aid. The Egyptians F.R.G.S. seem to have maintained a garri- THE MINARET IS KNOWN AS SALson there but when the Israelites ADIN’S TOWER, AND MARKS THE invaded the country the city was SITE OF THE PATRIARCH'S PALACE in the hands of the Jebusites. At AT THE TIME OF THE CRUSADES the division, it fell in the portions of Judah and Benjamin, the tribal boundary passing through the city, which was not completely captured till seven years after David’s accession. On the eastern hill, on the site of the Jebusite Zion, he placed the royal city, and, to the north of this, he chose a place for the Temple which his son Solomon was to build. Across the Tyropoeon valley, on the western hill, was the civil town. This is the view generally accepted, but there are still scholars who contest these identifications. In 1870 the excavations of the late Sir A. Warren showed that the Tyropoeon valley passed under the south-west corner of the present Haram area. Probably the Holy of Holies

7

stood over the rock in the so-called Mosque of Omar. Solomon fortified the city with a wall, the “old wall” of Josephus. After his death Jerusalem was plundered by Shishak of Egypt and suffered a further loss of prestige by Jeroboam’s rebellion, which alienated ten tribes and left the house of David with only Judah, Penjamin and some of the Levites. In Amaziah’s reign (c. 790 : B.C.?), Joash, King of Israel, captured Jerusalem and broke down the northern wall (2 Kings xiv., 8-14), which, however, Uzziah, son of Amaziah (780—740 B.c.) repaired. When Judah became tributary to Assyria, Hezekiah improved the defences of his capital and arranged for a water supply, foreseeing the impending attack. This came in 7or but failed. In 586 Jerusalem was destroyed by Nebuchadrezzar and the fortifications were dismantled. Nehemiah’s Work.—About 445 Nehemiah rebuilt the wails, including both hills in the periBY COURTESY OF HAROLD J. SHEPSTONE, phery. His scheme provided for F.R G.5. (x) the following gates: on the VIA DOLOROSA. THE ROAD BELIEVED TO HAVE BEEN TRAVERSED east wall, the East Gate, the BY CHRIST ON HIS WAY TO CALVARY Horse Gate, the Water Gate: on the south wall, the Fountain Gate, the Dung Gate, the Valley Gate: on the west wall there were no gates; on the north wall the Gate of Ephraim, the Old Gate, the Fish Gate and the Sheep Gate; (2) the towers Hananeel and Neah; (3) the governor’s house. Hlananeel stood north-west of the Temple and later formed the basis first of the citadel of Simon Maccabaeus and afterwards of Herod’s Antonia. Nehemiah speaks of the Tomb of David, but the site cannot be identified. Twelve years after Alexander’s peaceful entry into Jerusalem in 332 B.C., Ptolemy L., of Egypt, partially demolished the fortifications, which remained in ruins until their restoration by Simon II, (219-199 B.c.). The new walls were soon overthrown. In 168 B.c. Antiochus Epiphanes destroyed them again when he captured Jerusalem and laid the Temple waste. The city now sunk to the lowest state since the Captivity. Antiochus brought in a Greek garrison and built for them a citadel, the Akra, which commanded the eastern hill and the city of David. The site of the Akra is much disputed: the position at the north-east corner of the present al-Aksa mosque suits the mutually consistent accounts in Josephus and the books of the Maccabees. The huge underground cistern which is there may well have been the garrison’s water supply. Judas Maccabaeus recaptured Jerusalem but the Akra defied him. The Jews erected walls to cut it off from the city and Temple. The Akra fell to Simon Maccabaeus who demolished it and also lowered the hill on which it stood to prevent the Temple from being dominated again. The effect of this was to join the city and the Temple. To replace the Akra he built another citadel, mentioned above. Somewhere about this time a second or outer wall was built, to the north of the first wall. Pompey besieged and took Jerusalem in 65 B.c. In 54 Crassus plundered the Temple. Hetod’s Changes.—In 37 Herod became king and having secured almost despotic power, proceeded to make such radical architectural changes that Jerusalem became a new city. Herod’s great aim was to found a dynasty and make his kingdom remarkable culturally and politically. “Twice had Israel the opportunity of becoming a great world power and on both occasions the nation deliberately rejected it” (F. J. Foakes Jackson, Biblical History of the Hebrews, Camb. 1921, p. 216); and the same author draws a striking parallel between Solomon and Herod: “both were men of exceptional ability’. . . both made the Temple of Jerusalem a wonder of the world; both had strong sympathy with foreign ideas; both cherished great schemes for the aggrandizement of the nation which were regarded in Israel as contrary to

8

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JERUSALEM—JESSEL

its true destiny.” Herod sought to achieve his ends by turning to Rome, as Solomon had turned to Tyre. At Rome, architecture was then particularly favoured. Herod had diplomatically enjoyed the favour first of Antony and then of Augustus. Augustus claimed to have “found Rome brick and left it marble” (Suet. Aug. 29: Enc, Brit. t1th ed., vol. 23, p. 585, n. 2 endorses this)

and Herod determined to do the same for Jerusalem. His chief enterprises were the following: (1) He completely rebuilt the Temple from its foundations, doubling the area of the enclosure— a great part of the Haram walls date from his day; (2) he restored the fortifications and added to their strength by constructing the great fort of Antonia, north-west of the Temple; (3) on the western hill he raised a magnificent palace, defended by three great towers, named Mariamne, Hippicus and Phasaelus: the Tower of David, by the present Jaffa gate, is on the foundations of one of these towers; (4) he erected a theatre; (5) a gymnasium. His successor Archelaus (4 B.C.—A.D. 6) lost much of Herod’s power which passed to the Procurators, under one of whom, Pilate, Jesus was crucified. The church of the Holy Sepulchre (see SEPULCHRE, Hoty) is now considered not to mark the site of his burial. Of other buildings in Jerusalem, e.g., the Xystus or stone chamber where the Sanhedrin (g.v.) met, little is known. Herod Agrippa (41-44) built a third wall, the course of which is now (1928) being recovered by the Archaeological Society of Jerusalem University. Titus and Hadrian.—The Romans would not allow the work co continue and when Titus besieged Jerusalem in 70 the wall was not complete. Titus, attacking from the north, captured successively the third and second walls, Antonia, the Temple and the upper city. It is probable that his orders for the complete destruction of the Temple and fortifications with the exception of the three towers, were not carried out. The Roman garrison which he left remained at Jerusalem until the Jewish war of Freedom under Bar Kochba in 132. Following the defeat of the Jews, Jerusalem was devastated more completely than by Titus. The site was ploughed over and a new city, Aelia Capitolina, so-called in hon-

our of (Aelius) Hadrianus, was built over the ruins. From this Jews were excluded, but Christians, who had not sided with the Jews, might enter. Temples were dedicated to Bacchus, Venus and Serapis and over the former sanctuary a shrine of Jupiter Capitolinus was reared. A boar, the symbol of the X. Legion, was placed over the southern gate. Other buildings now constructed were the Theatre, the Demosia, the Tetranymphon, the Dodecapylon and the Codra. For two centuries little is known of Jerusalem. In 326 Constantine ordered Bishop Macarius to recover the sites of the Crucifixion and the burial of Jesus: two great churches were built, one of which, the church of the Hoty Sepulchre, stood where its present namesake stands: of the Basilica of the Cross no trace remains. In 460 the empress Eudocia repaired the walls and extended them so as to include Siloam, building also churches; of these one, above the Siloam pool, was recovered by F. J. Bliss, another over the reputed tomb of Stephen, north of the Damascus gate, was discovered in 1874. Justinian’s basilica, with adjacent hospitals for the sick and for pilgrims, built in the 6th century, is described by Procopius: this building probably occupied the so-called “Tomb of David.” In 614 Chosroes II., of Persia, captured Jerusalem and damaged many buildings, including the church of the Sepulchre. Heraclius defeated Chosroes and re-entered Jerusalem in 629. In 637 Omar ousted the Romans but was careful not to harm the city. He built a wooden mosque which the Caliph Abdul Malik rebuilt in 688: this mosque is el-Aksa. Abdul Malik also constructed the Dome of the Rock (Kubbet es-Sahra or Mosque of Omar). In 1099 the Crusaders, under Godfrey of Bouilon, entered Jerusalem and a terrible carnage ensued. Jerusalem became the capital of the Latin kingdom (see CrusapErs) until Saladin reconquered it in 1187 and repaired the walls. Soon after 1167 Benjamin of Tudela visited Jerusalem and left a description of the city in his Itinerary. Excepting from 1229—39 and 1243—44 Jerusalem remained in Muslim hands until its capture (1918) by Allenby. In 1517 Selim I. of Turkey took Jerusalem from the Egyptians: the present configuration of the walls is due to him. As a result of

the World War Jerusalem is the capital of Palestine, a mandated territory of the British empire. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—(1) The various articles, main and subsidiary (and bibliographies) in the Jewish Encyclopedia and Hastings D.N.B.; and in Jewish Year Book published annually by Jewish Chronicle, London (p. 316 foll. in 1928 issue); (2) G. A. Smith, Jerusalem (1907) (specially recommended); (3) S. Merrill, Ancient Jerusalem (1908); (4) Baedeker’s and Murray’s Guidebooks; (5) C. N. Whittingham, Home of Fadeless Splendour (1921) ; (6) Publications and transactions of:—-The Palestine Exploration Fund; Pro-Jerusalem Society; British, German, Hebrew and American Archaeological Institutes in Jerusalem;

Conferences de Saint-Etienne (of Jerusalem), Paris (Gabalda and Co.).

The Oxford Press is producing a large series of plates illustrative of Jerusalem art (architecture, crafts, etc.). (H. M. J. L)

JERUSALEM,

SYNOD

OF (1672). By far the most im-

portant of the many synods held at Jerusalem (see Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexikon, 2nd ed., vi. 1357 sqq.) is that of 1672; and its confession is the most vital statement of faith made in the Greek Church during the past thousand years. It refutes article by article the confession of Cyril Lucaris, which appeared in Latin at Geneva in 1629, and in Greek, with the addition of four “questions,” in 1633. Lucaris, who died in 1638 as patriarch of Constantinople, had corresponded with Western scholars and had imbibed Calvinistic views. The great opposition which arose during his lifetime continued after his death. Against Calvinism the synod of 1672 aimed its rejection of unconditional predestination and of justification by faith alone, also its advocacy of what are substantially the Roman doctrines of transubstantiation and of purgatory; against the Church of Rome, however, it renamed the rejection of the jilioque, affirming once more that the Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father only. The 18 canons of the synod are also known as the “Confession of Dositheus” (the President). BIBLioGRAPHY.—The Doctrine of the Russian by R. W. Blackmore (Aberdeen, 1845), p. Welte, Kirchenlexikon (2nd ed.), vi. 1359 seq.; cyklopädie (3rd ed.), viii. 703-705; Robertson,

Church .. . translated xxv. sqg.; Wetzer and Herzog-Hauck, RealenActs and Decrees of the

Synod of Jerusalem, 1899; Schaff, Creeds of Christendom, vol. ii. (good text). JESPERSEN, JENS OTTO HARRY (1860), Danish philologist, was born at Randers, Denmark, on July 16, 1860.

In 1893 he was appointed professor at the University of Copenhagen. From 1g09~10 he lectured at Columbia university, New York. A practical philologist, Jespersen’s view of the develop-

ment of language was influenced by Herbert Spencer and Wilhelm Ostwald.

His most important works are Progress in Language

(1894); Phonetics (1897-99); Growth and Structure of the English Language (1905, Prix Volney, 1906); Lehrbuch der Phonetik (1913); Language, its Nature, Development and Origin (1922); Philosophy of Grammar (1924). JESSE, in the Bible, the father of David (q.v.), and as such often regarded as the first in the genealogy of Jesus Christ. (Cf. Isa. x1. 1, 10.) Hence the design representing the descent of Jesus from the royal line of David, which was formerly a favourite ecclesiastical ornament, is called a “tree of Jesse.” From a recumbent figure of Jesse springs a tree bearing in its branches the chief figures in the line of descent, and terminating in the figure of Jesus, or of the Virgin and Child. There are remains of such a tree in the church of St. Mary at Abergavenny, carved in wood, and supposed to have once stood behind the high altar. Jesse candelabra were also made. At Laon and Amiens there are sculptured Jesses over the central west doorways of the cathedrals.

The design was chiefly used in windows. The great east window at Wells and the window at the west end of the nave at Chartres are fine examples.

JESSEL, SIR GEORGE

(1824-1883), English judge, was

born in London on Feb. 13, 1824. He was the son of Zadok Aaron Jessel, a Jewish coral merchant. George Jessel was educated at a school for Jews at Kew, and at University College, London. He entered as a student at Lincoln’s Inn in 1842 and was called to the bar in 1847. He secured a tolerably large practice quickly, but Lord Chancellor Westbury delayed his career by preventing him from becoming Q.C. till 1865. Jessel entered parliament as Liberal member for Dover in 1868, and although neither his intellect nor his oratory was of a class likely to commend itself to his

fellow-members, he attracted Gladstone’s attention by two learned

JESSORE—JESUS, SOCIETY OF speeches on the Bankruptcy Bill which was before the house in 1869, with the result that in 1871 he was appointed solicitorgeneral. His reputation at this time stood high in the chancery courts; on the common law side he was unknown, and on the first occasion upon which he came into the court of Queen’s bench to move on behalf of the Crown, there was very nearly a collision between him and the bench. In 1873 Jessel succeeded Lord Romilly as master of the rolls. From 1873 to 1881 Jessel sat as a judge of first instance in the rolls court, being also a member of the court of appeal. In November 1874 the first Judicature Act came into effect, and in 1881 the Judicature Act of that year made the master of the rolls the ordinary president of the first court of appeal, relieving him of his duties as a judge of first instance. In the court of appeal Jessel presided almost to the day of his death. He sat for the last time on March 16, 1883, and died on March 21. As a judge of first instance Jessel was a revelation to those accustomed to the proverbial slowness of the chancery courts and of the master of the rolls who preceded him. He disposed of the business before him with rapidity combined with correctness of judgment, and he not only had no arrears himself, but was frequently able to help other judges to clear their lists. His knowledge of law and equity was wide and accurate, and his memory for cases and command of the principles laid down in them extraordinary. In the rolls court he never reserved a judgment, not even in the Epping forest case (Commissioners of Sewers v. Glasse, L.R. 19 Eq.; The Times, 11th November 1874), in which the evidence and arguments lasted 22 days (150 witnesses being examined in court, while the documents went back to the days of King John), and in the court of appeal he did so only twice, and then in deference to the wishes of his colleagues. Never during the r9th century was the business of any court performed so rapidly, punctually, and satisfactorily as it was when Jessel presided. Jessel was master of the rolls at a momentous period of legal history. The Judicature Acts, completing the fusion of law and equity, were passed while he was judge of first instance, and were still new to the courts when he died. His knowledge and power of assimilating knowledge of all subjects, his mastery of every branch of law with which he had to concern himself, as well as of equity, together with his willingness to give effect to the new system, caused it to be said when he died that the success of the Judicature Acts would have been impossible without him. His faults as a judge lay in his disposition to be intolerant of those who endeavoured to persist in argument after he had made up his mind; but though he was peremptory with the most eminent counsel, young men had no cause to complain of his treatment of them. Jessel’s career marks an epoch on the bench, owing to the active part taken by him in rendering the Judicature Acts effective, and also because he was the last judge capable of sitting in the House of Commons, a privilege of which he did not avail himself. He was the first Jew who, as solicitor-general, took a share in the executive government of his country, the first Jew who was sworn a regular member of the privy council, and the first Jew who took a seat on the judicial bench of Great Britain; he was also, for many years after being called to the bar, so situated that any one might have driven him from it, because, being a Jew, he was not qualified to be a member of the bar. | a~ 1904

Times, March 23, 1883; E. Manson, Builders of our Law

9

population suffers from fever and other diseases and is declining.

The staple crop is rice. The principal industry is the manufacture of sugar from date palms.

JESTER, a provider of “jests” or amusements, a buffoon,

especially a professional fool at a royal court or in a nobleman’s

household.

(See Foot.)

JESUATI, a religious order founded by Giovanni Colombini

of Siena in 1360. Colombini had been a prosperous merchant and a senator in his native city, but, coming under ecstatic religious influences, abandoned secular affairs and his wife and daughter (after making provision for them), and with a friend of like temperament, Francesco Miani, gave himself to a life of apostolic poverty, penitential discipline, hospital service and public preaching. When Urban V. returned from Avignon to Rome in 1367, Colombini craved his sanction for the new order and a distinctive habit. Before this was granted he had to clear the movement of a suspicion that it was connected with the heretical sect of Fraticelli, and he died on July 31, 1367, soon after the papal approval had been given. The guidance of the

new order, whose members (all lay brothers) gave themselves entirely to works of mercy, devolved upon Miani. Paul V. in 1606 arranged for a small proportion of clerical members, and later in the 17th century the Jesuati became so secularized that the order was dissolved by Clement IX. in 1668. See T. Kennedy, art. “John Columbine, Blessed” in the Catholic Encyclopaedia; Max Heimbucher, Orden u. Kongregationen, II. 240.

JESUITS, the name commonly given to the members of the Society of Jesus.

(See Jesus, Society oF.)

JESUS, SOCIETY

OF, a religious order in the Roman

Catholic Church, founded in 1539. This Society may be defined, in its original conception and avowed object, as a body of highly trained religious men, bound by the three personal vows of poverty, chastity and obedience, together with, in some cases, a special vow to the pope’s service, with the object of labouring for the spiritual good of themselves and their neighbours. They are governed and live by constitutions and rules, mostly drawn up by their founder, St. Ignatius of Loyola, and approved by the popes. Their proper title is “Clerks Regulars of the Society of Jesus,” the word Societas being taken as synonymous with the original Spanish term, Compania, which implies a band of spiritual soldiers living under martial law and discipline. CONSTITUTION AND CHARACTER

The formation of the Society of Jesus was a masterpiece of genius on the part of a man (see LovYoLa, ST. IGNATIUS OF) who was quick to realize the necessity of the moment. Just before Ignatius Loyola was experiencing the call to conversion, Luther had begun his revolt against the Roman Church by burning the papal bull of excommunication on the roth of December 1520. Ignatius conceived the church to be in a state of war, and there slowly took shape in his mind the idea of an order not bound by the obligations of the cloister, and based on the principle of military discipline with a “general” in an almost uncontrolled position of authority. The soldier-mind of Ignatius can be seen throughout the constitutions. Even in the spiritual labours which the Society shares with the other orders, its own ways of dealing with persons and things result from the system of training which succeeds in form-

ing men to a type that is considered desirable. Ignatius knew that while a high ideal was necessary for every society, his followers dency of Bengal. The town is on the Bhairab river, and it has were flesh and blood, not machines; but he made it clear from the first that the Society was everything and the individual nothing, a railway station. Pop, (1921), 10,139. The District oF JESSORE has an area of 2,904 sq.m. Pop. except so far as he might prove a useful instrument for carrying (1921), 1,722,219. The district, lying in the central portion of the out the Society’s objects. He laid great stress on the importance Gangetic delta, is an alluvial plain intersected by rivers and water- of firmness of character and ability for business, for he was of courses, which in the south spread out into large marshes. Within opinion that those who were not fit for public business were not the last century the rivers in the interior of Jessore have ceased adapted for filling offices in the Society; but even exceptional to be true deltaic rivers. Some rivers, such as the Madhumati, qualities and endowments in a candidate were valuable in his eyes still have active currents, but others have degenerated, except in only on the condition of their being brought into play, or held in the rains, into chains of long, almost stagnant pools. The rivers abeyance, strictly at the command of a superior. Hence his teachin the south are however affected by the tides. Owing to the ing on obedience. His letter on this subject, addressed to the changes due to its moribund rivers and obstructed drainage the Jesuits of Coimbra in 1553, is still one of the standard formularies

JESSORE, a town and district of British India, in the Presi-

JESUS, SOCIETY OF

IO

of the Society, ranking with those other products of his pen, the Spiritual Exercises and the Constitutions. In this letter Ignatius lays down that the general is to be obeyed simply as such and as standing in the place of God, without reference to his personal wisdom, piety or discretion; that any obedience which falls short of making the superior’s will one’s own, in inward affection as well as in outward effect, is lax and imperfect; that going beyond the letter of command, even in things abstractly good and praiseworthy, is disobedience, and that the “sacrifice of the intellect” is the third and highest grade of obedience, well pleasing to God, when the inferior not only wills what the superior wills, but thinks what he thinks, submitting his judgment, so far as it is possible for the will to influence and lead the judgment. When the Letter on Obedience became known beyond the Society the teaching met with great opposition, and

all the skill and learning of Bel-

larmine was required as its apolo-

g

fim

-

gist, together with the whole influence of the Society, to avert what seemed to be a probable BY COURTESY OF C. W. HACKETT condemnation at Rome. The CHURCH AT THE OLD JESUIT MONteaching of the Letter must be ASTERY OF TEPOTZOTLAN, NEAR understood not in the sense of a MEXICO CITY, BUILT IN THE 16TH legal code but as an expression of CENTURY the vital spirit of the Society. Ignatius himself lays down the rule that an inferior is bound to make all necessary representations to his superior so as to guide him in imposing a precept of obedience. When a superior knows the views of his inferior and still commands, it is because he is aware of other sides of the question which appear of greater importance than those that the inferior has brought forward. The Jesuits had to find their principal work in the world and in direct and immediate contact with mankind. To seek spiritual perfection in a retired life of contemplation and prayer did not seem to Ignatius to be the best way of reforming the evils which had brought about the revolt from Rome. He withdrew his followers from this sort of retirement, except as a mere temporary preparation for later activity; he made habitual intercourse with the world a prime duty; and to this end he rigidly suppressed all such external peculiarities of dress or rule as tended to put obstacles in the way of his followers acting freely as emissaries, agents or missionaries in the most various places and circumstances. The Jesuit has no home: the whole world is his parish. Mobility and cosmopolitanism are of the very essence of the Society. MACHINERY OF GOVERNMENT Next we must consider the machinery by which the Society is constituted and governed so as to make its spirit a living energy and not a mere abstract theory. An applicant for the novitiate has first to undergo a strict retreat, practically in solitary confinement, during which he receives from a director the Spiritual Exercises and makes a general confession of his whole life; after which the first novitiate of two years’ duration begins. In this period of trial the real character of the man is discerned, his weak points are noted and his will is tested. Prayer and the practices of asceticism, as means to an end, are the chief occupations of the novice. He may leave or be dismissed at any time during the two years; but at the end of the period if he is approved and destined for the priesthood, he is advanced to the grade of scholastic and takes the threefold vow of poverty, chastity and obedience, promising to “‘understand all things according to the constitutions of the society.” The scholastic then follows the ordinary course of an undergraduate at a university. After passing five years in arts he has, while still keeping up his own studies, to devote five or six years more to teaching the junior classes in various Jesuit schools or colleges. The scholastic does not begin

the study of theology until he is twenty-eight or thirty, and then passes through a four or six years’ course. Only when he is thirty-four or thirty-six can he be ordained a priest and enter on the grade of a spiritual coadjutor. A lay brother, before he can become a temporal coadjutor for the discharge of domestic duties, must pass ten years before he is admitted to vows. Sometimes after ordination the priest, in the midst of his work, is again called away to a third year’s novitiate, called the tertianship, as a preparation for his solemn profession of the three vows. His former vows were simple and the Society was at liberty to dismiss him for any canonical reason. The formula of the final Jesuit vow is as follows:— “I, N., promise to Almighty God, before His Virgin Mother and the whole heavenly host, and to all standing by; and to thee, Reverend Father General of the Society of Jesus, holding the place of God, and to thy successors (or to thee, Reverend Father M. in place of the General of the Society of Jesus and his successors holding the place of God), Perpetual Poverty, Chastity and Obedience; and according to it a peculiar care in the education of boys according to the form of life contained in the Apostolic Letters of the Society of Jesus and in its Constitution.” In connection with these vows the Jesuit makes certain solemn promises, as that he will not accept or consent to his election to any dignity or prelacy outside the Society unless forced thereunto by obedience; and that if elected to a bishopric he will never refuse to hear such advice as the general may deign to send him and will follow it if he judges it is better than his own opinion. The highest class of members, who constitute the real core of the Society, whence all its chief officers are taken, are the professed of the four vows. The vows of this grade are the same as the last formula, with the addition of the following important clause: “Moreover I promise the special obedience to the Sovereign Pontiff concerning missions, as is contained in the same Apostolic Letter and Constitutions.” There is some evidence in France in the time of Louis XV. of the existence of a still higher grade of members, secretly enrolled and acting as the emissaries of the Society in various lay positions. The Jesuits themselves deny the existence of any such body, and are able to adduce the negative disproof that no provision for it is to be found in their constitutions. On the other hand there are clauses therein which make the creation of such a class perfectly feasible if thought expedient. An admitted instance is the case of Francisco Borgia, who in 1548, while still duke of Gandia, was received into the Society. The general lives permanently at Rome and holds in his hands the right to appoint, not only to the office of provincial over each of the head districts into which the Society is mapped, but to the offices of each house in particular. There is no standard of electoral right in the Society except in the election of the general himself. By a minute and frequent system of official and private

reports he is informed of the doings and progress of every member of the Society and of everything that concerns it throughout the world. Every Jesuit has not only the right but the duty in certain cases of communicating, directly and privately, with his general. While the general thus controls everything, he himself is not exempt from supervision on the part of the Society. A consultative council is imposed upon him by the general congregation, consisting of the assistants of the various nations, a socius, or adviser, to warn him of mistakes, and a confessor. These he cannot remove nor select; and he is bound, in certain circumstances, to listen to their advice, although he is not obliged to follow it. Once elected the general may not refuse the office, nor abdicate, nor accept any dignity or office outside of the Society; on the other hand, for certain definite reasons, he may be suspended or even deposed by the authority of the Society, which can thus preserve itself from destruction. No such instance has occurred, although steps were once taken in this direction in the case of a general who had set himself against the current feeling. Moreover the general is not independent of the pope. The influence of the society as a whole has always been for obedience to the pope, who authorized, protected and privileged them, and on whom they ultimately depend for their existence. .

JESUS, SOCIETY OF Thus constituted, with a skilful union of strictness and freedom, of complex organization with a minimum of friction in working, the Society was admirably devised for its purpose of introducing a new power into the Church and the world. Its immediate services to the Church were great. The Society did much, single-handed, to roll back the tide of Protestant advance when half of Europe, which had not already shaken off its allegiance to the papacy, was threatening to do so. They had the wisdom to see and to admit, in their correspondence with their superiors, that the real cause of the Protestant reformation was the ignorance, neglect and vicious lives of so many priests. They recognized, as most earnest men did, that the difficulty was in the higher places, and that these could best be touched by indirect methods. At a time when primary or even secondary education had in most places become a mere effete and pedantic adherence to obsolete methods, they were bold enough to innovate, both in system and material. They not merely taught and catechized in a new, fresh and attractive manner, besides establishing free schools of good quality, but provided new school books for their pupils which were an enormous advance on those they found in use; so that for nearly three centuries the Jesuits were accounted the best schoolmasters in Europe, as they confessedly were in France until their forcible suppression in r901. Bacon succinctly gives his opinion of the Jesuit teaching in these words: “As for the pedagogical part, the shortest rule would be, Consult the schools of the Jesuits; for nothing better has been put in practice” (De Augmentis, vi. 4). Again, when most of the continental clergy had sunk, more or less, into the moral and intellectual slough which is pictured for us in the writings of Erasmus and

the Epistolae obscurorum virorum (see HUTTEN, ULRICH VON), the Jesuits won back respect for the clerical calling by their personal culture and the unimpeachable purity of their lives. These qualities they have carefully maintained; and probably no large body of men in the world has kept up, on the whole, an equally high average of intelligence and conduct. As preachers, too, they delivered the pulpit from the bondage of an effete scholasticism and reached at once a clearness and simplicity of treatment such as the English pulpit scarcely begins to exhibit till after the days of Tillotson. It is in the mission field, however, that their achievements have been most remarkable. Whether toiling among the teeming millions in Hindustan and China, labouring amongst the Hurons and Iroquois of North America, governing and civilizing the natives of Brazil and Paraguay in the missions and “reductions,” or ministering, at the hourly risk of his life to his fellow-Catholics in’ England under Elizabeth and the Stuarts, the Jesuit appears alike devoted, indefatigable, cheerful and worthy of hearty admiration and respect. ROMAN

CATHOLIC

OPPOSITION

Nevertheless, the most remarkable fact in the Society’s history is the suspicion and hostility it has incurred within the household of the Roman Catholic faith. The first cause of the opposition redounds to the Jesuits’ credit, for it was largely due to the

kind of success which they achieved. Their churches, sumptuous and attractive, were crowded; and in the confessional their advice was eagerly sought in all kinds of difficulties. Full of enthusiasm and zeal, devoted wholly to their Society, they were able to bring in numbers of rich and influential persons to their ranks; for, with a clear understanding of the power of wealth, they became, of set purpose, the apostles of the rich and influential. The Jesuits felt that they were the new men, the men of the time; so with a perfect confidence in themselves they went out to set the Church to rights. It was no wonder that success, so well worked for and so well deserved, failed to win the approval or sympathy of those who found themselves supplanted. But, besides this, the esprit de corps which is necessary for every body of men was, it was held, carried to an excess and made the Jesuits intolerant of any one or anything if not of “ours.” The Society, or rather its members, were too aggressive and selfassertive to be welcomed; and a certain characteristic, which soon began to manifest itself in an impatience of episcopal con.trol, showed that the quality of “Jesuitry,” usually associated

II

with the Society, was singularly lacking in their dealings with opponents. Their political attitude also alienated many. Many of the Jesuits could not separate religion from politics. To say this is only to assert that they were not clearer-minded than most men of their age. But unfortunately they had their share, direct or indirect, in the embroiling of states, in concocting conspiracies and in kindling wars. They played with edged tools and often got wounded through their own carelessness. Among the grievances they raised by their perpetual meddling in politics were their share in fanning the flames of political hatred against the Huguenots under the last two Valois kings; their perpetual plotting against England in the reign of Elizabeth; their share in the Thirty Years’ War and in the religious miseries of Bohemia; their decisive influence in causing the revocation of the edict of Nantes and the expulsion of the Protestants from France; the ruin of the Stuart cause under James II., and the establishment of the Protestant succession. In a number of cases where the evidence against them is defective, it is at least an unfortunate coincidence that there is always direct proof of some Jesuit having been in communication with the actual agents engaged. All activities of a distinctively political character are forbidden by the constitutions of the Society; but though politicians were comparatively few in number, they held high rank; and their disobedience to the rule besmirched the name of the Society and destroyed the good work of the other Jesuits who were faithfully carrying out their own proper duties. A far graver cause for uneasiness was given by the Jesuits’

activity in the region of doctrine and morals. Their founder himself was arrested, more than once, by the Inquisition and required to give account of his belief and conduct. But St. Ignatius, with all his powerful gifts of intellect, was entirely practical and ethical in his range, and had no turn whatever for speculation, nor desire to discuss, much less to question, any of the received dogmas of the Church. He was acquitted on every occasion; but his followers were not so fortunate. The controversies raised by their doctrine of grace (see Molina) were so serious as to call for adjudication by a special commission, the only result of which was the imposition of silence on the disputants. The accusations against the Jesuit system of moral theology and their action as guides of conduct have had a more serious effect on their reputation. The Society was trying to make itself all things to all men. Propositions extracted from Jesuit moral theologians have again and again been condemned by the pope and declared untenable. Many of these can be found in

Viva’s Condemned Propositions.

In addition to these papal cen-

sures, a number of individual ecclesiastics of eminence and influence raised their voices against them from time to time, such as Melchor Cano, one of the ablest Dominicans of the 16th century, and Carlo Borromeo, to whose original advocacy they owed much, especially at the Council of Trent. Later on a formidable assault was made on Jesuit moral theology in the famous Provincial Letters of Blaise Pascal (g.v.), eighteen in number, issued under the pen-name of Louis de Montalte, from January 1656 to March 1657. Their wit, irony, eloquence’and finished style have kept them alive as one of the great French classics—a destiny more fortunate than that of the kindred works by Antoine Arnauld, Théologie morale des Jésuites, consisting of extracts from writings of members of the Society, and Morale pratique des Jésuites, made up of narratives professing to set forth the manner in which they carried out their own maxims. But, like most controversial writers, the authors were not scrupulous in their quotations, and by giving passages divorced from their contexts often entirely misrepresented their opponents. The immediate reply on the part of the Jesuits, The Discourses of Cleander and Eudoxus by Pére Daniel, could not compete with Pascal’s work in brilliancy, wit or style; moreover, it was unfortunate enough to be put upon the Index of prohibited books in 1701. The essential points in the Society’s reply to Pascal’s charges of lax morality were that several of the cases cited by him are mere abstract hypotheses, many of them now obsolete, argued simply as intellectual exercises, but having no practical bearing whatever; that even such as do belong to the sphere: of actual life are of the

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JESUS, SOCIETY OF

patient of those who think or write in a way different from what is current in its ranks. Nor is this all. The Ratio Studiorum, devised by Acquaviva and still obligatory in the colleges of the Society, lays down rules which are incompatible with all breadth and progress in the higher forms of education. True to the antifree from personal, as distinguished from corporate, evil repute; speculative and traditional side of the founder’s mind, it prescribes that, even where religious topics are not in question, the and no one pretends that the large number of lay-folk whom they have educated or influenced exhibit greater moral in- teacher is not to permit any novel opinions or discussions to be mooted; nor to cite or allow others to cite the opinions of an feriority than others. A charge persistently made against the Society is that it author not of known repute; nor to teach or suffer to be taught teaches that the end justifies the means. And the words of anything contrary to the prevalent opinions of acknowledged Busembaum, whose Medulla theologiae has gone through more doctors current in the schools. Another cause of weakness is the lesson, too faithfully learnt than fifty editions, are quoted in proof. True it is that Busembaum uses these words: Cui licitus est finis etiam licent media. and practised, of making its corporate interests the first object at But on turning to his work (ed. Paris 1729, p. 584, or Lib. vi. all times and in all places. Men were quick to see that Jesuits Tract vi. cap. ii., De sacramentis, dubium ii.) it will be found that did not aim at co-operation with the other members of the the author is making nọ universal application of an old legal Church but directly or indirectly at mastery. The most brilliant maxim; but is treating of a particular subject (concerning certain exception to this rule is found in some of the missions of the lawful liberties in the marital relation) beyond which his words Society and notably in that of St. Francis Xavier (g.v.). But he cannot be forced. The sense in which other Jesuit theologians quitted Europe in 1541 before the new Society, especially under —e.g,, Paul Laymann (1575-1635), in his Theologia moralis Laynez, had hardened into its final mould; and he never returned. (Munich, 1625), and Ludwig Wagemann (1713-1792), in his It would almost seem that careful selection was made of the men Synopsis theologiae moralis (Innsbruck, 1762)—quote the axiom of the greatest piety and enthusiasm, whose unworldliness made is an equally harmless piece of common sense; the proviso is them less apt for diplomatic intrigues, to break new ground in always to be understood, that the means employed should, in the various missions where their success would throw lustre on themselves, not be bad but good or at least indifferent. Again, the Society and their scruples need never come into play. But the doctrine of probabilism is utterly misunderstood. It is based such men are not to be found easily; and, as they died off, the on an accurate conception of law. Law to bind must be clear and tendency was to fill their places with more ordinary characters, definite; if it be not so, its obligation ceases and liberty of action whose aim was to increase the power and resources of the body. remains. No probable opinion can stand against a clear and The individual Jesuit might be, and often was, a hero, saint and definite law; but when a law is doubtful in its application, in cer- martyr, but the system which he was obliged to administer was tain ‘circumstances, so is the obligation of obedience in the foredoomed to failure; and the suppression which came in 1773 specified case. In moral matters a probable opinion, that is one was the natural result of forces and elements they had set in held on no trivial grounds but by unprejudiced and solid thinkers, antagonism without the power of controlling. The influence of the Society since its restoration in 1814 has has no place where the law of conscience is clear and distinct. not been marked with greater success than in its previous history. WEAKNESSES OF THE SOCIETY In Europe they confine themselves mainly to educational and The weakness of the Society is due to its lack of really great ecclesiastical politics, although both Germany and France refuse, intellects. The Society, numbering as it does so many thousands, on political grounds, to allow them to be in these countries. It and with abundant means of devoting men to special branches would appear as though some of the Jesuits had not, even yet, of study, has, without doubt, produced men of great intelligence learnt the lesson that meddling with politics has always been and solid learning. The average member, too, on account of his their ruin. The main cause of any difficulty that may exist to-day long and systematic training, is always equal and often superior with the Society is that the Jesuits are true to the teaching of to the average member of any other equally large body, besides that remarkable panegyric, the Zmago primi saeculi Societatis (probably written by Jobn Tollenarius in 1640}, by identifying being disciplined by a far more perfect drill. But it takes great men to carry out great plans; and of really great men, as the the Church with their own body, and being intolerant of all who will not share this view. Their power is still large in certain outside world knows and judges, the Society has been markedly barren. Apart from its founder and his early companion, St. sections of the ecclesiastical world, but in secular affairs it is small. Francis Xavier, there is none who stands in the very first rank. HISTORY Francisco Suarez was an able theologian; the French Louis BourThe separate article on St, Ignatius of Loyola tells of his early daloue (g.v.), the Italian Paolo Segneri (1624-1694), and the Portuguese Antonio Vieyra (1608-1697) represent their best years, his conversion and his first gathering of companions. It was not until November 1537, when all hope of going to the Holy pulpit orators; while of the many mathematicians and astronomers produced by the Society Angelo Secchi, Ruggiero Giuseppe Land was given up, that any outward steps were taken to form these companions into an organized body. It was on the eve of Boscovich and G. B. Beccaria are conspicuous, and in modern times Stephen Joseph Perry (1833-1889), director of the Stony- their going to Rome, for the second time, that the fathers met hurst College observatory, took a high rank among men of science. Ignatius at Vicenza and it was determined to adopt a common Their boldest and most original thinker, Denis Petau, so many rule and, at the suggestion of Ignatius, the name of the Company years neglected, has the merit of having’ inspired Cardinal New- of Jesus. Whatever may have been his private hopes and intentions, it was not until he, Laynez and Faber (Pierre Lefevre), in man’s Essay on the Development of Christian Doctrine. The Jesuits have produced no Aquinas, no Anselm, no Bacon, no the name of their companions, were sent to lay their services at Richelieu. Men whom they trained, and who broke loose from the feet of the pope (Paul ITI.) that the history of the Society their teaching, Pascal, Descartes, Voltaire, have powerfully af- really begins. Various obstacles cleared away, Paul ITI., on the 27th of Sepfected the philosophical and religious beliefs of great masses of mankind; but respectable mediocrity is the brand on the long tember, 1540, issued his bull Regimini militantis ecclesiae, by list of Jesuit names in the catalogues of Alegambe and De which he confirmed the new Society (the term “order” does not Backer. This is doubtless due in great measure to the training belong to it), but limited the members to sixty, a restriction which destroys individual initiative. In accordance with the which was removed by the same pope in the bull Injunctum nobis spirit of its founder, who wished to secure uniformity in the of the r4th of March, 1543. In the former bull, the pope gives the judgment of his followers even in points left open by the Church text of the formula submitted by Ignatius as the scheme of the (“Let us all think the same way, let ns all speak in the same proposed society, and in it we get the founder’s own ideas: manner if possible”), the Society has shown itself to be im- “, .. This Society, instituted to this special end, namely, to

nature of counsel tọ spiritual physicians, how to deal with exceptional maladies; and were never intended to fix the standard of moral obligation for the general public; and that the theory of their being intended as general precepts is refuted by the admitted fact that the Jesuits themselves have been singularly

JESUS, SOCIETY OF offer spiritual consolation for the advancement of souls in life and Christian doctrine, for the propagation of the faith by public preaching and the ministry of the word of God, spiritual exercises and works of charity and, especially, by the instruction of children and ignorant people in Christianity, and by the spiritual consolation of the faithful in Christ in hearing confessions. . . .” In this original scheme it is clearly marked out “that this entire Society and all its members fight for God under the faithful obedience of the most sacred lord, the pope, and the other Roman pontiffs his successors”; and Ignatius makes particular mention that each member should “be bound by a special vow,” beyond that formal obligation under which all Christians are of obeying the pope, “so that whatsoever the present and other Roman pontiffs for the time being shall ordain, pertaining to the advancement of souls and the propagation of the faith, to whatever provinces he shall resolve to send us, we are straightway bound to obey, as far as in us lies, without any tergiversation or excuse, whether he send us among the Turks or to any other unbelievers in being, even to those parts called India, or to any heretics or schismatics or likewise to any believers.” Obedience to the general is enjoined “in all things pertaining to the institute of the Society ... and in him they shall acknowledge Christ as though present, and as far as is becoming shall venerate him”; poverty is enjoined, and this rule affects not only the individual but the common sustentation or care of the Society, except that in the case of colleges revenues are allowed “to be applied to the wants and necessities of the students’; and the private recitation of the Office is distinctly mentioned. On the other hand, the perpetuity of the general’s office during his life was no part of the original scheme. On the 7th of April, 1541, Ignatius was unanimously chosen general, and the newly constituted Society took its formal corporate vows in the basilica of San Paolo. Scarcely was the Society launched when its members dispersed in various directions to their new tasks, while Ignatius busied himself in Rome with good works, and in drawing up the constitutions and completing the Spiritual Exercises. Success crowned these first efforts; and the Society began to win golden opinions. The first college was founded at Coimbra in 1542 by John ITI. of Portugal, and a second at Goa. The Collegio Romano was founded in r550. Both from the original scheme and from the foundation at Coimbra it is clear that the original idea of the colleges was to provide for the education of future Jesuits. In Spain, national pride in the founder aided the Society’s cause almost as much as royal patronage did in Portugal; and the third house was opened in Gandia under the protection of its duke, Francisco Borgia, a grandson of Alexander VI. In Rome, Paul IIL’s favour did not lessen. He bestowed on them the church of St. Andrea and conferred at the same time the valuable privilege of making and altering their own statutes; besides the other points, in 1546, which Ignatius had still more at heart, as touching the very essence of his institute, namely, exemption from ecclesiastical offices and dignities and from the task of acting as directors and confessors to convents of women. The former of these measures effectually stopped any drain of the best members away from the Society and limited their hopes within its bounds, by putting them more freely at the general’s disposal, especially as it was provided that the final vows could not be annulled, nor could a professed member be dismissed, save by the joint action of the general and the pope. The founder, against the wishes of several of his companions, laid much stress on the duty of accepting the post of confessor to kings, queens and women of high rank when opportunity presented itself. After the death of the first general (1556) there was an interregnum of two years, with Laynez as vicar. During this long period he occupied himself with completing the constitutions by incorporating certain declarations, said to be Ignatian, which explained and sometimes completely altered the meaning of the original text. Laynez was an astute politician and saw the vast capabilities of the Society over a far wider field than the founder contemplated; and he prepared to give it the direction that it has since followed. In some senses, this learned and consummately

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clever man may be looked upon as the real founder of the Society as history knows it. Having carefully prepared the way, he summoned the general congregation from which he emerged as second general in 1556. As soon as Ignatius had died Paul IV. announced his intention of instituting reforms in the Society, especially in two points: the public recitation of the office in choir and the limitation of the general’s office to a term of three years. Despite all the protests and negotiations of Laynez, the pope remained obstinate; and there was nothing but to submit. On the 8th of September 1558, two points were added to the constitutions: that the generalship should be triennial and not perpetual, although after the three years the general might be confirmed; and that the canonical hours should be observed in choir after the manner of the other orders, but with that moderation which should seem expedient to the general. Taking advantage of this last clause, Laynez applied the new law to two houses only, namely, Rome and Lisbon, the other houses contenting themselves with singing vespers on feast days; and as soon as Paul IV. died, Laynez, acting on advice, quietly ignored for the future the orders of the late pope. He also succeeded in increasing further the already enormous powers of the general. Laynez took a leading part in the colloquy of Poissy in 1561 between the Catholics and Huguenots; and obtained a legal footing from the States General for colleges of the Society in France. He died in 1564, leaving the Society increased to eighteen provinces with a hundred and thirty colleges, and was succeeded by Francisco Borgia. During the third generalate, Pius V. confirmed all the former privileges, and in the amplest form extended to the Society, as being a mendicant institute, all favours that had been or might afterwards be granted to such mendicant bodies. Everard Mercurian, a Fleming, and a subject of Spain, succeeded Borgia in 1573, being forced on the Society by the pope, in preference to Polanco, Ignatius’s secretary. In 1580 the first Jesuit mission, headed by the redoubtable Robert Parsons and the saintly Edmund Campion, set out for England. This mission, on one side, carried on an active propaganda against Elizabeth in favour of Spain; and on the other, among the true missionaries, was marked with devoted zeal and heroism even to the ghastly death of traitors. Claude Acquaviva, the fifth general, held office from 1581 to 1615, a time almost coinciding with the high tide of the successful reaction, chiefly due to the Jesuits. It was chiefly during the generalship of Acquaviva that the Society began to gain an evil reputation which eclipsed its good report. In France the Jesuits joined, if they did not originate, the league against Henry of Navarre; absolution was refused by them to those who would not join in the Guise rebellion, and Acquaviva is said to have tried to stop them, but in vain. The assassination of Henry III. in the interests of the league and the wounding of Henry IV. in 1594 by Chastel, a pupil of theirs, revealed the danger that the whole Society was running by the intrigues of a few men. The Jesuits were banished from France in 1594, but were allowed to return by Henry IV. under conditions. In England the political schemings of Parsons were no small factors in the odium which fell on the Society at large; and his determination to capture the English Catholics as an apanage of the Society was an object lesson to the rest of Europe of a restless ambition and lust of domination which were to find many imitators. A general congregation of the Society in 1594 passed a decree forbidding its members to participate in public affairs; but the decree was not enforced. Parsons was allowed to keep on with his work, and other Jesuits in France for many years after directed, to the loss of religion, affairs of state. In 1605 took place in England the Gunpowder Plot, in which Henry Garnet, the superior of the Society in England, was implicated. That the Jesuits were the instigators of the plot there is no evidence, but they were in close touch with the conspirators, of whose designs Garnet had a general knowledge. There is now no reasonable doubt that he and other Jesuits were legally accessories, and that the condemnation of Garnet as a traitor was substantially just (see GARNET, HENRY). From the moment that Louis XIV. took the reins, the Society gained ground steadily in France, and Jesuit confessors guided

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JESUS, SOCIETY OF

the policy of the king, not hesitating to take his side in his quarrel with the Holy See, which nearly resulted in a schism, nor to sign the Gallican articles. Their hostility to the Huguenots forced on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685, and their war against their Jansenist opponents did not cease till the very walls of Port Royal were demolished in 1710, even to the very abbey church itself, and the bodies of the dead taken with every mark of insult from their graves and literally flung to the dogs to devour. But while thus gaining power in one direction, the Society was losing it in another. The Japanese mission had vanished in blood in 1651; and though many Jesuits died with their converts bravely as martyrs for the faith, yet it is impossible to acquit them of a large share in the causes of that overthrow. THE SOCIETY’S TRADING POLICY But the most fatal part of the policy of the Society was its activity, wealth and importance as a great trading firm with branch houses scattered over the richest countries of the world. Its founder, with a wise instinct, had forbidden the accumulation of wealth; its own constitutions, as revised in the 84th decree of the sixth general congregation, had forbidden all pursuits of a commercial nature, as also had various popes; but nevertheless the trade went on unceasingly, necessarily with the full knowledge of the general, unless it be pleaded that the system of obligatory espionage had completely broken down. The first serious attack came from a country where they had been long dominant. In 1753 Spain and Portugal exchanged certain American provinces with each other, which involved a transfer of sovereign rights over Paraguay; but it was also provided that the populations should severally migrate also, that the subjects of each crown might remain the same as before. The inhabitants of the “reductions,” whom the Jesuits had trained in the use of European arms and discipline, naturally rose in defence of their homes, and attacked the troops and authorities. Their previous docility and their entire submission to the Jesuits left no possible doubt as to the source of the rebellion, and gave the enemies of the Jesuits a handle against them that was not forgotten. Eventually the Portuguese government issued a decree ordering the immediate deportation of every Jesuit from Portugal and all its dependencies and their suppression by the bishops in the schools and universities. Those in Portugal were at once shipped, in great misery, to the papal states, and were soon followed by those in the colonies. In France, the immediate cause of their ruin was the bankruptcy of Father Lavalette, the Jesuit superior in Martinique, a daring speculator, who failed, after trading for some years, for 2,400,000 francs and brought ruin upon some French commercial houses of note. Lorenzo Ricci, then general of the Society, repudiated the debt, alleging lack of authority on Lavalette’s part to pledge the credit of the Society, and he was sued by the creditors. Losing his cause, he appealed to the parlement of Paris, and it, to decide the issue raised by Ricci, required the constitutions of the Jesuits to be produced in evidence, and affirmed the judgment of the courts below. But the publicity given to a document scarcely known till then raised the utmost indignation against the Society. A royal commission, appointed by the duc de Choiseul to examine the constitutions, convoked a private assembly of fifty-one archbishops and bishops under the presidency of Cardinal de Luynes, all of whom except six voted that the unlimited authority of the general was incompatible with the laws of France, and that the appointment of a resident vicar, subject to those laws, was the only solution of the question fair to all sides. After vain resistance, the Jesuits were suppressed by edict in 1764, and suffered to remain as secular priests until 1767, when they were expelled from the kingdom. In the very same year, Charles ITI. of Spain, a monarch known for personal devoutness, prepared a decree suppressing the Society in every part of his dominions. The expulsion was relentlessly carried out, nearly six thousand priests being deported from Spain alone. The Bourbon courts of Naples and Parma followed the example of France and Spain; Clement XIII. retorted with a bull launched at the wedkest adversary, and declaring the rank and title of the duke of Parma forfeit. The Bourbon sovereigns threatened to

make war on the pope in return (France, indeed, seizing on the county of Avignon), and a joint note demanding a retractation, and the abolition of the Jesuits, was presented by the French ambassador at Rome on the roth of December 1768 in the name of France, Spain and the two Sicilies. The pope, a man of eightytwo, died of apoplexy, brought on by the shock, early in 1769. Cardinal Lorenzo Ganganelli, a conventual Franciscan, was chosen to succeed him, and took the name of Clement XIV. He endeavoured to avert the decision forced upon him, but, as Portugal joined the Bourbon league, and Maria Theresa with her son the emperor Joseph IT. ceased to protect the Jesuits, there remained only the petty kingdom of Sardinia in their favour. The famous breve Dominus ac Redemptor on the 21st of July 1773, appeared, suppressing the Society of Jesus. This remarkable document opens by citing a long series of precedents for the suppression of religious orders by the Holy See, amongst which occurs the illomened instance of the Templars. It then briefly sketches the objects and history of the Jesuits themselves. It speaks of their defiance of their own constitution forbidding them to meddle in

politics; of the great ruin to souls caused by their quarrels with local ordinaries and the other religious orders, their condescension to heathen usages in the East, and the disturbances, resulting in persecutions of the Church, which they had stirred up even in Catholic countries, so that several popes had been obliged to punish them. Seeing then that the Catholic sovereigns had been forced to expel them, that many bishops and other eminent persons demanded their extinction, and.that the Society had ceased to fulfil the intention of its institute, the pope declared it necessary for the peace of the Church that it should be suppressed, extinguished, abolished and abrogated for ever, with all its houses, colleges, schools and hospitals. The breve proceeds to make regulations for. the transference of the authority of the Society’s officers; for giving priests of the Society the option of joining other orders or remaining as secular clergy, and kindred matters. The apologists of the Society allege that no motive influenced the pope save the desire of peace at any price, and that he did not believe in the.culpability of the Jesuits. The categorical charges made in the document rebut this plea. The pope followed up this breve by appointing a congregation of cardinals to take possession of the temporalities of the Society, and armed it with summary powers against all who should attempt to retain or conceal any of the property. VICISSITUDES

‘At the date: of this suppression, the Society had 41 provinces and 22,589:members, of whom 11,295 were priests. Far from submitting to the papal breve, the ex-Jesuits, after some ineffectual attempts at direct resistance, withdrew into the territories of the free-thinking sovereigns of Russia and Prussia, Frederick IT. and Catherine IL, who became their active friends and protectors. Russia formed the headquarters of the Society, and two forged breves were speedily circulated, being dated June 9 and June 29, 1774, approving their establishment in Russia, and implying the repeal of the breve of suppression. But these are contradicted by the tenor of five genuine breves issued in September 1774 to the archbishop, of Gnesen, and making certain assurances to the exJesuits, on condition of their complete obedience to the injunctions already laid on them. They elected three Poles successively as generals, taking, however, only the title of vicars, till on the yth of March 18012 Pius VII. granted them liberty to reconstitute themselves in north Russia, and permitted Kareu, then vicar, to exercise full authority as general. Qn the 30th of July 1804 a similar breve restored the Jesuits in the two Sicilies, at the express desire of Ferdinand IV., the pope thus anticipating the further action of 1814, when, by the constitution Sollicitudo omnium Ecclesiarum, he revoked the action of Clement XIV., and formally restored the Society to corporate legal existence, yet not only omitted any censure of his predecessor’s conduct, but all vindication of the Jesuits from the heavy charges in the breve Dominus ac Redemptor. In France, even after their expulsion:in 1765, they had maintained a precarious footing in the country under the partial disguise and

names ‘of “Fathers of the Faith” or “‘Clerks of the Sacred Heart,” '

JESUS CHRIST but were obliged by Napoleon I. to retire in 1804. They reappeared under their true name in 1814, and obtained formal licence in 1822, but after incurring much hostility, were dispersed at the revolution of July 1830. Once more, however, they made their way into France, recovered the right to teach freely after the revolution of 1848, and gradually became the leading educational and ecclesiastical power in France, notably under the Second Empire, till they were once more expelled by the Ferry laws of 1880, though they quietly returned since the execution of those measures. They were again expelled by the Law of Associations of igor. In Spain they came back with Ferdinand VII., but have had no legal position since, though their presence is openly tolerated. In Portugal, ranging themselves on the side of Dom Miguel, they fell with his cause, and were exiled in 1834. There are some to this day in Lisbon under the name of “Fathers of the

Faith.” Russia, which had been their warmest patron, drove them from St. Petersburg and Moscow in 1813, and from the whole empire in 1820, mainly on the plea of attempted proselytizing in the imperial army. Holland drove them out in 1816, and, by giving them thus a valid excuse for aiding the Belgian revolution of 1830, secured them the strong position they have ever since held in Belgium;

but they have succeeded in returning to Holland.

They were expelled from Switzerland in 1847—1848 for the part they were charged with in exciting the war of the Sonderbund. In south Germany, inclusive of Austria and Bavaria, their annals since their restoration have been uneventful; but in north Germany, owing to the footing Frederick IT. had given them in Prussia, they became very powerful, especially in the Rhine provinces, and, gradually moulding the younger generation of clergy after the close of the War of Liberation, succeeded in spreading Ultramontane views amongst them, and so leading up to the difficulties with the civil government which issued in the Falk laws, and their own expulsion by decree of the German parliament (June 19, 1872). Since then many attempts have been made to procure the recall of the Society to the German Empire, but without success, although as individuals they are now allowed in the country. In Great Britain, whither they began to straggle over during the revolutionary troubles at the close of the 18th century, and where, practically unaffected by the clause directed against them in the Emancipation Act of 1829, their chief settlement has been at Stonyhurst in Lancashire, they have been unmolested; but there has been little affinity to the order in the British temperament, and the English province has consequently never risen to numerical or intellectual importance in the Society. In Rome itself, its progress after the restoration was at first slow, and it was not till the reign of Leo XII. (1823—1829) that it recovered its place as the chief educational body there. It advanced steadily under Gregory XVI., and, though it was at first shunned by Pius IX., it secured his entire confidence after his return from Gaeta in 1849, and obtained from him a special breve erecting the staff of its literary journal, the Ctuiltà Cattolica, into a perpetual college under the general of the Jesuits, for the purpose of teaching and propagating the faith in its pages. How, with this pope’s support throughout his long reign, the gradual filling of nearly all the sees of Latin Christendom with bishops of their own selection, and their practical capture, directly or indirectly, of the education of the clergy in seminaries, they contrived to stamp out the last remains of independence everywhere, and to crown the Ultramontane triumph with the Vatican Decrees, is matter of familiar knowledge. Leo XIII., while favouring them somewhat, never gave them his full confidence; and by his adhesion to the Thomist philosophy and theology, and his active work for the regeneration and progress of the older orders, he made another suppression possible by destroying much of their prestige. But the usual sequence was observed under Pius X., who appeared to be greatly in favour of the Society and to rely upon them for many of the measures of his pontificate.

15

nacio de Loyola (9 vols., Madrid, 1645-1736); Chronicon Societatis Jesu auctore Patre Polanco (6 vols., 1894—98) ; Sancti Ignatii de Loyola epistolae et instructiones (12 vols., 1903—11) and other works issued by the Colegio Imperial de la Compañia de Jesús (Madrid, 1894 etc.) ; Monumenta Historica Societatis Jesu, 59 vols., finished 1921. II. H. Foley, Records of the English Province of the Society of Jesus (7 vols., 1873-83) ; W. Forbes Leith, Narratives of Scottish Catholics (1885) ‘and Memoirs of Scottish Catholics (1909); A. J. Teixeira, Documentos para a historia dos Jesuitas em Portugal (Coimbra, 1899) ; A. Astrain, Historia de la Compania de Jesús en la Asistencia de Españia (1902—09) ; B. Duhr, Geschichte der Jesuiten in den Ländern deutscher Zunge (4 vols., 1907-21); T. Hughes, History of the Society of Jesus in North America (3 vols., 1907—10) ; H. Fouqueray, Histoire de la Compagnie de Jésus en France (2 vols., 1910-13) ; P. Tacchi-Venturi, Storia della Compagnia de Gesu in Italia (1910 etc.); P. Pastells, Historia de la Companid de Jesus en Paraguay (4 vols. 1912, etc.), and Mision de la Compaitia de Jesus de Filipinas (1916-17) ; P. Bonenfant, La Suppression de la Compagnie de Jésus dans les Pays-Bas autrichiens (1925); A. Poncelet, Histoire de la Compagnie de Jésus dans les ay Pays-Bas, m Mémoirs de lAcadémie Royale de Belgique I HI. Lettres édifiantes et curieuses, écrites des missions étrangères, avec les Annales de la propagation de la fot (40 vols., Lyons, 1819-54); F. E. de Guilhermy, Ménologe de la Compagnie de Jrésus, Assistance de France (1892); R. G. Thwaites, Jesuit Relations and Allied Documents (73 vols., Cleveland, 1896-1901); H. Josson, La Mission du Bengale Occidentale (2 vols., Bruges, 1921) ; A. Thomas, Hzstoire de la Mission de Pékin (1923) ; C. Wessels, Early Jesuit Travellers in Central Asia, 1603-1721 (The Hague, 1924). IV. A. de Guignard, Comte de Saint-Priest, Histoire de la Chute des bese (1844); J. A. M. Crétinau-Joly, Histoire de la Compagnie de ésus ae abridged Eng. trans. B. Neave, The Poor ass ll of Lites, 1863) ; Gioberti, ZI Gesuita moderno (1846); H. Boehmer, Die Jesuiten Caoa 1907; French trans. G. Monod, Les J ésuites, 1910); J. Burnichon, La Compagnie de Jésus en France, I8t4~-IQIl4 (4 vols.. 1914-22); T. J. Campbell, Tke Jesuits, 1534—ro2r (1921). V. G. M. Pachtler, Ratio Studiorum et Institutiones Scholasticae Societatis Jesu, vols. ii. and v. (1887) in Monumenta Germaniae Paedagogica (ed. C. Kehlbach, 1886, etc.) ; R. Swickerath, Jesuit Education, its History and Principles (St. Louis, 1903); J. B. Herman, Pédagogie des Jésuites au XVIe siécle (1914) ; H. Delahaye, A travers trois siècles, POeuvre des Bollandistes, 161 5—-I9I5 (Brussels, 1920); M. J. ao de Journel, Un Collège de Jésuites à Saint-Pétersbourg (1922) ; C. Sommerwogel and A. de Backer, Bibliothèque de la Compagnie de Jésus (10 vols., 1890-1909); J. E. de Uriarte and M. Lecina, Bibliotheca de Escritores 'dela Compañiá de Jésus (1923). VI. V. Frins, “Jesuiten” in H. J. Wetzer and B. Welte, Kirchenlexikon (12 vols., Freiburg in Breisgau, 1886-1901); J. H. Pollen, “Society of Jesus” in The Catholic Encyclopaedia (ed. C. G. Herbermann and others, 16 vols. 1907—14) ; H. Thurston, “Jesuits” in Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics (ed. J. Hastings, 1921). AN these articles have full bibliographies. See also J. H. Pollen, articles in The Month, especially for 1902—03, and in Publications of the Catholic Record Society. J. Brucker, La Compagnie de Jesus (1919); Liber Saecularis Historiae Societatis Jesu 1814-1914 (1914).

JESUS CHRIST.

The principal problem which is presented

by the New Testament to the historian is the problem of accounting for the faith of the early Christians in one whom they had known as Jesus the carpenter’s son of Nazareth, and whom they had seen die the shameful death of a criminal outside Jerusalem. We have evidence that a very few weeks after that event His followers, who had scattered in dismay, were reunited at Jerusalem, men and women to the number of about 120, feeling themselves to be bound together in a religious society through a common conviction, a common expectation and a common attitude towards Jesus. They were fully persuaded that He was alive, and that He had been seen by individuals and by groups of His followers. They were eagerly expecting that He would quite shortly return as the Messiah of their race, the Son of God with power, and they adopted an attitude to Him which, though still undefined, was an attitude of religious faith. The strength and the sincerity of their conviction were tested by persecution and proved by their steadfastness. The religious quality of their attitude to Jesus was evinced by devotion, self-sacrifice and a sense of obligation to Him which swept away the last barrier of selfishness. And they had a message concerning this same Jesus which they proceeded to proclaim with enthusiasm and amazing success. The Church of Christ became a fact of history. BrsriocraPHy.—The bibliography of the Society is of enormous extent, and only a few of the more important works can be cited here. What manner of man was it whose life and character, teaching I. Institutum Societatis Jesu (7 vols., Avignon, eee N. Orlan- and experience, are to account for this phenomenon? The answer dini, continued F. Sacchino, J. J ouvency and J. C. Cordara, Historia. Societatis Jesu (6 vols., Antwerp, 1620-1750) ; Imago Primae Secculi must be looked for in the three Gospels of Mark, Matthew and Societatis Jesu (Antwerp, 1640); J. E. Nieremberg, Vida de San Ig- Luke, commonly known as the Synoptic Gospels, with some assis-

16

JESUS CHRIST

tance, slight but important, from the Acts of the Apostles, and

The Gospel of Matthew, written primarily for such Christians

the Epistles of St. Paul. All three Gospels were the work of men who were believers in Christ, and were intended primarily at least for the benefit of those who already believed. Luke definitely announces his purpose is to confirm Theophilus in the certainty of the things wherein he had been instructed; and though Matthew and Mark make no similar statement, it is equally clear that their purpose was similar; it was not either to prove anything not already accepted or to persuade other men to believe, but to give connected and permanent form to narratives of what Jesus had

as like himself were of Jewish origin, reflects something of their national consciousness and particularly their interest in Jesus as the Messiah of the Jews. Long before his time pious research and even pious imagination had been at work on the Old Testament collecting all the phrases which bore or could be made to bear on

done and said which had hitherto been current in the Christian community, either as oral tradition or in preliminary attempts to reduce the tradition to writing. Their own faith did not rest upon the story which they told; for the earliest preaching was not the proclamation of the historic Jesus but the proclamation of “Christ and Him crucified,” that is to say, the witness of believers to the risen, living and glorified Christ whose connection with the life of men and with the purpose of God might be learnt from the fact that He had been crucified. The Gospels were written in order to satisfy the eager desire to know more fully and to know with certainty the earthly life of Him in whom men

believed as the living Saviour and Lord. DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN THE GOSPELS While this is the purpose common to all three Evangelists, there are important distinctions between them in respect of the material which they have at command, the way in which they severally handle it, and the aspects of life and thought in which they are severally interested. They all show great and equal interest in the account of the Trial and Passion of Jesus which they relate with fulness and detail; but in the account of the previous ministry of Jesus, Mark confines himself mainly to narrative, reporting in

comparison but little of what Jesus taught, few of His parables and little of His discourse. Luke and Matthew, while incorporating nearly all of Mark in their Gospels, add, each in his own different way, a large amount of discourse material which had probably been already collected in a document commonly described as the second Source (Q). And to the material thus collected from two sources both Luke and Matthew add material of their own. That which is peculiar to Luke may possibly represent the earliest stratum of his Gospel with which he combined first (Q) and after-

wards Mark (Streeter). _ According to the dates now commonly assigned to these Gospels Mark was composed before the fall of Jerusalem in a.p. 70 but not before A.D. 60, Luke and Matthew after the fall but not later

than A.D. 80. But if Harnack is right in the view he still (1928) holds with conviction that the Acts of the Apostles was completed before the death of Paul, then Luke’s Gospel would fall early in the ’60s and Mark’s would be earlier still. And if Streeter’s theory referred to in the foregoing paragraph proved to be correct, the occasion for Luke’s collecting of the earliest draft of his Gospel would be found in his visit to Caesarea about A.D. 43. According to a tradition which has very early authority Mark acted as attendant to Peter and also as his interpreter; and much

the figure and the experiences of the Messiah.

And Matthew’s

delight is to discover either in the Old Testament itself or in some

such collection language which illustrates and confirms the belief that in Jesus had been found the Hope of Israel. It is natural that he should conceive of the teaching of Jesus as a new law, and bring out the contrast between the new law and the old; that his

interest in this aspect of the teaching should lead him to group

into connected instructions utterances which properly belonged to

various occasions; that modifications which he introduces should be suggested by his interest in the Church’s task of evangelization or by the internal problems of the Church itself; that on occasion he has modified a narrative in order to adjust it to a prophecy. His outlook on the future is sombre; he elaborates the eschatological element in the teaching of Jesus, to whose Person an increasing majesty is attached, even as His function as Judge is emphasized, “Matthew conceives Christianity as the fulfilment of Judaism;”

the divine Lawgiver who has fully revealed the word of God is the Jesus. whom the Jews rejected and crucified. He cometh quickly to judgment. The interests reflected in Luke’s Gospels are less those of his audience or of the school to which he belongs than his own personal ones. He is a Gentile, free from all trace of Jewish nation. alism, interested in men as men, in the perennial problem of rich and poor, emphasizing at once the drastic demands of the Gospe\ and the universality of the appeal made by Jesus, His personal contacts with individual men and women, the occasions of social intercourse, and the infinite graciousness and tenderness of the Master. “If Matthew is the Gospel of judgment, Luke is the Gospel of mercy. If there is something of pessimism in Matthew, Luke is full of hope.” The influence of these several interests by which the Evangelists were moved is seen alike in their selection of material and in their handling of it, oftentimes in quite subtle modulations of their sources. And it is this rather than any special dogmatic purpose, still less any “deliberate falsification or conscious idealization” which accounts for the differences between the Gospels, and explains how it is that though we have three portraits distinguishable from one another we feel them all to be portraits of the same Person.

Apart from the Birth stories at the opening of Matthew and Luke (the exact significance of which in this respect is ambiguous) there is nothing in these three Gospels to suggest that their writers thought of Jesus as other than human, a human being specially endued with the Spirit of God and standing in an unbroken relation to God which justified His being spoken of as the “Son of

God.” Even Matthew refers to Him as the carpenter’s son and records that after Peter had acknowledged Him as Messiah he

“took Him and began to rebuke Him” (Matt. xvi. 22). And in Luke the two disciples on the way to Emmaus can still speak of Him as “a prophet mighty in deed and word before God and all tion of Jesus. His Gospel was probably written at Rome and the people” (Luke, xxiv. 19). It is very singular that in spite of primarily for the benefit of Gentile Christians. Taking Mark as a the fact that before Mark was composed “the Lord” had become witness to the interest of such an audience we should infer that the description of Jesus common among Christians, He is never it was strongly directed to Jesus as a healer, as one who had so described in the second Gospel (nor yet in the first, though the power over demons, power from which it could be concluded that word is freely used to refer to God). All three relate the Passion He had overcome the prince of the demons; to Jesus as a teacher of Jesus with a fulness and emphasis of its great significance; but who neglected no opportunity of teaching, and was eagerly lis- except the “ransom” passage (Mark x. 45) and certain words at tened to whether by the crowds or by the inner circle of disciples; the Last Supper there is no indication of the meaning which was to Jesus as the embodiment of a Gospel, great and good news, the afterwards attached to it. It is not even suggested that the death acceptance of which or of whom transformed life by setting it in of Jesus had any relation to sin or forgiveness. Had the “ransom” the key of faith in God and assured hope of His Kingdom; to saying been suggested by Paul it would not stand as it does in its Jesus as standing to God in the relation of Son to the Father, and isolated vagueness. HIS MINISTRY prescribing the destiny of men in terms of their relation to Himif not all of his material was derived from the ‘accounts which Peter was in the habit of giving of the life and death and resurrec-

self. (The opinion that Mark bears evidence of having been influenced by Pauline thought and teaching has been shown to be groundless, M. Werner, 1923.)

The Three Stages.—Any attempt to write a “Life of Jesus” should be frankly abandoned. The material for it certainly does not exist. It has been calculated that the total number of days in

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PLATE I

JESUS CHRIST

JESUS CHRIST His life regarding which we have any record does not exceed 50. And, moreover, the notes of time by which many of the episodes are connected are now seen to form the setting in which each Evangelist has put the different sections of his material, and represent rather his narrative-style than the actual time-relation between the events. At the same time, the ministry described by the Synoptists falls into three well-marked stages, the first mainly in Galilee, the third in Jerusalem and its neighbourhood, and the intermediate one a period of travel and sojourn either in Peraea according to Mark, or, if we follow the indications of Luke, in the neighbourhood of Samaria. Within this framework we have a continuous narrative only in the third section; in the other two a series of events and episodes, utterances, discourses, discussions and parables, the order of which is of less significance than their meaning. For what is true of all of them is conspicuously true of many, that even taken separately they convey an adequate, though it may not be a complete, impression of His character or His teaching or His significance for men. “It is precisely the greatness of Jesus, and the peculiarity of the tradition regarding Him, that every one of His brief sayings and every one of His parables and the stories concerning Him display His inner character entire, and display it so clearly that even the unlearned men may receive from it the deepest impression.” “Jesus was at the outset (of His ministry) about 30 years of age.” His birth took place in the reign of Herod (d. 4 3.c.), and His crucifixion probably in a.p. 29 or 30. These dates confirm the impression produced by careful comparison between the Synoptic Gospels and John, that a duration of nearly three years for the ministry suggested by the data of the latter is probably correct rather than one of some 18 months, which is all we should infer from the former. The ministry of Jesus was heralded by that of John the Baptist, a stern reproduction of one of the ancient prophets such as Elijah. He appeared in the unpopulated district in the Jordan valley proclaiming that the Kingdom of Heaven was at hand, which on his lips meant a day of judgment for the wicked. He called on those who listened to him to repent. And those who so repented he “baptized in the Jordan.” This procedure was something so novel as to secure for him the description of “the baptizer”; it was an outward and visible sign of the repentance to which was granted “remission of sins,” and probably was under-. stood to seal admittance to the coming Kingdom. Large crowds flocked to his preaching. Many repented and were baptized. Others who remained at home said, “He has a devil.” A further feature of his preaching was the repeated announcement that he was but a forerunner, that he would be followed by one stronger and nobler than he, who would baptize with Holy Spirit, while he himself baptized with water only. According to the tradition preserved by the fourth Gospel John actually pointed out Jesus to two of his own disciples (“Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sin of the world,” John i. 29), and they thenceforth quitted John and became followers of Jesus. Nevertheless, the movement started by John survived, possibly as a rival to the Church, against whose claims the writer of the fourth Gospel finds it necessary to protest. His Baptism and Temptations—Jesus Himself was baptized at the hands of John. That He thereby exposed himself to misunderstanding may be admitted, though the Synoptic Gospels significantly omit any reference to confession of sin in His case. This, however, is not the difficulty referred to in Matthew. It is that John, himself a kinsman of Jesus, shrinks from seeming to claim moral superiority by conferring baptism upon Him. Jesus brushed aside the objection, waiving the claim which John makes for Him, as He afterwards waived the claim to be excused the temple tax. In this ceremony of initiation and consecration to the ideals of

the coming Kingdom He is resolved to be one with His brethren, even at the risk of misunderstanding. It is the first public symbol of the self-identification of one who was holy with those who were

sinners. The baptism -itself was immediately followed by the coming of the Holy Spirit upon Jesus, and by the Divine assurance conveyed to Him in words of Scripture which sealed His vocation to

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be Messiah, the Messianic Son of God. At what period of His life the possibility of such a vocation first dawned on Him we cannot say. Doubtless it grew on Him. When He came to His baptism He was willing to accept it. After His baptism He knew it to be God’s will. And already the specific character of His Messiahship was grasped by Him, as is indicated by the combination with the Messianic text from Psalm ii. of familiar words from Isaiah xlii. referring to the Suffering Servant. Jesus devoted Himself to be a Messiah who should effect the redemption of God’s people through suffering, and at His baptism He received the Divine confirmation of this self-dedication. It is this Messianic self-consciousness which gives the clue to the meaning of the Temptations which followed. These were far removed from the temptations of ordinary men, so far indeed that only this Messianic consciousness can account for them. In solitude and fasting Jesus faced and settled the problem of the Messiahship, tested and rejected one after another of the policies which offered themselves for consideration. The Messianic endowment of the Spirit was not to be employed in order to satisfy physical need or appetite. It had to do with that higher form of life which was nourished by the self-communication of God. Neither was it to be employed to produce supernatural evidence of His claim, even though Scripture could be quoted to confirm its validity. Even He had no right to put God to such a test for such a purpose. Finally, the possibility was suggested of accomplishing the Messianic task of making the kingdoms of this world “the kingdom of our Lord and of His Christ,” by forming an alliance with evil, attempting, as a policy of compromise, to ‘‘serve God and Mammon.” The subsequent course of His ministry shows how each of the “temptations” had been triumphantly overcome. Characteristics of the Ministry—The Synoptic Gospels agree in representing the public ministry of Jesus as commencing after John the Baptist had been thrown into prison by Herod. “Jesus came into Galilee proclaiming the Gospel of God, that the time is fulfilled and the Kingdom of God has drawn near.” The burden of the message was the same as that of the Baptist, but on the lips of Jesus it was great and glad news, a Gospel in the presence of which, or in the power of which, men could be called on to believe in God. From Capharnaum which appears to have served as a centre this message was carried by Jesus through the length and breadth of Galilee. In the synagogues and in private houses, on the hill-slopes and by the lakeside He taught the crowds who flocked to hear Him. He believed in teaching. Because He had compassion on the multitude, “He began to teach them many things.” To this proclamation of the Kingdom and this teaching Jesus added a ministry of healing, largely described in terms of the casting out of demons. For, according to the ideas of the time, not only nervous diseases but many other forms of sickness and physical disability were believed to be due to possession by a demon or unclean spirit. This gave rise to a class of persons, “exorcists,” who professed, and not always in vain, to be able to cure disease by casting out the demon. And Jesus did not shrink from drawing attention to the parallel between Himself and them. But it is clear that His “mighty acts of healing” had a scope and were on a scale far beyond the reach of such men. The Evangelists report an ‘extension of His power beyond cases of a psychical or psychophysical nature, to include the curing of fever, paralysis, leprosy, blindness, deaf-mutism and even the raising of the dead, as having characterized His ministry. Of a different class and yet falling under the head of “wonders” were the so-called “nature-miracles” of which the Evangelists relate several. The Miracles.—There can be no doubt that the Evangelists believed that these things happened as they describe them. There is equally no doubt that many of them would be differently described and differently accounted for by modern observers, who are as eager to find out the secondary causes as earlier observers were ready to do justice to the primary one. They “gave glory to God,” and sometimes no doubt thought that they gave the greater glory by enhancing the supernatural character of the event. In general, it must be born in mind that “miracles” were

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JESUS CHRIST

far from being unexpected or rare. St. Paul claimed to have worked “signs” in circumstances which put his sincerity beyond challenge, and he is witness to the fact that the Apostles wrought signs and wonders. Even the raising of the dead was not a thing so incredible as it is to us. Irenaeus believed that two cases occurred in his own time. If this seems to reduce the “evidential value” of miracles, it must be replied that there is very little to indicate that specific evidential value attached to the miracles of

for “a sign,” by which they meant some portent which would,

of fasting, who dared even to reach back behind the law of Moses itself and proclaim on His own authority the wider principles on which that law rested. Alarm deepened into suspicion, suspicion into dislike and hostility, as attempts made by scribes and Pharisees to challenge Him in argument were met and worsted by Jesus. Already the Pharisees began to conspire with their traditional foes the court-party “how they might destroy him.” At the same time it became only too clear that the popular enthusiasm was but fleeting. The parable of the Sower is probably a reading off of the disappointing experience. Much of the seed which He had sown had fallen either on stony ground or among thorns; and even what sprouted had either withered away or been choked. Nazareth itself, His home town, showed conspicuously its contemptuous want of faith. Jesus withdrew from Galilee; His continuous ministry there came to an end. Through “the district of Tyre and Sidon” (where He broke through the barrier of Jewish exclusiveness by healing the daughter of a Gentile woman) He fetched a wide circuit by the valley of the upper Jordan, and after a brief visit to Galilee turned north again, to arrive at Caesarea Philippi at the southern base of Mount Hermon.

so they thought, make it impossible for men not to believe, e.g., casting Himself down from the pediment of the Temple. And

PETER’S DISCOVERY

Jesus. There are two instances but only two where anything like

an appeal is made to miracle in order to prove anything, the healing of the paralytic and the answer to the messengers from the Baptist. In the one case it is an argument from the power of physical healing to the power of spiritual restoration. In the other it is not the miraculous character of the events which is empha-

sized but their quality; “to the poor the Gospel is preached” (Luke vii. 22). Otherwise no appeal is made to the miracles in order to prove anything. That they were not understood to prove the Messiahship of Jesus is clear from the insistent demand of the Pharisees

when Jesus sternly refused to give such a sign, He made it clear The Messiahship.—The most momentous result of the minthat miracles were neither intended nor calculated to produce istry up to this point is seen in the acknowledgment made by faith. There are indications that there came a point in His minis- Peter (apparently with the tacit consent of his fellow disciples), try when He became chary of healing indiscriminately. This is “Thou art the Messiah.” This was in answer to a direct question shown by a new emphasis on His “compassion” as the motive of put by Jesus; and according to Matthew it was followed by a particular miracles, or on “faith” as the condition of His per- blessing pronounced upon Peter, together with the announcement forming them. He may well have recognized that the popular “flesh and blood hath not revealed it unto thee but My Father enthusiasm due to the working of such.miracles on a large scale, which is in heaven” (xvi. 17). Peter’s discovery was due not to so far from furthering His mission, was only too likely to wreck any external testimony but to what we should call a spiritual init. And, further, that in too many cases those who were healed tuition; Jesus accepted the description, but enjoined His followers were satisfied with the physical boon and were indifferent to the to keep it as a secret to themselves. higher gifts He had to give. They failed to show even that rudiWhat were the reasons which led Peter to make this discovery mentary attachment to Himself which could deserve the name of and declaration? It is exceedingly difficult to say. Certainly they faith; and He was “unable” to do any mighty works where He do not lie upon the surface of the Gospel narrative. There was no found that “faith” wholly wanting. form of the Jewish expectation of a Messiah to which the apA miracle has been well defined as “the supremacy of the spir- pearance and activities of Jesus in the least corresponded; He was itual forces of the world to an extraordinary degree over the mere far enough removed from a warrior-prince who should restore the material.” In our inability to measure such spiritual forces we political glories of David’s reign; He was not less removed from dare not a priorit set any limit to their efficacy, and the test of . the transcendental figure of the Son of Man coming on the clouds probability, for any particular miracle lies not in what we conceive of Heaven to judge the enemies of God and of Israel. The stories to be its physical possibility, but in its moral significance and of a miraculous birth were not yet current; neither the Immanuel value. The Evangelists record the miracles of Jesus not as prophecies nor those of the Suffering Servant could give any help. demonstrating His Messiahship or His divinity, but as spontane- Miracles, regarded merely as evidence of supernatural power, did ous expressions of a personality filled with the Spirit of God and not point out the Messiah. It was no part of the expectation conindications of a character wholly animated by sympathy for men. cerning Him that He would work miracles. That the Messiah To teaching and healing as characteristics of the ministry must should teach, that He should claim to forgive sin, that He should be added companionship. Jesus was not only accessible to men seek to draw men into fellowship with Himself, that He should and women of all types and classes; He went forth to meet them, call them to take His yoke upon them—all these distinguishing threw round them the compelling atmosphere of interest and care. features in the Synoptic portrait of Jesus were wanting in any Levi the tax-farmer, Simon the Zealot, Zacchaeus, Martha, Mary picture of the Messiah drawn by Jewish imagination. and Lazarus, Simon the Leper, these were typical instances. Seeking for the explanation of Peter’s “confession” we appear Many He drew into a wide circle of “followers,” who accom- compelled to find it in subtler forces which had been playing upon panied Him in His circuit of Galilee; some into a yet closer circle the disciples, the qualities of character displayed in the acts and of professed “disciples.” Twelve He selected “that they might be words of Jesus, the influence of His personality mediated through with Him ;” to these, who had shown a real initial receptivity He daily intercourse, the sense of mystery and awe produced by His revealed “the mysteries of the Kingdom,” and some of the depths moral majesty (“Depart from me, for Iam a sinful man, O Lord”), of His own personality. These, when gathered into His fellowship the growing conviction that somehow their relation to God was (or “name”) and to some extent imbued with His spirit He sent bound up with their relation to Him; all this combined to produce forth with power to cast out demons, to proclaim still more widely a profound impression in the effort to describe which Peter, when the coming Kingdom. challenged, grasped at the highest religious conception which could The earliest result of this ministry in Galilee was seen in a be attached to a man, and said “Thou art the Messiah.” wave of popular interest and enthusiasm. ‘The common people Neither for Jesus nor for His disciples was ‘the title adequate. heard Him gladly” (Mark xii. 37). They crowded the house It had many associations which were actually out of harmony with where He was, the street where He walked, the beach to which His true mission and with the methods by which it was to be acHis boat was moored. His fame spread through all Galilee and complished. Yet it was the best available description of the vocaeven “beyond Jordan,” to Judaea and Idumaea. On the other hand tion which He had accepted, which His followers felt Him to be opposition began to show itself. The religious authorities were fulfilling. The title placed Him in direct connection with the alarmed at the independence of this unauthorized teacher, who delivering or redeeming purpose of God revealed by the prophets, ignored the traditional rules by which they had fenced the law and with the divine theodicy expected by the Jews. of the Sabbath, who encouraged His disciples to drop the practice Prediction of Suffering and Death.—According to these Evan-

JESUS CHRIST gelists Jesus proceeded at once to exhibit more clearly His conception of the Messianic vocation by the startling and reiterated announcement of His impending arrest, death and resurrection. He

foresaw His fate, and accepted it as part of the Divine purpose He

was called to fulfil. He was to transform the rôle of the Messiah into that of the Suffering Servant. The disciples we¥é utterly per-

plexed or frankly incredulous. “This saying was hid from them”

and they did not understand what was said. The Transfiguration which followed on the first of these announcements is best understood as a parallel to the Baptism and a fore-gleam of the Resurrection. In it Jesus received the Divine confirmation of His selfdevotion to the way of the Cross; He stood in line and in harmony with the monumental figures in the Divine revelation, and He en-

joyed a foretaste of “the glory that should follow.” From that time forward we see Him with His face “set to go unto Jerusalem”; for, as He said, “it cannot be that a prophet perish away from

Jerusalem.” And we get in Mark the wonderful silhouette, as of figures on the sky-line and against the sunset, Jesus in front and alone “iam totus in passione sua” as Bengel puts it; behind him the twelve or the inner circle of disciples, who were “the nearest bit of the world for Him as He was the first inkling of eternity for them”; they were filled with awe and wonder. Behind them again came those less closely attached, less akin to His spirit; and “they were afraid.” So these Evangelists bring Jesus to Jerusalem by way of Jericho. The feast of Passover was approaching. Crowds cf pilgrims, many of them from Galilee, travelled by the same road. Jesus for a moment dropped the veil which concealed His Messiahship from all but those who were in spiritual sympathy with Himself. He arranged to enter the city in a guise which would recall a Messianic prophecy of Zechariah, “lowly and riding upon an ass,” a Messiah who was a man of peace. Whether the crowd recognized the symbol, or whether it was the prophet of Galilee whom they recognized, a wave of enthusiasm seized them. They surrounded Him with joyous acclamations and so conducted Him to the gate of the city. Either on the same or the following day He visited the Temple, and being moved to indignation at its desecration through the exploiting of the religious needs of the people by avaricious traffickers and money-changers, drove them forth before Him by the force of His anger. They had turned God’s house of prayer into “a bandit’s cave.” This drastic exhibition of moral authority seems to have been the cause which brought to a head the hostility of “the chief priests and scribes,” among whom the former at any rate reaped a rich revenue from the traffic. They finally resolved on His destruction, but felt compelled by His popularity with the people, especially the Galilean pilgrims, to proceed with caution. The following days were spent by Jesus in the courts and porticoes of the Temple, where He taught and dealt with questions, some captious, some sincere, which were submitted to Him by opponents or by friends. The nights He appears to have spent at Bethany or on the Mount of Olives. Judas Iscariot —Two days before the Passover an unexpected opportunity was presented to His enemies when one of His own followers, one indeed of the Twelve, Judas Iscariot, went to the high priest with an offer to betray Jesus into their hands, probably by pointing out where He could be arrested quietly. Innumerable explanations have been suggested for this treachery; its ultimate root was probably disappointed personal ambition working on an imperfect allegiance, fastening on Jesus as the cause of the disappointment and passing through disloyalty and dislike to hatred. And, “hates any man the thing he would not kill?” The Last Supper.—Even for Judas there remained still an opportunity “to see one instant and be saved.” For he was present at the Last Supper, when Jesus manifested to His followers that “He loved them to the end.” We shall probably do wisely if we follow here the tradition preserved in the fourth Gospel rather than that which appears to underlie the Synoptic Gospels. The latter certainly seems to imply that it was the

Passover meal of which Jesus and clearly understands that it took place over, and that Jesus went to death time when the Passover lambs were

His disciples partook; John on the night before the Passon the following day, at the being sacrificed; this would

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further account for the absence from the Synoptic reports of nearly all the features characteristic of the Passover meal. The Last Supper then corresponded probably to the weekly “‘Sanctification of the Sabbath’ when the common meal had a specially religious character, and just before the Sabbath began the head of the household pronounced a solemn benediction over a cup of wine. No doubt Jesus had been in the habit of observing this weekly ceremony with His disciples. If on this occasion He anticipated it by 24 hours, and introduced it by saying ‘““Much have I desired to eat this (coming) Passover with you” intimating that that would not be so, this occasion would at once be charged with special significance and solemnity. There are several variations in the reports of what Jesus said at the Last Supper as given by the three Evangelists (with whose record we must take into account that given by Paul in r Corinthians). Luke’s account as found in the common text appears to have been assimilated to Paul’s; but when the true text is restored it varies more from Paul’s than either of the others. The probable meaning of the words spoken by Jesus may perhaps best be given in a paraphrase. He took a loaf and blessed and broke it and said, “This represents Me as I give Myself in sacrifice to be the spiritual nourishment of men”: and He took a cup and gave thanks and gave to them saying, “This represents Me as I give Myself in sacrifice to seal the new covenant.” The central purpose of the rite would appear to be that there might be brought vividly to the consciousness of His followers the real Presence of their Master when He had passed from their sight, such a Presence as carried with it the continuation of all the aspects of His ministry which had entered into their experience while He was visibly with them. The command, “Do this to bring Me to remembrance,” which is found only in Paul, may be an authentic word of Jesus or it may be an inference from the experience of the Church; “He was known of them in the breaking of bread.” From the upper room Jesus and His disciples went through the darkness to Gethsemane, outside the city, “where was a garden.” There, withdrawn from His followers and even from the inner circle of closest friends, Jesus went through the agony of a human soul facing shame, suffering and death. Escape was still possible. The prayer rose to His lips that He might be spared the necessity of drinking “‘this cup,” only to be cancelled in the next moment with “Nevertheless not what I will, but what thou willest.” He returned to His companions to find them sleeping. Then came the lights, the clamour of voices, the crowd of chief priests and temple officers and Judas leading the way to betray His Master with a kiss. Jesus was seized and led away a prisoner. As to His disciples “they forsook him and fled, all of them.” CRUCIFIXION AND RESURRECTION

The Trial of Jesus.—There is considerable variation between the Evangelists in the reports which they give of the judicial or quasi-judicial proceedings which followed. Mark reports a formal meeting of the Sanhedrin held at once in the house of the High Priest; which seems unlikely especially if it were followed by another formal meeting next morning. Luke reports that Jesus was taken to the house of the high priest, but defers the investigation till the next day. The tendency of Mark’s narrative is to throw a greater responsibility upon the Jewish authorities, and to suggest that the Sanhedrin had more independent jurisdiction than probably belonged to it. The object of the chief priests was to frame a charge against Jesus which would lie in a Roman court; and this they found in the admission which He made to the

High Priest that he was the Messiah.

For that admission could

be easily interpreted to Roman ears as involving a claim to be “the King of the Jews,” and one who was therefore politically dangerous. Evidence that He had publicly made such a claim does not appear to‘ have been forthcoming. But when directly challenged by the High Priest “Art thou the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed One?” Jesus replied, “I am,” the first and only time when, according to Mark, He formulated the claim in express

words. On this His own confession the Sanhedrin adjudged Him

guilty of blasphemy, and after being overwhelmed with brutal insults He was hurried off to be tried before the Roman governor,

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JESUS CHRIST

Pontius Pilate. Luke, whose account of these events is largely independent of the other twọ Synoptists, describes the religious authorities as laying three distinct charges against Jesus, out of which Pilate selects for following up the charge that He called himself “Christ a king.” To Pilate’s question whether He did indeed claim to be King of the Jews He returned only an ambiguous reply. What follows is in effect an account of the struggle in Pilate’s mind between his conviction that his prisoner was an innocent man and that it was “through envy” that the high priests had sent him for trial, and the fear lest by offending the Jews he might be involved in a riot at Jerusalem and a charge of maladministration at Rome. As a last resource he threw on the crowd the responsibility of choosing whether they would have Jesus or another prisoner, Barabbas, a bandit, released to them. When they had chosen Barabbas and Pilate asked what then was he to do with Jesus, the shout went up, “Crucify him,” and Pilate gave sentence that it should be as they demanded. The Gospel narratives present Jesus as bearing Himself throughout with unswerving dignity towards men, with uncomplaining submission towards God. Deserted by His followers, betrayed by one of His Apostles, publicly denied by another, beaten and spat upon by the soldiers, jeered by the populace, crucified between two criminals, forsaken by man, and, as it seemed, by God, no form of bitterness was wanting to the cup which He drank, the cup of failure, shame, pain and death. He “obeyed unto the death of the Cross,” “for the glory that was set before Him.” The Resurrection.—On “the third day,” the first day of the week, the same Jesus appeared to some of those who had known Him and believed on Him, alive. And on the conviction that He rose from the dead and “liveth for evermore” the faith and life and hope of the Christian Church are founded. It is to this faith that the Gospel narratives bear collective witness, despite their variations as to the mode and circumstances of the event. The earliest and the strongest evidence for the Resurrection of Jesus is provided by the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistles of St. Paul. The early chapters of the Acts (whatever be the date of their final composition) contain source-material which testifies to the existence, very shortly after the death of Jesus, of a fellowship or community of men and women for whom the verdict of the Cross had been reversed. They were bound together by a common loyalty to Jesus, a common readiness to suffer “for his name,” and a common expectation of His early and visible return. That by which they were animated and sustained was the belief that He was alive, and apart from such a belief there is no explanation to be given of the existence of such a community. Evidence of the vividness and impressiveness of this conviction is provided in the conversion of Saul of Tarsus, for which we must find one of the predisposing causes in the tenacious witness borne to the Resurrection by the disciples whom he had “‘haled and committed to prison.” Some 20 years after, when writing to the Corinthians, Paul summarizes part at least of the Gospel which he had been taught when he became a Christian and which he in turn transmitted to others; and in the short list of points he includes the

Matthew record several occasions on which He so appeared; but they severally reproduce different traditions. The appearances which Matthew describes take place with one exception in Galilee

whither he reports that the apostles were instructed to proceed; Luke, on the other hand, records appearances in Judaea only, and seems even to be at pains to remove the allusions to Galilee, The two traditions are not mutually exclusive, but if one only corresponds to the facts, the Jerusalem one is probably to be preferred. Close examination discloses other discrepancies between the narratives; but these do not affect the central witness which they convey, “The Lord is risen indeed, and hath appeared.” The detail to which the greatest significance attaches is at the close of the story of Emmaus, “He was known of them in the breaking of bread,” the germ of later Eucharistic practice and Eucharistic experience. EARLY LIFE AND TEACHING

His Birth and Boyhood.—Mark’s Gospel opens when Jesus “began to be about thirty years of age.” It is to Matthew and Luke that we owe all that is reported about the period before that. Throughout this section the two narratives are independent of one another, Luke being the more copious of the two. He relates the promise of the birth of a son first to Elizabeth, then to Mary, and the visit of Mary to Elizabeth. Then he describes the birth first of John the Baptist, then of Jesus, and completes his record with an account of the presentation of Jesus in the Temple after His circumcision and of His visit to the Temple with His parents when 12 years old. Luke reserves to a later point the genealogy of Jesus, with which Matthew opens his Gospel; and whereas the former carries the list back from Jesus who was “‘as was supposed, the son of Joseph,” to Adam “the son

of God,” the latter starts from Abraham and works down to Joseph “the husband of Mary, of whom was born Jesus which is called Christ.” Matthew then describes the birth of Jesus (without any foregoing Annunciation), the visit of the Magi, the flight into Egypt and the return to Nazareth. There can be no doubt that both the First Gospel and the Third —in the form in which we have it—represent the birth of Jesus as supernatural in character. His mother was betrothed to Joseph, but still a virgin when He was born. With regard to Luke’s account, however, it is possible that the passages which provide the evidence to this effect represent later insertions by the hand of the Evangelist himself. And while the story of the Annunciation in Matthew emphasizes the Messianic rank and function of the son who is to be born rather than what we should mean by the Divine Sonship, both Gospels have this in common that though ascribing supernatural powers to Jesus, they neither describe nor exhibit Him as other than man. The emergence of a high conception of Christ’s Person which led ultimately to the acknowledgment of His Divinity took place before either of these Gospels was written, but it proceeded along different lines, and ap-

parently without any reference to or inference from a Virgin Birth, which does not appear to have formed part of the Apostolic preaching. Neither Paul nor Mark betrays any knowledge fact that Christ “hath been raised on the third day,” and goes on of the tradition. It follows that it did not form an essential to recite a list of persons to whom He had appeared—Peter, the factor in the presentation of Jesus which we find in Mark or in Twelve, more than five hundred brethren at once, James, all the the interpretation of Him which we owe to Paul. It is probable Apostles, himself. But the fact or event of the Resurrection is for that “Luke became acquainted with the tradition for the first Paul only the beginning of a new and risen life for Jesus of which time, either when he was in process of writing his Gospel, or His followers have experimental proof in daily life and in victory immediately afterwards. The First Gospel presupposes the Virgin over the world and sin. The living Saviour is even more real to Birth tradition, which had probably been known to its readers him than the historical fact that He had risen from the dead. And for some time, sufficiently long for problems to be raised and for Paul is not alone; the Epistle of Peter, that to the Hebrews and difficulties to be started” (Vincent Taylor). the Apocalypse bear witness to the like conviction confirmed by His Work and Teaching.—Mark has preserved but little of the like experience. the teaching of Jesus compared with Luke and Matthew, who The real historical evidence for the Resurrection is the fact that have incorporated in their Gospels large sections of the discourseit was believed and preached, and that it produced its fruit and document known as Q as well as other discourse material which effect in the phenomenon of the Christian Church, long before any each of them had received independently. The earliest collection of our Gospels were written. And it is in the light of this fact that of such material may possibly have been made by Luke at the narratives of the Evangelists must be read. All three attest Caesarea about A.D. 43. the fact that Jesus rose from the dead. Mark’s Gospel breaks off Jesus was primarily conspicuous in the eyes of His contembefore recording any appearance to His disciples. Both Luke and poraries as a healer and a teacher. When He was moved with

JESUS CHRIST compassion for the multitude “he began to teach them many things.” He is constantly presented as “teaching” in the synagogues, in a house, in the Temple, by the lake-side; and His teaching was effective—‘‘the common people heard him gladly.” There was novelty in it, not only in its contents but in its quality. He “taught as One having authority, and not as the scribes.” So He was both addressed and described as the Teacher, as John was described as the Baptizer. When men addressed Him as “Rabbi,” they gave expression to the respect they felt for Him, His character and His teaching; though it is an anachronism for us to refer to Him as “a Jewish Rabbi” since it was only after the fall of Jerusalem that the title took on its modern connotation. His Task.—It is well to try to realize the nature and magnitude of the task which Jesus set Himself as a Teacher, measured as it may be partly by the teaching itself and partly by what He has accomplished at least for a section of mankind. It was a task of almost incalculable difficulty, nothing less than to give to plain, matter-of-fact men a vision of reality which would become for them a permanent factor of experience and an inspiration for

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ceivable ambition the saving or preserving of it. Again, no cost was to be reckoned too great for the securing of this, the highest good conceived in its individual character. “What shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world and lose his own soul?” And the way to save his soul, his true self, was for a man to treat it as a farmer treats his seed, to be ready for sufficient reason to throw it away. “To one who will think concretely of human relations

Christ’s paradox, ‘He that saveth his life shall lose it,’ reveals itself as a simple commonplace of experience, expressing the selftranscendence of personality” (McMaster). Sin——It is from this point of view that we can best approach the teaching of Jesus on the subject of sin. He saw sin as the great danger, and the great injurer of human happiness; it destroyed or jeopardized the highest good, whether in the present or in the future. In His handling of the subject, however, we note a distinction of great importance. In regard to actions in which the man himself is the chief or primary victim, or dispositions which employ the organs of the body as instruments of evil, Jesus emphasizes not so much their sinfulness as their danger. ethical development. It was to lift thought, feeling and aspira- They destroy or jeopardize a man’s opportunity of “life”; they tion in such men from the level at which they are bounded by endanger his participation in the highest good. And they are the horizon of this present life to the level they attain when that therefore so serious, so alarming that in order to avoid the danger horizon disappears. It was to reveal and commend the possibility a man would wisely cut off the member which is for him the organ of a “life” of a different quality from that which is nourished “by of evil, Under this head fall most of those actions or dispositions which bread alone,” a life natural to the family of God, alike in its joy, its ethical character and its permanence. And He had to do this, even now men commonly reckon as “sins.’”’ But Jesus gave a making use not only of a language already familiar to His people, wide extension to the field covered by the term as well as a much but of thought-forms with which they were familiar, however in- deeper conception of the consequences of sin at their worst. The adequately they might body forth His own conceptions. Illustra- stress laid by the Law, especially as interpreted by some of the tions may be found in “the Kingdom of God” and “the Son of Pharisees, upon ritual purity and ritual cleansing encouraged the Man,” regarding both of which He had much to say, though both view that what “defiled’”’ a man was contact with certain external nf them brought up from the past associated ideas which did not things. This rendered him ceremonially “unclean,” disqualified for worship and sacrifice. Jesus, on the other hand, while He necessarily form part of His own conception. The Kingdom of God—tThe ministry of Jesus opened with His emphasized the fact that the dispositions which prompted to arrival in Galilee proclaiming the Gospel, the great and good news acts of sin were as culpable in the sight of God as the acts themof God, that “the time is fulfilled and the Kingdom of God has selves, swept away the whole theory of ritual defilement, and prodrawn near,” and much of His recorded teaching was devoted to claimed that what really “defiled” a man, and disqualified him instruction about the Kingdom, its character, its incommensur- for worship or fellowship with God, was what “came out. of him,” able value and the conditions of belonging to it. The interpreta- the expressions in action of a character centred upon self and tion of the phrase which commends itself to many scholars is averse from God. And in the list which He gave of the things “the sovereignty of God.” But that is altogether too abstract to which thus disqualify a man Jesus made very significant additions to what had been branded as forbidden by Moses and by most tlo justice to the conception of Jesus. He presents the Kingdom as something which is both sought and given, both entering into moralists. He added such things as envy, insatiableness, vituand entered by men, as destined to arrive in the future yet act- peration or railing (A.V. “blasphemy”), insolent superiority and ually within reach of men now, to arrive one day like a flash yet moral insensibility. The last of these corresponds to “the sin to grow quietly as the seed grows to the full corn in the ear. against the Holy Ghost,” something for which there can be no We can only do justice to a conception so plastic by recognizing forgiveness, the victim of it having rendered himself impervious it as involving both the rule and the realm of God; and though to the arrival of mercy. The others are all cases of injury done it is a mistake to identify the Kingdom with the Church, the to the happiness of human individuals or of groups. In a word, Church is the nearest approximation in human life to the ful- morality is changed from a system of commandments and profilment of the idea. The Kingdom consists of persons who enter hibitions whose justification is hid from men, into a system for the it and live within it in happy acceptance of the rule of God and protection of the true welfare and happiness of the individual in loyal relation with one another. Thus it is a society, divinely and of the community. If whatever injures these is what is constituted and divinely controlled. It is thus one aspect of the now branded as “sin,” it means that God Himself has taken these highest good and men are urged to seek it before all else, to under His protection. God.—Jesus took as the basis of His teaching the conception count no cost too great to pay for securing it. At the same time it is a thing given, given as the highest conceivable gift by a of God as it had been developed and moralized by the prophets Father to His children. It has a consummation in the future, from the 8th to the 6th centuries B.c. He was a God who is one, being nothing less than the world-purpose of God: and yet it is who has character and whose character is known—‘‘a God full of present already. Its distance is measured not by time, but by a compassion and gracious, slow to anger, and plenteous in mercy man’s moral preparedness to receive it; its blessings can be ex- and truth . .. and that will by no means clear the guilty,” a perienced not only “in the coming Age” but “at this present time.” God who for very love demanded goodness in His worshippers. It would be only in accordance with the Jewish habit of identify- Sin was not less truly sin because, as we have seen, Jesus eming the king with his people if we said that the Kingdom had come phasized those aspects of it which infringed the happiness of men because He, the King, had come. And it took visible form from rather than the honour of God. And the Divine reaction against the moment when two or three were gathered together in His it was not to be thought less stringent when Jesus completed the name, that is, in a common relation to Jesus, as He was known. work of the prophets by concentrating men’s thought on the The Soul or Higher Life-—Jesus similarly inculcated the incom- Fatherhood of God and making that central to His interpretation mensurable value of the human soul, the human personality as of life. The idea of divine Fatherhood had not failed to make its capable of acquaintance and contact with the unseen world of appearance in the Jewish scriptures, canonical and uncanonical, as spiritual reality. He represented as the greatest conceivable indeed it appears in many religions. But the allusions are rare,

disaster the loss of that organ or faculty, as the highest con-

and most of these perfunctory.

Jesus does not appear to have

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made the Fatherhood of God the subject of definite teaching. He did not argue about it; He did not attempt to prove it; but He recognized and employed the conception as no one had ever done before Him, as the dominating and normative aspect of God in His relation to men. On His lips the name (“the Father,” “My Father,” “your Father”) displaces almost entirely every other name for God. And that it is no mere title appears from the two facts—first, that the gratuitous love and faithfulness which the name connotes represent precisely the aspect of the Divine character which finds special emphasis and illustration in His teaching, and, secondly, it is the further and ultimately the complete realization of Sonship to this Father in which His followers are invited to find the motive and goal of Christian conduct. For while Jesus assumes that God is the Father of all men, He does not assume that all men are His sons. The relationship is for men potential. It requires to be realized in thought and practice, recovered through “repentance.” One aspect of the highest good was to “know the Father,” and of this knowledge Jesus Himself was the indispensable organ and mediator. He and He alone had the power to communicate it, and it lay with Him to determine to whom the revelation should be made. The fourth Gospel crystallizes the whole situation when it reports Jesus as saying “He that hath seen me hath seen the Father.” Jesus’ Ethical Teaching.—The ethical ideals of Jesus differed radically from those of Moses in that they were not embodied in any code of commandments or prohibitions. He ought never to have been presented to the world as a lawgiver or a legislator; Paul, in fact, shows profound affinity with his Master when he so emphatically lays down the principle, “the written code killeth.” Jesus promulgated only one law which was of universal application, binding on all men in all circumstances—“thou shalt love.” This was a demand for the complete reversal of the current of natural human interest and ambition. Hitherto directed to the self, its well-being, safety and happiness, it is now to be directed to the not-self. And the not-self is comprehensively analysed into two objects, God and our “neighbour,” that is to say, the man

that, however, there was to be a time of terrible trial and tribulation for God’s people, the “woes” antecedent to the Messiah’s coming. The reward of the righteous was conceived largely in terms of material prosperity and happiness, the punishment of the wicked in terms of physical suffering. It is exceedingly difficult to bring all the recorded utterances of Jesus on the subject into any single and coherent view. It is far from improbable that even before the material for our Gospels was collected there were two schools of thought in the Church, the one predominantly interested in the catastrophic aspect of the Kingdom’s coming, the other in the evolutionary and ethical aspect; and that according to the prevailing interest the material received emphasis and expansion. Still, it is not possible to eliminate entirely either the catastrophic or the evolutionary form of expectation from the teaching of Jesus, and we must be prepared to recognize a paradox or seeming contradiction in the view which He held. But these points are to be noticed. Jesus no doubt began by sharing the conventional anticipations of His time. But up to a certain

point in the unfolding picture (and that was the point reached in His experience) He was able to criticize these anticipations, and did so in the light of two convictions. The first was that the Kingdom was essentially and wholly spiritual; this led Him to discard firmly and completely all forms of nationalistic and of eudaemonistic hope. The second, which would be a corollary from His Messianic consciousness, was that in a true sense the Kingdom had already arrived. The conditions and methods ‘of its growth were evidently dictated by its spiritual character. Nevertheless, it was obviously incomplete, whether it were looked at extensively or intensively. And it was also part of its character that it comes from the other world. It is not the result of human

activity, but a gift of God. It need not surprise us if, the experience of Jesus stopping where it did, He continued to expect a consummation which would be sudden and catastrophic and would include His own visible return. He described the coming of the Kingdom as impending, yet not immediate, and clothed the expectation of His own return in the traditional symbolism of who is thrown across our path. The sole universal demand or the Danielic Son of Man. His Self-consciousness—How Jesus thought of Himself is a command of Jesus is that men shall care for God with all their heart and mind, and that they shall care for their “neighbour” question of great difficulty and delicacy, and we must be prepared as they care for themselves. Other utterances which take the to find some promising lines of approach yielding disappointing form of precepts or commandments either convey in reality results. That He ranked Himself as a prophet appears from a urgent advice (“Seek ye first the kingdom of God”) or apply few passages such as “It cannot be that a prophet perish out of like “Sell that thou hast”? to the case, any case, where earthly Jerusalem.” He frequently referred to Himself as the Son of possessions are choking spiritual instincts; or, like “Turn to him Man; but while this must be maintained in face of influential the other cheek also,” are startlingly vivid illustrations of the opinions to the contrary, the result for our purpose is less imporkind of conduct which may be expected of one who truly cares tant than we might expect, for the possible meanings of the for his neighbour as he does for himself. For such a one the phrase are as numerous as the sources from which it may possibly motive of personal rancour or revenge has ceased to operate. have been derived. They range from simple “man” through He will no longer claim what is granted to him by the Mosaic “man in his human weakness” and the representative “Man” to legislation, “an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth.” Once the supernatural man from heaven foreshadowed in Daniel. If more Paul has seized the real meaning of this teaching, “Why do we had to postulate one source and one meaning for the phrase as ye not rather put up with injury, why do ye not rather submit used by Jesus of Himself, it would probably be found in Psalm to being defrauded?” The ambition of Christ’s followers in such lxxx., where the poignant appeal to God for the redemption of circumstances is expressed in the saying “if he hear thee, thou Israel runs out on the hope of a “‘son of man whom thou madest hast gained thy brother.” It follows also that it is mistaken and strong for thyself.” But possibly what commended the title to vain to look to the recorded teaching of Christ for rules to guide Jesus was just the many-sidedness of its meaning; it set men men in circumstances which He did not contemplate, and in par- questioning about Him and sent them to seek for an answer in the ticular, in respect of political and economic problems which were literature of Jewish hope. non-existent in His time. That is not to say that Jesus has no The case is not very different in regard to the title “Messiah.” guidance td give in these matters. He has left no written code, Jesus did not, according to the Synoptic Gospels, proclaim Himbut those who have accepted His one commandment can have self to be the Messiah; but He accepted the acknowledgment conscience and judgment so educated by His spirit that the appli- that He was the Messiah when it was made by Peter. He adcation of the law of love to any given circumstances is within mitted it to the high priest at His trial, and from His Temptareach of their discovery. tion onwards we see Him discharging a vocation which could best The Future-—Under the influence of the Apocalypses the be described in terms of Messiahship, the vocation of one anointed Jewish religious hopes of the future had taken a largely conven- by the Spirit of God and equipped for the fulfilment of the agetional form. The final scene in a series of dramatic pictures long purpose of God to deliver His people. At the same time, as represented the catastrophic end of the present Age or World- a description of His vocation as He conceived it, the title was order. It was associated with a day of judgment when the neither accurate nor adequate: there was not in the mind of the righteous would be finally separated from the unrighteous, and Jews of His time any accepted or uniform portrait of the Messiah was to be connected with or preceded by the coming of the to which He could be said to conform. That the Messiah would Messianic Son of Man “with the clouds of heaven.” Prior to employ force either as a national king or in the exercise of a

JESUS CHRIST Divine prerogative was a feature which was commonly taken for granted, but one which Jesus deliberately rejected. That He would teach, make disciples, forgive sins, suffer—these found no place in any form of Messianic expectation; yet these were conspicuous characteristics of His ministry. As factors common to Messianic expectation and to the consciousness of Jesus we should probably recognize the réle of Deliverer, King and Judge, and particularly commissioned representative of God. But the meaning of the first three of these at least was so transformed in His

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sorrow, temptation and pain; and so in all save that relation to God, which He called Sonship, and in the moral perfectness which was its emblem and its fruit. In claiming Sonship Jesus claimed a relation to God which was on an entirely different plane from the Messiahship. The one was personal, ethical and inherent, the other functional and official. And what contributed most to the transformation of His conception of Messiahship was the linking with it of another conception of His function which was symbolized by the figure of the thought that the words are little more than a shell into which He Suffering Servant in Isaiah. The combination appears to have put His own content. Whether it is Peter conferring the title been made for the first time by Jesus Himself, and He made it or Jesus accepting it, they must both be understood as employing deliberately and completely: the redeeming work of the Messiah a term which was far from expressing accurately or adequately was to be accomplished only through suffering and death; and so the impression made on the one or the consciousness of the other. he set himself to the way of the Cross, not in dumb acceptance Jesus himself was the author of the Messianic conception which of the inevitable, but in obedient fulfilment of the purpose and method of God, and anticipating as “the glory that should folHe fulfilled. A more fruitful line of enquiry regarding the self-consciousness low” the final establishment of a “kingdom” of redeemed sons of of Jesus begins with the recognition that He attached the highest God. significance both to His own presence in the world and to the The counterpart to this kingdom in which God was to rule unattitude which men took up to Him. The beginning of a new challenged was the kingdom in which evil forces held sway, those era was to be found between John the Baptist and Himself. spirit-forces of evil which found their summation and impersona“Blessed are the eyes which see what ye see’—things that many tion in Satan or Beelzebub. Some measure of control over human prophets and kings had desired to see. The repeated references affairs and destiny was understood to have passed, temporarily to the reasons why He had come or been sent, together with the at least, to these evil forces. “God,” as Stephen put it, “handed reasons themselves testify to the same consciousness. Conversely, them over to serve the host of heaven,” “spirit-forces in the the privilege involved in His presence carried with it great respon- unseen,” “the prince of this world.” And Jesus claimed that the sibility. Men would classify themselves according as they re- first stage in His redeeming function was already achieved. His sponded or failed to respond to the appeal of His personality and power over the demons, the rank and file of Satan’s forces, was His message. Those who were obtuse to this appeal would meet proof that He had already engaged the “strong man” in a detera fate less tolerable even than that of Sodom. Men are not in mined struggle, and had worsted him; a proof of the fall of this the Synoptic Gospels directly called on to “believe on” Him. Yet kingdom of evil was found by Him in the success of the disciples He looked for a faith which rested on Himself as object, a con- whom He sent forth to preach and heal, and was expressed in fident self-committal which involved readiness to receive all that similar terms. But Jesus also connected Himself with other asHe had to give, not merely a physical boon but His teaching and pects of redemption. “The Son of man came not to be ministered His spirit. The absence of such faith precluded Him on occasion unto but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for the sake from doing any “mighty works.” On the other hand, to “receive” of many.” The language belongs to the same field of thought as Him, just as “to be worthy” of Him is represented as a priceless the prophecies about the Suffering Servant, whose soul was made privilege. “(Whosoever receiveth me, receiveth not me but him “a, sin-offering,” “by whose stripes we are healed.” The picture that sent me.” The thought which finds expression in these vari- is that of an ideal Israel suffering for the sins of actual Israel and ous forms is firmly embedded in the Synoptic Gospels, and in- by that suffering redeeming their fellow-men. In that picture volves on the part of Jesus a tacit claim of a stupendous character. Jesus saw a foreshadowing of Himself, and in the results of the Jesus never refers to Himself as the “Son of God,” and the Servant’s suffering a promise of the results of His own. title when bestowed upon Him by others probably involves no Yet another field of thought in the Old Testament provided more than the acknowledgment that He was the Messiah. But another formulation for this factor in His self-consciousness. He does describe Himself as “the Son” absolutely, and in one When on the occasion of the Last Supper He took the cup and passage, one in which at the same time He disclaims omniscience, said “This cup is my blood of the new covenant,” He brought He sets himself as “the Son” below the Father but above the Himself significantly into connection with the ‘new covenant” angels. Moreover, He uses the word “Father” in the same abso- which according to Jeremiah God would one day establish between lute way to define His relationship to God—‘my Father in Himself and His people (the Zadokite Document of Schechter heaven”; “all things have been given unto me by my Father.” shows that this expectation was still cherished in some quarters). And we find striking, because indirect testimony to the same con- His words suggested that the new covenant was about to be sciousness when in the parable of the Wicked Husbandman intro- sealed with His blood as with the blood of sacrifice. ducing a figure which clearly represents Himself, He says: “last of HIS “GRACE” all he sent his son.” It is in this manner of referring to Himself The Impression Jesus Made.—Jesus’ words and deeds (and and to God, and in the life He lived in entire consonance with a relation which could be so described that we discover the deepest it must be remembered that only a fraction of them have thing in the self-consciousness of Jesus, a profound and con- been handed down in the Gospels), together with all the subtle trolling sense of a relation to God, personal, intimate and per- play of His personality upon those whom He had chosen to be manent, which could only be described in terms of Sonship. As “with Him,” produced a profound impression on His followers. It there is only one person who can be called the Father, so there was indeed an impression of such a kind that even in His lifeis only one who can be called the Son in this absolute way. And time they entered upon a personal relation to Jesus which may the whole tenor of His life was such as to reveal not only the be rightly described as “believing on Him” (Joh. Weiss). In Fatherhood of God but His own Sonship to the Father. It is analyzing this impression probably the first thing to recognize, as conceivable that He did not always realize the uniqueness of this it was first and most widely felt, was His “grace.” Luke, describrelationship, that in early life He thought of the privilege as one ing the natural growth of the boy, records that “he increased in which He shared with other men, but that experience of life and wisdom and stature, and in grace before God and man.” And the deeper knowledge of human nature forced upon Him the dis- Synoptic Gospels provide many illustrations of that attractivecovery that in this He stood alone. The first manifestation of the ness which is the by-product of “grace.” Negatively, there was Divine in Jesus lay in this that He did not suffer this singular nothing about Him of superiority, of aloofness, of self-consciousprivilege which was His to separate Him from other men. He ness or of indifference to the common life of common men. Posibridged what must have been an ever widening gulf; while re- tively, there was a ready sympathy, an understanding tenderness. maining one with God He did not cease to be one with men, In a way of meeting men, as if each one, even the degraded and the

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JESUS CHRIST

outcast, had already a place in His interest. We see the effect of

of His Spirit remain an ideal towards which they flutter, were

this in the way in which men and women “sway to His orbit as He moves.” It bespeaks a deep-seated characteristic, a radiant adequacy which is not for itself alone, but continuously bestows itself in unconscious enriching and enheartening of others. Grace is in fact the atmosphere which love creates around itself. And the fourth Gospel, which so often concentrates to the glittering pin-point of a star what we have seen shimmering like a nebula in the Synoptic Gospels, sums up the impression produced by a thousand contacts, “We beheld his glory . . . full of grace and reality”; John thus witnessing to the discovery that the Divine glory was no longer to be sought in material splendour but in qualities of character. His Authority and Power-——A second factor in the impression made by Jesus which was felt from the beginning and increasingly to the end was power, power greater in intensity and wider in scope than had been felt before, and yet wholly independent of force, prestige, social or ecclesiastical position or any

for Him the sole motives of daily life. They continuously governed His relation to God on the one hand and to men on the other; and the death which was the natural and accepted issue of the kind of life He lived in the kind of world that man has

made, was but the supreme expression of the twin principles of perfect love to God and perfect love to man. And the man who loves God and man perfectly is the perfect man. In:Fashion as a Man-—Certain words of Peter spoken at the time of Pentecost, “A man approved of God,” describe Jesus as He was known and regarded by His contemporaries. He was “found in fashion as a man,” that is, in all particulars which presented themselves to outward observation He appeared and behaved as one of the human race. He “was made man.” The Gospels leave no room for doubt as to the completeness with which these statements are to be accepted. From them we learn that Jesus passed through the natural stages of development, physical and mental, that He hungered, thirsted, was weary and slept, that of the ordinary sanctions of authority. This power was felt in He could be surprised and require information, that He suffered Him—witness the testimony that “He spake with authority and pain and died. He not only made no claim to omniscience, He disnot as the scribes.” The scribes claimed and exercised authority tinctly waived it. This is not to deny that He had insight such of a certain kind, coercive authority, to an unusual degree. What as no other ever had, into human nature, into the hearts of men men recognized in Jesus was authority of a different kind, per- and the purposes and methods of God. But there is no reason to suasive authority, the authority of truth pressed home by a unique suppose that He thought of the earth as other than the centre of personality. Further, men observed Him exercising power over the solar system, of any other than David as the author of the the unseen world, over demons and so over disease, and by an Psalms, or did not share the belief of His age that demons were extension of the scope of such power easier for them to accept the cause of disease. Indeed, any claim to omniscience would be than for us, power over forces of nature, regarded as not wholly not only inconsistent with the whole impression created by the impersonal. They saw in Him many different forms “the suprem- Gospels, it could not be reconciled with the cardinal experiences acy of the spiritual forces of the world to an extraordinarily of the Temptation, of Gethsemane and of Calvary. Unless such marked degree over the material.” They felt His power, they experiences were to be utterly unreal, Jesus must have entered observed it, and they also heard Him claim it, authority to inter- into them and passed through them under the ordinary limitapret (and to interpret so as to transcend) the sacred Law of tions of human knowledge, subject only to such modifications of Moses, authority to forgive sins, authority to fix the destiny of human knowledge as might be due to prophetic insight or the sure men in accordance with the attitude which they took up towards vision of God. There is still less reason to predicate omnipotence of Jesus. Himself. Men must have seen in him such spiritual power and such consciousness of authority that they could without amaze- There is no indication that He ever acted independently of God, ment hear him say, “All things have been delivered unto me of or as an independent God. Rather does He acknowledge dependence upon God, by His habit of prayer and in such words as “this my Father.” His Moral Supremacy.—A factor in the impression which would kind goeth not forth save by prayer.” He even repudiates the be at first only surmised as moral superiority but afterwards ascription to Himself of goodness in the absolute sense in which realized with startling clearness was the moral supremacy of it belongs to God alone. It is a remarkable testimony to the truly Jesus. If in all else men who knew Him felt Him to be one with historical character of these Gospels that though they were not themselves, they early began to feel the difference between them- finally set down until the Christian Church had begun to look up selves and Him in the sphere of character, and must have been to the risen Christ as to a Divine Being, the records on the one led to reflect on the reason for it in His relation to God. We see hand preserve all the evidence of His true humanity and on the its effects in the reluctance of John to baptise Jesus; “I have need other nowhere suggest that He thought of Himself as God. Confirmations —We are not left without valuable confirmation to be baptised of thee, and comest thou to me?” Himself a stern ascetic he recognized in Jesus one before whose moral character he of certain aspects of the character of Jesus which have presented himself must bow. The like conviction due to the same cause finds themselves in the Gospels. Peter in the Acts describes Him, still expression in the words of Peter: “Depart from me, for I am a in language which falls short of the faith of the later Church, as sinful man, O Lord.” What was the measure of the difference? one whom “God anointed with the Holy Ghost and with power; Can it be fully described as moral superiority? Or did it amount who went about doing good and healing all that were oppressed by to moral perfection, without stain of sin? If we accept the witness the devil.” It must have been out of a wide knowledge of the of the New Testament as a whole, we shall have no hesitation in things said and done by Jesus that Paul drew his conclusions about saying that it was the latter. That alone accounts wholly for the Him, and the salient features of His character and conduct. He impression which Jesus made, and that alone is consistent with was one who “pleased not himself”; “ye know the grace of the Lord Jesus”; “purity and disinterestedness,” these were qualities what we can discover of His own consciousness. This supreme distinction in the character of Jesus is commonly of His character (2 Cor. xi. 3). “Endurance” and “obedience,” referred to His Sinlessness. The description is not, however, a “deference and considerateness,”’ these were displayed in His life very happy one; it is better to state and emphasize the unique and conduct. Paul further attests the belief that “he knew no supremacy and perfect adequacy of His moral ideal, and then sin,” Peter that He “did no sin,” the writer to the Hebrews that

His own perfect fulfilment of that ideal. Both the nature of the claim and the justification of it are contained in one utterance, “My meat is to do the will of Him that sent me.” When we acknowledge the moral perfectness of Jesus, we mean that He knew the will of God and that in the doing of it He found His

greatest joy and the nourishment of the highest life within Him. His is the only character in history which abides the test of the two commandments which He re-enunciated as the great commandments of the Law. These ethical principles, which even for

those who have the stimulus of His example and the inspiration

though tempted at all points like as we are, He was “yet without sin.” And however .we may account for it, Paul’s ethical teaching is in closest harmony with the ethical teaching of Jesus. Both make love the central and sufficient motive of their system: “love is the fulfilling of the law.” And in the application of the central principle to the details of conduct there is a startling combination of similarity of result with marked difference of form; even the “desire not to give needless offence’? which is so characteristic of Paul reproduces a feature in the conduct of Jesus. A portrait of the ideal man constructed from the teaching of Jesus would be

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JESUS CHRIST indeed hard to distinguish from a similar portrait drawn from the materials supplied by St. Paul. Unless we are to postulate two creative minds working on the same subject and independently arriving at practically the same unique result, we must regard Paul as confirming, all the more ‘emphatically because indirectly, the ethical teaching of Jesus as recorded in our Gospels. The Interpretation.—The phenomena which we have been collecting and classifying taken together constitute the fact of Jesus, the fact whose impact on certain of His contemporaries is necessary to account for the emergence of the Christian Fellowship or Church. We have now to recall the successive attempts to interpret this fact, to place it rightly in its context of human history and Divine purpose. Jesus Himself invited reflection on this problem: “Whom say men that I am?” And the Synoptic Gospels record the earliest stages of the solution. The people whose knowledge of Him was comparatively superficial said that He was a prophet, or “one of the prophets” specifying certain names. And Jesus accepted the description. Those whom He had chosen to be “with Him” recognized in Him “the Messiah,” employing, as we have seen, the highest category which could be applied to a human being, yet one which fell short of exhaustively describing the totality of the impressions He had made upon them. When in these Gospels we find Him also referred to as “the Son of David” or “the Son of God,” nothing is really added to the description of Him as Messiah, as even the second of these phrases is drawn from the traditional description of the ideal king. It seems probable that He accepted the designation “the Messiah” even as they conferred it, with a sense, much deeper than theirs, that it was the best available, and that it was a true conception only in so far as its contents were such as He put into it. PAUL’S INTERPRETATION But neither “prophet” nor “Messiah” gave a complete account of what the disciples had felt and found in Jesus. In particular, the ideas connected with the Suffering Servant and with Sonship were still waiting to be subsumed under some larger, loftier con-

ception. Not till after the Crucifixion and the Resurrection were even all the materials ready for a complete and final interpretation of Jesus; and even then we see the primitive Church fumbling after such an interpretation. He was “a Prince and a Saviour,” “Lord and Christ.” But even here the title Lord is at the stage of transition from its use as an address of courtesy in the Gospels to its use in the fullest religious sense by Paul. Nevertheless, “the language of words always lags behind the inner secret of Christianity,” and we see in the Acts evidence of that “surrender of soul which precedes the articulate utterance of the creeds.” Men and women “believed on” Jesus even before they were prepared to give dogmatic expression to their faith: they looked up to Him as in Heaven, “at the right hand of God”; they offered prayer to Him, and worship, which probably means that they reverently sought to realize His fellowship in the breaking of bread; they were inexpressibly grateful to Him because, as they believed, He had died “for their sins.” Yet, in the matter of dogmatic interpretation there is no evidence that they got beyond Peter’s “God was with him.” It was left to Paul setting all he knew (and it was not little) of the life and teaching, the character and personality, of Jesus, in the light of Christian experience, to draw the next of the widening circles, and include much that the previous interpretation had omitted. He proclaimed that at and through the Resurrection Jesus had been publicly instated as Son of God with power; and if the phrase has not wholly lost its official Messianic connotation, it certainly includes a reference to the personal Sonship, which Paul elsewhere makes clear by speaking of Him as God’s “own Son” “the Son of his love.”

It may not be possible to decide whether it was the primitive community or Paul himself who first put full religious content into the title “Lord” as used of Christ. Probably it was the former. But the Apostle undoubtedly adopted the title in its full meaning, and did much to make that meaning clear by transferring to “the Lord Jesus Christ” many of the ideas and phrases which in the Old Testament had been specifically assigned to the Lord Jehovah. God “gave unto Him that name that is above every name—the name of ‘Lord.’ ” At the same time by equating Christ

25

with the Wisdom of God and with the Glory of God, as well as ascribing to Him Sonship in an absolute sense. Paul claimed for Jesus Christ a relation to God which was inherent and unique, ethical and personal, eternal. While, however, Paul in many ways and in many aspects, equated Christ with God, he definitely stopped short of speaking of him as “God.” While the Hellenic world light-heartedly added to its pantheon one after another of its mystery-heroes or saviours of their country, the Christian Church was withheld by the conception of God which it inherited from Judaism, from giving this form of expression to its conviction regarding Jesus and its experience of the living Christ until at least the close of the first century. That final step in the interpretation of Jesus, is recorded, if it is recorded in the New Testament at all, in the Fourth Gospel; and it is not certain that we find it even there. The Fourth Gospel—We come lastly to the witness of the Fourth Gospel, placing it here not only because this Gospel is the latest of the documents relevant to our purpose, but because the writer, whoever he was, combines to a singular degree dependence on the teaching which we find in Paul with striking originality of his own. It is now generally understood that his work has much less the character of an historical record than of an interpretation of Jesus, an interpretation in the light of Christian experience and of the situation of the Church towards the end of the first century. That is not to say that “John” does not confirm, sometimes directly, sometimes indirectly, many parts of the story of Jesus which are familiar to us from the Synoptic Gospels. There are even matters on which he appears to have preserved a more trustworthy tradition than the Synoptic Gospels. But alike in the selection of the material and in the way in which it is handled the Evangelist is guided by the interpretation which has now been put upon Jesus and by his desire to commend that interpretation to men. His work is not best described as an allegory or as a series of allegories but as a series of transparencies, episodes, actions and teaching through which and behind which is seen not obscurely the glory of a Divine Being, who is the Life and the Light of men. This does not mean that the truly human nature of Jesus is either overlooked or obscured. Rather is it insisted on with emphasis; but it is treated as the vehicle for the self-revelation of the Logos which, having been in the beginning, and with God, and “divine,” had entered human life and history as the Word “made flesh.” It was this interpretation which took up into itself and fused into one all the factors predicated by Paul, but made a further advance upon Paul by relating the religious convictions of the Church concerning Jesus to the philosophical language and ideas of the time. But the identification of Jesus with the Logos was not tantamount to recognizing Him as “God.” Neither the “Word of God” in Hebrew nomenclature nor the Logos in Greek speculation was “God,” though it was definitely “divine.” And it is not certain that even the words which Thomas addressed to Jesus (xx. 28) meant what they suggest in the English version. They may mean, “it is Jesus himself, and now I recognize him as Divine” (Burkitt). If so, the final step in the interpretation of Jesus, the recognition of his Deity belongs to the truth into which the Spirit has led the Church since the New Testament was complete. The New Testament enshrines a rich and variegated record of the experience and teaching of Jesus, of the impression on His followers into which these were translated, of the convictions to which the impression and their own experience of the living Christ gave rise. And if the intellectual conclusion drawn within the first century is most truly expressed by saying that the Church gave Jesus “the value of God,” it is clear also that there was still something in the record waiting to be subsumed in a final interpretation, the fact that Jesus has given new values to God. If God were to appear upon earth to-day, the Christian world would expect him to be like Jesus. BrIBLioGRAPHY.—Out of the vast mass of literature a small selection has been made of those works which combine scientific knowledge with religious insight. (a) Sources: H. G. Wood in The Parting of the Ways (1912); F. C. Burkitt, The Gospel History and its Transmission, 3rd ed. (1911); B. H. Streeter, The Four Gospels (1924). (b) History: W. Sanday, Life of Christ (1907); Edward Meyer, Ursprung und Anfänge des Christentums, 3 vols. (1921-23) ; von Gall,

JESUS CHRIST

26

Basileia Theou (1926) ; E. F. Scott, The Kingdom and Messiah (1911). (c) Interpretation: C. Gore, The Doctrine of Christ (1922); B. Latham, Pastor Pastorum; W. M. Macgregor, Jesus Christ the Son of God (1907); G. A. Smith, Jerusalem (1907); A. E. Rawlinson, The New Testament Doctrine of the Christ (1926); Joh. Weiss, Christ, the Beginnings of Dogma (1911); Jesus im Glauben des roten Jahrhunderis; Leipoldt, Das Gotteserlebniss Jesu (1927); H. R. Mackintosh, The Doctrine of the Person of Christ (1912); A. Schweitzer, The Quest of the Historical Jesus (and ed., 1911) (an analytic account of the modern treatment of the subject). (C. A. Sc.)

THE RELIGIOUS

AND

HISTORICAL

BACKGROUND!

The land in which Christianity arose has never been an isolated one, least of all in that age when, by common consent, a new era was inaugurated in human history. Indeed, Galilee itself, the home of its Founder, lay in close proximity to the Greek cities of the Decapolis; it was more susceptible to external influences than was Jerusalem, with its temple and its stricter Judaism, and well deserved its old name “Galilee of the Nations.” Two great “positive” religions (ż.e., religions explicitly due to personal founders) had already firmly established themselves. Of these, Buddhism (qg.v.) under King Asoka (3rd century B.c.) had sent its missionaries as far afield as Egypt and Cyrene; but its influence seems negligible, in marketl contrast to its subsequent steady conquests in the Far East. On the other hand, the religion of Persia (see ZOROASTER), which has become weak in the East, was far more important in the West, and directly or indirectly exerted very considerable influence on the literature of Judaism and in Asia Minor. Between all these religions many striking parallels can, at one time or another, be found; but the difficulty of dating the sources frequently makes it impossible to determine on which side the debt, if any, really lies. Thus, certain Jewish doctrines (e.g., the merits of the fathers), in the form in which they are preserved, may be due to a Jewish “counter-reformation”’ after the birth of Christianity. A broad survey of the Roman world reveals a more or less continuous development from the Hellenistic age to the Byzantine age, in the middle of which the novel “detested superstition,” as Tacitus styles Christianity, makes its appearance as an

its progressive development amid the conditions of its age, and (b) the primary and impressive fact that “the stone which the builders rejected” became the foundation stone of a veritable new era (Acts iv. 11). What was there in Jesus to achieve this result? The world has agreed to recognize sundry men of outstanding genius—Homer, Plato, Dante, , Shakespeare. . . . Men of unequalled spiritual genius are to be found among the prophets, psalmists and writers of old Israel. Yet, possible though it might be to produce parallels or analogies for the several sayings and acts of Jesus, there is no record, no hint among the sages, seers and saints of his or any other age of any personality so rich as he in all that has won men’s hearts. None the less, he did not stand quite alone; the story of the Gospels, set forth as it is on a relatively small canvas, its simplicity and directness, the ability of the writers to present their narratives and to interpret what Jesus meant for them—all this points to men, also uniquely gifted, and able to paint so

vitalizing a picture because they stood so near to the mind of their Master. There was, in truth, a certain qualitative difference between Jesus and his first interpreters, on the one hand, and, on the other, the various reformers and reforming or revolutionary movements of his age—see notably JoHN THE Baptist (Matt. xi. rz). A certain organic unity distinguishes the personality of Jesus as described in the Gospels, and this gave Christianity, from the first, a decisive individuality despite the striking points of contact between it, its background and other religions. JESUS AS THE LAST OF THE PROPHETS

Some centuries earlier the religion of Israel had reached its high-water mark in the “Second Isaiah” (Is. xl. sgg.), and more especially in the idea of the ‘Servant of the Lord.” To Christians it has always seemed natural to pass from the great figures of that earlier age (Jeremiah and the writers and actors in the Second Isaiah), to Jesus of Nazareth, and this earlier age, like that of Jesus, cannot be isolated from the more or less contemporary

events in religion elsewhere.

(See HEBREW RELIGION, sec. ọ end,

14 end.) Similarly, the rise of the first great prophets, Amos and accomplished fact. The general religious situation over that large Hosea (8th century 8.c.), the “Mosaic” age (that of the “Amarna” area—the centre of gravity of which may be said to have been period) and the age of Abraham (c. 1st Babylonian dynasty and Egypt—was exceedingly complex. We see Stoicism, Epicureanism 12th Egyptian dynasty) are part of far-reaching changes in hisand a variety of mystical cults. There are a number of outstand- tory, religion and civilization. Indeed, with Eduard Meyer (Gesch. ing figures—Posidonius of Apamea, Philo of Alexandria, Seneca, des Alitertums, i. I, secs. 592 sgg.) and George Foote Moore Marcus Aurelius, Hillel—to name only five. Egyptian and Ana(Hist. of Religions, i. p. viii. seg.), we may see earlier examples, tolian cults moved Romewards, and great Baals (Jupiter of c. 5000, and again c. 3000 (more recently confirmed by the disDoliche, Jupiter of Heliopolis-Baalbek), with the cult of the coveries at Ur) of a simultaneity which the latter has compared Persian Mithras, almost reached the Atlantic. At their gates to geological epochs. Whatever be the true explanation of these the Jews had Graeco-Semitic cults of Zeus, Apollo and Dionysus, striking facts, here are clearly-marked stages in man’s increasing and a “good, bountiful and compassionate Baal of Heaven”; knowledge of himself and of the universe. There is a continuity at Gaza was “Our Lord” (Marna), and at Askalon the “Face of to the rise of Christianity; a progressive development runs through Baal” (Phanebal). There were anticipations of some profound the Old Testament (as interpreted by modern biblical criticism); change from the famous Fourth Eclogue of Virgil to the varied it passes to the New, and subsequently bases itself upon the Bible. Messianic and cataclysmic beliefs of the Jews, and changes This line of development stands in contrast to the religious hisensued. In the 2nd century A.D. there was the recognition at tory of lands and peoples which fall outside it; although the Alexandria that a new era had begun with the new Sothic cycle comparative study of religions finds a real relationship among the (A.D. 139-143). In Syria, the amazing emperor Heliogabalus ideas and beliefs of all peoples, even the most rudimentary. But (q.v.) was one of other signs of an oriental revival of which, the development is no mechanical one. At certain periods the apart from Christianity, the Sasanian renascence is of consider- clash of conflicting ideas can be very clearly discerned, so that able historical importance. (See Persia, History.) And in India, the progressive advance is evidently due to the victory of those the Bhagavad Gita was henceforth to exercise the most powerful tendencies and ideas which, for whatever reason, were most vital influence depicting a Krishna who to many minds has seemed a and pregnant. ; worthy rival of the Christ who was conquering the West. Viewed in the light of the history of Palestine, Jesus is the In Christianity itself the differing tendencies, sects and heresies, last of the Hebrew prophets. (See Hesrew RELIGION, sec 21.) indicate the diversity of minds in whom the seeds of the new reThe inability of Judaism to accept him must, therefore, be conligion were producing growths most of which could not endure trasted with the remarkable reorganization of the religion of or be tolerated. (See, for a noteworthy example, SoLomoN Israel through the prophets, at an age (before and in 6th cent. B.C.) [Opes].) “False” Messiahs, Essenes and Zealots, and especially when the old empires of Egypt, Assyria and Babylonia, lost or Jobn the Baptist, reflect in their turn significant movements. were losing their old creative power. It is also important to Hence if, to use a modern phrase, “reconstruction” was in the air, observe that the line of development is not narrowly Hebrew, or the fundamental facts are two: (a) the victory of Christianity and even Semitic. The influence of non-Semitic peoples upon Palestine This article considers the relation of Jesus to the religious and historical background of the period, and His place in the history of can be traced or suspected from ancient times to the rise of religions. For a discussion of the life and teaching of Jesus, as these Christianity; and this religion was not so distinctively oriental in the way that Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam have been. Even may be gathered from the sources, see the preceding article.

JESUS CHRIST Islam has been indebted in its progress to Greeks and to Persians in the East (cf. articles AVICENNA, FARABI, KınDI), and to intercourse with Spaniards in the West. The spirituality and the fertility of thought of the great non-Christian religions deserve a much more appreciative study than they have often received, but the differences in the vate and the nature of development among all the world’s religions are not without significance. At all events, Christianity, utilizing Greek and Latin thought as it grew, has found itself obliged to face problems other and more profound than those of oriental peoples. Judaism, too, though sharing the Old Testamént with Christianity, and making important contributions to Western thought in and after the middle ages, has not been compelled to work out those questions, which, arising out of the whole Bible, have directly or indirectly spurred on and directed Western research. Christianity arose in a world which, in a sense, was being prepared for it. If the East had been Hellenized, the West was being orientalized. But it had to recharge, reshape, and revitalize current ideas and beliefs; and if it has progressed it is because it made an exceptionally heavy demand upon the intellectual no less than upon the moral and spiritual life of its adherents, and had to overcome powerful and well-equipped rival or hostile tendencies. Everywhere men had been able to find in the universe, or within themselves—and in Indian thought the two are ultimately one— that which answered their needs and called forth their best. Osiris and Marduk were effective gods in Egypt and Babylonia; and in Krishna, it has been said, every Indian ideal, instinct and conviction found sanction and embodiment. Even among rudimentary religions the totems, ancestral deities and friendly spirits can be the mainstay of the social life. Throughout there are to be found fundamental resemblances. But the differences are no less fundamental, owing to the way in which the primary beliefs and ideas are shaped. There are typical needs and universal

difficulties, but the closer the parallels the more significant do differences become—of this a careful comparison of treatment of the person of founders of religions affords many interesting examples. It was during the middle of the rst millenium B.C. that there arose religions addressing themselves to individuals; but Christianity differs from Zoroastrianism and Buddhism, and also from the religion of Mohammed, by its organic connection with its Jewish environment. It carried on and “fulfilled” the great essential ideas of the parent religion, Israel had been conscious of a peculiarly intimate personal relationship with its God. The majesty and might of the Deity meant both the insignificance of the individual, but also the glory and the mission of one who had such a God as his own. Great ideas were hammered out and tested through centuries of hard and strenuous history, and from the first Christianity felt that the religion of Israel had now reached its culminating point, and that the Israel of old was

replaced by the Christian body, the body of Christ. The efforts to preserve unchanged the teaching of a Founder or to develop its essential character can be followed in the history of religions. The rapid growth of legends and miracles, and the necessity for forming a “canonical” history can be seen most recently in the rise of Babiism (g.v.). Moreover, the extraordinary development of Buddhism from an ethical brotherhood to an elaborate religion is “a radical transformation . . . comparable to that which out of the religion of Jesus made Catholic Christianity” (G. F. Moore). It illustrates the effort to adapt a new religion to the most diverse needs. In this process the transition from the male Avalokiteshvara to Kwan-yin (Kwan-non) the “soddess of mercy”

of the Far East reflects the demand

for

Divine female attributes, even as in the Near East, the great mother-goddesses continued to survive in the Virgin Mother. To satisfy popular needs a religion has often moved away from the plain life and teaching of its Founder; and whereas Jesus himself repudiated the suggestion that he should prove his greatness by working marvels (cf. Mark viii. 11 seqg., also the Temptation), popular religion, by demanding tangible and physical proofs of his uniqueness (¢.g., the Virgin birth), diverted attention from that which really made him unique. But already, earlier, in Israel, the prohibition to put God to the test (Deut. vi. 16) had to

27

contend with popular stories o1 the proofs and signs of Yahweh’s might, or of his readiness or ability to fulfil his word. (Cf. Abraham, Gen. xv. 8; Moses, Ex. ili. seg.; Gideon, Judges vi.; Hezekiah, 2 Ki. xviii.)

Religions tend to undergo some weakening of their earlier spiritual value. (Cf. Christ as a wonder-worker, or as merely an ethical teacher, or a social reformer.) But from time to time there are demands for a return to what is felt to be fundamental and essential, and the “return” can be an “advance” with an enrichment of spiritual meaning. The Fourth Gospel is a striking example of the way in which a reinterpretation, after the lapse of some decades, has been felt to be so true that the four Gospels have seemed to be a single unit even as the whole book of Isaiah, the whole Old Testament and the whole Bible have been felt by many to be single organic units, and not the highly composite works that they are. On the other hand, the return to the past illustrated in the antiquarianism of Babylonia and of Egypt, and later of the unsuccessful Sassanian revival proves that an old system must be adjusted to later conditions if it is to endure. THE ESSENTIAL NATURE OF RELIGION Just as the common assumption that religion, in general, sprang from some single element (e.g., fear, ghosts, sex, or magic), is disproved by the fact that early religion is essentially a practical, social, religious system, so the higher religions, in turn, are not based upon the utterances and acts of a single Founder, but are organic systematic bodies of ideas. With these the test of truth is not only the the value of the sooner or later mental growth.

ordinary social effectiveness of the religion, but theological and philosophical developments which are required among peoples at a higher stage of The distinction which students of religion are

obliged to draw between magic and religion reflects the fact that religious beliefs and practices are found to differ markedly in their social, ethical or logical value. But while any harmful social or ethical consequences (¢.g., human sacrifice) sooner or later do not fail to arouse the reformer, questions of intellectual value and the conflict between religious ideas and ordinary contemporary knowledge are much more obscure. Religion typically implies certain ideas of the nature of man and the universe which are commonly of the utmost importance for man’s knowledge of the world in which he lives. Both the pre-existence of Christ and his profound “cosmic” significance (cf. Rom. viii. 19 sqg., Col. i.) are not without parallels as far back as the Pharaohs of Egypt. Gods were often believed to be immanent in nature or in natural processes; or the universe was something living; it was a man, Or man in some sense partook of the essence of the universe. If the moralist would enjoin man to live in harmony with the order that rules in the universe, the mystic would feel his oneness with it, or the devotee might seek union with its God. The attempt to frame a “rational” description of the universe may perhaps be traced back to the noteworthy conception of a universal cosmic “order” (rita), under the guardianship of the ethical god Varuna. (See Hesrew RELIGION, sec. 4.) Later there was a differentiation, and while Zoroastrianism develops the idea of ethical order, also under an ethical god (Ahura-Mazda), a naturalistic treatment arose in the West in Tonia. Indian thought, on the other hand, emphasized the essential unreality of the world, and by a tremendous leap, identified the ultimate principle of the individual with that of the universe. Of course, men often enough were not, and are not, conscious of the real problems which religious experience brings. Religion might give a man all the knowledge of the universe that he wanted; it might also deprecate curiosity concerning God’s handiwork. If intense religious experience made the world seem transitory and unreal, the decisive conviction of its reality subordinated all deeper religious enquiry to the current knowledge. When Christianity arose there was abundant speculation of a theological, philosophical, and pseudo-scientific character, and had the idea of Christ as an immanent cosmic principle been developed, there would have been, instead of a theology, virtually a theory of the universe. (Cf. MANICHAEISM.) Characteristic of the age were the catastrophic anticipations

28

JET

and forebodings. A changed world was demanded, or was believed to be imminent. Overwhelming spiritual experiences imply or require a sphere other than that of earthly life. Religion demands a sphere of its own, or it makes one. Renunciation and seclusion from the world of active life were no novelty—Buddhism and Taoism had their monks; but religion is also dominating and imperialist, and the Old Testament illustrates the extremes of submission, passivity, and self-centredness, and the zeal of a religion proud of its strength and its efficiency and of its significance for the world at large. Christianity, like Judaism, accepted the world. God moulded history for Israel; “righteousness” and “salvation” had material implications even as “sin” meant misfortune and unhappy conditions, the fruit of men’s wrong-

doing. Christianity, like Judaism, was for active practical use; and the Jesus of the Gospels, the reverse of an ecstatic or unstable character, even gives point to his teaching by utilizing examples of successful capacity (the parable of the Talents and of lack of preparation for war [Luke xiv. 31]). Neither the life after death (cf. the “psychic” body of 1 Cor. xv. 44), nor the conditions after an anticipated cataclysm could be regarded as entirely other than what earthly experience could suggest, even as the earlier Messianic expectations (in Is. xi. 4-6) are not of a sinless age, but of dn age of absolute justice and peace. Jesus follows in the line of Jeremiah’s New Covenant and the Book of Deuteronomy in his appeal to the individual, whose worth he so wonderfully magnifies. In Jesus himself his followers saw supreme “Divine Personality, and Perfect Man”; he was the ideal “Son of Man,” and this co-existence of the perfectly divine and perfectly human lies at the centre of the new religion and of later theological development of the doctrine of the person of Jesus Christ. From the individual Jesus required complete faith and trust in God and the highest social ideals. The most spiritual type of life was that manifested in the simplest and humblest duties, and while the truest religion was to show itself in human activity, the individual who was true to hufmanity’s highest ideals was in fact fulfilling the Law of Christ. Now, the meaning of the example and teaching of Jesus for the real nature of man and his environment was much more than a religious or a theological problem. Nor could philosophy solve it. Philosophy has always been a late comer in the history of human development. It follows upon the anthropomorphic and mythological explanation of things. It betokens an introspective and detached mind and a knowledge of the inner life for which Indian and Iranian religions afforded the earliest examples. But the Indo-Iranian peoples, like the Semites, had relatively little positive knowledge, and the Greeks, on the other hand, with all their acuteness and skill, had little real religious instinct. In this respect the more practical West and the more mystical East have always diverged. Philosophy wavered between an explanation of religious (spiritual, mystical) experience and a reasonable account of man and of the universe wherein he lived; and whereas there has grown up in the Western world an antithesis between “religion” and “science,” the true antithesis is the more complex one, (1) ‘between different qualities of religion (in their social and other value), and (2) between religious and related experience (the “numinous”’) and all that comes through the senses and may be called “non-religious.” The ideal of Christianity has been fullness of life. In being true to self man has found the self to which to be true, and the supreme self-consciousness which distinguishes the religion of Israel finds its climax in renunciation as a step towards the fullest life. Men have to learn the one thing needful, and with the refusal of the rich man whom Jesus loved (Mark x. 21) contrast his own recognition of what was required of himself. The great refusals mean decay and death. In common with the prophets of Israel Jesus combines compassion and consolation, warning and grief for warning unheeded. From Amos and Hosea onwards, there is a Divine Law as well as a Divine Love; and neither individuals nor nations can offend with impunity. Israel, the firstborn of Yahweh, suffers when she offends against the Divine Law, but Jesus the “only begotten” goes to his death fulfilling his destiny (cf. Mark viii, 31-33) and “fulfils” what the Israelite

“servant of the Lord” had begun (Is. liii.). The whole process, as unfolded in the history of religion, has a more than religious significance, for the great religious ideas concern the very nature of the universe. There is an increasing consciousness of what the universe demands of men (cf. earlier, Micah vi. 8); and the vicissitudes of Christianity and other religions have been so shaped by spiritual needs, and by moral needs, and by mental or intellectual needs that religion itself represents something from which ethical and intellectual demands cannot be isolated. When the Founder of Christianity set up the ideal of a normal life wherein the religious and non-religious sides should be in harmonious relation, it followed that all that religion represents must be a normal and a natural part of man, and the “philosophy”—if that term

be retained—which grows most naturally out of the personality of the Founder, must make explicit the ideal harmonious interrelation of spiritual, ethical and intellectual aspects of life and thought. The old ego-centric conceptions of the universe, which modern knowledge of space and time has put in the background, find their explanation in man’s consciousness of his essential unity with the universe or of his relation with its God. But the immense accumulation of facts concerning the universe as revealed to man by his senses is confronted by a no less impressive mass of data of religion and of religious and all related experience. The history of civilization proves that the religious and nonreligious types of experience can never be lastingly severed, and the modern study of man’s mental processes and world of thought is preparing the way for a better knowledge of the part played by religion, in particular by Christianity, in enabling man to understand his total environment. Christianity, centring upon an ideally perfect Personality, has to shape men towards an increasingly fuller consciousness of the ultimate truths of God, man and the universe. Its career and the stages leading up to it can be placed, as has been seen, upon the background of history and religion. But while the line of development can be clearly traced back, its future course cannot be easily foreshadowed. Christianity is based upon a single book, or rather a collection of books (see BrBie) covering the centuries during which there were the profoundest developments of which we know, and upon which the Bible is the only direct source of knowledge. Entirely characteristic is the utterly uncompromising recognition that God is no respecter of persons or peoples, but that the Divine purpose in all its workings is not arbitrary. Certain awe-inspiring ideas of God and man were realized, and have proved capable of continuous reinterpretation: but the real significance of the great religious truths has yet to be restated in the light of modern knowledge. (S. A. C.)

JET, a substance which seems to be a peculiar kind of lignite

or anthracite; often cut and polished for ornaments. (Fr. jais, Ger. Gagat.) The word “jet” probably comes, through O.Fr. jaiet, (from the classical gagates, a word which was derived, according to Pliny, from Gagas, in Lycia, where jet, or a similar substance, was originally found). Jet was used in Britain in prehistoric times; many round barrows of the bronze age have yielded jet beads, buttons, rings, armlets and other ornaments. The abundance of jet in Britain is alluded to by Gaius Iulius Solinus (f. 3rd century) and jet ornaments are found with Roman relics in Britain. Probably the supply was obtained from the coast of Yorkshire, especially near Whitby, where nodules of jet were formerly picked up on the shore. Caedmon refers to this jet, and at a later date it was used for rosary beads by the monks of Whitby Abbey. The Whitby jet occurs in irregular masses, often of lenticular shape, embedded in hard shales known as jet-rock and belonging to that division of the Upper Lias which is termed the zone of Ammonites serpentinus. Microscopic examination of jet occasionally reveals the structure of coniferous wood, which A. C. Seward has shown to be araucarian. Probably masses of wood were brought down bya river, and drifted out to sea, where they sank and were buried in a deposit of fine mud which eventually hardened into shale. Under pressure, perhaps assisted by heat, and with exclusion of air, the wood suffered a peculiar kind of decom-

JETHRO—JETTY

29

ae

RIVER SIDE

SEA SIDE ADDITIONS TO ORIGINAL CAPPING TO COMPENSATE FOR SUBSIDENCE

CONCRETE CAPPING

Top OF ORIGINAL CAPPING MEAN WATER LEVEL IN GULF OF MEXICO

SEA BED 1925 FRAME BRUSHWOOD MATTRESSES AND LAYERS OF RUBBLE STONE ALTERNATELY

RUBBLE STONE

100 to 150 Fr WIDE LEVEL OF SEA BED

WHEN JETTY WAS CONSTRUCTED (ABOUT 1910)

SCALE OF FEET

BOTTOM 1925 SLOPES DOWN TO RIVER CHANNEL

35-40 FT DEEP

CROSS-SECTION

OF

JETTIES

AT

SOUTH-WEST

PASS,

MISSISSIPPI

position, probably modified by the presence of salt water, as suggested by Percy E. Spielmann. Scales of fish and other fossils of the jet-rock are frequently impregnated with bituminous products, which may replace the original tissues. Drops of liquid bitumen occur in the cavities of some fossils, whilst inflammable gas is not uncommon in the jet-workings, and petroleum may be detected by its smell. Iron pyrites is often associated with the jet. Formerly sufficient jet was found in loose pieces on the shore, set free by the disintegration of the cliffs, or washed up from a submarine source. When this supply became insufficient, the rock was attacked by the jet-workers; ultimately the workings took the form of true mines, levels being driven into the shales not only at their outcrop in the cliffs but in some of the inland dales of the Yorkshire moorlands, such as Eskdale. The best jet has a uniform black colour, and is hard, compact and homogeneous in texture, breaking with a conchoidal fracture. It must be tough enough to be readily carved or turned on the lathe, and sufficiently compact in texture to receive a high polish. The final polish was formerly given by means of rouge, which produces a beautiful velvety surface, but rotten-stone and lampblack are often employed instead. The softer kinds, not capable of being freely worked, are known as bastard jet. A soft jet is obtained from the estuarine series of the Lower Oolites of Yorkshire. See P. E. Spielmann, “On the Origin of Jet,” Chemical News (Dec. 14, 1906) ; C. Fox-Strangways, “The Jurassic Rocks of Britain, vol. i, Yorkshire,” Mem. Geol. Surv. (1892); J. A. Bower, “Whitby Jet and its Manufacture,” Journ. Soc. Arts (1874, vol. xxii. p. 80).

JETHRO, the priest of Midian, in the Bible, whose daugh-

ter Zipporah became the wife of Moses. He was a priest of Yahweh, and resided at the sacred mountain where the deity commissioned Moses to deliver the Israelites from Egypt. Subsequently Jethro came to Moses (probably at Kadesh), a great sacrificial feast was held, and the priest instructed Moses in legislative procedure. Jethro was invited to accompany the people into the promised land, and later, we find his clan settling in the south of Judah (Judg. i. 16); see KENITES.

JETSAM: see FLOTSAM, JETSAM AND LIGAN. JETTY. The term jetty, derived from Fr. jetée, and there-

fore signifying something “thrown out,” is applied to a variety of structures connected with river, dock and maritime works. Their forms and construction are as varied as their uses and the word jetty is, moreover, often applied to structures which are better described as breakwaters or piers. They are sometimes high openwork structures of timber, reinforced concrete, or steel and iron, braced together; sometimes they are low solid projections of rubble stone, concrete or masonry, and occasionally only differ from breakwaters in their object. The most common uses to which the term jetty should be applied are:—(1) The regulation of river channels where jetties are projected from the banks

towards deep water. (2) Structures in continuation of river channels at their outlets into deep water, and at the entrances to harbours of lagoon type. (3) Projections from the sides of docks, or in tidal basins, harbours and rivers, alongside which ships may lie for discharging and taking in cargo. These are sometimes described as piers, particularly when of solid construction, and are commonly so called in North American ports. (4) Structures out-

side the entrances to docks forming the sides of and protecting a

DELTA,

AT

FROM

1,000

TO

4,000

FT.

FROM

OUTER

END

convenient approach channel, and (5) An outwork of timber or reinforced concrete piles framed together and protecting a pier, including bridge piers in navigable waters. Jetties for Regulating Rivers.—Jetties intended to act as groynes are often extended at intervals from one or both banks of a river to contract a wide channel and, by concentration of the current, to produce a deepening of the central channel. Similarly jetties are sometimes projected from the concave bank of a river to check the erosion on that side. They are variously termed spurs, spur dikes or jetties, cross dikes and groynes, and are formed of timber or of mounds of rubble stone, or of combinations of these materials. Fascines and mattress work weighted and covered by rubble are also frequently employed. This system of river regulation occasions a greater scour abreast the ends of the groynes than in the intervening channels and consequently sometimes produces an irregular depth. Longitudinal training works are therefore preferred for the regulation of many rivers. The jetty system does, however, possess the advantage that the length of the groynes may be easily reduced or increased as experience of their effect on the channel shows to be advisable. Spur dikes have been employed in recent years in this way at

the south-west pass of the Mississippi outlet. (See River ExGINEERING.) Jetties at Harbour Entrances.—Parallel or nearly parallel jetties are frequently constructed at the entrances to ports on sandy coasts, particularly those formed at the mouths of rivers and at the outlets of lagoons and land-locked bays obstructed by bars. (See Harsours.) The older jetties at such ports as Calais, Dunkirk and Ostend were usually formed of clay or rubble hearting covered on the top by fascine-work and stone pitching and held together by timber piles and bracing. The timber-work was carried high enough to form a platform above the level of the highest tides. The newer jetties at Dunkirk were founded on the sandy beach by sinking caissons by the aid of compressed air to a depth of 23ft. below low water spring-tides. A solid masonry structure was raised above the concrete foundations to about half-tide level and above that again an open timber-work superstructure was carried up to well above high water. Compressedair sinking has been employed in forming the foundations of entrance jetties at other French ports as, for instance, at Boulogne, where a new jetty 1740ft. long on the north side of the channel to the inner harbour was built between 1913-27. The channel depth is about 17ft. at low-water, but the jetty is designed for a future depth of at least 2oft. at low-water spring tides. In this case the open superstructure of the jetty above the solid masonry work is of reinforced concrete. The jetties at the entrances to the Venetian lagoon at Lido and

Malamocco (see Harsours) are of rubble stone surmounted by a small masonry superstructure brought up above water level. Those at the Charleston (S.C.) harbour entrance were originally built of fascine mattresses weighted with stone, but are now formed entirely of rubble. The converging jetties carried out from each shore of Dublin bay for deepening the approach to the river Liffey and Dublin harbour are also of rubble. Jetties at the Outlets of Tideless Rivers.—Jetties have been constructed at the outlets of many rivers flowing into tide-

less (or nearly tideless) seas as at Swinemiinde, on the Baltic,

30

JEVER—JEVONS

and Tampico in the gulf of Mexico, with the objects of prolonging the scour of the river and protecting the channel from being shoaled by littoral drift. The most interesting application of parallel jetties is in connection with the mouths of deltaic rivers flowing into tideless seas. In such cases the construction of jetties, by a virtual prolongation of the river banks, extends the scour of the river out to the bar. Jetties prolonging the Sulina branch of the Danube into the Black sea, and the south and south-west passes of the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico (fig. 1) have concentrated the discharge of these rivers so as to scour the bars obstructing the access to them and have effected considerable increase in depth in the navigable channels. The sediment-bearing waters are moreover carried by this concentration of discharge sufficiently far out to come under the influence of littoral currents, which by conveying away some of the sediment, postpone the eventual formation of a fresh bar further out. It is, however, very seldom that jetties alone suffice to secure the maintenance of a sufficient depth of water for modern requirements, and recourse has been had to intensive suction dredg-

ing both at Sulina and the Mississippi passes. (See RIVER EnGINEERING.) Jetties at the Mouths of Tidal Rivers.—Rivers whose discharge is generally feeble and which debouch on an exposed coast subject to littoral drift are liable to have their outlets blocked during severe storms. This is specially the case when the river is narrow near its mouth and the tidal range is small. Sea action piles up sand and shingle to the obstruction of the outlet and the river is thus forced to seek another exit at a weak spot of the beach which, along a low coast, may be some distance off. The new outlet in its turn may be blocked up, so that the river from time to time shifts the position of its mouth. This inconvenient cycle of changes may be stopped by fixing the outlet of the river at a suitable site, by carrying a jetty on each side of this outlet across the beach, thereby concentrating its discharge in a definite channel and protecting the mouth from being blocked up by littoral drift. This system was long ago applied to the shifting outlet of the river Yare to the south of Yarmouth. Later it was successfully employed for fixing the wandering mouth of the Adur near Shoreham, and of the Adour flowing into the bay of Biscay below Bayonne. Timber-piled jetties filled with rubble stone have often been employed in such cases. When the new channel was cut across the Hook of Holland to provide a straighter and deeper outlet channel for the river Maas, forming the approach channel to Rotterdam, jetties formed of fascine mattresses weighted with stone were carried across the foreshore on either side of the cut to protect the channel from

littoral drift and confine the discharge of the river. (See HarBOURS and RIVER ENGINEERING.) Jetties in Docks, Rivers, etc.—Openwork timber or reinforced concrete jetties are often constructed in docks (g.v.) with sloping sides, being carried across the slope so that vessels may lie alongside them in deep water. Similar structures are also employed in open basins, harbours and rivers as well as in docks for supporting coal-loading tips and hoists, and for berthing vessels carrying oil in bulk. Continuous quayage is not essential in these cases and for oil berths nothing more is required than adequate dolphin and fendering structures (against which vessels may lie) and comparatively light structures connecting with the shore for carrying the necessary pipes, etc., for loading and dis-

charging the oil. (See plans of Colombo and other harbours in Harsours.) Examples of reinforced concrete jetties carrying coal hoists will be found among the illustrations in the article Docxs. Long and wide structures projected from the sides of docks and basins, designed for berthing vessels on either side, are virtually continuous wharves or quays and are more properly called piers. A convenient distinction is to restrict the term jetty, as applied to berthing, to those structures intended for berthing ships across their ends or in front of a T-shaped head and to openwork island structures only connected with the shore by bridges or approach viaducts. Long openwork structures thrown out into a river and curving round so as to provide shipping berths more or less parallel with the river bank, such as the

Tilbury river jetty and the coal-staiths at Dunston on and at Blyth, are correctly termed jetties. Jetties of and iron construction are also used, both for cargo and traffic, particularly in tropical ports (see Docxs). Jetties at Dock Entrances.—Jetties of pilework

the Tyne open steel passenger and occa-

sionally of solid character are constructed outside the entrances to docks on each side of the channel from the river or sea approach so as to form a funnel-shaped passage leading to the lock

entrance. These jetties serve to guide vessels entering or leaving the docks, to protect them from the effect of tidal or river currents and, in some cases, as convenient lay-bys where a vessel may, if necessary, tie up when waiting for the gates to be opened. The entrance jetties at Avonmouth are solid constructions, found-

ed on concrete monoliths, with timber face work; those at the King George V. dock, London, and at Immingham are of open timber work. Timber-piled jetties filled in with rubble stone are also employed, as at Swansea. In this instance they serve as minor breakwaters sheltering the entrance to the river and docks and prevent, to some extent, sand from entering the dredged channel. Jetties Alongside Piers, etc.—Timber and, in recent times, reinforced concrete jetties are frequently employed as adjuncts to breakwater and pier structures, serving as landing places and for other purposes, as for instance oil-bunkering and watering. The word jetty is also used to describe a timber fendering structure or outwork constructed in connection with swing and other bridges in navigable waters to protect the bridge piers from damage by vessels passing through the navigation openings.

(N. G. G.)

JEVER, a town of Germany, in the republic of Oldenburg, 13 m. by rail N.W. of Wilhelmshaven, and connected with the North sea by a navigable canal. Pop. (1925) 6,042. The castle of Jever was built by Prince Edo Wiemken (d. 1410), the ruler of Jeverland, a populous district which in 1575 came under the rule of the dukes of Oldenburg. In 1603 it passed to the house of Anhalt and was later the property of the empress Catherine II. of Russia, a member of this family. In 1814 it came again into the possession of Oldenburg. The chief industries are spinning, dairying, brewing and milling; there is also a trade in cattle.

JEVONS,

WILLIAM

STANLEY

(1835-1882), English

economist and logician, was born at Liverpool on Sept. 1, 1835. His father, Thomas Jevons, a man of strong scientific tastes and a writer on legal and economic subjects, was an iron merchant. His mother was the daughter of William Roscoe. He was educated at University college school and University college, London. In 1853 he was appointed assayer to the new mint in Australia. He left England for Sydney in June 1854, and remained there for five years. In the autumn of 1859 he returned to University col-

lege, London, proceeding in due course to the B.A. and M.A. degrees of the University of London. Although he now gave his principal attention to the moral sciences, his interest in natural science continued throughout his life, and his intimate knowledge of the physical sciences contributed to the success of his chief logical work, The Princtples of Science. In 1866 he was elected professor of logic and mental and moral philosophy and Cobden professor of political economy in Owens college. Next year he married Harriet Ann Taylor, whose father had been the founder and proprietor of the Manchester Guardian. Jevons, who suffered from ill health, found the delivery of lectures covering so

wide a range of subjects burdensome, and in 1876 he was glad to exchange the Owens professorship for the professorship of political economy in University college, London. He found his professorial duties irksome, and in 1880 he resigned. On Aug. 13, 1882, he was drowned whilst bathing near Hastings. Jevons arrived quite early in his career at the doctrines that constituted his most characteristic and original contributions to economics and logic. The theory of utility, which became the keynote of his general theory of political economy, was practically formulated in a letter written in 1860; and the germ of his

logical principles of the substitution of similars may be found in the view which he propounded in another letter written in 1861, that “philosophy would be found to consist solely in pointing

JEW out the likeness of things.” The theory of utility above referred to, namely, that the degree of utility of a commodity is some continuous mathematical function of the quantity of the commodity available, together with the implied doctrine that economics is essentially a mathematical science, took more definite form in a paper on “A General Mathematical Theory of Political Economy,” written for the British Association in 1862. This paper does not appear to have attracted much attention either in 1862 or on its publication four years later in the Journal of the Statistical Society; and it was not till 1871, when the Theory of Political Economy appeared, that Jevons set forth his doctrines in a fully developed form. After the publication of this work Jevons became acquainted with the applications of mathematics to political economy made by earlier writers, notably A. A. Cournot and H. H. Gossen. The theory of utility was about 1870 being independently developed on somewhat similar lines by Carl Menger in Austria and M. E. L. Walras in Switzerland. As regards the discovery of the connection between value in exchange and final

(or marginal)

utility, the priority belongs to Gossen, but this

in no way detracts from the great importance of the service which Jevons rendered to English economics by his fresh discovery of the principle. In his reaction from the prevailing view he sometimes expressed himself without due qualification: the declaration, for instance, made at the commencement of the Theory of Political Economy, that “value depends entirely upon utility,” lent itself to misinterpretation. It was not, however, as a theorist dealing with the fundamental data of economic science, but as a brilliant writer on practical economic questions, that Jevons first received general recogni-

tion. A Serious Fall in the Value of Gold (1863) and The Coal Question (1865) placed him in the front rank as a writer on applied economics and statistics; and he would be remembered as one of the leading economists of the roth century even had his Theory of Political Economy never been written. Amongst his economic works may be mentioned Money and the Mechanism of Exchange (1875), a Primer on Political Economy (1878), The State in Relation to Labour (1882), and two posthumous works, _ Methods of Social Reform and Investigations in Currency and Finance. The last-named volume contains Jevons’s speculations on the connection between commercial crises and sun-spots. He was engaged at the time of his death upon the preparation of a large treatise on economics; this fragment was published in 1905 under the title of The Principles of Economics: a Fragment of a Treatise on the Industrial Mechanism of Society, and other Papers. Jevons’s work in logic went on pari passu with his work in political economy. In 1864 he published a small volume, entitled

31

and was free from some of the non-essential adjuncts which rendered Whewell’s exposition open to attack. The work as a whole was one of the most notable contributions to logical doctrine that appeared in Great Britain in the 19th century. His Studies in Deductive Logic, consisting mainly of exercises and problems for the use of students, was published in 1880. Jevons’s strength lay

in his power as an original thinker; and he will be remembered by his constructive work as logician, economist and statistician. See Letters and Journal of W. Stanley Jevons, edit. by his wife (1886). This work contains a bibliography of Jevons’s writings. See also Locic: History.

JEW, THE WANDERING,

a legendary Jew (see Jews)

doomed to wander till the second coming of Christ because he taunted Jesus as He passed bearing the cross, saying, “Go quicker.” Jesus replied, “I go, but thou shalt wait till I return.” This legend first appeared in a pamphlet alleged to have been printed at Leyden in 1602. This pamphlet relates that Paulus von Eizen (d. 1598), bishop of Schleswig, had met at Hamburg in 1542 a Jew named Ahasuerus, who declared he was “eternal” and was the same who had been thus punished by Jesus. The pamphlet is supposed to bave been written by Chrysostomus Dudulaeus of Westphalia and printed by one Christoff Crutzer, but as no such author or printer is known—the latter name indeed refers directly to the legend—it has been conjectured that the whole story is a Protestant myth.

The story met with ready acceptance. Eight editions of the pamphlet appeared in 1602, and the 4oth edition before 1700, It was translated into Dutch and Flemish with immense success. The first French edition appeared in 1609, and the story was known in England before 1625, when a parody was produced. Denmark and Sweden followed suit, and the expression “‘eternal Jew” passed into Czech. Thus the story in its usual form spread wherever there was a tincture of Protestantism. In southern Europe little is heard of it in this version, though Rudolph

Botoreus, parliamentary advocate of Paris (Comm. histor., 1604), speaks contemptuously of the popular belief in the Wandering Jew in Germany, Spain and Italy. The popularity of the pamphlet soon led to reports of the appearance of this mysterious being almost everywhere. Besides the original meeting of the bishop and Ahasuerus, the Wandering Jew was stated to have appeared at Prague (1602), at Liibeck (1603), in Bavaria (1604), Brussels (1640), Paris (1644, by the

“Turkish Spy”), Stamford (1658), and Astrakhan (1672). In the next century he was seen at Munich (1721), Brussels (1774),

Newcastle (1790, see Brand, Pop. Antiquities, s.v.), and in London between 1818 and 1830 (see Athenaeum, 1866, ii. 561). The latest report of his appearance was near Salt Lake City in 1868, Pure Logic; or, the Logic of Quality apart from Quantity, which when he is said to have made himself known to a Mormon named was based on Boole’s system of logic, but freed from what he con- O’Grady. It is difficult to tell in any one of these cases how far sidered the false mathematical dress of that system. In the years the story is an entire fiction and how far an ingenious imposture. immediately following he constructed a logical machine, exhibited In most Teutonic languages the stress is laid on the perpetual before the Royal Society in 1870, by means of which the con- character of the punishment and the man is known as the clusion derivable from any given set of premisses could be me- “eternal” Jew (Ger. ewige Jude). In Romance lands the usual chanically obtained. In 1866 what he regarded as the great and form has reference to the wanderings (Fr. le Juif errant). The universal principle of all reasoning dawned upon him; and in English form follows the Romance, possibly because derived from 1869 he published a sketch of this fundamental doctrine under the France. The actual name given to the mysterious Jew varies in title of The Substitution of Similars. He expressed the principle the different versions: the original pamphlet calls him Ahasver, in its simplest form as follows: “Whatever is true of a thing is a name most inappropriately borrowed from the Book of Esther. true of its like,” and he worked out in detail its various applica- In one of his appearances at Brussels his name is given as Isaac tions. In the following year appeared the Elementary Lessons on Laquedem—bad Hebrew for “Isaac of old’—and Dumas made Logic. In the meantime he was engaged upon a much more im- use of this title. In the Turkish Spy he is called Paul Marrane, portant logical treatise, which appeared in 1874 under the title from the Marranos or secret Jews of Spain. In the few references of The Principles of Science. In this work Jevons embodied the to the legend in Spanish writings the Wandering Jew is called substance of his earlier works on pure logic and the substitution Juan Espera en Dios, which gives a more hopeful turn to the of similars; he also enunciated and developed the view that induc- legend. Eugène Sue calls him Ahasvérus. tion is simply inverse deduction; he treated in a luminous manner Under other names, a story very similar to that of the pamthe general theory of probability, and the relation between proba- phlet of 1602 occurs nearly 400 years earlier on English soil. Acbility and induction; and his knowledge of the various natural cording to Roger of Wendover in his Flores historiarum for 1228, sciences enabled him throughout to relieve the abstract character an Armenian archbishop, then visiting England, was asked by the of logical doctrine by concrete scientific illustrations. Jevons’s monks of St. Albans about Joseph of Arimathaea, who had spoken general theory of induction was a revival of the theory laid down to Jesus and was said to be still alive. The archbishop claimed to by Whewell and criticized by Mill; but it was put in a new form, have seen him in Armenia under the name of Carthaphilus, who

JEWEL—JEWELLERY

32

had confessed that he had taunted Jesus. This Carthaphilus had afterwards been baptized by the name of Joseph. Matthew Paris, in copying Wendover, reported that other Armenians had confirmed the story on visiting St. Albans in 1252. A similar account is given in the chronicles of Philippe Mouskés (d. 1243). A variant was known to Guido Bonati, an astronomer quoted by Dante (Inferno, xx. 118), who calls his hero Butta Deus because he struck Jesus. Under this name he is said to have appeared at Mugello in 1413 and at Bologna in 1415. SOURCE

OF THE LEGEND

Frankfort, where he sided with Coxe against Knox. He soon joined Martyr at Strasbourg, accompanied him to Zurich, and then paid a visit to Padua. Under Elizabeth’s succession he returned to England, and tried to secure what would now be called a low-church settlement of religion. Indeed, his attitude was hardly distinguishable from that of the Elizabethan Puritans, but he gradually modified it under the stress of office and responsibility. He was one of the disputants selected to confute the Romanists at the conference of Westminster after Easter 1559; he was select preacher at St. Paul’s Cross on June 15, and in the autumn was engaged as one of the royal visitors of the western counties. In 1560 he became bishop of Salisbury.

The source of all these reports is probably Matthew xvi. 28. These words indeed are quoted in the pamphlet of 1602. Again, Jewel now constituted himself the literary apologist of the a legend was based on John xxi. 20; while another legend (current in the 16th century) condemned Malchus, whose ear Peter cut Elizabethan settlement. He had on Nov. 26, 1559, in a sermon off (John xvii. 10), to wander perpetually till the second coming at St. Paul’s Cross, challenged all comers to prove the Roman for scoffing at Jesus. These legends and the utterance of Matt. case out of the Scriptures, or the councils or Fathers for the first Xvi. 28 were “contaminated” with the legend of Joseph of Ari- six hundred years after Christ. He repeated his challenge in 1560, and Dr. Henry Cole took it up. The chief result was mathaea and the Holy Grail, and took the form given in Wendover and Matthew Paris. But there is nothing to show the spread Jewel’s Apologia ecclesiae Anglicanae (1562), which in Bishop of this story among the people before the pamphlet of 1602, and Creighton’s words is “the first methodical statement of the posiit is difficult to see how this Carthaphilus could have given rise tion of the Church of England against the Church of Rome, and to the legend of the Wandering Jew, since he is not a Jew nor forms the groundwork of all subsequent controversy.” Thomas does he wander. The author of 1602 was probably acquainted Harding, an Oxford contemporary whom Jewel had deprived with the story as given by Matthew Paris, since he gives almost of his prebend in Salisbury Cathedral for recusancy, published an the same account. But he gives a new name to his hero and elaborate and bitter Answer in 1564, to which Jewel issued a Reply in 1565. Harding followed with a Comfutation, and Jewel directly connects his fate with Matt. xvi. 28. The combination of eternal punishment with restless wandering ‘with a Defence, of the Apology in 1566 and 1567; the combatants has attracted the imagination of writers in almost all European ranged over the whole field of the Anglo-Roman controversy, and tongues. The German Romantic poets have been especially at- Jewel’s theology was officially enjoined upon the Church by tracted by the legend, which has been made the subject of poems Archbishop Bancroft in the reign of James I. He was consulted by Schubart, Schreiber, W. Miiller, Lenau, Chamisso, Schlegel, by the government on such questions as England’s attitude Mosen and Koehler. They were perhaps influenced by the example towards the council of Trent, and political considerations made of Goethe, who in his Autobiography describes the plan of a poem him more and more hostile to Puritan demands with which he he had designed on the Wandering Jew. More recently poems had previously sympathized. He wrote an attack on Cartwright, have been composed on the subject in German by Wilbrandt, which was published after his death by Whitgift. He died on Lienhard and others; in English by Robert Buchanan, and in Sept. 23, 1571, and was buried in Salisbury Cathedral. Jewel’s works were published in a folio in 1609 under the direction | Dutch by Heijermans. German novels also exist on the subject, by Franz Horn, Oeklers, Laun and Schucking, tragedies by Kline- of Bancroft who ordered the Apology to be placed in churches, in some of which it may still be seen chained to the lectern; other editions mann, Haushofer and Zedlitz. Sigismund Heller wrote three appeared at Oxford (1848, 8 vols.) and Cambridge (Parker Soc., 4 cantos on the wanderings of Ahasuerus, while Hans Andersen vols.). See also Gough’s Index to Parker Soc. Publ.; Strype’s Works made of him an “Angel of Doubt.” In France, E. Quinet pub- (General Index); Acts of the Privy Council; Calendars of Domestic lished a prose epic on the subject in 1833, and Eugéne Sue, in his and Spanish State Papers; Dixon’s and Frere’s Church Histories; and Dict. of Nat. Biography. best-known work, Le Juif errant (1844), associates the Jew with the legend of Herodias. In modern times the subject has been JEWELLERY, a collective term for jewels, and so for the made still more popular by Gustave Doré’s designs (1856), con- art of making them (O.F. jouel). Jewels are personal ornaments taining some of his most striking and imaginative work. This made of precious metals and precious stones, alone or combined. One type of jewel, including clasps and brooches of all kinds, probably suggested Grenier’s poem on the subject (1857). In England, besides the ballads in Percy’s Reliques, Godwin arises from the decorative elaboration of a practical object; introduced the idea of an eternal witness of the course of civi- another type, of which pendants are an example, is derived from lization in his St. Leon (1799), and Shelley introduces Ahasuerus the primitive practice of wearing such objects as the teeth of in Queen Mab. It is doubtful how far Swift derived his Struld- wild animals, shells, or stones of strange colour or shape, hung brugs from the notion of the Wandering Jew. George Croly’s round the neck with magical intent. Other jewels, such as earSalathiel (1828) gave a highly elaborate turn to the legend; this rings and bracelets, appear to be purely decorative in origin. The origins of jewellery are lost in the mists of antiquity. The has been republished under the title Tarry Thou Till I Come. BIBLIOGRAPHY.-—J. G. Th. Graesse, Die Sage vom ewigen Juden practice of wearing objects round the neck dates from the stone (1844) ; F. Helbig, Die Sage vom ewigen Juden (1874); G. Paris, Le age, and -gold was worked to make jewels before the use of Juif errant (1881); M. D. Conway, The Wandering Jew (1881); S. bronze was known. For recent discoveries of jewels at Ur, see Morpugo, L’ Ebreo errante in Italia (1891) ; L. Neubaur, Die Sage vom ewigen Juden (2nd ed., 1893).- The recent literary handling of the Asta: Archaeology; for an account of Egyptian jewellery, see Ecyet: Ancient Art and Archaeology; for Greek and Roman subject has been dealt with by J. Prost, Die Sage vom ewigen Juden in der neueren deutschen Literatur (1905); T. Kappstein, Ahasver in jewels, see SILVERSMITHS’ AND GoLpsmiTHs’ WORK. der Weltpoesie

(1905).

JEWEL,

JOHN

jJa.; E. E. K.)

(1522-1571), English divine, bishop of

Salisbury, son of John Jewel of Buden, Devonshire, was born on May 24, 1522, and educated at Merton college, Oxford. He became a fellow (1542) of Corpus Christi, made some mark as a teacher, and was after 1547 one of the chief disciples of Peter Martyr. He became public orator of the university, in which capacity he composed a congratulatory epistle to Mary on her accession. In 1554 he acted as notary to Cranmer and Ridley at their disputation, but in the autumn he signed a series of Catholic ‘articles. He was, nevertheless, suspected, fled to London, and thence to

HISTORY OF EUROPEAN JEWELLERY The Empire of Rome, which had extended to the Rhine, the Danube and the Scottish frontier, and the trade of Rome, which had passed beyond these limits through Bohemia to the northern countries, left behind them a tradition so strong that it long outlived the Roman empire itself. In all this region the form, technique and decoration of jewels were influenced by Roman usage. The use of gold filigree remained general; and the varied

Roman fibula forms became the basis of yet more complicated brooches. The most important development was in the use of

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(2,

ANGLO-SAXON,

4,

6, 8)

CELTIC

3. The Alfred Jewel, of gold, found in 1693 at Newton Park, three miles from the isle of Athelney. Fig. 1. shows the front set with a plaque of cloisonné enamel held in place by a gold fret of the letters

AELFRED

MEC HEHT

GEWYRCAN

TRUSTEES

AND

of the 9th century from

the province

of Scania,

OF

THE

BRITISH

MUSEUM,

SCANDINAVIAN

(5)

THE

r

¥

STATENS

HISTORISKA

MUSEUM,

STOCKHOLM,

JEWELLERY

6. Gold engraved and nielloed ring of Aethelwulf,

King of Wessex: inscribed Ethelvulfr: second quarter of the 9th century. This ring was found at Laverstock near Salisbury in A.D. 1780

(Alfred ordered me to be made).

Fig. 3 shows the engraved back 2. Seventh century buckle from Faversham, set with garnets and decorated with gold filigree 4. Kentish brooch of the 7th century, set with garnets and pastes and decorated with gold filigree

5. Silver filigree brooch Sweden

THE

2

7.

Saxon cross of the 7th century, found at Ixworth

made

of gold and

set with

Kentish brooch of the 6th century, set with garnets and and decorated with gold filigree

meerschaum,

9. Celtic penannular brooch of silver of the early LOth century 10.

Gold bracteate of the 7th century from Faversham

garnets,

Prare N

JEWELLERY

$,

bA

n

H Di

eee aon re

BY

AR,

eget «hey

yw

p

a ayfe

COURTESY

`

eegu

OF

6, 7,

(1,

9)

THE

DIRECTOR

OF

THE

VICTORIA

AND

ALBERT

MUSEUM,

(2)

THE

DIRECTOR

OF

MAINZ

THE

(3,

MUSEUM,

4,

8,

5,

10)

THE

TRUSTEES

OF

THE

BRITISH

MUSEUM

BROOCHES 1. Brooch of gold set with a cameo.

2. “The

Eagle Brooch,”

enamel

3. Ring

PENDANTS

OF

THE

MIDDLE

green

and

of gold, engraved

blue,

and

turquoise,

set with

white

and yellow

rubies and sapphires.

French or English, late 13th century 4. Reliquary pendant of gold; the side shown is engraved with figure of St. John and the inscription A mon derreyne, the opposite side Both figures are between flowers of with the figure of a bishop.

English of about 1480

white enamel. 5. The

“Phoenix”

badge

jewel:

of 1574,

enamelled

gold

a bust of Queen

mounted

Elizabeth

in a wreath

of red

AGES

cut from

and

the Phoenix

white

roses

of

AND

of silver

6. “Tablet”

about 1120, of gold decorated with cloisonné

in translucent

brooch

AND

French, 14th century

THE

RENAISSANCE with

gilt, enamelled,

and the figure of the Virgin in relief. 15th

the scene

of the crucifixion

French or Rhenish, early

century

pendant in the form of a ship. Italian, 16th century

7. Enamelled

&. Dragon-shaped pendant of gold, enamelled and set with baroque pearls. German, about 1570 EON ; 9. Pendant of gold, enamelled and set with jewels, representing Hercules

the

upholding German,

world

in

end of the 16th

the

garden

of

the

Hesperides.

South

century

10. Design for a pendant of enamelled and jewelled gold, by Hans Holbein. About

1540

JEWELLERY

33

delicate interlaced patterns that are characteristic of Irish work. This probably dates from the 8th century. The type continued in use until the roth century (PL1 I., fig. 9) or later. Mediaeval Jewellery.—With the dawn of the Middle ages the barbarian tradition of form and pattern in jewellery comes its place as one of the many industrial 3rd and 8th centuries a. At the same time under Byzantine in- to an end; jewellery takesmonastic workshops for the service of the the in first fostered arts, exceptional for used fluence cloisonné enamel (see ENAMEL) was and then by the jewellers of the towns. At the same pieces, such as the famous Alfred jewel (Plate A, 1-3). This com- Church, knowledge of it is drawn from different sources. After our time Eurogreat the of each by modified mon tradition, however, was times the custom of burying jewels with the dead Carolingian technique. and pean tribes into a style characteristic both in design disuse; but with the development of graphic and plastic Thanks to the general custom of burying their jewels with the fell into and more jewels were represented in painting and sculpmore art European in represented well dead these types of jewellery are with the development of a settled society more and and ture, museums. and inventories. Ostrogothic Jewellery—lIn Italy classical influence was more were accurately described in wills ic ornament, characterist most the be to continued brooch The Roman the of type strong, but the Ostrogoths developed the pin type fell into disuse. The mediaeval radiated fibula into brooches of great magnificence, and combined but the Roman safety a ring-brooch, of which the pin is held in the Byzantine interlaced style with the northern style of animal brooch is nearly always the stuff through which it passes. The of pull the by position yet be to decoration, to produce a type of ornament that was in endless ways: it might be partly filled modified was ring-form . Scandinavia. in developed fully more (PI. IL., fig. 2) or its rim Visigothic.—The Visigoths used cloisonné work set with gar- in, as on the great Eagle brooch at Mainz in more fantastic shape. or heart a or wreath a as formed be might in nets or pastes, combined with pearls and cabochon gems set jewel is the reliquary or mediaeval ic characterist other The are jewels Visigothic surviving splendid most The fretted gold. IL., figs. 4, 6) chased or enamelled with rethe crowns dedicated by Kings Svinthila (621-623) and Recces- devotional pendant (PI. set in an architectural frame. In the 14th vinthus (649-672), now in the Musée de Cluny, Paris, and the ligious subjects, often and isth centuries jewellery became increasingly a part of dress Real Armeria, Madrid. (g.v.), and was fashioned into belts and chaplets, hair nets and but style, Frankish.—The Franks practised a more Germanic and sewn upon garments. The personal motto of the necklaces, the of influence the under came Gaul of settlement their with amatory sentiment, was often inscribed upon jewels. an or wearer, rosette are forms characteristic Gaulish classical tradition. Their Jewellery.—With the Renaissance (q.v.) the Renaissance or circular brooches, generally decorated with filigree, brooches and costume became still closer. On occajewellery between link They form. rectangular heavy of buckles and birds, as shaped dress was sewn with jewels, as many whole the ceremony of sions foot oval with fibula also developed the Roman type of radiated A new class of artificers in and square or semicircular headplate (a type which was also used portraits of the 16th century show. was with such small concern only whose being, into came metal the used occasionally and Rhineland), the with a lozenge foot in of plastic quality loss gradual a Henceforward jewels. as objects the of classical fish and horse forms of brooch. The goldsmiths skill in the cutting and Belgian provinces practised a “chip carving” style of design, that is noticeable, compensated by an increasing the development of the art was common over a wide area in the sth century but was later display of gems. At the same time of engraving, and the publication by this process of designs for characteristic of Scandinavia. Scandinavian.—Scandinavia developed the common types jewels, helped to standardize their patterns throughout Europe. gradual; and the design along complex lines and produced fibulae of great size and elabo- Both these developments, however, were fancy, and is ration. In the sth century Sweden was the end of a Byzantine of Renaissance jewels shows no lack of individual gem or baoddly-formed an of shape the by conditioned often very are influences classical period this after trade route, but classical the and Reformation The 8.) fig. IL, (PL pearl. roque gold, slight. The Swedish “bracteates,” circular pendants of thin of mediaeval are at first imitated from Roman medallions of the time of Con- revival combined to bring the religious symbolism did the mediaeval stantine, but in the sth century the local style of animal ornament jewel-design to an end; only in Italy and Spain allusion in supersedes this, and when coins are imitated they are Anglo- reliquary classical types survive; but an occasional subject (Pl. IL, fig. 9) is all that is classical in Renaissance jewels. Saxon sceattas. 5), and In Norway, too, fibula types of the 4th, sth and early 6th A new class of portrait-jewels came into being (PL. II., fig. made to contain centuries are derived from Roman or Crimean Gothic originals but many jewelled cases of great beauty were after about 55o the types become national. The Scandinavian portrait miniatures. Jewels of the 17th and 18th Centuries.—With the 17th “tortoise” and trefoil brooches are entirely characteristic; the be works of former date from the 7th to the early 11th century, while the century a certain change is evident. Jewels cease to personal mere become and express, to fancy or idea and some These with art centuries. roth and 9th the of latter are characteristic deeper cognate circular brooches (Plate I., fig. 5) are generally decorated ornaments beautiful in line and in material but without any made in were improvements Many 3.) fig. IIL, (PL. significance. relations The beauty. considerable of designs symmetrical with IN between Scandinavia and Ireland in the 8th and gth centuries technique; the art of gem-cutting was developed (see Gems brought in the type of penannular brooch which in its attenuated Art), and by the middle of the 17th century rose and brilliant cutting had almost superseded the older table cut diamond, and northern form is characteristic of the Viking age. English.—In England types from many of these areas were the enamellers produced painted flower enamels of great beauty as received and modified. The Continental type of gold filigree and (see ENAMEL), as well as enamels in such delicate technique but metal not is ground the which of verre, sur resille the en Kent, of émail settlements Jutish the by garnet work was introduced Isle of Wight and part of Hampshire (Pl. I, figs. 2, 4, 8). In glass; and the jewellers learnt to mass their gems and to set them Sussex, Surrey, Berks and Oxon “saucer” fibulae of a type found with great lightness and elegance in leafy settings of gold and in the Hanover district are fairly common, while north of the silver (see SILVERSMITH’s AND GotpsmiTH’s Worx). (Pl. IIL, Thames complex Scandinavian types are general. With the intro- fig. 1.) With the development of this style, which in a modified duction of Christianity such forms as pendant crosses (PL I., fig. form still influences jewellery design, the forms of jewels tended to 7) come in, and Carolingian and Byzantine influence is evident. become stereotyped. The characteristic jewel of the 18th century Celtic.—Ireland, and in a lesser degree Scotland, had types of is the parure: ear-rings and brooch, necklace or clasp, and ring and their own, of which the most interesting and characteristic is the sometimes shoulder-brooches or buckles, all to match, set with penannular brooch. Generally of great size, and worn on the diamonds alone or in combination with rubies, topazes, sapphires shoulder with the pin pointing upwards, it was richly decorated; or emeralds. and the finest example, the “Tara” brooch, represents the climax 19th Century Jewellery—With the change of fortune that of Celtic art as it is known to us, with an infinite variety of the accompanied the French Revolution the two categories continued

thin slices of garnet set like enamel in metal cells (Plate A 2, 4, 7, 8), a technique ultimately derived from Egypt and probably transmitted through the Crimea. It is represented in the great ath-century treasure found at Petrossa, 60 m. from Bucharest, and appears to have been in use nearly all over Europe between the

JEWELLERY

S$

to exist. For State occasions the Napoleonic court imitated the jewellers turned to the choice of good stones and the manufacparures of the ancient régime, with the addition of a jewelled ture of settings that would show off their beauty, but the designs, coronet of classic form, while for every-day wear they, and continually repeated, were generally poor. The most characteristic jewels of this period were brooches poorer folk, contented themselves with parures set with semiprecious stones, or shell cameos in mounts of delicate filigree of and head ornaments made in the shape of crescents or stars, gold enamelled with small patterns in black or blue. Other jewel- or with a bowknot design, and necklaces made of a succession lery of modest intrinsic value depended on sentimental interest, of single stones, called rivières. The improvement in the settings and often contained the hair of a friend, relative or lover. With which had taken place in the reign of Napoleon III. was due the Restoration in France and the shifting back of the centre of to a large extent to the fact that more liberal prices were paid fashion to a class impoverished by revolution and war, such semi- to the working jewellers instead of the strict tariff which had precious jewellery became increasingly important, and quantities been applied before. Something of the same kind also took of topaz, amethysts and aquamarines were imported from Brazil place with regard to stones about 1878. A new class of purand Mexico. Diamonds and precious stones were set in light chasers came to Europe from South America and later North flower, leaf and wheat ear patterns that could be executed in America, who were willing to pay very large sums for stones stones of lesser size. With the reign of Louis Philippe the influ- of exceptional size and quality. Whilst size had been the main ence of mediaeval and Renaissance decoration was shown in the attraction in the previous collections pearls were now chosen for use of Gothic arcadings and Baroque scrolls on jewels, but there their quality. Valuable stones were mounted and worn as rings, was no revival of the refined technique of the earlier period. bracelets, earrings (mostly single diamonds called solitaires or Jewellery, indeed, became steadily more stereotyped in its form large round pearls hanging from a small diamond), hairpins, feathers, or pendants. Gold jewellery having been replaced mostly and more industrial and mechanical in its production. With the creation of the Second Empire (P1. ILL., fig. 2) many by diamond jewellery, chiselled gold work was confined mainly to jewels were designed on simple lines—frets, crescents, stars and powder boxes, card cases, umbrella handles and handbags. 1900-1914.—-The beginning of the 2oth century marks a reso on—simply to display the diamonds with which they were set, while others attempted to imitate flowers with inartistic verisimili- action against the monotony and lack of imagination of the style tude (P1. III., fg. 5). A few jewellers, such as Lucien Falize in prevalent in jewellery since 1870. This reaction showed itself in Paris and Giuliano in London, revived the Renaissance style alike two very different ways: (1) A number of jewellers favoured in design and technique, and produced beautiful work in enamelled an idealistic interpretation of nature without any connection and jewelled gold. At the same time others—notably Castellani with past styles, which took the name of new art. This branch of Rome and Fontenay of Paris—drew inspiration from such of the modernists attracted considerable attention at the 1900 classical jewellery as that of the Campana collection, and pro- “International Exhibition” in Paris. Their novelty lay not only in the designs, but in the choice of material—translucid enamels, duced delicate “Etruscan” work in gold adorned with filigree. ivory, horn. The beauty of the jewel was to come from the BrsriocrapHy-—J. Hampel, Der Goldfund von Nagy-Szent-Miklós perfection of the artistic conception; the value of the precious (1886); P. B. du Chaillu, The Viking Age (1889); M. O. Almgren, stones employed was of less importance than their appropriStudien iber nordeuropaische Fibelformen (1897); B. Salin, Die Altgermanische Thierornamentik (1904); O. M. Dalton, The Treasure ateness to the scheme. Outside France, the new art in jewelof the Oxus (1905); H. Clifford Smith, Jewellery (a full general lery appealed principally to Germany, Austria, and Scandinavia. bibliography, 1908); J. Romilly Allen, Celtic Art in Pagan and (2) In all countries, however, a larger section of the public Christian Times (1912); E. T. Leeds, The Distribution of the AngloSaxon Saucer brooch ...in Archeologia lziii. (1912); E. T. favoured the other group of jewellers who, reacting against the soulless repetition of washed-out classic designs, turned back Leeds, The Archaeology of the Anglo-Saxon Settlements (1913); T. J. Arne, La Suéde et VOrient ... pendant Pâge des Vikings for inspiration to the old styles at their best periods. (1914); G. Baldwin Brown, The Arts in Early England, vols. ii. As a reaction against the use of a relatively uniform scale of and iv., Saxon Art and Industry of the Pagan Period (rọr5); Joan Evans, English Jewellery from the fifth century A.D. to 1800 (1921) ; stones which gave jewels a heavy effect, small diamonds were Magical jewels of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, especially in used together and in contrast with the large stones they were to England (1922); O. R. Janse, Le Travail de Por en Suède à Pépoque accompany. The diamonds were set in platinum instead of gold mérovingienne (1922); British Museum, Guide to Anglo-Saxon Antiand silver. Platinum had been used experimentally since the uities (1923); J. Brondsted, Early English Ornament (1924); Nils t8th century, but it was only in rgoo that it started to be used Shee. The Anglo-Saxons in England during the early centuries after exclusively in the setting of diamonds and found favour on the invasion (1926); H. Shetelig, Préhistoire de la Norvége (1926). A full bibliography of French jewellery is given in J. J. Marquet de account of its brightness and its superior hardness, which perVasselot, Bibliographie de Vorfévrerie et de Vémaillerie fran¢aises mitted of considerably lighter settings. As the new settings (1925). (J. Ev.) reduced the diamond to its proper size, the jewellers had to use ¥ MODERN

JEWELLERY

1851-1900.—In 1851 the wealth of European countries was rapidly increasing. Rich families had sprung up amongst the middle-class, and the nobility too had benefited by the rise of the industrial era. The jewellery made on the occasion of the Emperor Napoleon III.’s marriage was on a scale worthy of the most brilliant courts that France had known. The most precious stones were used, diamonds, pearls, sapphires and emeralds, in silver and gold settings. The base of the mountings was still in gold, but the front was made of silver, brilliantly polished in order to detract as little as possible from the diamonds themselves. The Empress Eugénie and Princess Mathilde revived the fashion of wearing strings of pearls in the evening. Large bracelets were also worn, mainly made of diamonds on a background of enamelled or engraved gold. Diadems were worn, curved to fit closely to the shape of the head. When the brilliant court of Empress Eugénie was dispersed in 1870, inspiration and taste seemed momentarily to have deserted the French jewellers. Jewels were plentiful because the country was getting rich and the diamonds were more easily obtainable on account of the opening of the mines in South Africa. The

larger diamonds than they had in the old settings which had made the stone appear larger than it actually was. All the jewels came more brilliant and more costly. Another change was bracelets, worn in the preceding period in the shape of rigid tightfitting bangles, were now made supple and loose. A trimming revived from the 18th century was the velvet

bethat and rib-

bon worn at the top of the neck with a small pendant hanging

in front. These ribbons were edged with diamonds set on a mounting of platinum covered by black velvet. The fashion of the narrow velvet ribbon was followed by that of the jewelled plaque de cou occupying the front of the neck, worn either on a wide velvet ribbon or else attached to a number of rows of pearls clasped tightly round the neck. This again was followed by the diamond dog-collar. At this period most ladies wore their hair “Pompadour” fashion in front, with a chignon at the back. This enabled them to wear diamond combs and diamond hairpins called fourches, mounted on large tortoiseshell pins. With this way of wearing the hair piled high on top of the head, diamonds and tiaras were no longer worn flat to the head, as in the Empire period and the Victorian

era, but were mounted on metal frames, resting on the top of the head.

The prevalent shape of'the tiara was the so-called

JEWELLERY i ae ie“4 Pe

ee

f

è

ES

Ly

ed

< tS

ol

i ni

Petits Sa

Faid a

ia ae ae

a =r

so

T

ae

PLATE ITI

W

AS i

É

{S

e

RS

seers

a

Py p EET baaa E

unety

Ses oo

i

ay a

b

Porec”

“F eR

EUROPEAN Outside chain

provincial

in gold with

decoration

L see

a

REE “omar

JEWELLERY

in black enamel,

French

OF

Restoration

8

ios

ae

vost

THE

19TH

period.

Inside

CENTURY chain

of open

gold

work,

the

work

of a French

goldsmith about 1840. 1, 2, 3, 7, 10. Parures, 1830—40: (1l) seed pearis, (2) topazes set in gold, (3, 10) pink tourmalines, 4. Garnet head ornament, 1830. 5, 9. Gold necklaces, French, 1830. 6. Gold key decorated in black enamel, used with outside

(7) garnets.

chain. &. Gold lorgnette, French, 1850. 11-18. Gold bracelets, enamel, (17) gold and coral tissue, Russian, (18) two-coloured

21.Walstcoat chain In gold and enamel with seal, 1830.

c. 1814-50: (15) silver gilt, (16) mosaics in gold with borders of blue gold. 19, 20. Front and side views of gold ring set with plaited hair, 1840.

22. Gold ring decorated in black enamel, set with turquoise, French Restoration period

JEWELLERY

PLate IV

PHOTOGRAPHS,

(1,

2,

3)

COPR.

H.

BONNAIRE

FROM

“CATALOGUE

FRENCH

OF

THE

CROWN

JEWELS

JEWELLERY

1. Diamond floral spray or bouquet, made in 1820. 2. Diamond bow knot as worn by the Empress Eugénie; made in 1863. 3. Diamond aiguillette pampille, made in 1868. 4. Bracelet, of gold and black enamel and rose diamonds; period of the Restoration. 5. Diamond star, made about 1860. 6. Diamond crescent brooch as worn by the Empress Eugénie; made in 1867.7. Comb bird mounted in gold and topazes; period of the Restoration.

&. Necklace in gilt, copper and cameos;

period 1835.

9. Necklace of three

OF

FRANCE

OF

1887”

THE

19TH

CENTURY

rows of pearls containing 145 pearls weighing 2136.94 grains with ruby and diamond cluster clasp, collected by Madame Thiers, who left it to the Louvre. They were bought at auction June 16th, 1924, and sold privately by Cartier. 10 and 12. Ring in rose diamonds mounted in gold; period 1850. 11 and 13. Ring in one large rose diamond mounted in gold; period 1850. 14.

Diamond

and sapphire coronet and tiara as worn by the Empress Eugénie

JEWELLERY

PLATE V

A fo > vyS as

mn

a DED

Boy

ea

Piet AE A ESES og ee

ow)

gears ttt

Pie eae ORAA aE p the

CEDERE)

ey Sa

PHOTOGRAPHS,

(7,

15,

16,

21,

26)

COPR.

H.

BONNAIRE

FROM

REVUE

DE

MODERN

LA

BIJOUTERIE,

JOAILLERIE,

JEWELLERY,

ORFEVRERIE,

FROM

1901

TO

1902,

MAISON

DUJAERIE

1900-1914

1, 12, 17, 18, 28, 31. Diamond pendants, (17) with emeralds. 2, 3, 4. Diamond tiaras. 5. Diamond comb. 6, 9, 23, 24, 25. Neckbands and sautoirs of diamonds on moiré ribbon. 7. Head ornament in diamonds and pearls. &, 10, 13. Dog collars in diamonds, (10) with pearls. 11. Diamond fourche. 14. Diamond plaque for dog collar. 16. Fourche in translucent enamels and amethysts. 15, 22. Stomachers in diamonds, (15) with sapphires. 19. Pearl and diamond sapphire ring. 20, 29, 32. Diamond brooches. 21, 26. Back and front of bolero in diamonds and other precious stones. 27. Diamond necklace. 30, 33. Diamond bracelets. 34, 38. Diamond lorgnettes. 35, 37. Diamond

buckles.

36. Hand bag with gold and enamel frame

JEWELLERY

PLATE VI

| (reo AS

ran Soo He Gie cee

a”

2 g f

ł¥

i

SeeneK An EPS 39

EXAMPLES

OF

MODERN

JEWELLERY

1, 2, 5. Diamond tiaras. 3, 4, 6, 8, 11. Flexible bandeaux of diamonds, (3) with emerald. 7. Diamond Fourches. 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 19, 20, 23. Earrings of diamonds, pearls, emeralds, onyx or crystal. 17, 18, 27. Diamond necklaces (17, 27) with emeralds. 14, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 42. Brooches in diamonds, and other precious stones. 37, 48, 49, 50, 51. Gold link bracelets, (48) with carnelians. 38, 39, 40, 45, 46, 47. Flexible bracelets in diamonds. 41, 44. Diamond bangles, (41) with onyx, (44) with emeralds. 43, 54, 55, 56. Vanity cases in gold and enamels. 52 and 53. Two views of emerald cut diamond ring. 57, 58. Two views of round diamond ring

JEWELLERY “Russian” shape, or sum-rays, which could be turned into a necklace or the seven points carrying an important stone at the tip of each point. On the occasion of the coronation of King Edward

VII. a great many of the tiaras of the English nobility were reset in a new style, and during his reign tiaras were worn at all important receptions. On such occasions the ladies also wore large brooches, sometimes called stomachers, occupying the entire front of the dress. As mentioned above, the great preponderance of diamond rings over all other kinds came from the fact that most ladies chose diamond rings for their engagement rings; the diamond, being indestructible, was considered eminently suitable for such an occasion. These are now always set in platinum. The diamond ring is either a solitaire, a stone weighing from one to ten carats, or a single stone surrounded by one or two rows of smaller diamonds. The actual ring itself sometimes carries three or five smaller diamonds on each side of the main stone. After diamonds, pearls, sapphires, emeralds and rubies are the most worn. Since 1907 the demand for pearls had grown very quickly. Not only were strings of large pearls worn, but neck-bands, bracelets and chains, made of small pearls strung together in patterns, were sold in numbers. Diamond pendants, which could no longer be worn on the neck because of the fashion of strings of pearls, were worn on long chains, hanging below the decolletage. The great quest of pearls took European jewellers to India, from whence they brought back emerald beads, until then worn almost exclusively in Indian jewels, and engraved emeralds of all shapes became a factor on the stone market of Europe. The dominating note of the jewels at the end of this period was the combination of diamonds and black onyx. Jewellery for men’s wear was mostly confined to rings, links, studs, waistcoat buttons, scarf pins and watch chains. For rings the favourite shapes were signet rings in gold, and the gypsy ring in gold or platinum. Of the fancy shapes the snake rings were mostly in favour. The keynote of the rings, like all the jewellery worn by men, was simplicity and unostentatiousness, in comparison with the jewels worn at the beginning of the century. This is also exemplified in the watch-chains which used to be composed of heavy links of gold and enamel, but were now made of fine, delicate links of gold and black enamel. Scarf pins were very much smaller, to suit the ties, which had also decreased very much in size. The pearl scarf pin was the favourite. For waistcoat buttons the favourite stones were the onyx and diamond. The word cuff-links was new and described the two buttons united by a chain which began to be worn at this period. Until 1870 the buttons in these links were generally of a very simple character, made of gold and only remarkable because of the work in the gold itself. It was only from about 1880 that precious stones were included in sleeve-links, and then only for the evening. From the inclusion of a single stone in the centre of the link, these gradually began to be done in precious stones set in platinum. Since 1914.—Owing to the fashion of bobbed hair, hairpins and combs were replaced by diamond slides; diamond bandeaux worn flat on the forehead and round the head were worn at most receptions, whilst tiaras were reserved for court functions. Through the fashion of short sleeves, the jewel most in demand was the bracelet; this was from half-an-inch to over two inches wide. Large sums of money have been invested in rings, mostly diamonds, emeralds, pearls, rubies and sapphires. Where a diamond of zo-carat used to be considered large, 15-carat diamonds are now frequently worn, the largest stones being worn for rings weighing up to 40 carats. The difference between jewels worn during the day and those worn in the evening is less noticeable. Rows of pearls of great value are worn everywhere, at any time. The modern tendency is to wear two or three strings held together by the same important diamond or emerald clasp at the back, and falling closely together in front. The use of the wrist watch and of vanity and cigarette cases has become universal. Regarding the latter, while gold and

35

enamel remain the foundation, they are enriched by semi-precious or precious stones. They are also made of hard stones, such as black onyx, Russian jade, lapis, amber and grey agate, decorated with diamonds. The less expensive cases are made of tortoiseshell, Russian birch, or compositions resembling hard stones. The dominant note in modern jewellery is the intensive use of coloured stones, the cutting of the stones, and the design. While no

new

coloured

stones

have

been

found,

the blending

of so

many different kinds of coloured stones together has probably never been seen before. The results were obtained by the combined use of precious stones, semi-precious stones and hard stones such as black onyx, jade, lapis, amber and agate. While in previous periods all the stones used were round or square, now, except for the small round diamonds, the stones are cut in a variety of shapes to fit the design. Even the most valuable diamonds, regardless of weight, are now cut in square or rectangular shapes, like emeralds, and in such a way that only the finest, cleanest stones can stand the test. The use of coloured stones engraved with oriental designs has added a new touch to modern jewels. „9 . Car.) See C. Holme, Modern eer in Jewelry (x902); Barth, ue Geschmeide (2 vols. 1903-04); C.J. Davenport, ie (1905); H Vever, La Bijouterie française au XIX Siécle (1906, etc.).

CHINESE,

JAPANESE,

INDIAN

AND

PERSIAN

Nature and Use.—There can be few branches of craftsmanship in which the characteristics of a race are more clearly expressed than in its jewellery. Not only is the refinement born of centuries of civilization to be set against the untutored love of mere glitter, but many other factors have to be considered. Some of these become obvious at once when a comparison of the jewellery of the Far East with that of western Europe or America is attempted.

Even the circumstance that in such a comparison Japan would have to be left almost entirely out of the question is relevant. Living in a mountainous country with scanty natural resources, and parted from their neighbours by the ocean, the Japanese hardly know the meaning of jewellery. The character of the personal ornaments depends to a large extent upon the minerals and metals which a country provides, upon its climate, and upon the amount and nature of the clothing worn. Consideration must also be given to religious beliefs and ` national customs, giving to this or that article of jewellery a special significance, and limiting its use to persons of a particular age, condition or station. Personal ornaments may serve as indispensable articles of dress, rather than as mere embellishments, and their nature is thus to a large extent determined by the purpose they

serve. The influence of religion and ritual observance is too obvious to need emphasizing. In the East, the custom of accumulating savings in the form of jewellery is a factor not to be overlooked. A young bride’s dowry may consist entirely of personal ornaments in gold or silver, or of a headdress strung with coins or precious stones. But others too find in jewellery a convenient means of holding their wealth, enabling them to have it continually with them, both for safeguarding and for use when occasion requires. India.—The jeweller’s craft in India is of the highest antiquity. The forms of ornamentation of the jewellery described in the ancient Hindu epics is said to denote an unbroken continuity of tradition from those times of shadowy history to the present day,

and even the names have suffered little change. The code of Manu, which is believed to have taken its present form about 2,000 years ago, contains a description of the jeweller’s craft, and mentions the fines for bad workmanship and the punishment for debasing gold. A Hindu drama, “the Toy Cart,” written about the same time, describes a jeweller’s workshop where craftsmen examine pearls, topazes, emeralds, sapphires, lapis lazuli, coral and other jewels. Some set rubies in gold, some string gold beads on coloured thread, some string pearls, some grind lapis lazuli, some cut shells and some turn and pierce coral. Sir George Birdwood points out the close relationship of such operations to the practice of the present day. A dialogue in the drama has reference to the scsi with me jewellery was even then imitated.

36

JEWETT

Few early examples of Indian jewellery have been preserved to the present day. The sculptures of Sanchi, Bharhut, Amravati and Orissa, and paintings such as those of Ajanta, demonstrate the similarity in appearance of the ancient jewellery to that still made and worn. Numerous representations of the Hindu gods, whether human or animal, illustrate the early use of tiaras, necklaces (sometimes hanging in festoons to the waist), armlets at the elbow, bracelets, anklets and other forms of jewellery. One of the oldest known examples of ancient Indian jewellery in existence is a small relic casket found in a Buddhist shrine in the Kabul valley near Jellalabad. It is of gold, studded with balas rubies, and when found it contained burnt pearls and coral, and beads of sapphire, agate and crystal, besides a number of small gold ornaments. Coins found with the casket show that its workmanship is to be attributed to the ist century B.c. It betrays Greek influence, due to the conquests of Alexander the Great. The Indian goldsmiths are expert in the economy of the precious metals, beating gold and silver into the thinnest plates. Bracelets often end in the head of an animal; earrings represent the flower of the lotus; and various blossoms are fashioned for hairpins. It is principally in the south of India that elaborate gold jewellery is made with subjects in relief from the Hindu mythology. The ancient art of soldering gold in minute granulations has never been lost. The crescent-shaped gold brooch (Pl. VII., fig. 1) made at Delhi, with gold pendants and openwork setting, is an admirable example. Filigree is done in many places; the silversmiths of Cuttack, of Kashmir and of Bengal excel in this work. The armlet (Pl. VII., fig. 2) formed of diamonds set in gold upon a glass foundation is of Bengal workmanship. The back is ornamented with flowers in coloured enamels. The art of enriching gold jewels with enamel has been carried to great technical perfection in India, particularly at Jaipur in Rajputana. The pattern is chased and engraved in sunk relief on the jewel, and the hollows filled with transparent enamel in brilliant hues, principally red (derived from copper and iron), green (from copper), and opaque white (from tin). The turban-ornament (Pl. VII., fig. 3) of gold is a beautiful example of Jaipur enamelling of the 18th century. The peacock and the surrounding floral ornament are in translucent coloured enamels on an opaque white ground. The rim was formerly mounted with a row of pearls. Three other chased gold turban-ornaments illustrated were made in the state-workshops of Jaipur in the 17th and early part of the 18th century. Two (Pl. VIL., figs. 4-5) are enamelled in red, green and opaque white; the other (Pl. VII., fig. 6) is in green enamel. The last turban-ornament illustrated (Pl. VIIL, fg. 7) is of Benares workmanship. It is of gold, with rubies, emeralds, diamonds and pearls set in gold filigree. Nepal, Assam, Burma and Siam.—A Nepalese silver comb CPI. VIL, fg. 8) has nine stones mounted in gold and attached by stout wire. The gold ear-plugs (P1. VII., figs. ro-r1) of the r8th century are from Assam. They are set with rubies and emeralds. The jewellery of Burma and Siam has a semi-Chinese character. The Burmese necklaces, with their multitudinous strings of gold beads, sometimes interspersed with pearls and gems, are characteristic. Five Siamese gold ornaments are here reproduced. The hairpin (Pl. VII., fig. 13) is used for fixing the knot on the top of the head. The small urn-shaped case (PL VIL, fig. 15) is for holding scented ointment. The jewelled rings (Pl. VII., figs. 12, 14, 16) are in the form of dragons. Persia.—In Persia much of the jewellery is in enamelled gold. Shiraz is the chief centre of this work. A pair of massive gold earrings is here illustrated (P1. VIL., figs. 9 and 17). Each consists of

used—not cut in facets, but polished and set en cabochon. Gems and pearls are frequently drilled through and attached by means of a fine wire. Flexible strings of jewels, often interspersed with

plaques of carved jade or enamel, are worn as personal ornaments and employed in a variety of other ways, This practice gives a distinctive character to Chinese jewellery. Personal jewellery in China often takes the form, or bears the images, of the animals, real or fabulous, and the numerous ritual

and symbolical objects of Chinese art and culture. A dragon or phoenix may form a bracelet or decorate a headdress or a hairpin.

The “precious ornaments,” or eight Buddhist emblems of happy

augury, are strung with rows of pearls or used separately. It should be noticed that the first of the “precious ornaments” is a round jewel wreathed with a fillet, and that innumerable works of art rcpresent the dragon pursuing or grasping the flaming jewel of omnipotence. Emblems often indicate the rank and office of the wearer, from the emperor downwards. Special ornaments were worn by the Manchu or Chinese ladies, and various limitations were imposed by sumptuary laws. Gold and silver plaques were manipulated in several ways. They might be pressed into moulds, hammered in relief, cut into openwork patterns or engraved. The dexterity of the Chinese craftsman has carried the art of filigree (q.v.) in the precious metals to a degree of intricacy and minuteness unsurpassed elsewhere. It is used for the most elaborate headdresses and for all kinds of personal ornaments. Jewellery in gold and silver is often enamelled—gold generally in light blue obtained from copper, and silver in dark blue from a cobaltiferous ore; both colours are also used together. The gold filigree bracelet (Pl. VIII., fig. 1) is in the form of

two dragons.

The headdress (PI. VIII., fig. 2) was worn by a

Manchu lady of high rank. It has a wire foundation covered with silk and mounted with panels of silver-gilt filigree in the form of bats (for happiness) and peaches (for longevity). It is overlaid with kingfisher plumes and enriched with amber, jadeite, amethysts, coral and pearls. The cap of state (Pl. VIII., fig. 3), from the Summer Palace, Peking, is also of silver-gilt filigree with kingfisher plumes and enrichment of pearls and coral. The ornament includes figures of Taoist immortals, birds and butterflies. The bride’s headdress (Pl. VIII., fig. 4) is of the same materials, showing a temple-pavilion, dragons and phoenixes. The chatelaine (Pl. VIII., fig. 5) has a row of silver-gilt toilet articles. There are various forms of hairpins, hair-ornaments, cap-ornaments, earrings and buttons in silver and silver-gilt, with jewels, enamels and kingfisher plumes. The Indian practice of inlaying precious stones in finger-rings and plaques of jade was copied in China, where jade and jadeite rank among the most valued of precious stones. Figure-subjects are sometimes carried out in gems and semi-precious stones, encrusted on plaques of white jade. Small personal ornaments of many kinds have been carved in jade. For Egyptian Jewellery see ArT AND ARCHAEOLOGY OF EGYPT. See Germs; Precious Stones; Jape; GOLDSMITHS’ AND SILVERSMITHS WORK; also Sir G. Birdwood, The Industrial Arts of India (1880) and S. W. Bushell, Chinese Art (Victoria and Albert Museum handbook).

JEWETT, SARAH ORNE

(1849-19009), American writer,

was born in South Berwick (Me.), Sept. 3, 1840. She was a daughter of the physician Theodore H. Jewett, whom she has drawn in A Country Doctor (1884) and to whom she dedicated Country By-Ways (1881). She studied at the Berwick academy, but her chief training came from her long drives with her father two gold domes, enamelled with flowers in colours and fringed as he visited his country patients. In 1869 she contributed her with rows of seed pearls and gold leaves. Talismans and amulets, first story to the Atlantic Monthly. Her best work consists of much used in Persia, are sometimes of enamelled gold. Small Short stories and sketches such as those in The Country of silver boxes for carrying opium are often embossed in high relief. the Pointed Firs (1896). The people of Maine, with their charChina.—Jewellery in China is characterised by a delicacy and acteristic speech, manners, and traditions, she described with pecumanipulative elaboration for which the Chinese craftsman shows liar charm and realism. The background, too, she touched in with great aptitude. Silver is by far the most usually employed of the loving care. She was awarded the degree of Litt.D. by Bowdoin precious metals, though ornaments are occasionally of solid gold. college in 1901. She died at South Berwick (Me.), June 24, 1909. Silver jewellery is generally gilt to safeguard it from tarnishing. Among her publications are: Deephaven, a series of sketches (1877) ; Rubies, amethysts and other precious and semi-precious stones are Old Friends and New (1879); A Marsh Island (1885), a novel; A

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1. Crescent shaped brooch of granulated gold from Delhi. 2. Glass armlet inlaid with diamends set in gold, India. 3—6. Turban ornaments of gold decorated with enamels. From Jaipur in Rajputana. 7. Pine-shaped turban ornament from Benares set with precious stones. &. Nepalese silver comb with nine stones set in gold. 9 & 17. Pair of gold enamelled earrings

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fringed with rows of seed pearls and gold leaves. Persian. 10 & 11. Ear plugs of jewelled gold. Assam. 12, 14, 16. Jewelled gold rings in forms of dragons. Siamese. 13. Gold hair pin for knot on top of the head. Siamese. 15. Gold case for scented ointment. Siamese

Prate VIII

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CHINESE 1. Bracelet of gold filigree 2. Head-dress of silk and 3. Silver-gilt filigree cap, of human figures and

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HEAD—-DRESSES

two dragons a Manchu lady of high rank head-dress, worked in a design with kingfisher plumes, pearls

AND

JEWELLERY

4. Bride’s head-dress of silver-gilt filigree with applied ornament In form of a temple, dragons and phoenixes. Height, 12 in. holding seven silver-gilt 5. Chatelaine of gilt metal chains and pendants implements for the toilet. Length 15!4 in.

JEWFISH—JEWISH

PHILOSOPHY

tion of which will be given later. When, in the middle ages, beginning in the roth century, the philosophic movement was inaugurated among the Jews in Kairuan and in Babylonia and later spread to Spain, Provence and other European countries, the impulse was again due, though indirectly, to Greek literature. The immediate incentive came from the Arabs. But the Arabs themselves owed their interest in philosophical studies to the Christians JEWFISH, the name applied to several tropical American in Syria and Mesopotamia, who in turn were the disciples of the grouper fishes of the family Serranidae, especially the yuasa Greeks. The Judeo-Alexandrian school may be traced back in its crude (Promicrops guttatus) of the Caribbean sea, pale olive green with five darker stripes, and reaching a maximum weight of 3oolb.; beginnings to the 2nd century B.c., and its culmination in the | the black sea bass (Stereolepis gigas) of southern California, works of Philo Judaeus (b. c. 25 B.C.) is contemporaneous with reaching a length of 7ft. and a weight of soolb., brown in colour, Christianity. The philosophical movement among the Jews in the blotched with greenish-black and highly esteemed for the table; middle ages was not a continuation of the Alexandrian philosophy. and the black jewfish (Garrupa nigrita), also reaching a weight The latter spent its force, so far as the Jews were concerned, in of soolb., chocolate brown in colour and a favourite with anglers. Philo, who had no Jewish successors, though the Fathers of the Church almost adopted him as their own, and traces of his influIt ranges from South Carolina south to Brazil. ence are found in Clement of Alexandria, Origen, St. Ambrose, and JEWISH LITERATURE: see HEBREW LITERATURE. JEWISH PHILOSOPHY. The term Jewish Philosophy is in all likelihood also in the prologue of the Gospel of St. John. here used to denote the attempt of Jews to solve the general prob- The early mediaeval Jewish philosophers, like Isaac Israeli, Al lems of Philosophy from the point of view of Judaism, and Mukammas, Saadia and others, made a fresh beginning to rationconversely to establish the doctrines of Judaism on a philosophic alize the Jewish faith, following the example of the Arabs among basis. It does not include, however, merely dogmatic statements whom they lived. about God, the universe and man, such as are found in the sacred CHARACTER AND CONTENT OF JEWISH PHILOSOPHY books, for philosophy is characterized by method as well as conOne characteristic is common to both schools of Jewish tent. Every general proposition concerning the nature and attributes of the Divine Being, the origin and processes of the universe, philosophy which distinguishes them from the classical Greek the nature, origin and destiny of man and the human soul, the philosophy to which in part they owed their existence. It is an rules of human conduct, and so on, belongs in content to philos- attribute which Jewish philosophy shares with all religious philoophy. But the literature containing such propositions is not sophy, hence with Christian and Mohammedan scholasticism. classed as philosophical unless the method is scientific, ż.e., ration- All the Jewish philosophers believed in a twofold source of truth, alistic. Appeal to authority or faith or revelation is not a scien- revelation and reason. We derive our knowledge, so the theory tific or rationalistic method. Scientific method makes use of runs, partly from our own efforts, sense-perception and reason, observation and inference, deductive and inductive. Authority, and partly from Divine revelation, which is recorded in the faith and revelation may themselves form the subjects of scien- Bible. This view does not necessarily vitiate the scientific chartific study, and a rationalistic analysis of the topics mentioned acter of religious philosophy if a rational attempt is made to show would also come under philosophy. Accordingly, in a historical that God does reveal Himself to mankind and that this revelation sketch of Jewish philosophy we exclude almost entirely the books is recorded in the sacred books. And though the attempts in this of the Bible because, although the topics treated therein are also direction, made by the mediaeval philosophers, seem to us crude dealt with in philosophy, the method is not rationalistic, but dog- and naive, we must judge them from their point of view and not matic. The historians, the lawgivers and the prophets of the from our own. Literary criticism did not exist in those days, Bible appeal almost entirely to authority and revelation for opin- and tradition enjoyed greater authority than it does now. Philoion and guidance. The books of Job and Ecclesiastes form an ex- logical and critical interpretation was in its infancy, and texts ception and may be regarded as forming a transition from the were as Clay in the hands of exegetes. The idea of a twofold source of truth necessarily suggested itpurely dogmatic to the purely philosophic point of view. Nor can we include in this study the second literary monument of self by the presence of two series of literary documents, the one Judaism, the Talmud. And for the same reason. The Talmud is appealing to reason, the other to revelation. This dualism raised partly legal and partly legendary and homiletic. The legal and the problem of the relation between the two sources, and the sohomiletical elements are based upon the Bible as revealed author- lution was that there is no conflict between them. ‘They suppleity, and the legends are of course just legends. The fact is that ment each other, and properly so, since reason alone is imadethe Hebrews in their creative period, both in Biblical and Tal- quate in matters transcendental, requires maturity and time and mudic times, had no scientific or rationalistic interests. We need effort in all matters, and is fallible at best. Conduct cannot wait not take literally the statement of Henry Sumner Maine: “Ex- upon reason, hence must rely upon revelation until reason comes cept the blind forces of Nature, nothing moves in this world limpingly after to confirm the data of revelation. Opinion and bewhich is not Greek in its origin”; but as concerns the application lief are also a matter of great moment, both in themselves as necesof rational analysis to the phenomena of nature and of human sary to salvation and as bases of conduct. Here, too, therefore life, the opinion of Maine is correct. And if the Jews, too, in the revelation is necessary until reason comes to confirm it. This is satisfactory enough as theory, but does not apparently course of their life as a people began to philosophize, the impulse square with the facts. The two sources sometimes seem to conflict. thereto is to be traced to Greek influence. In pre-Christian times the Jews of Alexandria for the first time Revelation teaches creation of the world in time, reason suggests in their history came into contact with Greek life and thought. to Aristotle that the world is eternal. Revelation teaches free will, Being separated from their native country, Palestine, they quickly reason suggests to certain philosophers that human acts are deassimilated the Greek mode of life and intellectual atmosphere. termined by past causes. Revelation speaks of God in anthropoHebrew became a foreign tongue to them, and they read the morphic terms, reason proves that God is incorporeal. The greater Pentateuch in a Greek translation. They did not, however, forget part of Jewish philosophy is devoted to reconciling these apparent that they were Jews, and the thinkers among them revered the conflicts. And the solutions always take one of two forms. Either laws of Moses and the rest of the Biblical books as the Word of so-called reason is at fault, and for apparent reason is substituted God. At the same time they had a thorough appreciation of a better reason which does agree with revelation, or the current Greek science and philosophy which they tried to make their interpretation of the revealed documents is at fault, and for apown. Being attached to two diverse cultures they felt the need parent revelation is substituted true revelation which does agree of a synthesis or harmonization. The result was what is known with reason. Hence Biblical exegesis played a very important rôle

White Heron and Other Stories (1886) ; The King of Folly Island and

Other People (1888); Strangers and Wayfarers (1890); A Native of Winby and Other Tales (1893); The Queen’s Twin and Other Stories (1899); and The Tory Lover (1901), a historical novel. A selection of the best of her stories was made by Willa Cather (1925). The Letters of Sarah Orne Jewett were edited by Annie Fields (1911). C. M. Thompson treats sympathetically “The Art of Miss Jewett” in The Atlantic Monthly, vol. xciv. pp. 485-497.

as the Judeo-Alexandrian School of Philosophy, a brief descrip-

in Jewish

philosophy, and it was not an insuperable task for a

aa

JEWISH PHILOSOPHY

38

Jewish philosopher in the middle ages to adopt the greater part of the philosophy of the day, because exegesis had much greater latitude in those days. Particularly the Bible, since it was not an ordinary book, and was intended for young and old, the learned and the unlearned, must have more than one meaning, and each person sees in the Bible as much as he is capable of seeing. PROBLEMS

Judeo-Alexandrian

OF JEWISH

PHILOSOPHY

School.—The main philosophical prob-

lem in Philo, apart from the general one of the relation between

revelation and reason, which was discussed above, is the nature and attributes of God. Here Philo, under the cultural influences of his day which are only vaguely understood, deviated from the classical Greek philosophy of Plato, Aristotle and the Stoics whom in eclectic fashion he ordinarily follows, as well as from the Old Testament. And herein consists his original contribution to philosophic and theologic thought. The Biblical conception of God is in many parts frankly anthropomorphic. The classic philosophy of the Greeks depersonalized God to a great extent and thought of

Him as disembodied thought or reason. Philo, on the other hand, conceived of God as transcendent, 7.¢., altogether unlike anything in human experience and hence unknowable and inconceivable to the human mind. His transcendence, moreover, makes it impossible for Him to mould matter into a world, and hence His relation to the world is only indirect. Certain powers emanate from Him, constituting subordinate beings or divinities through which the world has taken shape. Chief among these and embracing them all is the Logos, which represents God’s reason, though it is at the same time a distinct personality and is once referred to

as the Son of God. It is through this Logos that the transcendent God moulds matter into a world and rules it as the soul rules the body. This doctrine of the Logos, which must have been a stumblingblock to the Jews, impairing, as it seemed, the basic monotheism of the Jewish religion, was eagerly accepted by the Church, and thereafter, in all Christian theology, patristic as well as scholastic, the Logos, incarnate in Jesus, was identified with the second person of the Trinity. This was perhaps the reason why Philo’s philosophy was never more than an episode in Jewish thought. The Mediaeval Period.—In the roth century Judaism was divided into two sects, the Rabbinite and Karaite. They were

divided on the question of the authority of the Rabbinic tradition. The Mishnah and the Talmud were rejected by the Karaites as authoritative interpretations of the Bible. To the Rabbinites, on the other hand, the Oral Law, as tradition was called, was coeval with the Written Law of Scripture and hence equally authoritative. Both of these schools of Judaism followed the example of the Arabs, who, in the East and later in Spain, were so enamoured with Greek scientific and philosophic thought that they assimilated the: various phases of it with enthusiasm, and in the course of three

or four centuries (from the gth to the r2th) developed a rich literature of their own on the subjects of logic, ethics, metaphysics, mathematics, natural science and medicine. It stands to reason that the Karaites, who were not bound by tradition, found their philosophic path less beset with difficulties than the Rabbinites, but on the whole the progress of the two was more or less parallel, since the fundamental theological and metaphysical dogmas were the same. The main problems which concerned the Jewish philosophers in the middle ages may be classed under the following heads: God, the World, Man, his Soul, Conduct, Revelation, Reward and Punishment. All other problems of logic, physics and metaphysics were merely auxiliary or instrumental. They were studied as means to an end, the end being a true understanding of God and His relation to the world and particularly to man. As the predominant philosophy among the Arabs changed, so did the Jewish thinkers pass from one point of view to another. And the Arabs, too, advanced from one mode of conceiving metaphysical problems to another according as more of ancient Greek philosophical literature became known to them in Arabic translation. The succession of schools, therefore, in Arabic and Jewish philoscphy was not the same as among the Greeks, since

it did not represent, as in the case of the originators, an immanent development based to a great degree on logical necessity and only incidentally affected by historical circumstances. Among the Arabs and the Jews, historical circumstances played a greater réle than logical necessity. Thus the neo-Platonic point of view, which was the last stage in Greek thought, preceded, among the Arabs and the Jews, the Aristotelian stage, which was separated

from neo-Platonism in the land of Greece by the intervening

schools of same time ent reason permanent

the Stoics, the Epicureans and the Sceptics. At the it cannot be denied that there must have been an inherwhy the phase of philosophic thought which became among the three religions in the middle ages was

Aristotelianism.

Peoples as unlike as the European Christians,

the Mohammedan Arabs and the Jews agreed in making Aristotle the supreme authority where reason was concerned, and not Plato or Plotinus. It was probably because the rationalism of Aristotle was the extreme antithesis to the supernaturalism and mysticism of the several religions that the great desideratum was to harmonize them. Such harmony alone was able to produce the satisfaction that is felt in unity. PHILOSOPHERS

OF THE

MIDDLE

AGES

The Jewish philosophers of the middle ages can be best classified under four heads as follows: Kalamists, neo-Platonists, Aristotelians and anti-rationalists. These divisions represent the predominating tendencies and are not to be taken strictly. Many of the mediaeval Jewish philosophers were eclectic in their teachings, either consciously or unconsciously; consciously, in that they tried to harmonize diverse systems; unconsciously, because their sources were confused, and spurious works as well as apocryphal sayings circulated under the name of Empedocles, Plato, Aristotle, etc.

Kalamists.—Kalam is the name given to a system of doctrine which originated among the Arabs in the oth century and continued until the eleventh. The adherents of this form of teaching were called in Arabic Mutakallimun, which may be anglicized into Kalamists. They were the first to add reason as an aid in

arriving at true knowledge. In seeking for a basis in reason for their theology, they adopted the atomistic doctrine of the preAristotelian philosophers, Leucippus and Democritus. The basis of all physical being is atom and accident. The atom is the basic

substance, the accident is the quality or attribute.

God created

both, and His will alone determines what accident is to be joined to what atom. There is no other causal activity in the world except the Divine will; natural law and necessity are fictions established by philosophers on the basis of observed repetitions. There is no inherent difference betweer the ordinary and the extraordinary, the normal and the abnormal, the natural and the supernatural or miraculous, except as repetitions in the physical world create in us habits of expectation that what has happened before will happen again. To God nothing is normal and nothing is abnormal. The rare phenomenon of the division of the Red sea and the daily phenomenon of the rising of the sun stand on the same footing. If we leave out the Divine will we have in these views an anticipation of David Hume. These doctrines were preliminary to the more properly theo-

logical teachings which the Kalamists advocated. In conformity with their reliance on reason they elaborated proofs for the existence of God which were based upon the doctrine of the

world’s creation in time. They argued as follows: The world either had an origin in time or not. If it had no origin in time, it had existed from eternity, and no one made it. If, on the other hand, it had a beginning in time, it must have been made by someone, since nothing can make itself. Hence if the creation of the world in time can be proved, the existence of a Creator can be proved likewise. Accordingly they proceeded to prove that the world was created in time, arid then based upon this conclusion the proof of the existence of God. They defended the unity of God against the Christians, His incorporeality against the anthropomorphists in their own midst, and invented ingenious and hair-splitting discussions concerning the Divine attributes so as to make the absolute unity of God consistent with the theology of

JEWISH PHILOSOPHY the Koran. Unity was understood in the absolute sense as excluding any and every kind of plurality. There is no such unity in our experience, since every object, no matter what, has parts and divisions or is capable of receiving them. Hence God is absolutely different from everything else, and when we say, He is living, wise and powerful, we must not be understood as ascribing to God three distinct qualities. In God they are one with Him and with each other, though we do not understand how. The Kalamists also defended God’s justice against the orthodox views of the arbitrariness of the Divine will and of fatalism or determinism. If good and evil, right and wrong, mean simply conformity to and deviation from God’s will, then God’s will is neither good nor evil, and God is neither just nor unjust. This is an untenable doctrine, hence they taught that good and evil are absolute and not relative to the Divine will. God wills the good because it is good and abhors evil because it is evil. Similarly if man is determined to act as he does, reward and punishment are not just. Hence to vindicate God’s justice they taught freedom of man’s will. The earliest Jewish philosophers followed the teachings of the Arab Kalamists. Among the Karaites may be mentioned: Joseph Al Basir (rrth century) and Jeshua ben Judah (11th century); among the Rabbinites, David ben Merwan Al Mukammas (roth

century),

Saadia

Ben

Joseph

Al-Fayyumi

(892-942),

Bahya

Ibn Pakuda (12th century), Joseph Ibn Zaddik (d. 1149). The Karaites followed the Arab Kalamists more closely than did the Kabbinites, but none of the Jewish Kalamists went so far as to deny natural law. Thus Saadia, whose philosophical work Emunot ve-Deot (Beliefs and Opinions) is based upon the Kalamistic model, rejects the doctrine of metempsychosis or transmigration of souls on the ground that there must be a certain kinship between a given soul and its body, that the soul of a human being cannot be associated with the body of a lower animal. Neo-Platonists.—The next wave of philosophic tradition that

passed over Arabic culture and hence over Jewish culture also in Mohammedan countries, was the neo-Platonic. Plotinus was the founder of this school of thought in the 3rd century, and it was the last attempt of the Greeks to establish a system of philosophy on purely scientific though pagan lines. As the name indicates it was a return to Plato in the sense of being a spiritualistic philosophy, which regarded the material, the concrete and the sensible as unreal and as the source of evil. The intelligible alone is real and good. By intelligible is meant that which can be grasped by intellect alone and not by the five senses. The neoPlatonists, however, went even beyond Plato in assuming that that which can be apprehended by intellectual thinking is not the highest reality, that beyond the intelligible is the transcendent, which cannot be subsumed under the categories of thought. This is God, the unknowable. But though God cannot be known as we understand knowledge, an exceptional individual may in rare instances reach the state of enthusiasm or ecstasy in which, losing consciousness of himself as an individual, he may momentarily enter into a mystic union with the source of all being. This idea of the transcendence of God and of mystic union with Him is found also in Philo; and as the precursor of the neoPlatonic philosophy, Ammonias Saccas, who was the teacher of Plotinus, lived in Alexandria, it is probable that the Philonian philosophy had its share in the formation of the neo-Platonic doctrine. In their derivation of the:universe from God the neo-Platonists used the method of emanation, which makes their system Pantheistic. There is no creation ex nihilo, nor do they start, as did Plato and Aristotle, with two ultimate principles, mind and matter, or form and matter, but beginning with the One good God, they allow everything else to emanate from Him as light emanates

from a luminous object. First emanates Intellect (Greek vois), then universal Soul (yvx7), then Nature (gtous), then Matter (UX), which, as the last in the series, is farthest from the Source and hence the coarsest, the least real and the source of evil, which is pure negation and not anything positive. The chief representative of the neo-Platonic philosophy in the Jewish literature of this subject is Solomon Ibn Gabirol (1o21-

39

58), though neo-Platonic ideas are also found in isaac Israeli (855—955), the oldest Jewish philosopher of the middle ages, Bahya, Pseudo-Bahya, Abraham bar Hiyya (xz2th century), Joseph Ibn Zaddik, Judah Halevi (12th century), Moses (1070— 1138) and Abraham Ibn Ezra (1092-1167). Gabirol’s Fons Vitae is completely neo-Platonic, though he deviates from the traditional neo-Platonic doctrine in placing universal matter and universal form in all the stages of existence as they emanate from God, instead of making matter the last stage in the emanation series. Matter itself changes its nature in the course of its descent and coarseness is not the property of matter as such, but the result of increasing distance from the source. The essential quality of matter is rather indeterminateness, as determination is the characteristic quality of form. Aristotelians.—The last positive philosophic stage among the Jews of the middle ages was Aristotelianism, and to this system of philosophy belong the most important Jewish thinkers of that period, namely, Abraham Ibn Daud (1110-80), Moses Maimonides (1135-1204) and Gersonides (1288-1344). Aristotle’s is the most rationalistic system of Greek antiquity, using the term rationalism not in contrast to empiricism but in opposition to mysticism. Perhaps intellectualism is the better word. Aristotle is regarded as the philosopher par excellence and all his works are studied with all their details, not necessarily the translations of them, but in the majority of instances paraphrases and commentaries on the works of Aristotle made by the Arabs Al Kindi, Al

Farabi, Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Ibn Roshd (Averroes). Aristotle was the first to delimit the boundaries of the various branches of philosophy and to treat them systematically. Logic, physics, psychology, biology, metaphysics, ethics, politics, rhetoric and poetics are all rigidly distinguished, and each of them has a treatise or treatises devoted to it in the extant works of Aristotle. The politics and the poetics were rather neglected by the Jews, the former because the Jews had no State of their own and the latter because it had no bearing on theology or the Bible. To be sure there is poetry in the Bible, but the Jewish philosophers were interested in doctrine and not in literary form. All the other works of Aristotle, notably the logic, physics, psychology, metaphysics and ethics, were carefully studied, even if not at first hand, and the ideas contained therein were laid under contribution in the attempt to establish a scientific Jewish philosophy. Interest in Aristotle’s problems was taken partly for their own sake, for the Jews did develop a scientific temper, and partly for an apologetic purpose to defend the dogmas of Judaism scientifically. And Biblical exegesis was introduced as an aid in the apologetic activity. . The most important part of the Aristotelian philosophy for the Jewish theologians was naturally his idea of God. His was the first scientific attempt to prove the existence of God irrespective of the religious motive. As is well known, Aristotle proves that the motion at the basis of all natural phenomena in the heavens and on earth requires for its existence an immovable mover, and an analysis of the concept of an immovable mover leads to the recognition of a being having the Divine attributes of unity and incorporeality. This demonstration was of Immense importance for a religious philosophy and was adopted eagerly by the Jewish philosophers as soon as it became known to them. It took the place immediately of the Kalamistic proofs of the earlier writers and prepared the downfall of that system of doctrine. For Aristotle’s proof of the existence of God could not be taken as an isolated bit of argumentation. Aristotle’s ideas are not episodic, they are above all systematic. The argument for the existence of God carries with it the entire physical and metaphysical system of Aristotle without which it has no meaning. Hence Maimonides, in the second book of the Guide of the Perplexed, prefaces the Aristotelian proof with a list of 25 propositions, which sum up in the form of dogmatic conclusions the physical and metaphysical theories of Aristotle. Abraham Ibn Daud, in his Exalted Faith, does the same thing in a less concentrated and less skilful form. And Hasdai Crescas (1340-1410), the Antirationalist, undermines the Aristotelian doctrine by undertaking to refute, in his Light of the Lord, the 25 principles laid down by

40

JEWISH PHILOSOPHY

Maimonides.

The difference in method between the Kalamistic proofs of the

existence of God and the Aristotelian is that the former were all

based upon the doctrine of the creation of the world in time.

Creation was proved first and the existence of God followed from creation. The Aristotelian proof was direct, though in proving God’s incorporeality the assumption is that the world is eternal. This meant, of course, that one had to exercise caution in availing oneself of the Aristotelian arsenal for the purpose of borrowing arms for the defence of Judaism. There were those —not at all insignificant persons—who made precisely this charge that, in following the teachings of Aristotle, Maimonides and his school were falsifying Judaism. Maimonides did make use of the Aristotelian proof in place of the Kalamistic because he did not believe the creation of the world in time to be demonstrable by reason. But neither did he believe that Aristotle had succeeded in proving the world’s eternity. As a matter of pure logic he thinks that the balance of probability is in favor of creation, and in creation he believes. The treatment of the Divine attributes in the philosophy of the Jewish Aristotelians is also based on Aristotelian ideas. Unity and incorporeality are derived in Aristotelian fashion from the concept of the “unmoved mover.” Thus the Aristotelian conceptions of matter and form and motion and change and nature and potentiality and actuality are adopted and laid under contribution. Nevertheless the doctrine of Divine attributes in its details is not wholly Aristotelian. In the first place God is the Creator ex nihilo in accordance with the traditional interpretation of the creation story in Genesis and not merely the prime mover causing the combination of the eternal matter with the eternal forms as in Aristotle. Secondly, there is an element of neo-Platonic transcendence in the conception of God both in the

philosophy of Maimonides and in that of the other Jewish Aris-

totelians, who differ only in -the .degree of transcendence they ascribe to God, Maimonides being extreme in his views on the subject, while Gersonides is more moderate. The Aristotelian cosmology as it relates to the motions of the heavenly bodies and their several spiritual movers—the spirits of the spheres, as they were called, or the separate Intelligences— was also adopted in part and made use of to find a place for the Biblical doctrine of angels. The angels of which the Bible speaks are none other than the movers of the spheres, and they are immaterial beings. Aristotle’s psychology was also adopted in part, the soul being conceived of as the form or entelechy of the body and not as a pre-existing and distinct entity which was placed in the body, as the Platonic view has it. The different parts and faculties of the soul, the senses—internal and external—etc., were also understood in the Aristotelian manner. And similarly Aristotle’s doctrine of dreams and divination and his conception of the Active Intellect were adapted to the Jewish doctrines of prophecy and immortality. Prophecy was explained on psychological principles as being a combination of reason and imagination, Moses alone being an exception in that his prophetic gift was wholly supernatural; while the immortality of the soul was ascribed only to the intellect or reason, which is immaterial. The Active Intellect of Aristotle, which could be conceived of in various ways, since Aristotle’s description of it is obscure, was, in Arabic fashion, identifed with the mover or spirit of the lunar sphere, and was regarded by Gersonides as the bestower of the prophetic information upon the reason, of the human individual. The surviving human reason is after death absorbed in the Active Intellect, to whose illumination it owes all its theoretical knowledge, the natural knowledge of the philosopher as well as the supernatural of the prophet. The ethics of Aristotle played a less important part in Jewish philosophy, as it did not come in direct conflict with any specific Biblical or Rabbinic doctrine. Nevertheless Maimonides made use of Aristotle’s ideas in his commentary on the ethical treatise of the Mishnah called Abot. In his introduction to his commentary he lays down the Aristotelian analysis of the faculties of the human soul as the basis of his ethical doctrine and

takes over from Aristotle the definition of virtue as the rational activity of the soul acquired as a permanent possession, the division of the virtues into theoretical and practical, and the doctrine of the mean, namely, that in those fields of human conduct to which the terms virtue and vice can be applied, excess and defect are both vices, while virtue is represented by the mean. Thus in the matter of spending money, excess in spending is extravagance, a vice, defect in spending is niggardliness, also a vice, moderation in spending is the virtue, and the same holds true in other lines of conduct. More important, however, than the borrowing of these specific ethical doctrines is the general spirit of Aristotelian rationalism which Maimonides and others apply to the laws of the Pentateuch. Despite the statement in the Talmud that the so-called “statutes” (Heb. kukkim) represent the arbitrary will of God and should not be enquired into nor explained in a humanitarian spirit where no such interpretation is given in the Bible itself, Maimonides devotes a large part of his Guide to a rationalization and ethicization of the Pentateuchal laws. And where either seems impossible, as in the elaborate institution of sacrifices, he makes bold to brand the whole as superstition. The Israelites of that time, he says, under the influence of custom and the example of the surrounding nations, were attached to the sacrificial rites which they practised in honour of strange gods. It would have been impossible to wean them away from idol worship and to convert them to the worship of the true God if sacrifices were abolished. Hence a concession was made to the customs of the people and they were told to offer sacrifices to the Lord, in the hope that in the course of time as the true faith would educate them and purify and refine their conception of God, the sacrifices would fall away of themselves. An important problem which pertains equally to ethics and theology was the doctrine of free will in its relation to the Divine attribute of omniscience. The doctrine of freedom is a necessary consequence of Divine justice. Reward and punishment, a fundamental dogma of Judaism, cannot be justified if man is not free to determine his will to do or to abstain. But if man is free, God’s knowledge is limited in so far, because freedom means in the last analysis causelessness, and the causeless is from the nature of the case unknowable in advance of its occurrence. Maimonides’s solution is that this argument does not hold of the Divine Being who is transcendent. He can know the unknowable. Ibn Daud and Gersonides admit that the causeless is as such unknowable and hence unknown to God also, but omniscience must not be understood in a sense which would make its meaning contradictory and absurd, any more than the attribute of omnipotence can be taken to mean that God can now make that which happened yesterday not to have happened, or to make a tree grow artificial flowers. Hasdai Crescas, whom we class among the anti-rationalists, saves God’s omniscience by limiting human freedom, yet maintains the justice of reward and punishment by pointing out that such is the law of things, and there is a necessary connection between wrong-doing and suffering as there is between swallowing poison and death. The Anti-Rationalists——Among those who were conversant with the philosophical views of the day, neo-Platonic and Aristotelian, but refused to make of them a procrustean bed upon which to stretch the doctrines of Judaism, the foremost are Judah Halevi (fl. r2th century) and Hasdai Crescas. Judah Halevi was a poet and had no confidence in the theories and arguments of the philosophers. In the first place he distinguished between the method and aim of philosophy on the one hand and those of Judaism on the other. The philosopher uses the discursive reason and his aim is knowledge. Whether his subject matter is God or the shape and size of the earth, or the identity and number of the elements, his methods and aims are alike. Judaism is not a rationalistic philosophy, its purpose is not to impart theoretical

information.

Judaism is a mode of life based upon the historic

fact of the Divine revelation to Moses and Israel on Sinai and His election of the people of Israel to bear testimony to His existence and will. The prophets are the teachers of Israel and not

the philosophers,

The prophets knew God directly and not

JEWISH PHILOSOPHY through logical inference. They were in communion with God, having personal experience of Him, and were attached to Him in love and devotion. They speak of Him with enthusiasm and their enthusiasm is contagious and makes disciples. The prophets of Israel constitute a higher species of being than the ordinary Israelite. Judah Halevi does not therefore subscribe to the Maimonidean conception of prophecy which attempts to approximate it to the natural phenomena of the acquisition of knowledge. Judah Halevi maintains the wholly supernatural character of prophecy and the objective reality of the prophetic visions. What these visions actually were he does not attempt to say. The messengers or angels who appeared to the prophets may have been specially created, he says, from the fine elementary bodies, or they may have been the spirits of the spheres or abstract Intelligences of which the philosophers spoke. Halevi maintains a wholesome restraint and abstains from dogmatism as to the precise nature of these theophanies, but he has no doubt of their objective reality, since all the prophets testify to having seen them. We apply the same test, he says, to the phenomena appearing to our senses. We test the objective reality of such appearances by the testimony of the generality of mankind. Prophetic visions, similarly, are tested by their appearance to all members of the prophetic guild. Nor does Halevi find it necessary to find human reasons for the ritual and ceremonial laws of the Pentateuch. The sacrifices are not objectionable to him, nor inconsistent with the nature of God. It is presumptuous to say that because we do not understand the significance of sacrifices as determining spiritual health, they must be given a symbolic meaning or rejected altogether. For neither do we know what determines the physical health of plant and animal, and why a certain proportion of elementary mixture constitutes health and a slight deviation therefrom disease and even death. Israel is superior to other nations, Palestine to other countries and Hebrew to all other languages. Prophecy is

inseparable from Palestine and Israel alone had prophets. No philosopher ever achieved prophetic inspiration. Judah Halevi passes in review all the principal doctrines of the philosophy current in his day and subjects them to a rigorous and unsympathetic criticism. Some of these theories, he shows, are arbitrary and without any evidence, while others are clearly untenable as they do not account for the facts. He is particularly opposed to the philosophic doctrine of immortality, that it is due to the intellectual nature of the soul and is dependent upon the knowledge which the soul possesses. The philosophic requirement for immortality, Halevi objects, is either too small or too great, according to the meaning one attaches to the word knowledge. CRESCAS AND MAIMONIDES

Despite the criticisms of Halevi, the philosophical or Aristotelian point of view gained ground among the Jews in Spain and Ibn Daud, Maimonides and Gersonides made it fashionable and authoritative. Maimonides created a school of Judaism which had many followers and dominated the thought of the learned in the following centuries. To be sure, it was not alone in the field and it met with violent opposition. Most of this, however, came from those who were not familiar with philosophic speculation, and the opposition was based on purely dogmatic grounds. The

traditional interpretation of the Bible and the authority of the Talmud were appealed to against the new-fangled ideas which came from non-Jewish sources. In Hasdai Crescas, however, we have a new champion of traditional Judaism, a philosophical defender of the unadulterated faith against the rationalism and intellectualism of the Maimonidean school. Like Judah Halevi, and with more rigour of logic and argument, he undertook to undermine the views of the philosophers by refuting the 25 propositions (or the more im-

4I

Light of the Lord (or Adonai). Some of his arguments are not more convincing than those he attacks, but he feels safer in that he is closer to the traditional understanding of Scripture and there is no doubt that his interpretation of Judaism is truer to its spirit, since he does not force alien conceptions upon the Bible. At one point he admits that logic and reason are inconclusive, as one may find arguments pro and contra, and has recourse to Scripture: “Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is One.” In respect to the doctrine of attributes there is no doubt that Maimonides departs from traditional and Rabbinic Judaism in denying all positive attributes to God and reducing Him to the Unknowable of Herbert Spencer. Such depersonalization of God is scarcely compatible with a detailed revelation, a special Providence, the institution of prayer, fasting and repentance, not to speak of sacrifices, which indeed Maimonides was consistent enough to reject. Crescas, therefore, admits positive attributes of God, without teaching anthropomorphism. For God, he says, is infinite and a necessary existent, whereas His creatures are finite and possible existents. Inasmuch as Crescas is opposed to the use of alien philosophies in the interpretation of Judaism, he analyzes the Jewish religion from within and discusses its essential dogmas. To be sure Maimonides did the same thing, nay, he was the first to enumerate the fundamental dogmas of Judaism. But he did this in his commentary on the Mishnah and not in his systematic philosophical work, the Guide of the Perplexed. To Crescas’s mind the dogmas and beliefs are the essential part of a constructive philosophy of Judaism. Accordingly he criticizes the list of 13 dogmas established by Maimonides on the ground that they are either too many or too few according to the idea one attaches to the word dogma. Crescas distinguishes between fundamental doctrines and true beliefs. The former are those without which Judaism could not exist, the latter are essential indeed and disbelief in them constitutes heresy, but Judaism could exist without them. The 13 articles of Maimonides’s creed are: (1) Existence

of God; (2) Unity; (3) Incorporeality; (4) Eternity; (5) God alone should be worshipped; (6) Prophecy; (7) Superiority of Moses; (8) Revelation; (9) Immutability of the Torah; (10) God’s omniscience; (11) Reward and punishment; (12) Belief in the coming of the Messiah; (13) Resurrection. Crescas, as we have seen, has two lists. The fundamental dogmas are the following: (r) God’s knowledge of existing things; (2) Providence; (3) God’s omnipotence; (4) Prophecy; (5) Freedom of

the will; (6) The purpose of the Torah is to inspire man with the love and fear of God. In addition to these six fundamental doctrines, there are true beliefs which are eight in number: (r) Creation; (2) Immortality; (3) Reward and punishment; (4) Resurrection; (5) Eternity of the Torah; (6) Superiority of Moses; (7) The Urim and Tummim as a source of knowledge of the future for the priest; (8) Belief in the Messiah. Immortality and Providence.—In reference to immortality and Providence there is a clear division of opinion between the philosophers (neo-Platonists and Aristotelians) and the Antirationalists. The former, like Maimonides and Gersonides, make both of these privileges dependent upon intellectual knowledge. The immaterial as such is immortal and the human soul achieves its complete immateriality as an actual entity through contemplation and thought, hence the human reason or the rational soul is immortal, and the degree of immortality is dependent upon the character and extent of theoretical knowledge. The Anti-rationalists, like Halevi and Crescas, reject this notion on logical grounds and, with a truer understanding of the spirit of Judaism, lay stress on the love of God and the observance of the Biblical and the Rabbinic commandments as the sole requisite and condition of immortality.

The problem: of Providence was one of great difficulty both on theoretical grounds and by reason of its apparent conflict with portant among them) which Maimonides laid down as the basis experience. In order to make special Providence theoretically of his proof of the existence, unity and incorporeality of God. possible, God must know every individual as such and reward and He showed that the physics and the metaphysics of Aristotle are punish him according to his deeds. But it is difficult to see how, not to be relied upon, hence a fresh start must be made to estab- on the Aristotelian theory of matter and form and the concept of lish a system of Judaism. This Crescas undertakes to do in his God and of theoretical knowledge, it is possible for an immaterial

JEWS

4.2

being to know the individual person or to take cognizance of particular acts which as particulars must be material. Moreover, experience shows that many good men suffer and many bad men are prosperous. The theoretical difficulty did not trouble Mai-

monides, since he maintains that everything is possible for the transcendent God though it may seem to us contrary to reason. Gersonides, as we have seen, was not so easily satisfied, and limited God’s direct knowledge to universals, the particulars being indirectly involved as contained in the universals. But the practical difficulty could not be so easily disposed of. The main solution of the Aristotelians was that not all human beings are equally under the special care of the Divine being. All depends upon the nearness of man to God, which is brought about by theoretical study. The more learned and philosophical a person is the nearer he is to God and the more he enjoys the Divine care. Observance of the Jewish laws and ceremonies are necessary as a step in the acquisition of true knowledge. An immoral man who follows after the desires of his appetite can never become a truly learned man. And the majority of ordinary persons who are mediocre in theory as well as in practice, not to speak of the wicked, are simply left to their fate as determined by nature and are no more taken special notice of than the beasts of the field. Nature provides for them in a general way in accordance with general laws. The Anti-rationalist Crescas is opposed to this intellectualistic doctrine. God does know particulars, hence there is no theoretical difficulty. But reward and punishment are not determined by a person’s intellectual status, but by his obedience and disobedience to God’s will and command. Real reward and punishment are given in the next world, nevertheless the apparent anomalies in the fortunes of men in this world, where the good man suffers and the bad man flourishes, can be explained in various ways. Evil is sometimes a good in disguise; the suffering man may not really be so good as he seems; one sometimes inherits good and evil from one’s parents; the individual is sometimes involved in the destiny of the majority, and so on. All inequalities, however, will be adjusted in the future world. In addition to the more general doctrines discussed so far, many of the Jewish philosophers exercised their systematizing activities upon the more specific dogmas of the Jewish religion and upon the interpretation of Scripture. An examination of the laws in the Pentateuch showed that some of the rules of action, like those which have to do with social life, are recognized by human society universally, while others are peculiar to the Jewish law. Accordingly they were divided into two classes, called rational and revealed respectively. Some of the Jewish thinkers treat also of the eschatological doctrines of Judaism, among which are the messianic period, the dogma of resurrection, the nature of reward and punishment after death, the meaning of paradise and hell, the future world, and so on. Rationalism plays a small part in these discussions, which are mainly based upon Biblical and Talmudic statements and the traditions connected with them. NO MODERN

The philosophic movement began to decline in the rsth of the mystic lore, known as the decline of philosophical

MOVEMENT

among the Jews in the middle ages century, partly by reason of the rise the Cabala, and partly by reason of studies among the Arabs, where the

reign of toleration was succeeded by persecution and forced conversions. In Christian countries the status of the Jews was even worse and hence not favourable to science and philosophy. Joseph

Albo (1380-1444) is the last one of the mediaeval Jews who summed up in popular form the entire philosophy of the preceding centuries, and though there are no original contributions to Jewish thought in his Jkkarim (Dogmas, lit. Roots), nevertheless by reason of his orthodox position and the popular style of his discussions, filled as they are with Biblical and Talmudic quotations, Albo was read by many who feared to approach Maimonides’ Guide of the Perplexed. following centuries who lated them to Bible and philosophic fashion, and authority Aristotle, long

There were sporadic individuals in the wrote on philosophic questions and reTalmud, or who interpreted the Bible in clung to the scholastic method and its after Bacon and Descartes and Leibniz

introduced a new method and point of view. But the philosophical movement as such had spent its force, and it was not again resumed. Spinoza belongs to the general history of philosophy rather than to the history of Jewish philosophy. Mendelssohn was an isolated philosopher and had no successors. Other individual thinkers may be mentioned who in modern times endeavoured to lay a general philosophical basis for Judaism: Nahman Krochmal (1785—1840), Samuel Hirsch (1815-1889), both under the influence of Hegelianism, which the latter used for the defence of the Reform movement in Jewry, Asher Ginzberg (Ahad Haam)

(1856-1927), the philosopher of Zionism, Hermann Cohen (1842~ 1918), the neo-Kantian and founder of the Marburg school.

It

is extremely doubtful whether in the present status of Jewry, divided and dispersed as it is, and the extreme individualism of the modern Jew, a philosophy of Judaism is possible which will appeal to' more than a very small minority. Such a philosophy, if it were possible, would have to reckon with the points of view and theories of modern science and the methods and results of the Higher Criticism of the Bible. The mediaeval Jewish philosophy is of historical interest only, though as such it ought to be studied more than it is; critical editions should be brought out of the classical treatises, and the manuscript material of less important works should be made accessible to the student. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Judaeo-Alexandrian Philosophy: Ueberweg-Praechter, Die Philosophie des Altertums, 2nd ed. Berlin 1926, pp. 566-578 (bibl. 179~183) ; J. Drummond, Philo Judaeus, or the Jewish-Alexandrian Philosophy in its Development and Completion (London 1888), probably the best book on the subject for the student and the general reader; Norman Bentwich, Hellenism (Philadelphia, 1919) ; id., PhiloJudaeus of Alexandria (Philadelphia, 1910); Brehier, E., Les Idées Philosophiques et Religieuses de Philon D’Alexandrie, 2nd ed. Paris, 1925, good and well documented. Mediaeval: Husik I., A History of Mediaeval Jewish Philosophy (New York, 1916); H. Malter, article “Jewish Philosophy” in Hastings’ Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. ix., pp. 1873-77; id., “Saadia Gaon, His Life and Works” (Philadelphia, 1921), the standard work on the subject; UeberwegBaumgartner, Die mittlere oder die patristische und scholastische

Zeit (Berlin, 19125), pp. 385-403 (bibl. 388-92, 146-51) ; D. Neumark,

Geschichte der jüdischen Philosophie des Mittelalters, nach Problemen dargestellt, vol. i., Berlin, 1907, vol. ii., part 1, Berlin 1910 (an unfinished part of a work planned on a large scale); I. I. Efros, The Problem of Space in Jewish Mediaeval Philosophy (New York, 1920) ; J. Guttmann, Die religionsphilosophischen Lehren des Isaak Abravanel (Breslau, 1916) ; M. Waxman, The Philosophy of Don Hasdai Crescas (New York, 1920); L. Roth, Spinoza, Descartes and Maimonides, (1924); H. A. Wolfson, “The Classification of Sciences in Mediaeval Jewish Philosophy,” in Hebrew Union College Jubilee Volume (Cincinnati 1925), pp. 263-315. (I. H.)

JEWS. The word Jew is derived through the Latin Judaeus and the Greek 'Iovõatos from the Hebrew ‘Pm, (Yehbūdhī), a gentilic adjective, occurring only in the later parts of the Old

Testament and signifying a descendant of mym, (Yehūdhäh, Judah, Judas), the fourth son of Jacob, whose tribe, together with that of his half-brother Benjamin, constituted the kingdom of Judah, as opposed to that of the remaining tribes (Israel). The name came to mean the followers of Judaism, including in-born and proselytes, the racial signification diminishing as the religious increased. Apart from this proper use the word occurs in certain phrases through popular corruption, e.g., Jew’s harp, which has nothing to do with “Jew,” but is possibly connected with the French Jeu, 2.¢., “toy harp.” The verb “to Jew,” in the sense of “to cheat” (e.g., on p. 439 The Concise Oxford Dictionary, adapted by H. W. and F. G. Fowler, Oxford, 1926) is an instance of class hatred and may be paralleled by other derogatory examples, e.g., “Jesuit” (on the same page), “to Welsh” (p. 1,013), etc. See also under separate headings, notably Juparsm, JEwrsa PHILOSOPHY, ZIONISM, ANTISEMITISM, etc. (EH. M. J. L.)

Racial History.—The racial composition of the Jews has given

rise to considerable controversy. Most observers profess to see in the Jewish type one of the most persistent varieties of the human race, others, including Ripley and Boas, believe that they take on the physical traits of the people among whom they live. Recent observations, which, however, by no means include Jews from all over the world, tend to show that in the majority of cases the Jews tend to have rather a round head, and show to an unusual degree the same amount of variation. They also tend to preserve

JEWS other characters, the most noticeable being the form of the nose. There is a marked resemblance between Jews and Armenians, and though the Armenoid type predominates there are other features in their composition. Weissenberg suggests that there was within historic times a mixture, not in Palestine but in the Caucasus, between the Armenoid and a blond type, and that there are two types of Jews—the Semitic, dark with a fine nose, and Armenoid, with a coarser nose and an appearance of blondness. See W. Z. Ripley, The Races of Europe (1899, bibl.); F. Boas, Descendants of Immigrants (1912); L. H. D. Buxton, The Peoples of Asia (1925, bibl.). (L. H. D. B.)

EARLIEST

TIMES

TO

THE

GREEK

DOMINATION

1. Early History.—For the first two periods the history of the Jews is mainly that of Palestine. It begins among those peoples

occupying the area between the Nile on the one side and the Tigris and the Euphrates on the other. Surrounded by ancient seats of culture in Egypt and Babylonia, by the deserts of Arabia, and by the highlands of Asia Minor, Palestine, with Syria on the north, was the high road of civilization, trade and warlike enterprise, and the meeting-place of religions. Its small principalities were dominated by the great Powers, whose weakness or acquiescence alone enabled them to rise above dependence or vassalage. The land was traversed by old-established trade routes and possessed important harbours on the Gulf of ‘Akaba and on the Mediterranean coast, the latter exposing it to the influence of the Levant. It was “the physical centre of those movements of history from which the world has grown.” The portion of this district abutting upon the Mediterranean may be divided into two main parts: Syria (from the Taurus to Hermon) and Palestine (southward to the desert bordering upon Egypt). The latter is about 150 m. from north to south (the proverbial “Dan to Beersheba”), with a breadth varying from 25 to 80 m., i.e., about 6,040 sq. miles. This excludes the land east of the Jordan. (See further, PALESTINE.) Already, in the rsth century B.C., Palestine was inhabited by a settled people whose language, thought and religion were not radically different several centuries later. Petty princes ruled as vassals of Egypt which, after expelling the Hyksos from its borders, had entered upon a series of conquests as far as the Euphrates. Some centuries previously, however, Babylonia had held sway to the west, and the Akkadian script and language were now used, not merely in the diplomatic correspondence between Egypt and Asia, but also among the Palestinian princes themselves. Canaan (Palestine and the south Phoenician coast land) and Amor (Lebanon district and beyond) were under the constant supervision of Egypt, and Egyptian officials journeyed round to collect tribute, to attend to complaints, and to assure themselves of the allegiance of the vassals. The Amarna tablets and those found at Taannek (bibl. Taanach) and at Boghaz-keui (see Hirrites) combine with archaeological evidence (Lachish, Gezer, Megiddo, Beth-shan, etc.) to reflect advanced conditions of life and culture, the chronological limits of which cannot be determined. This, the “Amarna age,” with regular maritime intercourse between the Aegean settlements, Phoenicia and the Delta, and with lines of caravans connecting " Babylonia, North Syria, Arabia and Egypt, presents a vivid picture of life and activity, in the centre of which lies Palestine, with here and there Egyptian colonies and traces of Egyptian cults. The “Amarna age” affords the first starting-point for any estimate of Palestine and the history of Israel. The records reveal a state of anarchy in Palestine for which the weakness of Egypt and the downward pressure of North Syrian peoples were responsible. Subdivided into a number of little local principalities, Palestine was suffering both from internal intrigues and from the designs of the northern powers. It is now that we find the restless Habiru, a name which is commonly identified with that of the “Hebrews”. For such information as we possess, reference must be made to the articles ABRAHAM, AMORITES, CANAANITES, PHILISTINES. Unfortunately the external evidence fails just when it would be most welcome. There comes a time when the fate of Palestine was no longer controlled by the great powers, and the curtain rises upon the historical traditions of the Old Testament. 2. Biblical History.—For the rest of the first period the Old Testament.forms the main source. It contains, in fact, the

43

history itself in two forms: (a) from the creation of man to the fall of Judah (Genesis—2 Kings), which is supplemented and continued further to (b) the foundation of Judaism in the 5th century B.c. (Chronicles—Ezra~Nehemiah). In the light of contemporary monuments, archaeological evidence, the progress of scientific knowledge and the recognized methods of modern historical criticism, the account of the origin of mankind and of the history of the Jews in the Old Testament can no longer be implicitly accepted. Written by an oriental people and clothed in an oriental dress, the books of the Old Testament do not contain “objective” records, but history written for specific purposes. The history is

a compilation, as may be illustrated from a comparison of Chronicles with Samuel—Kings, and frequently depicts the past in the light of the present. (See CHRONICLES.) Scholars are now almost unanimously agreed that the internal features are best explained by the literary hypothesis associated with the work of Graf, Kuenen and Wellhausen. According to this, the historical traditions are mainly due to two characteristic though very complicated recensions, one under the influence of the

teaching of Deuteronomy (Joshua to Kings), the other, of a more priestly character (akin to Leviticus), of somewhat later date (Genesis to Joshua, with traces in Judges to Kings). (See G. F. Moore, Ency. Bibl., “Historical literature.”) There are innumerable questions relating to the nature, limits and dates of these two recensions, of the incorporated sources, and of other sources (whether early or late) of independent origin; and here there is naturally room for much divergence of opinion. Older material (often of composite origin) has been used, not so much for the purpose of providing historical information, as with the object of showing the religious significance of past history; and the series Joshua—Kings is actually included among the “prophets” in the Jewish canon. (See further Bisre: Old Testament.) 3. Traditions of Origin.—At the age when, as we have reason to suppose, the Old Testament historical writings were assuming their present form, it was possible to divide the immediately preceding centuries into three distinct periods: (a) That of the two rival kingdoms: Israel (Ephraim or Samaria) in the northern half of Palestine, and Judah in the south. Then (b) the former lost its independence towards the close of the 8th century B.C., when a number of its inhabitants were carried away; and the latter shared the fate of exile at the beginning of the 6th century, but succeeded in making a fresh reconstruction some 50 or

6o years later. Finally (c), in the “post-exilic” period, religion and life were reorganized under the influence of a new spirit; relations with Samaria were broken off, and Judaism took its definite character, perhaps about the middle or close of the 5th century. The term “Jew” means properly “man of Judah,” ż.e., of that small district which, with Jerusalem as its capital, became the centre of post-exilic Judaism. The favourite name “Israel,” with all its religious and national associations, is somewhat ambiguous in an historical sketch, since, although it is used as opposed to Judah (a), it ultimately came to designate the true nucleus of the worshippers of the national god, Yahweh, as opposed to the Samaritans, the later inhabitants of Israelite territory (c). A more gen-

eral term is “Hebrew.” (See Hesrew LANGUAGE, HEBREW RELIGION.) The traditions which prevailed among the Israelites concerning their origin belong to a time not when Judah and Israel were “brother” or rival kingdoms, but when they formed one body and Judah was among the “sons” of Israel (or Jacob), the son of Isaac and grandson of Abraham. The names of the “sons,” or rather tribes, vary in origin and, probably, also in age; and where they represent fixed territorial limits, the districts so described were in some cases certainly peopled by groups of non-Israelite ancestry. But as tribal names they invited explanation, and of the many characteristic traditions which were doubtless current, a number have been preserved, though not in any very early dress. Close relationship was recognized with the Aramaeans, with Edom, Moab

and Ammon. Esau (Edom) is the “brother” of Jacob, Moab‘ and Ammon are sons of Lot, Abraham’s nephew. Abraham himself, it was traditionally narrated, came from Harran (Carrhae), primarily from Ur, of the Chaldees, and Jacob re-enters from Gilead

JEWS

4.4.

in the north-east, with his Aramaean wives and concubines and their families (Benjamin excepted). It is on this occasion that Jacob’s name is changed to Israel. Such traditions of migration and kinship are in themselves not incredible; but the detailed accounts of the ancestors Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, as given in Genesis, are inherently doubtful as regards both the internal conditions, which the (late) chronological scheme ascribes to the first half of the 2nd millennium z.c., and the general circumstances of the life of these strangers in a foreign land. The story of the settlement of the national and tribal ancestors in Palestine is interrupted by an account of the southward movement of Jacob (or Israel) and his sons into a district under the immediate influence of the kings of Egypt. After an interval of uncertain duration we find in Exodus (qg.v.) a numerous people subjected to rigorous oppression. No longer “sons” of Jacob or Israel, whole tribes were led out by Moses and Aaron; and, after a series of incidents extending over 40 years, the “children of Israel” invaded the land in which their ancestors had lived. The traditions embodied in the books Exodus—Joshua are considerably later than the ostensible date of the events themselves. For the details of their conflict see Exopus, (THe). The story of the “exodus” is that of the religious birth of “Israel,” joined by covenant with the national god, Yahweh (see JenovAH; TETRAGRAMMATON), whose aid in times of peril and need proved his supremacy. In Moses (g.v.) was seen the founder of Israel’s religion and laws;

in Aaron (g.v.) the prototype of the Israelite priesthood.

Yahweh

had admittedly been the God of Israel’s ancestors, but his name was only now made known (Exod. iii. 13 sgg., vi. 2 seg.), and this conception of a new era in Yahweh’s relations with the people is associated with the family of Moses and with small groups from the south of Palestine who reappear in religious movements in

later history (see Kentres; RecHasires).

Amid a great variety

of motives the prominence of Kadesh in south Palestine is to be recognized; but it is uncertain what clans or tribes were atKadesh, and it is possible that traditions, originally confined to those with whom the new conception of Yahweh is connected, were subsequently adopted by others who came to regard themselves as the worshippers of the only true Yahweh. Two quite distinct views can be distinguished. The one associates itself with the settlement of the ancestors of the Hebrews and has an ethnic character. The other, part of the religious history of “Israel,” is essentially bound up with the religious genius of the people, and is partly connected with clans from the south of Palestine whose influence reappears later.

4. The Monarchy of Israel.—The book of Joshua continues

the fortunes of the “children of Israel” and describes a successful occupation of Palestine by the united tribes, in striking contrast to other records of the partial successes of individual groups (Judgesi.). It is, however, based upon the account of victories by the Ephraimite Joshua over confederations of petty kings to the south and north of central Palestine, apparently the traditions of Ephraim describing from its own standpoint the conquest of Palestine. The book of Judges represents a period of unrest after the settlement of the people. External oppressions (Moab, Ammon, Philistines, etc.) and internal rivalries rent the Israelites; and the religious philosophy of a later (Deuteronomic) age represents the period as one of alternate apostasy from and of penitent return to the Yahweh of the “exodus,” and their deliverance by “judges.” The best narratives relate to Israel and Gilead; Judah scarcely appears, and in an old poetical account of a great fight of the united tribes against a northern adversary lies outside the writer’s horizon or interest (Judges v., see DEBORAH). Stories of successful war-

that the district of Judah formed part of his kingdom (1 Sam. xiy.

47 seq.). His might is also attested by the fine elegy (2 Sam. i. 17 sqq.) over the death of two great Israelite heroes, Saul and Jonathan, knit together by mutual love, inseparable in life and death, whose overthrow by the Philistines on the plain of Jezreel was a national misfortune. The court was removed across the Jordan to Mahanaim, where Saul’s son, Ishbaal (Ish-bosheth), thanks to his general, Abner, recovered some of the lost prestige, and reigned two years over Israel and Gilead (2 Sam. il. 8-10; contrast the figure in v.11). But at this point the scanty annals are suspended and the history of the age is given in more popular sources. Israelite national history has come down to us through Judaean hands, with the result that much of it has been coloured by late Judaean feeling, and the Judaean account of the beginning of the monarchy,

s. David

and Solomon.—Certain

traditions of Judah and

Jerusalem appears to have looked back upon a movement from the

south, traces of which underlie the present account of the “exodus.” The land was full of “sons of Anak,” giants who had terrified the scouts sent from Kadesh. Caleb alone had distinguished himself by his fearlessness, and the (semi-Edomite) clan Caleb drove them out from Hebron in south Judah (Josh. xv. 14 sqq.; cf. also xi. 21 seg.). David and his followers are found in the south of Hebron, and as they advanced northwards into a hostile district they encountered wondrous heroes between Gath and Jerusalem (2 Sam. xxi. 15 sgg.; xxiii. 8 sgg.). (See PHILISTINES.) After strenuous fighting the district was cleared, and Jerusalem, taken by the sword, became the capital. Tradition saw in David the head of a lengthy line of kings, the founder of the Judaean monarchy, the psalmist and the priest-king who inaugurated religious institutions now recognized to be of a distinctly later character. As a result of this backward projection of later conceptions the recovery of the true historical nucleus is difficult. The rise of Jerusalem, the centre of post-exilic Judaism, demanded explanation. Israelite tradition had ascribed the conquest of Jerusalem, Hebron and other cities of Judah to the Ephraimite Joshua; Judaean tradition, on the other hand, relates the capture of the sacred city from a hostile people (2 Sam. v.). The famous city, within easy reach of the southern desert and central Palestine (to Hebron and to Samaria the distances are about 18 and 35 m. respectively), had entered into Palestinian history in the “Amarna” age and had an old religious history (see Hesrew RELIGION). But Judaean tradition dated the sanctity of Jerusalem from the installation of the

Ark (q.v.), a sacred movable object, the symbol of the presence of Yahweh. It is associated with the half-nomad clans in the south of Palestine, or with the wanderings of David and his own priest, Abiathar (1 Ki. ii. 26). It is ultimately placed within the newly captured city. But canonical tradition associates it with the invasion of all the tribes of Israel from beyond the Jordan. Other narratives describe the life of the young David at the court of the first king of the northern kingdom. The scenes cover the district which he took with the sword, and the brave Saul is represented in an unfavourable light. One must allow for the popular tendency to idealize great figures, and for the Judaean` origin of the compilation. To David is ascribed the sovereignty

over a united people. But the stages in his progress are not clear. After being the popular favourite of Israel in the little district of Benjamin, he was driven away by the jealousy and animosity of Saul. Gradually strengthening his position by alliance with Judaean clans, he became king at Hebron at the time when Israel suffered defeat in the north. His subsequent advance to the kingship over Judah and Israel at Jerusalem is represented as due to fare and of temporary leaders (see ABIMELECH; EHUD; GIDEON; the weak condition of Israel, and the compliance of Saul’s general, JEPHTHAH) form an introduction to the institution of the Israel- Abner; partly, also, to the long-expressed wish of the Israelites ite monarchy, an epoch of supreme importance in biblical history. that their old hero should reign over them. Saul had been chosen The heroic figure who stands at the head is Saul (“asked”), and by Yahweh to free his people from the Philistines; he had been there are conflicting accounts of his rise. (See SAMUEL, Booxs oF.) rejected for his sins, and had suffered continuously from this The Philistines (g.v.) newly settled in the land, held the people in enemy; Israel at his death was left in the unhappy state in which subjection; and their defeat is ascribed by the later account to the he had found it; it was the Judaean David, the faithful servant of godly prophet-judge, Samuel, and by the earlier to Saul. The first Yahweh, who was now chosen to deliver Israel, and to the last the əf a series of annals of the kings of Israel ascribes to Saul con- people gratefully remembered their debt. David accomplished quests over the surrounding peoples to an extent which implies the conquests of Saul, but on a grander scale; “Saul hath slain his

JEWS thousands and David his tens of thousands” is the popular couplet

comparing the relative merits of the rival dynasts. A series of campaigns against Edom, Moab, Ammon and the Aramaean states,

friendly relations with Hiram of Tyre, and the recognition of his sovereignty by the king of Hamath on the Orontes, combine to portray a monarchy which was the ideal. (See further, DAvID; SAMUEL; SAUL.) David, the warrior, was followed by his son Solomon, as “peaceful” as his name signifies, famous for his wealth, wisdom and piety, above all for the magnificent Temple which he built at Jerusalem. Phoenician artificers were enlisted for the purpose, and with Phoenician sailors successful trading-journeys were regularly undertaken. Commercial intercourse with Asia Minor, Arabia, Tarshish (in Spain), and Ophir (qg.v.) filled his coffers, and his realm extended from the Euphrates to the border of Egypt. Tradition depicts him as a worthy successor to his father, and represents a state of luxury and riches impressive to all who were familiar with the great oriental courts. (See SoLomon.) Judah and Israel dwelt at ease, or held the superior position of military officials, while the earlier inhabitants of the land were put to forced labour. But another side of the picture shows the domestic intrigues which darkened the last days of David. ‘The accession of Solomon had not been without bloodshed, and Judah, together with David’s old general, Joab, and his faithful priest, Abiathar, were opposed to the son of a woman who had been the wife of a Hittite warrior. The era of the Temple of Jerusalem starts with a new régime, another captain of the army and another priest —- Zadok of Jerusalem. Moreover, the employment of Judaeans and Israelites for Solomon’s palatial buildings, and the heavy taxation for the upkeep of a court which was the wonder of the world, caused grave discontent. External relations, too, were unsatisfactory. The Edomites, who had been almost extirpated by David in the valley of Salt, south of the Dead sea, were now strong enough to seek revenge; and the powerful kingdom of Damascus, whose foundation is dated to this period, began to threaten Israel on the north and north-east. These troubles, we learn, had affected all Solomon’s reign, and even Hiram, the Phoenician, appears to have acquired a portion of Galilee. In the approaching disruption writers saw the punishment for the king’s apostasy, and they condemn the sanctuaries in Jerusalem which he erected to the gods of his heathen wives. Nevertheless, these places of cult remained some 300 years until almost the close of the monarchy, when their destruction is attributed to Josiah (Sec. 11). At Solomon’s death the opportunity was seized to request from his son, Rehoboam, a more generous treatment. The reply is memorable: ‘My little finger is thicker than my father’s loins; my father chastised you with whips, but I will chastise you with scorpions.” These words were calculated to inflame a people whom history proves to have been haughty and high-spirited, and the great Israel renounced its union with the small district of Judah. Jeroboam (g.v.), once one of Solomon’s officers, became king over the north, and the history of the divided monarchy begins (about 937 B.c.) with the Israelite power on both sides of the Jordan and with Judah extending southwards from a point a few miles north of Jerusalem. 6. The Rival Kingdoms.—tThe history of the two kingdoms is contained in Kings and the later and relatively less trustworthy Chronicles, which deals with Judah alone. In the former a separate history of the northern kingdom has been curiously combined with Judaean history by means of synchronisms (see BIBLE: Old Testament Chronology; Kincs, Books oF). Moreover, the Judaean compiler finds in Israel’s troubles the punishment for its schismatic idolatry; nor does he spare Judah, but judges its kings by a standard which agrees with the standpoint of Deuteronomy and is scarcely earlier than the end of the yth century B.c. He looks back upon the time when each kingdom laid the foundation of its subsequent fortunes. Judah enjoys an unbroken dynasty, which survived the most serious crises, a temple which grew in splendour and wealth under royal patronage, and a legitimate

45

weh before the denunciations of Hosea (see CaLtF, GOLDEN). Judah had natural connections with Edom and southern Palestine; Israel was more closely associated with Gilead and the Aramaeans of the north. That Israel was the stronger may be suggested by the acquiescence of Judah in the new situation. A diversion was caused by Shishak’s invasion (c. 930), but of this reappearance of Egypt after nearly three centuries of inactivity little is preserved in biblical history. Only the Temple records recall the spoilation of the sanctuary of Jerusalem, and traditions of Jeroboam I. show that Shishak’s prominence was well known (cf. 2 Chron. xii. 8). Although both kingdoms suffered, common misfortune did not throw them together. On the contrary, the statement that there was continual warfare is supplemented in Chronicles by the story of a victory over Israel by Abijah, the son of Rehoboam. Jeroboam’s son, Nadab, perished in a conspiracy whilst besieging the Philistine city of Gibbethon, and Baasha of (north) Israel seized the throne. Incessant war prevailed between him and Abijah’s successor, Asa. The newly arisen state of Baasha was in league with Damascus, which had once been hostile to Solomon (r Ki. xi. 24 seg.). Upon whom Asa could rely is not stated. Baasha seized Ramah about 5 m. N. of Jerusalem, and the existence of Judah was threatened. Asa utilized the treasure of the Temple and palace to induce the Syrians to break off their relations with Baasha. These sent troops to harry north Israel, and Baasha was compelled to retiré. Asa, it would seem, was too weak to achieve the remarkable victory ascribed to him in 2 Chron. xiv. Baasha’s short-lived dynasty resembles that of his predecessors. His son, Elah, after a reign of two years (like Ishbaal and Nadab), was slain in a drunken carousal by his captain, Zimri. Meanwhile, the Israelite army was again besieging the Philistines at Gibbethon, and the recurrence of these conflicts points to a critical situation in a district in which Judah itself (although ignored by the writers) must have been vitally concerned. The army preferred their general, Omri, and, marching upon Zimri at Tirzah, burnt the palace over his head. A fresh rival immediately appeared, the otherwise unknown Tibni. Israel was divided into two camps, until, on the death of Tibni and his brother Joram, Omri became

sole king (c. 887 3.c.). The scanty details of these important events stand in contrast to the comparatively full accounts of earlier Philistine wars and internal conflicts in narratives which, in point of fact, probably date from this or a later age. 7. The Dynasty of Omri.—Omri (g.v.), the founder of one of the greatest dynasties of Israel, was contemporary with the revival of Tyre under the priest-king, Ithobaal, whose daughter was married to Omri’s son, Ahab. Omri’s most notable recorded achieve-

ment was the subjugation of Moab (q.v.).

Moreover, Judah (now

under Jehoshaphat) was bound intimately to Israel; and traditions of intermarriage, and of co-operation in commerce and war, imply what was practically a united Palestine. Alliance with Phoenicia gave the impulse to extended intercourse; trading expeditions were undertaken from the Gulf of ‘Akaba, and Ahab built himself a palace decorated with ivory. The cult of the Baal of Tyre followed Jezebel to the royal city, Samaria, and even found its way into Jerusalem. This, the natural result of matrimonial and political alliance, already met with under Solomon, receives the usual denunciation. The conflict between Yahweh and Baal and the defeat of the latter are the characteristic notes of the religious history of the period, the records of which are now more abundant. Although little is preserved of Omri’s history, the fact that the northern kingdom long continued to be called by the Assyrians after his name is a significant indication of his reputation. Assyria was now making itself strongly felt in the west. Assur-nasir-pal II. had exacted tribute from north Syria (c. 876 B.c.), and his successor, Shalmaneser JII., in the course of a series of expeditions, succeeded in gaining the greater part of that land. Ir-

huleni of Hamath

and Adad-idri

(the biblical Ben-hadad)

of

Damascus, formed a coalition with the kings of Cilicia, Phoenicia,

priesthood which owed its origin to Zadok, the successful rival of

Ammon, the Arabs of the Syrian desert and “Ahabbu Sirlai.” In

David’s priest, Abiathar.

the last we recognize the Israelite Ahab whose contribution of 10,000 men and 2,000 chariots perhaps included levies from

Israel, on the other hand, signed its

death-warrant by the institution of calf-cult, a cult which, however, was scarcely recognized as contrary to the worship of Yah-

Judah and Moab (cf. for the number 1 Ki. x. 26). In 853 the

4.6

JEWS

allies at least maintained themselves at the battle of Karkar. Other indecisive battles were fought later, but the precise constitution of the coalition is not recorded. In 842-841 Shalmaneser records a campaign against Hazael, the new king of Damascus; no coalition is mentioned, although a battle was fought at Sanir

(Hermon, Deut. iii. 9), and the cities of Hauran to the south of Damascus were spoiled. Tribute was received from Tyre and Sidon; and Jehu, the new king of Israel, sent gifts of gold, silver, etc. The “Black Obelisk” (now in the British Museum), which records the submission of the petty kings, gives an interesting representation of the humble Israelite emissaries, with their long, fringed robes and strongly marked physiognomy (see Dress). Yet another expedition in 837 would seem to show that Damascus was neither crushed nor helpless, but thenceforth, for a number of years, Assyria was fully occupied elsewhere and the west was left to itself. Biblical tradition associates the changes in the thrones of

Israel and Damascus with the work of the prophets Elijah and Elisha, but without a reference to Assyria. Ahab, it seems, had aroused popular resentment by encroaching upon the rights of the people to their landed possessions; had it not been for

Hazael (2 Ki. viii. 12). Several of the situations can be more vividly realized from the stories of Syrian wars ascribed to the time of Omri’s dynasty, but more probably relating to the dynasty of Jehu. Under Joash, son of Jehoahaz, the tide turned. Elisha was apparently the champion, and posterity told of his exploits when Samaria was visited with the sword. Thrice Joash smote the Syrians—in accordance with the last words of the dying prophet—and Aphek in the Sharon plain, famous in history

for Israel’s disasters, now witnessed three victories. The enemy under Hazael’s

son, Ben-hadad,

was

driven out and Joash re-

gained the territory which his father had lost (2 Ki. xiii. 25); it may reasonably be supposed that a treaty was concluded (cf. the anonymous z Ki. xx. 34). But the peace does not seem to have

been popular. The story of the last scene in Elisha’s life ascribes to Joash an easily contented disposition which hindered him from completing his successes. Syria had not been crushed, and the failure to utilize the opportunity was an act of impolitic leniency for which Israel was bound to suffer (2 Ki. xiii. 19). Elisha’s indignation can be illustrated by the denunciation passed upon an anonymous king by the prophetic party on a similar occasion (1 Ki. xx. 35-43). At this stage it is necessary to notice the fresh invasion of Syria by Hadad (Adad)-nirari, who besieged Mari, king of Damascus, and exacted a heavy tribute (c. 802 B.c.). A diversion of this kind would explain the Israelite victories; the subsequent withdrawal of Assyria would afford the occasion for Damascus to retaliate. Men in Israel who remembered the wars between Assyria and Damascus, and the recuperative power of the Aramaeans, would perceive the danger of the lenient policy of Joash.

Jezebel, the tragedy of Naboth would not have occurred. The worship of the Tyrian Baal roused a small circle of zealots, and again the Phoenician marriage was the cause of the evil. Elijah of Gilead inspired the revolt which culminated in the accession of Jehu, the son of one Jehoshaphat (or, otherwise, of Nimshi). The work which Elijah began was completed by Elisha, who supported Jehu and the new dynasty. The royal families of Israel and Judah perished in a massacre. While the extirpation of the cult of Baal was furthered in Israel by Jonadab the Hadad-nirari claims tribute from Tyre, Sidon and Beth-Omri Rechabite, it was the “people of the land” who undertook a (Israel), also from Edom and PalaStu (Philistia). There are no similar reform in Judah. Jehu (g.v.) became king, as the cham- signs of an extensive coalition as in the days of Shalmaneser; pion of the purer worship of Yahweh. The descendants of the Ammon is probably included under Damascus; the position of detested Phoenician marriage were rooted out, and unless the Moab—which had freed itself from Jehoram of Israel—can close intercourse between Israel and Judah had been suddenly hardly be calculated. But the absence of Judah is surprising. broken, it would be supposed that the new king at least laid Both Jehoash (of Judah) and his son, Amaziah, left a great claim to the south. Here, however, Athaliah, daughter of Jez- name; and the latter was comparable only to David (2 Ki. xiv. ebel, destroyed the Judaean court. Only the babe, Jehoash, was 3). He defeated Edom in the Valley of Salt, and it is conpreserved, and six years later, the priests slew the queen, over- ceivable that Amaziah’s kingdom extended over both Edom and Philistia. A vaunting challenge to Joash (of Israel) gave rise to threw the cult of Baal, and crowned the young child. one of the two fables that are preserved in the Old Testament 8. Damascus, Israel and Judah.—Hazael of Damascus, Jehu of Israel, and Elisha the prophet, are the three men of the (for the other see Judges ix. 8 seg.). It was followed by a battle new age linked together, as though commissioned for like ends at Beth-shemesh; the scene would suggest that Philistia also was (see 1 Ki. xix. 15-17). Elisha had sent to anoint Jehu as king, involved. The result was the rout of Judah, the capture of and, while on intimate terms with Bar-hadad (Ben-hadad) of Amaziah, the destruction of the northern wall of Jerusalem, the Damascus, recognized Hazael as its future ruler. But after the sacking of the temple and palace and the removal of hostages to accession of Jehu the situation changed. “In those days Yahweh Samaria (2 Ki. xiv. 12 sgqg.). Only a few words are preserved— began to cut short” (or, amending the text, “to be angry with”) taken apparently from an Israelite source—but the details, when “Israel.” This brief notice heralds Hazael’s attack upon Israelite carefully weighed, are extremely significant. This disaster was territory east of the Jordan (2 Ki. x. 32). The cause of the scarcely the outcome of a challenge to a trial of strength; it attack is obscure. Certain traditions, it is true, indicate that was rather the sequel to a period of smouldering jealousy and Israel had been at war with the Aramaeans from before 853 to hostility, and, according to one chronological scheme, 27 years 841, and that Hazael was attacking Gilead at the time when Jehu passed before Judah had another king (Uzziah). 9. Jeroboam and Uzziah.—The defeat of Syria by Joash revolted; but in the midst of these are other traditions of the close and friendly relations between Israel and Damascus. (On (of Israel) was not final. The decisive victories were gained by the problems of the Elijah—Elisha period, see Camb. Anc. Hist., Jeroboam II. He saved Israel from being blotted out, and “the iii. 364 sgg.) The southern kingdom suffered little in the disastrous children of Israel dwelt in their tents as of old” (2 Ki. xiii. 5, wars between Damascus and Israel. Hazael indeed advanced xiv. 26 seg.). Syria must have resumed warfare with redoubled upon Gath, and Jerusalem was only saved by a timely bribe. energy, and a state of affairs is presupposed which can be pictured There were internal troubles, and Jehoash perished in a con- with the help of narratives that deal with similar historical situaspiracy. His son, Amaziah, had some difficulty in gaining the king- tions. In particular, the overthrow of Israel as foreshadowed in dom, and showed conspicuous leniency in sparing the children t Ki. xxii. implies an Aramaean invasion (cf. vv. 17, 25), after of his father’s murderers. Israel, on the other hand, was almost a treaty (xx. 34 sqq.), although this can scarcely be justified by annihilated by the Syrians. These seized Gilead, crossed over the events which followed the death of Ahab, in whose time they into Palestine, and occupied the land. Jehu’s son, Jehoahaz, saw are now placed. Under Jeroboam II. (c. 785) the borders of his army made “like the dust in threshing,” and the desperate Israel were restored, and the disastrous Aramaean wars avenged. condition of the country recalls the straits in the time of Saul For a time the kingdom of Van (Urartu, Ararat) was the most (x Sam. xiii. 6, 7, 19-22), and the days before the great over- important factor in the-north, and the Hebrews may well have throw of the northern enemy as described in the Song of Deborah come into close touch with peoples who were the descendants of (Judges v. 6-8). The atrocities committed by Damascus and its the Hittite, Mitannian and other non-Semitic stock of old. Moab Ammonite allies upon Gilead were not forgotten (Amos i. 3, 13), was probably tributary; the position of Judah and Edom is inand they illustrate a remarkable interview between Elisha and volved with the chronological problems. According to the Ju-

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B.c.) and Damascus (733-732). Israel was punished by the ravaging of the northern districts, and the king claims to have carried away the people of “the house of Omri.” Pekah was slain, and one Hoshea (q.v.) was recognized as his successor. kings Uzziah and Jeroboam were contemporary, but upon the Assyrian officers were placed in the land and Judah thus gained relations between them we have no information; yet had Amaziah its deliverance at the expense of Israel. But the proud Israelites suffered at the hands of Israel, and when, at the death of Jero- did not remain submissive for long; Damascus had indeed fallen, boam, Israel hastened to its end amid anarchy and dissension, but neither Philistia nor Edom had yet been crushed. When Israel began to regain confidence, its policy halted beit is unlikely that the southern kingdom was unmoved. All that can be recognized from the biblical records, however, is the tween obedience to Assyria and reliance upon Egypt—though period of internal prosperity which Israel and Judah enjoyed whether Mizraim (g.v.) refers to Egypt proper or includes some more easterly area is open to dispute. The situation is illustrated under Jeroboam and Uzziah (gq.v.) respectively. The events which inaugurated the dynasty of Jehu, the ter- in the writings of Hosea (q.v.). Tiglath-pileser died in 727 and rible Aramaean wars, Yahweh’s “arrow of victory,” and at length the slumbering revolt became general. Israel refused the usual the rise of Jeroboam, make the century (c. 850—750 B.C.) one of tribute to its overlord, and definitely threw in its lot with the most conspicuous epochs in Hebrew history. The traditions “Egypt.” In due course Samaria was besieged for three years by relating to it are, not improbably, older, relatively speaking, than Shalmaneser V. The alliance with So (Seveh, Sibi) of “Egypt,” those that tell of the original founding of the monarchy, cen- upon whom hopes had been placed, proved futile, and the foreturies earlier. The descriptions of the older periods are, in their bodings of keen-sighted prophets were justified. Although no present form, at least, later than the Jehu dynasty, and this evidence is at hand, it is probable that Ahaz of Judah rendered dynasty culminates in the rise of the great Hebrew prophets service to Assyria by keeping the allies in check; possible, also, (Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, Micah, etc.). That these had predecessors that the former enemies of Jerusalem had now been induced to in the stirring days before them is to be expected—for there is turn against Samaria. The actual capture of the Israelite capital much in prophecy that makes it far from unique or necessarily is claimed by Sargon (722), who removed 27,290 of its inhabielevated. But they strike so distinctive a note, their teaching is tants and so chariots. Other peoples were introduced, officers were so fundamental, and its effects so evident, that the question placed in charge, and tribute re-imposed. Another revolt was arises whether the religious conditions they condemn are those planned in 720 in which the province of Samaria joined with as set forth in the literature referring to earlier periods. In fact, Hamath and Damascus, with the Phoenician Arpad and Simura, the modern historical and religious study of the Old Testament and with Gaza and “Egypt.” Two battles, one at Karkar in the turns upon the interpretation of the great prophets, and the re- north, another at Rapih (Raphia) on the border of Egypt, suflation between them, on the one hand, and the Pentateuch and ficed to quell the disturbance. The desert peoples who paid tribhistorical recensions (see sec. 2, p. 43) on the other. (See fur- ute on this occasion still continued restless, and in 715 Sargon ther Hesrew RELIGION, PropHet, and the articles on the several removed men of Tamiid, Ibadid, Marsiman, Hayapa (cf. the Midianite Ephah, Gen. xxv. 4), “the remote Arabs of the desert,” prophets.) 10. The Fall of the Israelite Monarchy.—Israel’s pros- and placed them in the land of Beth-Omri. Sargon’s statement perity under Jeroboam II. proved her undoing. The disorders is significant for the later history of Samaria; but the biblical that hastened the end find analogy in the events of the more historians take no further interest in the fortunes of the northern obscure period after the death of the earlier Jeroboam. Only the kingdom, and see in Judah the sole survivor of the Israelite briefest details are given. Zechariah was slain after six months tribes (see 2 Ki. xvii. 7-23). Yet the situation in this neglected by Shallum ben Jabesh in Ibleam; but the usurper fell a month district must continue to provoke enquiry. 11. Judah and Assyria.—Amid these changes the history of later to Menahem (g.v.), who only after much bloodshed established his position. Assyria again appeared upon the scene, under Judah was intimately connected with the south Palestinian peoples. Tiglath-pileser III.; on his approach a coalition was soon formed Ahaz had recognized the sovereignty of Assyria and visited Tigwhich was overthrown in 738. Among those who paid tribute lathpileser at Damascus. The Temple-records describe the inwere Rasun (the biblical Rezin) of Damascus, Menahem of novations he introduced on his return. Under his son, Hezekiah, Samaria, the kings of Tyre, Byblos and Hamath and the queen there were fresh disturbances in the southern states, and antiof Aribi (the Syrian desert). Israel was once more in league Assyrian intrigues began to take a more definite shape among the with Damascus and Phoenicia, and the biblical records must Philistine cities. Ashdod openly revolted and found support in be read in the light of political history. Judah was probably Moab, Edom, Judah and “Egypt.” This step may possibly be holding aloof. Its king, Uzziah, was a leper in his latter days, connected with the attempt of Marduk (Merodach)-baladan in and his son and regent, Jotham, claims notice for a circum- south Babylonia to form a league against Assyria (cf. 2 Ki. xx. stantial reference to his subjugation of Ammon—the natural 12); at all events Ashdod fell after a three years’ siege (710) allies of Damascus—for three years (2 Chron. xxvii., cf. xxvi. 8). and for a time there was peace. But with the death of Sargon Scarcely had Assyria withdrawn before Menahem lost his life in in 705 there was another great outburst; practically the whole of a conspiracy, and Pekah, with the help of Gilead, made himself Palestine and Syria was in arms, and Sennacherib’s empire in the king. The new movement was evidently anti-Assyrian, and west was threatened. In both Judah and Philistia the antistrenuous endeavours were made to present a united front. Judah Assyrian party was not without opposition, and those who adwas the centre of attack. Rasun and Pekah directed their blows hered or favoured adherence to the great power were justified by from the north, Philistia threatened the west flank, and the the result. The inevitable lack of cohesion among the petty States Edomites, who drove out the Judaeans from Elath (on the Gulf weakened the national cause. At Sennacherib’s approach, Ashdod, of ’Akaba), were no doubt only taking their part in the concerted Ammon, Moab and Edom submitted; Ekron, Ascalon, Lachish and action. A more critical situation could scarcely be imagined. Jerusalem held out strenuously. The southern allies (with The throne of David was then occupied by a youth—Ahaz, the “Egypt”) were defeated at Eltekeh. Hezekiah was besieged and son of Jotham. In this crisis we meet with Isaiah (g.v.), perhaps compelled to submit (700). The small kings who had remained the grandest of Hebrew prophets. The disorganized state of faithful were rewarded by an extension of their territories, and Egypt and the uncertain allegiance of the desert tribes left Judah Ashdod, Ekron and Gaza were enriched at Judah’s expense. These without direct aid; on the other hand, opposition to Assyria events are related in Sennacherib’s inscription; the biblical records among the conflicting interests of Palestine and Syria was rarely preserve their own traditions (see further HEZEKIAH). In the long reign of his son, Manasseh (c. 692), later writers unanimous. Either in the natural course of events—to preserve the unity of his empire—or influenced by the rich presents of saw the deathblow to the Judaean kingdom. Much is said of his land was gold and silver with which Ahaz accompanied his appeal for help, wickedness, but few details have come down. The Esar-haddon Both Assyria. of control the under practically (734 Philistia against campaigns with Tiglathpileser intervened

daean annals the “people of Judah” his father’s throne; and to his long cribed conquests over Philistia and Jerusalem and the reorganization of

set Azariah (Uzziah) upon reign of 52 years are asEdom, ‘the fortification of the army. The two great

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(681-669) and Assur-bani-pal (669-c. 626) number among their tributaries Tyre, Ammon, Moab, Edom, Ascalon, Gaza and Manasseh himself, and cuneiform dockets unearthed at Gezer suggest the presence of Assyrian garrisons there, and no doubt also elsewhere. The situation favoured the spread of foreign customs, and the condemnation passed upon Manasseh thus, perhaps, becomes more significant. It is possible that Manasseh merely assimilated the older Yahweh-worship to Assyrian form; politics and religion were inseparable, and the supremacy of Assyria weakened that of Yahweh.

If Judah was compelled to take part in the Assyrian campaigns against Egypt, Arabia (the Syrian desert) and Tyre, this would only be in accordance with a vassal’s duty. But since tradition preserves some recollection of an offence for which Manasseh was taken to Babylon to explain his conduct (2 Chron. xxxili.), also of the settling of foreign colonists in Samaria by Esar-haddon (Ezra iv. 2), it is possible that Judah attempted to regain its liberty. According to Assur-bani-pal all the western lands were inflamed by the revolt of his brother, Shamash-shumukin. What part Judah took in the Transjordanic disturbances, in which Moab fought invading Arabian tribes on behalf of Assyria, is wnknown. Manasseh’s son, Amon, fell in a court intrigue and “the people of the land,” after avenging the murder, set up in his place the infant Josiah (637). The circumstances imply a regency; but upon this the records are silent. The decay of Assyria doubtless awoke the national feeling of independence and an account is given of Josiah’s religious reforms, based upon a source partly identical with that which describes the work of Jehoash (2 Kings xi. seg.). In an age when the oppression and corruption of the ruling classes had been such that those who cherished the old worship of Yahweh dared not confide in their most intimate companions (cf. Mi. vii. 5), no reforms were possible; but now the young Josiah, the popular choice, was upon the throne. A roll, it was said, had been found in the Temple; its contents terrified the priests and king, and it led to a solemn covenant before Yahweh to observe the provisions of the lawbook which had been so opportunely recovered. The writer, as has been recognized since the days of Jerome, is describing the discovery of Deuteronomy (g.v.). It is, however, very doubtful whether it was the book in its present form; although the biblical writer believed that Josiah successfully put down the high places and centralized the religion. In any case Josiah’s reforms were of no lasting effect, to judge from Jeremiah (xxv. 3-7, XXXVi. seq.) and Ezekiel (xvi., xxiii.). On the other hand Deuteronomy has a characteristic social-religious side; its humanity, philanthropy and charity are the distinctive features of its laws, and Josiah’s reputation (Jer. xxii. 15 seg.) and the circumstances in which he was chosen king may suggest that he, like Jehoash (2 Ki. xi. 17; cf. xxill.3), had entered into a reciprocal covenant with a people who, as Micah’s writings would indicate, had suffered grievously. 12. The Fall of the Judaean Monarchy.—A

new era was

beginning in the history of the world (see PALESTINE: History, sec. 8). Assyria was rapidly decaying and Egypt, under Psammetichus

(Psamtek)

I. had recovered from the blows of Assur-

bani-pal, to which the Hebrew prophet, Nahum, refers (iii. 8—ro). Chaldean prince, Nabopolassar, set himself up in Babylonia. It was, perhaps, after this that an inroad of the Scythians occurred (c. 626 B.C.) ; if it did not actually touch Judah, the advent of the people of the north appears to have caused great alarm (Jer. iv—vi.: Zephaniah). Nineveh fell in 6r2, and Harran, whither the court had been removed, was taken in 610. Thus fell an empire which had dominated Palestine for two centuries, and whose history in the West went back for a millennium. On the exultation caused by the events (see Namum), Necho, son of Psammetichus, marched through Palestine to aid Assyria. Josiah interposed; possibly he had hopes of extending his kingdom (2 Chron. xxxv. 20 seg. is more reliable than 2 Ki. xxiii. 29 seg.). That he had authority over a much larger area than Judah alone is suggested by 2 Ki. xxiii. 19, and by the references to the border at Riblah, 45 m. south of Hamath (Ezek. Vl. 14, XI. Io

seg.). He was slain at Megiddo, and Egypt, as in the long dis-

tant past, again held Palestine and Syria. The Judaeans made Jehoahaz (or Shallum) their king, but the Pharaoh banished him to Egypt three months later and appointed his brother, Jehoiakim, Meanwhile, Nabopolassar recognized in Necho a dangerous rival, and sent his son Nebuchadrezzar, who overthrew the Egyptian forces at Carchemish (605). The battle was the turming-point of the age. The succession of the new Chaldean or Babylonian kingdom was assured, though the relations between

Egypt and Judah were not broken off. Jehoiakim was inclined to rely upon Egypt. He died just as Nebuchadrezzar, after seeing his warnings disregarded, was preparing to lay siege to Jerusalem,

His young son, Jehoiachin, surrendered after a three months’ reign, with his mother and the court; they were taken away to

Babylonia, together with a number of artisans (597). Jehoiakim’s

brother, Mattaniah, or Zedekiah, was set in his place under an oath of allegiance, which he broke, preferring Hophra, the new king of Egypt. A few years later the second siege took place. It began on the tenth day of the tenth month, Jan. 587. The lookedfor intervention of Egypt was unavailing, although a temporary raising of the siege inspired wild hopes. Desertion, pestilence and famine added to the usual horrors of a siege, and at length on the ninth day of the fourth month, 586, a breach was made in the walls. Zedekiah fled towards the Jordan valley but was seized and taken to Nebuchadrezzar at Riblah. His sons were slain before

his eyes, and he himself was blinded and carried off to Babylon after a reign of rr years. The Babylonian Nebu-zaradan was sent to take vengeance upon the rebellious city, and on the seventh day of the fifth month 586 B.c. Jerusalem was destroyed. The Temple, palace and city buildings were burned, the walls broken down, the chief priest, Seraiah, and other leaders were put to death, and many people again carried off. The disaster became the great epoch-making event in Jewish history and literature. Throughout these stormy years the prophet Jeremiah (q.v.) had realized that Judah’s only hope lay in submission to Babylonia. Stigmatized as a traitor, scorned and imprisoned, he had not ceased to warn deaf ears, although Zedekiah himself was, perhaps, open to persuasion. Now the penalty had been paid, and the Babylonians, whose policy was less destructive than that of Assyria, contented themselves with appointing as governor a certain Gedaliah. The new centre was Mizpah, a commanding eminence and sanctuary, about 5 m. N.W. of Jerusalem; and here Gedaliah issued an appeal to the people to be loyal to Babylonia and to resume their former peaceful occupations. The land had not been devastated, and many gladly returned from their hiding-places in Moab, Edom and Ammon. But discontented survivors of the royal family under Ishmael intrigued with Baalis, king of Ammon. The plot resulted in the murder of Gedaliah and an unsuccessful attempt to carry off various princesses and officials who had been left in the governor’s care. This new confusion and a natural fear of Babylonia’s vengeance led many to feel that their only safety lay in flight to Egypt, and, although warned by Jeremiah that even there the sword would find them, they fled south and took refuge in Tahpanhes (Daphnae, q.v.), afterwards forming small settlements in other parts of Egypt. But the thread of the history is broken, and apart from an allu-

sion to the favour shown to the captive Jehoiachin (with which the books of Jeremiah and Kings conclude), there is a gap in the records, and subsequent events are viewed from a new standpoint.

13. Internal Conditions and the Exile.—Many of the exiles accepted their lot and settled down in Babylonia (cf. Jer. xxix. 4-7); Jewish colonies, too, were being founded in Egypt. The agriculturists and herdsmen who had been left in Palestine formed, as always, the staple population, and it is impossible to imagine either Judah or Israel as denuded of its inhabitants. The peasants were left in peace to divide the land among them, and new conditions arose as they took over the ownerless estates. Here, as already in Israel, the fall of the monarchy involved a reversion to a pre-monarchical state, and it is impossible to sever too rigorously two sections of Hebrews who had so much in common. Indeed, kings of Judah might well have been tempted to restore the kingdom of their traditional founder, or Assyria might have

been complaisant towards a faithful Judaean vassal. But Israel,

JEWS after the fall of Samaria, is ignored by the Judaean writers, and lies as a foreign land; although Judah itself had suffered from the intrusion of foreigners in the preceding centuries of war and turmoil, and strangers had settled in her midst, had formed part of the royal guard, or had served as janissaries. Samaria had experienced several changes in its original population. Settlement upon new soil involved dependence upon its god, and a priest was sent to instruct the colonists in the fear of Yahweh. Thenceforth they continued the worship of the Israelite Yahweh along with their own native cults (2 Ki. xvii. 24-28, 33). Their descendants claimed participation in the privileges of the Judaeans (cf. Jer. xli. 5), and must have identified themselves with the old stock (Ezra i iv. 2). Whatever recollection they preserved of their origin and of the circumstances of their entry would be retold from a new standpoint. To the prophets the

religious position was lower in Judah than in the “sister” Samaria (Jer. iii. 11 sqq., xxiii. 11 sqg.; Ezek. xvi. 51). The prevalence of heathen elements in Jerusalem, as detailed in the reforms of

Josiah or in the writings of the prophets (cf. Ezek. viii.), would at least suggest that the destruction of the State was not entirely a disaster. The political disasters not only meant a shifting of population, they also brought into prominence the old popular and non-official religion, the character of which is not to be condemned off-hand. When there were sects like the Rechabites (Jer. xxxv.), when the Judaean fields could produce a Micah

(q.v.), and when Israel had men who inherited the spirit of a Hosea, the nature of the underlying conditions can be more justly appreciated. The writings of the prophets were cherished, not only in the unfavourable atmosphere

of courts (see Jer. xxxvi., 21

sqq.), but also in the circles of their followers (Isa. viii. 16). In the smaller sanctuaries the old-time beliefs were maintained, and the priests, often perhaps of the older native stock, were the recognized guardians of the religious cults. The stories of earlier days encircle places which are not regarded as illegitimate, and in the form in which the dim traditions of the past are now preserved they reveal an attempt to purify popular belief and thought. It may be, therefore, that Deuteronomy and the popular narratives J. and E. (in their present form), belong here. (See HEBREW RELIGION, Sec. IE Sgq.)

14. Restoration of Judah.—The course of events from the

middle of the 6th century B.c. to the close of the Persian period is extremely obscure, although much indirect evidence indicates that this age holds the key to the growth of written biblical history. It was an age of literary activity, which manifested itself, not in contemporary historical records—only a few of which have survived—but rather in the special treatment of previously existing sources (see Ezra and NEHEMIAH). In 561 B.c. the captive Judaean king, Jehoiachin, received special marks of favour from Nebuchadrezzar’s son, Amil-marduk (2 Ki. xxv. 27 sqg.; Jer. lii. 31~34). A little later Tyre received as its king, Merbaal (555-552), who had been fetched from Babylonia. If Babylon was assured of the allegiance of its vassals further acts of clemency may well have followed. But the later recension of Judaean history—our only source—entirely ignores the elevation of Jehoiachin, and, passing over “the exile, proceeds at once to the first years of Cyrus, who proclaims as his Divine mission the rebuilding of the Temple (538) (2 Chron. xxxvi.). The Judaean Sheshbazzar (a corruption of some Babylonian name) brought back the Temple vessels which Nebuchadrezzar had carried away and prepared to undertake the work at the expense of the royal purse. A large body of exiles is said to have returned to Jerusalem under Zerubbabel, who was of Davidic descent, and the priest Jeshua or Joshua, the grandson of the murdered Seraiah (Ezra i-wi.; v. 13-vi. 5). When these refused the proffered help of the people of Samaria, men of the same faith as themselves (iv. 2), their troubles began, and the Samaritans retaliated by preventing the rebuilding. The next historical notice is dated in the second year of Darius

49

On the other hand, from the independent writings ascribed to these prophets, it appears that no considerable body of exiles could have returned—it is still an event of the future (Zech. ii. 7, vi. 15); little, if anything, had been done to the Temple (Hag. ii. 15); and Zerubbabel is the one to take in hand and complete the great undertaking (Zech. iv. 9). The prophets address themselves to men living in comfortable abodes with olive-fields and vineyards, suffering from bad seasons and agricultural depression, and, though the country is unsettled, there is no reference to any active opposition on the part of Samaritans. So far from drawing any lesson from the brilliant event in the reign of Cyrus, the prophets imply that Yahweh’s wrath was still upon the unfortunate city, and that Persia was still the oppressor. Consequently, although small bodies of individuals no doubt came back to Judah from time to time, and some special mark of favour may have been shown by Cyrus, the opinion has gained ground since the early

arguments of E. Schrader (Studien und Kritiken, 1867, pp. 460— 504), that the compiler’s representation of the history is less trustworthy than the independent evidence of the prophetical writings. His main object is to make the new Israel, the postexilic community at Jerusalem, continuous, as a society, with the old Israel. Unfortunately, the internal conditions in the 6th century B.c. can be only indirectly estimated, and the political position must remain for the present quite uncertain. In Zerubbabel the people beheld once more a ruler of the Davidic race. The new temple heralded a new future; the mournful fasts commemorative of Jerusalem’s disasters would become feasts; Yahweh had left the Temple at the fall of Jerusalem, but had now returned to sanctify it with his presence; the city had purged its iniquity and was fit once more to become the central sanctuary. So Haggai sees in Zerubbabel the representative of the ideal kingdom, the trusted and highly favoured minister who was the signet-ring upon Yahweh’s hand (contrast Hag. ii. 23 with Jer. xxii. 24). Zechariah, in his turn, proclaims the overthrow of all difficulties in the path of the new king, who shall rule in glory supported by the priest (Zech. vi.). What political aspirations were revived, what other writers were inspired by these momentous events are questions of inference. Again there is a gap in the history. (For the view that there was an important movement of semi-Edomite clans to north Judah after the fall of Jerusalem, see Camb. Anc. Hist., vi. ch. vii.; see also Kincs, Boox oF.) t5. Nehemiah.—The history passes abruptly from the time of Zerubbabel to the reign of Artaxerxes I. (but A. Il. according toa Torrey). The enthusiastic hopes have melted away, the Davidic scion has disappeared and Jerusalem has been—as it would seem —the victim of another disaster. The country is under Persian officials, the nobles and priests form the local government, and the ground is being prepared for the erection of a hierocracy. It is the work of rebuilding and reorganization, of social and of religious reforms, which we encounter im the last pages of biblical history, and in the records of Ezra. and Nehemiah we stand in Jerusalem in the very centre of epoch-making events. Nehemiah, the cupbearer of Artaxerxes at Susa, distressed at the mews of the desolation of Jerusalem, obtained permission from the king to rebuild the ruins. Provided with an escort and with the right to obtain supplies of wood for the buildings, he returned to the city of his fathers’ sepulchres (the allusion may suggest his royal ancestry). He aroused the people to the necessity of fortifying and repopu-

lating the city. Sanballat of Heron, Tobiah the Ammonite, and Gashmu the Arabian (? Edomite) unceasingly opposed him. Tobiah and his son, Johanan, were related by marriage to Judaean secular and priestly families, and active intrigues resulted, in

(520), when two prophets, Haggai and Zechariah (qg.v.) kindled

which nobles and prophets took their part. It was insinuated that Nehemiah had his prophets to proclaim that Judah had again its own king, and that he was intending to rebel against Persia! Nehemiah naturally gives us his version; the earlier enthusiasm of Haggai and Zechariah for Zerubbabel would illustrate the feelings of Nehemieh’s partisans. But Tobiah and Johanan them-

the Judaeans to new efforts. Despite opposition, the work went steadily onwards, thanks to the favour of Darius, and the Temple was completed four years later, 516 B.c. (Ezra v. 2, vi. 13 sqg.).

consequently, with prophets taking different sides and with the Samaritan claims summarily repudiated (Neh. ii. 20; cf. Ezra iv.

selves were worshippers of Yahweh (as their names show), and

590

JEWS

3), it is difficult to gather all the facts. Nevertheless the undaunted Judaean pressed on unmoved by the threatening letters which were sent around, and succeeded in completing the walls within 52 days. Nehemiah also appears as governor of the small district of Judah and Benjamin. Famine, the avarice of the rich, and the necessity of providing tribute had brought the humbler classes to the lowest straits. Faced with old social abuses, he vehemently contrasted the harshness of the nobles with the generosity of the exiles, who would redeem their poor countrymen from slavery. He himself had always refrained from exacting the usual provision which other governors had claimed; indeed, he had readily entertained over 150 officials and dependants at his table, apart from casual refugees (Neh. v.). We hear something of a 12 years’ governorship and of a second visit; but the evidence does not enable us to determine the sequence (xiii. 6). Neh. v. is placed in the middle of the building of the walls in 52 days; the other reforms during the second visit are closely connected with the dedication of the walls, and with the events which immediately follow his first arrival, when he had come to rebuild the city. Nehemiah also remedies religious abuses. He found the busy agriculturists and traders (some from Tyre) pursuing their usual labours on the Sabbath, now more strictly observed, and he pointed to the disasters which had resulted in the past from such profanation (Neh. xiii. 18; cf. Jer. xvii. 20 sqq.; Ezek. xx. 13—24; Isa. lvi. 2, 6; Iviii. 13). Moreover, the maintenance of the Temple servants called for supervision; the customary allowances had not been paid to the Levites, who had come to Jerusalem after the smaller shrines had been put down, and they had forsaken the city. His last acts were the most significant. Jews had married women of Ashdod, Ammon and Moab, and the impetuous governor indignantly adjured them to desist from the historic cause of national sin. Even members of the priestly families had intermarried with Tobiah and Sanballat; the former had a chamber in the Temple, the daughter of the latter was the wife of a son of Joiada, the son of the high priest, Eliashib. Tobiah was cast out, the offending

priest expelled and a general purging followed, in which the foreign elements were removed. With this Nehemiah brings the account of his reforms to a conclusion, and the words “Remember me, O my God, for good” (xiii. 31) have a meaning. According to Josephus (Ant. xi. 7, 2), a certain Manasseh, the brother of Jaddua and grandson of Joiada, refused to divorce his wife, the daughter of Sanballat. For this he was driven out, and, taking refuge with the Samaritans, founded a rival temple and priesthood upon Mt. Gerizim, to which repaired other priests and Levites who had been guilty of mixed marriages. There is little doubt that Josephus refers to the same events; but he places the schism and the foundation of the new Temple in the time of Alexander the Great. At all events, there is now a complete rupture with Samaria, and thus, in the concluding chapter of the last of the historical books of the Old Testament, Judah maintains its claim to the heritage of Israel and rejects the right of the Samaritans to the title. 16, Ezra.—In this separation of the Judaeans from religious and social intercourse with their neighbours, the work of Ezra (g.v.) requires notice. The story of this scribe (now combined with the memoirs of Nehemiah) crystallizes the new movement inaugurated after a return of exiles from Babylonia. The age can

also be illustrated from Isa. lvi—Ixvi. and Malachi (g.v.). There was a poor and weak Jerusalem, its Temple stood in need of renovation, its temple-service was mean, its priests unworthy of their office. On the one side was the poverty of the poor; on the other the pride of the governors. There were two religious parties: one exclusive, the other more cosmopolitan and syncretising, extended a freer welcome to strangers, and tolerated the popular and superstitious cults of the day (Isa. Ixv. seg.). But the former won and, realizing that the only hope of maintaining a pure worship of Yahweh lay in a forcible isolation from foreign influence, it took measures to ensure the religious independence of their assembly. It is related that Ezra, the scribe and priest, returned to Jerusalem with priests and Levites, lay exiles, and a store of vessels for the Temple. He was commissioned to enquire into the

religious condition of the land and to disseminate the teaching of the Law to which he had devoted himself (Ezra vii.). On his arrival the people were gathered together, and he read “the book

of the Law of Moses” daily for seven days (Neh. viii.). They

entered into an agreement to obey its teaching, undertaking in

particular to avoid marriages with foreigners (x. 28 sqq.). An account is given of this reform (Ezra ix. seqg.), and Ezra’s horror at the intermarriages, which threatened to destroy the distinctive character of the community, sufficiently indicates the attitude of the stricter party. The true seed of Israel separated themselves from all foreigners (not, however, without some opposition) and formed an exclusively religious body or “congregation.” Dreams of political freedom gave place to hopes of religious independence, and “Israel” became a church, the foundation of which it sought in the desert of Sinai a thousand years before. (See SAMARITANS and for Torrey’s views, EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, Books oF; NEHEMIAH.) 17. Post-exilic Judaism.—With Nehemiah and Ezra we enter upon the era of normative Judaism. Judah was a religious community whose representative was the high priest of Jerusalem. Instead of sacerdotal kings, there were royal priests, anointed with oil, arrayed with kingly insignia, claiming the usual royal

dues in addition to the customary rights of the priests. With his priests and Levites, and with the chiefs and nobles of the Jewish families, the high priest directs this small State, and his death marks an epoch as truly as did that of the monarchs in the past. This hierarchical government, which can find no foundation in the Hebrew monarchy, is the forerunner of the Sanhedrin (g.v.); it is an institution which, however inaugurated, set its stamp upon the narratives which have survived. Laws were recast in accordance with the requirements of the time, with the result that by the side of usages evidently of very great antiquity, details now appear which were previously unknown or wholly unsuitable. The post-exilic priestly spirit represents a tendency which is not to be found in the “Deuteronomic” book of Kings, but is conspicuous in the later, and to some extent parallel, book of Chronicles (qg.v.). The “priestly” traditions of the Creation and of the patriarchs are in marked contrast to the earlier narratives, and appear in a further developed form in the still later book

of Jubilees (g.v.) or “Little Genesis,” where they are used to demonstrate the pre-Mosaic antiquity of the priestly or Levitical institutions. There is also an unmistakable development in the laws; and the priestly legislation, though ahead of both Ezekiel and Deuteronomy, not to mention still earlier usage, not only continues to undergo continual internal modification, but finds a

further distinct development in the way of definition and interpretation, outside, the Old Testament—in the Talmud (q.v.). Though one may often be repelled by the post-exilic priestly literature, their lack of spontaneity and their ritualism, it must be recognized that they placed Monotheism upon a firm basis. “It was a necessity that Judaism should incrust itself in this manner; without those hard and ossified forms the preservation of its essential elements would have proved impossible. At a time when all nationalities, and at the same time all bonds of religion and national customs, were beginning to be broken up in the seeming cosmos and real chaos of the Graeco-Roman empire, the Jews stood out like a rock in the midst of the ocean. When the natural conditions of independent nationality all failed them, they nevertheless artificially maintained it with an energy truly marvellous, and thereby preserved for themselves, and at the same time for the whole world, an eternal good.” (Wellhausen.)

Yet the whole experience of subsequent history, through the heroic age of the Maccabees (g.v.) and onwards, proves that

the minuteness of ritual procedure could not cramp the heart. The work represented in Nehemiah and Ezra, and effected by the

supporters of an exclusive Judaism, certainly won the day, and it left its impress upon the historical traditions. But Yahwism, like Islam, had its sects and tendencies, and the opponents to the stricter ritualism always had followers. Whatever the predominant party might think of foreign marriages, the tradition of the half-Moabite origin of David serves, in the beautiful idyll of Ruth (g.v.), to emphasize the debt which Judah and Jerusalem

JEWS

DI

owed to one of its neighbours. Again, although some desired a self-contained community opposed to the heathen neighbours of Jerusalem, the story of Jonah (g.v.) implicitly contends against the attempt of Judaism to close its doors. The conflicting tendencies were incompatible, but Judaism retained the incompatibilities within its limits, and the two tendencies, prophetical and priestly, continue, the former finding its further development in the rise of Christianity.

ual, however influential, is powerless to stem a cultural flood, nevertheless it would seem that in this case the death of Alexander is the more correct answer. Jew and Greek did in fact meet. Myôèv ä&yar is as Jewish as it is Greek in spirit. There are books in the Old Testament canon as well as in the Apocrypha

See the bibliography to BELE, Old Testament; Kittel, Geschichte des volkes Israels; and Camb. Anc. History, ii. ch. xiv.; iii. ch. xvii.—xXx. and vi. ch. vii. with their bibliographies. Also Hresrew RELIGION. (S. A. C.) GREEK DOMINATION

often exaggerated, are not to be overlooked. Philo strove to make Jewish literature known to the Greeks while, at last, Paul, an offshoot of Judaism, combined Jewish-Christian teaching with

Hebraism and Hellenism.—The Jews came into contact with Greek culture when they were fully conscious of their own. They had been moulded by suffering: they had already achieved a his-

tory.

They could look back to a kingdom which, for several

centuries, had stood happily and honourably, which had fallen heroically and which had reared a race whose religion and patriotism neither misfortune could kill nor prosperity corrupt. Their

memories of the past were vivid, enshrining traditions of divine messages and teachings of great prophets. This spiritual heritage fortified them in captivity to preserve their identity and to live with unquenchable hope for the day of return. They had, in process of time, achieved their desire and they had consolidated their state anew. Ezra had rescued the Torah and his institutions had schooled the Jews to meet alike the onslaught of enemies and the influence of foreign cultures, without loss of individuality. Therefore, the work of the past was now accomplished: present and future were assured. Judaism was safe in the custody of the Jew. At this juncture he was confronted with Hellenism. Alexander swept into Asia with ease: he planted Greek seeds on an Oriental soil and his tree flourished. The kingdom of Bactria which he founded was an outpost of Greek civilization: his settlers, artists and craftsmen, introduced elements which never disappeared entirely. Indian statuary has preserved traces of the models which these Greeks in Bactria showed to their Indian pupils and apprentices. The reasons for Alexander’s swift success, for the absence of difficulties and for the results he achieved need not be discussed here. The contrasts between the conditions he encountered in Asia and those which prevailed in Palestine will readily suggest themselves. But if it be accurate to hold that his work further East so largely decayed through the indifference, inertia and lack of homogeneity of the populations over which he imposed his sway, no similar verdict can apply to Palestine. Here none of these qualities can be held responsible. The advent of Alexander mattered little to the Jews because the Jew had already made up his mind what his destiny was to be and what his mission demanded of him. Compared with Rome, Greece has touched the Jew but slightly. To this day the Jew sits down to a Passover celebration in which many details of Roman table etiquette survive. From Whitechapel to Cochin, from New York to Cairo, Jews, poor and rich alike, unconsciously reproduce on Passover night the habits of

the triclinium and dine as Horace dined at the feasts of Maecenas. No other people, no cultural force, has left so deep an imprint on the Jew. Neither Egypt, Persia, Greece, nor the Renaissance penetrated Jewish culture as deeply as did Rome, the power, moreover, that destroyed the Temple and finally broke up the Jewish State. The influence of the Greeks on the Jews was postponed until long after the Greeks had lived. When mediaeval Jews set themselves to translate Aristotle and transmit his philosophy to Europe, the two cultures may be said to have met. But it was Aristotle the master, not Alexander the disciple, who brought about the meeting. Two causes may be held responsible

which reflect Greek thought. Job is a Hebrew Prometheus Vinctus, Esther is composed on the stylistic model of a Euripidean drama and the parallels between Canticles and Theocritus, though

Hellenic method and expression. During four centuries the Jews were under Greek influence because from the time of Alexander until the destruction of Jerusalem, Greek culture prevailed in Palestine, irrespective of the nationality of the governor of the province. Alexander the Great.—Josephus gives an account of a friendly visit of Alexander to Jerusalem: the historicity of this incident has been challenged but whether the meeting with the High Priest be historically true in the letter or not, it is certainly true that between Alexander and the Jews cordial relations existed. There is no reason to doubt either that they were given privileges in his army by which they were enabled to observe their religion (already in 419 B.C. Darius IIL. issued orders enabling bis Jewish soldiers at Elephantine to observe the Passover and abstain from leaven [see pp. 60 seg. of A. Cowley’s Aramaic papyri of the Fifth Century B.C., Oxf., 1923]), or that a quarter was assigned to them in his newly founded city in Egypt. In his honour, Jews adopted his name as a shém gadhdosh, t.e., a Jewish as opposed to a Gentile name; and this indicates the esteem in which Alexander was regarded by the Jews. It is a noteworthy fact of history that great conquerors, Alexander, Caesar and Napoleon, have always treated the Jews well: they recognized their religious function and sought to give it freedom to develop, for their own advantage as well as for that of the Jews. On the other hand, lesser men, endowed with narrower outlooks, have failed to recognize the Jew and have sought to crush him. In their desire to impose an artificial uniformity, they “broke down the boundaries of peoples and put down the inhabitants” (Isa. x. 13). But such Procrustean methods are contrary to nature, and tyranny, whether towards Jews or towards any others, has never secured permanent results. The same policy of religious unification has characterized subsequent dynasties, from the Assyrians to the Romanoffs, and the same fate has overtaken them. The Jew has survived their disappearance. The Diadochi.—No sooner was Alexander dead (323 B.c.) than his successors, the Diadochi, struggling for his possessions and having broken up his empire, endeavoured to carry out his schemes of Hellenization. But they lacked his foresight. On the whole the Ptolemies realized that culture must be diffused by kindness, while the Seleucids believed in compulsion. Yet Palestine suffered at the hands of the former within three years of Alexander’s death. In 320 Ptolemy invaded the country from Egypt and captured Jerusalem on a Sabbath. Palestine was lost to Antigonus in 315 but re-won in 312 at Gaza. Constant warfare ensued between the houses of Seleucus and Ptolemy until, in 198, Antiochus the Great (ITI., 222-187) defeated Scopas, the general of Ptolemy V., at Panium in north Palestine, and the country definitely passed to the Seleucids. Between the death of Alexander and this period, two notable events must be recorded. On the Seleucid side there was the establishment of the Seleucidean era (see CHRONOLOGY: Jewish) while in Egypt the Pentateuch, and subsequently the rest of the Bible, was translated into Greek.

(See Sepruacint.)

This was the first known version of the

Scriptures. During this time the Diaspora or dispersion of the Jews was spreading. The Jews abroad seem to have enjoyed a peaceful existence, so far as the relatively meagre and uneventful information implies. Thus the Prologue to the Greek translation of the Wisdom of Sirach (Ecclesiasticus), as well as the book itself, affords every indication of quiet and prosperity. Apamea was a centre of Phrygian’ Jewry and the Jews seem to have

for this. It may be that the premature death of Alexander prevented the fulfilment of his plans, which his successors had not the breadth of vision to complete, or it may be that the Jewish mind was essentially practical and temperamentally incapable of reacting to Athenian culture: the Torah and Plato’s Republic are by some regarded as representing different and incongruent expressions of life. It may be alleged that the loss of one individ- | taken a prominent part in its trade.

52

JEWS

Antiochus Epiphanes.—Palestine was involved in the strug-

gle between Egypt and Syria. The orthodox Jews preferred the tolerant rule of the Ptolemies: they wished to abstain from politics and develop their religion and culture in isolation. But there was another class, which looked to the Seleucids and favoured nationalism. These two streams of thought have both previously and subsequently been paralleled in Jewish history. Solomon, Ahab and “Herod all wished to make the Jews a great nation politically at the expense of religion: such schemes have never won success. The mission of the Jew is cast on other lines. When Antiochus IV. (Epiphanes, 175—164) succeeded his brother, the opportunity of the nationalists was at hand. They desired to see a strong Jewish nation which would be an integral part of a great Hellenic empire and command respect, not in consequence of the heritage of the Torah, but by reason of the adoption of Greek institutions. They looked to Antiochus, who made the error of assuming them to represent the majority of the Jews. Antiochus was a strange character: as depicted by the historians he presents, in his belief in his own inspiration, in his assumption of artistic gifts, in his self-persuaded mission to impose his national culture by force, in his whimsical impulsiveness and his egoism, a striking parallel to Wilhelm II. On his accession Antiochus appointed a new high priest, Jesus, the brother of Onias, who changed his name to Jason and proceeded to turn Jerusalem into a Greek city. He built a gymnasium, introduced the Greek cap, popularized Greek customs and endeavoured to suppress everything Jewish. The young priests and nobles flocked to the Palaesitra: as they had to appear nude— an act in itself shocking to the Jewish mind—the evidence of their Judaism became visible. They adopted surgical means to obliterate the mark of the circumcision.and this treacherous device has ever since become proverbial as the worst form of apostasy. The Jews of Jerusalem were counted as citizens of Antioch, in order to degrade their capital. The High Priest himself paid for a sacrifice to Heracles at Tyre and by every means in his power sought at once to crush Judaism and ingratiate himself with Antiochus. But a rival, Menelaus, brother of Simon, the treasurer of the Temple, offered to raise more tribute for Antiochus, and Jason was superseded. Riots, fighting and massacres ensued. Antiochus, ordered by Rome to quit Egypt, came to Jerusalem and pillaged the Temple (168). He razed the walls and planted a garrison of Greeks and apostate Jews in the city. Measures were taken to enforce his policy of unification. Judaism was an eccentricity and needed ruthless and systematic elimination. The Jerusalem Temple was devoted to Zeus Olympius, that at Garizim to Zeus Xenius. The Jewish religion was definitely interdicted and that of Athens was to be imposed by force. Swine’s blood was offered on the altar on Kislev 25; ten days after the “Abomination of desolation” (Dan. xi., 31: xii., 11: Matt. xxiv., 15: Mark xili., 14); an image had been erected there. Harlots were brought to the Temple. The Torah was burnt. Every Jewish rite was proscribed. Varieties of Greek Culture.—Two circumstances are noteworthy at this juncture. First, though an Athenian was deputed to be the new guide to the Jews, it was not true Hellenism that he brought to their notice. In the Diaspora, the Jews grew acquainted with genuine Athenian culture: in Palestine they saw but the dregs, the debased provincialism which lacked the pure

spirit of Hellas. The travelling Jew could visit the Stoa: the Alexandrine Jew could study in Greek schools. But in the homeland all that came from Greece was brought by the soldier, the trader, the slave dealer or the brothel-keeper. It was not against the teachings of Plato but against Antioch and the groves of Daphne! that loyal Jews rose in revolt. Secondly it would seem that the cities were more easily won by Antiochus than was the countryside. The perversion of the Temple, accompanied by the treason of the High Priest and many of his subordinates, may “Four miles west (of Antioch) lay the paradise of Daphne .. . the beauty and Jax morals of which were celebrated all over the western world. . . Antioch shared in both these titles to fame. Its amenities awoke both the enthusiasm and the scorn of many writers of antiquity. ... The mass of the population seems to have been only superficially Hellenic.” D. G. Hogarth in Enc. Brit. ed. xi., vol. ii, pp. 130-31.

largely account for this. Jerusalem and Garizim followed the State religion also because, to gain obedience for the royal decrees, force was at hand, which was absent elsewhere. Rise of the Maccabees.—Resistance came soon. At Modein, a small town north-west of Jerusalem, when the officer of Antiochus raised a heathen altar and invited the people to sacrifice

on it so as to demonstrate their acceptance of the new cult, Mattathias, an the officer and royal order. In order to loyal Jews fled

aged priest of the order of Jehoiarib, slew both a Jew who stepped forward to comply with the

strengthen their position and gain adherents, the to the mountains. This is undoubtedly alluded to in Mark. xiii., 14, and Matt. xxiv., 15 (“When ye see the abomination of desolation . . . let them that are in Judaea flee unto the

mountains”), where a possible Roman desecration of the Temple or Temple-site analogous to that by Antiochus, is contemplated. (See C. G. Montefiore, Synoptic Gospels, Lond., 1927, vol. i., p. 300: vol. ii., p. 311.) Whether Mattathias himself led the band is uncertain. The leader very soon was Judas, his third son, who, with his four brothers, collected the scattered Jews and prepared for defence. The brothers are known by two names, (1) Hasmoneans, *‘Acuwvatos (Jos. Ant. xii., § 1, etc.) or "SPORT (Middoth

I., 6) from Hasmonai, the grandfather of Mattathias and (2)

Maccabees. This name was strictly applied to Judas only. The etymology is doubtful. The suggestion is that the initials of

wba o

> (“who is like unto Thee among the Gods, O Lord,”

Exod. xv., 11) which was said to have been emblazoned on Judas’s banner, cannot stand because Maccabee is spelled *37> not ‘229, The derivation from +3:, z.e., “hammerer” (cf. Charles Martel) is unlikely, if only because the root means “to pierce” and

not “to hammer.” Curtiss suggests Vas as the origin, while others favour ‘xino, “He who hides himself” (sc. in the mountains) in defiance of the Hebrew orthography. The most plausible solution is that offered by F. Luzzatto, 2.¢., Brarduaxos or waxy Biavs. H. Hirschfeld, in Jew. Quart. Rev., new series, vol. xviii. No. r., July, 1927, p. 57, rejects Perles’s hypothesis (loc. cit. ib.) that °2P° is correct and favours ‘225 which he derives from Vae3 expressing “a family tragedy coinciding with the birth of the future hero... or anxiety about the political state of the country.” The name Benjamin= Benoni would offer a parallel.! The Campaigns of Judas.—Antiochus’s generals, Seron, from Syria, and Apollonius, from Samaria, failed to overcome Judas, who defeated them by sudden night attacks, winning the battle of Beth Horon. At this time the Parthians were revolting against

the Seleucids, Mithridates I. (170-138) was making himself independent, and Antiochus was seriously embarrassed. He determined to deal with the Parthians in person but he ordered Lysias, his Viceroy in Syria, to suppress the Jews. Lysias sent 47,000 men, infantry and cavalry, under Nicanor, Gorgias and Ptolemy. Judas defeated Nicanor at Emmaus and Gorgias’s army fled. Fresh Syrian forces, under Timotheus and Bacchides, were despatched from the south. Either Judas routed them at Beth Zur, by Hebron, or else they retired in consequence of the death of Antiochus. In any case, Judas gained his end. The road to Jerusalem lay open to him, though the Greek garrison still held out and could not be dislodged. But the Temple was free. It was cleansed and rededicated on 25 Kislev, three years to a day from the time when it had been defiled. Sabbath Observance.—Scholars are generally agreed that the book of Daniel was probably composed during the Maccabean struggle: its purpose was to encourage the faithful to endure martyrdom.

At the same time Mattathias succeeded in obtaining

the adoption of a new and important principle. Hitherto the Jews had refused in all circumstances to fight on the Sabbath and the enemy had both noted this rule and profited thereby. Thus Antiochus had entered Jerusalem on the Sabbath and under Mattathias some of the earliest defenders had been slain without resistance on the sacred day. It was now ordained that Jews should defend themselves on the Sabbath if attacked. It is possible that on this account the Maccabees became unpopular with 1A new theory was advanced by Prof. A. A. Bevan at the Cambridge Theological Society in December 1928.

JEWS the Hastdhim or pious party. But if this step had not been taken,

the Jews would have been annihilated in a short time. The fact that the Maccabees are scarcely ever mentioned in the Talmud and

that they were disliked by the Pharisees is to be accounted for with greater likelihood, by their assumption of royal power in combination with the High Priesthood and by their subsequent aims, which were nationalist rather than religious. Judas in Powet—After securing the Temple, Judas proceeded to consolidate his position: he united the Jews and dealt firmly with the apostates. But he knew that victory was not yet secure.

Antiochus, previous to his death, obstinately refused to

regard Judas as the Jewish representative and when he sent Menelaus, the renegade High Priest, to “encourage” the Jews (2 Macc. xi., 32), no reference to Judas was made. In 163 B.C. Lysias defeated Judas at Beth Zachariah but Judas recovered himself, mainly because a pretender arose in Antioch and Lysias desired peace. Judas now became the recognized Jewish leader and

Menelaus was slain. In 162 Demetrius, now supreme in Syria, made Jakim or Alkimus, the chief of the Hellenizing Jews, High Priest. As he was a Cohen (g.v.) the Hasīidhīm, or pious party, acquiesced in his appointment. But at the outset he slew 6o of them and this determined Judas to fight for political independence. It is often stated that the Jewish Messianic expectations were exclusively nationalist. But in no case did the Hasidhim fight against their overlord unless religion was threatened and religious freedom was at stake. Alkimus could maintain himself only by the aid of the army of Bacchides. He retired before Judas to Antioch and induced Nicanor to come to his aid. Nicanor and Judas at first became friends but warfare soon broke out. In 161, on “Nicanor’s Day” (13 Adar), long observed by the Jews as a joyful anniversary, the Syrian general was defeated and killed. Judas then made a treaty with Rome, buying immediate security at the price of future disaster. Judas repeated the error which had

led, in similar circumstances

before, to the downfall of the

kingdom of Judah. Foreign alliances were nothing but entanglements. Rome, like Assyria and Babylonia, would have intervened spontaneously if a tributary or rival extended unduly: an alliance with the world power against Syria was unnecessary, and an alliance was inevitably the first step towards loss of independence. In “peace and quietude” would have been success, but to refrain is harder than to act. Finally Judas was killed at Elasa (r Macc. ix., 18) and Bacchides placed garrisons in Judaea.

The

Maccabean

Brothers.—Judas

was

succeeded

by his

brother Jonathan, who, after two years, was recognized by Bacchides. In 153 Jonathan was called upon to decide between the offers of Demetrius, king of Syria, and his rival, Alexander Balas, who claimed to be a son of Antiochus Epiphanes. Each desired to win Jonathan to his side. Alexander offered the High Priesthood and Jonathan, who realized that Demetrius was not to be trusted, threw in his lot with Alexander. On Tabernacles 152 B.C. Jonathan became High Priest. In 150 Alexander defeated Demetrius and became king of Syria. In 147 Demetrius II., son of Demetrius, attacked Alexander. Jonathan destroyed the army of the governor of Coele-Syria, who had turned against Alexander. Meanwhile the Syrian garrisons, excepting those in Akra and Beth Zur, had been withdrawn from Judaea. After the death of Balas, Jonathan attacked Akra but made peace with Demetrius II., receiving the addition of three Samaritan districts in return for abandoning Beth Zur. Later he assisted Demetrius II. to quell an insurrection at Antioch. In 145 B.c. Trypho, an officer of

Alexander Balas, made Alexander’s son king (Antiochus VI.). This gave Jonathan the opportunity of taking Beth Zur, Jaffa, Gaza and Askelon, of fortifying the Temple and of blocking up the citadel. In spite of Jonathan’s friendship with Trypho, the latter seized him at Ptolemais and afterwards treacherously slew him. Jonathan was succeeded by his brother Simon, who beat off Trypho’s army. Trypho next killed Antiochus VI. and made himself king. Simon sided with Demetrius, in return for an amnesty and immunity from taxation and tribute. In 142 Simon secured independence and the people began to date their documents from

“the first year of Simon, High Priest, commander and leader of the Jews.” The Temple was now safe because on 23 Iyyar 142

53

B.C., Simon gained possession of the citadel and demolished it. Simon was murdered at Dok, near Jericho, in 135 by Ptolemy, his son-in-law, the governor of Jericho. During his rule prosperity had increased and his death was a great disaster. With him perished two of his sons, Mattathias and Judas: he was succeeded by his surviving son, John Hyrcanus (135—105). John Hyrcanus.—In the meanwhile Mithridates IT. of Parthia had defeated and captured Demetrius II. in 139. Antiochus VII. (Sidetes 138-129), the brother of Demetrius, fought Trypho, who was beaten. As a result Antiochus VII. sent an army into Judaea,

demanding tribute from Simon. After the death of the latter, Hyrcanus continued the resistance. He was besieged in Jerusalem but, in 132, made peace with Antiochus VII. They became allies and Hyrcanus furnished a contingent for the army of Antiochus. When Antiochus VII. died, Hyrcanus increased his power. He forced the Idumeans to accept Judaism and he destroyed the Samaritan Temple on Garizim. During Hyrcanus’s rule Judaea prospered and in the Diaspora, e.g., in Egypt and Cyprus, the condition of the Jews was good. Hyrcanus quarrelled with the Pharisees (g.v.), who objected to the combination of the High Priesthood with temporal power, and joined their opponents, the Sadducees (g.v.). He died in r05, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Judas Aristobulus, who conquered Ituraea and planted Judaism there by force. Judas was succeeded by another son of Hyrcanus, Alexander Jannaeus (103—78), whose continued support of the Sadducees rendered him disliked. Alexander intrigued with Cleopatra of Egypt and with Ptolemy. His reign was full of warfare, rebellion and bloodshed. On his deathbed he directed his wife Alexandra (76—69) whom he had destined for the succession, to reverse his policy and make peace with the Pharisees. As a result, her elder son, Hyrcanus, became High Priest. The Pharisees, whom Alexander’s massacres had driven to flight, returned. The queen was supported by Simon ben Shatah and

Judah ben Tabbai, whose famous mottoes, inculcating care and impartiality in the judicial office, are preserved in Abothi., 8, 9. (See Singer, Authorized Daily Prayer Book, London, p. 135, all eds.) When Alexandra died in 69 B.c., Aristobulus disputed the succession of Hyrcanus, his brother. War ensued, in which Hyrcanus besieged Aristobulus in Jerusalem, having, on the advice of his Idumean councillor, Antipater, enlisted the help of Aretas (Harith) the king of the Nabataean Arabs. Intervention of Rome.—In 66 B.c. Pompey had defeated Mithridates VI. of Pontus and his son-in-law Tigranes. Learning of the war in Judaea he sent in 65 B.c. M. Aemilius Scaurus, Sulla’s stepson, to intervene and to him both Hyrcanus and Aristobulus appealed. The latter won by bribery. Aretas retired and Aristobulus appeared to have triumphed. But Scaurus’s superior was at hand. Pompey reached Damascus and immediately deputations followed him there. Aristobulus and Hyrcanus, the latter exploited by Antipater, sent their delegations and one more came from the Jewish nation, begging for the abolition of the kingship and the restoration of the sacerdotal theocracy. Pompey made Hyrcanus High Priest and so Antipater secured power. Warfare broke out between the adherents of the two brothers: the Roman legions .participated. Pompey captured Jerusalem and a terrible massacre ensued, the priests being slain at the altar. Over 12,000 Jews perished.

Roman Rule.—Rome now became the ruler. Aristobulus, his daughters and his sons, Alexander and Antigonus, were taken by Pompey to grace his triumph, but on the journey Alexander escaped and raised a revolt in Judaea. In this the Pharisees took no part: no religious issue was at stake. Aulus Gabinius, the proconsul, crushed the revolt. Hyrcanus was appointed guardian of the Temple and the country was split up into five districts governed by synods. Alexander and Aristobulus continued their raids. Antipater supported Gabinius and in return could do as he liked. In 54 B.c. M. Crassus, who succeeded Gabinius, plundered the Temple. He was defeated and slain by the Parthians in the next year. Cassius opposed the Parthian invasion of Syria and Antipater, whose policy was to stand well with Rome whatever happened, aided him. In 51 B.c. Taricheae was captured and 30,-

ooo Jews, wha had espoused the Parthian cause, were sold as

54

JEWS

slaves. When Julius Caesar made himself master of Rome, he released Aristobulus and sent him, with two legions, to Judaea, in 49. But Pompey’s emissaries contrived to poison him on the journey and Pompey beheaded his son Alexander at Antioch. In 48 B.C. Pompey himself was defeated and slain, whereupon Antipater joined Caesar’s party. Hyrcanus was confirmed as High Priest and Antipater made procurator of Judaea. Caesar conferred

privileges on the Jews and Suetonius (Caesar 84) mentions that his death was lamented by them especially. Herod the Great.—At this point one of the most remarkable figures in the history of Judaea becomes prominent. This was Herod, one of Antipater’s sons, who, at the early age of 25, was appointed prefect of Galilee, his brother Phasael being prefect of Jerusalem. After Caesar’s departure, one Hezekiah attacked the Syrians. Josephus, whose source was Nicolaus of Damascus, depicts Hezekiah as a brigand. But Nicolaus was a client of Herod and it is not unlikely that his estimate was biased and that Hezekiah was fighting for patriotic motives. Herod seized and executed him and a number of his followers. For this he earned the gratitude of Sextus Caesar, the governor of Syria, and the detestation of the Jews. He was summoned to appear before the Sanhedrin (g.v.) but he came to his trial with an armed bodyguard, overawing his judges with the exception of Shammai (see Aboth, i., 10-15. Singer op. cit., p. 185), who warned his colleagues of the future. Sextus promoted Herod, who raised an army to attack Hyrcanus, but at Antipater’s request he desisted. In 43 B.C. Antipater was poisoned. Confusion arose in Judaea. Herod repulsed a raid by Antigonus, the son of Aristobulus.

After the defeat of Cassius at Philippi (42 B.c.) Antony became master of Asia. Deputations approached him in Bithynia, one from the Jews accusing Herod and Phasael of usurping the power of Hyrcanus. But the last-named was aware of the power of Antipater, Antony’s friend and of his sons. These became virtually kings of the Jews. Step by step the Hasmonean dynasty was giving place to the Idumean Antipater. In 40 B.c. the Parthians, with Antigonus, invaded Syria. They captured Hyrcanus andPhasael, but Herod escaped to Rome. Hyrcanus was carried away to Parthia and mutilated so as to make him unfit for the High Priesthood. Antigonus took his uncle’s place, and Herod was recognized as ruler by the Roman senate. Herod returned and captured Jerusalem with Roman aid. Antigonus was beheaded. Herod strove to conciliate the Jews. He married the grandniece of Hyrcanus, not only because he loved her passionately, but because he hoped to gain favour by allying himself with the Hasmoneans. When, in a fit of insane jealousy, he had her put to death, he was plunged into uncontrollable remorse. Her image haunted him all his life. He rebuilt the Temple with great magnificence and at enormous cost. He encouraged the Pharisees and he conformed to Judaism. Religion was free so long as politics were eschewed. Abtalion’s words of caution (see Singer, loc. cit.) evidently apply aptly to the conditions of the day. During this period the Diaspora increased and converts multiplied. Saints such as Hillel were among the notable teachers of the people. For the influence of these men, A. Biichler’s Types of Jewish-Palestintan Piety, from 70 B.C.E. to 70 C.E. (1922) may be consulted. Herod preserved peace in his dominions until his death in 4 B.C. Herod’s Successors.—Herod divided his kingdom by will into tetrarchies, to which he appointed his sons, Archelaus, the elder son of his Samaritan wife Malthace, being named king and Antipas, her second son, tetrarch of Galilee and Peraea. Philip, a son by another wife, was given the north-east. Archelaus was about to set off to Rome, that he might be confirmed in his title by Augustus. But a revolt broke out in consequence of the execution, by Herod, shortly before his death, of Judah and Mattathias, two rabbis who endeavoured to remove the Roman eagles which they regarded as emblems of idolatry. Archelaus was asked to punish their murderers. On his refusal riots broke out. Fighting between the Jews and the Romans and massacre took place. Deputations reached Augustus putting forward rival claims and also the desire of the nation to get rid of the Herodians. In the end Augustus reaffirmed Herod’s will, counselling Archelaus to deal gently with his people. He did not, however, follow this

advice. He removed the High Priest and he violated the law of the levirate marriage. (See Deut. xxv., 5-10; but his brother had left issue and so [verse 5] the marriage should not have taken place.) His treatment of his subjects was so tyrannical that a joint deputation of Jews and Samaritans accused him to Augustus, who summoned him to Rome and then banished him to Gaul. The Procurators.—With this removal of their king at their own request the Jews obtained their desire but forfeited their political independence. Now the last trace of national liberty was

gone: the power passed to the Roman procurators. The error of the Maccabees in invoking Roman aid had reached its logical consequence. No longer—save for a brief interval—was Judaea govered by a Jew. If the procurators had been capable and honest, no great harm would have intervened. Roman provincial government was uneven. Very seldom were the two requisites combined in one administrator and the harm done by the bad holders of the office was far greater than good predecessors or followers could counteract. At the outset trouble arose when the first procurator, Coponius, who was accompanied by P. Sulpicius Quirinius, the legate of Syria, endeavoured to take a census (A.D. 6-7) according to Roman methods, which conflicted with those of the Jews. If this is the census to which Luke (ii., 1) refers, the birth of Jesus would have to be dated in that year, but this is too late. (The difficulty is discussed by Montefiore, op. cit. 11., 376.) The people submitted to the census but this and similar incidents led to the formation of the Zealots. This party, which was formed by Judas of Galilee and a Pharisee called Saduq, ultimately brought about the disaster of av. 70. As a whole the Pharisees were ready to wait and bear with patience attacks on their religion which were not too outrageous, but the Zealots were ever eager for warfare. The Zealots made headway in Galilee, then ruled by Herod Antipas. His policy was to conciliate the Jews, by observing Judaism and to stand well with Tiberius, in whose honour he founded the city of Tiberias. Herod, who had married

the daughter of Aretas (Harith), the Arabian king, divorced her in order to marry Herodias, the wife of his half-brother. The first consequence was trouble with the Arabs. In A.p. 36 disaster overtook his forces and Tiberius, his patron, died before help could be sent. The second consequence was his denunciation by John the Baptist (Mark vi., 14-29), whom he executed at the request of Herodias. But Antipas himself suffered through following the counsel of Herodias. He petitioned Caligula for the title of king but his presumption was resented. He was banished and (apparently) slain in A.D. 39. Pontius Pilate, under whom Jesus was crucified, was procurator from A.D. 26 to 36. He outraged Jewish feelings in all ways and the picture of him in the Gospels hardly bears out his character, in view of his acts. Not only Josephus but also Philo record the way in which he goaded the people to revolt. As soon as he arrived he broke the existing compromise under which only standards which did not bear the imperial image were brought to Jerusalem, since the images were held to be idols, as the emperors were deified. The Jews petitioned Pilate to remove the standards. He refused and when they importuned him for six days he threatened them with death, yielding only when they were ready to accept martyrdom. He next used Temple money for an aqueduct and proceeded to other forms of annoyance. Caligula’s succession in A.D. 37 was welcomed by the Jews. One of his friends was Agrippa, the grandson of Herod I. and the Jews hoped to win Caligula’s favour through Agrippa’s presence at court. But trouble arose when Caligula laid claim to divinity and the Jews, alone of his subjects, were unwilling, out of religious motives, to acknowledge his godhead. Thereupon the Alexandrians attacked the Jews, set up the images of the emperor in the synagogues, sacked the Jewish quarter, insulted Jewish ladies and scourged the Jewish elders. Through Agrippa’s influence, the governor was degraded, but ill-feeling between the Jews and their fellow-citizens continued. In A.D. 40 each side sent embassies to plead their cause, Philo acting as the Jewish spokesman.

Philo’s account of the embassy (Against Apion)

sheds an

interesting light on the restless, irresponsible character of the emperor. By chance an imperial rescript, containing the decision

JEWS of Claudius, Caligula’s successor, has been discovered. This interesting document, with others of equal importance, has been edited and translated by H. J. Bell (Jews and Christians in Egypt, Lond., Brit. Mus., 1924). It is interesting to observe that no definite charge is urged against the Jews. The emperor reprimands

ihe Alexandrians

for their intolerance.

He blames

the

Jews for sending a separate embassy “as though they lived in two cities, a thing unheard of” (undé dorep év duct mddrecr

ato.kovvras O00 mpéoPers ékréumew tov Aoirod, ÖöuÀ mpórepóv rore érpåxôn), warns them not to strive in gymnasiarchic or cosmetic games (unôè émiomalpew ~yuuvaciapxikots Ñ KkosuNTLKOTS a&y@cvv) and not to introduce or invite Jews who sail down to Alexandria from Syria or Egypt. These are not very heinous crimes and the accusers of the Jews must have been hard pressed if they could discover no graver accusations. While the embassy was

still awaiting Caligula’s decision, the emperor commanded his statue to be erected in the Temple but at Agrippa’s intercession, he cancelled the order. In ap. 41 Caligula was assassinated. Claudius, who succeeded Caligula, made Agrippa king over all the districts that his grandfather had ruled. Once more the Jews had their own king, a popular monarch, who followed the Pharisees and was a strict Jew. He is mentioned in Acts (xxv., 13, etc.). He died in A.D. 44 and the rule of the procurators was restored. Under Cuspius Fadus, the robber gangs were put down for the time. Theudas, who claimed to be a prophet, was followed by a number of people who looked for him to cleave the Jordan. He was captured and beheaded. After Fadus came Tiberius Alexander, an apostate Jew from Egypt, a nephew of Philo. During his administration Helena, the queen of Adiabene, embraced Judaism and purchased corn to relieve a famine in Judaea. The next procurator, Ventidius Cumanus (48-52) provoked the Jews to riot. A massacre took place in the Temple and bloodshed occurred between Samaritans and Galileans. Cumanus was ultimately banished by the emperor and replaced by Felix (52-60), under whom the revolutionary movement grew to greater dimensions. The country was once more full of robbers, the High Priest was murdered in the Temple. False prophets appeared. Felix tried in vain to restore order. He was recalled by Nero. The succeeding procurators (Porcius Festus, 60-62: Albinus, 62—64: Gessius Florus, 64-66) did no better. Sacrilege and exaction, misunderstanding and ill-will grew worse and more frequent. The Jews, roused to fury, massacred a body of Roman soldiers, while the citizens of Caesarea slaughtered all the Jews in their town. Various Jewish forces were warring against each other and finally Vespasian was sent by Nero to crush the rebellion. He advanced from his winter quarters in Antioch early in 67. He was joined by Titus: the Roman armies entered Galilee. The historian Josephus was at the head of a Jewish army. He has been misjudged because, convinced of the hopelessness of a struggle with Rome, he urged his co-religionists to sue for peace. But it is in the highest degree unjust to call him a traitor or a coward. His army was confronted by that of Vespasian and fled. After the fall of the foriress, Jotapata, Josephus gave himself up. The Roman forces swept the çountry. While Jerusalem was invested, Johanan ben Zakkai had himself conveyed out of the city and, coming to the Roman general, craved a boon. He asked to be allowed to establish a school at Jabneh. His request was granted and this seemingly trivial concession saved Judaism. Johanan saw that Judaism could survive the Temple, that its future lay in the school and that the Bible was the Jews’ portable fatherland. On the roth of Ab in the year 70, amid circumstances of unparalleled horror, Jerusalem fell. The Temple was burnt and the Jewish State was no more. Judaea Capta.—From 70 to 135 the only hope lay in the “vineyard” of Jamnia. The Sicarii and Zealots held out until, one by one, their fortresses were reduced. In Egypt and Cyrene they continued their fruitless but heroic efforts. The Egyptian temple of Onias, which had existed for 243 years, was first closed and then destroyed. Under Vespasian and Titus the Jews of Rome enjoyed freedom of conscience and political rights. Domitian inaugurated a persecution which Nerva ended. In Trajan’s reign the

55

Jews of Cyrene revolted but were subdued. Finally, in 132, Hadrian’s proscription of Judaism roused: the last remnants of Palestinian Jewry to die for their faith. A bitter struggle ensued. Bar-Kochba was acclaimed as Messiah by the great Rabbi Aqiba, though some of Aqiba’s colleagues, e.g., Johanan ben Torta, repudiated Bar-Kochba’s pretensions. For three years the hopeless

conflict raged, the Jews fought with the energy of despair, but in 135 the end came. Jerusalem and then Bethar fell. The holy city was thenceforth prohibited to the Jews, though the Christians, who had taken no share in the war, were allowed to come and go there freely. Many scholars date the breach between Judaism and Christianity (see Jupaism) to this event. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See appropriate articles in Jew. Enc. M. L. Margolis and A. Marx, Hist. of Jew. People (1927); H. Graetz, Hist. of the Jews (1891) (an abridgment without notes, of the original German ed., which must be consulted for verification) ; E. Schtirer, Geschichte d. jiid. Volkes (Leipzig, 1901) (but the treatment of the Rabbis is often unfair, see I. Abrahams, Jew. Quart. Rev., vol. xi., 1899, pp. 626 sqqg.). (H. M. J. L.)

MEDIAEVAL PERIOD

Rabbinical Learning in the East.—The ruthless suppression of the rising of Bar-Kochba had decimated the population of Judaea. The centre of Jewish life in Palestine moved in consequence northwards, to Galilee. Though local insurrections continued sporadically at any favourable opportunity, serious political aspirations were now at an end. Henceforth, the dominant position in the national life came to be occupied more and more by spiritual and intellectual leaders, the rabbis of this period being known as Tanaim. Pharisaism, in its finest sense, became an increasingly strong force in daily life. Political leadership was taken over by the presidents of the sanhedrin, or patriarchs, who ultimately obtained formal recognition from the Roman authorities, and enjoyed additional consideration among the people

in virtue of their descent from Hillel (g.v.), and hence by tradition from David.

The office, which had become

firmly estab-

lished by Gamaliel II. of Jamnia (Jabneh) after the destruction of Jerusalem, reached its zenith in his grandson, Judah I. (135— 217), known as “Rabbi” par excellence. He is remembered for having codified the oral law by the redaction of the Mishnah, the basis of all the vast rabbinical literature of later times. The intellectual activity of the latter half of the second century seems to have been somewhat artificial. Owing to the ravages caused by constant wars and revolts, as well as by adverse economic conditions, the importance of Palestine was declining. The great centre of Jewish population lay already outside the country, particularly in Mesopotamia, where the “exile” had continued throughout the days of the second temple. Babylonian students had been accustomed to come to Palestine and sit at the feet of its renowned teachers. By the time of the death of Judah I. the younger settlement had become intellectually selfsupporting. Abba Arika (g.v.), commonly known as Rab or “Master,” who had been a pupil of the great Palestinian patriarch, set up at Sura a famous school of rabbinical learning which retained its prominence until the rith century. His younger contemporary, Samuel (famous for his momentous maxim that “the law of the state is Law”), presided at Nehardea over an academy which long rivalled the other. During its temporary suspension owing to the sack of the city by Odenathus (Zenobia’s husband) in 259, there arose in the neighbourhood the school of Pompedita. These three academies co-operated with the dwindling schools in Palestine in maintaining the traditions of Jewish learning, the teachers now being called Amoraim. The discussions which went on in them, centred in the text of the Mishnah (especially at the biennial Kallah assemblage), were ultimately redacted as the Gemara, the whole body together forming the Talmud. The foundations of the less important compilation made in the decaying academies of Palestine were laid by Rabbi Johanan of Tiberias (died c. 279); but it survives in a fragmentary state, and probably was never finished. Palestinian, too, was the Midrash—a vast compilation of homiletics, ethics, legend, and folk-lore in the form of a commentary on the Bible. The fuller Talmud of Babylon, which exercised a pre-

JEWS

56

ponderating influence upon Jewish life in later times, reached its final form at the close of the 6th century. It was far from being merely a code of religious practice. It was a whole literature, comprising law and theology, ‘science, folk-lore, and every other conceivable branch of intellectual activity, somewhat amorphously grouped about the text of the Mishnah. It was this which remained, after the Bible, the principal guide to life and object of study, and which gave Judaism unity, cohesion, and resilience in the difficult period which lay before it.

The Muslim

Conquest.— In spite of the intolerant theory

and beginnings of Islam, the Muslim conquest considerably ameliorated the condition of the Jews in the east. The Caliphs, once their original missionary zeal abated, showed themselves willing to accord an almost boundless toleration in return for a slender poll-tax. By this time the political connection of the Jews with Palestine had almost ceased, though the country remained the focus of their prayers and hopes, and the patriarchate had been finally abolished by Theodosius II. on the death of Gamaliel VI. without male heirs (425). In Mesopotamia, however, intellectual activity continued with renewed vigour after the downfall of Zoroastrian intolerance. The secular dignity of Prince of the Captivity, or Exilarch (g.v.), which had existed from remote antiquity, was revived with renewed magnificence. Spiritual au-

thority, however, resided in the Gaon

(g.v.), the head of the

Academy, who continued to expound and develop the principles of the Talmud with an authority which was extended by the conquests of the Crescent. The widening of intellectual horizons which the Muslim influence ultimately brought about was typified in the Gaon Saadiah (g.v.) (882-942), who first exemplified the fruitful combination of Helleno-Arabic and Jewish culture. Jewish philology and philosophy both start with him, being necessitated by the threatening Karaite schism, for the check of which his labours were principally responsible. This double organization, under Gaon and Exilarch, continued until the r1th century, by which time the Jewries of the occident were strong enough to stand by themselves.

The Diaspora in the West.—Already, before the destruction of Jerusalem, the Diaspora had been a familiar phenomenon in Europe. The prisoners captured in innumerable wars and distributed through the Empire as slaves had been followed (if not preceded) by merchants and traders. Latin writers from the period of Augustus onwards show the extent to which Jewish practices were spread throughout the civilized world of their day. Paul found them in Greece and Italy, and the infant church consistently advanced where the synagogue had blazed out the way. By the beginning of the 4th century, settlements were to be found as far afield as Spain and the Rhineland. Indeed, it is probable that, before the Roman empire had begun to decay, Jews were present in all of its greater cities. By the constitution of Caracalla (212), they had been admitted to the privileges as well as the burdens of Roman citizenship and henceforward they occupied a position which was privileged by comparison with that of members of other dissenting religions. With the christianization of the empire, however, their condition was altered. It is true that they were comprised in the toleration accorded by the edict of Milan, but their status was immediately and radically changed. The differentiatory policy of the church was adopted almost in its entirety by the state. From an insignissima religio, certe licita, Judaism. became the secta ne faria or sacrilegi coetus which figure in the edicts of the first Christian emperors. The policy of the church was far from being merely persecutory. Its intention was rather to prevent the inroads of Judaism by keeping its adherents from positions of authority and restricting social intercourse with them. At the same time, it regarded their preservation (if in ignominy) as evidence for the truth of Christianity, and frowned upon the use of force to bring them into the path of conformity. The Papacy, true to the tradition set by Gregory the Great, figured down to modern times alternately as the protector of the Jews from violence and the repressor: of their “insolence,” departing from this standard most frequently on the side of leniency; and Rome was almost the only city of Europe to preserve its Jewish community undis-

turbed from remote antiquity down to the present day. The secular rulers, however, did not show the same discrimination; and in the Byzantine empire in particular (especially from Justinian, who was the first emperor to interfere with their religious institutions) discrimination degenerated rapidly into oppression. The embodiment of the new principles in the Codex Theodosianus ultimately permeated the whole of western law with the idea of Jewish inferiority. Renascence of Jewish Culture.—With the barbarian inva. sions a momentary improvement had come about in the position of the Jews. The new rulers displayed at first that tolerance which arises from indifference, while those who adopted the Arian form of Christianity were sympathetically inclined towards the adherents of a stricter monotheism. Later, however, a reac. tion followed. In the 7th century there was a simultaneous wave of forced conversion throughout Europe from Constantinople to Toledo, reaching its height under the Visigoths in Spain, where the practice of Judaism was for a time utterly proscribed. It was the Arab invasion which brought salvation. The ancient com-

munities in northern Africa, especially at Cairo and Kairouan,

which had waned under Byzantine intolerance, awakened to a new life. In Spain there came about a remarkable revival. The Jew knew no restriction upon his activities. His linguistic or financial abilities won him high place in the administration. Under the aegis of Hasdai ibn Shaprut (c. 915~970) and Samuel haNagid (993-1055) there was a remarkable renascence, in which the old traditions of the schools of Palestine and Mesopotamia, the manifold interests of the Moors, and the rediscovered sciences of ancient Greece were marvellously blended. Jewish poetry came to a new life, based on Arabic models, with Jehudah haLevi (10861141) and Solomon ibn Gabirol (1021~1056). Moses Maimonides (1135-1204) represents in his many-sided activities, as physician, Talmudist, codifier, and philosopher, the Spanish school at its best. This tradition was proof against the intolerance introduced by the fanatical Almoravides and Almohades in the rath century; for, partly from reasons of policy and partly imi-

tatively, the earlier Moorish toleration was adopted by the growing Christian kingdoms. Meanwhile, under the favourable rule of the Carolingians important Jewish settlements had come into being in northern France and the Rhineland. Cultural life inevitably followed. But the tendencies of northern Jewry were sterner than those of Spain and centred in the interpretation and development of Talmudic law rather than in humanism or philosophy. The first great name is that of Gershom, “the light of the exile,” who published about the year rooo the famous ordinance which forbade amongst western Jews the polygamy long since abandoned in practice. Solomon ben Isaac of Troyes (“Rashi”) (1040-1103) summed up the tendency, his writings preserving for after-generations the old traditions of rabbinic scholarship. An extensive body of Tosaphists, or “supplementers,” whose activities extended to almost every township of north-eastern France, carried on his work. But these were only varying faces of an intellectual activity which knew no boundary of country. A remarkably comprehensive educational system, insisted upon as a religious duty, resulted in a general distribution of culture unequalled in any other section of the population. The speculative

tendency everywhere found its outlet in a vast mystical literature, afterwards grouped about the Zohar. The 13th century renascence was forwarded in no small measure by the translations from the Arabic made by, or with the help of, Jewish scholars—sometimes under the sedulous patronage of monarchs like Alfonso the Wise of Castille and Robert of Anjou. In Immanuel of Rome (1270-1330), Dante’s parodist if not his friend, Hebrew poetry

became infused with something of the careless spirit of Italian — verse, in which he was equally proficient. The Jewish physician or astronomer, living under the highest patronage, was fully as

characteristic a figure as the merchant or financier. The Jews of Europe of the 11th century onwards were economically far removed from their ancestors in Palestine and

Mesopotamia. The original settlers had included agriculturalists and the calling lingered on in many places, particularly in the ae, ern einer siinon ai

JEWS south, to a late date. But the peaceful immigrant into a country

already inhabited cannot easily settle on the land, and the growth of the feudal system, from which the Jew was naturally excluded as a stranger, tended to accentuate his divorce from the soil. Accordingly, there was an inevitable tendency for him to

specialize in commerce, for which his acumen and ubiquity gave him especial qualifications. In the dark ages the commerce of western Europe was largely in his hand, in particular the slavetrade, and in the Carolingian cartularies Jew and merchant are

used as almost interchangeable terms. With the growth of a mercantile class, however,

they became

excluded

from

commerce,

particularly in northern Europe. Hence they were forced to employ their capital in the only way left open to them, by lending it at interest. The attitude of the church in endeavouring to sup-

press “usury” naturally tended to concentrate the profession more and more in the hands of those to whom the canonical prohibitions did not apply. Ultimately, all other professions were closed to them by law in the greater part of Europe, though in

Spain and Sicily they remained to some extent addicted to handicrafts and agriculture. The high probabilities of violence or expropriation naturally resulted in forcing up the rates of interest, though in point of fact the Jews charged no more than other usurers. Yet the advantage accrued rather to the Crown, which did not scruple to avail itself to the utmost limit of its rights of taxation. The floating wealth of the country was soaked up by the Jews, who were periodically made to disgorge into the exchequer. The holy Roman emperors in particular, as heirs to Vespasian, claimed exclusive proprietary rights, and their claims were imitated by other rulers. As servi camerae regis, those of any particular place or country could be pledged, alienated, or even expelled without compunction. The Christian Reaction.—The third and fourth Lateran

councils (1179-1215), roused to suspicion through the Albigensian movement, marked the growth of the reaction against the Jew. Besides renewing the old restrictions forbidding Gentiles to enter into Jewish service or to be otherwise subordinated, they ordered the infidels to be distinguished by a special badge and forbade the faithful so much as to lodge amongst them, thus lay-

ing the foundation of the infamous Ghetto system (g.v.). These regulations were not everywhere immediately or consistently enforced, but they remained a part of the ecclesiastical panoply, to come again into prominence in the 15th century, in the wake of the Hussite wars and the preaching of John of Capistrano, and in the 16th, as a consequence of the reformation. The counteroffensive against heresy found its expression also in conversionist sermons at which attendance was enforced; in the censorship or confiscation of Hebrew books; and in compulsory religious disputations, the most important of which were those of Paris before Louis IX. in 1240 and of Tortosa under the patronage of the antipope Benedict XIII. in 1413—14. The inevitable result of all this was to make the popular prejudice still stronger. The last country of western Europe to be settled by the Jews had been England, whither they penetrated in the wake of the Norman Conquest (in the Scandinavian countries, they never figured to any appreciable extent). This marked the culmination of the western sweep which had been going on since the beginning of the Christian era, and had made the Jews into an essen-

tially European people. The backward swing of the pendulum began almost immediately. With the First Crusade (1096), there took place in the Rhineland the first of the long series of massacres which made the middle ages one long martyrdom for the Jews and ultimately had the effect of driving them back again towards the east. These were henceforth renewed on every conceivable pretext in almost every country of Europe. To reinforce racial and religious prejudice, the infamous ritual murder accusa-

57

broking.

The logical outcome of the changed condition of affairs was, in current opinion, to drive the infidel away altogether. This had previously happened in isolated cities or regions, but the first country to rid itself of the Jews entirely was England, whence they were expelled by Edward I. in 1290. This was followed a few years later by the more deadly expulsion of the far more important communities of France (1306), which a couple of partial recalls (1315 ff. and 1350-94) utterly failed to make good. From Germany, by reason of its special political conditions, there was no general expulsion. It figures instead as the classical land of Jewish martyrdom, where banishment was employed only locally and sporadically to complete the work of the long series of massacres. These reached their climax, though not their close, at the period of the black death, when the absurd charge of poisoning the wells became current. Some of the refugees crossed the Alps into Italy, where, owing to the tolerant example of the Holy See, conditions were better. But the vast majority turned their steps towards Poland, where their settlement was especially encouraged by Casimir the Great (133370). This was the origin of the vast nuclei of Jews in the old Russian empire, who still retain the German dialect which their ancestors brought with them from the West and imposed upon the indigenous communities which they found on their arrival. In Spain the condition of the Jews, even under the Christian rulers, compared very favourably with that of their brethren in northern Europe. However, with the passage of time and the growth of national and religious feeling, their situation deteriorated. In 1391, and again in rq11, a wild wave of massacre swept through the Peninsula. Following the example of their fathers in Gothic times, many Jews (less stout-hearted than their brethren elsewhere) sought refuge in baptism. To cope with the problem of these so-called Marranos, who remained true at

heart to their old faith, the Inquisition was introduced (1478). But the presence in the country of Jews true to their religion seemed a constant encouragement for their converted brethren to relapse. Accordingly, four months after the capture of Gra-

nada (which did away with all need for further conciliating the religious minority), Ferdinand and Isabella issued the edict of expulsion which put an end to -the settlement of the Jews in Spain after so many centuries (March 31, 1492). This included the more distant possessions of the crown of Aragon—Sicily and Sardinia—in spite of the fact that the problem of the cryptoJew was unknown in them. It was in vain that Isaac Abrabanel (1437-1508), the last of the long line of Jewish scholar-statesmen in the Peninsula, begged for reconsideration. The edict was

imitated in Portugal! (1496) and in Navarre (1498) after a very brief interval. Almost simultaneously, the last remnant of the ancient French communities was banished from Provence. An expulsion from the kingdom of Naples (1510 and, more completely, 1548) and from the duchy of Milan (1597) followed the Spanish occupation. The whole of western Europe was now closed to the Jews, except parts of northern Italy and a few regions of Germany, together with the exiguous papal possessions in France. The Marranos, indeed, continued a surreptitious existence in the Peninsula, handing on their traditions in secret from generation to

generation at the risk of their lives. It was their descendants, fleeing from the fires of the Inquisition, who founded the modern communities in France, Holland, England, and even America. Of the earlier refugees the vast majority made their way, with indescribable difficulty, to the Muslim countries of the Mediter-

ranean littoral.

With them they brought their native Spanish

the Jew less necessary in the field which he had previously tended

tongue, which is spoken by their descendants to the present day. The greatest haven of refuge was Turkey, where the newcomers were sedulously encouraged by the Sultans and treated with a favour which reached its climax in the meteoric career of Joseph Nasi, duke of Naxos (d. 15709) (g.v.). The greatest masses of the Jewish people were thus to be found once more in the East, in the Polish and Turkish empires. The second westerly movement, which has continued to our own days, may be said to begin

to monopolize, and drove him into the meaner calling of pawn-

lFor the importance of the Portuguese Jews see Porrucar: History.

tion (g.v.) became common from the 12th century, and the even more fantastic charge of the desecration of the Host was formulated at the beginning of the 13th century after the recognition of the doctrine of transubstantiation. Meanwhile, the growth of the financial activities of the Lombards and Cahorsins rendered

JEWS

58

with the deadly Chmielnicki massacres of 1648-49 in the former

country. The few communities suffered to remain in western Europe were meanwhile subjected at last to all the restrictions which earlier ages had usually allowed to remain an ideal; so that, in a sense, the Jewish dark ages may be said to begin with the

Renaissance.

PERIOD

OF EMANCIPATION

(C. R.)

The ghetto, which had prevailed more or less rigorously for a long period, was not formally prescribed by the papacy until the beginning of the 16th century. The same century was not ended before the prospect of liberty dawned on the Jews. Holland from the moment that it joined the union of Utrecht (1579) deliberately set its face against religious persecution (Jewish Encyclopedia, i. 537). Maranos, fleeing to the Netherlands, were welcomed; the immigrants were wealthy, enterprising and cultured. Many Jews, who had been compelled to conceal their faith, now came into the open. By the middle of the 17th century the Jews of Holland had become of such importance that Charles II. of England (then in exile) entered into negotiations with the Amsterdam Jews (1656) In that same year the Amsterdam community was faced by a serious problem in connection with Spinoza. They brought themselves into notoriety by excommunicating the philosopher—an act of weak self-defence on the part of men who had themselves but recently been admitted to the country, and were timorous of the suspicion that they shared Spinoza’s then execrated views. It is more than a mere coincidence that this step was taken during the absence in England of one of the ablest and most notable of the Amsterdam rabbis. At the time, Menasseh ben Israel (g.v.) was in London, on a mission to Cromwell. The Jews had been expelled from England by Edward I.; Cromwell in 1655, tacitly assented to their return and at the restoration his action was confirmed. The English Jews “gradually substituted for the personal protection of the crown, the sympathy and confidence of the nation”

(L. Wolf, Menasseh ben Israel’s Mission to Cromwell, p. Ixxv.). The City of London was the first to be converted to the new attitude. “The wealth they brought into the country, and their fruitful commercial activity, especially in the colonial trade, soon revealed them as an indispensable element of the prosperity of the city. As early as 1668, Sir Josiah Child, the millionaire governor of the East India company, pleaded for their naturalization on the score of their commercial utility. For the same reason the

city found itself compelled at first to connive at their illegal representation on Change, and then to violate its own rules by permitting them to act as brokers without previously taking up the freedom. At this period they controlled more of the foreign and colonial trade than all the other alien merchants in London put together. The momentum of their commercial enterprise and stalwart patriotism proved irresistible. From the exchange to the city council chamber, thence to the aldermanic

court, and eventually to the mayoralty itself, were inevitable stages of an emancipation to which their large interests in the city and their high character entitled them. Finally the city of London—not only as the converted champion of religious liberty

but as the convinced apologist of the Jews—sent Baron Lionel de Rothschild to knock at the door of the unconverted House of Commons

as parliamentary representative of the first city in

the world” (Wolf, loc. cit.). The pioneers of this emancipation in Holland and England

were Sephardic (or Spanish) Jews—descendants of the Spanish exiles. In the meantime the Ashkenazic (or German) Jews had been working out their own salvation. The chief effects of the

change were not felt till the 18th century. In England emancipation was of democratic origin and concerned itself with practical questions. On the Continent, the movement was more aristocratic and theoretical; it was part of the intellectual renaissance which found its most striking expression in the principles of the French Revolution. Throughout Europe the 18th century was less an era of stagnation than of transition. The condition of the European Jews seems, on a superficial examination, abject enough. But, excluded though they were from most trades and occupations, confined to special quarters

of the city, disabled from sharing most of the amenities of life, the Jews nevertheless were gradually making their escape from the ghetto and from the moral degeneration which it had caused.

Where there were no rights, privileges had to be bought. While the court Jews were the favourites of kings, the protected Jews were the protégés of town councils. Many Jews found it Possible to evade laws of domicile by residing in one place and trading in another. Nor could they be effectually excluded from the fairs of the 18th century. Peddling had been forced on the latter by

the action of the gilds which were still powerful in the 18th century

on the Continent. Another cause may be sought in the Cossack assaults on the Jews at an earlier period. Crowds of wanderers were to be met on every road; Germany, Holland and Italy were full of Jews who, pack on shoulder, were seeking a precarious live. lihood at a time when peddling was neither lucrative nor safe. But underneath all this were signs of a great change. The t8th century has a goodly tale of Jewish artists in metal-work, makers of pottery, and (wherever the gilds permitted it) artisans and wholesale manufacturers of many important commodities. The last attempts at exclusion were irritating enough; but they differed from the earlier persecution. Such strange enactments as the Familianten-Gesetz, which prohibited more than one member of a family from marrying, broke up families by forcing the men to emigrate. In 1781 Dohm pointed to the fact that a Jewish father could seldom hope to enjoy the happiness of living with his children. In that very year, however, Joseph II. initiated in Austria a new era for the Jews. “By this new departure (roth of October 1781) the Jews were permitted to learn handicrafts, arts and sciences, and with certain restrictions to devote themselves to agriculture. The doors of the universities and academies, hitherto closed to them, were thrown open. . . . An ordinance of November 2 enjoined that the Jews were everywhere considered fellow-men, and all excesses against them were to be avoided.” “The Leibzoll (body-tax) was also abolished, in addition to similar imposts which had stamped the Jews as outcast, for they were now (Dec. 19) to have equal rights with the Christian inhabitants.” The Jews were not, indeed, granted complete citizenship, and their residence and public worship in Vienna and other Austrian cities were circumscribed and even penalized. “But Joseph II. annulled a number of vexatious, restrictive regulations, such as the compulsory wearing of beards, the prohibition against going out in the forenoon on Sundays or holidays, or frequenting public pleasure resorts. The emperor even permitted Jewish wholesale merchants, notables and their sons, to wear swords (January 2, 1782), and especially insisted that Christians should behave in a friendly manner towards Jews (Graetz).”

The Mendelssohn

Movement.—This

notable beginning to

the removal of “the ignominy of a thousand years” was causally

connected with the career of Moses Mendelssohn (1729—1786; q.v.).. He found on both sides an unreadiness for approximation: the Jews had sunk into apathy and degeneration, the Christians were still moved by hereditary antipathy. The failure of the hopes entertained of Sabbatai Zebi (c. 1650, q.v.) had plunged the Jewries of the world into despair. Despite all this, one must not fall into the easy error of exaggerating the degeneration into which the Jewries of the world fell from the middle of the 17th

till the middle of the 18th century. For Judaism had organized itself; the Shulhan aruch of Joseph Qaro (g.v.), printed in 1564 within a decade of its completion, though not accepted without demur, was nevertheless widely admitted as the code of Jewish

life. If in more recent times progress in Judaism has implied more or less of revolt against the rigors and fetters of Qaro’s code, yet for 250 years it was a powerful safeguard against demoralization and stagnation. No community living in full accordance with that code could fail to reach a high moral and intellectual level. It is truer to say that on the whole the Jews began at this period to abandon as hopeless the attempt to find a place for themselves in the general life of their country. Perhaps they even ceased

to desire it. Their children were taught without any regard to outside conditions, they spoke and wrote a jargon, and their whole

JEWS training, both by what it included and by what it excluded, tended to produce isolation from their neighbours

Moses Mendelssohn,

both by his career and by his propaganda, for ever put an end to these conditions; he more than any other man. Two results emanated from Mendelssohn’s work. A new school of scientific study of Judaism emerged, to be dignified by the names of Leopold Zunz (g.v.), and many other scholars. On the other hand Mendelssohn by his pragmatic conception of religion (specially in his Jerusalem) weakened the belief of certain minds in the absolute truth of Judaism, and thus his own grandchildren

(including the famous musician Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy) as well as later Heine, Borne, Gans and Neander, embraced Christianity. Within Judaism itself two parties were formed, the Liberals and the Conservatives. Holdheim (g.v.) and Geiger (g.v.) led the reform movement in Germany and at the present day the effects of the movement are widely felt in America on the Liberal side and on the opposite side in the work of the neo-

orthodox school founded by S. R. Hirsch (g.v.). Modern seminaries were established first in Breslau by Zacharias Frankel (g.v.) and later in other cities. Jews, engaged in all the professions and pursuits of the age, came to the front in many branches of public life; the names of Rathenau and Einstein are well known. Effect of the French Revolution.—In close relation to the German progress in Mendelssohn’s age, events had been pro-

gressing in France, where the Revolution did much to improve the Jewish condition, thanks largely to the influence of Mirabeau. In 1807 Napoleon convoked a Jewish assembly in Paris. The

decisions of this body proclaim the acceptance of the spirit of

Mendelssohn’s reconciliation of the Jews to modern life. They declare their readiness to adapt the law of the synagogue to the law of the Jand, as for instance in the question of marriage and divorce. Napoleon, after the report of the assembly, established the consistorial system which remained in force, with its central consistory in the capital, until the recent separation of church and state. Modern Italy.—Similar developments occurred in other countries, though it becomes impossible to treat the history of the Jews, from this time onwards, in general outline. We must direct our attention to the most important countries in such detail as space permits. And first as to Italy, where the Jews in a special degree have identified themselves with the national life. The revolutions of 1848, which greatly affected the position of the Jews in several parts of Europe, brought considerable gain to the Jews of Italy. During the war against Austria in the year named, Isaac Pesaro Marogonato was finance minister in Venice. Previously to this date the Jews were still confined to the ghetto, but in 1859, in the Italy united under Victor Emanuel II., the Jews obtained complete rights, a privilege which was extended also to Rome itself in 1870. The Italian Jews devoted themselves with ardour to the service of the state. Isaac Artom was Cavour’s secretary, L’Olper a counsellor of Mazzini. “The names of the Jewish soldiers who died in the cause of Italian liberty were placed along with those of their Christian fellow soldiers on the monuments erected in their honour” (Jewish Encyclopedia, vii. 10). More recently men like Wollemberg, Ottolenghi Nathan and Luzzatti rose to high positions as ministers of state. Most noted of recent Jewish scholars in Italy was S. D. Luzzatto. Austria.—Austria, which had founded the system of “Court Jews” in 1518, had expelled the Jews from Vienna as late as 1670, when the synagogue of that city was converted into a church. But as the commerce of Austria suffered by the absence of the Jews, it was impossible to exclude the latter from the fairs

in the provinces or from the markets of the capital. But Maria Theresa (1740-1780) was distinguished for her enmity to the Jews, and in 1744 made a futile attempt to secure their expulsion from Bohemia. At about this period the community of Prague, in a petition, “complain that they are not permitted to buy vict-

uals in the market before a certain hour, vegetables not before 9 and cattle not before rr o'clock; to buy fish is sometimes altogether prohibited; Jewish druggists are not permitted to buy victuals at the same time with Christians” Jew Enc. II. 330 Taxation was exorbitant and vexatious. To pay for rendering

59

inoperative the banishment edict of 1744, the Jews were taxed 3,000,000 florins annually for ten years. In the same year it was decreed that the Jews should pay “a special tax of 40,000 florins for the right to import their citrons for the feast of booths.” Nevertheless, Joseph II. (1780-1790) inaugurated a new era for the Jews of his empire. This enlightened policy was not continued by the successors of Joseph II. Under Francis Hl. (1792-1835) economic and social restrictions were numerous; indeed the Vienna congress of 1815 practically restored the old discriminations against the Jews. As time went on, a more progressive policy intervened, the special form of Jewish oath was abolished in 1846, and in 1848, legislation took a more liberal turn. In 1867 the new constitution “abolished all disabilities on the ground of religious differences,” though anti-Semitic manipulation of the law by administrative authority has led to many instances of intolerance. Many Jews have been members of the Reichsrath, some have risen to the rank of general in the army, and Austrian Jews have contributed their quota to learning, the arts and literature. The law of 1890 makes it “compulsory for every Jew to be a member of the congregation of the district in which he resides, and so gives to every congregation the right to tax the individual members” (op. cit.). A similar obligation prevails in parts of Germany. A Jew can avoid the communal tax only by formally declaring himself as outside the Jewish community. The Jews of Hungary shared with their brethren in Austria the same alternations of expulsion and recall. By the law “De Judaeis” passed by the Diet in 1791 the Jews were accorded protection. The “tolerationtax” was abolished in 1846. During the revolutionary outbreak of 1848, the Jews suffered severely in Hungary, but as many as 20,000 Jews are said to have joined the army. Kossuth succeeded in granting them temporary emancipation, but the suppression of the War of Independence led to an era of royal autocracy which, while it advanced Jewish culture by enforcing the establishment

of modern schools, retarded the obtaining of civic and political rights. As in Austria, so in Hungary, these rights were granted by the constitution of 1867. But one step remained. The Hungarian Jews did not consider themselves fully emancipated until the Synagogue was “duly recognized as one of the legally acknowledged religions of the country.” This recognition was granted by the law of 1895-1896 (Jewish Encyclopedia, vi. 503). OTHER

EUROPEAN

COUNTRIES

According to M. Caimi the present Jewish communities of Greece are divisible into five groups: (1) Arta (Epirus); (2) Chalcis (Euboea); (3) Athens (Attica); (4) Volo, Larissa and Trikala (Thessaly); and (5) Corfu and Zante (Ionian Islands). The Greek constitution admits no religious disabilities, but antiSemitic riots in Corfu and Zante in 1891 caused much distress and emigration. In Spain there has been of late a more liberal attitude towards the Jews, and there is a small congregation (without a

public synagogue) in Madrid. In 1858 the edict of expulsion was repealed. Portugal, on the other hand, having abolished the Inquisition in 1821, has since 1826 allowed Jews freedom of religion, and there are synagogues in Lisbon and Faro. In Holland the Jews were admitted to political liberty in 1796. At present more than half of the Dutch Jews are concentrated in Amsterdam, being largely engaged in-the diamond and tobacco trades. Among famous names of recent times foremost stands that of the artist Josef Israels. In 1675 was consecrated in Amsterdam the synagogue which is still the most noted Jewish edifice in Europe. Belgium granted full freedom to the Jews in 1815, and the community has since 1808 been organized on the state consistorial

system, which till recently also prevailed in France.

It was

not till 1874 that full religious equality was granted to the Jews of Switzerland. In Sweden the Jews have all the rights which are open to nonLutherans; they cannot become members of the council of state. In Norway there is a small Jewish settlement (especially in Christiania) who are engaged in industrial pursuits and enjoy complete

liberty. Denmark has for long been distinguished for its liberal

policy towards the Jews. Since 1814 the latter have been eligible

JEWS

60

as magistrates, and in 1849 full equality was formally ratified. Many Copenhagen Jews achieved distinction as manufacturers, merchants and bankers, and among famous Jewish men of letters may be specially named Georg Brandes. The story of the Jews in Russia was a black spot on the European record. In the remotest past Jews were settled in much of the territory now included in Russia, but they were treated as aliens. They were restricted to the pale of settlement which was first established in 1791. Under the May laws of 1892 the congestion of the Jewish population, the denial of free movement, and the exclusion from the general rights of citizens were rendered more oppressive than ever before. Fierce massacres (pogroms) Occurred in Nijni-Novgorod in 1882, in Kishinev in 1903, and

elsewhere. Much was hoped from the duma, but this body proved bitterly opposed to the Jewish claim for liberty. THE UNITED

KINGDOM

The Jews came to England at least as early as the Norman Conquest; they were expelled from Bury St. Edmunds in r190, after the massacres at the coronation of Richard I.; they were required to wear badges in r218.

At the end of the 12th century

was established the “exchequer of the Jews,” which chiefly dealt with suits concerning money-lending, and arranged a “continual flow of money from the Jews to the royal treasury,” and a socalled “parliament of the Jews” was summoned in 1241; in 1275 was enacted the statute de Judaismo which, among other things, permitted the Jews to hold land. But this concession was illusory, and as the statute prevented Jews from engaging in finance—the only occupation which had been open to them—it was a prelude to their expulsion in 1290. There were few Jews in England from that date till the Commonwealth. Charles II. in 1664 continued Cromwell’s tolerant policy. No serious attempt towards the emancipation of the Jews was made till the Naturalization Act of 1753, which was, however, immediately repealed. Jews no longer attached to the Synagogue, such as the Herschels and Disraelis, attained to fame. In 1830 the first Jewish emancipation bill was brought in by Robert Grant, but it was not- till the legislation of 1858-1860 that Jews obtained full parliamentary rights. In other directions progress was more rapid. The office of sheriff was thrown open to Jews in 1835 (Moses Montefiore, sheriff of London was knighted in 1837); sir I. L. Goldsmid was made a baronet in 1841, Baron Lionel de Rothschild was elected to Parliament in 1847 (though he was unable to take his seat), Alderman (Sir David) Salomons became lord mayor of London in 1855 and Francis Goldsmid was made a Q.C. in 1858. In 1873 Sir George Jessel was made a judge, and Lord Rothschild took his seat in the House of Lords as the first Jewish peer in 1886. A fair proportion of Jews have been elected

to the House of Commons, and Mr. (afterwards Sir) Herbert Samuel rose to cabinet rank in rgoọ. Sir Matthew Nathan has

been governor of Hong-Kong and Natal, Lord Reading Viceroy of India, E. S. Montagu, Secretary of State for India, and among Jewish statesmen in the colonies Sir Julius Vogel and V. L. Solo-

mon have been prime ministers (Hyamson:

A History of the

Jews in England, Sec. ed., 1928, pp. 290 foll.). It is unnecessary to remark that in the British colonies the Jews everywhere enjoy full citizenship. In fact, the colonies

emancipated the Jews earlier than did the mother country. Jews

were settled in Canada from the time of Wolfe, and a congregation was founded at Montreal in 1768, and since 1832 Jews have been entitled to sit in the Canadian parliament. There are some thriving Jewish agricultural colonies in the same dominion. In Australia the Jews from the first were welcomed on perfectly equal terms. The oldest congregation is that of Sydney (1817); the Melbourne community dates from 1844. Reverting to incidents in England itself, in £870 the abolition of university tests removed all restrictions on Jews at Oxford and Cambridge, and

both universities have since elected Jews to professorships and other posts of honour.

The communal

organization of English

Jewry is somewhat inchoate. (See Unrtep Synacocue.) AngloJewry is rich, however, in charitable, educational and literary in-

stitutions, full accounts of which are given in the Jewish Year-

Book published annually.

THE

AMERICAN

CONTINENT

Jews made their way to America early in the 16th century, settling in Brazil prior to the Dutch occupation.

Under

Dutch

rule they enjoyed full civil rights. In Mexico and Peru they fell

under the ban of the Inquisition.

In Surinam the Jews were

treated as British subjects; in Barbadoes, Jamaica and New York they are found as early as the first half of the 17th century. During the War of Independence the Jews of America took a prominent part on both sides, for under the British rule many had risen to wealth and high social position. After the Declaration of Independence, Jews are found all over America, where they have long enjoyed complete emancipation, and have enormously increased in numbers, owing particularly to immigration from Russia. The American Jews bore their share in the Civil War (7,038 Jews were in the two armies), and have always identified themselves closely with national movements such as the emancipation of Cuba. They have attained to high rank in all branches of the public service, and have shown most splendid instances of far-sighted and generous philanthropy. For the religious organiza-

tions of the Jews in the United States see UNITED SYNAGOGUE,

America.

There have been Jewish members of the United States senate, and of the national House of Representatives. Besides filling many diplomatic offices, a Jew (O. S. Straus) has been a member of the cabinet. Many Jews have filled professorial chairs at the universities, others have been judges, and in art, literature

(there is a notable Jewish publication society), industry and commerce have rendered considerable services to national culture and prosperity. American universities have owed much to Jewish generosity, a foremost benefactor of these (as of many other American institutions) being Jacob Schiff. Such institutions as the Gratz and Dropsie colleges are further indications of the splendid activity of American Jews in the educational field. Full accounts of American Jewish institutions are given in the American Jewish Year-Book, published annually since 1899. For ANTI-SEMITISM and ZIONISM see the respective articles. EFFECTS

OF THE WORLD

WAR

The War completely changed the face of the Jewish world. In the Russian Empire it brought the Jews political emancipation, but it also brought them unspeakable suffering and ended by submerging them in the flood of anarchy which accompanied the continued Civil War. Finally, the War led up to the Balfour Declaration, which foreshadowed the establishment under international guarantees of a national home for the Jews in Palestine.

Eastern Europe.—The crowded Jewries of eastern Europe felt

the full impact of the War from the outset. The Russian pale of settlement became almost at once a theatre of operations. So, too, did Galicia, with its poverty-stricken Jewish population of over 800,000. The Jews were bound in any case to suffer in common with their neighbours, but their miseries were aggravated by wholesale deportations. Within a year of the outbreak of war, nearly 1,500,000 Jewish refugees had been set adrift. To make matters worse, the Polish Nationalists vigorously pursued their vendetta against the Jews and revived the boycott which began in Warsaw in 1912. So pitiful was the condition of the Jews that the Russian Government which had already made substantial grants to the Petrograd Jewish Relief Committee, eventually issued, as a temporary measure, a decree permitting the Jews to reside freely in any of the towns of the Empire, with certain specified exceptions,

of which the most important were Petrograd and Moscow. This decree was dated Sept. 3, 1915. The concessions thus granted gave the Jews some relief, though its effect was minimised by the illiberal spirit in which it was administered. Public opinion was ripe. for much more sweeping reforms. Of this there was ample evidence in the friendly welcome which the Jewish refugees received from their Christian neighbours in their new homes, in the action of a number of important public bodies who petitioned the Government in favour of the emancipation of the Jews, and in the protest of many enlightened Russian patriots against a policy which they regarded as detrimental to Russian interests and inconsistent with the spirit of unity which

JEWS the national crisis demanded. But the reactionary traditions of the old régime were too powerful. Nothing was done for the Jews

in 1916, and the inquiries of other Allied Governments, which were

sympathetically interested in their case, showed that they had

nothing to hope for.

It was not until the March Revolution that their emancipation became a possibility. The Jews whole-heartedly supported the revolution, and one of the first acts of the Lvoff Government was to issue a decree, dated April 3, 1917, for the repeal of “all restrictions of a religious and national character.” This decree at one

stroke relieved the Jews of all disabilities, and it only remained for them to take their place in the new Russia. There was much dis-

cussion in Jewish circles as to what that place should be, and

there was a strong feeling in favour of what was called national autonomy, the suggestion being that the Jews should be recognised as a national unit and enjoy, in common with every other nation-

ality in Russia, a limited measure of self-government. The Jews had hardly been emancipated before these dreams

were rudely shattered by the seizure of power by the Bolsheviks.

Among the Bolshevik leaders and their satellites were a certain number of Jews, none of whom, however, played any part in the Jewish community, or had any ties with it beyond their Jewish birth. The great majority of the Jews sided with the moderates and suffered accordingly under the Soviet régime. The communal organisations were broken up, and many of their leaders were imprisoned. Living, as most of them did, by trade, the Jews suffered severely from the economic débâcle which the Bolshevik revolution brought with it, and to add to their distress it became increasingly difficult to send them relief from abroad. Jews in Southeast Europe.—In Rumania the Jews had previously been subjected to much the same treatment as in Russia. In one respect their position was even worse. Jews, as such, were deemed by the Rumanian Government to be aliens, even though they were native-born and had no claim to any other nationality. As a sequel to the Berlin Treaty of 1878, under which the Powers recognised her independence, Rumania undertook in 1889 to give the Jews liberal facilities for naturalisation. Had this pledge been fulfilled, their status would have been gradually regularised, but the spirit in which it was carried out is shown by the fact that between 1880-1913, about 200 Jews were actually naturalised out of a Jewish population, mainly native-born, of over 200,000. The Rumanian declaration of war on Bulgaria in 1913 brought 15,000 Jewish reservists to the colours. This produced a certain revulsion of feeling and it looked for a moment as though at last the Jewish soldiers would now be naturalised en bloc. A few individual applications were granted, but the anti-Jewish forces soon regained the upper hand, and the elections of 1914 brought into power a reactionary Government from which Jews had nothing to hope. The Jews did not suffer from the War in the same degree as in

Russia. On May 11, 1917, representatives of the committee of

native Jews were received by the King, who gave them vague but

encouraging assurances. There, however, the matter ended and nothing was done for the Jews until a limited measure of emancipation was dictated by the Germans in the Treaty of Bucharest. The relief thus granted was of little practical value, and there was no change in the policy of the Rumanian Government, which continued to harass the Jews, and treated them with exceptional harshness in the occupied province of Bessarabia. Since the War the emancipation of the Jews has been almost completed and only a few exceptional cases remain in dispute. The Government has intervened with energy to put an end to sporadic anti-Semitic outbreaks and to improve the lot of Jewish citizens, for whom there is now every prospect of a peaceful

OI

compared with about 7,000,000 in 1914. Of these, two-thirds were in the Ukraine. About 350,000 Jews were left in Austria and about

500,000 in Hungary, as compared with about 2,250,000 in the

former Austro-Hungarian Empire. Of the remainder, about 350,ooo passed to Czechoslovakia, while as a result of the annexation of Transylvania and the Bukowina, together with the Russian province of Bessarabia, Rumania increased her Jewish population from a little over 200,000 to more than 1,000,000. These changes of allegiance were in themselves not necessarily for the worse, but they involved the disruption of old-established communities and broke them up in fragments, each of which had at once to reorganise its internal life and establish a modus vivendi with new and in most cases none too friendly rulers,

The Peace Conference.—It was in these circumstances that the Jewish problem was brought to the attention of the Peace Conference. It presented itself in a twofold aspect. The Allies had already undertaken to facilitate the establishment of a national home for the Jews in Palestine. This undertaking held good, but it was none the less necessary to define and safeguard the rights of the Jewish minorities in eastern and southeastern Europe. As to what those rights should be Jewish opinion was divided. The east European Jews themselves, speaking through their representatives on a body known as the committee of Jewish delegations at the Paris Peace conference, demanded the recognition of the Jews in the succession states as “national minorities” enjoying a substantial measure of self-government. This view was supported by the Jewish delegates from the United States but was

opposed by those from Great Britain and France, who limited themselves to a programme of “minority rights” not implying the creation of anything in the nature of a state within the state. This more moderate claim was eventually conceded in the Minority Treaties, of which the first was signed by Poland on the one hand and the principal Allied and Associated Powers on the other on June 28, 1919. This treaty makes it impossible for Poland to create a class of foreigners possessing no national status, such as the Jews had been in pre-War Rumania. Racial, religious and linguistic minorities are to enjoy complete equality before the law, the free use of their own languages, the right to control their own religious, educational and social institutions and an equitable share of public funds allotted to educational, religious or charitable purposes. Over and above these provisions, which apply to minorities generally, the treaty specifically empowers the Jews to appoint local committees for the management of their own schools and provides that they shall not be under any disability by reason of

their refusal to attend courts of law or vote at elections on the Sabbath. Poland recognises these stipulations as matters of international concern and agrees that they shall be guaranteed by the League of Nations. The league formally guaranteed the treaty on Feb. 13, 1920. Similar obligations, in each case guaranteed by the league, were accepted by Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Rumania, Austria, Hungary and Bulgaria. One important result of these transactions was the emancipation of the Jews in Rumania, including the inhabitants of the old kingdom, as well as of the territories annexed as a result of the War. After the close of the Peace Conference, under-

takings on the lines of those contained in the Minority Treaties,

though on the whole less stringent, were secured by the Council of the League from Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. It was only in the exceptional case

of Poland

that it was

thought

necessary

to make express provision for the Jews, but if the rights which they shared with other minorities were respected, they had little to fear. Jews in Eastern Europe.—While the Minority Treaties were being negotiated in Paris a dangerous situation was developing in future. THE JEWS UNDER THE PEACE TREATIES eastern and southeastern Europe. The Jews were in an unenviable The territorial changes which followed the War closely affected position, both in the succession states, where an intolerant Nationthe Jews of eastern and south-eastern Europe. Two-fifths of them alism was in the ascendant, and in what was left of the dismemwere taken over by Poland, which had more than 3,500,000 Jews bered empires, where scapegoats had to be found for the humiliaamong its 27,000,000 inhabitants. About 250,000 Jews were in- tions of the peace settlement. They were peculiarly exposed to cluded in Lithuania, about 100,000 in Latvia and about 8,000 in attack in the atmosphere created by Bolshevism in Russia and its Estonia. Only 3,000,000 Jews remained under Russian rule, as momentary irruption into Hungary.

62

JEWS

The Tsarist régime had subjected the Jews to a pitiless and systematic persecution. Most of them threw themselves, when the revolution came, on to the side of the Moderates, but among

them were some who, goaded to desperation, developed what may be called a destructive mania. There was no Jewish blood in Lenin himself, but both in Russia and in Hungary a prominent part in the Bolshevik movement was played by men who were of Jewish birth. In both countries the overwhelming majority of the Jews were anti-Bolshevik, not only on grounds of principle, but also because the bulk of them were traders and belonged to the very class which had most to lose from a Bolshevik victory. Nev-

ertheless, the enemies of the Jews branded them indiscriminately as Bolsheviks, and the alarm which the Bolshevik menace excited in Europe at the close of the War gave an impetus to reactionary forces which singled out the Jews as their targets.

In Poland the Armistice was followed by a series of anti-Jewish

excesses which led the British Government to send out Sir Stuart Samuel on a mission of inquiry. The Samuel report shows that in disorders which occurred in the year after the War not less than 348 Jews were killed and a much larger number wounded. The more serious excesses were confined to the areas of Lemberg, Pinsk and Vilna, where Poland was still at war with the Ukrainians and the Bolsheviks, but there were spasmodic outbreaks in many parts of Poland proper, and throughout the country the Jews were suffering from a sustained commercial boycott. In Hungary, the collapse of the Bolshevik revolution under Béla Kun led to a violent reaction, which vented itself in attacks on Jewish life and property, while the sufferings of the Jewish population were aggravated by acute economic distress. There were also disturbing, though less violent, outbreaks of anti-Semitism in Austria and in various parts of Germany, more especially in Bavaria. But the principal storm-centre was in southern Russia, where the Poles, the Bolsheviks and the armies of Gen. Denikin fought over the body of the still-born Ukrainian Republic. The British Minister in Warsaw reported in June 1920 that “the massacres of Jews by Ukrainian peasant bands can find, in their extent and thoroughness, no parallel except in the massacres of Armenians

in the Turkish Empire” (Sir H. Rumbold to Lord Curzon, in Report of Sir S. Samuel on His Mission to Poland, Cmd. Paper 674, 1920). It was not until r921 that the storm began to die down. By 1922 the Soviet Government which was now in possession, had restored some measure of order, but massacre was succeeded by famine and pestilence. Early in 1923. there were reported to be 100,000 homeless Jewish orphans in the Ukraine, and in Odessa the Jewish death-rate in 1922 is said to have reached 200 per 1,000. In Soviet Russia there were no massacres, but though order was fairly well maintained, the Jews suffered from the Communist régime, which deprived them of their livelihood as traders, waged war on Judaism in common with other religions, and was ruthless in its measures against “counter-revolutionaries,” with whom it was disposed to class the Zionists and, indeed, all Jews who clung to their religious or national traditions. As a result of the conditions thus created in eastern Europe, 200,000 destitute Jewish refugees were set adrift in the borderland between Russia, Poland and Rumania. Responsibility for their maintenance and eventual evacuation was assumed by the Jewish Colonisation Association and other Jewish bodies. As late as the end of 1925 there was still a residue to be provided for,

but the bulk of the refugees had by that time either been repatriated to Russia or been enabled to find new homes in the United

States, Canada, Cuba, Argentina, Mexico or Palestine.

This was

only one, though it was the most poignant, aspect of the problem of the Jewish emigration. Throughout the crowded Jewries of eastern Europe there was a growing desire to escape from condi-

tions which seemed to hold out little prospect of a tolerable future. Between 1919-23, 238,000 Jews emigrated to the United States,

while between 1919-25, 67,000 Jews emigrated to Palestine. In 1924 the Johnson law virtually closed the United States to emigrants from eastern Europe. There was no longer room for immigrants in Great Britain, and Palestine stood by itself as the one country in which the Jews had in principle an assured right of entry under an international guarantee.

United States.—As already stated, one result of the disruption of Jewish life in eastern Europe was that the centre of gravity tended to shift to the United States. An American Jewish re. lief committee, later incorporated in the joint distribution committee, was founded in 1914 and took the lead in organising relief work among the Jews in the stricken areas in eastern Europe and elsewhere.

The funds raised for this purpose in the United States

during the War and the post-War period are stated to have reached a total of $60,000,000. American Jewry was also active in the defence of Jewish rights in eastern Europe, though in this field at least an equally prominent part was played by the English Jews, who also contributed considerable sums for relief work. At the same time, the American Jews began to play a part of growing importance in the Zionist movement, and were concerned in the negotiations leading up to the Balfour Declaration, of which President Wilson was a consistent and influential advocate. (See ZIONISM.)

Population.—The Jewish population of the world on the out-

break of War in 1914 may be estimated at about 14,900,000. Of these, two-thirds were concentrated in eastern and south-eastern Europe, including (in round figures) just under 7,000,000 in Russia, 2,250,000 in Austria-Hungary and nearly 250,000 in Rumania. Of the remainder, about two-thirds lived in the United States, which had a Jewish population of close on 3,000,000, leaving a balance of about 1,500,000 for other parts of the world. There were about 600,000 Jews in Germany, and about 500,000 in the British Empire, including 250,000 in Great Britain and Ireland. BIBLioGRAPHY.—Annual Reports of the Anglo-Jewish Association; Reports of the Joint Foreign Committee of the London Jewish Board of Deputies and the Anglo-Jewish Association; Reports of the London Federation of the Ukrainian Jews; Bulletins of the Joint Distribution Committee, New York; Lucien Wolf, The Legal Sufferings of the Jews in Russia (1912); The Ritual Murder Accusation and the Beilis Case; Protest from leading Christians in Europe, published by The Jewish Chronicle and The Jewish World (1913) ; Israel Cohen, Jewish Life in Modern Times (1914); La question juive en Roumanie, published by the Committee Pro Causa Judaica (Zürich, 1818); L. Chasanowitch, Les Pogromes anti-juifs en Pologne et en Galicie (1919); Les droits nationaux des juifs en Europe Orientale, published by the Committee of Jewish Delegations (x919); Memorials Submitted to President Wilson by the American Jewish Congress (1919); La question juive devant la conférence de la paix, published by the Alliance Israélite (r919); Lucien Wolf, Notes on the Diplomatic History of the Jewish Question (1919) ; Report of Sir Stuart Samuel on His Mission to Poland (Cmd. Paper 674, 1920) ; The Truth about the Protocols, reprinted from The Times (1921); Capt. Vidkun Quisling and M. Jean de Lubersac, Reports on Massacres in the Ukraine, published by the Fund for the Relief of the Jewish Victims of the War in eastern Europe (1922); J. A. Rosen, Report on Jewish Colonization Work in Russia (1925); La question juive en Pologne, published by the Committee of Jewish Delegations (1925); Israel Cohen, A Report on the Pogroms in Poland (1919). (H. M. J. L.)

It is no exaggeration to say that the seventeen years, 1910-27,

have been to Israel a period of woe and disaster, as well as of consolation and hope, such as no similar period since the Dispersion. Russia.—The darkest part of the picture is Russia, which, before the World War, was the home of one-half of the world’s

Jewish population. When the period opened, Mendel Beilis, and with him Judaism as a religion and the whole Jewish people, stood arraigned in the courts of the tsar at Kieff to answer the hideous charge of ritual murder. In vain the friends of humanity in England, France and Germany protested that this accusation of religious cannibalism was an utterly baseless libel on Judaism, an insult to Western culture, and a dishonour to those who formulate it. The Russian bureaucracy recoiled from no means that would ensure the conviction of Beilis, as it would have furnished a convenient apologia for pogroms, past and future. However, in

Nov. 1913 an all-Russian jury acquitted Beilis. One other instance, to show the atmosphere in which Russian Judaism had to live during the last years of the Romanoffs. In the same year, at the International Congress for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffic held in London, Hertz called the attention of the world to the infamy of the tsarist “yellow ticket,” by which any Jewish woman, if she was willing to be registered as a prostitute, was permitted free and unrestricted residence through-

JEWS out the empire; whereas all other Jews and Jewesses were confined to the “Pale of Settlement.” That same territory was one of the fiercest battlegrounds of the World War. The Jewish cities were taken and retaken by the rival armies, with attendant bombard-

ments, burnings and pillagings.

Added to these were the sum-

mary expulsions and calculated inhumanities which the Russian

military authorities

perpetrated

As a result, important

against the Jewish population.

communities

were

ruined, and their re-

ligious institutions, their rabbinical academies, together with every form of Jewish cultural activity, destroyed to their foundations. Of the surviving communities, hundreds were later annihilated during the massacres of the Jewish population in the Ukraine dur-

ing the years 1919—21, massacres that for thoroughness and extent are surpassed by those in Armenia alone. The Russian revolution continued the break-up of Russian

Jewry and its religious life. At first constitutional, the revolution brought full religious emancipation to all; but in the unique persecution of all religion that began soon after the Bolshevists came into power, Judaism had to suffer most. Jewish communists have, from the first, taken a sinister delight in the proscription of all Jewish religious teaching. Synagogues were confiscated and converted into workmen’s clubs (as late as Sept. 14, 1925), and even into stables. During 1925 the bitter fight against religion seemed to have relaxed somewhat, and Christian and Mohammedan bodies are now allowed to give religious instruction to small “groups” of their children after school hours. In the case of Jews, however, two children have been declared to constitute a school, and subject to the dire penalties for teaching religion or Bible to children at a school. Religious instruction is therefore given clandestinely, underground or in lofts and at midnight, as in the days of the Inquisition. In Dec. 1925 two teachers were sentenced at Kieff to six months’ imprisonment with hard labour for this offence; and 200 children were imprisoned at Vinnitza, Podolia, for refusing to betray the name and whereabouts of their religious teachers. Zionists are pursued with a tsar-like ferocity as counter-revolutionaries and “agents of British Imperialism,” hundreds of them having been banished to Siberia. The use of Hebrew is suppressed as a “bourgeois” language. These persecutions called forth among the faithful remnant a new fervour and a deeper self-sacrifice for their faith; but Jewish institutional religion became paralysed in Soviet Russia, and the religious outlook for the growing generation is dark indeed. Before the war, the intense religious and intellectual life of Russian Jewry was duly reflected in the works of a whole galaxy of rabbinical, Hebrew and Yiddish writers. With the outbreak of hostilities all Hebrew and Yiddish publications of any kind were forbidden by the tsarist authorities. After the revolution there was a brief literary revival, which was soon strangled by the Bolshevists. Poland, Baltic and Balkan States.—Jewish religious life has in the main resumed its pre-war aspect in Poland, the Baltic and the Balkan countries, despite the economic ruin of a large portion of the Jewries wrought by racial hatred and social unrest in those politically immature States. In Poland a widely ramified net of Hebrew-speaking schools, both elementary and secondary, has been founded by the Tarbuth organization, and is recognized by the Government. In Greece, the large Jewish community of Salonika is declining in consequence of the failure of the Greek Government to keep the solemn pledges it gave to respect the Jewish Sabbath. In Turkey, the status of all religions has undergone violent transformation under the secularizing Kemalist régime. The activities of the chief rabbinate, which hitherto had practically the same powers as the patriarchates of other denominations, are now limited to ecclesiastical matters, and the congregations are organized on autonomous lines. The chief rabbi, Chacham Bashi Bijerano, introduced far-reaching reforms in the Jewish law of divorce. These have, however, not found recognition with the rabbinic authorities of other lands. France, Italy, Central Europe.—Judaism in France has been strengthened by the accession of the important religiously conservative congregations of Alsace-Lorraine, as well as by the

03

Moroccan communities now under French control. In 1924 the grand rabbi of France, M. Israel Levi, appealed to the leaders of East European orthodoxy to consider the enactment, In accordance with rabbinic law, of modifications in certain aspects of the Jewish marriage and divorce law (Agunah). Italian Jewry found itself threatened by the new education law, with its compulsory

Catholic instruction. Even a graver danger is its dearth of native rabbis. In Geneva, Jewish questions of great religious consequence are often discussed. In Feb. 1925 a proposal was submitted to the League of Nations Commission of Inquiry into the reform of the calendar to introduce “‘blank days” (z.e., the last day or days of the year to be considered outside the calendar). As one result of this would be a constantly backward moving day of rest, the proposal was strongly and successfully opposed by the representatives of the Jewries of the East and of the West. In Germany, Czechoslovakia, Austria and Hungary, the war and the dire conditions that followed it are responsible for the impoverishment of the Jewish schools of learning and the thinning of the ranks of the scholars and students. Among the noteworthy productions in the study of Judaism written during the period under review by Central European scholars are the works of the neo-Kantian philosopher, Hermann Cohen, Die Religion der Vernunfi aus den Quellen des Judentums (1919); of Immanuel Loew, Flora der Juden; of Simon M. Dubnow, Weltgeschichte des jiidischen Volkes (World History of the Jewish People), in to vol., appearing in German and Hebrew (1925, etc.); of Ismar Elbogen, Der jiidische Gottesdienst (on the Jewish Liturgy); of S. Krauss, Talmudische Archdologie, 3 vol., on Jewish life in Talmudic times; and the Monumenta Talmudica (1914, etc.). The following savants died in the period under review: Wilhelm Bacher, Abraham Berliner, David Hoffmann, D. H. Miiller, A. Harkavy, A. Epstein, Hermann Cohen, Jakob Guttmann and H. P. Chajes. British Empire.—In England Dr. Hermann Adler, the chief

rabbi of British Jewry, died in r911, and was succeeded by Dr. J. H. Hertz. In 1913 a Yeshivah—an institution devoted exclusively to Talmudic instruction—was for the first time opened in London. After the cessation of hostilities, a comprehensive educational scheme was launched as a Jewish war memorial; and in 1920

„the chief rabbi started on the first pastoral tour ever undertaken to the Jewish communities of the British overseas dominions.

The Liberal Jewish movement, inaugurated at the beginning of the century, finally established itself by the erection of a synagogue in 1925. An attempt to attach a Liberal wing to Jews’ college—the theological seminary of the Orthodox congregations —met with strong opposition. In Anglo-Jewish scholarship there are Principal Biichler’s learned monographs; Israel Abrahams’ Studies in Pharisaism and the Gospels (1917, etc.); Jacob Mann’s Jews in Egypt (1920~22); and M. Gaster’s Exempla of the Rabbis

(1924).

The Pharisees (1924)—by R. T. Herford, a Christian

scholar—is a remarkable achievement. Israel Zangwill produced a translation of Ibn Gabirol, Selected Religious Poems (1923);

Nina Salaman, of Yehudah Halévy; and Dr. A. Cohen, of Berakkoth, the first tractate of the Babylonian Talmud (1921). Among popular works, there are C. G. Montefiore’s books on Liberal Judaism (1903, 1924) and the chief rabbi’s A Book of Jewish Thoughts (1917, 1920) and Affirmations of Judaism (1927). The United States.—The 3,600,000 Jews of America have now their own English version of the Bible, the result of many years’ labour on the part of a group of scholars, among them Solomon Schechter and Joseph Jacobs. America has acquired great Jewish libraries, that of the New York Jewish Theological seminary (including the Elkan Adler collection) being the largest in the world. The older rabbinical colleges are workshops of Jewish learning. To these have been added the Yitzchak Elchanan Yeshivah and the Jewish Institute of Religion, representing the two religious poles in American Judaism. Of scholarly works, there appeared Schechter’s Studies in Judaism, 3rd series (1924),H. Malter’s Saadia Gaon (1921), J. Jacobs’ Jewish Contributions to Civilization (1919), Israel Davidson’s Thesaurus of Mediaeval Hebrew Poetry, vol. i. (1924), Margolis and Marx’s History of the Jewish People (1927), George Foote Moore’s Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era (1927), and Yehoash’s noteworthy translation of the Scriptures into Yiddish. The New Diaspora.—Eastern European Jewish emigrants,

JEWSBURY—JEZREEL

64

fleeing from racial hatred and economic ruin, find the doors of the United States all but barred and bolted to them. In consequence, they are scattered and dispersed to distant lands where grave dangers await their Jewishness and Judaism. Outside the Argentine Republic, the fresh arrivals find in most Latin-American countries little organized Jewish life and, too often, total abandonment of Judaism on the part of the earlier settlers. The Jewish Colonization Association of Paris appointed I. Raffalovich as

is very thin, flexible, flesh-coloured to dark brown, and one to three inches broad. It is common on branches of elder, and is also found on elm, willow, oak and other trees.

JEW’S HARP or JEW’S TRUMP, a small musical instru. ment of percussion, known for centuries all over Europe. “Jew’s trump” is. the older name. Attempts have been made to derive “Jew’s” from “jaws” or Fr. jew, but, though there is no apparent

grand rabbin of Brazil to lay the religious foundations of the new Jewish centres in the youngest diaspora. Mention must also be made of thé praiseworthy efforts of Dr. J. Faitlovich to bring the forgotten Jewish tribes of Abyssinia—the Falashas—into touch with the general body and religious currents of European Jewry. Palestine.—The brightest spot on the Jewish horizon through-

out this period is Palestine. The beginnings of the Jewish revival in the Holy Land date from long before the Balfour Declaration, when Eliezer ben Yehudah began his gigantic undertaking to make Hebrew the language of everyday speech, as well as of instruction in schools. One half of his monumental Dictionary of the Hebrew Language, Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern, was published in his lifetime. Palestine became the home of the philosopher of Zionism, Ahad Ha’am (1856-1927) and of Ch. N. Bialik, the great neo-Hebrew poet. A rabbinate for the whole of Palestine was called into existence, with A. I. Kook (Ashkenazi) and Jacob Meir (Sephardi) as joint chief rabbis. The zenith of the spiritual revival was reached when the Hebrew university was opened by the earl of Balfour on April 1, 1925. It may be some time before the Jerusalem university fulfils the hope of being the sanctuary of the Jewish genius; but a land focuses a people and calls forth, as nothing else can, its spiritual potentialities. It is the ardent faith of the architects of the New Palestine that the resurrection of the Jewish people on its own soil will reopen its sacred fountains of creative energy. As of old, only a remnant will return to the land of their fathers. But it is the national rejuvenation of that remnant that may open a new chapter in the annals of the human spirit. BIBLIOGRAPHY.——Reports, for the years 1910-27, of the London Jewish Board of Deputies, Anglo-Jewish Association and the American Jewish Committee; the surveys of the year in the American Jewish Year Book, in Jahrbuch fir judische Geschichte und Literatur, and in The Jewish Chronicle at the end of the Jewish Year. (J. H. Hz.)

JEWSBURY,

GERALDINE

ENDSOR

(1812-1880),

an English writer of fiction, daughter of Thomas Jewsbury, a Manchester merchant, was born in 1812 at Measham, Derbyshire. Her first novel, Zoe: the History of Two Lives, was published in 1845, and was followed by The Half Sisters (1848),

BY COURTESY OF ART

OF

JEW’S HARP;

THE

METROPOLITAN

FOUND

MUSEUM

IN ALL PARTS

reason for associating the instrument with the Jews, it is certain that “Jew’s” is the original form. The instrument consists of a slender tongue of steel riveted at one end to the base of a pearshaped steel frame; the other end of the tongue being left free so that it can be set in vibration by the player, while firmly press-

OF THE WORLD UNDER VARIOUS ing the branches of the frame NAMES against his teeth. At the beginning of the 19th century Heinrich Scheibler, in Germany, achieved astonishing effects by employing a number of Jew’s harps combined in one instrument which he called an Aura. Another

German virtuoso, Eulenstein, a native of Wiirttemberg, created a sensation in London in 1827 by playing on no fewer than 16 of the instruments. In 1828 Sir Charles Wheatstone published an essay on the acoustics of the Jew’s harp in the Quarterly Journal of Science.

JEX-BLAKE,

SOPHIA

(1840-1912),

British physician,

was born Jan. 21, 1840, at Hastings, Sussex. She studied at Queen’s College for Women, London, where she became mathematical tutor. In 1865 she went to America to study education under Dr. Lucy Sewell, but three years later, she was recalled to England

by the death of her father. In 1869 after some difficulty she was admitted to classes in medicine at Edinburgh and in 1871 to hospitals. Following an unsuccessful attempt to compel the university authorities to grant her a degree, she returned to London in 1874 and was largely instrumental in establishing the London School of Medicine for Women and in gaining in 1876 the opening of the medical profession to women. In 1877 she obtained the M.D. of Berne and became a licentiate of the College of Physiclans, Dublin. In 1878 she began practice in Edinburgh, where in 1886 she established the Edinburgh School of Medicine for Women. She retired in 1899 and died at Rotherfield, Sussex, Jan. 7, 1912. Her written works include Medical Women (1872) and American Schools and Colleges (1886). See M. Todd, Life of Sophia Jex-Blake (1918).

JEZEBEL, daughter of Ethbaal “king of the Sidonians” and

Marian Withers (1851), and others. For many years she was a frequent contributor to the Athenaeum and other journals and magazines. Carlyle described her, after their first meeting in 1841, as “one of the most interesting young women I have seen for

priest of Astarte, became the wife of Ahab, king of Israel. She was a woman of virile character, and offended Israelite political and religious feeling, the former by introducing those autocratic theories of monarchy so common in the east, the latter by her

years; clear delicate sense and courage looking out of her small sylph-like figure.” From this time till Mrs. Carlyle’s death in 1866, Geraldine Jewsbury was the most intimate of her friends. The selections from Geraldine Jewsbury’s letters to Jane Welsh Carlyle (1892, ed. Mrs. Alexander Ireland) cover a quarter of a century. In 1854 Miss Jewsbury removed from Manchester to London to be near her friend. To her Carlyle turned for sympathy when his wife died; and at his request she wrote down some “biographical anecdotes” of Mrs. Carlyle’s childhood and early married life. Carlyle’s comment was that “few or none of these narratives are correct in details, but there is a certain mythical truth in all or most of them”; and he added, “the Geraldine accounts of her (Mrs. Carlyle’s) childhood are substantially correct.” He accepted them as the groundwork for his own essay on “Jane Welsh Carlyle,” with which they were therefore incorporated by Froude when editing Carlyle’s Reminiscences. For Miss Jewsbury’s influence on Froude’s biography of Carlyle see CarLYLE, THOMAS. She died in London on Sept. 23, 1880.

attempt to supersede the worship of Yahweh by that of the Tyrian Ba‘al, Melkart. The first tendency is illustrated by the

JEW’S EARS, the popular name of a fungus, known botanically as Auricularia auricule-Judae (class Basidiomycetes), so called from its shape, which somewhat resembles a human ear. It

story of Naboth (I Kings xxi.), the second by her persecution of the prophets of Yahweh (I Kings xviii. 4-13). In both directions the national feeling found expression in the prophet Elijah, whose challenge to the authority of Ba'al on Mount Carmel resulted in the destruction of the Tyrian prophets (I Kings xx. 20-46), while his curse on Ahab and Jezebel was fulfilled in the massacre of the

house of Ahab by Jehu (g.v.). Jezebel’s name is often used in modern English as a synonym for an abandoned woman.

JEZREEL,

an ancient city of Palestine, in the tribe of

Issachar, and capital of the Northern Kingdom under Ahab: mod. Zer‘in, a stone village on a spur of Mt. Gilboa. The name is also applied to the Eastern part of the great plain Esdraelon. Jezreel was the scene of the battle between Saul and the Philistines, when Saul was slain. Ishbosheth had it for some time, and it was the residence of Ahab and Jezebel. Close by, on the eastern side, was the vineyard of Naboth. It was called Esdraelon in the book of Judith; to the Crusaders it was Parvum

Gerinum. The modern village stands at a height of soo feet. The remains

JHABUA—JHELUM of rock-hewn presses and a few scattered sarcophagi proclaim the antiquity of the site, but the ruins that were once there have

disappeared. The foundation mentioned in 1 Sam. xxix. 1 is, perhaps, ‘Aim Mazyiteh, about 1 m. to the north-east. A second Jezreel, in the hill-country of Judah, in the neighbourhood of Hebron, is indicated by Joshua xv. 56. (E. Ro.) JHABUA, a state of Central India, in the Bhopawar agency. Area, with the dependency of Rutanmal, 1,336 sq.m. Pop. (1921), 80,889. More than half the inhabitants belong to the aboriginal Bhils. The chief, whose title is raja, is a Rajput of the Rathor clan, descended from a branch of the Jodhpur family, and has a salute of Ir guns. The town of JHasua (pop. 3,354) stands on the bank of a lake, and is surrounded by a mud wall. A dispensary and a guesthouse were constructed to commemorate Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee in 1897.

JHALAWAR,

an Indian state in the Rajputana agency,

pop. (1921) 96,182; area 810 sq.m. The ruling family of Jhalawar belongs to the Jhala clan of Rajputs, and their ancestors were petty chiefs of Halwad in Kathiawar. Early in the 18th century, a cadet of the house, Madhu Singh, found favour with the maharaja of Kotah, and received from him an important post, which became hereditary. On the death of one of the Kotah rajas (1771), the country was left to the charge of Zalim Singh, a descendant of Madhu Singh. From that time Zalim Singh was the real ruler of Kotah. In 1838 it was resolved, with the consent of the chief of Kotah, to dismember the state, and to create the new principality of Jhalawar as a separate provision for the descendants of Zalim Singh. A later Zalim Singh, who had succeeded in 1875 was deposed in 1896, “on account of persistent misgovernment and proved unfitness for the powers of a ruling chief.” He went to live at Benares, on a pension of £2,000; and the administration was placed in the hands of the British resident. After much consideration, the government resolved in 1897 to break up the state, restoring the greater part to Kotah, but forming the two districts of Shahabad and the Chaumahla into a new state, which came into existence in 1899, and of which Kunwar Bhawani Singh, a descendant of the original Zalim Singh, was appointed chief. He enjoys the title of maharaja rana and a salute of 13 guns; and under his rule the state has much advanced. The chief town is PATAN, or JHALRAPATAN (pop. 6,083), founded close to an old site by Zalim Singh in 1796, by the side of an artificial lake. It is the centre of trade, the chief exports of the state being oil-seeds and cotton. The palace is at the cantonment 4m. north. The ancient site near the town was occupied by the city of Chandrawati, said to have been destroyed in the time of Aurangzeb. The finest feature of its remains is the temple of Sitaleswar Mahadeva (c. 600).

JHANG, a town and district of British India, in the Punjab. The town, which forms one municipality with the newer and now more important quarter of Maghiana, is about 3 m. from the right bank of the river Chenab. Pop. (1921) 30,139. Maghiana has manufactures of leather, soap and metal ware. The District oF JHANG extends along both sides of the Chenab, including its confluences with the Jhelum and the Ravi. Area, 3,452 sq.m. Pop. (1921) 570,559. The district which was formerly for the most part a wilderness, has been entirely transformed by the introduction since 1892 of irrigation from the Lower Chenab and Lower Jhelum canals. The principal industries are the ginning, pressing and weaving of cotton. Jhang contains the ruins of Shorkot, identified by some with one of the towns taken by Alexander. In modern times the history of Jhang centres in the famous clan of Sials, who exercised an extensive sway over a large tract between Shahpur and Multan, with little dependence on the imperial court at Delhi, until they finally fell before the all-absorbing power of Ranjit Singh. In 1847, after the establishment of the British agency at Lahore, the district came under the charge of the British government; and in 1848 Ismail Khan, the Sial leader, rendered important services against the rebel chiefs. During the Mutiny of 1857 the Sial leader again proved his loyalty by serving in person on the British side.

JHANSI, a city, the headquarters of a district and a division

65

of the United Provinces in British India. The city is the centre of what used to be the Indian Midland railway system, now ab-

sorbed in the G.I.P. railway.

Pop. (1921) of city and canton-

ment, 66,432. Formerly the capital of a Mahratta principality, which lapsed to the British in 1853, it was during the Mutiny the scene of disaffection and massacre. It was then made over to Gwalior, but has been taken back in exchange for other territory. Even when the city was within Gwalior, the civil headquarters and the cantonment were at Jhansi Naoabad, under its walls. Jhansi is the principal centre for the agricultural trade of the district,

but its manufactures are small. The District or JHANSI was enlarged in 1891 by the incorporation of the former district of Lalitpur, which extends farther into the hill country, almost entirely surrounded by Indian states. Combined area, 3,634 sq.m. Pop. (1921), 606,499. The district forms a portion of the hill country of Bundelkhand, sloping down from the outliers of the Vindhyan range on the south to the tributaries of the Jumna on the north. The extreme south is composed of parallel rows of long and narrow-ridged hills. Through the intervening valleys the rivers flow down impetuously over ledges of granite or quartz. North of the hilly region, there is a considerable expanse of black cotton soil. The district is intersected or bounded by three principal rivers—the Pahuj, Betwa and Dhasan. Its principal crops are millet, cotton, oil-seeds, pulses, wheat, gram and barley. The destructive kans grass has proved as great a pest here as elsewhere in Bundelkhand. Jhansi is especially exposed to blights, droughts, epidemics, and famine. The Jhansi Division is composed of the four districts of Jhansi, Jalaun, Hamirpur and Banda. Area 10,440 sq.m. and pop. (19212) 2,065,297. Nothing is known with certainty as to the history of this tract before the period of Chandel rule, about the rrth century. To that epoch must be referred the artificial reservoirs and ruined fortresses of the hilly region; though the division is not lacking in far more ancient monuments such as the famous Gupta temple at Deogarh. The Chandels were succeeded by their servants the Khangars, who built the fort of Karar, lying just outside the British border. About the 14th century the Bundelas poured down upon the plains, and gradually spread themselves over the whole region which now bears their name. The Mohammedan governors were frequently making irruptions into the Bundela country; and in 1732 Chhatar Sal, the Bundela chieftain, called in the aid of the Mahrattas, who were rewarded by the bequest of one-third of his dominions. Their general founded the city of Jhansi, and peopled it with inhabitants from Orchha state. In 1806 British protection was promised to the Mahratta chief, and in 1817 the peshwa ceded to the East India Company all his rights over Bundelkhand. In 1853 the raja died childless, and his territories lapsed to the British. The widow of the raja considered herself aggrieved because she was not allowed to adopt an heir, and because the slaughter of cattle was permitted in the Jhansi territory; and when the Mutiny broke out in 1857, she put herself at the head of the rebels, and died bravely in battle.

JHELUM

or JEHLAM,

a town and district of British

India, in the Punjab. The town is situated on the right bank of the river Jhelum, here crossed by a bridge of the North-Western railway, 103 m. N. of Lahore. Pop. (1921), 18,060. It is a modern town with river and railway trade (principally in timber

from Kashmir), boat-building and cantonments. The District or JHELUM stretches from the river Jhelum almost to the Indus. Area 2,773 sq.m. Pop. (1921), 477,068 Salt is quarried at the Mayo mine in the Salt Range. There are two coal-mines from which the North-western railway obtains part of its supply of coal. The chief centre of the salt trade is Pind Dadan Khan (pop. 9,919). The river Jhelum is navigable throughout the district. The backbone of the district is formed by the Salt Range, a treble line of parallel hills running in three long forks from east to west throughout its whole breadth.

The

range rises in bold precipices, broken by gorges, clothed with brushwood and traversed by streams which are at first pure, but soon become impregnated with the saline matter over which they pass. Between the line of hills lies a picturesque table-land, in which the beautiful little lake of Kallar Kahar nestles amongst

JHELUM—JIDDA

66

the minor ridges. North of the Salt Range, the country extends upwards in an elevated plateau, diversified by countless ravines and fissures, until it loses itself in tangled masses of Rawalpindi mountains. The history of the district dates back to the semi-mythical period of the Mahabharata. Hindu tradition represents the Salt Range as the refuge of the five Pandava brethren during the period of their exile, and every salient point in its scenery is connected with some legend of the national heroes. Modern research has fixed the site of the conflict between Alexander and Porus as within Jhelum district, although the exact point at which Alexander effected the passage of the Jhelum (or Hydaspes) is disputed. After this event, we have little information with regard to the condition of the district until the Mohammedan conquest. During the flourishing period of the Mogul dynasty, the Ghakkar chieftains were prosperous and loyal vassals of the house of Babur; but after the collapse of the Delhi Empire Jhelum fell, like its neighbours, under the sway of the Sikhs. In 1849 the district passed, with the rest of the Sikh territories, into the hands of the British. The population is a martial one and during the World War 38-7% of the males of military age were mobilized.

JHELUM

(Hydaspes of the Greeks), a river of northern

India. It is the most westerly of the “five rivers’ of the Punjab. It rises in the north-east of the Kashmir state, flows through the city of Srinagar and the Wular lake, issues through the Pir Panjal range by the narrow pass of Baramula, and enters British territory in the Jhelum district. Thence it flows through the plains of the Punjab, forming the boundary between the Jech Doab and the Sind Sagar Doab, and joins the Chenab at Timmu after a course of 450 miles. The surplus water of the Jhelum is largely utilized for irrigation. The Triple Canals Project, completed in rg17,

which includes the Upper Jhelum, Upper Chenab, Upper Bari Doab canals, provides 433 m. of main canals and distributaries. Practically the whole of the land between the Jhelum and the old

bed: of the Beas has been brought under cultivation. A large colony in the Shahpur district of the Punjab, with Sargodha as capital, has been formed on land brought under cultivation with water from the Lower Jhelum canal. Large areas are used by the Army Remount Depot.

JHERING, RUDOLF VON

(1818-1892), German jurist,

was born on Aug. 22, 1818, at Aurich in East Friesland, where

his father practised as a lawyer. He entered the University of Heidelberg in 1836, and visited successively Gottingen and Berlin. He lectured at various universities, and in 1868 went to be professor of Roman law at Vienna, where he had an extraordinary success, and was given a title of nobility in 1872. In the same year he went back to Göttingen. He had already established a leading position among civilians with his Geżtst des römischen Rechts (1852—65), and from now till his death on Sept. 17, 1892, he was as predominant as Savigny had been in the first half of the century. Of his many works perhaps the best known are Der Kampf um’s Recht (1872) and Der Zweck îm Recht, and the Jurisprudenz des täglichen Lebens (Eng. trans. 1904). His great works, the Geist and Rechtsgeschichte, were left unfinished as works of that scope might well be. Jhering’s work is in a sense a development of the “historical” jurisprudence of Savigny, and yet contributed to the breakdown of the theory at the end of the century. The basis of Savigny’s theory is a rigid individualism; the purpose of law in this theory is to allow the fullest measure of freedom to the individual will consistent with equal freedom for others. Jhering’s view is a social utilitarianism and his view is definitely teleological. For him law does not flow peacefully and inevitably; it is changed, deliberately and by conflict. “Whereas the philosophical jurist considered that the principles of justice and right are discovered a priori . . . and the historical jurist taught that the principles of justice are found by experience. ... Jhering held that means of serving human ends are discovered by experience and fashioned consciously into laws” (Roscoe Pound in 24 Harvard Law Review). Of his theories of Roman law the most important are his discovery of the dualism (religious and political) in the Roman system, and his view that remedies are prior to rights, which are deductions

from existing remedies. Pushing this process further back, Jhering came to the social interests promoted by the remedies, and thence

directly to his main position. Among others of his works, all of them characteristic of the

author and sparkling with wit, may be mentioned the following: Beiträge zur Lehre von Besitz, first published in the Jahrbücher für die Dogmatik des heutigen römischen und deutschen Privatrechts, and then separately; Der Besitzwille, and an article entitled

“Besitz” in the Handwörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften (1891),

which aroused at the time much controversy, particularly on account of the opposition manifested to Savigny’s conception of

the subject; Scherz und Ernst in der Jurisprudenz (1885); Das Schuldmoment im römischen Privat-recht (1867); Das Trinkgeld (1882); and among the papers he left behind him his Vorge. schichte der Indoeuropéer, a fragment which has been published by v. Ehrenberg (1894). See M. de Jonge, Rudolf v. Jhering von Jhering (1893).

(1888); A. Merkel, Rudolf

JIB-BOOM: see Riccine. JIBUTI (Dyæovrr), the chief port and capital of French Somaliland, in 11° 35’ N., 43° 10’ E. Jibuti is situated at the entrance to and on the southern shore of the Gulf of Tajura about

150 m. S.W. of Aden. The town is built on a horseshoe-shaped peninsula partly consisting of mud flats, which are spanned by causeways. In spite of the warm climate, the European quarter, built of stone, has a prosperous appearance with its white houses and laurel avenues. It is the terminal station of the railway to Abyssinia. There is a good water supply, drawn from a reservoir about 2% m. distant. The harbour is land-locked and capacious. Ocean steamers are able to enter it at all states of wind and tide. Adjoining the mainland is the native town, consisting mostly of roughly made wooden houses with well thatched roofs. In it is held a large market, chiefly for the disposal of live stock, camels cattle, etc. The port is a regular calling-place and also a coaling station for the steamers of the Messageries Maritimes, and there is a local service to Aden. Trade is confined to coaling passing ships and to importing goods for and exporting goods from southern Abyssinia via Harrar, there being no local industries. (For statistics see SOMALILAND, FRENCH.) The inhabitants are of many races—Somali, Danakil, Gallas, Armenians, Jews, Arabs, Indians, besides Greeks, Italians, French and other Europeans. The population is about 8,000. Jibuti was founded by the French in 1888 in consequence of its superiority to Obok both in respect of harbour accommodation and in nearness to Harrar. It has been the seat of the governor of the colony since May 1896.

JICIN, a town in north-eastern Bohemia on the river Cidlina. Situated in the middle of a large fertile plain it has always exercised an influence in Czech history since its establishment as a town by Wenceslas IT. in 1302. Much of its past prosperity and many of its beautiful buildings, e.g., the castle and the church after the model of the pilgrims’ church of Santiago de Compostela in Spain, it owes to the interest of Wallenstein who owned it in the x7th century and made it the capital of the Duchy of Frydlant. Its development since has been that of a typical market centre of collection and distribution with small associated industries, e.g., agricultural machinery, tanneries and brickyards. Pop., mostly Czech, 10,478. JIDDA, on the Arabian coast of the Red sea 21° 28’ N., 39° 10’ E., chief sea-port of Hijaz and principal landing place for pilgrims to Mecca, about 46 m. away: it contains about 30,000 permanent inhabitants of numerous different stocks—Arab, Persian, Indian, negro, etc.—and is surrounded by a wall dotted at intervals with bastions and pierced by 3 gates (Bab Madina on N., Bab Mecca on E., and Bab Sharif on S.); besides these there are 3 subsidiary gates connecting with Customs warehouses and wharves outside town. The main Suq (bazaar) runs N. and S. for about # the length of the town, and an important secondary Suq runs up from the Customs gate across the main bazaar to the Mecca gate; this is partly roofed over with corrugated iron. Much of the W. part of Jidda has been built on land reclaimed

from the sea and, the subsoil water being briny or brackish, the

JIG—JIGGER town depends for its drinking-water on sea-water condensed by two plants capable together of producing 200 tons a day.

67

a fresh one in. Sometimes the location is effected by means of a

For- part already machined instead of from a rough untooled portion, either a flat, or a cylindrical, or a bored hole. Fig. rı shows this feature in regard to a familiar motor car detail, the swivel-azle, the box jig taking the turned part through a hole at the back, and

merly there was a piped supply from wells about 7 m. distant, but this ceased when the sources dried up. A further source of supply lies in the subterranean cisterns (Sakrij) which catch and store the flood-water in the rainy season (Nov. to Feb.). The N. quarter is most favoured for residential purposes and here reside all the consuls and agents of various states—Great Britain, France, Italy, Holland, U.S.S.R., Turkey, Egypt and Persia. Five Euro-

locating the main holes by a long mandrel passed through. Then the two holes are drilled with the bushes for guides. Many jigs SWIVEL AXLE TO BE DRILLED

pean commercial firms (2 British, 2 Dutch and 1 Italian) are

established at Jidda, whose European population, including consuls, is about 50 souls. The houses are mostly built of coral-rock PLUG PUT IN with much picturesque woodwork which Lawrence described as BY HAND “gimcrack Elizabethan.” The chief public buildings are the custom-house, the municipal offices, the condensers, the Government BUSH WHICH offices and, outside the N. gate, the barracks and aeroplane hangar. PLuG FITS The tomb of Eve, formerly a favourite pilgrim resort especially FIG. 1.—DRILLING JIG WHICH ACCURATELY LOCATES AND HOLDS A for women, was demolished by the Wahbhabi government in 1927; SWIVEL AXLE it had no claim to authenticity or even to great age. At varying distances outside Jidda are scattered villages occupied by Arab are built to turn over on to various faces so as to drill holes from fisher-folk or African negroes and formerly notorious as active each side, or may swivel on trunnions for a similar reason. With slave-marts; these are Ruwais and Bani Malik to N., Nuzla Ya- a conveyor system running past the machines, as in car factories, maniya to E. and Nuzla Takarina close to S.E. corner of town. the jigs are mounted on wheels. Fixtures are used in the lathe, planer, shaper, slotter, miller, Jidda has a governor (Qāim-maqām) at the head of the general administration and a municipal committee under a president for grinder, gear-cutter, also on broaching machines, and frequently purely domestic administration. The old site of the town appears for use in assembling mechanisms quickly. The clamping arrange-

to have been at Ras al Aswad about 12 m. S. and the present loca-

tion of Jidda does not date back more than 300 years. The original settlement is attributed to Persian merchants during the Califate of Uthman, but its commercial importance dates from the rş5th century when it was apparently a trade-centre between India and Egypt; the general introduction of steamers rapidly deprived Jidda of its position as an emporium though this loss was made good by its increasing importance as a pilgrim-port. Jidda successfully resisted the Wahhabi attacks of early roth cent. and remained in the Ottoman Empire till June 1916, when the Turks surrendered to a British naval bombardment and the town became part of the new Hijaz kingdom. During the World War it was important as the political centre of the Hijaz operations. From Nov. 1924 to Dec. 1925 it was besieged by the Wahhabis and on Dec. 23rd it surrendered to Ibn Sa‘ud after the abdication and withdrawal of King ‘Ali. Since then its prosperity has rapidly increased and in 1927 there was a record overseas pilgrimage of 130,000 as against a pre-war average of 70,000 to 80,000. Its trade statistics are not available in any reliable form

but its imports

(£1,400,000

in 1904) now

probably

exceed

£5,000,000 p.a. Exports (mainly hides and sama) are small and the adverse balance is met from the cash proceeds of the annual

pilgrimage. (H. Srt. J. JIG is a device used for accurately locating a piece for machining. When a casting or forging has to chined to shape and size it must be held firmly in the

ments have to be devised for quickness, and in some cases auto-

matic clamps are fitted which loosen and tighten at the correct periods. Other jigs which are not concerned with cutting processes include those for holding articles in correct position for soldering or brazing, and the moulds which hold connecting-rods and bearings while being run up with white metal. Forms vary according to the shape of the work, but an angle-plate shape, seen in fig. 2, is suitable to clamp a half-bearing against the upright face, while a half-mandrel of appropriate radius is bolted also, leaving a space for the white metal to run into, HALF-MANDREL so forming a new bearing surface. =e m i] = (AWS it te ais POUR SPACE LEFTMETAL TO WHE Jig refers also to a reciprocating movement, such as that of a HALF-BEARING jig-saw which operates similarly CLAMP HELD to a fret-saw, and is designed BY THE BOLTs either for wood or metal, in the FOOT OF JIG latter case being much used for FIG. 2.—METALLING JIG FOR HOLD. cutting dies. A jigging screen ING A HALF-BEARING AND HALF.

PAA

MANDREL

OR CORE

also possesses the to and fro ac-

J : tion necessary to keep material in motion while being separated or sifted. The jig for concentrating minerals consists of a series of boxes with a shaft running above and having eccentrics that impart the jigging motion. A

B. P.) of work be ma- water supply is provided. Diamonds and other precious stones lathe, or are recovered in this kind of jig. (F. H.) JIG, a brisk lively dance, the quick and irregular steps of the drilling, boring, planing, milling or other machine, a chuck, vice or bolts and clamps being used for the purpose. Careful which have varied at different times and in the various countries setting is necessary, which sometimes takes a considerable time. in which it has been danced (see Dance). The music of the Jig, or such as is written in its rhythm, is in various times and In mass production, or even in dealing with a moderate number of pieces, this setting can be reduced considerably by providing a has been used frequently to finish a suite, e.g., by Bach and Handel, jig or a fixture which is constructed with means for accurately The word has usually been derived from or connected with Fr.

locating the article by certain surfaces, and of then clamping gigue, Ital. giga, Ger. Geige, a fiddle. The idea of jumping, jerkit with total absence of slip. A fixture holds without exercising any ing movement has given rise to many applications of “ jig? and other function, while a jig holds and also has means for guiding its derivative “jigger” to mechanical and other devices, such as the tool exactly to position, a necessity in most drilling, reaming the machine used for separating the heavier metal-bearing porand boring. The guide or guides take the form of top or side tions from the lighter parts in ore-dressing. The word “jigger,” plates, with holes of suitable size to receive the tools as they pass down on to the work, and usually the holes are filled each with a hardened steel bush of long wearing qualities.

Jigs may be of plate or open type, or of box type. The former are simple and suited to many of the flatter objects, or those which need drilling on a top face, from which the jig plate can be set by its ledges embracing the sides. A box jig surrounds the casting or forging, and locates by several spots, while a hinged cover is often fitted rapidly to release the piece and to put

a corruption of the West Indian chigoe, is also used as the name

of a species of flea, the Sarcopsylla penetrans, which burrows and lays its eggs in the human foot, generally under the toe nails, and causes great swelling and irritation (see FLEA).

JIGGER, a hoist or winch of moderate power, which can be

arranged in any fashion, on a floor, wall, pillar or in any confined situation, to perform lifting and hauling. The hydraulic jigger has a cylinder, ram and pulleys to operate the hoisting rope, and the latter may be led off in any desired direction. For general use,

JIGGER—JIMÉNEZ DE QUESADA

68

é.g. in unloading ships, the hydraulic jigger is mounted on a low frame with trolley wheels. On some electric cranes an electric jigger runs up and down the underside of the jib, and is employed for light lifting, but more usually to assist the main hoisting hook by being attached to some part of the suspended load. In a bridge-erecting crane the jigger hoist is used to bring the various girders and other structural members into exact position for final attachment. In mining, a jigger or shaker conveyor is used to transport coal from the face to the tubs, or as a gate conveyor. A long trough is built up in sections to the required length, and mounted on rollers at intervals. An electric or air-driven jigger engine is coupled up to the trough so as to impart a succession of jerks or kicks, causing the coal to travel along the trough.

vincial of the order of St. Francis, Jiménez reduced the laxity of the Conventual to the strictness of the Observantine Franciscans: he met with intense opposition, but his stern inflexibility, backed by the influence. of the queen, subdued every obstacle. At the death of Cardinal Mendoza (1495) Jiménez was nominated to his diocese of Toledo, the richest and most powerful in Spain, second perhaps to no other dignity of the Roman Church save the papacy. With the primacy of Spain was associated the lofty dignity of high chancellor of Castile, but though Jiménez was forced to live in a style befitting his rank, the outward pomp only concealed his private asceticism. In 1499 Jiménez accompanied the court to Granada, where he joined the mild and pious archbishop of Talavera in his efforts to convert the Moors. But Jiménez’s co-

JIGGER, CHIGGER or CHIGOE, the name given to a ercive methods provoked open revolt, which was quelled with

small flea of the West Indies and South America and to a minute scarlet mite of southern U.S.A. The female of the flea (Sarcopsylla penetrans) burrows when gravid into the skin of man. Here she swells to the size of a pea and remains embedded in the skin until the eggs hatch. Tobacco juice is sometimes used to destroy the insect. An allied species (S. gallinacea) attacks the eyelids of poultry and may in young birds even cause death. The effect of the bite is allayed by salt water. (See ENTOMOLOGY; FLEA; PARASITOLOGY.)

JIHAD (Arabic, lit. striving, effort), the religious duty inculcated in the Qur’ān (IL, 214-215; viii., 39-42; ix., 5-6, 29) on the followers of Muhammad

to wage war upon those who do not

accept the doctrines of Islam. (See ISLAMIC INSTITUTIONS.) Modern Muslim apologists maintain that Jihad in the Qur’an does not mean the waging of war, and explain it in terms of the spiritual life. BrsriocraPpHy.—C. Snouck Hurgronje, The Holy War “made in Germany” (1915); Cheragh Ali, A critical exposition of the popular Jihad (1885) ; Muhammad Ali, The Holy Qur-an, with translation and commentary (1917) (v. Index),

JIHLAVA, an old town of Moravia, Czechoslovakia, in the upper valley of the Jihlava, a tributary of the Morava, at the junction of routes from Prague to Vienna and Prague to Brno. This critical strategic position led to an early settlement and contributed to an interesting history of struggles for control of the site. Silver mines in the vicinity are believed to have been worked in the ninth century. During the 13th century a mint and mining office were established. The town is remarkable for the collection of municipal and mining laws, dating back to the r4th century. Jihlava is an important market and in the middle ages held the largest fairs between Linz and Pilsen, a prosperity evident from its fine monuments and churches. Trade is in the commodities of the district, timber and cereals, and in the products of its industries, also closely allied to its physical surroundings, ¢.g., linen and woollen goods, shoes, tobacco, beer, pottery

and glass. Pop. (1923), 25,634, about 50% German. JIMENEZ (or XIMENEZ) DE CISNEROS,

CISCO

FRAN-

(1436-1517), Spanish cardinal and statesman, born at

Torrelaguna (Castile). He studied at Alcalá de Henares and at Salamanca, took holy orders and in 1459 went to Rome. On his return to Spain (1465), he claimed (1473) the archpriestship of Uzeda (Toledo) in virtue of an “expective” letter from the pope. Carrillo, archbishop of Toledo, opposed him, and threw him into prison, restoring him to his benefice in 1480 only. This Jiménez changed almost at once for a chaplaincy at Sigiienza under Cardinal Mendoza, bishop of Sigüenza, who shortly appointed him vicar-general of his diocese. Abruptly resolving to become a monk, Jiménez threw up all his benefices and entered the Franciscan monastery of San Juan de los Reyes, recently founded by Ferdinand and Isabella at Toledo. He added voluntary austerities to the ordinary severities of the noviciate. He slept on the bare ground, wore a hair-shirt, doubled his fasts, and scourged himself, with much fervour. His private life was continuously and rigorously ascetic, even at the acme of his greatness. In 1492, at Mendoza’s recommendation and against his will, he became Isabella’s confessor. The post was politically important, for Isabella

submitted to the judgment of her father-confessor not only her private affairs but also matters of State. Appointed in 1494 pro-

difficulty. Upon Isabella’s death on Nov. 24, 1504, Ferdinand resigned in favour of Joanna and her husband, the archduke Philip. The latter died suddenly in 1506, Joanna’s intellect gave way completely, their son Charles was still a child and Ferdinand was at Naples. In this crisis, the nobles of Castile entrusted affairs to Jiménez, and on Ferdinand’s return in 1507, he was made cardinal and grand inquisitor-general for Castile and Leon. At his own expense he fitted out expeditions (1505 and 1509) against the Moorish city of Oran; his religious zeal, supported by the prospect of the political gain that would accrue to Spain from the possession of such a station inspiring him. Oran was captured in a day, and leaving the army to make fresh conquests, Jiménez returned to his diocese, where he sought to recover from the regent the expenses of the expedition. Ferdinand died in 1516, leaving Jiménez as regent: Charles, then a youth of 16 in the Netherlands, appointed Adrian, dean of Louvain, as his choice. Jiménez admitted Adrian to a nominal equality and, in violation of the laws, acceded to Charles’s desire to be proclaimed king. His position was rend-

ered peculiarly difficult by the haughty turbulent Castilian nobility and the jealous intriguing councillors of Charles; he ruled, notwithstanding, in a firm and even autocratic manner. In 1517, Charles landed in the Asturias; Jiménez, who had hastened to meet him, fell ill on the way and received a cold note from his king thanking him for his services and dismissing him to his diocese. He died— some say without seeing the letter—at Roa on Nov. 8, 1517. Jiménez was a bold and determined statesman. Stemly and inflexibly, with a confidence at times overbearing, he carried through what he had decided to be right, with as little regard for the convenience of others as for his own. In the midst of a corrupt clergy his morals were irreproachable. Liberal to all, he endowed very many benevolent institutions in his diocese. His whole time was devoted either to the State or to religion; his only recreation was in theological or scholastic discussion. In 1500 he founded the university of Alcala de Henares, within whose walls at one time 7,000 students met. In 1836 the university was removed to Madrid, and the magnificent buildings were left vacant. He revived the Mozarabic liturgy, and endowed a chapel at Toledo, in which it was to be used. His most famous literary service was the printing at Alcala (Lat. Complutum) of the Complutensian Polyglott, the first edition of the Scriptures in the original text. He was aided in this work by López de Stuñiga, Fernando Núñez, Vergara, Nebrija, the Cretan Ducas and by three Jewish converts. The work was begun in 1502, the New Testament finished in Jan. 1814 and the whole in April 1517. The text occupies five volumes and a sixth contains a Hebrew lexicon, etc. The second edition (1572), the Biblia Regia or Filipina, was revised by Arias Montano and reprinted by the Antwerp firm of Plantin at the expense of Philip IT. The work by A. Gomez de Castro, De Rebus Gestis a Francisco Ximenio (1650, Alcala), has provided material for biographies of Jiménez—Spanish by Robles (1604), and Quintanilla (1653); French by Baudier (1635), Fléchier (1693), Marsollier (1694), and Richard (1705) ; German by Hefele (1844; Eng. trans. by Canon Dalton, 1860), by Havemann (1848); English by Barrett (1813). See also Prescott, Ferdinand and Isabella, Revue des Deux Mondes (May 1841) and Mém. de Acad. d. hist, de Madrid, vol. iv.

JIMÉNEZ DE QUESADA, GONZALO (c. 15001579), Spanish conqueror of New Granada (Colombia), was born about

JIND—JIVARAN the year 1500, probably in Granada, Spain, where he was carefully trained for the law. In 1535 he accompanied Pedro Fernández de Lugo, adelantado of Santa Marta (northern Colombia), as auditor and justicia mayor of his colony; and in the following

year, although he had had no military experience, Lugo chose him to command an expedition to the headwaters of the Magdalena. For 150 leagues Quesada forced his way through almost insuperable obstacles along the Magdalena, to its junction with

the Opón at La Tora. Here he sent the ships, which followed

him up the river, back to Santa Marta with the sick, and set out with 200 picked soldiers and about 60 horses to scale the cordillera. In Jan. 1537, he found himself on the great central

plain of Colombia, inhabited by a race called Chibchas, who had

attained a high state of aboriginal culture. The ruler of the country, the zipa of Bogota, fled at the approach of the Spaniards and Quesada occupied his capital. From this strategic point the

country was explored and subdued. On Aug. 6, 1538, a new capital, called Santa Fé de Bogota, was founded near the site of the old one, and toward the end of the year Quesada was preparing to start for the coast, when two more conquerors suddenly appeared—Sebastian Benalcazar from Quito and Nicolas Federman from Venezuela. Quesada successfully maintained the priority of his rights, and on July 8, 1539, sailed from Cartagena

for Spain to urge his claims to the government of the lands he had conquered, but his efforts were of no avail. The next ten years Quesada spent in France, Italy and Spain, engaged mainly in literary pursuits. In 1550, Philip awarded him the titles of marshal of New Granada and alderman of Bogota, and a salary, but no jurisdiction. On his return to New Granada he became at once the most influential person in the colony, protecting the colonists from the severity of officials, and restraining the impetuosity of the comenderos. In 1569 he set out with 500 men on a

quest for the fabulous El Dorado which carried him into the trackless swamps of the Orinoco, whence he returned after nearly two years’ wanderings, with only 25 of his original company. Retiring to La Suesca, his country house, he turned to literature

and composed Los Ratos de Suesca, and a series of Sermones. Early in 1579 he moved to Mariquita, where he died on Feb. 16, of leprosy. In 1598 his remains were removed to the cathedral in Bogotá. Quesada ranks with Cortés as one of the very few conquerors who combined intellectual discipline with physical prowess. He was religious and naturally humane. Quesada is supposed to have been the author of several works, none of which have been preserved to us. Besides Los Ratos de Suesca and the Sermones, already mentioned, there are attributed to him Apuntamientos y noticias sobre la historia de Paulo Giovio (1568-69?); Anales del Emperador Carlos V.; Las diferencias de la guerra de los dos mundos; and, questionably, with Epitome

de la conquista del Nuevo Reino de Granada. _ No critical treatment of the life of Quesada has yet appeared lish, though R. B. Cunninghame-Graham, The Conquest Granade (Boston, 1922), and C. R. Markham, The Conquest Granada (1912), give interesting accounts of his career. In

in Engof New of New Spanish,

see F. M. Groot, Historia eclesiástica y civil de Nueva Granada (2nd ed., Bogotá, 1889) ; Joaquin Acosta, Compendio histórico del descubrimiento y colonización de la Nueva Granada en el siglo décimosexto

(and ed., Bogotá, 1901) ; Soledad Acosta de Samper, Biograftas de hom-

bres ilustres o notables (Bogotá, 1883).

(W. B.

e

JIND, an Indian State, within the Punjab, one of the CisSutlej states, under British influence since 1809. The territory consists of three isolated tracts, amid British districts. Total area, 1,259 sq.m. Pop. (1921), 308,183. Estimated gross revenue £210,000. The chief, whose title is Maharaja, is a Sikh of the Sidhu Jat clan and of the Phulkian family. The principality was founded in 1763, and recognized by the Mogul emperor in 1768. The dynasty has been conspicuously loyal to the British, especially during troubled times, and it has received accessions of territory. In 1857 the chief of Jind was actually the first man, European or Indian, who took the field against the mutineers; and his contingent collected supplies in advance for the British marching upon Delhi, besides rendering excellent service during the siege. The State troops served again with distinction in 1914-18 in East Africa and the State contributed liberally to the war. Jind, the

69

former capital, has a station on the S. Punjab railway.

Pop.

(1921), 10,840. The present capital and residence of the chief since the year 1827 has been Sangrur; the population in 1921

was 10,799. JINGO, a legendary empress of Japan, wife of Chiai, the 14th mikado (191-200). On her husband’s death she assumed the government, and fitted out an army for the invasion of Korea

(see Jaran: History). She returned to Japan completely victorious after three years’ absence. Subsequently her son Ojen Tenno, afterwards 15th mikado, was born, and later was canonized as Hachiman, god of war. The empress Jingo ruled over Japan till 270. She is still worshipped. The derivation of the English oath, “By Jingo,” is doubtful. The identification with the name of Gingulph or Gengulphus, a Burgundian saint, was a joke on the part of R. H. Barham, author of the Ingoldsby Legends. Some explain the word as a corruption of Jainko, the Basque name for God. It has also been derived from the Persian jang (war), St. Jingo being the equivalent of the Latin god of war, Mars; and is even explained as a corruption of “Jesus, Son of God,” Je-n-go.

The political use of the word as indicating an aggressive patriotism originated in 1877, during the weeks of national excitement preluding the despatch of the British Mediterranean squadron to Gallipoli, which frustrated the Russian designs on Constantinople. A bellicose music-hall song, with the refrain “We don’t want to fight, but, by Jingo, if we do,” etc., was produced in London by a singer known as “the Great MacDermott,” and instantly became very popular. Thus the war-party came to be called Jingoes, and Jingoism has ever since been the term applied to those who advocate a national policy of arrogance and pugnacity.

JINN, the name

of a class of spirits (genii) in Arabian

mythology. They are the offspring of fire, but in their form and the propagation of their kind they resemble human beings. They are ruled by a race of kings named “Sulayman,” one of whom is considered to have built the pyramids. Their central home is the mountain Kaf, and they manifest themselves to men under both animal and mortal form and become invisible at will. There are good and evil jinn, and these in each case reach the extremes of beauty and ugliness. JIRECEK, JOSEF (1825-1888), Czech scholar, was born at Vysoké Myto in Bohemia on Oct. 9, 1825. He entered the Prague bureau of education in 1850, and became minister of the department in the Hohenwart cabinet in 1871. His efforts to secure equal educational privileges for the Slav nationalities in the Austrian dominions brought him into disfavour with the German element. He became a member of the Bohemian Landtag in 1878, and of the Austrian Reichsrat in 1879. In 1875 he was elected president of the royal Bohemian academy of sciences. He died in Prague on Nov. 25, 1888. He published in Czech an anthology of Czech literature (3 vols., 1858-61), a biographical dictionary of Czech writers (2 vols., 1875-76), a Czech hymnology, editions of Blahoslaw’s Czech grammar and of some Czech classics, and of the works of his father-in-law PAvEL Joser SAraÑŘık (1795-1861).

His brother HEeRMENEGILD JIRECEK, Ritter von Samakow (1827~1909), Bohemian jurisconsult, born at Vysoké Myto on April 13, 1827, was also an official in the education department. He died in Hohenmauth on Dec. 29, 1909. Among his important works on Slavonic law were Codex juris bohemici (11 parts, 1867— 92), and a Collection of Slav Folk-Law (Czech, 1880), Slav Law in Bohemia and Moravia down to the 14th Century (Czech, 3 vols., 1863—73).

JIREČEK, KONSTANTIN Joser (1854-1918), archaeologist and

historian, son of Josef, died in Vienna on Jan. 10, 1918. The bulk of Konstantin’s writings deal with the history and literature of the southern Slavs. They include a History of the Bulgars

(Czech and German, 1876), The Principality of Bulgaria (1891), Travels in Bulgaria (Czech, 1888), etc.

JIVARAN, an independent linguistic stock of South Ameri-

can Indians, so called from the best known tribe, the Jivaros. The Jivaran tribes live in eastern Ecuador and the adjacent

7O

JIZAKH—JOACHIM

portions of Peru in the area comprising the basins of the Santiago, Morona and upper Pastaza rivers. Rivet has enumerated the large number of tribes belonging to this group. The Jivaros proper live on the upper Pastaza, and may be taken as representatives of the stock. They are a warlike and numerous tribe, widely known from their practice of preparing the shrunken human heads, called ‘‘tsantsas,” often seen in museum collections. The head, taken from an enemy, is carefully skinned, sewed up the back and then shrunk and dried by an elaborate process accompanied by much ceremony. The finished “tsantsa” is about the size of the head of a small monkey, and preserves strikingly the human expression. The Jivaros are to be carefully distinguished from the Jeberos living in their immediate vicinity, a tribe of the Mainan

(g.v.) stock with whom they have often been confounded. See P. Rivet, Les Indiens Jivaros (L’Anthropologie, vol. xvii., pp. 333—vol. xix., pp. 235-260); R. Karsten, Blood-revenge, war and viatory feasts among the Jivero Indians of eastern Ecuador (Bull. 79, Bureau of American Ethnology).

JIZAKH, a town of Asiatic Russia in the Uzbekistan S.S.R., on the Transcaspian railway, 71 m. N.E. of Samarkand. Pop. (1926) 13,469. It was formerly a fortress of Bukhara and was captured by the Russians in 1866.

JOAB, in the Bible, the son of Zeruiah, David’s sister (1

Chron. ii. 16). His brothers were Asahel and Abishai. All three were renowned warriors and played a prominent part in David’s history. Abishai on one occasion saved the king’s life from a Philistine giant (2 Sam. xxi. 17), and Joab as warrior and statesman was directly responsible for much of David’s success. Joab won his spurs, according to one account, by capturing Jerusalem (x Chron. xi. 4-9); with Abishai and Ittai of Gath he led a small army against the Israelites who had rebelled under Absalom (2 Sam. xviii. 2); and he superintended the campaign against Ammon and Edom (2 Sam xi. 1, xii. 26; r Kings xi. 15). He showed his sturdy character by urging the king, after the death of Absalom, to place his duty to his people before his grief for the loss of his favourite son (2 Sam. xix. 1-8), and by protesting against David’s proposal to number the people, an innovation which may have been regarded as an infringement of their liberties (2 Sam. xxiv., 1 Chron. xxi. 6). 5 JOACHIM I. (1484-1535), surnamed Nestor, elector of Brandenburg, elder son of Jobn Cicero, elector of Brandenburg, was born on Feb. 21, 1484. He became elector in January 1499, and married Elizabeth, daughter of John, king of Denmark. By stern and cruel measures he succeeded in restoring some degree

of order in Brandenburg. He improved the administration of justice, aided the development of commerce, and befriended the towns. In the imperial election of 1519, Joachim voted for Charles. But relations between the emperor and the elector were not friendly, and Joachim was frequently in communication with Charles’s enemies. Joachim was a pugnacious adherent of Catholic orthodoxy. He urged upon the emperor the enforcement of the Edict of Worms, and at several diets was prominent among the enemies of the Reformers. His wife adopted the reformed faith, and in 1528 fled for safety to Saxony. Joachim, who was a patron of learning, established the university of Frankfort-onthe-Oder in 1506. He died at Stendal on July 11, 1535. See T. von Buttlar, Der Kampf Joachims I. von Brandenburg gegen den Adel (1889); L. Zscharnack, Das Werk Luthers in Brandenburg von Joachim I. bis zum grossen Kurfirsten (1917).

JOACHIM

IT. (1505-1571), surnamed Hector, elector of

Brandenburg, the elder son of Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg, was born on Jan. 13, 1505. He became elector of Brandenburg on his father’s death in July 1535, and undertook the government of the old and middle marks, while the new mark passed to his brother John. He was twice married, his second wife being Hedwig, daughter of Sigismund, King of Poland. Joachim made repeated attempts to make peace between the Protestants and the emperor Charles V. at Frankfort in 1539, and elsewhere. In 1542 he led the German forces on an unsuccessful campaign against the Turks. With Maurice, elector of Saxony, he persuaded

(which Charles failed to honour) that the landgrave would be pardoned. He supported the Interim, which was issued from Augsburg in May 1548, and took part in the negotiations for the Treaty of Passau (1552), and the religious peace of Augsburg (1555). In domestic politics he consolidated the power of his house by treaties with neighbouring princes, and secularized the bishoprics of Brandenburg, Havelberg and Lebus. In 1539 he allowed free entrance to the reformed teaching in the electorate, He took the communion himself in both kinds, and established a new ecclesiastical organization in Brandenburg, but retained much of the ceremonial of the Church of Rome. His position was not unlike that of Henry VIII. in England, and may be partly explained by a desire to replenish his impoverished exchequer with the wealth of the Church. By his lavish expenditure on public buildings he piled up a great accumulation of debt, which was partly discharged by the estates of the land in return for important concessions. He secured the archbishopric of Magdeburg and the bishopric of Halberstadt for his son Frederick in 1551; on Frederick’s death in 1552, the sees passed to his brother Sigismund. Joachim died at Köpenick on Jan. 3, 1571, and was succeeded by his son, John George. See Steinmüller, Einführung der Reformation Brandenburg durch Joachim II. (1903).

in die Kurmark

JOACHIM, JOSEPH (1831~1907), Hungarian violinist and composer, was born at Kittsee, near Pressburg, on June 28, 1831, the son of Jewish parents. His family moved to Budapest when he was two years old, and he studied there under Serwaczynski, who brought him out at a concert when he was only eight years old, and then under the elder Hellmesberger and Joseph Bohm in Vienna. In 1843 he went to Leipzig to enter the newly founded conservatorium. Mendelssohn, after testing his musical powers, pronounced that the regular training of a music school was not

needed, but recommended that he should receive a thorough general education in music from Ferdinand David and Moritz Hauptmann. In 1844 he visited England, and made his first appearance at Drury Lane theatre, where his playing of Ernst’s fantasia on Otello made a great sensation; he also played Beethoven’s concerto at a Philharmonic concert conducted by Mendelssohn. In 1847-49 and 1852 he revisited London, and he appeared regularly at the famous Monday and Saturday popular concerts from 1859 onwards. On Liszt’s invitation he accepted (1850) the post of Konzertmeister at Weimar, but his sympathies were with the older school of Schumann, and he was probably glad to leave Weimar for Hanover, where, in 1853, he became Konzertmeister

to the king. In 1869 Joachim was appointed head of the newly founded königliche Hochschule für Musik in Berlin. The famous Joachim Quartet was started in the Sing-Akadamie in the following year. The original members of the quartet were Joachim, Ernst Schiever, Heinrich de Ahna and Wilhelm Müller. Of Joachim’s later life, continually occupied with public performances, there is little to say except that he remained, even in a period which saw the rise of numerous violinists of the finest technique, the acknowledged master of all. He died on Aug. 15, 1907. Joachim interpreted Bach, Mozart, Beethoven and Brahms with a degree of insight that has never been surpassed, and thereby established a standard of performance by which all subsequent players have been judged. His absolute freedom from tricks or mannerisms, his dignified bearing and his unselfish character won the respect of all, though his devotion to the highest ideals, combined with a certain austerity and massivity of style, brought against him an accusation of coldness from admirers of a more effusive temperament. His biographer (1898), Andreas Moser, expressed his essential characteristic in the words: “He plays the violin, not for its own sake, but in the service of an ideal.” Joachim’s compositions are distinguished also by a certain austerity of character; but they are full of beauty of a grave and dignified kind. His “Hungarian” concerto for the violin, the Romance in B flat for violin and the variations for violin and orchestra are among his finest things. But he is remembered, not

Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to surrender to Charles after the | as a composer, but as a great musician and a great interpreter.

imperial victory at Miihlberg in April 1547, and pledged his word | See A. Moser, Joseph Joachim, ein Lebensbild (1898; enl. ed., 2 vols.,

JOACHIM

OF FLORIS—JOANNA

Eng. trans., 1901). Moser also published (1908) Joachim’s

1907-10; correspondence with Brahms, and with himself (3 vols., 1911-13; Eng.

trans. by N. Bickley, 1914).

JOACHIM

OF FLORIS

(c. 1145-1202), Italian mystic

theologian, was born at Celico, near Cosenza, in Calabria. He was brought up at the court of Duke Roger of Apulia. At an early age he went to visit the holy places. After seeing his comrades decimated by the plague at Constantinople he resolved to

change his mode of life, and, on his return to Italy, after a rigorous pilgrimage and a period of ascetic retreat, became a monk in the Cistercian abbey of Casamari. In August 1177 he was abbot of the monastery of Corazzo, near Martirano. In 1183 he went to the court of Pope Lucius III. at Veroli, and in 1185 visited Urban III. Later he retired to Pietralata, and founded with some companions under a rule of his own creation the abbey of San Giovanni in Fiore, on Monte Nero, in the massif of La Sila. Innocent III., on Jan. 21, 1204, approved the “ordo Florensis” and the “institutio” which its founder had bestowed upon it. Joachim died in 1202, probably on March 20. The authenticated works of Joachim are: the Concordia novi et veteris Testamenti (first printed at Venice in 1519), the Expositio in Apocalypsin (Venice, 1527), the Psalterium decem chordarum (Venice, 1527), together with some “libelli” against the Jews or the adversaries of the Christian faith. It is very probable that these “libelli” are the writings entitled Concordia Evangeliorum Contra Judaeos, De articulis fidei, Confessio fidei and De unitate Trinitatis. The last is perhaps the work which was condemned by the Lateran council in 1215 as containing an erroneous criticism of the Trinitarian theory of Peter Lombard. It is impossible to enumerate here all the works attributed to Joachim. Some served their avowed object with great success, being powerful instruments in the anti-papal polemic and sustaining the revolted Franciscans in their hope of an approaching triumph. Among the most widely circulated were the commentaries on Jeremiah, Isaiah and Ezekiel, the Vaticinia pontificum and the De oneribus ecclesiae. Of his authentic works the doctrinal essential is very simple. Joachim divides the history of humanity, past, present and future, into three periods, which, in his Expositio in Apocalypsin (bk. i. ch. 5), he defines as the age of the Law, or of the Father; the age of the Gospel, or of the Son; and the age of the Spirit, which will bring the ages to an end. The third is the age of contemplation, the monastic age par excellence, the age of a monachism wholly directed towards ecstasy, more Oriental than Benedictine. Joachim does not conceal his sympathies with the ideal of Basilian monachism. In his opinion—which is, in form at least, perfectly orthodox—the church of Peter will be, not abolished, but purified; actually, the hierarchy effaces itself in the third age before the order of the monks, the viri spirituales. The entire world will become a vast monastery in that day, which will be the resting-season, the sabbath of humanity. The Joachimite ideas soon spread into Italy and France, and especially after a division had been produced in the Franciscan

order. The rigorists, who soon became known as “Spirituals,” represented St. Francis as the initiator of Joachim’s third age. (See FRANCISCANS.) In 1260 a council held at Arles condemned Joachim’s writings and his supporters, who were very numerous in that region. The Joachimite ideas were equally persistent among the Spirituals, and acquired new strength with the publication of the commentary on the Apocalypse. This book, probably published after the death of its author and probably interpolated by his disciples, contains, besides Joachimite principles, an affirmation of the elect character of the Franciscan order, as well as extremely violent attacks on the papacy. The Joachimite literature is extremely vast. From the 14th century to the middle of the 16th, Ubertin of Casale (in his

Arbor Vitae crucifixae), Bartholomew of Pisa (author of the Lzber Conformitatum), the Calabrian hermit Telesphorus, John of La Rochetaillade, Seraphin of Fermo, Johannes Annius of Viterbo, Coelius Pannonius, and a host of other writers, repeated or complicated ad infinitum the exegesis of Abbot Joachim. A treatise entitled De ultima aetate ecclesiae, which appeared in 1356, has

I.

71

been attributed to Wycliffe, but is undoubtedly from the pen of an anonymous Joachimite Franciscan. The heterodox movements in Italy in the 13th and 14th centuries, such as those of the Segarellists, Dolcinists, and Fraticelli of every description, were penetrated with Joachimism; while such independent spirits as Roger Bacon, Arnaldus de Villa Nova and Bernard Délicieux often comforted themselves with the thought of the era of justice and peace promised by Joachim. Dante held Joachim in great reverence, and has placed him in Paradise (Par., xii. 140-141). See Acta Sanctorum, Boll. (May), vii. 94-112; W. Preger in Abkandl. der kgl. Akad. der Wissenschaften, hist. sect., vol. xii., pt. 3 (Munich, 1874) ; idem, Gesch. d. deutschen Mystik im Mittelalter, vol. i. (Leipzig, 1874); E. Renan, “Joachim de Flore et Évangile éternel” in Nouvelles études d’kistoire religieuse (Paris, 1884); F. Tocco, L’Eresia nel medio evo (Florence, 1884) ; H. Denifle, “Das Evangelium aeternum und die Commission zu Anagni” in Archiv fiir Literatur- und Kirchengesch. des Mittelalters, vol. i.; Paul Fournier, “Joachim de Flore, ses doctrines, son influence” in Revue des questions historiques, t. i. (1900) ; H. C. Lea, History of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages, vol. iii. ch. i. (London, 1888); F. Ehrle’s article “Joachim” in Wetzer and Welte’s Kirchenlexikon. On Joachimism see E. Gebhardt, “Recherches nouvelles sur Fhistoire du Joachimisme” in Revue historique, vol. xxxi. (1886); H. Haupt, “Zur Gesch. des Joachimismus” in Briegers Zeitschrift für Kirchengesch., vol. vii. (1885). See also the relevant articles in the Catholic Encyclopaedia. .

JOAN, a mythical female pope (f. 855), between Leo IV.

(847-855) and Benedict III. (855-858). A French Dominican, Steven of Bourbon (d. c. 1261) gives the legend in his Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit, and was followed by many later writers. This explosion of the tale was first seriously undertaken by David Blondel, a French Calvinist, in his Eclaircissement de la question si une femme a été assise au siége papal de Rome (1647); and De Joanna Papissa (1657). The refutation was completed by Johann Dollinger in his Papstfabeln des Mittelalters (1863; Eng. f trans. 1872).

JOANES

(or Juanes), VICENTE

(1506-1579), head of

the Valencian school of painters, and often called “the Spanish Raphael,” was born at Fuente de la Higuera in the province of Valencia in 1506. He is said to have studied his art for some time in Rome, with which school his affinities are closest, but the greater part of his professional life was spent in the city of Valencia, where most of the extant examples of his work are now to be found. All relate to religious subjects, and are characterized by dignity of conception, accuracy of drawing, truth and

beauty of colour and minuteness of finish. He died at Bocairente (near Jativa) while engaged upon an altarpiece in the church there, on Dec. 21, 1579.

JOANNA

THE MAD, “La Loca” (1479-1555), queen of

Castile and mother of the emperor Charles V., daughter of the Catholic rulers, Ferdinand and Isabella, was born at Toledo on

Nov. 6, 1479.

She married (1496) the archduke Philip, son of

the German king, Maximilian I., and by the death of her brother: John, of her eldest sister Isabella, queen of Portugal, and of the latter’s infant son Miguél, became heiress of the Spanish king.doms. Soon after 1502, her reason began to give way. She mourned extravagantly for her absent husband, whom at length she joined in Flanders: there her passionate jealousy, although justified by Philip’s conduct, led to deplorable scenes. His death

(x1506) completely unhinged her mind; she remained nominally queen, but perforce took no part in the business of State, and died after a miserable existence at Tordesillas on April 11, 1555. See R. Villa, La Reina dota Juana la Loca (1892) ; Rosler, Johanna die Wahnsinnige (1890); Prescott, Hist. of Ferdinand and Isabella (1854); H. Tighe, A Queen of Unrest (1907).

JOANNA

LI. (c. 1327-1382),

queen

of Naples, was the

daughter of Charles, duke of Calabria (d. 1328), and became sovereign of Naples in succession to her grandfather King Robert in 1343. Her first husband, Andrew, son of Charles Robert, king of Hungary, was assassinated (1345) at Aversa, possibly with his wife’s connivance, and at once Joanna married Louis, son of Philip, prince of Taranto. King Louis of Hungary then came to Naples to avenge his brother’s death, and the queen took refuge in Provence—which came under her rule at the same time as Naples—purchasing pardon from Pope Clement VI. by selling to him the town of Avignon, then part of her dominions. Having

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JOANNA IIL—JOAN OF ARC

returned to Naples in 1352 after the departure of Louis, Joanna lost her second husband in 1362, and married James, king of Majorca (d. 1375), and later Otto of Brunswick, prince of Taranto. The queen had no sons, and as both her daughters were dead she made Louis I. duke of Anjou, brother of Charles V. of France, her heir. Charles, duke of Durazzo, who regarded himself as the future king of Naples, then seized the city. Joanna was captured and was put to death at Aversa on May 22, 1382. The queen sought the society of the poets and scholars of her time, including Petrarch and Boccaccio. See Crivelli, Della prima e della seconda Giovanna, regine di Napoli (1832) ; G. Battaglia, Giovanna I., regina di Napoli (1835) ; W. St. C. Baddeley, Queen Joanna I. of Naples (1893); Scarpetta, Giovanna I. di Napolé (1903); and Francesca M. Steele, The Beautiful Queen Joanna I. of Naples (1910).

JOANNA

IT. (1371-1435), queen of Naples, was descended

from Charles II. of Anjou through his son John of Durazzo. She had been married to William, son of Leopold III. of Austria, and at the death of her brother King Ladislaus in 1414 she succeeded to the Neapolitan crown. Although now a widow of forty-five, she chose as her lover Pandolfo Alopo, a youth of twenty-six, whom she made seneschal of the kingdom. He and the constable Muzio Attendolo Sforza completely dominated her, and the barons determined to provide her with a husband who would break her favourites and yet not make himself king. The choice fell (1415) on James of Bourbon. James at once declared himself king, had Alopo killed and Sforza imprisoned, and kept his wife in a state of semi-confinement; this led to a counter-agitation on the part of the barons, who forced James to liberate Sforza, renounce his kingship, and eventually to quit the country. The queen now sent Sforza to re-establish her authority in Rome, whence the Neapolitans had been expelled after the death of Ladislaus; Sforza entered the city and obliged the condottiere Braccio da Montone, who was defending it in the pope’s name, to depart (1416). But when Oddo Colonna was elected pope as Martin V., he allied himself with Joanna, who promised to give up Rome, while Sforza returned to Naples. The queen was, however, completely dominated by her new lover Giovanni (Sergianni) Caracciolo. Sforza then favoured the pretensions of Louis III. of Anjou to Naples as Joanna’s successor. Joanna refused to adopt Louis as her heir, and appealed to Alfonso of Aragon, promising to make him her heir. War broke out between Joanna and the Aragonese on one side and Louis and Sforza, supported by the pope, on the other. After much fighting by land and sea, Alfonso entered Naples, and in 1422 peace was made. But dissensions broke out between the Aragonese and Catalans and the Neapolitans, and Alfonso had Caracciolo arrested; whereupon Joanna, fearing for her own safety, invoked the aid of Sforza, who with difficulty carried her off to Aversa. There she was joined by Louis whom she now adopted as her successor. Sforza was accidentally drowned, but when Alfonso returned to Spain, leaving only a small force in Naples, the Angevins with the help of a Genoese fleet recaptured the city. For a few years there was peace in the kingdom, but in 1432 Caracciolo, having quarrelled with the queen, was seized and murdered by his enemies. Internal disorders broke out, and Gian Antonio Orsini, prince of Taranto, led a revolt against Joanna in Apulia; Louis of Anjou died while conducting a campaign against the rebels (1434), and Joanna herself died on Feb. 11, 1435, after having appointed his son René her successor.

husband and wife were of farming stock, and devout Catholics

Jacques owned horses and cattle; he was the doyen of the Village,

and was its spokesman in a law-suit. He may be regarded, in fact, as the headman of Domrémy, a kind of mayor. With others he

rented the Chateau de l'Ile, its gardens, and pasturage. Hardly anything is known of Joan’s childhood; from her mother she

learnt her prayers and the lives of the Saints, and she played till she was 12 or 13 with the other village children. The boys of Domrémy, who were French in their sympathies, were at frequent

odds with the boys of the Burgundian village, on the other side of the Meuse. Saint Remy, patron saint of the cathedral of

Reims, was also that of the church at Domrémy. Joan, who was baptized by the curé Minet, was a pious child, and often went with her companions to bear wreaths of flowers to Notre Dame de Bermont. She had heard, without believing, the story of the fairies who haunted the spring among the bushes. She was almost certainly ignorant of Merlin’s prophecy that a maid should come from the Bois Chenu to do great deeds. Joan helped her parents in tillage, tended the animals, and was skilled with her needle and in other feminine arts. She was pious, and often went to church when the other girls were dancing, She was in her 13th year when, in her father’s garden, she heard for the first time a voice from God. Thereupon she vowed to remain a virgin and to lead a godly life. During the next five

years she heard the voices two or three times a week. Among

them she distinguished those of Saint Catherine and Saint Margaret, who appeared to her, in the guise of queens, wearing rich

and precious crowns.

Sometimes their coming was heralded by

Saint Michael. With these visions Joan became still more serious, and more given to prayer. The troubles of Domrémy between 1419 and 1428 made her early acquainted with the horrors of war. Her voices commanded her to go to France, and to raise the siege of Orleans, which had been begun in Oct. 1428. We do not know the exact moment at which Joan decided to obey her voices, and to go to France. The captain of the fortified town nearest to Domrémy on the French side was Robert de Baudricourt, commandant at Vaucouleurs, four leagues away. Joan approached him for the first time in May 1428, accompanied by a relative on her mother’s side, one Durand Laxart ou Lassois, She was in her 16th year. At this time an army was being raised In England for the conquest of the Dauphin’s territory south of the Loire. The journey was made without the knowledge of her family, for when Joan had spoken of going into France, her father had said that he would rather drown her with his own hands. She told the Dauphin’s commandant that she was sent by Our Lord, and asked him to write to the Dauphin saying that, by the will of God, she was to lead him to his crowning. Baudricourt attached no importance to the visit, and sent her back to her parents. At home Joan talked more and more of her great mission. In July 1428, the governor of Champagne, Antoine de Vergy, undertook to subdue the country round Vaucouleurs for the English. The people of Domrémy retreated with their cattle to Neufchâteau where Joan spent a fortnight with a woman called La Rousse, who kept an inn. This is the origin of the false Burgundian legend that she was a light woman, liking the company of men-at-arms and horses. Some time after, she was summoned for breach of promise of marriage, before the magistrates of Toul, by a young man who had sought her hand. On the return of the family to Domrémy, they found the village burned to the ground, and Joan had to AutHorities.—A. von Platen, Storia del reame di Napoli dal rarg attend the church of Greux. Towards the end of October, she al 1423 (1864) ; C. Cipolla, Storia, della signoria Italiana (1881), where learned that Orleans was besieged by the English, who had garthe original authorities are quoted. See also Faraglia, Storia della the towns along the Loire. risoned regina Giovanna IT. d’Angio (1904). To break the resistance on the Loire by taking Orleans was JOAN OF ARC, SAINT (1412~1431), French patriot. Joan indeed a hazardous undertaking. The English made careful prepof Arc was known in the country-side of Domrémy as Jeannette, arations, and amassed a large quantity of military material for with the surname of Arc or Romée. She is alluded to in con- the siege. Salisbury had assembled a force of about 2,500, to temporary documents as Jeanne, commonly called The Maid. She which were joined spearmen and archers under Bedford. The was born on Jan. 6, 1412, at Domrémy on the Meuse in a house English army may have numbered about 10,000 men, in addition in the shadow of the church. Her father was Jacques d’Arc, a to the Burgundian forces, which were soon withdrawn. Orleans native of Ceffonds in Champagne, and her mother Isabelle de was strongly fortified, and possessed two hundred and fifty canVouthon, called “la Romée,” either because she had made a pil- non of various calibres. To invest the town the English had grimage to Rome, or, more probably, from a family name. Both surrounded it with about a dozen bastions, which were then called

JOAN OF ARC bastilles. The siege began on Oct. 12, and on the 24th Salisbury was mortally wounded by a bullet as he was about to reconnoitre the town from one of the windows of the Tourelles. The citizens of Orleans were commanded by Dunois, the Bastard of Orleans and by the famous La Hire. The fighting amounted to no more than skirmishing, and French reinforcements continued to enter

the beleaguered town.

Although the situation was not so critical

as it has been represented, the news of the siege aroused great

emotion throughout France. When it reached Domrémy, Joan decided to set out. About Jan. 12, 1429, she left the village to go to her cousins, the Lassois of Petit Burey. She soon reached Vaucouleurs, and stayed there three weeks, seeking to convince the incredulous captain, Robert de Baudricourt, of her mission. She met there a bold young squire, Jean de Metz, in whom she confided. Her idea was that the country should save itself rather

than wait for the help of the Scots, and the arrival of little Margaret, the daughter of James of Scotland, who was to marry Louis, the son of the Dauphin. When she realized that Robert de Baudricourt would do nothing

to bring her to the Dauphin, she borrowed clothes from Jean de Metz, and set out for France. The duke of Lorraine having sent her a safe-conduct as far as Nancy, she went first to him.

She

begged him to allow his son-in-law Réné to escort her to France, promising to pray for the duke’s better health. Joan and her companions returned to Vaucouleurs, where Baudricourt, who had just learned of the disaster of Vouvray, was less unwilling to let the Maid try her fortune. He authorized her departure for Chinon, and Jean de Metz and Bertrand de Poulengy advanced money for the journey. The people of Vaucouleurs bought her a horse, and Joan exchanged her suit of red cloth for a page’s dress. Baudricourt gave her a sword saying: “Go, and let come what may.” Travelling by night the little band evaded English and Burgundian marauders. They passed through Saint Urbain, Auxerre, Gien and Fierboys, near Chinon, to which soldiers made pilgrimages to invoke Saint Catherine. From there, Joan wrote to the Dauphin, asking for permission to go to Chinon to give him information which she alone possessed. The Council met to discuss whether he should hear her or not. Louis de Bourbon, the count of Vendôme, brought her into the presence of the king, who kept back in the midst of his knights. Joan came forward with meekness and simplicity, and said to him, “Most noble Dauphin, I have come from God to help you and your Kingdom.” The Dauphin took her aside, and talked with her for more than two hours. According to her confessor, Pasquerel, the Maid said to him, “Je te dis de la part de Messire que tu es le vrat héritier de France et fils du roi’ (I am God’s messenger, sent to tell you that you are the king’s son, and the true heir to France). This was doubtless the sign which Joan would never explain. Lodged in the tower of Coudray, Joan was burning to be at work, but the king was unwilling to make use of her until she had been examined by an assembly of learned theologians. She was sent therefore to Poitiers, the seat of the chief university and of the courts of Justice. She lived in the household of Jean Rabuteau, the advocate-general, and was examined by a commission presided over by Friar Séguin, professor of theology. She assured them that she would raise the siege and have the king crowned, and dictated a letter commanding the English to depart. The Poitiers commission made enquiry at Domrémy. Nothing but what was honest and true was reported of Joan, and in April they pronounced in her favour. Joan was accordingly sent to Tours to take up arms. She lodged with the lady in waiting upon the Dauphin’s mother-in-law, the Queen of Sicily. In this city, famous for its armourers, she put on “white armour.” She had brought to her from the church of Saint Catherine de Fierboys a sword on which were five crosses, doubtless an ex voto which she had seen in its place behind the altar. At the wish of the Dauphin she appointed ‘a suite, including a confessor, Jean Pasquerel, a squire, Jean d’Aulon and two pages. Like other company commanders, she carried a banner; on it she had painted the King of heaven holding an orb, with the motto “Jesus Maria,” The French army for the relief of Orleans numbered about four thousand men. This force left Tours for Blois, and, on April

73

28, escorted by a procession of priests, arrived before Orleans along the left bank of the Loire, accompanied by a convoy of cattle and several boats. They were met by Dunois. The Loire was crossed with a favourable wind. On the night of April 28, Joan entered Orleans, bringing hope to the beleaguered citizens. She was taken to the church of the Holy Cross, and then to the house of Jacques Boucher, treasurer to the duke of Orleans. On April 30 Joan summoned the English to be gone. Next day she sent them a further proclamation. On May 5, the Maid and her companions stormed the “bastille” of the Augustines, and on the 7th, they captured the Tourelles, which commanded the head of the bridge. Joan herself planted the first scaling-ladder, and was wounded in the shoulder by an arrow. Orleans was saved. On May 8 was held the first thanksgiving procession, the origin of the great festival of Orleans. Within a week the French captured Jargeau, where the earl of Suffolk was taken prisoner, and Beaugency. Sir Jobn Falstolf was defeated at Patay. Joan entered Orleans in triumph, followed the king to Gien, and prevailed upon him to march on Reims. She reached Troyes on July roth and Reims on the 14th. Two days later the king was crowned. Beside him stood the Maid, a banner in her hand. “Gentle King,” she said, kneeling before him, “now is fulfilled the will of God that I should raise the siege of Orleans, and lead you to the city of Reims to receive the holy coronation, to show that you are indeed the king, and the rightful lord of the realm of France.” It was agreed to advance on Paris on July 18. Bedford was aware of the plan, and had informed the English council. Charles, however, wasted time over negotiations with the envoys of the duke of Burgundy, whom Joan had commanded to make peace with France, and she did not leave Reims till July 21. Instead of marching on Compiègne, which was preparing to receive him, the king turned back towards the Loire. The Maid wished to continue the march on Paris, whence Bedford had withdrawn his army. Between Aug, 18 and 22 the king and the Maid received the submission of Compiégne, Senlis and Beauvais, from which they expelled the bishop Pierre Cauchon. Regnault de Chartres, archbishop of Reims and chancellor of the kingdom, supported the policy of detaching the English from the Burgundians. On Aug. 23 Joan left the king at Compiégne, and arrived at Saint Denis on the 26th. On the 28th an armistice was signed between France and Burgundy. On Tuesday, Sept. 8, Joan, at the head of the royal forces, made an assault on the porte Saint Honoré at Paris. It failed. Joan was wounded in the thigh by an arrow, but they had to drag her from the field by force. Since the king of France had disbanded his army, she had now to rejoin the court and remain there practically inactive, In Oct. 1429, however, she took part in the capture of Saint Pierre le Moustier. At La Charité, which was held by Perrinet Gressart for the duke of Burgundy, she suffered a reverse. In recognition of what she had done for France she was ennobled on Dec. 29, 1429, and her village was exempted from taxation. The truce with Burgundy, which was to last till Easter, was drawing to a close. Philip the Good had moreover succeeded in persuading Bedford to promise him Champagne in return for allowing recruitment by the English among his subjects. As a counter stroke to the coronation of Charles VII., the English were preparing to bring to France the young King Henry VI. The Anglo-Burgundian allies made a great effort to ensure the safety of Paris by repossessing themselves of the neighbouring towns. Compiégne was their first objective. Joan, who followed these plans attentively, decided to bring help to her “good friends” of Compiégne. Leaving Sully-sur-Loire where she had been in the care of la Trémouille, she set out, with a few companions but no official instructions. She passed from

Melun to Lagny and Senlis and, after a brisk series of skirmishes, arrived at Compiègne, which she entered without resistance on May 23. The town was commanded by Captain Guillaume de Flavy. The Burgundian camp was at Margny opposite the bridgehead; the forces of the veteran Burgundian, Jean de Luxembourg

were at Clairoix, and the English, under Montgomery, at Venette. Towards five o’clock in the afternoon, Joan, Poton the Burgundian, and some other captains with four or five hundred men

74

JOAN OF ARC

made a sortie over the bridge against the Burgundian camp. Their men fell to looting, and were driven back into the town. Flavy had the draw-bridge raised in order to secure their retreat. Joan, who had charged the enemy in an attempt to save her comrades, was left outside, and was taken prisoner, together with her brothers and Jean d’Aulon. Her captor was an archer in the service of the Bastard of Wandomme. She was taken to the Burgundian camp, and interviewed by Philip the Good, while the Bastard was ordered to surrender his prisoner to his chief, Jean de Luxembourg. Bedford realized the importance of destroying the influence of the Maid on the people by whom she was regarded as a saint : he hoped in this way to discredit the king, whom she had awakened from his lethargy. The English did not wish summarily to execute her, as they could have done, but to defame her by condemnation in a spiritual court. Both the university of Paris, which was strongly Burgundian, and the vicar-general of the inquisition wrote as early as May 26 to the duke of Burgundy to ask that Joan should be surrendered to the ecclesiastical court. The English had from the outset announced their intention of burning her alive if they could get hold of her: but members of the university and French lawyers took the first practical steps to send her on her way to the stake. A letter from Regnault de Chartres, archbishop of Reims, to the people of the city, who loved the Maid, shows that no grief was felt in the king’s council over her capture; on the contrary, the bishop of Embrun was alone in exhorting Charles to make every effort to recover her. The king did, in fact, nothing at all. On July 14 Pierre Cauchon, bishop of Beauvais, who had been driven from his bishopric by French soldiers, appeared at Jean de Luxembourg’s camp before Compiègne; he was an ambitious man who hoped to obtain the vacant see of Rouen, and whose sole desire was to serve his masters. He asked to be allowed to judge the prisoner, and maintained that Henry VI. had the right to redeem any prisoner of war for an indemnity of ten thousand livres. Joan was taken first to Beaulieu, then to Beaurevoir to the castle of the Luxembourgs. She thought of nothing but the people of Compiégne, and after a long consultation with her “voices” made an attempt to go to their assistance by jumping from the tower. She injured herself, but not seriously. She was then taken to Arras, in Burgundian territory. Jean de Luxembourg decided to sell her to the English, and she was moved to Crotoy. On Nov. 21 the university of Paris accused Cauchon of lack of zeal, and urged that, for the glory of God, Joan should be tried in Paris. The English then decided to take her to Rouen, their military centre in France. She was imprisoned in a tower of the castle of Philip Augustus, chained in a dark cell, under the guard of John Gray and William Talbot, in the charge of the earl of Warwick. On Jan. 3, 1431, Joan was handed over to Cauchon, who was to be her judge. The English, having bought her, declared that they would seize her again, if she was not convicted for her many crimes, and of high treason against God. The authentic records of the trial have been preserved; they are among the most pathetic documents in history, and are the best source of information as to Joan herself. The original, which still bears the remains of Pierre Cauchon’s seal, is now preserved in the library of the Chambre des Députés. The tribunal, skilfully selected by Cauchon, consisted of ten members of the university of Paris, strong Burgundians and intolerant theologians, 22 canons of Rouen who were all completely in the hands of the English government owing to the vacancy in the see, and some monks of different orders, minor friars or Dominicans. A judge who declared the pro-

cedure irregular was imprisoned, and a certain number of others

withdrew from the case. The interrogatory began on Feb. 21. There were no sittings between February 24 and 27. This was probably due to Joan’s illness. On March 12 the vice-inquisitor appeared, accompanied by a Dominican friar; on the 15th Joan was asked if she would submit to the judgment of the Church. The judgment was to be based on alist of twelve points. They included the opinion of her judges as to the worthlessness of her visions, and her different

accounts of the sign given to the king; they denied her the gift

of prophecy, censured her masculine dress, her disobedience to her parents, her attempt to escape, and the sinful pride which had led her to believe that she would go to Paradise, and that she

was responsible only to God and not to the Church which the judges represented. The last offence was that which chiefly in. censed the theologians, and led to her condemnation. On April 28 Cauchon visited her in her cell to try the effect of mild exhortation.

Delegates were sent to Paris with the 12 points.

On May 2

Cauchon pronounced a public admonition against her in the hal] of the castle, and Joan appealed to be sent before the pope. On

May 9g she was taken to the torture chamber, but in spite of the opinion of several advisers the Maid was spared the torture. Joan was by this time worn out by the length and severity of the ex. amination. On May 23 she was taken to the cemetery of SaintOuen and had read to her the sentence which condemned her to be burned unless she submitted. Without clearly understanding its terms, she signed an abjuration, of which the text has been lost, and was taken back to her prison amidst the noisy protests of the English. She was condemned to imprisonment for life. “We will recapture her,” said Warwick in a rage. A woman’s gown was brought to her, and she was asked to put it on. She remained in prison between May 24 and 27, and it was rumoured that she had resumed masculine dress. Cauchon came to see for himself; the prisoner, he found, had relapsed. The judges then decided that she must be delivered to the secular arm, and she was ordered to appear on May 30 in the Old Market Square of Rouen. These facts are known to us only by means of a non-official report, annexed to the minute of condemnation. They bear, however, the stamp of probability, and it is certain that Joan regretted her momentary and easily understood weakness in the tumult of the cemetery of Saint-Ouen, with the thought of the stake before her. She received communion in her prison, and was once more dressed as a woman before being taken to the stake prepared in the Old Market Square. She listened patiently to the sermon of Nicolas Midy, and Cauchon read the sentence, delivering her over to the secular arm. Joan asked the priests present to say each a mass for her soul, and was then handed over to the bailiff of Rouen. An English soldier gave her a cross made of two pieces of wood, but she asked Massieu to bring her the cross from the neighbouring church. She kissed it while she was being chained to the stake, and as the smoke went up, she was heard to call in a loud voice: “Jesus.” Her ashes were thrown into the Seine from the bridge of Rouen. The account of the trial of Joan of Arc was published far and wide. Five authentic copies still exist today. This monument of an iniquitous deed, a masterpiece of composition and procedure, drawn up in Latin by Thomas de Courcelles, a rising light of the university, bore fruit. Joan’s condemnation by the Church appeared to be in order. The English Government could send to the chancellories of Europe a copy of the sentence, together with an account of the whole matter which placed the king of France in a most unfavourable light. The report of the trial became a useful weapon. Pierre Cauchon did not obtain the see of Rouen, which he had administered both spiritually and temporarily. The Holy See appointed him in 1432 bishop of Lisieux with the customary papal commendation. At the Congress of Arras he maintained the right of Henry VI. to the crown of France. He narrowly. escaped being taken prisoner when the French retook Paris in 1436, and paid several visits to England, where he assisted in making terms of peace between the two countries. He died in 1442, rich and honoured, and was buried in the magnificent Chapel of the Virgin at Lisieux, which he had rebuilt and decorated at his own expense. Tt was not until after Normandy had been conquered that Charles VII. made the slightest effort to wipe out the stain cast on his name by the sentence of 1431. In 1450 he instituted a preliminary enquiry, but nothing further was done until the arrival in France of Cardinal d’ Estouteville, the legate of Pope Nicolas V. The first attempt was checkmated, owing to the English protesting to the Holy See. Charles VII.’s Government found a way out of the difficulty by giving place as petitioner to | Joan’s family. Her mother, Isabelle Romée, who was living in

JOASH—JOB

75

retirement at Orleans with her two sons, Pierre and Jean du

nationale in 1920: “The French Republic will celebrate yearly the fête of Joan of Arc, a festival of patriotism.” (P. C.)

To this end the pope appointed Jean Jouvenel des Ursins, archbishop of Reims, Guillaume Chartier, bishop of Paris and Richard Olivier, bishop of Coutances, to act in concurrence with

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The innumerable works on the history of Joan of Arc are listed by Ulysse Chevalier in his Jeanne d’Arc, Bibliographie (1878); Lanéry d’Arc, Le Livre d’Or de Jeanne d’Arc, Bibliographie (1894) and Memoirs et consultations en jareur de Jeanne @ Arc (1889); A. Molinier, Les sources de l'Histoire de France, iv. (1901, etc.). The documents relating to Joan have been collected by Jules Ouicherat, Procès de condamnation et de réhabilitation de Jeanne a’Arc (§ vols., Soc. de P Hist. de France 1849). Pierre Champion has published the text and a translation of the Procès de Condamnation, with a substantial introduction and notes (1921). The papers relating to the canonization may be found in the Sacra rituum congregatione (1907-11). A. Marty, in L’Histoire de Jeanne d’Arc (1907), has published a collection of facsimiles of Joan’s letters and the documents concerning her portraits. The most important works on Joan of Arc are: G. Görres, Die Jungfrau von Orleans (1835) ; Vallet de Viriville, Histoire de Charles VII., vol. ii. (1863); H. Martin, Jeanne d’Arc (1856); H. Wallon Jeanne d’Arc (1860); M. Sepet, Jeanne d’Arc (1868); Dufresne de Beaucourt, Hzstoire de Charles VII. vol. ii. (1882); S. Luce, Jeanne Arc à Domrémy (1886); J. Michelet, Jeanne d’Arc 1412-1432 (1888) ; Canon P. Dunand, Jeanne d’Arc (1899); A. France, Vie de Jeanne d'Arc (1907); A. Lang, The Maid of France (1908) ; G. Hanotaux, Jeanne d’Arc (1911); G. Goyau, Sainte Jeanne d’Arc (1920); see also A. B. Paine, Joan of Arc (1927) ; H. Belloc, Joan of Arc (1929).

Lys, obtained from Calixtus III. permission to draw up the case.

the grand inquisitor of France. It was admitted that the university of Paris had been led into error by the fraudulent drawing up of the 12 articles. All the blame for this was cast on the dead

bishop of Beauvais. Enquiries were held at Domrémy, at Orleans, in Paris and at Rouen, and evidence was given by all the surviv-

ing witnesses of Joan’s early days and of her gallant deeds (Dunois, Jean d’Aulon, the duke of Alengon, etc.). Their statements, though made long after the event, are extremely interesting. The grand inquisitor, Jean Bréhal, published a long memoran-

dum

establishing Joan’s

orthodoxy.

On June 16, 1456, the

judgment of 1431 was annulled. No authentic portrait of Joan can be traced to-day, although contemporary drawings were in existence. At Arras, for instance, she saw in the hand of a Scotsman a painting in which she was shown kneeling and presenting a letter to the king. The little pen

drawing by the clerk Fauquembergue on May 10, 1429, on a register of the parlement of Paris is simply a note which served him as a reference. The contemporary German tapestry which shows her mounted and in armour is of value only for the costume. The charming drawing of a helmeted head in the museum at Orleans, is a Saint Maurice; the ex voto in the museum at Versailles, a Catalan painting, has nothing whatever to do with Joan of Arc; the equestrian statue in the Cluny museum Is a Saint George or a Saint Maurice to which the inscription has been added. We know, however, from contemporary testimony that Joan was handsome, well-built, with a bright and smiling

JOASH or JEHOASH, the name of two kings in the Bible.

I1. Son of Ahaziah (see JeHoraM, 2) and king of Judah. He obtained the throne by means of a revolt in which Athaliah (q.v.) perished, and his accession was marked by a solemn covenant, and by the overthrow of the temple of Baal and of its priest Mattan

(-Baal).

In this the priest Jehoiada took the leading part.

2

Chronicles adds several new details, including a tradition of a conflict between the king and priests after the death of Jehoiada (xxii. 11; xxiv. 3, 15 sqgg.). The king perished in a conspiracy, face, and that she had dark hair cut short like a soldier’s. (One the origin of which is not clear. 2. Son of Jehoahaz and king of Israel. Like his grandfather of her hairs could still be seen at the beginning of the roth century in the waxen seal of a letter which she wrote to the people Jehu, he enjoyed the favour of the prophet Elisha, who promised of Riom.) She was courtesy itself, liked a good horse and a good him a triple defeat of the Aramaeans at Aphek (2 Kings xiii. 14 sword and fine clothes. She was indifferent to pain and fatigue, sqq. 22—25). The cities which had been taken from his father by Hazael, the father of Ben-hadad, were recovered and the relief and was always ready to run physical risks. Her heroic and charming figure was soon surrounded by legend, gained by Israel prepared the way for its speedy extension of as may be seen from the chronicles of Morosini and Eberhardt power. When challenged by Amaziah of Judah, Joash uttered von Windecke. She is the heroine of the Mystère du Siège @’ the famous fable of the thistle and cedar, and a battle was fought Orléans which dates from the end of the reign of Charles VII, at Beth-shemesh, in which Israel was completely successful. JOB. The book of Job in the Bible is an acknowledged masteror the beginning of that of Louis XI. Chapelain (1656) made her the subject of a fine poem, and Voltaire, when he wrote La piece, both as an expression of religious experience and as a Pucelle (1756), did not perhaps intend to give the impression of work of poetic genius. Its theme is the struggle of a deeply relicynicism which it conveys. His article in the Dictionnaire gious soul with the doubts aroused by undeserved suffering. Contents.—Job is a man of exemplary piety, but in heaven philosophique is more respectful. Shakespeare has represented her as a witch in his Henry VI. Schiller’s celebrated romantic “the adversary” charges that he is pious because he is prosperplay (1802) has elements drawn from both Shakespeare and Vol- ous. To disprove this God permits the destruction of Job’s proptaire. The only two dramatic authors who have made the figure erty, his children and his health. Job’s patient endurance under of Joan interesting on the stage are Charles Péguy (1897) and these afflictions at length gives way to bitter lamentation. His friends—Eliphaz, Bildad and Zophar—maintain that he is sufferBernard Shaw (1924). The true Joan of Arc is not to be found in works of imagina- ing for his sins, but this he indignantly denies. One after another tion, but in the authentic story of her life, first put together by they reason with him, and to each he replies in turn. A second and Edmund Richer, head of the Faculty of Theology of Paris in a third time they speak, advancing from gentle suggestions to the 17th century (a work for many years kept in manuscript at specific accusations, while Job, vehemently asserting his innothe Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris fr. 10,448, and published in cence, is driven not only into anguished perplexity regarding to1r by Ph. H. Dunand); then by Lenglet Du Fresnoy (1753), God’s ways but even to outright denial of His justice. Nevertheand finally by the learned Jules Quicherat (1841-49), who has less from the cruel dogmatism of his friends he turns again and put together the records of the two trials, and all the evidence again to God, increasingly confident that the very One who seems relating to Joan. Since this publication, Germain Lefévre-Pontalis so unjust will ultimately vindicate him. A young man named has published the journal of Morosini a Venetian merchant, and Elihu now enters the debate and eloquently but ‘vainly enlarges the German testimony of Eberhardt von Windecke. Noél Valois upon what the friends have been saying. Finally in the majestic has published a document from the Vienna library regarding her voice of a whirlwind the Almighty Himself replies to Job, remission (Un nouveau témoignage sur Jeanne d’Arc, 1907). Finally viewing the marvels of Creation until Job confesses that his deFather Denifle has searched the archives of the Vatican, and dis- nial of God’s justice was due to ignorance. God then condemns covered several unknown documents regarding the judges of Joan the friends, declares that Job has‘spoken rightly of Him and restores the sufferer to wealth and happiness. of Arc (Chartularium Universitatis Parisiensi IV.). Literary Form and Relationships.—Two introductory chapJoan was beatified in Rome in 1909 and canonized by Benedict XV. in rọrọ. The festival of Joan of Arc was kept annually on ters of prose narrative present the characters and bring the story May 8, the anniversary of the procession commemorating the to the point where Job’s patience breaks down. The conclucapture of the Tourelles, from 1435-1793. The local festival was sion of the book, narrating the condemnation of the friends

re-established by Bonaparte in the year X and was declared a féte

and the restoration of Job’s fortunes, is also prose (xlii. 7—17).

76

JOB

Between these lies the main body of the work, including Job’s sth century B.c, There are good reasons for putting it in the 4th first passionate complaint (ch. iii.), the three successive rounds century.” Its place in the history of the problem of suffering of argument with his friends (iv.—xxxi.), the long harangue of among the Hebrews (see below) favors this date. There are algo Elihu (xxxii-xxxvii.) and the divine speeches with Job’s sub- indications of literary dependence (cf. Job vii. 17 and Ps. vii. 4. mission (xxxviii—xlii. 6). All this is written in the form of poetic Job iti, 3-12 and Jer. xx. 14—18). On the relation between Job dialogue. and Is. xl. seg. scholars are not agreed. Ezekiel (xiv. 14, 20) Commentators have sometimes compared the book of Job mentions Job by name, but the reference may be merely to a with the Greek philosophical dialogue. Job’s problem is distinctly hero of popular tradition. philosophical, but its treatment is poetic. The author was more Not all of the book was produced in the 4th century. The story closely related to the dramatists than to the philosophers of may have circulated in both oral and written form considerably Greece, Parallels between Job and the Prometheus Bound of earlier. The opening and closing narratives of our book of Job Aeschylus have often been pointed out. A comparative study of were probably parts of such a composition, for they imply a conthese products of Aryan and Semitic thought, and of such mod- versation between Job and his friends quite different from the ern works as Faust or Manfred, is very instructive, though the present dialogue. Apparently the poet has adapted the older Greek poet’s theme was the jealous hostility of the gods to man’s book to his purpose by simply removing the middle portion and progress in civilization rather than the difficulty created for putting his own work in its place. There are also passages which ethical theism by a righteous man’s suffering. must be later than the main body of the book. The speeches of In form as well as subject Job somewhat resembles a Greek Elihu “destroy the dramatic effect by introducing a lengthened tragedy. Many interpreters, both ancient and modern, have break between Job’s challenge and the answer of God.” In style treated it as a drama. Others object that there is no action, yet they differ from the rest of the book, while the arguments largely “the varying attitude of Job’s mind toward God exhibits dramatic reproduce those of the friends. Furthermore there is no reference action and tragic interest of the highest kind, though the move- to Elihu anywhere else in the book. Most critics agree, therefore, ment is internal.” The fact that we find no other drama in an- that the whole section is a later addition. “The position taken cient Semitic literature is not conclusive. Greek influence, though by Elihu is almost that of a critic of the book’”—perhaps this improbable at the time when Job was written, was not impos- reveals the purpose for which he was created. sible. All interpretations of the book as a drama include portions The lovely lyric on wisdom in ch. xxviii. is complete in itself which modern critics do not accept as belonging to the original and is out of place where it stands or anywhere else in the book. work; but if the book as a whole fitted naturally into the classical We may be grateful, however, to the editor, who, by interpolating form of the drama, only the most compelling critical arguments it, preserved it for us. Less perfect, though interesting and imcould outweigh that fact. As a matter of fact, this is not the case. pressive, are the descriptions of Behemoth and Leviathan in ch. Not a little revision is necessary to make Job a Greek tragedy, xl. 15—xli. They destroy the force of the second divine speech, and the result proves only that the book can be arranged as a making it only a weaker copy of the first, and if they are joined drama, not that it was so intended. to ch. xxxviii.—xxxix. as one speech, their inferiority to those chapHebrew literature developed its own forms. Peculiarly Hebrew ters becomes all the more evident. Possibly they were added by is the group of writings known as the Wisdom literature (qg.v.). It a writer who supposed that something had been lost from the deals with the lessons of practical experience. Religion is re- second speech, which is very brief without them, and therefore garded as essentially a way of life. The value of rites and insti- undertook to restore the missing material after the pattern of tutions is not considered, and if beliefs are discussed at all it the preceding chapters. In the third round of the dialogue the is in relation to moral experience. The unique position and pre- speech of Bildad is short, and Zophar has none. Moreover in rogatives of the Chosen People are not emphasized: only in the some of the passages attributed to Job he says precisely what his apocryphal books does this interest creep into the Wisdom liter- friends have been urging against him. Both difficulties are met ature. by rearranging the text. The dislocation, if not accidental, may For the antecedents of this type of writing we must look, have been designed to represent Job as convinced by the orthodox not to the Greeks, but to the Egyptians and Babylonians. Long arguments of his friends. Possibly the book has suffered still before the time of the Hebrew Wisdom literature the Egyptians further interpolation and dislocation. Several scholars have had writings resembling them in form and spirit. None of these, undertaken to restore the original poem. Only continued study however, have any noteworthy relationship to Job. Less material can determine how far their schemes are justified, but in general of this character has been found in Babylonian literature, yet they assume an almost incredible amount of alteration by scribes there is one remarkable composition known to scholars as “the and editors. Babylonian Job.” It is the poetic monologue of a pious king who, Of the author we know only what we can infer from his work. like Job, suffered grievous maladies until delivered by his god. That he was a lover and a keen observer of nature is evident. Not only the situation but even the language reminds us of Job, He was also conversant with the conditions and problems of hubut there is no dialogue nor any discussion of moral retribution. man life, in the desert and in the city, and had either travelled That the Hebrew writer was acquainted with this Babylonian widely or listened attentively to the reports of travellers. What poem is improbable. A few scholars believe that the book of Job he heard and saw, moreover, entered into his soul; he thought and is of Edomitic origin. The setting of the story, the personal felt profoundly. And he had a divine gift of utterance. Beyond names and the author’s theology have been cited in support of this this we cannot safely go. Like many others whose work is imhypothesis. The folk-tale upon which the poem was doubtless mortal, he himself is forgotten. based may have come from the Edomites. This would account History of the Problem.—So long as primitive man believed for the setting and the names. We know too little about the Edom- that the beings to whose anger he attributed his misfortunes were ites to speak confidently of their theology, but the main problem capricious and irresponsible, there was no problem of divine jusof our book grows directly out of the historical situation of post- tice. Even when men worshipped an ethical deity, who dealt exilic Judaism. with them according to their deeds, they might explain undeserved Whatever may be said of the form and relationships of Job, calamities by the malignity of other gods or spirits. Only when there can be no difference of opinion regarding the sublimity they believed their god to be omnipotent was this impossible. of the style, the vividness and beauty of the figures, the keen- The problem of divine justice therefore presupposes ethical ness of the author’s insight into human nature and the depth and monotheism. earnestness of his thinking. His work has a universal quality The early Hebrew prophets and historians felt no problem, and a note of reality which can be found only in the greatest lit- because they thought in terms of the nation, which had sinned. ' erature. The problem of individual retribution emerges with Jeremiah. Date, Integrity and Authorship.—“The tendency among Unable to understand why his fidelity only brought persecution, recent scholars is to put the book of Job not earlier than the while sinners were at ease, Jeremiah found strength to endure

JOB in consecration to his task and communion with God.

Many of

the Psalms emphasize the oppression of the righteous by the wicked, though it is not clear whether individuals are meant or

=

a

vance that the friends’ explanation of Job’s suffering was un-

founded. The conception of “the Satan” (adversary), which is precisely that noted in Zechariah, was probably not taken literally Israel and its enemies. The Psalmists complain of God’s ap- by the poet. The dialogue revolves about the doctrine of retribuparent indifference, but neither question nor defend His justice. tion. Job’s friends admitted that wicked men prospered but reIntermediate between national and individual retribution was the garded such prosperity as short-lived. Adversity might lead to doctrine that men suffered for their fathers’ sins. This seemed to repentance, but one would not suffer if he had not sinned. “Job explain undeserved suffering; but to meet the objection that it agreed that afflictions came directly from the hand of God, and was unfair, Ezekiel unequivocally asserts exact individual retribu- also that God afflicted those whom He held guilty of sins. But his tion. Whether the book of Ezekiel belongs to the exile or a later conscience denied the imputation of guilt, whether insinuated by period, this doctrine was an accepted tenet of post-exilic Judaism his friends or implied in God’s chastisement of him.” and as such underlies all the Wisdom literature. It sets the problem Modern scepticism, assuming God’s goodness, questions His for the book of Job. omnipotence. Job’s God is the irresistible Power manifest in When experience did not verify the doctrine, most of the nature and destiny; what is doubtful is His justice. Having forJews found comfort in believing that undeserved affliction and merly believed that God was good to him, Job tries to reconcile happiness were temporary (Ps. xxxiv., xxxvii., lxxiii.). The pros- God’s past and present dealings with him. He can see no benevperity of the wicked was explained as part of God’s plan for olence behind his affliction; therefore he concludes that what their destruction (Ps. xcii.); no explanation was attempted for seemed kindness was but cruel deceit, designed to make his fall the suffering of the faithful. For the nation promises of renewed more crushing. It is a frightful thought, but he knows he is glory were made by Ezekiel and Isaiah xl. seg. The latter also guiltless. Gradually his passionate sincerity leads him into a had an explanation for Israel’s afflictions: as the Servant of the deeper spiritual experience. Faith reasserts itself: “he appeals Lord, Israel suffered that the Gentiles might be saved. But appar- from God to God, and beseeches God to pledge Himself that ently this was not generally accepted. Ps. xxii., though dependent he shall receive justice from God (xvi. 19; xvii. 3).” The passage upon Is. xl. seg., has not the doctrine of vicarious suffering, nor in which his growing assurance reaches its triumphant climax is the idea developed in any of the later books of the Old Testa(xix. 25 seg.) seems to imply a vindication after death, but the ment. text is uncertain. Once before (xiv. 13) the idea of a resurrection The period following the exile was one of hope deferred. Hag- has appeared, only to be rejected. Whether Job here adopts it gai and Zechariah traced the people’s misfortunes to failure to must remain an open question; in any case the hope of future rebuild the temple; when this was done, they repeated the earlier recompense does not solve Job’s problem. Some commentators promises. Scepticism was evidently rife when Malachi wrote, but find a solution in the speeches of Elihu, but these were not a part again we have only promises without explanation. Habbakuk of the original book, and what Elihu really adds to the debate “is complains of Israel’s oppression by a wicked nation, and the not his position but his arguments.” Even in the divine reply to answer is that deliverance will come at the appointed time. Con- Job, where, if anywhere, we should expect to find the author’s tinued frustration forced the Jews to look beyond this life. In view of the problem, God only rebukes Job’s presumption and Ps. xlix. and lxxiii. the righteous sufferer takes refuge in a rela- shows him his ignorance. The epilogue provides his vindication, tionship with God which is apparently regarded as outlasting though it does not state that he has lived righteously but that he death. This conception is not found elsewhere in the Old Testa- has spoken rightly of God. ment. More congenial to Judaism was the idea of resurrection, Taking the book as a whole, we must admit that its meaning is which played a prominent part in the apocalyptic hopes of the not altogether clear. The many interpretations offered have just Greek and Roman periods. Only the beginnings of this develop- one point in common: certainly the doctrine of exact retribution ment are found in the Old Testament (Is. xxvi. 19; Dan. xii. 2). in this life is definitely rejected and refuted. Both its incomIn Daniel Israel is still the primary object of concern, though patibility with the facts of life and its evil consequences are demrighteous and wicked within the nation are distinguished and the onstrated. In the friends it produces a false interpretation of Job’s ideal of martyrdom is introduced. The book of Ecclesiastes misfortunes which makes them miserable comforters indeed. In shows that there were some who had no satisfying hope for the Job himself it leads to a denial of God’s justice and a feeling of future. They could meet the problem only by resignation to estrangement from Him. Many believe that this negative teaching the inevitable and unquestioning enjoyment of the good things exhausts the author’s purpose. It is quite enough to mark the in life, with a reasonable degree of piety and virtue. book as one of the greatest products of Hebrew thought. While still largely attributing Israel’s sufferings to the sins of More than this, however, is involved in the poem. No explathe people and their fathers, a few books suggest another explana- nation of the mystery is given because man is not in a position to tion. Zechariah represents “the Satan” as a supernatural enemy understand the government of the universe. The poet does not of God’s servants. In the extra-canonical book of Enoch the na- tell us whether or not he believes that God cares for the individual, tions are governed by angels who are responsible for wrongs though he forcibly suggests that the universe does not exist for done to Israel, and this may be the meaning of the “gods” of man alone. What he emphasizes is that God’s ways are beyond Ps. lxxxii. 1, 6 seg. (cf. lviii. 1, RV margin), the “high ones” of Is. all human comprehension. It is presumptuous to suppose that xxiv. 21, and the “princes” of Dan. x. 13, 20; xii. 1. Doubtless all man is or ought to be able to explain them. this reflects popular theology. In effect it is a reversion to primBut if an explanation is impossible, it is also unnecessary. Job itive conceptions. does not understand, but he sees God. Unfortunately the sigPurpose and Teaching.—The book of Job is a poem, not a nificance of his final confession is uncertain; it hinges on the treatise. “In the history of a soul, rather than the discussion of meaning of xlii. 6, which in the present text is ambiguous, if not a problem, lies the supreme interest of the book” (Peake). But unintelligible. Whether it implies loving trust or mere submission the author is interested in the problem. “No Hebrew writer is we cannot tell. In either case Job has had a personal experience of merely a poet or a thinker. He is always a teacher.” Only the the reality and majesty of God. Thus the poet shows how the individual aspect of the problem is considered; like the other heart may find peace, though neither tradition nor speculation Wisdom writers, the poet is not concerned with the nation. Ac- can answer the questions of the intellect. The primary purpose cording to the prologue Job’s affliction was a test of his piety. of the book is therefore practical, including comfort for those That religion can be disinterested is the moral of the story (as, who suffer undeservedly, emancipation from a dogma which puts an doubtless, of the original folk-tale). It is not, however, the theme unnecessary strain upon their faith and hardens their friends of the book. Nor is the testing of the righteous the poet’s own against them, realization of the intellectual presumption of quessolution of his problem. The implication that what is inexplicable tioning God’s justice, and satisfaction in immediate personal on earth is not so in heaven suits his purpose, but the function communion with Him. of the prologue in the present book is to show the reader in adBreriocrapHy.—Quotations not otherwise credited in the foregoing

78

JOB ANALYSIS

article are from the article on Job, written by A. B. Davidson and revised by C. H. Toy, in the 11th edition

of this Encyclopedia.

Commentaries: A. B. Davidson, in Cambridge Bible (1884) ; Peake, in Century Bible (1905) ; Driver (1906) ; Barton, in Bible for Home and School (1911); Jastrow (1920); Kent and Burrows, vol. vi. of Student’s Old Testament (1927). More detailed are Driver and Gray, in Internat. Crit. Comm. (1921); Ball (1922); Buttenwieser (1922). In German, Duhm (1897); Budde (and ed. 1913); Volz (1921) ;

Steuernagel (1923). See also Owen, Five Great Skeptical Dramas of History (1896) ; Peake, Problem of Suffering in the Old Testament (1904); Kallen, Book of Job as Greek Tragedy (1918). (M. B.)

The psychological phase of the analysis involves a statement of the mental processes involved in the work, the degree of intelli. gence required, amount and kind of education and temperamental requirements.

From the sociological point of view, enquiry should

be directed toward the class of workers engaged in the occupation, their nationality, family status, etc. Thus true analysis re-

quires and results in a complete view of occupational activity. Prominent Errorts.—In carrying out such complex investiga.

tions some mistakes are made, such as those due to the tempta. |

JOB ANALYSIS. This term, widely used since the World tion to rely on opinions obtained by questioning workers and their War, was applied by the personnel division of the American army employers. This “questionnaire method” has received severe con. ` to the analysis of occupational activities into their components, demnation from scientists and should be used sparingly by inves. by means of which job specifications were drawn up showing ex- tigators in the field of job analysis. In the first place, it yields actly what a worker in each occupation was expected to do and chiefly opinions showing what some one thinks the work is like, be. On the basis of these specifications men were selected to fill Secondly, it usually states the components of the job in general, positions such as those of chauffeur, gunsmith, etc. After the war abstract words such as “accuracy,” “quickness” and the like, which the concept of job analysis was carried into industry, education do not characterize any occupation in particular, being required in and allied fields, where it is applied not only to the work involved hundreds of different jobs. Too great dependence on psychological tests is another error, in a trade, but also to the work involved in a profession. Though the term “job analysis” is recent, the technique it em- There is a procedure whereby a number of psychological tests are ploys is not new. Under the term “vocational analysis,” investi- chosen which seem to resemble the work being analyzed. Those gators in vocational guidance have for some years analyzed voca- tests in which the good workers excel and the poor workers fall tional activities into their component parts so as to secure a basis short are considered to call forth the same mental activities as on which a person can choose a vocation. A pioneer study of this nature, The Machinist, was made in 1910 by Frederick J. Allen for the Vocation Bureau of Boston, Massachusetts. Similar studies have followed in a number of other communities and for a number of other occupations. Again, the technique, if not the name, was used by the efficiency engineers of the early part of the “zoth century. Taylor and others, in endeavouring to discover the unnecessary motions made by workers in industrial operations and in establishing standards of efficient performance, made analyses, dividing each job into units as minute as possible. Community Surveys.—Educators have used the term and the method in seeking to establish a scientific basis for organizing and teaching courses in vocational training. In 1914 the city of Richmond, Va., organized a survey of the community in order to discover its vocational opportunities and needs. Similar surveys followed in other cities, one of the most thorough being that of Cleveland. These surveys employed the method of job analysis, and their reports contain fairly detailed classification and descriptions of the operations involved in the various vocational activities in the communities. In addition to these surveys, analyses have been made in a more or less laboratory manner, having as their aim the dissection of vocational activities for the purpose of formulating methods of giving instruction. Under these circumstances Charles Allen formulates the steps to be taken as follows: (a) divide the work into unit operations; (b) divide each operation into operating points; (c) divide the operating points into two kinds, machine operating points and human operating points. These are then taught to apprentices as units or are put together into projects and taught as larger units. Analyses by even more strict laboratory procedure have been carried out, chiefly by psychologists, in the effort to discover facts about learning which could be put to use in the training of apprentices. Bryan and Harter investigated telegraphing and discovered the rate at which learners could receive and send at various stages of their progress. W. F. Book made a similar study of typewriting. Wells and, later, Hoke investigated, among other things, the nature of the errors which a typist makes. On the basis of these facts a teacher of typewriting can direct a learner in the avoidance of errors and the more rapid acquisition. of skill. Procedure.—Analysis should be made from a number of points of view. Especially is this necessary when made for the purpose of drawing up job specifications or qualifications that must be possessed by the worker. Economic questions should be answered, such as how much money may be earned, how the demand for workers fluctuates, etc. From the physical point of view the analysis should specify the movements that the worker makes, the weights to be lifted and the ‘like. Physiological data should be gathered showing such things as preferable age, height, sensory

acuity and also liability to accident or to occupational disease.

those required in the job and to constitute therefore the analyzed components of the work. As a matter of fact, such an assumption is not valid. The activities called forth by the tests are merely test-activities and nothing more. Scientific Method.—In formulating a procedure which promises scientifically valid results, and will be applicable regardless of the ends for which an analysis may be made, the underlying requirement is that the procedure must conform to the rigid tech- ` nique of scientific method. It must be unbiased and dominated only by the desire for the exact determination of conditions. Thorough analysis can be carried on only by trained scientists, though they must have the co-operation and assistance of experts in the occupational fields as well.

In conducting an analytic investigation the first task is to survey the entire vocational field in which the activity lies, to determine its relation to the social organization, then to divide it into its occupational sections. These are to be described in terms of their relations with each other and their relation to the whole field. Then each occupational section is described and divided into smaller units. This division may be made by mere observation, and the' operations may at first be described in qualitative terms, but the descriptions should also be couched in quantitative terms. Use of Measurements.—Measurement is an indispensable part of the process. The early quantitative analyses of F. W. Taylor were made with a stop-watch reading in fifths of a second. As the principle of measurement has become more widely extended, however, there has come a demand for measurements of greater precision, made with instruments used in the psychological laboratory for the measurement of intervals of time as small as one-thovsandth of a second. For example, pictures have been made of the eye-movements made by proof-readers. The chronocinematographic method of F. B. and L. M. Gilbreth offers much promise for the exact measurement of motions and time intervals involved in work operations. Motion pictures of the worker at his work are taken, in which is placed a clock that measures time in millionths of an hour. The background in each picture is cross-sectioned into squares of predetermined size.’ By examining the exact position of the worker in each succeeding picture in relation to these squares and to the time-recorder, it is possible to determine how much he has moved and at what rate. For developments in Great Britain see the article on FATIGUE IN INDUSTRY. Some indication of the fundamental part which job analysis can play will be furnished by this list of ends which have motivated the various analyses that have been made: elimination of waste

motions; determining standard day’s tasks; wage setting; figuring

accurate costs; arranging grades and routes of promotion; inventing trade tests; establishing a curriculum for vocational education; determining methods of teaching vocational activities; securing 4

JOBBER—JOB’S TEARS basis for choice of a vocation; securing job specifications for the

selection of workers. See also INDUSTRIAL PsycHoLocy; INTELLIGENCE TESTS. BrsriocraPHy.—F. W. Taylor, The Principles of Scientific Management (1911); Cleveland Foundation Survey Committee, The Cleve-

land Education Survey (1915-6); F. B. and L. M. Gilbreth, Motion

Study for the Handicapped (1920); C. R. Allen, The Foreman and his Job (1922); H. D. Kitson, “Job analysis as an aid in vocational curriculum building,” Yearbook of the Nat. Soc. for the Study of

Education No. 23, Pt. 2 (1923); and The Psychology of Vocational Adjustment (1925); W. W. Charters and I. B. Whitley, Analysis of Secretarial Duties and Traits (1924); F. J. Allen, Guide to the Siudy of Occupations (1925); W. F. Book, Learning to Typewrite (1925); see also Reports of the Industrial Fatigue Research Board. (H. D. K.)

79

some shares of which there may be only a scanty supply, since the brokers, acting for the public, would insist upon buying if he made a price. In the case of a slump, the jobber might find himself with much more stock than he wanted; in a boom, he might be left in the position of having sold shares that he could not get back again.

The Jobber’s Book.—Such being the possible conditions in a Stock Exchange slump or boom, it will be seen that the jobber

makes a book, and that this book may lead either to profit or to loss. The prices that the jobber makes are regulated mainly by the public supply and demand. If the jobber finds himself being left with more shares than he sells, he lowers his price; if he keeps on selling shares in response to demand, he puts it up, JOBBER, a term used principally in America to denote an hoping to induce people either to buy from him or to sell to individual, firra or corporation engaged in business, as a merchant him, as the case may be. He is running risks all the time, through middleman, for the purpose of purchasing goods for re-sale to the system of making a price and not knowing whether he will the retail trade. The wholesaler and the jobber constitute two be called upon to take, or to supply, the stock. If, having sold separate and successive links in the chain of distribution mainly in £500 War Loan to a fellow-member, he could be certain that marketing agricultural products. Originally, the jobber was a his next’ bargain would be the purchase of £500 of the same stock merchant middleman who specialized in buying and selling odd, at a fraction below the price of his previous sale, all would be isolated or “job” lots of merchandise. The wholesaler, on the plain-sailing; but uncertainty waits upon every bargain that a other hand, maintained continuous stocks and specialized in buying jobber books. There may be a profit: the double price gives and selling more or less complete offerings of certain lines of the jobber room in which to turn round. On the other hand, the merchandise. This distinction in the marketing of manufactured transaction may easily end in loss to the jobber. He takes the products has almost completely disappeared. Manufactures have rough with the smooth and hopes that the profits will outweigh so greatly standardized production methods and improved distribu- losses. If they did not, there would soon be no jobbers; but in tion that they have fewer job lots to sell. Also, regular whole- a market where prices are moving rapidly under the influence of salers, large scale retailers and department stores are constantly substantial public orders to buy or sell, or both, the jobber stands seeking available job lots. Some of these job lots are used for to be “shot at,” as the expressive phrase goes. He frequently private branding and some for special sales, basement bargains, has the unpleasant experience of finding that, at the end of a “etc. The jobber, then, in the original sense of the term, has day’s heavy business, all the profits that he has made on jobbing merged with the wholesaler in most lines of trade in manufactured are swallowed by a loss on his book: he may have bought more, products. The functions of the jobber may be listed as follows: on balance, than he has sold and the price has moved down (rt) assembling, transporting and delivering stocks; (2) extending against him; or he may have sold, and been unable entirely to credit to customers; (3) assuming risks of price fluctuation, replace, shares that have risen in price at the end of the day. wastage and deterioration; (4) selling stocks through a regular The Jobber a Specialist.—Whereas the Stock Exchange sales force; (5) providing the retailer with advice and assistance broker receives orders in stocks and shares of every description, in matters of stock turn, stock control and selling methods. the jobber confines his book to a specialized market. If he deals (G. R. C.) in Coats, he will not touch Canadian Pacifics. The dealer in JOBBER (STOCK EXCHANGE). Every member or Shell Transports has nothing to do with British Celanese. Where applicant for re-election, admission, or re-admission to the Lon- there are partners in a firm of jobbers, some of them will probdon Stock Exchange must declare to its committee whether he ably act in various markets, but one man confines his attention proposes to act as a broker, a dealer, or a clerk. No member or to a particular class or set of securities. He studies the companies, authorized clerk is allowed to carry on business in the double knows the brokers who are likely to be buyers or sellers of his capacity of broker and dealer. A dealer may not deal for or with own special shares, and may keep a stock of these shares on his a non-member of the Stock Exchange: he cannot, that is to book for the brokers who, he hopes, will come and buy them say, buy or sell for a client outside the Stock Exchange. Part- from him on behalf of their clients. Experience gives him a nerships between brokers and dealers are prohibited. The Stock sense of possible movements, rise or fall; though, in practice, Exchange dealer is nearly always termed a jobber, but the Stock even experience can prove a very misleading guide. As a prinExchange rules, from which the foregoing statements are ex- cipal, liable to make either loss or profit, the jobber is not tied tracted, hardly use the word jobber, familiar as it is through down by any official scale of minimum remuneration. He makes use during more than a century. Put simply, the London Stock what he can, competition serving to keep the “turns” within Exchange rules forbid jobbers to deal with anyone except a reasonable limits. The jobber’s life involves more risks, more broker, or an authorized clerk, a fellow-jobber, while a broker excitement, and more stagnation—according to the state of pubacts as an agent between members of the public and members of lic interest in the jobber’s market—than the life of a broker. the Stock Exchange. The jobber has shorter hours than the broker, his expenses are The Jobber a Principal.——While the broker acts as inter- on a more modest scale, and the drudgery is much less; but the mediary or agent, the jobber’s status is that of a principal. He fact that a census of London Stock Exchange members usually buys from one man the securities that he hopes to sell to another; reveals about the same number acting in each class proves that or he sells in the expectation of being able to replace the stock the profits are divided more or less evenly between brokers and or shares at a lower figure. He has to deal in the dark, for the jobbers. CW. L.) broker who approaches him with business in those shares in which JOBST or Jovocus (c. 1350-1411), margrave of Moravia, he, the jobber, specializes, does not say whether the order is to was a son of John Henry of Luxemburg, margrave of Moravia, buy or to sell. This is the reason for the double prices always and grandson of John, the blind king of Bohemia. He became quoted in the Stock Exchange. The jobber, in making a price, margrave on his father’s death in 1375, and was chosen German thereby commits himself to buy at the lower or to sell at the king on Oct. 1, 1410, in opposition to Sigismund, who had higher of the two prices mentioned. He is not compelled to make been elected a few days previously. He died on Jan, 17, 1411. a price. In times of panic, when sellers greatly preponderate, See J. Heidemann, Die Mark Brandenburg unter Jobst von Mähren it might be financial suicide for a jobber to continue making prices (1881) ; J. Aschbach, Geschichte Kaiser Sigmunds (1838-45).

in stocks that he could feel practically certain would be sold to him, though he himself had little chance of finding buyers. In booming markets, he hesitates to continue making prices in

JOB’S TEARS, in botany, the popular name for Coix Lach-

ryma-Jobt, a species of grass, of the tribe Maydeae, which also includes the maize (see Grasses). The seeds, or properly fruits, are

JOCASTA—JOEL

80

contained singly in a stony involucre or bract, which does not open until the enclosed seed germinates. The young involucre surrounds the female flower and the stalk supporting the spike of male flowers, and when ripe has the appearance of bluish-white porcelain. Being shaped somewhat like a large drop of fluid, the form has suggested the name. The fruits are esculent and the involucres are used for making necklaces and other ornaments. The plant is a native of India, but is now widely spread throughout the tropical zone. It grows in marshy places; and is cultivated in China, the fruit having a supposed value as a diuretic and anti-phthisic. Forms of it are used as cereal foods in parts of eastern Asia and in the Philippines where it is called adlay,

JOCASTA: see OEDIPUS, JOCKEY, a professional rider of race-horses, now the cur-

rent usage (see HorsE-RACING). The word is by origin a diminutive of “Jock,” the Northern or Scots colloquial equivalent of the name “John.”

JODELLE, ETIENNE, seigneur de Limodin (1532-1573), French dramatist and poet, belonged to the Pléiade (see DAURAT) and proceeded to apply the principles of the reformers to dramatic composition. Jodelle aimed at creating a classical drama that should be in every respect different from the moralities and soties then occupying the French stage. His first play, Cléopâtre captive, was represented before the court at Reims in 1552. Jodelle himself took the title rôle, and the cast included his friends, Remy Belleau and Jean de la Péruse. In honour of the play’s success the friends organized a little fête at Arcueil when a goat garlanded with flowers was led in procession and presented to the author—a ceremony exaggerated by the enemies of the Ronsardists into a renewal of the pagan rites of the worship of Bacchus. Jodelle wrote two other plays, Eugène and Didon se sacrifant, Jodelle died in poverty in July 1573. Jodelle’s works are collected Charles Marty-Laveaux.

(1868) .

JODHPUR or MARWAR,

in the Pléiade française of

the largest Indian state in the

Udaipur family, which they had forfeited by contracting alliances with the Mogul emperors, on the understanding that the offspring of Udaipur princesses should succeed to the state in preference ty all other children. The quarrels arising from this stipulation lasted through many generations, and led to the invitation of Mabhratta help from the rival aspirants to power, and finally to the sub. jection of all the Rajput states to the Mahrattas. In 1818 Jodh. pur was taken under British protection. In 1843, the chief having died without a son, and without having adopted an heir, the nobles

and state officials were left to select a successor from the nearest

of kin. Their choice fell upon Raja Takht Sinh, chief of Ahmed.

nagar. This chief, who did good service during the Mutiny, died

in 1873. Since 1896 there was a succession of minorities, during which Sir Pertab Singh of Idar carried on the government of the state as regent. The imperial service cavalry formed part of the reserve brigade during the Tirah campaign, and were on

active service during the World War. The chief is a Maharaja and his salute is 17 guns. The city of JopHpur is 64 m. by rail N.W. of Marwar junction, on the Rajputana railway. Pop. (1921), 73,480. It was built by Rao Jodha in 1459, and from that time has been the seat of goyernment. It is surrounded by a strong wall nearly 6 m, in extent,

with seven gates. The fort, which stands on an isolated rock,

contains the maharaja’s palace, a large and handsome building, completely covering the crest of the hill on which it stands, and overlooking the city, which lies several hundred feet below. The city contains palaces of the maharaja, and town residences of the thakurs or nobles, besides numerous fine temples and tanks, Building stone is plentiful and close at hand, and the architecture is solid and handsome. Five miles north of Jodhpur are the ruins of Mandor, the site of the ancient capital of the Parihar princes of Marwar, before its conquest by the Rathors. The Jaswant college is affiliated to the B.A. standard of the Allahabad university. To the Hewson hospital a wing for eye diseases was added in 18098.

JOEL. The second of the “Minor Prophets” in the Old Testa. Rajputana agency. Area, 34,963 sq.m. Pop. (1921), 1,841,462. The general aspect of the country is that of a sandy plain, divided ment. Contents.—The book falls into two parts: (a) i. 2-ii. 17, (b) into two unequal parts by the river Luni, and dotted with picturesque conical hills, attaining in places an elevation of 3,000 ft. ii. r8-iii, 21. (a) The occasion of the prophecy is a plague of The river Luni rises in the sacred lake of Pushkar in Ajmere, and locusts, Addressing the people the prophet vividly describes the flows through Jodhpur in a south-westerly direction till it is calamity which threatens complete destruction owing to repeated finally lost in the marshy ground at the head of the Runn of ravages of the locusts: even the Temple services cannot be mainCutch. It is fed by numerous tributaries and occasionally over- tained because all agricultural produce is destroyed. In this visiflows its banks, fine crops of wheat and barley being grown on the tation of locusts the prophet sees signs of the approaching “Day saturated soil. The famous salt-lake of Sambhar is situated on of Yahweh” (i. 15): there is no hope save in repentance and the borders of Jodhpur and Jaipur, and two smaller lakes of the prayer, so the prophet urges priests and people to penitence and same description lie within the limits of the state, from which intercession that the “destruction from the Almighty’ may be large quantities of salt are extracted, Marble is mined in the north stayed. He bases his exhortation on an appeal to the obvious facts of the state and along the south-east border. Marwari traders are (i. 16-18). In ii. 1-17 the call to repentance and prayer is rean enterprising class to be found throughout the length and peated and emphasized by a fuller description of the locust plague, This second description is influenced by experience of the scourge breadth of India. The principal crops are millets and pulses, but wheat and bar- already well-known; the stress is laid not upon the result of the ley aré largely produced in the fertile tract watered by the Lini visitation but upon the irresistible terror of the approaching river. The manufactures comprise leather boxes and brass uten- hordes. The locusts of this future visitation are the “army” of sils; and turbans and scarfs and a description of embroidered silk Yahweh used by him as his agents in “the Day of Yahweh” to execute final judgment. It is not too late to avert destructive judgknotted thread are specialities of the country. The ruling house belongs to the Rathor clan of Rajputs, and ment by solemn fast and penitence: it must be sincere repentance claims descent from Rama. After the downfall of the Rathor —*‘rend your heart and not your garments.” (b) Between ii. 17 and 18 there is an interval, during which it dynasty of Kanauj in 1194, Sivaji, the grandson of Jai Chand, the last king of Kanauj, entered Marwar on a pilgrimage to Dwarka, is left to be understood that the call to repentance (ii. 12-17) had and laid the foundation of the state, but it was not till the time been obeyed. (The verbs in ii. 18 are in the past tense, so R.V., of Rao Chanda, the tenth in succession from Sivaji, that Marwar was actually conquered. His grandson Jodha founded the city of Jodhpur, which he made his capital. In 1561 the country was invaded by Akbar, and the chief was forced to submit. Aurangzeb invaded Marwar in 1679, plundered Jodhpur, sacked all the large towns, and commanded the conversion of the Rathors to Mo-

hammedanism. This cemented all the Rajput clans into a bond of union, and a triple alliance was formed by the three states of Jodhpur, Udaipur and Jaipur, to throw off the Mohammedan yoke. One of the conditions of this alliance was that the chiefs of Jodhpur and Jaipur should regain the privilege of marriage with the

not future as A.V.) The second part of the book (ii. ry—iii, 21)

opens with Yahweh’s promise to remove the plague of locusts and restore fruitful seasons. In the new prosperity of the land the

union of Yahweh and his people will be sealed anew, spiritual gifts

will descend upon them so that all will be endowed with clearer perception of divine truth, Signs in heaven and earth announce “the Day of Yahweh.” In the crisis there will be no terror for the

Jews, they will be delivered and restored; judgment will overtake the nations doomed to destruction for their oppression of Yah-

weh’s people. A digression in prose (ili. 4-8) follows in which special mention is made of the doom of Phoenicia and Philistia.

JOFFRE Then (iii. 9-17) the nations are summoned to prepare for war, not against the Jews but against Yahweh

and his supernatural war-

riors, by whom they will be annihilated. In contrast to the fate of the nations, Yahweh will be a “refuge unto his people,” who, by his intervention, are set free to enjoy the benefits he will send. Henceforth Judah and Jerusalem will be secure.

Interpretation.—There has been difference of opinion as to whether the description of devastation by the locusts is to be regarded as literal or allegorical. Is the visitation of locusts with which the book begins historical, or is it a figurative description of an event yet future? In the latter case: are the locusts real locusts (in the future) which supply the imagery of the prophet’s message? The allegorical interpretation is found in the Fathers, and was held by Pusey, who considered the book to have been written before Amos. Hilgenfeld, accepting a late date, took the four swarms of locusts to represent Persian invasions. Merx has

suggested that the locusts are neither real nor symbolic but ideal, and the rest of the book a late compilation from the prophets. A distinction between the two parts of the book is made by Duhm: according to his view i. 1~ii. 17 deals with a historical visitation of locusts, and ii. 18-iii. 21 is a long apocalyptic expansion from the Maccabaean age. Sellin modifies this view: he considers that Joel used an earlier poem dealing with a historical plague of locusts; this poem, from the 1st century after the Exile, was transformed by Joel into an apocalypse. This transformation was based upon an older tradition which pictured locusts as a kind of demonic army forming one of the eschatological plagues (Gressmann). A literal interpretation of the locust swarms is generally held by modern authorities and there is a tendency to regard the apocalyptic characteristics as interpolations into the original work of Joel. An argument advanced against the literal interpretation is

the description of the locusts as “the northerner” (ii. 20, kassephoni). Locusts as a rule enter Palestine from the south or south-east; thus it is considered that “‘the northerner” can only refer to an invading army from the north, e.g., Assyrians, Scythians, Babylonians. But it is evident from the rest of the verse that “the northerner” must refer to locusts. The expression has no connection with the origin of the locusts; it is an epithet denoting the dread which Hebrew thought associated with the north, the region

SI

satisfactory explanation of a number of passages. A post-exilic date was first proposed by Vatke; this view is now generally accepted. (Driver, Gray, G. A. Smith, Wade, Merx, Marti, Nowack, Wellhausen.) The style and language of the book have characteristics similar to the earlier prophetic books; but there are late elements, such as the general apocalyptic conceptions, which mark Joel as the work of a post-exilic writer who was acquainted with and influenced by earlier literature. Though in iii. r the phrase “bring again the captivity of Judah...” may be rendered “retrieve the fortune of Judah .. .,” the statement (ili. 2, 3) that the Jews have been dispersed among the nations has no adequate explanation in any event except the overthrow of Judah in 586 and its subsequent effect upon the fortunes of the

people. It is therefore necessary to seek a period after the exile when there is an undivided nation which maintains the true worship of Yahweh in the Temple. A time when there is no king: the elders and priests are the leaders of the people, Judah has suffered at the hands of foreign nations; these are not Assyrians nor Babylonians but the people of Tyre, Sidon, Philistia and Greece. Conditions such as these are only satisfied at a period after the settlement of the restored community at Jerusalem; and, since the worship is associated with the Temple, it is implied that the second Temple is in existence. Thus Joel must be later than Haggai and Zechariah i—viii. (Driver) and cannot be earlier than c. §20 B.c. (Wade). The reference to “the wall” in il. 7, 9 seems to imply that the wall of Jerusalem has been rebuilt and presupposes that the book was written after Nehemiah (c. 445 B.c.).

Omission of any mention of the Persians as oppressive foes is

due to the leniency with which they usually treated the Jews. It was not until the reign of Artaxerxes Ochus (358-337) that Jewish subjects were ill-treated: a period subsequent to this is not supported by internal evidence. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Bewer, Obadiah, Joel and Jonah (I.C.C.); S. R. Driver, Joel and Amos (Camb. B.); G. A. Smith, The Book of the Twelve Prophets, vol. ii. (Ex.B.); Wade, Micah, Obadiah, Joel and Jonah (West. Com.), all of which give references to the earlier literature. (B. M. P.)

JOFFRE, JOSEPH JACQUES CÉSAIRE (1852-7

),

French soldier, was born Jan. 12, 1852, at.Rivesaltes, at the edge

of the eastern Pyrénées. According to a tradition preserved in the family, his stock is Spanish and noble, and its proper name logical sense of “the northerner” is discarded and the term has is Goffre. His great-grandfather fled from Spain for political assumed a symbolical significance—any agent through which reasons, came to France, gave his name the French spelling of Joffre, and became a merchant. The grandson of this first Joffre calamity came (Wade). With the possible exception of iii. 4-8 it appears unnecessary to adopted the trade of a cooper. He had rx children, one of them regard the book as other than the work of one author. At a time being the future victor of the Marne. The studies of young Joffre at the École Polytechnique were when real locusts had brought calamity upon the land Joel calls the inhabitants to repentance. He then turns from the present to interrupted by the Franco-German War and he took part in the the future and describes “The Day of Yahweh” in language sug- defence of Paris in 1870. Afterwards he passed out from the gested to him by experience of actual locusts. The locusts of ii. Polytechnique into the engineers and worked on the fortification I~17 are eschatological, they usher in “the Day of Yahweh.” The of Paris. In 1876 he was promoted captain. The loss of his wife people repent either in direct response to the prophet’s call, or, so affected him, however, that he applied for a transfer to Indopossibly, in the ideal future to which the prophet looks, and obtain China, where he took part in the occupation of Formosa in 1885 mercy from Yahweh. Thus, in the ideal future as Joel wished to and remained three years at Hanoi as chief of engineers. In see it, when “the Day of Yahweh” comes it will bring punishment 1888 he returned with Gen. Mensier to Paris. In 1889 he entered the railway regiment. In 1892 he was sent to Senegal to build a to Israel’s foes, to Israel relief and hope. Date.—-The absence of any statement which serves to indicate railway from Kayes to Bafoulabe. At the end of 1893, a colurnn the precise occasion of the prophecy has caused the book of Joel commanded by Col. Bonnier marched on Timbuktu via the Niger. to be assigned to dates ranging over a period from 835 B.C. to 360 Joffre, who was a major, was ordered to form a second column, B.c. Many allusions are furnished by the general background of which was also to march to Timbuktu by the left bank of the the book, but these are such as lend themselves to explanation river. He left Segou on Dec. 27, to receive the news at Goundam at the end of January that Col. Bonnier had been murdered on in the circumstances of different periods. Credner in 1831 argued that the conditions implied by internal the rsth. Nevertheless, he continued his march on Timbuktu evidence gave sufficient justification for dating the prophecy in undaunted, and entered the town on Feb. 12, 1894, after marchthe early days of Joash, king of Judah, 837-801, during whose ing 813 kilometres. Some years later he went to Madagascar to minority the government was in the hands of Jehoiada the priest form the base at Diego-Suarez. He was appointed general of (2 Kings xi, 4~21). A division of the book has been suggested by brigade in 1900 and general of-division in 1905. While comVernes and Rothstein, assigning i. and ii. 1-27 to the time of Joash, mander of the 2nd Army Corps at Amiens he was called to the H. 28-32 and iii. to the post-exilic period. On account of linguistic Conseil Supérieur de la Guerre in roro. This council, re-estaband other affinities with Jeremiah, Konig has placed the date in lished in 1872, consisted of the generals who in time of war the last years of Josiah. Each of these views is open to serious would have the chief commands. Gen. Joffre was entrusted with of the uncanny and mysterious.

By a common usage the etymo-

objection in its interpretation of the evidence and fails to give a

the direction of the lines of communication.

82

JOHANAN

BEN ZACCAI—JOHANNESBURG

Under the system then existing, the vice-president of the Higher Council became in time of war commander-in-chief of the armies in the field. But in time of peace he had very little authority over his future subordinates. He could not determine either promotion or commands. The real authority lay with the chief of general staff of the army. Gen. Michel, vice-president of the Higher Council, resigned in July 1911, and the minister of war, M. Messimy, decided to unite the functions of vice-president and those of chief-of-staff of the army in one person, so that in the eventuality of war the chief of the general staff would become commander-in-chief. Who was to exercise these united duties, which constituted a position of considerable power? M. Messimy thought of Gen. Pau, who refused on the ground that he had only 18 months’ more service on the active list. Gen. Galliéni was due to pass into the reserve even sooner. M. Messimy’s choice accordingly fell on Joffre, who was only 59 years old, and had therefore five years more on the active list. For three years Joffre exercised complete authority over the army. He had laid his plan of campaign, known as Plan 17, before the Conseil Supérieur on April 18, 1913. Germany having declared war on France on Aug. 3, 1914, he took up the post of commander-in-chief on the 5th. From this day on, the history of his life for more than two years was that of the War itself. This silent general, jealous of his authority but undismayed by the most tragic events, had to bear on his broad shoulders a weight which only his coolness and energy enabled him to sustain.

After having attempted in vain to throw himself on the flank of the advancing Germans, he was obliged to withdraw his left wing a considerable distance. He resumed the offensive on Sept. 6, and threw the Germans back to the Aisne in the memorable battle of the Marne. He attempted then to turn their right wing, a frustrated manoeuvre which ended with the rival fronts resting on the sea. The Germans first made the attempt to break the allied line on the Yser in Nov. 1914, and they failed. The French, in turn, tried vainly to break the German front in Champagne, in. the Woevre, in Artois, and simultaneously in Artois and Champagne (Sept. 1915). These checks, following on rash promises and high hopes, had alarmed public opinion. A campaign was conducted against the commander-in-chief, on the one hand by the friends of Gen. Galliéni, who accused general headquarters of having stolen the glory of the Marne; and on the other by the yet more powerful friends of Gen. Sarrail, whom Gen. Joffre had relieved of his command in July 1915. They reproached general headquarters for their blind confidence in 1914. They accused Joffre of rejecting all superior authority and organizing a regular government at Chantilly. So long as Millerand was minister for war he protected the commander-in-chief. But Millerand was replaced on Oct. 30, 1915, by Gen. Galliéni, Joffre had served under the latter at Madagascar, and Galliéni had suggested Joffre to Messimy in 1ro1x for the post of. chief of general staff. But at the beginning of the War, Galliéni, although designated successor to Joffre, had been left as military governor of Paris instead of being called to general headquarters. Then came the battle of the Marne, followed by rivalry, if not between the two commanders, at least among their general staffs. On Dec. 3, rors, however, Gen. Joffre received, instead of the simple command of the north and north-east, the supreme command of all the French armies, an appointment which put under his authority the Army of the Orient, commanded by none other than Gen. Sarrail. But trouble was not slow in arising. On Dec. 16 the minister for war demanded information on-the state of the defences before Verdun. On the 18th he received a stiff reply from Gen. Joffre, who offered to resign. Galliéni answered on the 22nd that Joffre enjoyed the complete confidence of the Government. Nevertheless, two months later, on Feb, 21, 1916, the Germans attacked in front of Verdun, and the defences, which were incomplete, were forced in as far as the line of forts, to a depth of 8km. in four days. On March 7 Galliéni read to the council of ministers a memorandum pointing out the necessity of reforming the high command. His advice was not accepted; he was also

ill; he therefore resigned, and was replaced on March 17 by General Rocques. The new minister was a personal friend of Gen. Joffre. Never. theless, the campaign against him lasted throughout 1916. This was partly due to the apparently indecisive result of the great Allied battle on the Somme, and the personal quarrel betwee Sarrail and Joffre continued. Finally, Gen. Nivelle, commander of the 2nd Army operating before Verdun, having retaken the for; of Douaumont, appeared as a possible successor to Joffre, A decree of Dec. 13, 1916, conferred on Joffre the title of technica]

adviser to the Government in matters concerning the direction of the War. He continued to hold the title of commander-.ip. chief of the French Armies. Gen.: Nivelle received the command of the north and north-east—that is to say, of the French front,

The Army of the Orient again became independent of general headquarters.

What was this post of commander-in-chief and technical ad. | viser? The Senate demanded an explanation. In a secret committee, which sat from Dec. 19-23, M. Briand, as prime minister, explained

the decree of the 13th.

The title of commander-in.

chief was left to a man who had played an historic part and who deserved every consideration but it implied no authority either over Gen. Nivelle or Gen. Sarrail, who remained free to conduct operations as they wished. Joffre would be consulting member in the War committee, which was merely an organ of preparatory

work, its decisions being submitted to the council of ministers, However, on Dec. 13, M. Briand had made changes in the cabinet, and had called Gen. Lyautey to the ministry for war in place of Gen. Galliéni. Lyautey arrived in Paris on the 24th. He considered the post of commander-in-chief and technical adviser granted to Gen. Joffre as incompatible with the authority of the minister for war. These two offices were suppressed, but in compensation Gen. Joffre was created Marshal of France on Dec. 26 In the spring of 1917 he made a journey to North America. The Académie française made him a member on Feb. 14, 1918,

and he took his seat there on Dec. 19.

(H. Bz.)

see J. J. C. Joffre, Opérations de la Colonne Joffre avant et après Poccupation de Timbouctou (1895); My March to Timbuktu... with introduction by E. Dimnet (1915) ; 1914-15, La Préparation de la guerre et la conduite des opérations (1920). See also C. Dawbar, Jofre and his Army (1916); Mermeix (Gabriel Terrail), Fragments @histoire, 1914-19... (vol. i. Joffre: la première crise du commandement, etc.) (1919); G. Hanotaux and J. G. A. Fabry, Jofre (1921) ; and the article on Worro WAR.

JOHANAN BEN ZACCAI, Palestinian rabbi, contemporary of the Apostles. He was a disciple of Hillel (q.v.), and after the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem by Titus was the main instrument in the preservation of the Jewish religion. During the last decades of the Temple Johanan was a member of the Sanhedrin and a skilled controversialist against the Sadducees. He is also reported to have been head of a great school in the capital. In the war with Rome he belonged to the peace party, and finding that the Zealots were resolved on carrying their revolt to its inevitable sequel, Johanan had himself conveyed out of Jerusalem in a coffin. In the Roman camp the rabbi was courteously received, and Vespasian permitted him to found a college at Jamhia (Jabneh), which became the centre of Jewish culture. It practically exercised the judicial functions of the Sanhedrin. (See Jews, § 40 ad fin.) The Mishnah was the outcome of the work begun at Jamnia. | r

See Graetz, History of the Jews (Eng. trans.) , vol. ii. ch. xiii.; Weis ae dor ve-doreshav, ii. 36; Bacher, Die Agada der Tannaiten, vol. i.

. iü.

JOHANNESBURG,

26° 13’ S., 28° 56 E.; altitude 5,740

feet. Distance by rail from Cape Town (via Kimberley), 957 m.; from Port Elizabeth, 712 m.; from East London, 665 m.; from Durban, 482 m.; from Delagoa Bay (via Pretoria), 394 miles. Johannesburg is the largest urban centre in South Africa. In 1926 the white population, including that of its suburbs, numbered 170,543. In 1921 the non-Europeans, chiefly Bantu, totalled

130,612. On the Witwatersrand, as a whole, there were in 1926, 249,865 Europeans. The main part of the city lies immediately north of the central.

JOHANNISBERG—JOHN part of the main gold reef. The streets run in straight lines east and west, or north and south. The principal business streets are Eloff street, Commissioner street, Market street, President street and Pritchard street. Here, and in the shorter streets intersect-

ing them, are the hotels, shops, banks, mining offices, newspaper offices and clubs, the majority being well built buildings of stone or brick, though often roofed with galvanized iron. Toward the north is ‘Joubert’s park, with an art gallery. To the north of the city rises a sharp ridge, which has become the favourite residential quarter. The houses of brick or local stone are often well designed, and placed among pleasant gardens. The Union observatory, 3 m. N.E. of the city, is equipped with a

264 in. telescope. On the far side of the ridge are the Zoological gardens, in a spacious, well laid out park, where the animals are well housed, and have plenty of room. The suburbs to the north and east of the city have various names—Jeppestown, Belgravia, Doornfontein, the Berea, Parktown, Yeoville, etc. Fordsburg

lies to the west, and includes the gas, and electric light and power works. At Turffontein, 2 m. to the south of the city, is a well-known race-course. South, east and west lie the mines, with their tall chimneys, battery houses and native labourers’ compounds. They extend along the veld for about 50 miles. Characteristic of this belt are the great mounds of white dust, the refuse of the crushing machines. On them vegetation will not grow, and they provide much of the material carried about during the dust storms, which are so well known in and around Johannesburg. The mines in the municipal area, nearly 82 sq.m., are responsible for nearly half the total output of the Transvaal. Among the industries which have grown up in more recent times are flour milling, iron founding, furniture making, food, drink and tobacco manufactures. Large meat chilling installations have been erected.

The climate is cool and bracing in the winter

(see SOUTH

83

JOHN, a masculine proper name common in all Christian countries (Heb. Yokdndn, “Yahweh has been gracious,” Lat. Joannes, Fr. Jean, Ger. Johannes); its popularity is due to its having been borne by the “Beloved Disciple” of Christ, St. John the Evangelist, and by the forerunner of Christ, St. John the Baptist.

JOHN, tHE AposTLz, in the Bible, was the son of Zebedee, a Galilean fisherman, and Salome. It is probable that he was born at Bethsaida, where along with his brother James he followed his father’s occupation. The family appears to have been in easy circumstances; at least we find that Zebedee employed hired servants, and that Salome was among those women who contributed to the maintenance of Jesus (Marki. 20, xv. 40, 41, xvi. 1). John’s “call” to follow our Lord occurred simultaneously with that addressed to his brother, and shortly after that addressed to the

brothers Andrew and Simon Peter (Mark i. 19, 20). John speedily took his place among the twelve apostles, sharing with James the title of Boanerges (“sons of thunder,” perhaps strictly “sons of anger,” t.e. men readily angered), and became a member of that inner circle to which, in addition to his brother, Peter alone belonged (Mark v. 37, ix. 2, xiv. 33). John appears throughout the synoptic record as a zealous, fiery Jew-Christian. It is he who indignantly complains to Jesus, “We saw one casting out devils in Thy name, and he followeth not us,” and tells Him, “We forbade him” for that reason (Mark ix. 38); and who with his brother, when a Samaritan village will not receive Jesus, asks Him, “Wilt thou that we command fire to come down from heaven and con-

sume them?” (Luke ix. 54). The Book of Acts confirms this tradition. After the departure of Jesus, John appears as present in Jerusalem with Peter and the other apostles (i. 13); is next to Peter the most prominent among those who bear testimony to the fact of the resurrection (iii. 12—26, iv. 13, 19-22); and is sent with Peter to Samaria, to confirm the newly converted Christians there (vii. 14, 25). St. Paul tells us similarly that when, on his second visit to Jerusalem, “James,” the Lord’s brother, “and Cephas and Jobn, who were considered pillars, perceived the grace that was given unto me, they gave to me and Barnabas the right hand of fellowship, that we should go unto the heathen, and they unto the circumcision” (Gal. ii. 9). John thus belonged in 46-47 to the Jewish-Christian school; but we do not know whether to the stricter group of James or to the milder group of Peter (ibid. ii.

AFRICA), though the sudden changes of temperature are apt to be trying to delicate people. The infantile mortality is high, the figures for 1922, for infants under one year, being over 94 per 1,000. The city has a large hospital; close to it is the South African Institute for Medical Research. There are many large schools and a normal college. The University of the Witwatersrand, which was founded in 1903 as the School of Mines and Technology, and received its charter in 1921, is moving from II—I4). its old buildings near the railway station into excellent new ones, The subsequent history of the apostle is obscure. Polycrates, still incomplete (1928), situated on the ridge to the north in bishop of Ephesus (in Euseb., H. E. ili. 31; v. 24), attests in 196 Milner’s park, 80 ac. of which were granted by the city as a site that John “who lay on the bosom of the Lord rests at Ephesus”; for the university. Johannesburg is the seat of a bishopric but previously in this very sentence he has declared that “Philip (Anglican), and a new cathedral is to be completed by 1929. one of the twelve apostles rests in Hierapolis,” although Eusebius The cost of living is relatively not so high as it formerly was. (doubtless rightly) identifies this Philip not with the apostle but The price of houses is high, and imported clothing has had to pass with the deacon-evangelist of Acts xxi. 8. Polycrates also declares a customs barrier, but food is comparatively cheap. The fruit that John was a priest wearing the wéradov (gold plate) that dissupply is among the best in the country, drawing the best fruit tinguished the high-priestly mitre. Irenaeus in various passages of from Natal and the Cape area. There is a good service of elec- his works, 181-191, holds a similar tradition. He says that John tric trams in the city and the suburbs, and the water supply and lived up to the time of Trajan and published his gospel in Ephesus, sewage scheme are satisfactory. and identifies the apostle with John the disciple of the Lord, who Johannesburg owes its existence to the discovery of gold in wrote the Apocalypse under Domitian, whom Irenaeus’s teacher the local beds of conglomerate in 1886. It was named after Jo- Polycarp had known personally and of whom Polycarp had much hannes Rissik, then surveyor-general of the Transvaal. The town to tell. These traditions are accepted and enlarged by later was connected by railways with the Cape ports in 1892, and with authors, Tertullian adding that John was banished to Patmos after Natal in 1895. The increased facility of transport caused a fur- he had miraculously survived the punishment of immersion in ther development of mining activity. (See also TRANSVAAL: His- burning oil. As it is evident that legend was busy with John as tory.) After a period of military administration, and of govern- early as the time of Polycrates, the real worth of these traditions ment by a nominated town council, an election for a new council requires to be tésted by examination of their ultimate source. This took place in Dec. 1903. In 1905 the town was divided into inquiry has been pressed upon scholars since the apostolic authorwards. On Sept. 5, 1928, it was created a city. ship of the Apocalypse or of the Fourth Gospel, or of both these

JOHANNISBERG,

a village in the Prussian province of

Hesse-Nassau, in the Rheingau, on the right bank of the Rhine, 6m. E. of Rüdesheim by railway. Pop. (1925) 1,502. The Schloss crowns a hill overlooking the Rhine valley, and is surrounded by vineyards yielding the famous Johannisberger wine. Built in 1757—59 by the abbots of Fulda on the site of a Benedictine monastery founded in 1090, it was bestowed, in 1807, by Napoleon upon Marshal Kellermann. In 1814 it was given by Francis, emperor of Austria, to Prince Metternich.

works, has been disputed. (See JoHN, GosrEL oF ST., and APOCALYPSE.) The opponents of the tradition lay weight on the absence of positive evidence before the latter part of the 2nd century, especially in Papias and in the epistles of Ignatius and of Irenaeus’s authority, Polycarp. They find it necessary to assume that Frenaeus mistook Polycarp; but this is not a difficult task, since already Eusebius (c. 310-313) is compelled to point out that-Papias testifies to two Johns, the Apostle and a presbyter, and that Ire-

JOHN L—JOHN XV.

84

naeus is mistaken in identifying those two Johns, and in holding that Papias had seen John thé Apostle (H.E. iii. 39, 5, 2). Irenaeus tells us, doubtless correctly, that Papias was “the companion of Polycarp”: this fact alone would suffice, given his two mistakes concerning Papias, to make Irenaeus decide that Polycarp had

seen John the Apostle. The chronicler George the Monk (Hamartolus) in the oth century, and an epitome dating from the yth or 8th century but probably based on the Chronicle of Philip of Side (c. 430), declare, on the authority of the second book of Papias, that John the Zebedean was killed by Jews (presumably in 60~70). Adolf Harnack, Chron. d. alichr. Lit. (1897, pp. 656-680), rejects the assertion; but a number of scholars accept it as correct. (F. v. H)

sanction the restoration of Photius to the see of Constantinople, and had withdrawn his consent on finding that he gained nothing from the concession. Charles the Fat gave him also no effectual aid. According to the annalist of Fulda, he was murdered (Dec,

16, 882) by members

of his household.

His successor was

Marinus.

JOHN IX., pope from 898 to 900, confirmed the judgment

of his predecessor Theodore II. in granting Christian burial to Formosus, but at 4 council held at Ravenna decreed that the records of the synod which had condemned him should be burned, John supported Lambert in preference to Arnulf, and also induced the council to determine that henceforth the consecration of the popes should take place only in the presence of the imperial

JOHN I., pope from 523 to 526, Tuscan by birth, was con-

legates. The sudden death of Larnbert shattered the hopes which

secrated pope on the death of Hormisdas. Theodoriċ sent him to Constantinople on an embassy to Justin to secure toleration for

this alliance seemed to promise. John died on April 6, goo, and was succeeded by Benedict IV. JOHN X., popë from 914 to 928, was deacon at Bologna when he attracted the attention of Theodora, the wife of Theophylact, the most powerful noble in Rome, through whose influence he

the Arians.

He was suspected of lukewarmness

in his mission,

and was imprisoned by Theodoric on his return. He died in prison on May 18; his feast-day is May 27.

JOHN II., pope from 533 to 535, also named ceeded Boniface II. At the instance of Justinian proposition unus de Trinitate passus est in carne orthodoxy of certain Scythian monks accused of encies. He was succeeded by Agapetus I. JOHN III., pope from 56r to 574, suceessor descended from a noble Roman family.

Mercurius, suche adopted the

was elevated first to the see of Bologna, then to the archbishopric of Ravenna, and finally to the papal chair, as the successor of

as a test of thè Nestorian tend-

Lando. He allied himself with Theophylact and Alberic, marquis of Camerino, then governor of the duchy of Spoleto. In December 915 he granted the imperial crown to Berengar. He took the

to Pelagius, was

field in person against the Saracens, over whom he gained a great victory on the banks of the Garigliano. The defeat and death of Berengar through the combination of the Italian princes, again frustrated the hopes of a united Italy. John perished through the intrigues of Marozia, daughter of Theodora. His successor was Leo VI.

He is said to have pre-

vented an invasion of Italy by the recall of the deposed exarch Narses, but the Lombards continued their incursions.

JOHN IV., pope from 640 to 642, a Dalmatian by birth, succeeded Severinus after an interval of four months. He adhered to the repudiation of the Monothelite doctrine by Severinus, but endeavoured to explain away the connection of Honorius I. with the heresy. His successor was Theodorus I.

JOHN V., pope from 685 to 686, a Syrian by birth, was in

680 papal legate to the sixth ecumenical council at Constantinople. He succeeded Benedict TII., and was followed by Conon.

JOHN

XI., pope from 931 to 935, son of Marozia and

reputed son of Sergius III., was chosen to succeed Stephen VII. at the age of twenty-one. He was the mere exponent of the purposes of his mother, until her son Alberic in 933 overthrew their authority. The pope was a virtual prisoner in the Lateran, where he is said to have died in 935. He was succeeded by Leo VII,

JOHN VI., pope from 70x to 705, born in Greece, succeeded

JOHN XII., pope from 955 to 964, was the son of Alberic,

to the papal chair two months after the death of Sergius I. He assisted the exarch Theophylact, who had been sent into Italy by the emperor Justinian HL., and prevented him from using

whom he succeeded as patrician of Rome in 954, being then only sixteen. His original name was Octavian, but when he assumed the papal tiara as successor to Agapetus II., he adopted the apostolic name of John. In order to protect himself against the intrigues in Rome and the power of Berengar II. of Italy, he called to his:aid Otto the Great of Germany, to whom he granted the imperial crown in 962. Even before Otto left Rome the pope had begun to conspire against the new emperor. His intrigues were discovered by Otto, who, after he had defeated and taken prisoner ‘Berengar, returned to Rome and summoned a council which deposed John, who was in hiding in the mountains of Campania, and elected Leo VIII. in his stead. On Otto’s departure John re turned, and Leo fled. Otto prepared to support Leo, but before he reached the city John had died (May 14, 964) and Benedict V. had mounted the papal chair.

violence against the Romans. John induced Gisulf, duke of Benevento, to withdraw from the tetritories of the empire.

JOHN VIL, pope from 705 to 707, successor of John VI.,

was also of Greek nationality. He seems to have acceded to the

request of the emperor Justinian II. that he should give his sanction to the decrees of the Quinisext or Trullan council of 692. He was succeeded by Sisinnius. JOHN VHII., pope from 872. to 882, successor of Adrian IIL., was a Roman by birth. He defended the Roman State and the authority of the Holy See at Rome from the Saracens, and from the nascent feudalism which was represented outside by the dukes

of Spoleto and the marquises of Tuscany and within by a party ef Roman nobles. He agreed in 875 to bestow the imperial crown. on Charles the Bald. About the time of the death of Charles he was compelled to come to terms with the Saracens, who

were only prevented from entering Rome by the promise of an annual tribute.

Carloman, the opponent of Charles’s son Louis,

then invaded northern Italy, and demanded the imperial crown.

john attempted to temporize, but Lambert, duke of Spoleto, a partisan of Carloman, whom sickness had recalled to Germany, entered Rome in 878 with an overwhelming force, and for 30 days virtually held John a prisoner in St. Peter’s. Lambert, however, won no concession from the pope, who after his withdrawal went to France. There he presided at the council of Troyes, which excommunicated the supporters of Carloman—amongst others Adalbert. of Tuscany, Lambert of Spoleto, and Formosus, bishop of Porte, who was afterwards elevated to the papal chair. In 879 John, returned to. Italy accompanied by Boso, duke of Provence, whom he adapted, as his son. He was compelled to promise his sanction to the claims of Charles the Fat, who received from him the imperial crown. in 88r. In order to secure the aid of the Greek emperor against the Saracens, he had already agreed to

JOHN XIII., pope from 965 to 972, a member of a noble

Roman election attitude Romans return, Shortly 967, he

family, and bishop of Narni, succeeded Leo VIII. His was confirmed by the emperor Otto, and his submissive towards the imperial power was so distasteful to the that they expelled him from the city. Otto secured his upon which he took savage vengeance on his enemies, after holding a council with the emperor at Ravenna in gave the imperial crown to Otto II. at Rome in assurance

of his succession to his father; and in 972 he also crowned Theo phano as empress immediately before her marriage. He died on Sept. 5, 972, and was succeeded by Benedict VI.

JOHN XIV. (Pietro Canepanova), pope from 983 to 984,

successor to Benedict VII, was born at Pavia. He was bishop of Pavia and imperial chancellor of Otto II. Otto died shortly after his election, when Boniface VII., on the strength of the popular feeling against the new pope, returned from Constanti-

nople and placed John in prison, where he died (Aug. 20, 984) either by starvation or poison.

JOHN XV., pope from 985 to 996, generally recognized as the

successor of Boniface VIL, the pope John who was said to have

JOHN XVI—JOHN XXII. ruled for four months omitted.

after John XIV., being now

usually

would be serving the best interests of the church by pronounce-

John XV. was the son of Leo, a Roman presbyter. His

ing its suppression; but he rejected the condemnation of Boniface as a sacrilegious affront to the church and a monstrous

authority was hampered by Crescentius, patrician of Rome, but the presence of the empress Theophano in Rome from 989 to ggt restrained the ambition of Crescentius. He was succeeded by Gregory V. JOHN XVI. (Philagathus of Rossano), pope or antipope from 997 to 998, was a Calabrian Greek by birth, and a favourite of the empress Theophano, from whom he had received the bishopric of Placentia. In 995 he was sent by Otto III. on an emhassy to Constantinople

to negotiate a marriage with a Greek princess.

On his way back he either accidentally or at the special request of Crescentius visited Rome. A little before this Gregory V., at the

end of 996, had been compelled to flee from the city; and Phila-

gathus took the papal tiara from the hands of Crescentius. On Otto’s arrival in Rome in the spring of 998 John fled, He was discovered and brought back ta Rome, where he was blinded in prison.

JOHN

85

XVII, whose original name was Sicco, succeeded

Silvester II. as pope on June 13, 1003, and died on Dec. 7 of the same year. JOHN XVIII. (a Roman named Phasianus), pope from. 1003 to 10099, was the mere creature of the patrician John Crescentius. He abdicated and retired to a monastery, where he died shortly afterwards. His successor was Sergius IV.

abuse of the lay power.

On Dec. 23, 1312, Clement appointed

him cardinal-bishop of Porto.

Clement had died in April 1314,

but the cardinals assembled at Carpentras were unable to agree as to his successor. The cardinals reassembled (June 28, 1316) at Lyons, and after deliberating for more than a month they elected Robert of Anjou’s candidate, Jacques Duése, who was crowned on Sept. 5. He arrived at Avignon in October, and remained there for the rest of his life. For the restoration of the papacy to its old independence and for the execution of the vast enterprises which the papacy deemed

useful for its prestige and for Christendom, considerable sums were required; and to raise the necessary money John burdened

Christian Europe with new taxes and a complicated fiscal system. The essentially practical character of his administration has led many historians to tax him with avarice, but later research on the fiscal system of the papacy of the period, particularly the joint work of Samaran and Mollat, enables us very sensibly to modify the severe judgment passed on John by Gregorevius and others. John’s pontificate was continually disturbed by his conflict with Louis ef Bavaria and by the theological revolt of the Spiritual Franciscans. In Oct. 1314 Louis of Bavaria and Frederick of Austria had each been elected German king by the divided electors. John affected to ignore the successes of Louis, and on

JOHN XIX. (Romanus, count of Tusculum), pope from 1924 to 1033, succeeded his brother Benedict VJIJI, He took orders to enable him to ascend the papal chair, having previously been Oct. 8, 1323, forbade his recognition as king of the Romans. After a consul and senator. He agreed, on the payment of a large bribe, demanding a respite, Louis abruptly appealed at Nuremberg from to grant to the patriarch of Constantinople the title of an ecumen- the future sentence of the pope to a general council] (Dec. 8, ical bishop, but the general indignation compelled him almost 1323). The conflict then assumed a grave doctrinal character. immediately to withdraw from his agreement. On the death of the The doctrine of the rights of the lay monarchy sustained by emperor Henry IT. in 1024 he gave his support to Conrad IL, Occam and John of Paris, by Marsilius of Padua, John of Jandun who was crowned at St. Peter’s in Easter of 1027. John died in and Leopold of Bamberg, was affirmed by the jurists and theo1033. His successor was his nephew Benedict IX., a boy of logians, penetrated into the parlements and the universjties, and twelve. was combated by the upholders of papal absolutism, such as

JOHN XXI. (Pedro Giuliano-Rebulo), pepe from Sept.- 8, Alvaro Pelayo and Alonzo Trionfo, Excommunicated on March 1276 to May 20, 1277 (should be named John XX., but there is an 21, 1324, Louis retorted by appealing for a second time to a generror in the reckoning through the insertion of an antipope), a eral council, which was held on May 22, 1324, and accused John

native of Lisbon, educated for the church, hecame archdeacon and then archbishop of Braga (1271—75). He ingratiated himself with Gregory X. at the council of Lyens (1274) and he was taken to Rome as cardinal-bishop of Frascati, and succeeded Gregory after an interregnum of twenty days. As pope he excommunicated Alphonso ITI. of Portugal for interfering with episcopal elections and sent legates to the Great Khan. He was killed (May 20, 1277) by the fall of the roof in the palace he had built at Viterbo. His successor was Nicholas III. Jon XXI. has been identified since the r4th century, most probably correctly, with Petrus Hispanus, a celebrated Portuguese physician and philosopher, author of sev-

eral medical works—notably the curious Liber de ocula, trans.

into German and well edited by A. M. Berger (Munich, 1899), and of a popular textbook in logic, the Summulae logicales. John XXI. is often referred to as a magician by ignorant chroniclers. See Les Registres de Grégoire X. et Jean XXI., published by J. Guiraud and E. Cadier in Bibliathéque des écoles françaises d’ Athènes

et de Rome (Paris, 1898) ; R, Stapper, Papst Johann XXI, (Münster, 1898); J. T. Kohler, Vollständige (Göttingen, 1760).

Nachricht van Papst Johann XXI,

JOHN XXII., pope from 1316 to 1334, was born at Cahors, France, in 1249. His original name was Jacques Duése. After studying with the Dominicans at Cahors, he studied law at Montpellier, and law and medicine in Paris, and finally taught at Cahors and Toulouse. At Toulouse he became intimate with the bishop Louis, son of Charles II., king of Naples. In 1300 he was elevated

to the episcopal see of Fréjus by Pope Boniface VITI. at the instance of the king of Naples, and in 1308 was made chancellor of Naples by Charles, retaining this office under Charles’s successor, Robert of Anjou. In 1319 Pope Clement V. summoned Jacques to Avignon, and instructed him to advise upon the affair

of being an enemy to the peace and the law, stigmatizing him as a heretic on the ground that he opposed the principle of evangelical poverty ag professed by the strict Franciscans, On July 11, 1324, the pope laid under an interdict the places where Louis or his adherents resided, but this bull had no effect in Germany,

Louis penetrated into Italy and selzed Rome on Jan, 7, 1328, with the help of the Roman Ghibellines led by Seiarra Colonna. Louis got himself crowned by the deputies of the Roman people; instituted proceedings for the deposition of John, whom the Roman people declared to have forfeited the pontificate (April

18, 1328); and finally caused a Minorite friar, Pietro Rainalucci da Corvara, to be elected pope under the name of Nicholas V. After Louis left Rome and Italy (2329) the antipope was abandened ‘by the Romans and handed over to John, who forced him

to make a solemn submission with a halter round his neck (Aug.

15, 1330). Nicholas was condemned to perpetual imprisonment, and died in obscurity at Avignon: while the Roman people sub-

mitted to King Robert, who governed the church through his vicars. In 1317, in execution of a bull of Clement V., the royal vicariate in Italy had been conferred by John on Robert of Anjou, and this appointment was renewed in 1322 and 1324, with threats of excommunication against anyone who should seize the vicariate of Italy without the authorization of the pope. John was accused of heretical opinions, of having preached that the souls of those who die in a state of grace do not enjoy the beatific vision until after the Last Judgment and the Resurrection.

He appears to have retracted shortly before his death, which

oceurred on Dec. 4, 1334. On Jan. 29, 1336, Pope Benedict XII, pronounced a long judgment on this point of doctrine, a judgment which he declared had been included by John in a bull which

of the Templars and also upon the question of condemning the

death had prevented him from sealing.

suppressing the order of the Templars, holding that the pope

upholders of the independence of the lay power, but also among

memory of Boniface VIII.

Jacques decided on the legality of

|

John had kindled very keen animosity, not only among the

S6

JOHN XXIIIL—JOHN I.

the upholders of absolute religious poverty, the exalted Franciscans. Clement V., at the council of Vienne, had attempted to bring back the Spirituals to the common rule by concessions; John, on the other hand, in the bull Quorundam exigit (April 13, 1317), adopted an uncompromising and absolute attitude, and by the bull Gloriosam ecclesiam (Jan. 23, 1318) condemned the protests which had been raised against the bull Quorundam by a group of 74 Spirituals and conveyed to Avignon by the monk Bernard Délicieux. Shortly afterwards four Spirituals were burned at Marseilles. These were immediately hailed as martyrs, and in the eyes of the exalted Franciscans at Naples and in Sicily and the south of France the pope was regarded as antichrist. In the bull Sancta Romana et universa ecclesia (Dec. 28, 1318) John

brilliant victory of Roccasecca

definitively excommunicated them and condemned their principal

On Nov. 5, 1414, John opened the council of Constance, where, on Christmas Day, he received the homage of the head of the empire, but where it was soon evident that his position was w-

book, the Postil (commentary) on the Apocalypse (Feb. 8, 1326). The bull Quia nonnunquam (March 26, 1322) defined the derogations from the rule punished by the pope, and the bull Cum inter nonnullos (Nov. 12, 1323) condemned the proposition which had been admitted at the general chapter of the Franciscans held at Perugia in 1322, according to which Christ and represented as possessing no property, either mon. The minister general, Michael of Cesena, the exaggerations of the Spirituals, joined with against the condemnation of the fundamental gelical poverty.

(May 19, 1411) he dragged the

standards of Pope Gregory and King Ladislaus through the streets of Rome. But he eventually abandoned the cause of Louis

of Anjou, and recognized Ladislaus, his former enemy, as king of Naples. Ladislaus did not fail to salute John XXIII. as pope, abandoning Gregory XII. (June 15, 1412). This was a fatal step:

Jobn XXIII. was trusting in a dishonest and insatiable prince, John convened a sparsely attended council in Rome which held only a few sittings, and on March 3, 1413, he adjourned it till December. On Dec. 9 he issued the bull convening the cound] of Constance, under pressure from Sigismund, king of the

Romans. Meanwhile (June 8, 1413) Ladislaus had turned against John, had sacked Rome, and expelled him.

tenable. He had to take a solemn oath to abdicate if his two rivals, Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII., would do the same, On the night of March 20-21, having donned the garments of a layman, with a cross-bow slung at his side, he escaped from Con-

the Apostles were personal or comthough opposed to them in protesting principle of evan-

at Brisach, whence he hoped to reach Alsace, and doubtless ultimately Avignon, under the protection of an escort sent by the

The pope, by the bull Quia quorundam (Nov. 10, 1324), cited

duke of Burgundy. The news of the pope’s escape was received at Constance with an extraordinary outburst of rage, and led to

Michael to appear at Avignon at the same time as Occam and Bonagratia. All three fled to the court of Louis of Bavaria (May 26, 1328), while the majority of the Franciscans made submission and elected a general entirely devoted to the pope. But the resistance, aided by Louis and merged as it now was in the cause sustained by Marsilius of Padua and John of Jandun, became daily bolder. Treatises on poverty appeared on every side; the party of Occam clamoured with increasing imperiousness for the condemnation of John by a general council; and the Spirituals, confounded in the persecution with the Beghards and with Fraticelli of every description, maintained themselves in the south of

stance, and took refuge first in the castle of Schaffhausen, then in that of Laufenburg, then at Freiburg-im-Breisgau,

and finally

the subversive decrees of the 4th and sth sessions, which proclaimed the superiority of the council over the pope. Duke Frederick of Austria was compelled to surrender John, who was brought back to Freiburg. He was suspended from his functions as pope on May 14, 1415, and deposed on May 29.

However irregular this sentence may have been from the canonical point of view (for the accusers do not seem to have actually proved the crime of heresy, which was necessary, according to most scholars of the period, to justify the deposition of a sovereign pontiff), the condemned pope was not long in confirming it. Baldassare Cossa, now as humble and resigned as he France in spite of the reign of terror instituted in that region by had before been energetic and tenacious, on his transference the Inquisition. to the castle of Rudolfzell admitted the wrong which he had See M. Souchon, Die Papstwahklen von Bonifaz VII. bis Urban VI. done by his flight, refused to bring forward anything in his (Brunswick, 1888) ; Abbé Albe, Autour de-Jean XXII. (Rome, 1904); defence, acquiesced entirely in the judgment of the council which K. Müller, Der Kampf Ludwigs des Bayern mit der Curie (Tübingen, 1879 seq.); W. Preger, “Mémoires sur la lutte entre Jean XXII. et he declared to be infallible, and, finally, ratified motu proprio Louis de Bavière” in Abhandl. der bayr. Akad., hist. sec., Xv., Xvi., the sentence of deposition, declaring that he freely and willingly xvii.; S. Riezler, Die litterar. Widersacher der Päpste zur Zeit Ludwigs renounced any rights which he might still have in the papacy. This des Baiers (Leipzig, 1874) ; F. Ehrle, ‘Die Spiritualen” in Archiv fur fact has subsequently been often quoted against those who have Litteratur- und Kirchengeschichte des Mittelalters (vols. i. and ii.); C. Samaran and G. Mollat, La Fiscalité pontificale en France au xivé appealed to the events of 1415 to maintain that a council can siècle (1905); A. Coulon and G. Mollat, Lettres secrètes et curiales de depose a pope who is scandalizator ecclesiae. Jean XXII. se rapportant à la France (1899, seq.). Cossa was held prisoner for three years in Germany, but in the JOHN XXIII. (Baldassare Cossa), pope, or rather anti-pope end bought his liberty (1418) from the count palatine. He then from 1410 to 1415, born of a good Neapolitan family, was a cor- threw himself on the mercy of the legitimate pope. Martin V. sair before entering the service of the church under the pontificate appointed him cardinal-bishop of Tusculum, a dignity which of Boniface IX. He won the cardinal’s hat and the legation of Cossa only enjoyed for a few months. He died on Dec. 22, 1419, Bologna. On June 29, 1408, he and seven of his colleagues broke and all visitors to the Baptistery at Florence may admire, under away from Gregory XII., and together with six cardinals of the its high baldacchino, the sombre figure sculptured by Donatello obedience of Avignon, who had in like manner separated from of the dethroned pontiff, who had at least the merit of bowing Benedict XIII., they agreed to aim at the assembling of a gen- his head under his chastisement, and of contributing by his passive eral council, setting aside the two rival pontiffs, an expedient resignation to the extinction of the series of popes which sprang which they considered would put an end to the great schism of from the council of Pisa. JOHN I. (925-976), surnamed Tzimisces, East Roman the Western Church, but which resulted in the election of yet a third pope. This act was none the less decisive for Baldassare emperor, was born of a distinguished Cappadocian family. After Cossa’s future. Alexander V., the first pope elected at Pisa, was helping his uncle Nicephorus Phocas (g.v.) to obtain the throne not perhaps, as has been maintained, merely a man of straw put and to restore the empire’s eastern provinces he was deprived of forward by the ambitious cardinal of Bologna; but he reigned his command by an intrigue, upon which he retaliated by cononly ten months, and on his death (May 4, 1410), Baldassare spiring with Nicephorus’ wife Theophania to assassinate him Cossa succeeded him. He seems to have received the unani- (969). Having strengthened his position by concessions, John mous vote of all the 17 cardinals gathered together at Bologna proceeded to justify his usurpation by the energy with which he (May 17). He took the name of John XXIII, and France, repelled the foreign invaders of the empire. In a series of camEngland, and part of Italy and Germany recognized him as paigns against the newly established Russian power (970-973) head of the Catholic church. i he drove the enemy out of Thrace, crossed Mt. Haemus and The struggle in which he and Louis TI. of Anjou engaged with besieged the fortress of Dorystolon on the Danube. He broke Ladislaus of Durazzo, king of Sicily,-and Gregory XII.’s chief the strength of the Russians so completely that they left him

protector in Italy, at first went in John’s favour.

After the

master of eastern Bulgaria.

He further secured his northern

JOHN IL.—JOHN frontier by transplanting to Thrace some colonies of Paulicians whom he suspected of sympathising with their Saracen neigh-

bours in the east. In 974 he turned against the Abbasid empire and easily recovered the inland parts of Syria and the middle

87

emperor at Didymoteichos in Thrace, while John Palaeologus and his supporters maintained themselves at Constantinople. The civil war which ensued lasted six years, during which the rival parties called in the aid of the Serbians and Turks, and engaged

mercenaries of every description. It was only by the aid of the Turks, with whom he made a disgraceful bargain, that CantaSee E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fali of the Roman Empire, vol. vi. cuzene brought the war to a termination favourable to himself. (ed. Bury, 1896) ; G. Finlay, History of Greece, ii. 334~360 (ed. 1877) ; In 1347 he entered Constantinople in triumph, and forced his G. Schlumberger, L’Epopée Byzantine, i. 1-326 (1896). opponents to an arrangement by which he became joint emperor JOHN II. (1088-1143), surnamed Comnenus and also Kalo- with John Palaeologus and sole administrator during the minority joannes (John the Good), East Roman emperor, was the eldest of his colleague. During this period, the empire, already broken son of the East Roman emperor Alexius, whom he succeeded in up and reduced to the narrowest limits, was assailed on every side. 1118. On account of his mild and just reign he has been called There were wars with the Genoese, who had a colony at Galata the Byzantine Marcus Aurelius. By the personal purity of his and had money transactions with the court; and with the Serbians, character he improved the manners of his age, but he displayed who were at that time establishing an extensive empire on the little vigour in internal administration or in extirpating the long- north-western frontiers; and there was a hazardous alliance with standing corruptions of the government. Nor did his various the Turks, who made their first permanent settlement in Europe, successes against the Hungarians, Servians and Seljuk Turks, at Callipolis in Thrace, towards the end of the reign (1354). whom he pressed hard in Asia Minor and proposed to expel from Cantacuzene was far too ready to invoke the aid of foreigners Jerusalem, add much to the stability of his empire. He was in his European quarrels; and as he had no money to pay them, killed during a wild-boar hunt on Mt. Taurus, on April 8, 1143. this gave them a ready pretext for seizing upon a European See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, v. 228 town. Heavy taxation caused discontent, and a strong party had seq. (ed. Bury, 1896) ; F. Chalandon, Leo Comnenus II. (1933). always favoured John Palaeologus, who entered Constantinople JOHN III. (1193-1254), surnamed Vatatzes and also Ducas, at the end of 1354. Cantacuzene retired to a monastery (where East Roman emperor, earned for himself such distinction as he assumed the name of Joasaph Christodulus) and occupied a, soldier that in 1222 he was chosen to succeed his father-in-law himself in literary labours. He died in the Peloponnese and was Theodore I. Lascaris at Nicaea. He reorganized the remnant buried at Mysithra in Laconia. His History in four books deals of the East Roman empire, and by his administrative skill with the years 1320-1356. made it the strongest and richest principality in the Levant. Cantacuzene was also the author of a commentary on the first Having secured his eastern frontier by an agreement with the five books of Aristotle's Zthics, and of several controversial theologiTurks, he set himself to recover the European possessions of his cal treatises, one of which (Against Mohammedanism) is printed in predecessors. While his fleet harassed the Latins in the Aegean Migne (Patrologia Graeca, cliv.). History, ed. pr. by J. Pontanus (1603); in Bonn, Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz., by J. Schopen (1828— Sea and extended his realm to Rhodes, his army, reinforced by 1832) and Migne, cliii., cliv. See also Val Parisot, Caniacuzéne, Frankish mercenaries, recovered the last Latin conquests in homme d’état et historien (1845); E. Gibbon, Decline and Fail, ch. Asia Minor (1241). Though unsuccessful in a siege of Con- lxiii.; and C. Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur reaches of the Euphrates. He died suddenly in 976 on his return from his second campaign against the Saracens.

stantinople, which he undertook in concert with the Bulgarians (1236), he obtained supremacy over the despotats of Thessalonica and Epirus. The ultimate recovery of Constantinople by the Rhomaic emperors is chiefly due to his exertions. See E. Gibbon, Tke Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vi. 431462 (ed. Bury, 1896); G. Finlay, History of Greece, iii. 196-320 (ed. 1877); A. Meliarakes, ‘Ioropia rod Baotdelou ris Nixalas kaè rod Aeorordrov tis "Haelpov, pp. 155-421

(1898).

JOHN IV. (c. 1250-c. 1300), surnamed Lascaris, East Roman

emperor, son of Theodore II. Palaeologus conspired shortly in 1261 dethroned and blinded him in a remote castle, where

His father dying in 1258, Michael after to make himself regent, and the boy monarch, and imprisoned he died a long time after.

See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vi. 459466 (ed. Bury, 1896) ; A. Meliarakes, ‘Ioropia rot Baotdeiov ris Nuxatas,

rae 3 (1898), pp. 491-528;

A. Gardner,

The Lascarids

of Nicaea

1912). JOHN V. or VI. (1332-1391), surnamed Palaeologus, East Roman emperor, was the son of Andronicus III., whom he succeeded in 1341. At first he shared his sovereignty with his father’s friend John Cantacuzene, and after a quarrel with the latter was practically superseded by him for a number of years (1347-1355). His reign was marked by the gradual dissolution of the imperial power through the rebellion of his son Andronicus and by the encroachments of the Ottomans, to whom in 1381 John acknowledged himself tributary, after a vain attempt to secure the help of the popes by submitting’ to the supremacy of the Roman Church. See E. Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vi. 495 seq., vii. 38 seg. (ed. Bury, 1896); E. Pears, The Destruction of the Greek Empire, pp. 70-96 (1903).

JOHN

VI. or V. (c. 1292-1383), surnamed

Cantacuzene,

East Roman emperor, was born at Constantinople. Connected with the house of Palaeologus on his mother’s side, on the accession of Andronicus III. (1328) he was entrusted with the supreme administration of affairs. On Andronicus’ death in 1341, Cantacuzene was left regent, and guardian of his nine year old son John Palaeologus. Being suspected by the empress and opposed by a powerful party at court, he rebelled, and got himself crowned

(1897); E. W. Brooks in Cambridge Medieval History, vol. iv.

JOHN VI. or VII. (1390-1448), surnamed Palaeologus, East Roman emperor, son of Manuel IIJ., succeeded to the throne in 1425. To secure protection against the Turks he visited the pope and consented to the union of the Greek and Roman Churches, which was ratified at Florence in 1439. The union failed of its purpose; but by his prudent conduct towards the Ottomans John retained possession of Constantinople, and in 1432 withstood a siege by Sultan Murad I. See Turkey: History; and also E. Gibbon, Tke Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vi. 97-107 (ed. Bury, 1896); E. Pears, The Destruction of the Greek Empire, pp. 115-130 (1903).

JOHN II. (1397-1479), king of Aragon, son of Ferdinand I. and Eleanor of Albuquerque, born on June 29, 1397, was one of the most stirring and unscrupulous kings of the 15th century. He was in continual conflict from boyhood to old age. His efforts to deprive Charles, prince of Viana, his son by his first wife, Blanche of Navarre, of his constitutional right to act as lieutenant-general of Aragon led to a long conflict with the Aragonese, which only ended with the death (1461) of the prince, caused, it was thought, by poison given him by his stepmother, Joan Henriquez. The Catalans had espoused Charles’s cause and called in a succession of pretenders, until they were reduced in 1472. John’s war with the French king, Louis XI., leading to the cession of Roussillon to France, continued until his death (Jan. 20, 1479). He was succeeded by Ferdinand, his son by his second wife, and king of Castile by his marriage with Isabella. See Crónicas de los reyes de Castilla (Bib. de Autores Esp., lxvi., lxvii.) ; G. Zurita, Anales de Aragon (Saragossa, 1610) ; W. H. Prescott, History of the Reign of Ferdinand and Isabella (1854); G. Desderises du Dezert, Don Carlos Aragón ... Etude sur Espagne du Nord au XVe siécle (Paris, 1889).

JOHN

(1296-1346), king of Bohemia, was a son of the em-

peror Henry VII. by his wife Margaret, daughter of John I., duke of Brabant, and was a member of the family of Luxemburg. Born on Aug. 10, 1296, he became count of Luxemburg in 1309, and about the same time was offered the crown of Bohemia, which, after the death of Wenceslas III., the last Premyslide king, in

88

JOHN I—JOHN

1306, had passed to Henry, duke of Carinthia. The emperor ac- of Gaunt’s daughter Catherine and his son Henry. He settled his cepted this offer on behalf of his son, who married Elizabeth (d. quarrel with Portugal, John of Gaunt’s ally, by marrying Beatriz, 1330), a sister of Wenceslas, and after Henry’s departure for daughter of the Portuguese king Ferdinand. On Ferdinands Italy, John was crowned king of Bohemia at Prague (Feb. 1311). death (1383), John claimed the Portuguese crown: he was re Henry of Carinthia was driven from the land, order restored, and sisted by the national sentiment and utterly defeated at Alju barrota on Aug. 14, 1385. He died at Alcala on Oct. 9, 1390. Moravia again united with Bohemia. JOHN II. (1405-1454), king of Castile, son of Henry ITI, of As imperial vicar John represented his father at the diet of Nuremberg (Jan. 1313), and was leading an army to his assistance Castile and Catherine, daughter of John of Gaunt, born March §, in Italy when he heard of the emperor’s death (Aug. 1313). 1405. He succeeded his father on Dec. 25, 1406. One of the John’s claim to the imperial throne was disregarded on account of most incapable of kings, weak, amiable and dependent, he had his youth, and he became a partisan of Louis, duke of Upper no taste except for ornament, no serious interest except in amuse. Bavaria, afterwards the Emperor Louis the Bavarian whom he ments, verse-making and tournaments. At first the tool of his helped in his struggle against the rival claimant, Philip the Fair favourite, Alvaro de Luna, he was persuaded to overthrow hin of Austria. While Bohemia, where John and his Gefman followers by his second wife, Isabella of Portugal (mother of Isabella the were unpopular, relapsed into revolt and anarchy, he himself Catholic). He died at Valladolid, July 20, 1454. JOHN (1167-1216), king of England, the youngest son of fought campaigns over all Europe. He fought against the citizens of Metz and against his kinsman, John III., duke of Brabant; Henry Ii. by Eleanor of. Aquitaine, was born at Oxford on Dec. he led the knights of the Teutonic Order against the heathen in 24, t167. He was given the nickname of Lackland because, unlike Lithuania and Pomerania and promised Pope John XXII. to head ! his elder brothers, he received no apanage in the Continental a crusade; and claiming to be king of Poland he attacked the provinces. When only five, John was betrothed to the heiress of Poles and brought Silesia under his rule. He obtained Tirol by Maurienne and Savoy, a principality which, as dominating the marrying his son, John Henry, to Margaret Maultasch, the heiress chief routes from France and Burgundy to Italy, enjoyed a conof the county, assisted the emperor to defeat and capture Fred-_— sequence out of all proportion to its area. Later, when this plax erick the Fair at the Battle of Mühldorf (1322) and was alter- had fallen through, he was endowed with castles, revenues and nately at peace and at war with the dukes of Austria and with lands on both sides of the channel; the vacant earldom of Cornhis former foe, Henry of Carinthia. He several times assisted his wall was reserved for him (1175); he was betrothed to Isabella brother-in-law, Charles IV. of France and his successor Philip the heiress of the earldom of Gloucester (1176); and he was VI., whose son John, afterwards King John II., married a daugh- granted the lordship of Ireland with the homage of the Angloter of the Bohemian king. Soon after the battle of Mühldorf, the Irish baronage (1177). Henry IL. even provoked a civil war by relations between John and the emperor became strained, partly attempting to transfer the duchy of Aquitaine from the hands of owing to the king’s growing friendship with the Papacy and with Richard Coeur de Lion to those of John (1183). In spite of the France, and partly owing to territorial disputes. An agreement, incapacity which he displayed in this war, John was sent alittle however, was concluded, ahd John invaded Italy with a small fol- later to govern Ireland (1185); but he returned in a few months, lowing, and made himself ruler of much of the peninsula (1331). having alienated the loyal chiefs by his childish insolence and But John’s soldiers were few and his enemies were many, and failed to defend the settlers from the hostile septs. He joined

a second invasion of Italy in 1333 was followed by the dissipation

of his dreams of making himself king of Lombardy and Tuscany, and even of supplanting Louis on the imperial throne. The fresh trouble between king and emperor, caused by this enterprise, was intensified by a quarrel ovet the lands left by Henry of Carinthia, and still later by the interference of Louis iñ Tirol; and with bewildering rapidity John was allying himself with the kings of Hungary and Poland, fighting against the emperor and his Austrian allies, defending Bohemia, governing Luxemburg, visiting France and negotiating with the pope. About 1340 the king was overtaken by blindness, but he continued to lead an active life,

with his brother Richard and the French king Philip Augustus in the great conspiracy of 1189, and the discovery of his treason broke the heart of the old king (see Henry II). Richard on his accession confirmed John’s existing possessions; matried him to Isabella of Gloucester; and gave him, besides other grants, the entire revenues of six English shires; but excluded him from any share in the regency which was appointed to govern England during the third crusade; and only allowed him to live in the kingdom because urged to this concession by

their mother. Seon after the king’s departure for the Holy Land it became known that he had designated his nephew, the young successfully resisting the attacks of Louis and his allies, and cam- Arthur of Brittamy, as his successor. John at once began to paigning in Lithuania. In 1346, acting in union with Pope Clem- intrigue against the regents with the aim of securing England for ent VI., he secured the formal deposition of Louis and the elec- himself. He picked a quarrel with the unpopular chancellor tion of his own son Charles, margrave of Moravia, as German William Longchamp (q.v.), and succeeded, by the help of the king (July 1346). Then journeying to help Philip of France barons and the Londoners, in expelling this minister. Not being against the English, he fought at the battle of Crécy, where his permitted to succeed Longchamp as the head of the administraheroic death (Aug. 26, 1346) was a fitting conclusion to his tion, John next turned to Philip Augustus for help. A bargain was struck; and when Richard was captured by Leopold, duke adventurous life. John was a chivalrous and romantic personage; but as a ruler of Austria (Dec. 1192), the allies planned a partition of bs he was careless and extravagant, Interested only in his kingdom dominions. They were, however, unable to win either English or ‘when seeking relief from his constant pecuniary embarrassments. Norman support and their schemes collapsed with Richard's According to Camden the crest of three ostrich feathers, with the return (March 1194). He magnanimously pardoned his brother, motto Ich dien, borne by the prince of Wales, was originally that and they lived on not unfriendly terms for the next five ‘eats. of John of Bohemia and was first assumed by Edward the Black ‘On his deathbed Richard, reversing his former arrangements, Prince after the battle of Crécy. There is no proof, however, that caused his barons to swear fealty to John (1199), although the this badge was ever worn by John—it certainly was not his crest—~ hereditary claim of Arthur was by the law of. primogenitute undoubtedly superior. and its origin must be ‘sought elsewhere. See J. Schotter, Johann, Graf von Luxemburg und Konig von Böhmen (Luxemburg, 1865); F. von Weech, Kaiser Ludwig der Bayer und König Johann von Böhmen (Munich, 1860), and U. Chevalier, Répertoire des sources historiques, tome v. (Paris, 1905).

England

and Normandy,

after some

hesitation, recognized

John’s title; the attempt of Anjou and Brittany to assert the rights of Arthur ended disastrously with the capture of the young

prince at Mirebeau in Poitou (1202). Originally accepted as 4

political necéssity, John was soon detested by the people as 4 | Joan, daughter of John Manuel de Villena. Brought into con- tyrant and despised by the nobles for his cowardice and sloth. | $ flict with John of Gaunt, who claimed the Crown by right of his He inherited great difficulties—the feud with France, the disserwife, Constance, daughter of Peter the Cruel, he bought off his sions of the continental provinces, the growing indifference of English competitor by arrahging a marriage (1387), between John England to foreign conquests, the discontent of all his subjects

JOHN I. (1358-1390), king of Castile, son of Henry II. and

$ i F

JOHN I—JOHN with a strict executive and severe taxation. But he cannot be acquitted of personal responsibility for his misfortunes. Astute

in small matters, he had no breadth of view; his policy was continually warped by his passions or caprices; he flaunted vices of the most sordid kind with a cynical indifference

to public

opinion, and shocked an age which was far from tender-hearted by his ferocity to vanquished enemies. He treated his most respectable supporters with ingratitude, favoured unscrupulous adventurers, and gave a free rein to the licence of his mercenaries. Each of his great humiliations followed as the natural result of crimes or blunders, By his divorce from Isabella of Gloucester

he offended the English baronage (1200); by his marriage with Isabella of Angouléme, the betrothed of Hugh of Lusignan, he gave an opportunity to the discontented Poitevins for invoking French assistance and to Philip Augustus for pronouncing against him a sentence of forfeiture. The murder of Arthur (1203) ruined his cause in Normandy and Anjou, though the story that the court of the peers of France condemned him for the murder is a

fable. In the quarrel with Innocent III. (1207~13; see LANGTON, STEPHEN) he prejudiced his case by proposing a worthless favourite for the primacy

and by plundering the clergy who

bowed to the pope’s sentences. Threatened with the desertion of his barons he drove all whom he suspected to desperation by his terrible severity towards the Braose family (1210); and by his

misgovernment irrevacably estranged the lower classes, When submission to Rome had somewhat improved his posi-

tion he squandered his last resources in a new and unsuccessful war with France (1214), and enraged the feudal classes by new

claims for military service and scutages. The harons were con-

sequently able to exact, in Magna Carta (June 1215), much more

than the redress of legitimata grievances; and the people allowed the Crown to be placed under the control of an oligarchical committee. When once the sovereign power had been thus divided, the natural consequence was civil war and the intervention ofthe French king, who had long watched for some such opportunity. John’s struggle against the barons and Prince Louis (1216), after-

wards King Louis VIII., was the most creditable episode of his career. He died ọn Oct. 19, 1216. John’s second wife, Isabella of Angoulême (d. 1246), who married her former lover, Hugh of Lusignan, after the English king’s death, bore the king two sons, Henry III, and Richard,

89

a dead child in his place; but nothing was ever proved.

JOHN ILI. (1319-1364), surnamed the Good, king of France,

son of Philip VI. and Jeanne of Burgundy, succeeded his father in 1350. At the age of 13 he married Bona of Luxemburg, daughter of John, king of Bohemia. His first act upon becoming king was to order the execution of the constable, Raoul de Brienne. John surrounded himself with evil counsellors, Simon de Buci, Robert de Lorris, Nicolas Braque, who robbed the treasury and oppressed the people, while the king gave himself up to tournaments and festivities, Raids of the Black Prince in Languedoc led to the states-general of 1355, which readily voted money, but sanctioned the right of resistance against all kinds of pillage—a

distinct commentary on the incompetence of the king. In Sept.

1356 John gathered the flower of his chivalry and attacked the Black Prince at Poitiers where he was defeated and made prisoner. Taken to England to await ransom, John was at first installed in the Savoy Palace, then at Windsor, Hertford, Somerton, and at last in the Tower. He was granted royal state with his captive companions, made a guest at tournaments, and supplied with luxuries imported by him from France. The treaty of Brétigny (1360), which fixed his ransom at 3,000,000 crowns, enabled him to return to France, but although he married his daughter Isabella to Gian Galeazzo Visconti of Milan, for a gift of 600,000 golden crowns, imposed a heavy feudal “aid” on merchandise, and various other taxes, John was unable to pay the ransom. He returned of his own free will to England in January 1364 and was received with great honour, lodged again in the Savoy, and was a frequent guest of Edward at Westminster, He died on April 8, and the body was sent back to France with royal honours. See

Froissart’s

Chronicles;

Duc

d’Aumale,

Notes

et

documents

relatifs & Jean, rai de France, et à ṣa captivité (1856); A. Coville, in Lavisse’s Histoire de France, vol. iv., and authorities cited there.

JOHN (ZAPOLYA) (1487-1540), king of Hungary, was the son of the palatine Stephen Zápolya and the princess Hedwig of Teschen, and was barn at the castle of Szepesvár. He began his public career at the famous Rakos diet of 1505, when, on his motion, the assembly decided that after the death of the reigning king, Wladislaus II., no foreign prince should be elected king of

Hungary. Henceforth he became the national candidate for the throne, which his family had long coveted, In 1510 Zapolya sued in person for the hand of the Princess Anne in vain, and his ap-

pointment to the voivody of Transylvania (1511) was with the

earl of Cornwall; and three daughters, Joan (1210-38), wife of evident intention of removing him far from coyrt. In 1513, he Alexander II., king of Scotland, Isabella (d, 1241), wife of the emperor Frederick ITI., and Eleanor (d. 1274), wife of William

Marshal, earl of Pembroke, and then of Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester. John had also two illegitimate sons, and a daughter, Joan or Joanna, who married Llewelyn I. ab Iorwerth, prince of North Wales, and who died in 1236 or 1237. BIBLioGRAPHY,—The chief chronicles for the reign are Gervase of

Canterbury’s Gesta regum, Ralf of Coggeshall’s Chronicon, Walter of Coventry’s Memoriale, Roger of Wendover’s Flores historiarum, the Annals of Burton, Dunstaple and Margan-—all in the Rolls Series. The

French chronicle ef the so-called “Anonyme de Béthune” (Bouquet, Recueil des histariens des Gaules et de la France, vol. xxiv.), the

Histoire des ducs de Normandie et des rois d'Angleterre (ed. F. Michel, 1840) and the metrical biography of William the Marshal (Histoire de Guillaume le Maréchal, ed. Paul Meyer, 3 vols., 1891, etc.) throw valu-

able light on certain episodes. H. S. Sweetman’s Calendar of Documents relating to Ireland, vol, i, (Rolls Series) ; W, H. Bliss’s Calendar of Entries in the Papal Registers, vol. i, (Rolls Series); Potthast’s

renewed his suit, which was again rejected.

In 1514 he stamped

out the peasant rising under Dozsa (g.v.) with incredible brutality, This increased his popularity with the gentry, and, on the

death of Wladislaus II, the second diet of Rákos (x516) ap-

pointed him the governor of the infant king Louis II. He now

aimed at the dignity of palatine also, but the council of state and the court party combined against him and appointed Istvan Bathory instead (1519). The dissensions between Zapolya and Bathory were responsible for the fall of Belgrade (x521). In 1522 the court made Bathory sole captain-general, against the wishes of the diet; thereupon Zápolya attempted to depose the palatine

and other great officers of state, In the following year, however, the revolutionary Hatvan diet, drove out all the members of the council of state and made Istvan Verbéczy, the great jurist, and a friend of Zapolya, palatine. In the midst of this hopeless an-

archy, Suleiman I., the Magnificent, invaded Hungary and the

Regesta pontificum, vol. i. (Berlin, 1874); Sir T. D. Hardy’s Rotuls litterarum clausarum (Rec. Commission, 1835) and Rotuli litterarum patentium (Rec. Commission, 1835) and L. Delisle’s Catalogye des actes

young king perished with his army at Mohács, Zápolya arriving

(Oxford, 1897) ; the same writer’s preface to Walter of Coventry, vol.

of Hungary, and he was crowned on Nov, Ir,

too late tọ save the day. The court party accused him, but probde Philippe Auguste (1856) are the most important guides to the docu- ably without ground, of deliberate treachery, The diets of Tokaj ments. Of modern works W. Stubbs’s Constitutional history, val, i. (Oct. 14) and Székesféhérvar (Nov. 10) then elected Zapolya king

ii. (Rolls

Series);

K. Norgate’s

John

Lackland

(1902);

C.. Petit-

Dutaillis’ Étude sur la vie et le règne de Louis VIII. (1894), W. S.

McKechnie’s Magna Carta

(1905; 2nd ed, 1915) and Magna Carta

Commemoration Essays ed. H. E. Malden (1917) are among the most useful, (H. W. C.D.)

JOHN T. (b. and d. 1316), king of France, son of Louis X. and

Clemence, daughter of Charles Martel, who claimed to be king of Hungary, was born after his father’s death, on Nov. 15, 1316, and lived only seven days. His uncle, afterwards Philip V., has

been accused of having caused his death, or of having substituted

A struggle with the rival candidate, the German king Ferdinand T., at once ensued (see Huncary: History), Zapolya receiving support from the Turks.

In 1538, by the compact of Nagyvarad,

Ferdinand recognized John as king of Hungary, but secured the right of succession on his death, Nevertheless John broke the compact by bequeathing the kingdom to his infant son John Sigismund under Turkish protection. See Vilmos Fraknoi, Ungarn vor der Schlacht bei Mokács

(Buda-

pest, 1886); L. Kupelwieser, Die Kämpfe Ungarns mit den Osmanen

JOHN IU.—JOHN VI.

go bis zur Schlacht bei Mohács (Vienna, 1895).

JOHN III. (Sopresxr) (1624-1696), king of Poland, was the

Pedro I. (el Justicieiro), was born at Lisbon on April 22, 1397, and in 1364 was created grand-master of Aviz. On the death of

eldest son of James Sobieski, castellan of Cracow, and Theofila his lawful brother Ferdinand I., without male issue, in 1383, Danillowiczowna, grand-daughter of the great Hetman Zolkiew- efforts were made to secure the succession for Beatrice, the only ski. After being educated at Cracow, he made the grand tour child of Ferdinand I., who as heiress-apparent had been marrieq with his brother Mark and returned to Poland in 1648. He to John I. of Castile (Spain). John was after violent tumults served against Chmielnicki and the Cossacks and was present proclaimed protector and regent in the following December. Ip at the battles of Beresteczko (1651) and Batoka (1652), but April 1385 he was unanimously chosen king by the estates of the when the Swedes invaded Poland in 1654 at once deserted to realm at Coimbra. The king of Castile invaded Portugal, but his them and actually assisted them to conquer the Prussian provinces army was compelled by pestilence to withdraw, and subsequently in 1655. Next year, however, he again changed coats and helped by the decisive battle of Aljubarrota (Aug. 14, 1385) the stability Czarniecki expel the Swedes from the central Polish provinces. of John’s throne was permanently secured. Hostilities continued For his subsequent services to King John Casimir, especially in intermittently until John of Castile died, without leaving issue by the Ukraine against the Tatars and Cossacks, he received the Beatrice, in 1390. In 1415 Ceuta was taken from the Moors by grand baton of the crown, or commandership-in-chief (1668). his sons who had been born to John by his wife Philippa, daughter He had already (1665) succeeded Czarniecki as acting com- of John, duke of Lancaster. John I. died on Aug. 14, 1433, in mander-in-chief. His military capacities were extraordinary, but a reign which had been characterized by great prudence, ability and success; he was succeeded by his son Edward or Duarte. he was unscrupulous and absolutely self-seeking. See J. P. Oliveira Martins, Os filhos de D. João I. and A vida & At the election diet of 1669 he accepted large bribes from Louis XIV. to support one of the French candidates; after the election Nur Alvares (Lisbon, 2nd ed. 1894; English translation with adds. etc, ae Abraham, 1911); F. M. Esteves Pereira, Livro da Montaria of Michael Wisniowiecki (June 19, 1669) he openly conspired, re I9Id). again in the French interest, against the king in an hour of the JOHN II. (1455-1495), the Perfect, king of Portugal, suc. utmost national danger. The plot he had formed with the primate ceeded his father, Alphonso V., in August 1481. He first curtailed Prazmowski and others was discovered in 1670 and disavowed by the overgrown power of his aristocracy; noteworthy incidents in Louis; the traitors then appealed to the Elector of Brandenburg against their own countrymen. Two years later they renewed the the contest were the execution (1483) of the duke of Braganza plot just as the Turks were advancing into Poland; and the king for correspondence with Castile, and the murder, by the king's was consequently forced to sign the disgraceful peace of Buczacz own hand, of the youthful duke of Viseu for conspiracy. This reign was signalized by Bartholomeu Diaz’s discovery of the (Oct. 17, 1672) whereby Poland ceded to the Porte the entire Cape of Good Hope in 1488. Maritime rivalry led to disputes Ukraine with Podolia and Kamieniec. between Portugal and Castile until their claims were adjusted by Sobieski himself partially retrieved the situation by winning the famous treaty of Tordesillas (June 7, 1494). John II. died, four victories in ten days. The peace of Buczacz was repudiated, without leaving male issue, in Oct. 1495, and was succeeded by and Sobieski defeated the Turks brilliantly at Khotin (Nov. his brother-in-law Emmanuel (Manoel) I. 10, 1673). The same day king Michael died, and Sobieski, See J. P. Oliveira Martins, O principe perfeito (Lisbon, 1895).

abandoning

the frontier to its fate, hastened

to the capital

JOHN III. (1502-1557), king of Portugal, born at Lisbon, on

to secure the throne. Appearing at the elective diet of June 6, 1502, succeeded his father Emmanuel I. in Dec. 1521. In 1674 at the head of 6,000 veterans he overawed every other com1524 he married Catherine, sister to the Emperor Charles V. petitor, and despite the persistent opposition of the Lithuanians who shortly afterwards married the infanta Isabella, John’s sister. was elected king (May 21). He was then obliged to return at John III. became subservient to the clerical party among his once to the Ukraine. He attempted to negotiate with the Sultan subjects, with disastrous consequences to the commercial and and the Tatar khan; to entrust the whole guardianship of the social prosperity of his kingdom. He died on June 6, 1557, and Ukraine to the Cossacks, and himself concentrate the regulars was succeeded by his grandson Sebastian, a child aged three years. and militia at Lemberg. The Polish gentry however failed to JOHN IV. (1603-1656), the Fortunate, king of Portugal, support him, and he faced the Turk alone, with a few devoted founder of the Braganza dynasty, was born at Villaviciosa on lieutenants. Returning to Cracow to be crowned (Feb. 14, 1676), March 19, 1603, succeeded to the dukedom of Braganza in 1630, he renewed the campaign and at last recovered by special treaty and married Luisa de Guzman, eldest daughter of the duke of two-thirds of the Ukraine, but without Kamieniec (treaty of Medina Sidonia, in 1633. By the unanimous voice of the people Zaravno, Oct. 16, 1676). | he was raised to the throne of Portugal (of which he was held to Sobieski hoped now to establish absolute monarchy in Poland; be the legitimate heir) at the revolution effected in December but Louis XIV. looked coldly on the project and relations be- 1640 against the Spanish king, Philip IV. His accession led to a tween France and Poland gradually grew more strained until on protracted war with Spain, which only ended with the recognition March 31, 1683, Sobieski signed the treaty with the Emperor of Portuguese independence in a subsequent reign (1668). He Leopold against the Turks which was the prelude to the most died on Nov. 6, 1656, and was succeeded by his son Alphonso VI. glorious episode of his life, the relief of Vienna and the liberation JOHN V. (1689-1750), king of Portugal, was born at Lisbon

of Hungary from the Ottoman yoke. The epoch-making victory of

Sept. 12, 1683, was ultimately decided by the charge of the Polish cavalry led by Sobieski in person. Poland profited little by this triumph, being left to fight on in the Ukraine with whatever assistance she could obtain from the unwilling and unready Muscovites. The last twelve years of the reign of John III. were a period of humiliation and disaster. A treasonable senate, a mutinous diet, ungrateful allies, surrounded him. His last campaign (in 1690) was an utter failure, and the last years of his life were embittered by the violence and the intrigues

of his dotingly beloved wife, Marya Kazimiera

d’Arquien, by

whom he had three sons, James, Alexander and Constantine. He died on June £7, 1696, disillusioned and broken-hearted. See E. H. R. Tatham, John Sobieski (Oxford, 1881); Kazimierz Waliszewski, Archives of French Foreign Affairs, 1674-16096, v. (Cracow, 1881) ; Ludwik Piotr Leliwa, Jokn Sobzeski and His Times (Pol) (Cracow, 1882-85); Georg Rieder, Johann Sobieski in Wien

(Vienna, 1882). “JOHN I. (1357-1433), king of Portugal, the natural son of

on Oct. 22, 1689, and succeeded his father Pedro II. in Dec. 1706, being proclaimed on Jan. 1, 1707. One of his first acts was to

intimate his adherence to the Grand Alliance, which his father had joined in 1703. Accordingly his general Das Minas, with Lord Galway, advanced into Castile, but was defeated at Almanza (April 14). In Oct. 1708 he married Maria Anna, daughter of Leopold I., thus strengthening the alliance with Austria; the series of unsuccessful campaigns which ensued ultimately terminated in a favourable peace with France in 1713 and with Spain in 1715. John was entirely under the domination of the clergy, and the title “Most Faithful King,” was bestowed upon him and his successors by a bull of Pope Benedict XIV. in 1748. The army, navy and other branches of administration were neglected in favour of the church. John V. died on July 31, 1750, and was

succeeded by his son Joseph.

JOHN VI. (1769-1826), king of Portugal, son of Peter IIT, was born at Lisbon on May 13, 1769, and received the title of prince of Brazil in 1788. In 1792 he assumed the reins of govern-

JOHN ment in name of his mother Queen Mary I., who had become insane. In 1799 he assumed the title of regent, which he retained until his mother’s death in 1816. (For the political history of his regency, the French occupation and the English peninsular cam-

paign see PORTUGAL.) In 1816 he was recognized as king of Portugal but he continued to reside in Brazil, whither he had fled from

the French in 1807. The consequent spread of dissatisfaction resulted in the peaceful revolution of 1820, and the proclamation of a constitutional government, to which he swore fidelity on his return to Portugal in 1822. In the same year, and again in 1823, he had to suppress a rebellion led by his son Dom Miguel, whom he banished in 1824. John recognized the independence of Brazil in 1825. He died at Lisbon on March 26, 1826, and was succeeded by Pedro IV.

JOHN (Jonn Neromuxk Maru Josera) (1801-1873), king of Saxony, son of Prince Maximilian of Saxony and his wife Caroline of Parma (d. 1804), was born at Dresden on Dec. 12, 1801. As a boy he took a keen interest in literature and art (also in history, law and political science), and studied with the greatest ardour classical and German literature (Herder, Schiller, Goethe). He soon began to compose poetry himself, and drew great inspiration from a journey in Italy (1821-1822), the pleasure of which was however darkened by the death of his brother Clemens. In Pavia the prince met with Biagioli’s edition of Dante, and this gave rise to his lifelong and fruitful studies of Dante. The first part of his German translation of Dante was published in 1828, and in 1833 appeared the complete work, with a valuable commentary. Several new editions appeared under his constant supervision, and he collected a complete library of works on Dante. By his marriage with Amalia of Bavaria, John became the brother-in-law of Frederick William IV., king of Prussia, with whom he had a deep and lasting friendship. His wife died on Nov. 8, 1877, having borne him nine children, two of whom, Albert and George, later became kings of Saxony. On his return to Dresden, John was called in 1822 to the privy

board of finance (Geheimes Finanzkollegium)

and in 1825 be-

came its vice-president. He entered the privy council in 1830. During the revolution in Saxony he helped in the pacification of the country, became commandant of the new national guard, the political tendencies of which he tried to check, and took part in the organization of the constitution of Sept. 4, 1831. On the death of his brother Frederick Augustus II., John became, on Aug. 9, 1854, king of Saxony. He advocated the formation of a confederation of the smaller German states independent of Prussia and Austria. He supported Austria against Prussia at the diet of Princes in 1863, but he rallied to the North German Confederation after 1866, and dismissed Beust (g.v.), who had hitherto directed Saxon foreign policy. In the war of 1870—71 with France his troops fought with conspicuous courage. He died at Dresden on Oct. 29, 1873. See H. Ermisch, Die Wettiner und die Landesgesckichte (Leipzig, 1902); O. Kaemmel, Sächsische Geschichte (Leipzig, 1899, Sammlung Göschen). His son John George edited his correspondence with

Frederick William

IV. and Wilhelm

I. (1911), and with

George

Ticknor (1920).

JOHN

(1468-1532), called the Steadfast, elector of Saxony,

fourth son of the elector Ernest, was born on June 30, 1468. In 1486, when his eldest brother became elector as Frederick IIL., John received a part of the paternal inheritance.

He was an early

adherent of Luther, and, becoming elector of Saxony by his brother’s death in May 1525, helped Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to found the league of Gotha, formed in 1526 for the protection of the Reformers. He was active at the diet of Speyer in 1526, and the “recess” of this diet gave him an opportunity to reform the church in Saxony, where a plan for divine service was drawn up by Luther. He signed the protest against the “recess” of the diet of Speyer in 1529, being thus one of the original Protestants, and opposed Charles V. at the diet of Augsburg in 1530. He signed the Augsburg Confession, and was alone among the electors in objecting to the election of Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand I., as king of the Romans. He was among the first members ot the league of Schmalkalden, assented to the peace of Nuremberg in 1532, and died at Schweidnitz on Aug. 16, 1532.

QI

See J. Becker, Kurfiirst Johann von Sachsen und seine Beziehungen zu Luther (Leipzig, 1890).

JOHN

or HANS

(1513-1571), margrave of Brandenburg-

Ciistrin, was the younger son of Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg, and was born at Tangermiinde on Aug. 3, 1513. In spite of the dispositio Achillea which decreed the indivisibility of the electorate, John inherited the new mark of Brandenburg on his father’s death in July 1535. He had been brought up asastrict Catholic, but in 1538 ranged himself definitely on the side of the Reformers. He joined the league of Schmalkalden; but was won over to the imperial side. After the conclusion of the war, the relations between John and Charles became somewhat strained. The margrave opposed the Augsburg Interim (1548), and he was the leader of the princes who formed a league for the defence of the Lutheran doctrines in Feb. 1550. After some differences of opinion with Maurice, elector of Saxony, however, he returned to the emperor’s side. His remaining years were mainly spent in the new mark, which he ruled carefully and economically. He purchased Beeskow and Storkow, and fortified the towns of Ciistrin and Peitz. He died at Ciistrin on Jan. 13, 1571. His wife Catherine was a daughter of Henry II., duke of Brunswick, and as he left no sons the new mark passed on his death to his nephew Jobn George, elector of Brandenburg. See Berg, Beiträge zur Geschichte Küstrin (Landsberg, 1903).

des Markgrafen

Johann

von

JOHN I. (d. 1294), duke of Brabant and Lorraine, surnamed the Victorious, was the second son of Duke Henry III. and Aleidis of Burgundy. In 1267 his elder brother Henry was deposed in his favour. In 1271 John married Margaret, daughter of Louis IX. of France, and following her death took as his second wife (1273) Margaret of Flanders, daughter of Guy de Dampierre. His sister Marie was espoused in 1275 to Philip III. (the Bold) of France. During the reign of Philip and his son Philip IV. there were close relations of friendship and alliance between Brabant and France. In 1285 John accompanied Philip III. in his expedition against Peter III., king of Aragon. After the death of Waleran IV. in 1279 the succession to the duchy of Limburg was disputed. His heiress, Ermengarde, had married Reinald I. count of Gelderland. She died childless, but her husband continued to rule in Limburg, although his rights were disputed by Count Adolph of Berg, nephew to Waleran IV. (See LIMBURG.) Not being strong enough to eject his rival, Adolph sold his rights to John of Brabant, and hostilities broke out in 1283. Harassed by desultory warfare and endless negotiations, and seeing no prospect of holding his own against the powerful duke of Brabant, Reinald made over his rights to Henry III. count of Luxemburg, who was a descendant of Waleran TII. of Limburg. Henry III. was sustained by the archbishop of Cologne and other allies, as well as by Reinald of Gelderland. The duke of Brabant at once invaded the Rhineland and laid siege to the castle of Woeringen near Bonn. Here he defeated the forces of the confederacy on June 5, 1288. Limburg was henceforth attached to the duchy of Brabant. John consolidated his conquest by giving his daughter in marriage to Henry of Luxemburg (1291). He died of a wound received at a tournament at Bar (May 3, 1294). BIBLIoGRAPHY.—H. Barlandus, Rerum gestarum a Brabantiae ducibus historia usque in annum 1526 (Louvain, 1566); G. C. van der Berghe, Jean le Victorieux, duc de Brabant (1259-94) (Louvain, 1857) ; K. F. Stallaert, Gesch. v. Jan I. van Braband en zijne tijdvak (Brussels, 1861) ; A. Wauters, Le Duc Jean Ier et le Brabant sous le règne de ce prince (Brussels, 1859).

JOHN (1371-1419), called the Fearless (Sans Peur), duke of Burgundy, son of Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, and Margaret of Flanders, was bor at Dijon on May 28, 1371. On the death of his maternal grandfather in 1384 he received the title of count of Nevers, which he bore until his father’s death. He married in 1385 Margaret, daughter of Duke Albert of Bavaria,

an alliance which consolidated his position in the Netherlands. In the spring of 1396 he took arms for Hungary against the Turks and on the 28th of September was taken prisoner by the Sultan Bayezid I. at the bloody battle of Nicopolis, where he earned his

surname of “the Fearless.” He did not recover his liberty until 1397, and then only by paying an enormous ransom. He succeeded

JOHN

92

his father in 1404, and immediately found himself in conflict with afterwards transferred to the museum in the hétel de ville. See A. G. P. Baron de Barante, Histoire des ducs de Bourgogne Louis of Orleans, the young brother of Charles VI. The history of the following years is filled with struggles between these two (Brussels, 1835-36); B. Zeller, Louis de France et Jean sans Peyr (Paris, 1886); and É. Petit, Ztinéraire de Philippe le Hardi et de Jean princes and with their attempts to seize the authority in the sans Peur (Paris, 1888). ; name of the demented king. John endeavoured to strengthen his JOHN, AUGUSTUS EDWIN (1879), British painter, position by marrying his daughter Margaret to the dauphin Louis, and by betrothing his son Philip to a daughter of Charles was born at Tenby, Wales, Jan. 4, 1879, He received his art edu. VI. Like his father, he looked for support to the popular party, cation at the Slade School, London, and afterwards worked in to the tradesmen, particularly the powerful gild of the butchers, Paris, later spending some time in Provence, He became a regu. and also to the university of Paris. In 1405 he opposed in the lar exhibitor at the New English Art Club, and in 1901-2 was royal council a scheme of taxation proposed by the duke of teacher of art at University College, Liverpool, returning to Lon. Orleans, which was nevertheless adopted. Louis retaliated by don in 1902, His earlier work includes “The Way Down to the refusing to sanction the duke of Burgundy’s projected expedition Sea” (1906), “The Kitchen Garden,” “The Smiling Woman” against Calais, whereupon John quitted the court in chagrin on (1910) and “The Mumpers” (1912). He was commissioned hy the pretext of taking up his mother’s heritage. He was, however, Sir Hugh Lane to paint a series of decorative panels for the called back to the council to find that the duke of Orleans and museum in Johannesburg, South Africa, For the Arts and Crafts the queen had carried off the dauphin. John succeeded in bringing Exhibition at Burlington House, London, 1916, he executed a back the dauphin to Paris, and open war seemed imminent be- mural decoration illustrating “Peasant Industry.” During the tween the two princes. But an arrangement was effected in World War he held a commission as official artist in the Canadian October 1405, and in 1406 John was made by royal decree Corps, and exhibited at the Canadian War Memorial Exhibition, 1919, a cartoon for a large decoration, ‘Canadians opposite Lens,” guardian of the dauphin and the king’s children. The struggle, however, soon revived with increased force. On He was later commissioned to paint the chief characters of the Nov. 20, 1407, the two princes were formally reconciled by their Peace Conference. He also painted portraits of Lloyd George uncle, the duke of Berry, but three days later Louis was assassi- (1916), Bernard Shaw (1916), Lord Fisher (1917), Lord Sum. nated by John’s orders in the Rue Barbette, Paris. John abruptly ner (1918), the Marchesa Casati (z1918-9) and the Princess Bib. left Paris. His vassals, however, showed themselves determined esco (1924), His etchings form an important part of his work, to support him in his struggle against the avengers of the duke of the majority being produced between 1901-10. He is represented Orleans. The court decided to negotiate, and called upon the duke in the Tate Gallery by several pictures, including “The Smiling to return. John entered Paris in triumph, and instructed the Fran- Woman,” “Peasant Industry,” “Robin” (1917-8), and “Rachael,” ciscan theologian Jean Petit (d. 1411) to pronounce an apology in the Print Room of the British Museum, in the Walker Art Galfor the murder. But he was soon called back to his estates by 4 lery, Liverpool; in the Birmingham Art Gallery; the Fitzwilliam rising of the people of Liége against his brother-in-law, the bishop Museum, Cambridge; the National Gallery, Dublin; the museums of that town. The queen and the Orleans party took every ad- of Victoria and Melbourne, Australia, and in the Metropolitan vantage of his absence and had Petit’s discourse solemnly refuted, Museum, New York. His early work, with its definite contour John’s victory over the Liégeois at Hasbain on Sept. 23, 1408, enclosing areas of colour, relates him to the quattrocento Italian enabled him to return to Paris, where he was reinstated in his painters. Distortion for personal emphasis and decorative effect

ancient privileges. By the peace of Chartres (March 9, 1409) the king absolved him from the crime, and an edict of Dec. 27, 1499, gave John the guardianship of the dauphin. A new league was formed against the duke of Burgundy by Bernard,

count

of

|t

i 1

is another marked characteristic. He was elected A.R.A. in 1921, R.A. in 1928. See A. B,, Augustus John (1923); C. Dodgson, A Catalogue of Etchings by A. John rgot~r91q

(1921).

Armagnac, from whom the party opposed to the Burgundians JOHN, DON (1545-78), of Austria, was the natural son of took its name. The peace of Bicétre (Nov. 2, 1410) prevented the the emperor Charles V. by Barbara Blomberg, the daughter of outbreak of hostilities; but in t4zz, in consequence of ravages an opulent citizen of Regensburg. He was born in Regensburg committed by the Armagnacs in the environs of Paris, the duke on Feb. 24, 1545, and at first confided under the name of Ge of Burgundy was called back to Paris. He relied more than ever ronimo to foster parents of humble birth, at a village near Madrid: on the support of the popular party, which then obtained the re- but in 1554 transferred to the charge of Madalena da Ulloa, the forming Ordonnance Cabochienne (so called from Simon Caboche, wife of Don Luis de Quijada, and brought up in ignorance of his a prominent member of the gild of the butchers), But the bload- parentage at Quijada’s castle of Villagarcia, near Valladolid. thirsty excesses of the populace brought a change. John was Charles V. in a codicil of his will recognized Geronimo as his forced to withdraw to Burgundy (August 1413), and the uni- son, and recommended him to the care of his successor. In versity of Paris and John Gerson once more censured Petit’s September 1539 Philip II. of Spain publicly recognized the boy propositions. Meanwhile John negotiated with the court and also as a member of the royal family, and he was known at court with the English. His troops took no part in the battle of Agin- at Don Juan de Austria. Although first intended for a monk, court (1415), where, however, two of his brothers, Anthony, duke Don John preferred a military career. In 1568 he commanded of Brabant, and Philip, count of Nevers, fell fighting for France. a fleet of galleys against Algerian corsairs; in 1569-70 he conIn 1417 John made an attack on Paris, which failed through ducted operations against the rebe] Moriscos in Granada; and in his loitering at Lagny; but on May 30, 1418 a traitor, one Perrinet 1572 commanded the fleet which won the great victory of Lepanto Leclerc, opened the gates of Paris to the Burgundian captain, against the Turkish fleet (Oct. 7, 1571). ` Villiers de Isle Adam. The dauphin, afterwards King Charles This great. triumph aroused Don John’s ambition and filled his VIL., fled, and John betook himself to the king, who promised to imagination with schemes of personal aggrandizement. He thought forget the past. John, however, did nothing to prevent the sur- of erecting first a principality in Albania and the Morea, and render of Rouen, which had been besieged by the English, and then a kingdom in Tunis. But the conclusion by Venice of a on which the fate of the kingdom seemed to depend; and the town separate peace with the sultan put an end to the league, and was taken in 1419. The dauphin then decided on a reconciliation, though Don John captured Tunis in 1573, it was again speedily and on July rz the two princes swore peace on the bridge of

Pouilly, near Melun,

A fresh interview was proposed by the

lost. Philip II. refused to support Don John’s schemes, and even

withheld from him the title of infante of Spain. At last, however, dauphin and took place on Sept. 10, 1419 on the bridge of he was appointed (1576) governor-general of the Netherlands, Montereau, when the duke of Burgundy was felled with an axe

by Tanneguy du Chastel, one of the dauphin’s companions, and done to death by the other members of the dauphin’s escort. His body was removed to the Chartreuse of Dijon and placed in a

magnificent tomb sculptured by Juan de la Huerta; the tomb was

in succession to Luis de Requesens, in the hope that his prestige and activities would prove sufficient to put down the wide-spread revolt against Spanish rule headed by William of Orange, Con-

fronted by the refusal of the states general to accept him as governor unless he assented to the conditions of the Pacification of

JOHN Ghent, swore to maintain the rights and privileges of the provinces, and to employ only Netherlanders in his service, Don John, after some months of fruitless negotiations, was obliged to give way and sign the “Perpetual Edict” complying with these terms (Huey, Feb. 12, 1577).

On May 1 he entered Brussels, but he

found himself governor-general only in name, and the prince of Orange master of the situation. In July he suddenly betook himself to Namur and withdrew his concessions. William of Orange forthwith took up his residence at Brussels, and gave his support

to the archduke Matthias, afterwards emperor, whom the statesgeneral accepted as their sovereign. Meanwhile Philip had sent large reinforcements to Don John under his cousin Alexander Farnese. Don John now attacked and defeated the patriot army at Gemblours (Jan. 31, 1578). Lack of funds prevented him, however, from following up his victory. After a summer of forced inactivity, he was attacked by fever and died on Oct. I, 1578. See Sir W. Stirling Maxwell, Don John of Austria 1547-1 188 and the bibliography under Purr II. oF Lie Si ER

JOHN, DON (1629-1679), of Austria, the younger, was recognized as the natural son of Philip IV., king of Spain, his mother, Maria Calderon, or Calderona, being an actress. Scandal accused her of a prodigality of favours which must have rendered the paternity of Don John very dubious. He was, however, recognized by the king, received a princely education at Ocaña, and was amply endowed with commanderies in the military orders and other forms of income. Don John was sent in 1647 to Naples to support the viceroy against the popular rising led by Masaniello. He was then made viceroy of Sicily but in 1651 recalled to complete the pacification of Catalonia, presiding over the final siege of Barcelona and the convention which terminated the revolt in October 1652. On both occasions he had played the peacemaker, and this sympathetic part, combined with his own pleasant manners and handsome person with bright eyes and abundant ravenblack hair—a complete contrast to the fair complexions of the Habsburgs—made him a popular favourite. In 1656 he was sent

to command in Flanders, in combination with the prince of Condé, then in revolt against his own sovereign. At Valenciennes in 1656, Don John displayed brilliant personal courage at the head of a cavalry charge, but was completely defeated at the Dunes in 1658 by Turenne. During 1661 and 1662 he commanded against the Portuguese in Estremadura, with some success until in 1663 the Portuguese were reinforced by English troops, and put under the command of the Huguenot Schomberg. By him Don John

JOHN, SIR WILLIAM GOSCOMBE (:860-

93 __), Brit-

ish sculptor, was born at Cardiff on Feb. 21, 1860, and studied at

Cardiff and in London. After gaining the Royal Academy gold medal and travelling studentship, he spent a year in Paris (1890gr), and in 1892 gained honourable mention at the Paris Salon. He was elected A.R.A. in 1898 and R.A. in 1909. In 1900 the gold medal was awarded him at the Paris International Exhibition, and he was made corresponding member of the Institut de France. He was knighted at the investiture of the prince of Wales at

Carnarvon castle in 1911. He is an expert technician. Among his best work are his portrait busts, especially of children, and medals. His principal works include “King Edward VII.,” at Cape Town; “W. E. H. Lecky,” at Trinity college, Dublin; “Thomas Sutton, founder of Charterhouse,” at Charterhouse, Godalming; “The Rt. Hon. David Lloyd George,” at Carnarvon; “The Duke of Devonshire,” at Eastbourne; “The Marquis of Salisbury,” in Westminster Abbey; equestrian statues of King Edward VII., at Liverpool; Viscount Wolseley, Horse Guards Parade, London: and Gen. Sir Stanley Maude, at Baghdad; and also many memorials, among which those of the Coldstream Guards and War Correspondents in St. Paul’s cathedral may be mentioned. The Tate Gallery contains “The Boy at Play”; the Glasgow art gallery, “The Elf”; the Cardiff art gallery “Morpheus” and “St. John the Baptist.”

JOHN, GOSPEL

OF ST., the fourth and latest of the

Gospels, in the Bible, and, next to that of St. Mark, the shortest. This article will first describe its general structure and more obvious contents, compare it with the Synoptic Gospels, and draw out its leading characteristics and final object; it will then apply the tests thus gained to the narratives special to this Gospel, and point out the book’s special difficulties and limits, and its abiding appeal and greatness; and finally, consider the questions of its origin and authorship. Analysis of Contents.—The book’s chief break is at xiii. x, the solemn introduction to the feet-washing; all up to here reports Jesus’ signs and apologetic or polemical discourses to the outer world; hence onwards it pictures the manifestation of His glory to the inner circle of His disciples. These two parts contain three sections each.

1. (i.) Introduces the whole work (i. r-ii. 11). (a) The prologue (i. 1-18). The Logos existed before creation and time; was with the very God and was God; and all things were made through Him. For in this Logos is Life, and this Life is a Light which, though shining in darkness, cannot be suppressed by it. This true was completely beaten at Estremos. The unsuccessful campaign Light became flesh and tabernacled amongst us; and we beheld was partly due to Don John’s own indolence; but it was chiefly His glory, as of an Only-Begotten from the Father, full of grace the jealousy of his father’s wife, Queen Mariana, that caused him and truth. John the Baptist testified concerning Him, the Logosto be removed from command and sent to his commandery at Light and Logos-Life incarnate; but this Logos alone, who is in Consuegra. After the death of Philip IV. in 1665 Don John be- the bosom of the Father, hath declared the very God. (b) The came the recognized leader of the opposition to the government four days’ work (i. 19-51), On the first three days John declares of Philip’s widow, the queen regent, against whom he headed that he is not the Christ, proclaims Jesus to be the Christ, and a rising of Aragon and Catalonia, which led to the expulsion of sends his own disciples away to Jesus. On the fourth day, Jesus her favourite, Nithard (1669). Don John was, however, forced Himself calls Philip and Nathanael. (c) The seventh day’s first to content himself with the viceroyalty of Aragon. In 1677, the manifestation of the Incarnate Light’s glory (li. 1-11); Jesus at queen mother having aroused universal opposition, Don John Cana turns water into wine. (ii. Records the manifestations of the Light’s and Life’s glory was able to drive her from court, and establish himself as prime minister. Great hopes were entertained of his administration, but and power to friend and foe (ii. 22~vi. 71). (d) Solemn inauguit proved disappointing and was of short duration. He died on ration of the Messianic ministry (ii. 12-iii. 21): cleansing of the Temple and prophecy of His resurrection; discourse to NicoSept. 17, 1679 JOHN, GRIFFITH (2831-1912), Welsh missionary, was demus on baptismal regeneration. (e) Three scenes in Judea, born at Swansea on Dec. 14, 1831, and was brought up a Congre~- Samaria, Galilee respectively (iii. 32-iv. 54): the Baptist’s second gationalist. His work in China as a missionary covered a period testimony; Jesus’ discourse with the woman at the well concernof 55 years. In 1861 he went from Shanghai through the pro- ing the spiritual, universal character of the new religion; and cure vinces of central China, which he was the first Christian mission- of the ruler’s son, the reward of faith in the simple word of Jesus. ary to penetrate, and he claimed that with his colleagues he had (f) Manifestation of Jesus as the vivifying Life-Logos and its established over roo stations of the London Missionary Society contradiction in Judea, v.: the paralytic’s cure. (g) Manifestation in Hu-peh and Hu-nan. He acquired an intimate knowledge of of Jesus as the heaven-descended living Bread and its contradicthe Chinese language and literature, and translated the New tion in Galilee, vi.: multiplication of the loaves; walking on the Testament and a great part of the Old into more than one Chinese waters; and His discourse on the Holy Eucharist. Gii.) Acute conflict between the New Light and the old darkdialect. In the Yangtsze valley he founded a theological college for native preachers which bears his name. He died at Hampstead, ness (vii—xii.). (#) Self-manifestation of the Logos-Light in the Temple (vii. 1-x. 39). Journey to the feast of tabernacles; invitaLondon, on July 25, 1912.

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tion to the soul athirst to come to Him (the fountain of Life) and drink, and proclamation

of Himself

as the Light of the world;

cure of the man born blind; allegory of the good shepherd. The allegory continued at the feast of the dedication. They strive to stone or to take Him. (2) The Logos-Life brings Lazarus to life; effects of the act (x. 4o—xli. 50). Jesus withdraws beyond Jordan, and then comes to Bethany, His friend Lazarus being buried three days; proclaims Himself the Resurrection and the Life; and calls Lazarus back to life. Some who saw it report the act to the Pharisees; the Sanhedrim meets, Caiaphas declares that one man must die for the people, and henceforward they ceaselessly plan His death. Jesus withdraws to the Judean desert, but soon

returns, six days before Passover, to Bethany; Mary anoints Him, a crowd comes to see Him and Lazarus, and the hierarchs then plan the killing of Lazarus also. Next morning He rides into Jerusalem on an ass’s colt, Certain Greeks desire to see Him: He declares the hour of His glorification to have come: “Now My

soul is troubled. . . . Father, save Me from this hour. But for this have I come unto this hour: Father, glorify Thy Name.” A voice answers, “I have glorified it and will glorify it again”: some think that an angel spoke; but Jesus explains that this voice was not for-His sake but for theirs. When lifted up from the earth, He will draw all men to Himself; they are to believe in Him, the Light. The writer’s concluding reflection: the small success of Jesus’ activity among the Jews. Once again He cries: “I am come

a Light into the world, that whoso believeth in Me should not abide in darkness.” 2. The Logos-Christ’s manifestation of His life and love to His disciples, during the last supper, the passion, the risen life (xiii.—xx.). Civ.) The Last Supper (xiii.—xvii.). (7) Solemn washing of the disciples’ feet; the beloved disciple; designates the traitor; Judas goes forth, it is night (xili. 1-30). (&) Last discourses, first series (xiii. 31-xiv. 31): the new commandment, the other helper; “Arise, let us go hence.” Second series (xv. 1-xvi. 33): allegory of the true vine; “Greater love than this hath no man, that he lay down his life for his friend”; the world’s hatred; the spirit of truth shall lead them into all truth; “I came forth from the Father and am come into the world, again I leave the world and go to the Father”; “Be of good cheer, I have overcome the world.” (1) The high-priestly prayer (xvii.). “Father, glorify Thy Son . . . with the glory which I had with Thee before the world was... that to as many as Thou hast given Him, He should give eternal life.” “I pray for them, I pray not for the world. I pray also for them that shall believe in Me through their word, that they may be all one, as Thou Father art in Me, and I in Thee.” (v.) The Passion (xvili—xix.). (mm) In the garden: the Roman soldiers come to apprehend Him, fall back upon the ground at His declaration “I am He.” Peter and Malchus. (”) Before

Annas at night and Caiaphas at dawn; Peter’s denials (xviii. 12-27). (0) Before Pilate (xviii. 28-40). Jesus declares, “My kingdom is not of this world. I have come into the world that I may bear witness to the truth: everyone that is of the truth, heareth My voice”; Pilate asks sceptically “What is truth?” and the crowd prefers Barabbas. () The true king presented to the people as a mock-king; His rejection by the Jews and abandonment to them (xix. 1-16). (g) Jesus carries His cross to Golgotha, and is crucified there between two others; the cross’s title and Pilate’s refusal to alter it (xix. 17-22). (7) The soldiers cast lots upon His garments and seamless tunic; His mother with two faithful women and the beloved disciple at the cross’s foot; His commendation of His mother and the disciple to each other; His last two sayings in deliberate accomplishment of scripture “I

thirst,” “It is accomplished.”

He gives up the spirit; His bones

remain unbroken; and from His spear-lanced side blood and water issue (xix. 23-37). (s) The two nobles, Joseph of Arimathaea and Nicodemus, bind the dead body in a winding sheet with one hundred pounds of precious spices, and place it In a new monument in a near garden, since the sabbath is at hand.

(vi.) The risen Jesus, Lord and God (xx.).

(#) At early dawn

on the first day of the week, Mary Magdalen, finding the stone tolled away from the monument, runs to tell Peter and the

beloved disciple that the Lord’s body has been removed. Petey and the other disciple run to the grave; the latter, arriving first, enters only after Peter has gone in and noted the empty grave. clothes—enters and believes. After their departure, Mary sees two angels where His body had lain and turning away beholds Jesus standing, yet recognizes Him only when He addresses her He bids her “Do not touch Me, for I have not yet ascended,” but to tell His brethren “I ascend to My Father and to your Father, to My God and to your God.” And she does so. (u) Second appari-

tion (xx. 19-23). Later on the same day, the doors being shut, Jesus appears amongst His disciples, shows them His (pierced)

hands and side, and solemnly commissions and endows them for the apostolate by the words, “As the Father hath sent Me, so I send you,” and by breathing upon them saying “Receive the Holy Spirit: whose sins ye remit, they are remitted to them; whose sins ye retain, they are retained.” (v) Third apparition and cul.

minating saying; conclusion of entire book (xx. 24-31). Thomas, who had-been absent, doubts the resurrection; Jesus comes and submits to the doubter’s tests. Thomas exclaims, “My Lord and my God”; but Jesus declares “Blessed are they that have not seen and yet have believed.” “Now Jesus,” concludes the writer, “did many other signs, . . . but these are written, that ye may believe that Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God, and that believing ye may have life in His name.”

This analysis is rough, since the sections, indeed the two parts themselves, are interrelated by delicate complex references; also it omits the account of the adulteress (vii. 53—viii. 11)—a valu. able report of an occurrence which probably belonged to some primitive document otherwise incorporated by the Synoptists—

because it is un-Johannine in vocabulary,

style and character,

intercepts the Gospel’s thread wherever placed, and is absent from its best mss. It also omits xxi. This chapter’s first two stages contain an important early historical document of Synoptic type: Jesus’ apparition to seven disciples by the Lake of Galilee and the miraculous draught of fishes; and Peter’s threefold confession and Jesus’ threefold commission to him. And its third stage, Jesus’ prophecies to Peter and to the beloved disciple concerning their future, and the declaration “This is the disciple who testifies to these things and who has written them, and we know that his testimony is true,” is doubtless written by the redactor of the previous two stages. This writer imitates, but is different from, the great author of the first twenty chapters.

Comparison

With the Synoptists.—The

following are the

most obvious differences between the original book and the Synoptists. John has a metaphysical prologue; Matthew and Luke have historical prologues; and Mark is without any prologue. The earthly scene is here Judea, indeed Jerusalem, with but five breaks (vi. 1-vii. 10 is the only fong one); whilst over two-thirds of each Synoptist deal with Galilee or Samaria. The ministry here lasts about three and a half years (it begins some months before the first Passover, ii. 13; the feast of v. r is probably a second; the third occurs vi. 4; and on the fourth, xi. 55, He dies); whilst the Synoptists have but the one Passover of His death, after barely a year of ministry. Here Jesus’ teaching contains no parables and but three allegories, the Synoptists present it as parabolic through and through. Here not one exorcism occurs; in the Synoptists the exorcisms are as prominent as the cures and the preaching. John has, besides the passion, seven accounts in common with the Synoptists: the Baptist and Jesus (i. 19-34); cleansing of the Temple (ii. 13-16); cure of the centurion’s (ruler’s) servant (son) (iv. 46-54); multiplication of the loaves (vi. 1-13); walking upon the water (vi. 16-21); anointing at Bethany (xii. 1-8); entry into Jerusalem (xii. 12-16); al unique occurrences. In the first, John describes how the Baptist, on Jesus’ approach, cries “Behold the Lamb of God, which taketh away the sins of the world”; and how he says “I saw the spirit descending upon Him, and I bore witness that this is the Son of

God.” But the Synoptists, especially Mark, give the slow steps in even the apostles’ realization of Jesus’ Messianic character; only at, Caesarea Philippi, Simon alone, for the first time, clearly discerns it, Jesus declaring that His Father has revealed it to Him, and yet Simon is still scandalized at the thought of a sufet-

JOHN ing Messiah (Mark viii. 28-34). Only some two weeks before the

end is He proclaimed Messiah at Jericho (x. 46-48) ; then in Jerusalem, five days before dying for this upon the cross (xi. 1~10, xv. 37). As to the Baptist, in all three Synoptists, he baptizes Jesus, and, in Mark i. 10, 11, it is Jesus who sees the Spirit descending upon Himself on His emerging from beneath the water, and it is to Himself that God’s voice'is addressed; in John, Jesus’ baptism is ignored, only the Spirit remains hovering above him, as a sign for the Baptist’s instruction. And in Matt. xi. 2-6, the Baptist, several months after the Jordan scene, sends from his

prison to ascertain if Jesus is indeed the Messiah; in John, the Baptist remains at large so as again (iii. 22-36) to proclaim Jesus’ heavenly provenance.

The cleansing of the Temple occurs in the

Synoptists four days before His death, and instantly determines the hierarchs to seek His destruction (Mark xi. 15-18); John puts it three years back, as an appropriate frontispiece to His complete claims and work. The passion-narratives reveal the following main differences. John omits, at the last supper, its central point, the great historic act of the Holy Eucharist, carefully given by the Synoptists and St. Paul, having provided a highly doctrinal equivalent in the discourse on the living Bread, here spoken by Jesus in Capernaum over a year before the passion (vi. 4), the day after the multi-

plication of the loaves. This transference is doubtless connected with the change in the relations between the time of the Passover meal and that of His death: in the Synoptists, the Thursday evening’s supper is a true Passover meal, the lamb had been slain that afternoon and Jesus dies some twenty-four hours later; in John, the supper is not a Passover meal, the Passover is celebrated on Friday, and Jesus, proclaimed here from the first, the

Lamb of God, dies whilst the paschal lambs, His prototypes, are being slain. The scene in the garden is without the agony of Gethsemane; a faint echo of this historic anguish appears in the scene with the Greeks four days earlier, and even that peaceful appeal to, and answer of, the Father occurs only for His followers’ sakes. In the garden Jesus here Himself goes forth to meet His captors, and these fall back upon the ground, on His revealing Himself as Jesus of Nazareth. The long scenes with Pilate culminate in the great sayings concerning His kingdom not being of this world and the object of this His coming being to bear witness to the truth, thus explaining how, though affirming kingship (Mark xv. 2), He could be innocent. In John He does not declare Himself Messiah before the Jewish Sanhedrim (Mark xiv. 61) but declares Himself supermundane regal witness to the truth before the Roman governor. The scene on Calvary differs as follows: In the Synoptists the soldiers divide His garments among them, casting lots (Mark xv. 24); in John they make four parts of them and cast lots concerning His seamless tunic, thus fulfilling the text, “They divided My garments among them and upon My vesture they cast lots”: the parallelism of Hebrew poetry, which twice describes one fact, being taken as witnessing to two, and the tunic doubtless symbolizing the unity of the Church, as in

Philo the high priest’s seamless robe symbolizes the indivisible unity of the universe, expressive of the Logos (De ebrietate, xxi.). In the Synoptists, of His followers only women—the careful, seemingly exhaustive lists do not include His mother—remain, looking on “from afar” (Mark xv. 40); in John, His mother stands with the two other Marys and the beloved disciple beneath the cross, and “from that hour the disciple took her unto his own (house) ,” while in the older literature His mother does not appear in Jerusalem till just before Pentecost, and with “His brethren”

(Acts i. 14). And John alone tells how the bones of the dead body remained unbroken, fulfilling the ordinance as to the paschal lamb (Exod. xii. 46), and how blood and water flowed from His spear-pierced side: thus the Lamb “taketh away the sins of the world” by shedding His blood which “cleanseth us from every sin”; and “He cometh by water and blood,” historically at His baptism and crucifixion, and mystically to each faithful soul in baptism and the eucharist. The story of the risen Christ (xx.) shows dependence on and contrast to the Synoptic accounts. Its two halves have each a negative and a positive scene. The empty grave (1-10) and the apparition to the Magdalen (11-18)

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together correspond to the message brought by the women (Matt. xxviii. 1-10); and the apparition to the ten joyously believing apostles (19-23) and then to the sadly doubting Thomas (24-29) together correspond to Luke xxiv. 36-43, where the eleven apostles jointly receive one visit from the risen One, and both doubt and believe, mourn and rejoice. The Johannine discourses reveal differences from the Synoptists so profound as to be admitted by all. Here Jesus, the Baptist and the writer speak so much alike that it is sometimes impossible to say where each speaker begins and ends: e.g., in iii. 27-30, 31-36. The speeches dwell upon Jesus’ person and work, as we shall find, with a didactic directness, philosophical terminology and denunciatory exclusiveness unmatched in the Synoptist sayings. “This is eternal life, that they may know Thee the only true God and

Jesus Christ whom Thou hast sent” (xvii. 3), is part of the highpriestly prayer; yet Pére Calmes, with the papal censor’s approbation, says, “It seems to us impossible not to admit that we have here dogmatic developments explicable rather by the evangelist’s habits of mind than by the actual words of Jesus.” “I have told you of earthly things and you believe not; how shall ye believe if I tell you of heavenly things?” (iii. 12), and “Ye are from beneath, I am from above” (vili. 23), give us a Plato- (Philo-) like upper, “true” world, and a lower, delusive world. “Ye shall die in your sins” (viii. 21); “ye are from your father the devil” (viii. 44); “I am the door of the sheep, all they that came before Me are thieves and robbers,” (x. 7, 8); “they have no excuse for their sin” (xv. 22)—contrast strongly with the yearning over Jerusalem: “The blood of Abel the just” and “the blood of Zacharias son of Barachias’? (Matt. xxiii. 35-37); and “Father, forgive them; for they know not what they do” (Luke xxiii. 34). And whilst the Synoptist speeches and actions stand in loose and natural relation to each other, the Johannine deeds so closely illustrate the sayings that each set everywhere supplements the other: the history itself here tends to become one long allegory. So with the woman at the well and “the living water’; the multiplication of the loaves and “the living Bread”; “I am the Light of the world” and the blind man’s cure; “I am the Resurrection and the Life” and the raising of Lazarus; indeed even with the Temple-cleansing and the prophecy as to His resurrection; Nicodemus’s night visit and “men loved the darkness rather than the light”; the cure of the inoperative paralytic and “My Father and I work hitherto”’; the walking, phantom-like, upon the waters (John vi. 15-21; Mark vi. 49); and the declaration concerning the eucharist, “the spirit it is that quickeneth” (John vi. 63). Only some sixteen Synoptic sayings reappear here; but we are given some great new sayings full of the Synoptic spirit. Characteristics and Object.—The book’s character results from the continuous operation of four great tendencies. There is everywhere a readiness to handle traditional, largely historical, materials with a sovereign freedom, controlled and limited by doctrinal convictions and devotional experiences alone. There is everywhere the mystic’s deep love for double, even treble meanings: e.g., the “again” in ili. 2, means, literally, “from the beginning,” to be physically born again; morally, to become as a little child; mystically, “from heaven, God,” to be spiritually renewed.

“Judgment”

(kpiows)

in the popular sense, condemnation,

a

future act; in the mystical sense, discrimination, a present fact. There is everywhere the influence of certain central ideas, partly identical with, but largely developments of, those less reflectively operative in the Synoptists. Thus six great terms are characteristic of, or even special to, this Gospel. “The Only-Begotten” is most nearly reached by St. Paul’s term “His own Son.” The “Word,” or “Logos,” is a term derived from Heracleitus of Ephesus and the Stoics, through the Alexandrian Jew Philo, but conceived here throughout as definitely personal. “The Light of the World” the Jesus-Logos here proclaims Himself to be; in the Synoptists He only declares His disciples to be such. ““The

Paraclete,” as in Philo, is a “helper,” “intercessor”; but in Philo he is the intelligible universe, whilst here He is a self-conscious Spirit. “Truth,” “the truth,” “to know,” have here a prominence and significance far beyond their Synoptic or even their Pauline use. And above all stand the tses of “Life,” “Eternal Life.”

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JOHN

The living ever-working Father (vi. 57; v. 17) has a Logos in whom is Life (i. 4), an ever-working Son (v. 17), who declares Himself “the living Bread,” “ the Resurrection and the Life,” “the Way, the Truth and the Life” (vi. 51; xi. 25; xiv. 16): so that Father and Son quicken whom they will (v. 21); the Father’s commandment is life everlasting, and Jesus’ words are spirit and life (xii. 50; vi. 63, 68). The term, already Synoptic, takes over here most of the connotations* of the “Kingdom of God,” the standing Synoptic expression, which appears here only in ill. 3-5; xviii. 36. Note that the term “the Logos” is peculiar to the Apocalypse (xix. 13), and the prologue here, but that, as Light and Life, the Logos-conception is present throughout the book. And thus there is everywhere a striving to contemplate history sub specie aeternitatis and to englobe the successiveness of man in the simultaneity of God. Narratives Peculiar to John.—Of his seven great symbolical,

The raising of Lazarus, in appearance a massive, definitely localized historical fact, requires a similar interpretation, unless we would, in favour of the direct historicity of a story peculiar to a profoundly allegorical treatise, ruin the historical trustworthiness ‘of the largely historical Synoptists in precisely their most complete and verisimilar part. For especially in Mark, the

passing through Jericho, the entry into Jerusalem, the Temple. cleansing and its immediate effect upon the hierarchs, their next day’s interrogatory, “By what authority doest thou these things?” i.e., the cleansing (x. 46—xi. 33), are all closely interdependent and lead at once to His discussions with His Jerusalem opponents

(xii., xiii.), and to the anointing, last supper, and passion (xiv,

xv.). John’s last and greatest symbolic sign replaces those historic motives, since here it is the raising of Lazarùs which determines

the hierarchs to kill Jesus (xi. 46-52), and occasions the crowds

which accompany and meet him on His entry (xii. 9-19). The doctrinally interpreted “signs,” John shares three, the cure of intrinsic improbabilities of the narrative, if taken as direct history the ruler’s son, the multiplication of the loaves, the walking on are also great: Jesus’ deliberate delay of two days to secure His the waters, with the Synoptists: yet here the first is transformed friend’s dying, and His rejoicing at the death, since thus He can almost beyond recognition; and the two others only typify and revivify His friend and bring His disciples to believe in Himself prepare the eucharistic discourse. Of the four purely Johannine as the Life; His deliberate weeping over the death which He has signs, two—the cures of the paralytic (v. 1-16), and of the man thus let happen, yet His anger at the similar tears of Lazarus's born blind (ix. 1~34)-—-are, admittedly, profoundly symbolical. other friends; and His praying, as He tells the Father in the In the first case, the man’s physical and spiritual lethargy are prayer itself, simply to edify the bystanders: all point to a closely interconnected and strongly contrasted with the ever- doctrinal allegory. Indeed the climax of the whole account is active God and His Logos. In the second case there is also the already reached in Jesus’ great saying: “I am the Resurrection closest parallel between physical blindness cured, and spiritual and the Life; he that believeth in Me. . . shall not die for ever,” darkness dispelled, by the Logos-Light as described in the accom- and in Martha’s answer: “I believe that Thou art the Christ, the panying discourse. Both narratives are doubtless based upon Son of God, who hast come into the world” (xi. 26, 27); the actual occurrences—the cures narrated in Mark ii., iii., viii., x., and sign which follows is but the pictorial representation of this scenes witnessed by the writer in later times—yet here they do abiding truth. The materials for the allegory will have been but picture our Lord’s spiritual work in the human soul achieved certain Old Testament narratives, but especially the Synoptic throughout Christian history. We cannot well claim more than accounts of Jesus’ raisings of Jairus’s daughter and of the: these three kinds of reality for the first and the last signs, the widow’s son (Mark v.; Luke vii.). Mary and Martha are admittedly identical with the sisters in Luke x. 38-425 and already miracle at Cana and the resurrection of Lazarus. For the marriage-feast sign yields throughout an allegorical some Greek fathers connect the Lazarus of this allegory with the meaning. Water stands in this Gospel for what is still but symbol; Lazarus of the parable (Luke xvi. 19-31). In the parable Lazarus thus the water-pots serve here the external Jewish ablutions—old returns not to earth, since Abraham foresees that the rich man’s bottles which the “new wine” of the Gospel is to burst (Mark brethren would disbelieve even if one rose from, the dead; in the ii. 22). Wine is the blood of the new covenant, and He will corresponding allegory, Lazarus does actually return to life, and drink the fruit of the vine new in the Kingdom of God (Mark the Jews believe so little as to determine upon killing the very xiv. 23-25); the vineyard where He Himself is the true Vine Life Himself. Special Difficulties and Greatness.—The difficulties, limi(Mark xii. 1; Jobn xv. 1). And “the kingdom of heaven is like to a marriage-feast” (Matt. xxii. 2); Jesus is the Bridegroom tations and temporary means special to the book are closely con(Mark ii. 19); “the marriage of the Lamb has come” (Rev. nected with its ready appeal and abiding power; let us take both xix. 7). “They have no wine”: the hopelessness of the old con- sets of things together, in three couples of inter-related price ditions is announced here by the true Israel, the Messiah’s spirit- and gift. The book’s method and form are pervadingly allegorical; its ual mother, the same “woman” who in Rev. xii. 2, 5 “brought forth a man-child who was to rule all nations.” Cardinal Newman Instinct and aim are profoundly mystical. Now from Philo to admitted that the latter woman “represents the church, this is Origen we have a long Hellenistic, Jewish and Christian applicathe real or direct sense”; yet as her man-child is certainly the tion of that all-embracing allegorism, where one thing stands Messiah, this church must be the faithful Jewish church. Thus for another and where no factual details resist resolution into a also the “woman” at the wedding and beneath the cross stands symbol of religious ideas and forces. Thus Philo had, in his life primarily for the faithful Old Testament community, correspond- of Moses, allegorized the Pentateuchal narratives so as to repreing to the beloved disciple, the typical New Testament follower sent him as mediator, saviour, intercessor of his people, the one of her Son, the Messiah: in each case the devotional accommo- great organ of revelation, and the soul’s guide from the false dation to His earthly mother is equally ancient and legitimate. lower world into the upper true one. The Fourth Gospel is the He answers her “My hour is not yet come,” ie., in the symbolic noblest instance of this kind of literature, of which the truth story, the moment for working the miracle; in the symbolized: depends not on the factual accuracy of the symbolizing appearreality, the hour of His death, condition for the spirit’s advent; ances but on the truth of the ideas and experiences thus symboland “what is there between Me and thee?” że., “My motives ized. And Origen is still full of spontaneous sympathy with its spring no more from the old religion,” words devoid of difficulty, pervading allegorism. But this method has lost its attraction; if spoken thus by the Eternal Logos to the passing Jewish church. the Synoptists, with their rarer and slighter pragmatic rearrangeThe transformation is soon afterwards accomplished, but in sym- ments and their greater closeness to our Lord’s actual words, bol oniy; the “hour” of the full sense is still over three years off. deeds, experiences, environment, now come home to us as indefiAlready Philo says “the Logos is the master of the spiritual nitely richer in content and stimulative appeal. Yet mysticism drinking-feast,” and ‘‘let Melchisedeck”—the Logos—“in lieu of persists, as the intuitive and emotional apprehension of the most water offer wine to souls and inebriate them” (De somn. ii. 37; specifically religious of all truths, viz., the already full, operative Legg. all. iii. 26). But in John this symbolism figures a great existence of eternal beauty, truth and goodness, of infinite Personhistoric fact, the joyous freshness of Jesus’ ministerial beginnings, ality and Spirit independently of our action, and not, as in ethics. as indicated in the sayings of the Bridegroom and of the new the simple possibility and obligation for ourselves to produce wine, a freshness typical of Jésus’ ceaseless renovation of souls. such-like things. And of this elemental mode of apprehension

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experience: “I have many things to tell you, but you cannot bear

and root-truth, the Johannine Gospel is the greatest literary docu-

them now,” “the Father will give you another Helper, the spirit of truth, who will abide with you for ever” (xvi. 12, xiv. 15).

ment and incentive extant: its ultimate aim and deepest content retain all their potency.

The book contains an intellectualist, static, determinist, abstrac-

tive trend. In Luke x. 25~—28, eternal life depends upon loving God and man; here it consists in knowing the one true God and Christ

whom He has sent. In the Synoptists, Jesus grows in favour with God and man, passes through true human experiences and trials, prays alone on the mountain-side, and dies with a cry of desolation; here the Logos’ watchword is “I am,” He has deliberately to stir up emotion in Himself, never prays for Himself, and

in the garden and on the cross shows but power and self-possession. Here we find “ye cannot hear, cannot believe, because ye are not from God, not of My sheep” (viii, 47, x. 26); “the world cannot receive the spirit of truth” (xiv. 17). Yet the ethical current appears here also strongly: “he who doeth the truth, cometh to the light” (iii. 21), “if you love Me, keep My commandments” (xiv. 15), Libertarianism is here: “the light came,

but men loved the darkness better than the light,” “ye will not come to Me” (iii. 19, v. 40); hence the appeal “abide in Me”— the branch can cease to be in Him the Vine (xv. 4, 2). Indeed even those first currents stand here for the deepest religious truths,

the prevenience of God and man’s affinity to Him, “Not we loved God (first), but He (first) loved us”; “let us love Him, because

He first loved us” (1 John iv. 10, 19): “no man can come to Me, unless the Father draw him” (vi. 44), a drawing which effects a hunger and thirst for Christ and God (iv, 14, vi. 35), Thus man’s spirit can respond actively to the historic Jesus, because already touched and made hungry by the all-actual Spirit-God who made that soul akin unto Himself. The book has an outer protective shell of acutely polemical

and exclusive moods and insistences, whilst certain splendid Synoptic breadths and reconciliations are nowhere reached; but

this is primarily because it is fighting, more consciously than they, for that inalienable ideal of all deepest religion, unity, even

external and corporate, amongst all believers. The “Pneumatic” Gospel comes thus specially to emphasize certain central historical

facts; and, the most explicitly institutional and sacramental of the four, to proclaim the most universalistic and developmental of all Biblical sayings. Here indeed Jesus will not pray for the world (xvii. 9): “ye shall die in your sins,” He insists to His opponents (vili. 44, 24); it is the Jews generally who appear throughout as such; nowhere is there a word as to forgiving our enemies; and the commandment of love is designated by Jesus as His, as new, and as binding the disciples to “love one another” within the community to which He gives His “example” (xv. 12.

This universalism is not simply spiritual; the external element, presupposed in the Synoptists as that of the Jewish church within which Jesus’ earthly life was spent, is here that of the now separate Christian community: He has other sheep not of this

fold—them also He must bring, there will be one fold, one shepherd; and His seamless tunic, and Peter’s net which, holding every kind of fish, is not rent, are symbols of this visible unity. Ministerial gradations exist in this church; Jesus begins the feetwashing with Peter, who alone speaks and is spoken to; the beloved disciple outruns Peter to Jesus’ monument, yet waits to go in till Peter has done so first; and in the appendix the treble pastoral commission is to Peter alone: a Petrine pre-eminence which but echoes the Synoptists. And sacramentalism informs the great discourses concerning rebirth by water and the spirit, and feeding on the Living Bread, Jesus’ flesh and blood, and the narrative of the issue of blood and water from the dead Jesus’ side. Indeed so severe a stress is laid upon the explicitly Christian life and its specific means, that orthodoxy itself interprets the rebirth by water and spirit, and the eating the flesh and drinking the blood to which entrance into the Kingdom and possession of interior life are here exclusively attached, as often represented by a simple sincere desire and will for spiritual purification and a keen hunger and thirst for God’s aid, together with such cultural acts as such souls can know or find, even without any knowledge of the Christian rites. Thus there is many “a pedagogue to Christ,” and the Christian visible means and expressions are the culmination and measure of what, in various degrees and forms, accompanies every sincerely striving soul throughout all human

history. Origin and Awuthorship.—The question as to the book’s origin has lost its poignancy through the ever-increasing recognition of its intrinsic character. Thus the defenders of the apostolic authorship, the Unitarian James Drummond (1903), the Anglican William Sanday (1905), the Roman Catholic Theodore Calmes

(1904), can tell us: the first, that “the evangelist did not aim at

an illustrative picture of what was most characteristic of Jesus”;

the second, that ‘the author sank into his own consciousness and at last brought to light what he found there”; the third, that “the Gospel contains an entire theological system,” “history is seen through the intervening dogmatic development,” ‘the Samaritan woman is... a personification,” “the behaviour of the Greeks is entirely natural in such a book.” We thus get at crosspurposes with this powerful, profound work: only some such is position as Abbé Loisy’s critical summing up (1903) brings out

xiii. 34, 15). In the Synoptists, the disciples’ intolerance rebuked (Mark ix. 38-41); Jesus’ opposition is everywhere

restricted to the Pharisees and the worldly Sadducees; He ever longs for the conversion of Jerusalem; the great double commandment of love is proclaimed as already formulated in the Mosaic

law (Mark xii, 28-34); the neighbour to be thus loved and served is simply any and every suffering fellow-man; and the pattern for

such perfect love is found in a schismatical Samaritan (Luke x. 25-37). Yet the deepest strain here is more serenely universalist ‘even than St. Paul, for here Jesus says: “God so loved the world, that He gave His only begotten Son, that whosoever believeth in Him should . . . have everlasting life” (iii. 16). True, the great prologue passage (i. 9) probably reads “He was the true Light coming into the world, that enlighteneth every man,” so that the writer would everywhere

concentrate his mind upon the grace

attendant upon explicit knowledge of the incarnate, historic Christ. Yet Christian orthodoxy, which itself has, all but uniformly, understood this passage of the spiritual radiation throughout the world of the Word before His incarnation, has been aided towards such breadth as to the past by the Johannine outlook

its specific greatness. “What the author was, his book, in spite of himself, tells us to some extent: a Christian of Judeo-Alexandrine formation; a believer without, apparently, any personal

reminiscence of what had actually been the life, preaching and death of Jesus; a theologian far removed from every historical preoccupation, though he retains certain principal facts of tradition without which Christianity would evaporate into pure ideas;

and a seer who has lived the Gospel which he propounds.” “To find his book beautiful and true, we need but take it as it is and understand it.” “The church, which has never discussed the literary problem of this Gospel, in nowise erred as to its worth,” Several traditional positions have indeed been approximately maintained or reconquered against the critics. As to the Gospels

date, critics have returned from 160-170 (Baur), 150 (Zeller), 130 (Keim), to 1197115 (Renan) and 80-110 (Harnack); since Jrengeus says its author lived into the times of Trajan (90-117),

a date somewhere about ros would satisfy tradition. As to the place, the critics accept proconsular Asia with practical unanimity,

thus endorsing Irenaeus’s declaration that the Gospel was published in Ephesus. As to the author’s antecedents, critics have where the full Christian truth and its first form remain undis- ceased to hold that he could not have been a Jew-Christian, and tinguished, and where its earthly future appears restricted to that admit that he must have heen by birth a Jew of the Dispersion generation, in John the Eternal Life conception largely absorbs or the son of Christian parents who had been such Jews. And the attention away from all successiveness; Jesus’ earthly life as to the vivid accuracy of many of his topographical and social does not limit the ‘religion’s assimilation of further truth and details, the predominant critical verdict now is that he betrays into the future. For, in contrast to the earliest, Synoptic tradition,

98

JOHN

an eye-witness’s knowledge of the country between Sichem and Jordan and as to Jerusalem;

of this figure may

well be only ideally, mystically

true.

The

he will have visited these places,

original work nowhere identifies this disciple with any particular say in go, or may have lived in Jerusalem shortly before its fall. historic figure. “He who saw’ the lance-thrust “hath borne But the reasons against the author being John the Zebedean or witness, and his witness is true,” is asserted (xix. 35) of the any other eyewitness of Jesus’ earthly life have accumulated to disciple. Yet “to see” is said also of intuitive faith, “whos a practical demonstration. hath seen Me, hath seen the Father” (xiv. 9); and “true” appears As to the external evidence for the book’s early date, we must also in “the true Light,” “the true Bread from heaven,” as char. remember that the Epistle to the Hebrews and the Book of acterizing the realities of the upper, alone fully true world, and Revelation, though admittedly earlier, are of the same school, equals “heavenly” (iii. 12); thus a “true witness” testifies to some and, with the great Pauline Epistles, show many preformations heavenly reality, and appeals to the reader’s “pneumatic,” ie., of Johannine phrases and ideas. Other slighter prolusions will allegorical, understanding. have circulated in that Philonian centre Ephesus, before the Only in the appendix do we find any deliberate identification great Gospel englobed and superseded them. Hence the pre- with a particular historic person: “this is the disciple who witcariousness of the proofs derived from more or less close parallels nessed to and who wrote these things” (xxi. 24) refers doubtless to Johannine passages in the apostolic fathers. Justin Martyr to the whole previous work and to “the disciple whom Jesus (163-167) certainly uses the Gospel; but his conception of Jesus’ loved,” identified here with an unnamed historic personage whose life is so strictly Synoptic that he can hardly have accepted it recent death had created a shock, evidently because he was the as from an apostolic eyewitness. Papias of Hierapolis, in his last of that apostolic generation which had so keenly expected Exposition of the Lord’s Sayings (145-160), appears nowhere to the second coming (18-23). This man was so great that the have mentioned it, and clearly distinguishes between ‘what writer strives to win his authority for this Gospel; and yet this Andrew, Peter, . . . Johm or Matthew or any other of the Lord’s man was not John the Zebedean, else why, now he is dead and disciples spoke,” and “what Aristion and the presbyter John, gone, not proclaim the fact? If the dead man was John the the Lord’s disciples, say.” Thus Papias, as Eusebius, about 314, presbyter—if this John had in youth just seen Jesus and the insists, knew two Johns, and the apostle was to him a far-away Zebedean, and in extreme old age had still seen and approved figure; indeed early mediaeval chroniclers recount that Papias “in the Gospel—to attribute this Gospel to him, as is done here, the second book of the Lord’s sayings’? asserted that both the would not violate the literary ethics of those times. Thus the sons of Zebedee were “slain by Jews,” so that the apostle John heathen philosopher Iamblichus (d. c. 330) declares: “this was would have died before 70. Irenaeus’s testimony is the earliest admirable” amongst the Neo-Pythagoreans “that they ascribed and admittedly the strongest we possess for the Zebedean author- everything to Pythagoras; but few of them acknowledge their ship; yet, as Calmes admits, “it cannot be considered decisive.” own works as their own” (de Pythag. vita, 198). And as to In his work against the Heresies and in his letter to Florinus, Christians, Tertullian about 210 tells how the presbyter who, in about 185-191, he tells how he had himself known Bishop Poly- proconsular Asia, had “composed the Acts of Paul and Thecla” carp of Smyrna, and how Polycarp “used to recount his familiar was convicted and deposed, for how could it be credible that Paul intercourse with John and the others who had seen the Lord”; should confer upon women the power to “teach and baptize” as and -explicitly identifies this John with the Zebedean and the these Acts averred? ‘The attribution as such, then, was not evangelist. But Irenaeus was at most 15 when thus frequenting condemned. Polycarp; writes 35 to 50 years later in Lyons, admitting that he The facts of the problem would all appear covered by the noted down nothing at the time; and, since his mistaken descrip- hypothesis that John the presbyter, the eleven being all dead, tion of Papias as “a hearer of Jobn” the Zebedean was certainly wrote the book of Revelation (its more ancient Christian porreached by mistaking the presbyter for the apostle, his additional tions) say in 69, and died at Ephesus say in 100; that the author words “and a companion of Polycarp” point to this same mistaken of the Gospel wrote the first draft, here, say in 97; that this identification having also operated in his mind with regard to book, expanded by him, first circulated within a select Ephesian Polycarp. In any case, the very real and important presbyter is Christian circle; and that the Ephesian church officials added completely unknown to Irenaeus, and his conclusion as to the to it the appendix and published it in rzro—-120. But however book’s authorship resulted apparently from a comparison of its different or more complicated may have been the actual origins, contents with Polycarp’s teaching. If the presbyter wrote Reve- three points remain certain. The real situation that confronts us lation and was Polycarp’s master, such a mistake could easily is not an unbroken tradition of apostolic eye-witnesses, incapable arise. Certainly Polycrates, bishop of Ephesus, made a precisely of re-statement with any hope of ecclesiastical acceptance, except similar mistake when about 190 he described the Philip “who rests by another apostolic eye-witness. On one side indeed there was in Hierapolis” as “one of the twelve apostles,” since Eusebius the record, underlying the Synoptists, of at least two eyerightly identifies this Philip with the deacon of Acts xxi. A posi- witnesses, and the necessity of its preservation and transmission; tive testimony for the critical conclusion is derived from the but on the other side a profound double change had come over existence of a group of Asia Minor Christians who about 165 the Christian outlook and requirements. St. Paul’s heroic labours ‘rejected the Gospel as not by John but by Cerinthus. The attribu- (30-64) had gradually gained full recognition and separate organi‘tion is doubtless mistaken; but could Christians who were suff- zation for the universalist strain in our Lord’s teaching; and he ciently numerous to deserve a long discussion by St. Epiphanius who had never seen the earthly Jesus, but only the heavenly in 374-377, and who upheld the Synoptists, stoutly opposed the Christ, could even declare that Christ “though from the Jewish Gnostics and Montanists, and had escaped every special designa-. fathers according to the flesh” had died, “so that henceforth, tion till the bishop nicknamed them the ‘Alogoi” (irrational even if we have known Christ according to the flesh, now we no rejectors of the Logos-Gospel), dare, in such a time and country, further know Him thus,” “the Lord is the Spirit,” and “where the to hold such views, had the apostolic origin been incontestable? Spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty.” And the Jewish church, Surely not. The Alexandrian Clement, Tertullian, Origen, Euse- within which Christianity had first lived and moved, ceased to bius, Jerome and Augustine only tell of the Zebedean what is have a visible centre. Thus a super-spatial and super-temporal traceable to stories told by Papias of others, to passages of interpretation of that first markedly Jewish setting and apprehenRevelation and the Gospel, or to the assured fact of the long- sion of the Christian truth became as necessary as the attachment lived Asian presbyter. to the original contingencies. The Fourth Gospel, inexplicable As to the internal evidence, if the Gospel typifies various im- without St. Paul and the fall of Jerusalem, is fully understandable

‘perfect or sinful attitudes in Nicodemus, the Samaritan woman

with them.

The attribution of the book to an eye-witness nowhere

and Thomas; if even the mother appears to symbolize faithful resolves, it everywhere increases, the real difficulties; and by Israel: then, profoundly spiritual and forward-looking as it is, insisting upon having history in the same degree and way in a type of the perfect disciple, not all unlike Clement’s perfect John as in the Synoptists, we cease to get it sufficiently anywhere “Gnostic,” could hardly be omitted by it; and the precise details at all. And the Fourth Gospel’s true greatness lies well within

JOHN

99

the range of this its special character. In character it is pro- | religion. Against such teachers the writer protests that the real foundly “pneumatic”; Paul’s super-earthly Spirit-Christ here fellowship with God involves a nexus with the historical revelation breathes and speaks, and invites a corresponding spiritual com- in Jesus (i. rf), and that, although the errorists had apparently

prehension.

And its greatness appears in its inexhaustibly deep

the Father’s drawteachings concerning Christ’s sheep and fold; as to Christ’s knowledge of dependence the Christ; ing of souls to doctrine upon the doing of God’s will; the fulfilling of the commandment of love, as the test of true discipleship; eternal life,

begun even here and now; and God a Spirit, to be served in spirit and in truth.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See

JOHN THE APOSTLE; APOCALYPSE.

Among the

withdrawn

from the Church

(ii. 19), the evil they had done

required to be resisted, i.e., the false, fascinating, “knowledge,” which in speculative guise undermined the historical basis of the gospel. “Fellowship with God,” implying fellowship with Christians, is the keynote of the homily, and the writer plays on various melodies suggested by the keynote. After describing the fellowship as his subject (i. 1f) he proceeds to mention its tests and

conditions, primarily the sense of sin (i. 5f), involving a sense of

the need of forgiveness through Jesus Christ, and also obedience to the supreme law of brotherly love, which is called the true St. 1903); Preuschen 1896; mentary, ¢. 235-237 (ed. by Brooke, light of life. Then the dangers of this fellowship are taken up Spanish The 416. c. Ep., et Ev. Augustine’s Tractatus in Joannis (ii. r8f) under the category of truth and falsehood, belief in the (critical 1596 pubd. commentary, Latin Jesuit Juan Maldonatus’ reprint, ed. by Raich, 1874), a pathfinder on many obscure points, is incarnate Christ being the test of Christian truth. The characstill a model for tenacious penetration of Johannine ideas. Bret- teristics of the fellowship are once more discussed (iii. rf), as schneider’s short Probabilia de Evangeli ... Joannis Apostoli indole sinlessness, due to regeneration, and brotherly love, the latter et origine (1820), the first systematic assault on the traditional attribu- bulking so largely in the writer’s mind that he goes into three of tion, remains unrefuted in its main contention. The best summing up and ripest fruit of the critical labour since then are Professor H. J. its features, confidence towards God (iii. 13f), moral discernHoltzmann’s Handkommentar (2nd ed., 1893) and the respective sec- ment (iv. 1f), and assurance of union with the God of love tions in his Einleitung in d. N. T. (3rd ed., 1892) and his Lekrbuch der (iv. 7f), all these being bound up with belief in Jesus as the N. T. Theologie (1897), vol. ii, Among the few critically satisfactory Christ (v. 1f). A brief epilogue (v. 13-21) sums up the certainFrench books, Abbé Loisy’s Le Quatrième évangile (1903, 2nd ed. ties of the Christian knowledge on which any fellowship rests. 1921) stands pre-eminent for delicate psychological analysis and conIt is needless to attempt to identify the tendency attacked in tinuous sense of the book’s closely knit unity; whilst Pére Th. Calmes’ Evangile selon S. Jean (1904) indicates how numerous are the admis- the epistle with any one form of contemporary thought, such as sions as to the book’s character and the evidences for its authorship, Cerinthianism. The writer seeks to put his readers on their guard made by intelligent Roman Catholic apologists with Rome’s explicit against a spirit of the age which assumed a variety of forms but approbation. Bp. Lightfoot’s Essays on... Supernatural Religion (1874-77; collected 1889) are often masterly conservative interpreta- which fundamentally was characterized by an ultra-spiritualism. tions of the external evidence; but they leave this evidence still incon- In the background we can detect the gnostic or semi-docetic view clusive, and the formidable contrary internal evidence remains practi- that the divine power or Christ did not really identify itself with cally untouched. Much the same applies to Bp. Westcott’s Gospel the human Jesus, as though the spiritual God was too fine to according to St. John (1882), devotionally so attractive, and in textual come into contact with the flesh or matter; if this divine aeon or criticism excellent. V. H. Stanton’s Gospels as Historical Documents, Pt. iii. (1920), shows how far conservative scholarship has moved, since Christ withdrew from Jesus before the passion and death, as Westcott’s time. Prof. F. C. Burkitt’s The Gospel History (1906) vig- Cerinthus seems to have taught, entering Jesus only at baptism orously sketches the book’s dominant characteristics and true function. and leaving Him before the Cross, the point of iv. 2f and v. 5f E. F. Scott’s The Fourth Gospel (1906, 2nd ed. 1909) gives a lucid, becomes clearer. Again, the claims of the illuminati involved a critical and religiously tempered account of the Gospels ideas, aims, affinities, difficulties and abiding significance. Wellhausen, Das Evang. superior knowledge of God, which led to a disparagement of orJohannis (1908). C. F. Burney, The Aramaic Origin of the Fourth dinary Christians; perhaps too the overstrained spiritualism led Gospel (1922), attempts to prove that the Gospel is based on an Ara- to an antinomianism, by its indifference to sins of the flesh. At maic original; but the thesis has not met with wide acceptance. The any rate it is plain that the errorists failed to recognise that origin, authorship and character of the Gospel are considered in B. H. brotherly love was the cardinal law of God for human fellowStreeter, The Four Gospels (1924). D. W. Bauer, Das Johannesevangelium in the Handbuch z. N.T. (2nd ed. 1925) contains elaborate ref- ship, either because they adhered to the Old Testament law or erences, giving prominence to the suggested parallels in the Mandaean because they denied the redeeming love of God in the Cross, from literature (see MANDAEANS). (F. v. H.) which, the writer contends, true Christian love flowed. But the appear as teaching of the manifesto is positive. The writer is seeking to writings JOHN, THE EPISTLES OF. Three such in the New Testament, but none answers exactly to the recall his hearers to the original faith of the gospel, to belief and description, for the so-called “First Epistle” is an address or pas- love; it is not an exposure of error which he offers so much as an toral letter in epistolary form, in reality a homily, whilst the two exposition of the Christian standing. 2. The so-called ‘Second Epistle” is addressed by the author, smaller “epistles” are brief notes or letters. The first consists of a series of meditations upon some central themes of the faith, who calls himself “The Elder, or Presbyter,” to an unknown comwhich the writer felt to be endangered; it is not so marked a_ munity described as “The Elect Lady and Her Children.” It is “letter” as, e.g., the addresses to the seven churches in Rev. 1.-m. a warning against indiscriminate hospitality towards wandering The second “epistle” is indeed addressed to some Christian com- teachers who were evidently promulgating heretical views of a munity, ‘but it is so brief that it may almost be termed a letter. docetic character about the person of Christ. It is thought by As for the third, it is a private letter in the strict sense of the some that the lady is an individual, but the allusions to the family are much better understood if the family is conceived as a small term, even more private than Philemon (g.v.). t. The homily or manifesto which is called “The First Epistle church, some of whose members (ver. 4) had commended themof John” did not arise from any special occasion. The author felt selves to the writer. The note was familiar to Irenaeus, but tradition has not preimpelled to counteract (i. 4) a tendency in the Church which threatened, in his view, both theology and ethics, but there are served any information as to the church addressed or the authorno indications of where or how the movement worked. No name ship of the note. It is only guess-work to fix on Antioch or Rome; is mentioned, and there is no indication or watermark of date. if the Presbyter be identified with the author of the Fourth GosAll we overhear are some catchwords of the people who were re- pel or of the Apocalypse, some Asiatic church is more likely, but sponsible for the movement in question. They claimed to have we are in the dark on this matter. 3. The third letter is by the same author as the second, and fellowship with God (i. 6f), for example, and at the same time to be free from sin; “We are not guilty,” “We have not sinned.” addressed to an individual. It is one of the letters of commendaThey claimed to “know God” (ii. 4f) and to “abide in God,” tion, like Rom. xvi. 1f, witnessing to the high character of a cer-

immense literature of the subject, the following books will be found especially instructive by the classically trained reader: Origen’s com-

se

one

but this claim was accompanied by uncharitable feelings towards other Christians. Apparently they distinguished between the historical Jesus and the Christ (ii. 22f), depreciating the incarnation (iv. 2f) in the interests of a mystical illumination or a spiritual

tain Demetrius, and promising to deal sharply with a local official called Diotrephes, who repudiated the writer and his adherents.

It is likely that the allusion in ver. 9 (“I wrote to the church”) is to the second epistle. Otherwise, we are ignorant of the reasons

JOHN

IOO

ALBERT— JOHN

which led Diotrephes to challenge the Presbyter.

But it is plain

FREDERICK

Christian Prophets and the Prophetic Apocalypse (1900, pp. 1331),

that the Presbyter had some authority, whether or not he was a representative of the primitive apostolic band, whose sway over the churches was being resisted by Diotrephes as a monarchical

and Jean Reville (Le quatriéme Evangile, pp. 49f).

bishop (Harnack).

The various theories which attempt to throw

prince he distinguished himself by his brilliant victory over the

light upon the letter by identifying Gaius and Demetrius with the Gaius of Rom. xvi. 23 and the Demas of 2 Tim. iv. to or the Demetrius of Acts xix. 24, are fanciful rather than helpful to the serious criticism of the letter. It is obvious to most critics that the Second and Third “Epistles” came from the same hand. But who the author was, depends on the conclusions reached by a study of the Johannine tradition, in connection with the Fourth Gospel and the Apocalypse. Those who believe that the apostle John wrote the Gospel are able to go further and add to his credit the three epistles. But if the witness of Papias be true, there were two Johns in Asia Minar, or at least in the early church, one of them John the Presbyter. It is a fair hypothesis that this Presbyter wrote the Apocalypse and also the Second and Third Epistles, whilst the Fourth Gospel and the First Epistle may have come from another author. There is a certain similarity of language, indeed, between the three epistles, which at first sight is striking. But this may be accounted for by their origin in a common circle. And on the other hand, there are differences between the First Epistle and the Fourth Gospel, which are not inconsiderable (see the present writer’s In-

Tatars at Kopersztyn in 1487. He succeeded his father in 1492.

troduction to the Literature of the NT, pp. 589f). The Epistle may have been intended as a tract to supplement the Gospel, or it may be an independent treatise; but identity of authorship is another question. There are scholars still who are prepared to hold that the Fourth Gospel and the Apocalypse were composed by the same writer. If so, there is less difficulty in assuming that he could have written the other two “Johannine” epistles, whoever he may have been. On the other hand, when the Fourth Gospel and the Apocalypse are assigned to different writers, and when the latter in particular is attributed to John the Presbyter, the two smaller epistles not unnaturally follow in its wake,

JOHN ALBERT

Primarily a warrior and adventurer, John Albert desired to pose as the champion of Christendom against the Turks, and in 1494 (Conference of Leutschay) arranged a combined campaign with his brother Wladislaus, king of Hungary and Bohemia, the elector Frederick of Brandenburg and John Albert’s vassal Stephen,

hospodar of Moldavia. In 1496 John Albert collected 80,009 men in Poland, but the hospodar, apparently suspecting his de-

signs, invaded Galicia. The war became one between Poland and Moldavia, in which John Albert, weakened by the insub, ordination of the szlachta, had the worst of matters.

ability” (Brooke, p. xxvii). That he also wrote the First Epistle is less likely, since that homily is closely linked to the Fourth Gospel: unless we suppose: that the same Presbyter wrote both Gospel and Apocalypse, or edited the former; the alternative

whereas the Fourth Gospel belongs to the same soil as that on which the First Epistle shot up. BrsctioGRapHy.—The best of the older editions of all three epistles are by Ewald (Die Johan. Briefe tibersetzt und erklärt, Göttingen,

1862), Alexander (Speaker's Commentary, 1881), and Bernhard Weiss (Meyers

Commentar,

Westcott

(third edition,

1909).

Later editions of special yalue are by

1892), Holtzmann-Bauer

(Handcommentar,

1908), Windisch (in Lietzmann’s Handbuch, 1911), and A. E. Brooke (International Critical Commentary, 1912), to which may be added Pummer’s edition in the Cambridge Greek Testament, and Dr. Gore’s English notes in The Epistles of St. John (1920). General studies

of the three are offered in Schmiedel’s critica] article (Encyclopaedia

Biblica, 2556f), in A. V. Green’s Ephesian Canonical Writings (1910, pp. 128f), and in H. H. Wendt’s Die Johannische Briefe und das Joh. Christenthum (Halle, 1925), as well as incidentally in any critical

study of the Johannine writings and tradition.

The religious ideas and historical environment of the first epistle

are discussed in Wurm’s Die Irriehrer im ersten Johannisbrief (1904), in G. G. Findlay’s Fellowship in the Life Eternal (1909), and in R. Law’s Tests of Life (second edition, 1909). For the two smaller,

consult especially Poggel’s monograph, Der 2 und 3 Briefe des Apostel Johannes (1896), J. Chapman’s study in The Journal of Theological

studies (1904, pp. 357f, 517f), Vernon Bartlet Harnack

(Texte und

Untersuchungen,

xv. 3),

(ibid. 1905, ; sa

204f)

The

He was more

successful in the north, compelling the recalcitrant grand master of the Teutonic Order, Frederick of Sagony, to do homage, but a further campaign was frustrated by his sudden death in 1501. See V. Czerny, The Reigns of Jahn Albert and Alexander Jagiello

(Pal.) (Cracow, 1882).

JOHN ANGELUS

(d. 1244), emperor of Thessalonica, In

1240 he received the throne from his father, Theodore, who made John the nominal sovereign, His reign is chiefly marked by the aggressions of the rival emperor of Nicaea, John Vatatzes, who besieged Thessalonica in 1242 and only withdrew upon John

Angelus consenting ta exchange the title “emperor” for “despot.”

JOHN BULL, a popular name for England, personifying the

bluff frankness and solidity of the English character. Dr. John Arbuthnot (g.v.), though he did not invent John Bull, fixed his

lineaments in five tracts, begun in 1742, and printed as “The History of John Bull,” in Miscellanies in Prose and Verse (1727), the preface to which is signed hy Pope and Swift. JOHN DORY or DORY (Zeus faber), an Acanthopterygian fish, the type of the family Zeidae. The body is much comc

Gospel, either as a product of the same pen or as a kindred document from the same sphere of Christian thought. To sum upthere is sufficient tradition to warrant us in believing that in Asia Minor about the end of the frst century a distinguished Presbyter lived who was called John. “Harnack’s conjecture, based upon the most natural interpretation of the fragment of Papias’ preface which Eusebius has preserved, that he was a pupil of John the Apostle, and in some sense a disciple of the Lord, is perhaps the hypothesis which leaves fewest difficulties unsolved. That he is the author of the two smaller Epistles is the view which seems to be best supported by external tradition and by internal prob-

(J. Mor.

(1459-1501), king of Poland, third son of

Casimir IV., king of Poland, and Elizabeth of Austria. As crown

whereas the First Epistle may be left alongside of the Fourth

ARO SRT

1.

ear

see

‘|

Se

è

:

pressed and nearly oval, while the mouth is large and capable of extensive protrusion. It possesses

two

dorsal

fins, of which

the

anterior is armed with long spines, and

the connecting

membrane

is produced into tendril-like fila. ments. The side is marked with a prominent dark spot, on account BY

COURTESY

SEUM, N.Y. JOHN

DORY

an n

OF

THE

(ZEUS

NATURAL

HISTQRY

FABER),

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A FISH

of which the dory divides with the haddock the reputation of being

the

fish

from

which

ESTEEM IN EUROPE AS took tribute money.

Peter

It inhabits

the Atlantic coasts of Europe, the Mediterranean and the Australian seas. It is exceedingly voracious, feeding on molluscs, shrimps and the young of other fish. It is often taken in nets off the Cornwall and Devon coast, having entered these in pursuit of pilchards. It prefers sandy bays, among the weeds growing on the bottom of which it lies in wait for its prey. The dory may attain a weight of ralb. It is highly valued as an article of food. (See Fisx.) JOHN FREDERICK I. (1503-1554), called the Magnanimous, elector of Saxony, was the elder son of the elector, John the

Steadfast, and belonged to the Ernestine branch of the Wettin

family. Born at Torgau on June 30, 1503, and educated as a Lutheran, he succeeded his father in August 1532. His lands comprised the western part of Saxony, and included Thuringia, but in 1542 Coburg was surrendered to form an appanage for his brother, John Ernest (d. 1553). John Frederick continued the religious policy of his father. His general attitude was one of vacillation between the emperor and his own impetuous colleague in the league of Schmalkalden, Philip, landgrave of Hesse. He was often at variance with Philip, whose bigamy he disliked, and his belief

in the pacific intentions of Charles V. and his loyalty to the empire prevented him from strong measures for the defence of Protestant-

ism, In 15417 his kinsman Maurice became duke of Saxony, and cast covetous eyes upon the electoral dignity.

In 1541 John

JOHN FREDERICK—JOHN MAURICE OF NASSAU Frederick forced Nicholas Amsdorf into the see of Naumburg in

IOI

(Jéna, 1868~70).

spite of the chapter, who had elected a Roman Catholic, Julius von Pflug; and about the same time he seized Wurzen, the property of

JOHN GEORGE I. (1585-1656), elector of Saxony, second

retain, his return being hailed with wild enthusiasm. During his imprisonment he had refused to accept the Augsburg interim, and had urged his sons to make no peace with Maurice. After his release the emperor had restored his dignities, and his assurnption of the electoral arms and title prevented any arrangement with Maurice. After the death of Maurice in July 1553, a treaty was made at Naumburg in Feb. 1554 with his successor Augustus. John Frederick consented to the transfer of the electoral dignity,

to the edict (1629) of restitution of ecclesiastical lands. Almost at once he declared war upon the Swedes, but in Oct. 1636 he was beaten at Wittstock; and Saxony was ravaged impartially by both sides. In Sept. 1645 the elector agreed to a truce with the

Weimar on March 3, 1554, and was succeeded by his eldest son,

cadet branches of the Saxon house.

son of the elector Christian I., was born on March 5, 1585, suchis elder brother, Christian II, io 1612. Though a ceeding protection the bishop of Meissen, whose see was under the joint of of electoral and ducal Saxony. Maurice took up arms, and war Lutheran, he voted for the election of Ferdinand, archduke the nullified which action an 1619, Aug. in emperor as Styria, In Luther. and Hesse of Philip of efforts the was only averted by 1542 the elector helped to drive Henry, duke of Brunswick- anticipated opposition of the Protestant electors. The new emWolfenbüttel, from his uchy, but his relations with Charles V. peror secured the help of John George for the impending cam-in at the diet of Spires in 1544 were amicable. But the emperor made paign in Bohemia by promising that he should be undisturbed preparations for attacking the league of Schmalkalden, and espe- his possession of certain ecclesiastical lands. John George occupied cially John Frederick and Philip of Hesse. The neutrality of Silesia and Lusatia, and had thus some part in driving Frederick Maurice was won by the hope of the electoral dignity, and in V., elector palatine of the Rhine, from Bohemia and in crushing July 1546 war broke out between Charles and the league. In | Protestantism in that country, the crown of which he had previSeptember John Frederick was placed under the imperial ban, and ously refused. Gradually his policy veered towards the Protestant in November Maurice invaded the electorate. Hastening from side, and when the imperial troops under Tilly began to ravage southern Germany the elector drove Maurice from the land, took Saxony, he concluded an alliance with Gustavus Adolphus in his ally, Albert Alcibiades, prince of Bayreuth, prisoner at Roch- 1631. The Saxon troops were present at the battle of Breitenfeld, litz, and overran ducal Saxony. His progress, however, was checked but were routed by the imperialists. Marching into Bohemia the by the advance of Charles V. He was wounded and taken prisonèr Saxons occupied Prague, but John George soon began to negotiate at Mühlberg (April 24, 1547), and was condemned to death in for peace, and consequently his soldiers offered little resistance to order to induce Wittenberg to surrender. The sentence was not | Wallenstein, who drove them back into Saxony. After the death carried out, but by the capitulation of Wittenberg (May 1547) of the Swedish king at Liitzen in 1632, John George again negohe renounced the electoral dignity and a part of his lands in favour tiated for peace, and in May 1635 he concluded the treaty of of Maurice, steadfastly refusing, however, concessions on religious Prague with Ferdinand Ii. His reward was Lusatia and other matters, and remained in captivity until May 1552, when he re- additions of territory; the retention by his son Augustus of the turned to the Thuringian lands which his sons had been allowed to archbishopric of Magdeburg; and some concessions with regard

and was thus the last Ernestine elector of Saxony. He died at

Swedes, who, however, retained Leipzig; and as far as Saxony

was concerned this ended the Thirty Years’ War. John George died on Oct. 8, 1656. He was twice married, and in addition to his successor John George II. he left three sons, Augustus (1614—1680), Christian (d. 1691) and Maurice (d. 1681) who founded

John Frederick. The elector was a great hunter and a hard drinker,

JOHN GEORGE

I. (1613-1680), elector of Saxony, was

whose dignified bearing in misfortune won for him his surname of born on May 31, 1613. In 1657, just after his accession, he made Magnanimous, and drew eulogies from Roger Ascham and Me- | an arrangement with his three brothers with the object of prelanchthon. He founded the university of Jena and was a bene- i venting disputes over their separate territories, and in 1664 he entered into friendly relations with Louis XIV. The existence of factor to that of Leipzig. See Mentz, Johann Friedrich der Grossmiitige (Jena, 1903); Rogge, a strong anti-French party in Saxony, however, prevented open Johann Friedrich der Grossmiitige (Halle, 1902) and L. von Ranke, hostility to the emperor Leopold I. The elector’s primary interDeuische Geschichte im Zettalter der Reformation (Leipzig, 1882). ests were not in politics, but in music and art. He adorned Dresden, which under him became the musical centre of Ger} duke Mitilere, der called (1529-1595), JOHN FREDERICK of Saxony, was the eldest son of John Frederick, who had been many; welcoming foreign musicians and others he gathered around deprived of the Saxon elettorate by the emperor Charles V. in | him a large and splendid court, and his capital was the constant 1547. Born at Torgau on Jan. 8, 1529, he received a good educa- scene of musical and other festivals. His enormous expenditure tion, and when his father was imprisoned in 1547 undertook the | compelled him in 166: to grant greater control over monetary government of the remnant of electoral Saxony left to the Ernes- matters to the Estates, a step whith laid the foundation of the tine branch of the Wettin family. After the death of Jobn Fred- later system of finance in Saxony. John George died at Freiberg erick the elder in 1554 his three sons ruled Ernestine Saxony to- | on Aug. 22, 1680.

gether until 1557, when John Frederick was made sole ruler. This | JOHN GEORGE III. (1647-1691), elector of Saxony, the arrangement lasted until 1565, when John Frederick shared his | only son of John George IT., was born on June 20, 1647. In June lands with his surviving brother, John William (1530-1573), re- | 1683 he joined an alliance against France. Having raised the first taining for himself Gotha and Weimar. The duke was a strong, standing army in the electorate he helped to drive the Turks from even a fanatical, Lutheran, but his religious views were gradually Vienna in September 1680; but disagreed with Leopold I., and subordinated to the one idea of regaining the electoral dignity then returned at once to Saxony. However, he sent aid to the empero held by Augustus I. He lent a willing ear to the schemes of Wil- in 1685. When Louis XIV.’s armies invaded Germany in 5

helm von Grumbach (g.v.), who offered to regain the electoral | tember 1688 John George took up arms against the French

dignity and even to acquire the empire for his patron. In 1566 his| after sharing in the capture of Mainz he was appointe obstinacy caused John Frederick to be placed under the imperial | mantder-in-chief of the imperial forces. He died at Tiibi ban. The execution of the imperial sentence was entrusted to | Sept.12, r69t. Augustus, who, aided by the duke’s brother, John William, ; JOHN GEORGE IV. (1668-1694), elector of marched against Gotha with a strong force. The town surrendered born on Oct. 18, 1668. This elector, who only reigné in April 1567, and John Frederick was imprisoned in Vienna, his, years, is chiefly celebrated for his passion for Magdale lands were given to his brother, and he remained in captivity until : von Neidschiitz (d. 1694), created in 1693 countess of R his death at Steyer on May 5, 1595. His wife Elizabeth, daughter ' whom on his accession he publicly established as his mis of the elector palatine, Frederick III., shared her husband’s im- , John George left no legitimate issue when he died on April 27 1494.

prisonment for 22 years. See A. Beck, Johann

Friedrich

der Mittlere, Herzog uu Sachsen |

JOHN MAURICE

OF NASSAU

(1604-1679), surnamed

(Vienna, 1858) ; and F. Ortloff, Geschichte der Grumbachischen Handel } the Brazilian, was the son of John the Younger, count of Nassau-

102

JOHN OF ASIA—JOHN OF DAMASCUS

Siegen-Dillenburg, and the grandson of John, the elder brother of William the Silent and the chief author of the Union of Utrecht. He fought in the campaigns of his cousin, the stadtholder Frederick Henry of Orange, and was by him recommended to the directors of the Dutch West India company in 1636 to be governor-general of the new dominion in Brazil recently conquered by the company. He landed at the Recife, the port of Pernambuco, and the chief stronghold of the Dutch, in January 1637. By successful expeditions he extended the Dutch possessions from Sergipe on the south to S. Luis de Maranham in the

north.

He likewise conquered the Portuguese possessions of St.

George del Mina and St. Thomas on the west coast of Africa. With the assistance of the famous architect, Pieter Post of Haarlem, be transformed the Recife by building a new town called after his name Mauritstad. He brought the colony into a flourishing condition, and reconciled the Portuguese settlers to

submit to Dutch rule. His large schemes and lavish expenditure, however, alarmed the directors of the West India company, and John Maurice returned to Europe in July 1644. He was appointed by Frederick Henry to the command of the cavalry in the States army, and he took part in the campaigns of 1645 and 1646. After the peace of Münster (1648), John Maurice accepted from the elector of Brandenburg the post of governor of Cleves, Mark and Ravensberg, and later also of Minden. At the end of 1652 he was appointed head of the order of St. John and made a prince of the Empire. In 1664 he came back to Holland; when the war broke out with England he was appointed commanderin-chief of the Dutch forces on land. In 1673 he was appointed by the stadtholder William III. to command the forces in Friesland and Groningen, and to defend the eastern frontier of the Provinces. In 1675 he retired. He died at Cleves on Dec. 20, 1679. The house which he built at The Hague, named after him the Maurits-huis, now contains the collections of pictures: so well known to all admirers of Dutch art. ° BIBLIOGRAPHY.——Caspar Barlaeus, Rerum per octennium in Brasilia et alibi nuper gestarum historia, sub praefectura illustrissimi comitis J. Maurita Nassoviae (Amsterdam, 1647) ; L. Driessen, Leben des Fürsten Johann Moritz von Nassau (Berlin, 1849); D. Veegens, Leven van Jaan Maurits, Graaf van Nassau-Siegen (Haarlem, 1840).

JOHN OF ASIA (or of Ernesus) (b. c. 505), a leader of the Monophysite Syriac-speaking Church in the 6th century, and one of the earliest and most important of Syriac historians. Born at Amid (Diarbekr) about 505, he was there ordained as a deacon in 529; but in 534 we find him in Palestine, and in 535 he passed to Constantinople, on account of pestilence or persecution. In Constantinople he seems to have early won the notice of Justinian,

who desired the consolidation of Eastern Christianity as a bulwark

(Amsterdam, 1889). See a memoir read before the five French Acade. mies (Oct. 25, 1892) by the abbé Duchesne.

JOHN OF BEVERLEY, ST. (d. 721), English bishop, wags educated at Canterbury under Archbishop Theodore. He was for a time a member of the Whitby community, under St. Hilda, ang in 687 he was consecrated bishop of Hexham and in 705 was pro. moted to the bishopric of York. He resigned the latter see ip

4718, and retired to a monastery which he had founded at Bever. ley, where he died on May 7, 721. He was canonized in 1037, and his feast is celebrated on May 7. The following works are ascribed to John by J. Bale: Pro Luca exponendo (an exposition of Luke) ; Homiliae in Evangelia; Epistolae ad Herebaldum, Audenam, et Bertinum; and Epistolae ad Hyldam abbatissam. See life by Folcard, based on Bede, in Acta SS. Bolland: and J. Raine’s Fasti eboracenses (1863).

JOHN

OF BRIENNE

(c. 1148-1237), king of Jerusalem

and Latin emperor of Constantinople, was a man sixty years of age before he began to play any considerable part in history,

In forty years of tournaments and fights he had won some fame, when in 1208 envoys came from the Holy Land to ask Philip Augustus, king of France, to select a husband for the heiress of the kingdom of Jerusalem, Mary (daughter of Isabella and Conrad of Montferrat).. Philip selected John, who assumed the title of king after his marriage. In 1211, after some desultory operations, he concluded a six years’ truce with Malik-el-Adil; in 1212 he lost his wife, who left him a daughter, Isabella; soon afterwards he married an Armenian princess. In the fifth crusade (1218-1221) he was a prominent figure. The legate Pelagius, however, claimed the command; and insisting on the advance from Damietta, in spite of John’s warnings, he refused to accept the favourable terms of the sultan, as the king advised, until it was too late. After the failure of the crusade, King John came to the West to obtain help for his kingdom. In 1223 he met Honorius III. and the emperor Frederick II. at Ferentino, where, in order that he might be connected more closely with the Holy Land, Frederick was betrothed to John’s daughter Isabella, now heiress of the kingdom. John then travelled to France, England and Compostella, where he married a new wife, Berengaria of. Castile.

After a visit to Germany he returned to Rome (1225). Frederick II. (who had now married Isabella), now demanded that he should abandon his title and dignity of king, which—so Frederick claimed—had passed to himself along with the heiress of the kingdom. John was mow a septuagenarian “king in exile,” but he was still vigorous enough to revenge himself on Frederick, by commanding the papal troops which attacked southern Italy during the emperor’s absence on the sixth crusade (1228-12209). In 1229 John, now eighty years of age, was invited by the barons of the Latin empire of Constantinople to become emperor, on condition that Baldwin of Courtenay should marry his second daughter and succeed him. For nine years he ruled in Constantinople, and in 1235, with a few troops, he repelled a great siege of the city by Vataces of Nicaea and Azen of Bulgaria. After this last feat of arms, which has perhaps been exaggerated by the Latin chroniclers, who compare him to Hector and the Maccabees, John died in the habit of a Franciscan friar.

against the heathen. power of Persia. He was entrusted with the administration of the entire revenues of the Monophysite Church. He was also sent, with the rank of bishop, on a mission in Asia Minor, and informs us that the number of those whom he baptized amounted to 70,000. He built a large monastery at Tralles on the hills skirting the valley of the Meander, and more than go other monasteries. He promoted a mission to the Nubians. In 546 the emperor entrusted him with the task of rooting out the The'story of John’s career must be sought partly in histories of the secret practice of idolatry in Constantinople and its neighbour- kingdom of Jerusalem and of the Latin Empire of the East, partly in hood. But his fortunes changed soon after the accession of Justin monographs. Among these, of which R. Réhricht gives a list (Gep. 699, n. 3), see especially that of II. About 57z Paul of Asia began (with the sanction of the schichte des Kénigreichs Jerusalem, emperor) a rigorous persecution of the Monophysite Church E. S Montcarmet, Un chevalier du temps passé (Limoges, 1876 and I881). leaders, and John was among the sufferers. He died probably soon JOHN OF DAMASCUS (Jomannes Damascenus) (d. after 585. John’s main work was his Ecclesiastical History, in three parts, before 754), an eminent theologian of the Eastern Church, dewhich covered more than six centuries, from the time of Julius Caesar rives his surname from Damascus, where he was born about the close of the 7th century. His Arabic name was Mansur (the victo 585. The first part seems to have wholly perished. The second, which extended from Theodosius II. to the 6th or 7th year of Justin tor), and he received the epithet Chrysorrhoas (gold-pouring) on II., was (as F. Nau has proved) reproduced in the third part of the account of his eloquence. His father Sergius, a Christian, held Chronicle once attributed to the patriarch Dionysius Telmaharensis. The third part of John’s history, covering the years 571—585, survives high office under the Saracen caliph, in which he was succeeded in a fairly complete state in Add. 14640, a British Museum ms. of the by his son. John wrote (c. 730) several treatises in defence of 7th century. This third part was edited by Cureton (Oxford, 1853), image-worship, which the emperor, Leo the Isaurian, was making and was translated into English by R. Payne-Smith (Oxford, 1860) and strenuous efforts to suppress. He then surrendered his worldly into German by J. M. Schénfelder (Munich, 1862). John’s other known work was a series of Biographies of Eastern goods, and betook himself to the monastery of St. Sabas, near Jerusalem, where he spent the rest of his life. He was ordained Saints, compiled about 569. These have been edited by Land in Anecdota Syriaca, ii. 1-288, and translated into Latin by Douwen and Land priest by the patriarch of Jerusalem. In his last years he travelled

JOHN through

Syria contending

against

OF GAUNT—JOHN the iconoclasts,

and visited

Constantinople at the imminent risk of his life during the reign of Constantine Copronymus. With him the “mysteries,” the entire ritual, are an integral part of the Orthodox system, and all dogma culminates in image-worship. He died probably about

752. Jobn Damascenus is a saint both in the Greek and in the

Latin Churches, his festival being on Dec. 4, and May 6, respectively. The most important of the treatises of Damascenus

contains

three parts under the general title yy} yomoews (“The Fountain of Knowledge”). The first part, entitled Kedadaca didocodixd, is an exposition and application of theology of Aristotle’s

Dialectic. The second, entitled Ilepi aipécewy (“Of Heresies”), is a reproduction of the earlier work of Epiphanius, with a continuation giving an account of the heresies that arose after the time of that writer. The third part, entitled "Exdocis dxprBis rijs dpboddgou miorews (“An Accurate Exposition of the Orthodox Faith”), is much the most important, containing as it does a complete system of theology founded on the teaching of the fathers and church councils, from the 4th to the 7th century. It thus embodies the finished result of the theological thought of the early Greek Church. Through a Latin translation made by Bur-

gundio of Pisa in the r2th century, it was well known to Peter Lombard and Aquinas, and in this way it influenced the scholastic theology of the West. Another well-known work is the Sacra parallela, a collection of biblical passages followed by illustrations drawn from other scriptural sources and from the fathers. BisLrioGRapHY.—The Life of John of Damascus was written by John, patriarch of Jerusalem in the roth century (Migne, Patrol. Graec., xciv. 429-489). The works were edited by Le Quien (2 vols., fol., Paris, 1712) and form vols. 94 to 96 in Migne’s Greek series. A monograph by J. Langen was published in 1879. A. Harnack’s History of Dogma is very full (see especially vols. iii. and iv.; on the image-worship controversy, iv. 322 seg.), and so are the similar works of F. Loofs-~Seeberg and A. Dorner. See also O. Bardenhewer’s Patrologie, and other literature cited in F. Kattenbusch’s excellent article in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie, vol. ix.

JOHN

OF GAUNT,

Joun or GAuNT, duke of.

duke of Lancaster; see Lancaster,

JOHN OF GOD, ST. (Juan Crupap) (1495-1550), founder of the Brothers of Charity, was born at Montemor, Novo, Portugal. From the life of a shepherd he turned to that of soldiering in the Austrian army, then in active conflict with the Turks. On returning to Granada, he was so deeply impressed by the sermons of Blessed John of Avila that he determined to devote his life to the care of the poor and the sick, and rented a house for that purpose. When he died, 10 years later, his companion, Antonio Martino, succeeded him as head of the institution. Other houses, including the large hospital at Madrid, richly endowed by Philip II., were soon opened, and in 1572 Pius V. raised the lay society to an order with the Augustinian rule. Its founder was canonized in 1690. See C. Wilmet, Libensbeschreibung des ... Johannes von Gott

OF SALISBURY

103

18, 2, 8), and labelled “Johannis de Irlandia opera theologica,” is a treatise in Scots on the wisdom and discipline necessary to a prince, especially intended for the use of the young James IV. The book is the earliest extant example of original Scots prose. See the notices in John Lyden’s Introduction to his edition of the Complaynt of Scotlande (1801) ; The Scottish Antiquary, xiii. and xv. Annotated extracts are given in Gregory Smith’s Specimens of Middle Scots (1902).

JOHN JOHN formerly Ravennese

OF LEIDEN: see BUCKHOLDT, JOHANN. OF RAVENNA. Two distinct persons of this name,

confused and identifed with a third (anonymous) in Petrarch’s letters, lived at the end of the 14th and the beginning of the rsth century. 1. A young Ravennese born about 1347, who in 1364 went to live with Petrarch as secretary. In 1367 he set out to see the world and make a name for himself, returned in a state of destitution, but, growing restless again, left his employer for good in 1368. 2. Son of Conversanus (Conversinus, Convertinus). He is first heard of (Nov. 17, 1368) as appointed to the professorship of rhetoric at Florence, where he had for some time held the post of notary at the courts of justice. This differentiates him from

(1). He entered (c. 1370) the service of the ducal house of Padua, the Carraras, in which he continued at least until 1404, during part of which time he was professor of rhetoric at Padua. In 1406 he is last heard of living at Venice. His history of the Carraras, a tasteless production in barbarous Latin, says little for his literary capacity; but as a teacher he enjoyed a great reputation, amongst his pupils being Vittorino da Feltre and Guarino of Verona. 3. Malpaghini (De Malpaghinis), the most important. Born about 1356, he was a pupil of Petrarch from a very early age to 1374. On Sept. 19, 1397, he was appointed professor of rhetoric and eloquence at Florence, and he died in May 1417. Although Malpaghini left nothing behind him, he did much to encourage the study of Latin; among his pupils was Poggio Bracciolini. The local documents and other authorities on the subject will be found in E. T. Klette, Beiträge zur Geschichte und Litteratur der ŝtalienischen Gelehrtenrenaissance, vol. i. (1888); see also G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des klassischen Altertums (3rd ed. 1893), who, however, identifies (x) and (2).

JOHN

OF SALISBURY

(ce. 1115-1180), English author,

diplomatist and bishop of Chartres, was born at Salisbury. From his own accounts, he seems to have crossed to France in 1136 and to have studied for the next ten years under Abelard, Alberich of Reims, Robert of Melun, Gilbert de la Porrée, Robert Pullus, Simon of Poissy, Wiliam of Conches, and Richard l'Evêque. From the last two, who were disciples of Bernard of Chartres, he imbibed his Platonic leanings and especially his love of the Latin classics. The purity of his own style, which was evidently moulded on that of Cicero, was unsurpassed in the middle ages. On the completion of his studies, John stayed for a time with his

friend Peter, the Cistercian abbot of Moustier la Celle, near Troyes. In 1148 he was present at the council of Reims, in which JOHN OF HEXHAM (f.. 1160-1209), English chronicler, is St. Bernard opposed Gilbert de la Porrée, and was probably preknown to us merely as the author of a work called the Historia sented to Bernard by Theobald, archbishop of Canterbury, who XXV. annorum, which continues the Historia regum of Simeon made him his secretary in 1150. He was frequently sent on misof Durham and contains an account of English events 1130-53. sions to the pope, to whose household he seems to have been atHe was prior of Hexham between 1160 and 1209. Up to the year tached from 1148 onwards. After the death of Theobald in 1161, 1139 he follows closely the history written by his predecessor, John continued as secretary to Thomas Becket, whom he supPrior Richard; thenceforward he is an independent though not a ported in his long disputes with Henry II. His letters throw light very valuable authority. on the constitutional struggle then agitating the English world. In The one manuscript of John’s chronicle is a 13th century copy; ms. C. C. C. Cambridge, cxxxix. 8. The best edition is that of T. 1163~64 he withdrew with Becket to France during the king’s disArnold in Symeonis monachi opera, vol. ii. (Rolls Series, 1885). There pleasure; he returned with him in 1170, and was present at his is an English translation in J. Stevenson’s Church Historians of Eng- assassination. In 1176 he was made bishop of Chartres, where land, vol. iv. (1856). he passed the remainder of his life, taking an active part in the JOHN OF IRELAND (Jomannıs De IRLANDIA) (fi. 1480), council of the Lateran in 1179. He died at or near Chartres on Scottish writer, perhaps of Lowland origin, was resident for 30 Oct. 25, 1180. John’s writings, the chief of which are the Policraticus and the years in Paris and later a professor of theology. He was confessor to James IV. and also to Louis XI. of France, and was Metalogicus, both completed in 1159, exhibit a highly cultivated rector of Yarrow (de Foresta) when he completed, at Edinburgh, intelligence well versed in practical affairs. The former sketches the work on which rests his sole claim as a vernacular writer. This an ideal state not unlike that of Plato: the soul is the clergy, the book, preserved in ms. in the Advocates’ library, Edinburgh (ms. head is the prince, who is the servant of the clergy, the heart is (Regensburg, 1860) ; L. Saglier, Vie de S. Jean de Dieu (1877).

r104

JOHN

OF THE

CROSS—JOHNS

the senate, the eyes, ears and tongue are the governors of the provinces, the hands are the armed and the administrative classes, and the feet are the husbandmen. The prince receives the material swọrd from the church, but only when he disobeys the law or ceases to rule the people by it, can he be deposed. In the

Metalogicus we find a fusion of Augustinian and Aristotelian philosophy. Thus the doctrine of the necessity of the rationes aeternae as the foundation of certitude is combined with a moderate realism. There is also a noteworthy appreciation of the difficulties of such problems as that of substance, the movement of bodies, tides and other natural phenomena, time and space, the nature of the soul, the limits of knowledge, and Providence. In ađdition to these two works, John wrote a Historia Pontificalis, a philosophical poem, Eutheticus de Dogmate Philosophorum, two lives of St. Anselm, and a life of St. Thomas of Canterbury. His collected works were edited by J. A. Giles (5 vols. 1848) and reprinted in Migne’s Patrol. Lat., vol. 199. The Polycraticus has been edited by C. C. J. Webb (2 vols., 1909) and the Historia Pontificalis by R. L. Poole (1927) ; and also in the Mon. Germ. Hist. (2868, 2nd ed. 1885). See C. Shaarschmidt, Johannes Sarisberiensis (1862); R. L, Poole, Illustrations of the Hist. of Mediaeval Thought (2884, 2nd ed. 1920); “Early Correspondence of John of Salisbury,” in Proc. of Brit.

Acad. (vol. xi, 1924), articles in the Eng, Hist, Review for 1929 and 1923, andin the Dict. Nat. Biog.; and E. F. Jacob’s article in Social and re 1923),

Ideas of Some

Great Mediaeval Thinkers (edit. Hearnshaw,

JOHN OF THE CROSS, ST. (1542-1591), Spanish mystic, was born at Ontiveros (Old Castile) on June 24, 1542. He became a professed Carmelite in 1564, and was ordained priest at Salamanca in 1567. He met with much opposition in his efforts to introduce the reforms proposed by St. Theresa, and

was more than once imprisoned.

His real name was Juan de

Yepez y Alvarez; in religion he was known as Juan de San

Matias till 1568, when he adopted the name of Juan de la Cruz. Broken by persecution, he was sent to the monastery of Ubeda, where he died in r591; his Obras espirituales were published posthumously in 1618. He was beatified in 1674 and canonized on Dec. 27, 1726. The lofty symbolism of his prose is frequently obscure, but his lyrical verses are distinguished for their rapturous ecstasy and beauty of expression. Some of his poems have been translated with great success by Arthur Symons in Images of Good and Evil; the most convenient edition of his works, which have heen frequently reprinted, is that contained in vol. xvi, of the Biblioteca de autores españoles. See also J. DÐ. Berrueta, Sta.

Teresa de Jesús y S, Jean de la Croix (1915).

JOHN O° GROAT’S HOUSE, a spot on the north coast of Caithness, Scotland, 14 m. N. of Wick and 13 m. W. of Duncansby Head. It is the mythical site of an octagonal house said to have been erected early in the 16th century by one John Groot,

HOPKINS

UNIVERSITY

In the z5th year of the emperor Tiberius (?a.D. 28-29) John hegan his public life in the “wilderness of Judea,” the wild dis, trict between the Kedron and the Dead sea, especially near the Jordan. According to the Synoptics his preaching was essentially eschatological in character, being concerned with the nearness of the Messianic kingdom and the consequent urgency for preparation hy repentance. Possibly as Streeter (J.7h.S. July 1913) suggests John’s haptism was eschatological. “It was regarded as a ‘sealing’ or symbolical act entitling to admission to the coming kingdom. ... The essential meaning of the rite would be rather aspiration for the future than regret for the past.” Josephus, as cited, seems to suggest that John’s baptism must be regarded as a bodily purifica, tion corresponding to an inward change, not as a means of ren mitting sins; in fact Josephus does not agree with the Synoptic accounts

in this respect.

Jewish scholars

(e.g., Kohler and 1

Abrahams) insist on the Essene affinities of John, though John was less rigid. The fourth Gospel preserves a trustworthy tradition in locating one place of John’s baptism at “Aenon near to Salim” (John ii. 23.) This must be the modern ‘Ainfin, nearly eight miles north-east of Salim (a town east of Nablus). This fact con. firms the view that John preached to the Samaritans, and the per. sistent tradition that he was buried at Sebaste in Samaria.

See

W. FE. Albright, Harvard Th. Rev., xvii. p. 193 f. If, as has been suggested, John’s preaching was first of all directed to those who practised an ascetic mode of life, there must. have followed a later period when the scope of his mission was widened and he delivered his message to the masses of the people,

“the people of the land.” He had disciples who fasted (Mark ii, 18, etc.), who visited him regularly in prison (Matt. xi. 2, xiv. 12), and to whom he taught special forms of prayer (Luke v, 33, xi. 1), Some of these afterwards became followers of Christ (John i. 37). John’s activity indeed had far-reaching effects. It profoundly influenced the Messianic movement depicted in the Gospels. The

preaching of Jesus shows traces of this, and the Fourth Gospel (as well as the Synoptics) displays a marked interest in connecting the Johannine movement with the beginnings of Christianity, though in fact the original connection may have been exaggerated. The existence of disciples of John’ at Ephesus after the lapse af 25 years is significant (Acts xviii, 25, xix. 3). It is curious that, the Mandaeans or Sahians (from Sahba—‘“Baptise”), called alsa “Christians according to John,” have preserved some confused

traditions ahout the Baptist, For Christ’s estimate of John, cf, Matt. xi. 7 f, John’s ministry terminated in his imprisonment in the fortress of Machaerus, where he was executed by order of Herod Antipas. See Kohler, in Jew. Encyc., vii. p. 218 f.; I, Abrahams, Studies in

Phar. and Gospels, 1st series, pp. 30 ff.; Foakes Jackson and K. Lak ç Beginnings of Christianity, i., pp. 102 ff.; Arts. MANDAEANS in E.RE. mission of James IV. According to the legend, other members of and in this Excyc.; Box, St. Matt. (Century Bible), pp. 236 ff. fer (G. H. B.) the Groot family followed John, and acquired lands around Dun- chronology.

a Dutchman who had migrated to the north of Scotland by percansby.

When there were eight Groot families, disputes began

to arise as to precedence at annual feasts. These quarrels John Groot is said to have settled by building an octagonal house which had eight entrances and eight tables, so that the head of

each family could enter by his own door and sit at the head of his

own table. Being but a few miles south of Dunnet Head, John o? Groat’s is a colloquial term for the most northerly point of Great Britain. The site of the traditional building is marked by a mound and flagstaff,

JOHN THE BAPTIST, the “forerunner” of Jesus in the

Gospel story. His preaching made a great impression upon his contemporaries (cf. Josephus Ant. xviii., 5). According to the birth-narrative in Luke i. and ii., he was born in “a city of Judah” (read, “the Province of Judah”), in “the hill country” (possibly

Hebron). In this narrative his father, Zacharias, is represented as a priest “of the course of Abijah,” and his mother Elizabeth

(also of priestly descent) as related to Mary, the mother of

Jesus. This narrative, which embodies some very primitive features Palestinian in character (it probably depends upon a Hebrew

original, and reflects the point of view of the early Palestinian Christian Church), manifests a strong tendency to bring the Baptist into close connection with Jesus.

JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, an American educa-

tional institution at Baltimore (Md.). Its trustees, chosen by Johns Hopkins (1794-1873), a successful Baltimore merchant, were incorporated Aug. 24, 1867, under a general act “for the

promotion of education in the State of Maryland.” But nothing was actually done until after the death of Johns Hopkins (Dec.

24, 1873), when his fortune of $7,000,e0c0 was equally divided between the projected university and a hospital, also to bear his name, and intended to be an auxiliary to the medical school of the university. The trustees of the university consulted men prominent in higher education, notably Charles W, Eliot of Harvard, Andrew D. White of Cornell, and James B. Angell of the university of Michigan; on Dec. 30, 1874, they elected Daniel Coit Gilman ¢g.v.) president. The university was formally opened Oct. 3, 1876, when an address was delivered by T. H. Huxley. The first year was largely given up to consultation among the newly chosen professors, among whom were: in Greek, B. L. Gildersleeve (1831-1924); in mathematics, J. J. Sylvester (1814-

97); in chemistry, Ira Remsen (1846-1927); in biology, Henry Newell Martin (1848-96); in zoology, William Keith Brooks (1848-1908); and in physics, Henry Augustus Rowland (18481901).

Prominent among later teachers were Arthur Cayley, in

JOHNS mathematics;

HOPKINS

the Semitic scholar, Paul Haupt

(1858-1926);

Granville Stanley Hall (1846-1924), in psychology; Maurice Bloomfield (1848), in Sanskrit and comparative philosophy; James Rendel Harris in Biblical philology; James Wilson Bright (1852-1926)

in English philology;

Herbert

B. Adams

(1855—

rgor), in history; and Richard T. Ely (1854), in economics. The university at once became a pioneer in the United States in

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GILMAN

UNIVERSITY

teaching by means of seminary courses and laboratories, and was eminently successful in encouraging reséarch, in scholarly publications, and in the preparation of its students to become instructors in other colleges and universities. It includes graduate departments under the faculty of philosophy and the medical faculty, a school of hygiene and public health, a college of arts and sciences, a school of engineering, a school of business èconomics, and a college for teachers. From its foundation the university had novel features and a liberal administration. Twenty annual fellowships of $500 each were opened to the graduates of any college. Petrography and laboratory psychology were among the new sciencés fostered by the new university. Such eminent outsiders were secured for brief residence and lecture courses as J. R. Lowell, F. J. Child, Simon Newcomb, H. E. von Holst, F. A. Walker, William James, Jarnes Bryce, E. A. Freeman, W. W. Goodwin, and Alfrėd Russel Wallace. The poet, Sidney Lanier, held an appointment as lecturer in English literature from 1879 until his death in 1881. The medical department, inaugurated in 1893, is closely affiliated with the excellently equipped Johns Hopkins hospital {opened in 1889), and is actually a graduate school, as it admits only students holding the bachelor’s degree or its equivalent. The degree of doctor of medicine is conferred after four years of successful study, and advanced courses are offered. Among the department’s gteatest teachers have been William Osler (1849torg) and William Henry Welch (1850). President Gilman gave up his presidential duties in Sept. 1901, and was succeeded in office by Ira Remsen, a member of the original faculty. In Oct. 1914 he was succeeded by Frank Johnson Goodnow of Columbia university, who had been constitutional adviser to the republic of China. In 1909 the university, in co-operation with Goucher college (now the college for teachers), initiated college courses for teachers; IN IgzI, summer courses; in 1916, evening courses, in business economics, without degrees, for technical workers, Extension to other State centres was authorized in 1917. A school of business

UNIVERSITY

105

and ophthalmology were placed on a full-time basis. The General Education Board led with several large grants in all these cases, besides giving two laboratories—the new Hunterian (1915) and the pathological (1923)—and $3,000,000 for expansion now in process, including a central heating plant (1925). Capt. Joseph R. DeLamar, who died in 1918, left bequests amounting to more than $5,000,000 in 1927. In 1923, $2,000,000 ‘was voted by the Carnegie Corporation for a new university dept. of psychiatry and the Phipps psychiatric clinic at the Johns Hopkins hospital, one-half coming from the founders, Mr. and Mrs. Henry Phipps. In 1925, the Wilmer ophthalmological institute, named after the first director, Dr. William Holland Wilmer, with endowment of the university dept. of ophthalmology, was established at the hospital on a fund of $3,000,000 raised in recognition of the halfcentury commemoration. Advanced ophthalmological training in America was thus made possible. The university has also profited from the establishment of the three other clinical institutes at the hospital, Harriet Lane home for pediatrics (1912), Brady urological institute (1914), and the women’s clinic for obstetrics (1923), all teaching hospitals staffed from the school. In 1918, under the direction of Dr. William H. Welch, assisted by Dr. William H. Howell, former dean of the school of medicine, a school of hygiene and public health was opened, with an annual prant from the Rockefeller Foundation, which in 1922 became an endowment of $5,000,000, with another $1,000,000 for a building, completed and occupied in 1925. This school, together with the hospital and the school of medicine, is a unit in one of the strongest medical centres in America. The main objects of this school are to train for public health work, promote investigation, and disseminate sound hygienic knowledge. The degrees granted are doctor of public health, doctor of science in hygiene, and certificate in public health. Of the 150 students enrolled in 1924~25, 42 came from foreign countries. In 1925 the Institute of Biological Research was established on a five years’ gtant from the Rockefeller

Foundation,

The government of the university is entrusted to a board of 16 trustees, of which the president is a member ex-officio, while the direction of affairs of a strictly academi¢ nature is delegated to an academic council and to department boards. In 1907-8 the regular faculty numbered 175. In 1925 it numbered 294, with 67 additional instructors in the afternoon, evening, and summer courses. In 1907-8 there were 683 students, of whom 518 were in post-graduate courses, in 1025, 4,260 (2,601 not being can-

didates for degrees).

The library had in 1927 about 300,000 bound volumes and as many more pamphlets; and during 1927 plans were completed for the creation of a central medical library, the William H. Welch memorial library, to serve both the hospital and the departments of the university devoted to various branches of medical science. The project was made possible by a generous gift from the General Education Board and other friends of the university, where Dr. Welch, professor of the history of medicine, was given the charge of promoting collection of distinguished works in that field.

The buildings of the university in igor were crowded unpretentiously near the business centre of the city. In 1902 a gift of

about 125ac. in the northern suburbs, made by a group of Baltimore citizens, brought about plans for removal. In 1916 the removal from the old site to Homewood was completed with the exception of the department of chemistry, which occupied its economics, providing academic training for business careers, and new laboratory in 1924. The tract is expertly developed. The conferring the degree of bachelor of science in economics, was new university buildings were fashioned ın Georgian colonial architectural style to conform to the Homewood mansion, erected opened in 1922. Upon an initial State appropriation of $600,000, continued by on the site early in the roth century. annual grants of $50,000, a school of engineering was opened in A dormitory, designated as a war memorial, was opened in 1923 1913, with instruction in civil, electrical, and mechanical branches. in the name of the alumni. An ingeniously equipped laboratory in This school’s courses were extended in 1924 to include, for five plant physiology, botanical garden and arboretum, athletic fields, years, gas engineering, through gifts of the Southern Gas Asso- and concrete grand-stand completed the development of 1925. clation. For these schools two laboratories and a power-house In 1927 the university’s endowment amounted to more than $24,000,000 and the value of its physical equipment was not less have been erected. Teaching in Medicine.—The university reteived from 1913 than $3,200,000. Scientific Expeditions.—The university has despatched four to 1927, gifts and grants to about $20,000,000. The clinical departments of medicine, surgery, pediatrics, obstetrics, psychiatry, scientific expeditions abroad, two botanical to Jamaica in 1910

106

JOHNSON,

ANDREW

and r919, and two geological to South America for the first detail cross-section of the Andes in 1919 and 1924. A fifth expedition —this one to the Near East for archaeological exploration and excavation (1924)—was conducted by a faculty member. Active

fit. In this his opinions were in harmony with those of Lincoln,

in publication, the university was reported in 1927 to be recording about 600 printed contributions a year.

might be withdrawn and civil rule substituted. Accordingly, on May 29, 1865, he issued a general amnesty proclamation, granting

JOHNSON, ANDREW

(1808-1875), seventeenth president

of the United States, was born at Raleigh, N.C., on Dec. 29, 1808. His parents did not belong to the slave-owning class and Andrew continued poor long enough to develop a feeling of hostility toward the dominant element in southern society. Of formal schooling he had none. At the age of ten the boy was apprenticed to a tailor and although his hours were long, he managed to learn to read and write. In 1826 he removed to Greenville in eastern Tennessee, where he married Eliza McCordle (1810—76), who possessed a fair education and was of considerable assistance to her husband in his pursuit of further learning. During the early Tennessee years Johnson earned his living by the practice of his trade, but before he was 21 he entered local politics, was elected an alderman, and in 1830 became mayor of Greenville. From 1834 to 1843 he participated in State politics, serving as a Democrat in the State constitutional convention (1834), in the House of Representatives (1835-37; 1839-41) and in the Senate (1841—43). These years marked Johnson’s political apprenticeship. His powers were now mature and he was ready to assume the position of champion of his section which was composed in the main of small farmers, suspicious and jealous of the slave-holding plantation owners who dominated the social and political life of middle and western Tennessee. Generally speaking, during the formative years of Johnson’s political career and down to the middle of the 1850’s, the Whig Party was the political agent of the plantation interests in Tennessee while the Democratic Party, true to its Jacksonian origin, continued as the exponent of the small farmer-labourer interests. As the years passed and the drift of events tended to force slaveowners everywhere to unite in one party, and that party by the force of circumstances became the Democratic, Johnson sometimes found himself in uncongenial company. Nevertheless he preferred the Democratic to the newly-formed Republican Party. As a Democrat he had served as a member of the Federal House of Representatives from 1843 to 1853; from 1853 to 1857 he was governor of Tennessee and from 1857 to 1862 he was a member of the United States senate. In Congress he was in harmony with the pro-slavery element of his party so far as low tariff, territorial expansion, slavery extension and opposition to abolitionist agitation were concerned. He opposed them when they attempted to obstruct the movement for free western land for actual settlers, and as governor of Tennessee when he espoused the cause of popular education at State expense. In 1860 he supported Breckenridge whom he regarded as the true Democratic standard-bearer. However, he did not consider the election of Lincoln a sufficient reason for the Southern States to secede. Accordingly when Tennessee passed an ordinance of secession in June, 1861, he refused to leave his seat in the United States Senate and join the newly organized Confederacy. In March, 1862, President Lincoln appointed him military governor of Tennessee and during the two years he held this position he rendered valuable service to the Union cause, and just before he left the office he succeeded in creating and putting into operation machinery for the restoration of a loyal civil government in the State. During these Civil War years Johnson never ceased to class himself as a Democrat, and when in 1864 he was nominated for vice president on the ticket with Lincoln, it was by a convention that called itself “Union,” not “Republican.” This distinction is important for it exculpates Johnson from the charge subsequently made that he was an apostate from the Republican Party. When Lincoln was assassinated in April, 1865, Johnson succeeded to the Presidency. Although he had frequently expressed himself to-the effect that secession was treason and that the leaders of the secession movement should be punished as traitors, he

did not hold that the late Confederate States were conquered territories to be dealt with in such manner as Congress might see

who had acted on the theory that the States had never been out of the Union. As commander-in-chief of the army the President had full power to name the conditions upon which military rule

full pardon to all ex-Confederates (except certain leaders) who would take an unqualified oath of allegiance to the United States. He next appointed provisional governors for the seven rebel States which had not already begun the process of restoration under the direction of Lincoln. To these governors he issued instructions that they provide for State conventions to be elected by such persons as had taken the oath of allegiance and were otherwise qualified to vote under the laws of the respective States. To the con-

ventions he suggested (one might almost say, ordered) that they embody in the State Constitutions a provision for the abolition of slavery, ratify the 13th amendment to the Federal Constitution, nullify the ordinances of secession and repudiate such parts of the State debts as had been contracted in support of the secession movement. These were essentially the same demands that Lincoln had made on the conventions in the States where he had erected loyal civil governments. All this took place during the summer and autumn of 1865 previous to the assembling of Congress on Dec. 4. That body was overwhelmingly Republican in complexion and most of the Republicans were inclined to take a radical view of the southern situation. It refused admission to the senators and representatives from the rebel States and provided for the creation of a joint committee on reconstruction. The exigencies of

politics and the status of the freedmen were the crucial points in the situation. The radicals demanded that the late slaves be granted the right to vote forthwith and that a sufficient number of ex-Confederates be disfranchised to assure Republican majorities in most of the Southern States, assuming, of course, that the negroes would vote Republican out of gratitude to the party which had effected their freedom. To none of these demands would the President yield and in the course of three or four months the breach between him and the Republican Congress was wide open. Meanwhile the Southern States remained unrepresented in Congress while the reconstruction committee conducted investigations into southern conditions to ascertain whether any of them were sufñciently loyal to warrant their being represented. In June, 1866, the committee reported that the rebel States were unfit for representation, but presumably would become fit should they ratify the 14th amendment which was reported at the same time. This amendment was defeated in all the late Confederate States except Tennessee. The representatives and senators from this

State were forthwith admitted.

Soon afterward

Congress ad-

journed and the whole question of reconstruction was submitted to the electorate. During the course of his contest with the radical Republicans Johnson had gradually drawn the Democrats to his side and hoped to secure the support of enough moderate Republicans to control the next Congress. To this end he took an active part in the campaign but it is a question whether his speeches, some of which were certainly undignified and in bad taste, did more harm than good to his cause. At any rate his hopes were dashed as the new Congress contained an even larger majority of radical Repub-

licans than the old. Accordingly, in 1867 Congress threw aside’ his work of restoration and proceeded with a plan of its own, the main features of which were the restoration of military control, the enfranchisement of negroes and the disfranchisement of considerable numbers of ex-Confederates. Johnson opposed this plan with all the power he possessed, regarding it as dangerous to the

Federal system of government. His opposition was vain but troublesome to the leaders of the radical movement. They therefore determined to deprive the President of practically all powet. To this end Congress passed on March 2,.1867, over the President’s veto, the Tenure of Office act, prohibiting the President from dismissing from office, unless the Senate should agree, any officer appointed by and with the consent of that body. For’a

long time Edwin M. Stanton, the secretary of war, had been dis-

JOHNSON, EASTMAN—JOHNSON, REVERDY loyal to his chief and in league with his enemies. To rid himself of his obnoxious war minister and at the same time test before the Supreme Court the constitutionality of the Tenure of Office act,

Johnson removed Stanton without obtaining the consent of the Senate. His plan for bringing the case before the Supreme Court, however, miscarried. Whereupon the House of Representatives brought articles of impeachment against the President, the only important charge being his violation of the Tenure of Office act. The evidence was entirely inadequate for convicting him on the graver charge before any fair-minded and impartial tribunal.

The

Senate at that time, however, was extremely partisan, and Johnson escaped conviction by only one vote (35 to 19; a two-thirds majority was necessary for conviction), on May 16, 1868. The remainder of Johnson’s term as President was comparatively quiet and uneventful.

On March 4, 1869, he left the Presidency

a

beaten and embittered man, but something of his old fighting spirit remained. After a number of unsuccessful efforts, in 1875 his Tennessee constituents returned him to his old place in the Senate. But his triumph was not for long. He made one brilliant speech in the Senate, where many of the men who had voted to convict him of high crimes and misdemeanors were still sitting, in apology for his own reconstruction policy and in denunciation of that of his opponents. But it was his last. Shortly afterward, on July 31, 1875, he died. Faults of personality were Andrew Johnson’s great handicap.

He lacked the finish of systematic education.

tactless and at times even undignified.

He was frequently

Though possessing fun-

damentally a kind and sympathetic disposition, his natural shyness caused him to appear to all except his closest intimates, hard and inflexible. His career as president was of the essence of tragedy. Of unlimited faith in the people, his reconstruction policies were overwhelmingly rejected by them. Of unswerving devotion to the

letter and spirit of the Constitution he was impeached for its violation. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The most satisfactory biography is Robert W. Winston, Andrew Johnson, Plebeian and Patriot (1928). See also: L. Foster, The Life and Speeches of Andrew Johnson (1866); D. M. De-

Witt, The Impeachment and Trial of Andrew Johnson (1903); C. E.

Chadsey, The Struggle between President Johnson and Congress over Reconstruction (1896) ; W. A. Dunning, Essays on the Civil War and Reconstruction (1898) and, Reconstruction, Political and Economic (1907); J. F. Rhodes, History of the United States from the Compromise of r850 (1893~1906; especially vols. v.—vi.) ; B. B. Kendrick, The Journal of the Joint Committee of Fifteen on Reconstruction (19x15). (B. B.K.)

JOHNSON, EASTMAN (1824-1906), American artist, was born at Lovell (Me.), on July 29, 1824. He studied at Düsseldorf, Paris, Rome, and The Hague, the last city being his home for four years. In 1860 he was elected to the National Academy

of Design, New York. A distinguished portrait and genre painter, he made distinctively American themes his own, depicting the negro, fisherfolk and farm life with unusual interest. Such pictures as “Old Kentucky Home” (1867), “Husking Bee” (1876), “Cranberry Harvest, Nantucket” (1880), and his portrait group “The Funding Bill” (1881), achieved a national reputation. Among his sitters were many prominent men, including Daniel Webster; Presidents Hayes, Arthur, Cleveland and Harrison; William M. Evarts, Charles J. Folger; Emerson, Longfellow, Hawthorne, James McCosh, Noah Porter and Sir Edward Archbald. He died in New York city on April 5, 1906.

JOHNSON, EDWARD,

tenor, was-born at Guelph, Ont.

He was educated at the University of Toronto and went to New York as a church soloist in 1907. Turning soon to light opera, he rapidly became a public favourite. After further vocal study in Italy, he made his operatic début at Padua, in Andrea Chenier in I9II; and subsequently sang in Rome, Bologna and at La Scala, Milan, for five seasons. In 1916 he was invited to the Teatro Colon, Buenos Aires, His first operatic appearance in the United States was with the Chicago Opera Company, Nov. 30, 1919. He joined the Metropolitan Opera Company, New York, in 1922, in which year he became an American citizen. JOHNSON, EMORY RICHARD (1864), American economist, was born at Waupun, Wis., March 22, 1864, and edu-

107

cated at the University of Wisconsin (B.L., 1888; M.L., 1891) and the University of Pennsylvania (Ph.D., 1893). He was: instructor in economics at Haverford college, 1893-96, and after 1896 professor of transportation and commerce at the University

of Pennsylvania. In 1919 he became dean of the Wharton school of finance and commerce at that university. Very early he gained a reputation as an expert in transportation and his specialized knowledge has often been called into Government service. He was a member of the U.S. Industrial Commission, 1899; a member of

the U.S. Isthmian Canal Commission, 1899-1904; an expert on the valuation of railway property for the U.S. Census Bureau, Igo04~05; expert on traffic for the National Waterways Commission, 1909; appointed by President Taft to report on Panama Canal traffic and tolls and the measurement of vessels, 1911; member of the Public Service Commission, 1913-15; assistant director of the Bureau of Transportation, War Trade Board, 1917; rate expert, U.S. Shipping Board, 1918-19. Besides reports to commissions and many articles in economic journals he is the author of Inland Waterways (1893); American

Railway Transportation (1903) ; Ocean and Inland Water Transportation (1906) ; Railroad Traffic and Rates (1911) ; Panama Canal Traffic and Tolls (1912) ; The Panama Canal and Commerce (1916) ; Principles of Ocean Transportation (1917); Interpretative Essays on China and England (1927).

JOHNSON,

HIRAM

WARREN

(1866-

), American

politician, was born at Sacramento, Calif., on Sept. 2, 1866. He entered the University of California, but did not finish his course. He became a reporter, at the same time studying law in his father’s office; was admitted to the bar 1888, and practised with his father and his brother in Sacramento. In 1902 he opened an office in San Francisco, where he became widely known in 1906-07 for the vigour and success with which, as prosecuting attorney, he proceeded against dishonest public officials and corporations. He was elected governor of California for the term 1911-15; and in 1912 was an unsuccessful candidate for vice president (on the ticket with Theodore Roosevelt), as nominee of the National Progressive Party, which he had helped to organise. As governor he signed in 1913 the Webb Anti-alien bill, designed to prohibit the ownership of land in California by Japanese, although the President had asked for delay. He was re-elected governor 1915-19, but resigned in 1917, having been elected a U.S. senator. He opposed many of the policies of President Wilson’s administration and declared that a league of nations would involve the United States in European wars. At the Republican National convention in 1920 he had considerable support as presidential candidate, especially from those opposed to the League of Nations and the Treaty of Peace as submitted to the Senate. He was re-elected U.S. senator for the term 1923-29.

JOHNSON, LIONEL PIGOT (1867-1902), English critic and poet, was born at Broadstairs on March 15, 1867, and educated at Winchester, and at New College, Oxford. He began writing verse while still at school, and his essay on “The Fools of Shakespeare” was published in 1887, in Noctes Shakesperianae. In 1890, on leaving Oxford, he settled in London, where he undertook reviewing for the Academy, Pall Mall Gazette and other journals. In June 1891, he was received into the Church of Rome, and the influence of his conversion is seen in his poetry after that date. In 1895 the first collected edition of his poems appeared. His second volume Jreland and other Poems (1897), reflects his growing interest in Ireland, which he visited in Sept. 1893, and on several later occasions. He died on Oct. 4, 1902, as the result

of a fall in Fleet street, following on a long period of ill-health. A collected edition of his poems was published in ror5.

JOHNSON, REVERDY (1796-1876), American political leader and jurist, was born at Annapolis, Md., on May 21, 1796. His father, John Johnson (1770—1824), was a distinguished lawyer, who served in both legislative houses of Maryland, as attorney general of the State (1806-11), as a judge (1811—21), and as a chancellor of his State (1821—24). Reverdy graduated from St, John’s college in 1812. He then studied law in his father’s office, was admitted to the bar in 1815 and began to practise in Upper Marlborough. In 1817 he removed to, Baltimore, where he became the professional associate of Luther Martin, William Pinkney and

108

JOHNSON,

RICHARD—JOHNSON,

Roger B. Taney; with Thomas Harris he reported the decisions of the court of appeals in Harris and Johnsons Reports (182027). From 1845 to 1849, as a Whig, he was a member of the United States Senate; and in 1849~50 he was attorney general of the United States. In 1856 he became identified with the conservative wing of the Democratic Party, and four years later supported Stephen A. Douglas for the presidency. After the capture of New Orleans he was commissioned by Lincoln to revise the decisions of the military commandant, General B. F. Butler, in regard to foreign governments, and reversed all those decisions to the entire satisfaction of the administration. In 1863 he again took his seat in the United States Senate. In 1863 he was appointed minister to Great Britain, returning on the

accession of Grant to the presidency. Again resuming his practice he was engaged by the government in the prosecution of Ku-Klux cases. He repudiated the doctrine of secession, and pleaded for compromise and conciliation. Opposed to the Reconstruction measures, he voted for them on the ground that it was better to accept than reject them, since they were probably the best that could be obtained. As a lawyer he was engaged during his later years in most of the especially important cases in the Supreme Court of the United States. He died at Annapolis on Feb. 10, 1876.

JOHNSON, RICHARD (1573-1659?), English romance writer, was baptized in London on May 24, 1573. His most famous romance is The Famous Historie of the Seaven Champions ‘of Christendom (1596?). The success of this book was so great that the author added a second and a third partin r608 and 1616. His other stories include: The Nine Worthies of London (1%92) ; The Pleasant Walks of Moorefields (1607) ; The Pleasant Conceites of Old Hobson (1607), the hero being a well-known haberdasher in the Poultry; The Most Pleasant History of Tom a Lincolne (1607); A Remem-

brance of .. . Robert Earle of Salisbury (1612) ; Looke on Me, Lon-

don (1613); The History of Tom Thumbe (1621). The Crown Garland of Golden Roses ... set forth in Many Pleasant new Songs and Sonnets (1612) was reprinted for the Percy Society (1842 and 1845).

JOHNSON,

RICHARD

MENTOR

(1781-1850), ninth

vice-president of the United States, was born at Bryant’s Station (Ky.) on Oct. 17, 1781. He was admitted to the bar in 1800, and became prominent as a lawyer and Democratic politician serving in the Federal House of Representatives and in the Senate for many years. From 1837 to r84r he was vice-president of the United States, to which position he was elected over Francis Granger, by the Senate, none of the four candidates for the vicepresidency having received a majority of the electoral votes. The opposition to Johnson within the party greatly increased during his term, and the Democratic national convention of 1840 adopted the unprecedented course of refusing to nominate anyone for the vice-presidency. In the ensuing election Johnson received most of the Democratic electoral votes, but was defeated by the Whig candidate, John Tyler. He died in Frankfort (Ky.) on Nov. 19, 1850.

JOHNSON,

SAMUEL

(1709-1784),

English writer and

lexicographer, was the son of Michael Johnson (1656-1733), bookseller and magistrate of Lichfield, who married in 1706 Sarah Ford (1669-1759). Michael’s abilities and attainments seem to have been considerable. He was so well acquainted with the contents of the volumes which he exposed for sale that the country rectors of Staffordshire and Worcestershire thought him an oracle on points of learning. Between him and the clergy, indeed, there was a strong religious and political sympathy. .He was a zealous churchman, and, though he had qualified himself for municipal office by taking the oaths to the sovereigns in possession, was to the last a Jacobite in heart. The social position of Samuel’s paternal grandfather, William Johnson, remains obscure; his mother was the daughter of Cornelius Ford, “a little Warwickshire Gent.” At a house (now the Johnson museum) in the Market Square, Lichfield, Samuel Johnson was born on Sept. 18, 1709 and baptized on the same day at St. Mary’s, Lichfield. In the child the physical, intellectual and moral peculiarities which afterwards distinguished the man were plainly discernible: great muscular strength accompanied by much awkwardness and many infirmities; great quickness of parts, with a morbid propensity to sloth and procrastina-

SAMUEL

tion; a kind and generous heart, with a gloomy and irritable tem.

per. He had inherited from his ancestors a scrofulous taint, and hi, parents were weak enough to believe that the royal touch woulg cure him. In his third year he was taken up to London, inspectaq by the court surgeon, prayed over by the court chaplains ang stroked and presented with a piece of gold by Queen Anne. He hand was applied in vain. The boy’s features, which were orig. inally noble and not irregular, were distorted by his malady. His cheeks were deeply scarred.

He lost for a time the sight of one

eye; and he saw but very imperfectly with the other. But the force of his mind overcame every impediment. Indolent as he was, he acquired knowledge with such ease and rapidity that at every

school (such as those at Lichfield and Stourbridge) to which he was sent he was soon the best scholar. From 16 to 18 he resided at home, and was left to his own devices. He learned much a this time, though his studies were without guidance and without plan. He ransacked his father’s shelves, dipped into a multitude of books, read what was interesting and passed over what was dull. An ordinary lad would have acquired little or no useful knowledge in such a way; but much that was dull to ordinary lads was inter.

esting to Samuel. He read little Greek; for his proficiency in that language was not such that he could take much pleasure in the masters of Attic poetry and eloquence. But he had left school a good Latinist, and he soon acquired an extensive knowledge of Latin literature. He was peculiarly attracted by the works of the great restorers of learning. Once, while searching for some apples, he found a huge folio volume of Petrarch’s works. The nate ex. cited his curiosity, and he eagerly devoured hundreds of pages, Indeed, the diction and versification of his own Latin compositions

show that he had paid at least as much attention to modern copies from the antique as to the original models. While he was thus irregularly educating himself, his family was sinking into hopeless poverty. Old Michael Johnson was much better qualified to pore over books, and to talk about them, than to trade in them. His business declined; his debts increased; it was with difficulty that the daily expenses of his household were defrayed. It was out of his power to support his son at either university; but a wealthy neighbour offered assistance; and, in reliance

on promises which proved to be of very little value, Samuel was

entered at Pembroke College, Oxford. When the young scholar presented himself to the rulers of that society, they were amazed not more by his ungainly figure and eccentric manners than by the quantity of extensive and curious information which he had picked up during many months of desultory but not unprofitable study. On the first day of his residence he surprised his teachers by quoting Macrobius; and one of the most learned among them declared that he had never known a freshman of equal attainments. At Oxford Johnson resided barely over two years, possibly less.

He was poor, even to raggedness; and his appearance excited a mirth and a pity which were equally intolerable to his haughty spirit. He was driven from the quadrangle of Christ Church by the sneering looks which the members of that aristocratical society cast at the holes in his shoes. Some charitable person placed a new pair at his door; but he spurned them away in a fury. Distress made him, not servile, but reckless and ungovernable. No opulent gentleman commoner, panting for one-and-twenty, could havé treated the academical authorities with more gross disrespect. The needy scholar was generally to be seen under the gate of Pem-

broke, a gate now adorned with his effigy, haranguing acircle of lads, over whom, in spite of his tattered gown and dirty linen, his wit and audacity gave him an undisputed ascendancy. In every mutiny against the discipline of the college he was the ringleader. Much was pardoned, however, to a youth so highly distinguished by abilities and acquirements. He had early made himself known by turning Pope’s “Messiah” into Latin verse. The style and rhythm, indeed, were not exactly Virgilian; but the translation found many admirers, and was read with pleasure by Pope himself. The time drew near at which Johnson would, in the ordinary course of things, have become a Bachelor of Arts; but he was at the end of his resources. Those promises of support on which he

had relied had not been kept. His family could do nothing for him. His debts to Oxford tradesmen were small indeed, yet larger that

| | | `

JOHNSON, SAMUEL he could pay. In the autumn of 1731 he was under the necessity of quitting the university without a degree. In the following win-

ter his father died. The old man left but a pittance; and of that pittance almost the whole was appropriated to the support of his widow. The property to which Samuel succeeded amounted to no more than twenty pounds. His life, during the thirty years which followed, was one hard

struggle with poverty. The misery of that struggle needed no aggravation, but was aggravated by the sufferings of an unsound

body and an unsound mind. Before the young man left the university, his hereditary malady had broken forth in a singularly cruel form. He had become an incurable hypochondriac. He said long after that he had been mad all his life, or at least not perfectly sane; and, in truth, eccentricities less strange than his have often been thought ground sufficient for absolving felons and for setting aside wills. His grimaces, his gestures, his mutterings, sometimes diverted and sometimes terrified people who did not know him.

At a dinner table he would absent-mindedly stoap down and twitch off a lady’s shoe. He would amaze a drawing-room by suddenly ejaculating a clause of the Lord’s Prayer. He would conceive an unintelligible aversion to a particular alley, and perform a great circuit rather than see the hateful place. He would set his heart on touching every post in the streets through which he

walked. If by any chance he missed a post, he would go back a hundred yards and repair the omission. Under the influence of his disease, his senses became morbidly torpid, and his imagination morbidly active. At one time he would stand poring on the town clock without being able to tell the hour. At another he would distinctly hear his mother, who was many miles off, calling him by his name. But this was not the worst. A deep melancholy took possession of him, and gave a dark tinge to all his views of human nature and of human destiny. Such wretchedness as he endured has driven many men to shoot themselves or drown themselves. But he was under no temptation to commit suicide. He

was sick of life; but he was afraid of death; and he shuddered at every sight or sound which reminded him of the inevitable hour. In religion he found but little comfort during his long and frequent fits of dejection; for his religion partook of his own character. The light from heaven shone on him indeed, but not in a direct line, or with its own pure splendour. The rays had to struggle through a disturbing medium; they reached him refracted, dulled and discoloured by the thick gloom which had settled on his soul, and, though they might be sufficiently clear to guide him, were too dim to cheer him. With such infirmities of body and of mind, he was left, at twoand-twenty, to fight his way through the world. He remained during about five years in the midland counties. At Lichfield, his birthplace and his early home, he had inherited some friends and acquired others. He was kindly noticed by Henry Hervey, a gay officer of noble family, who happened to be quartered there. Gulbert Walmesley, registrar of the ecclesiastical court of the diocese, a man of distinguished parts,’ learning and knowledge of the world, did himself honour by patronizing the young adventurer, whose repulsive person, unpolished manners and squalid garb moved many of the petty aristocracy of the neighbourhood to laughter or disgust. At Lichfield, however, Johnson could find no way of earning a livelihood. He became usher of a grammar school in Leicestershire; he resided as a humble companion in the house of a country gentleman; but a life of dependence was insupportable to his haughty spirit. He repaired to Birmingham, and there earned a few guineas by literary drudgery. In that town he printed a translation, little noticed at that time, and long forgotten, of a Latin book about Abyssinia. He then put forth proposals for publishing by subscription the poems of Politian, with notes containing a history of modern Latin verse; but subscriptions did not come in, and the volume never appeared. While leading this vagrant and miserable life, Johnson fell in

love. The object of his passion was Mrs. Elizabeth Porter (1688— 1752), widow of Harry Porter (d. 1734), whose daughter Lucy was born only six years after Johnson himself. To ordinary spectators the lady appeared to be a short, fat, coarse woman, painted half an inch thick, dressed in gaudy colours, and fond of exhibiting t

LOQ

provincial airs and graces which were not exactly those of the Queensberrys and Lepels. To Johnson, however, whose passions were strong, and whose eyesight was too weak to distinguish rouge from natural bloom, and who had seldom or never been in the same room with a woman of real fashion, his Tetty, as he called her, was the most beautiful, graceful and accomplished of her sex. That his admiration was unfeigned cannot be doubted; she had, however, a jointure of £600 and perhaps a little more; she came of a good family, and her son Jervis (d. 1763) commanded H.M.S. “Hercules.” The marriage, in spite of occasional wranglings, proved happier than might have been expected.. The lover continued to be under the illusions of the wedding-day (July 9, 1735) till the lady died in her sixty-fourth year. On her monument at Bromley he placed an inscription extolling the charms of her person and of her manners; and when, long after her decease, he had occasion to mention her, he exclaimed with a tenderness half ludicrous, half pathetic, “Pretty creature!” His marriage made it necessary for him to exert himself more strenuously than he had hitherto done. He took a house at Edial

near Lichfield and advertised for pupils. But 18 months passed away, and only three pupils came to his academy. The “faces” that Johnson habitually made (probably nervous contortions due to his disorder) may well have alarmed parents. Good scholar though he was, these twitchings had lost him usherships in 1735 and 1736. David Garrick, who was one of the pupils, used, many years later, to throw the best company of London into convulsions of laughter by mimicking the master and his lady. At length Johnson, in the twenty-eighth year of his age, determined to seek his fortune in London as a literary adventurer, He set out with a few guineas, three acts of his tragedy of Jrene in manuscript and two or three letters of introduction from his friend

Walmesley. Never since literature became a calling in England had it been a less gainful calling than at the time when Johnson took up his residence in London, In the preceding generation a writer of eminent merit was sure to be munificently rewarded by

the Government. The least that he could expect was a pension or a sinecure place; and, if he showed any aptitude for politics, he might hope to be a member of parliament, a lord of the treasury, an ambassador, a secretary of state. But literature had ceased to flourish under the patronage of the great, and had not yet begun to flourish under the patronage of the public. One man of letters, indeed, Pope, had acquired by his pen what was then considered as a handsome fortune, and lived on a footing of equality with nobles and ministers of state. But this was a solitary exception. Even an author whose reputation was established, and whose works were popular—such an author as Thomson, whose Seasons was in every library, such an author as Fielding, whose Pasquin had had a greater run than any drama since The Beggar’s Opera— was sometimes glad to obtain, by pawning his best coat, the means, of dining on tripe at a cookshop underground, where he could : his hands, after his greasy meal, on the back of a Newfoum dog. It is easy, therefore, to imagine what humiliations tions must have awaited the novice who had still to ea One of the publishers to whom Johnson applied for en

measured with a scornful eye that athletic though uncouth and exclaimed, “You had better get a porter’s knot and” ' trunks. Nor was the advice bad, for a porter was likely to be as plentifully fed, and as comfortably lodged, as a poet. Some time appears to have elapsed before Johnson was able to form any literary connection from which he could expect more than bread for the day which was passing over him, He never forgot the generosity with which Hervey, who was now residing in London, relieved his wants during this time of trial. “Harry Hervey,” said Johnson many years later, “was a vicious man; but he was very kind to me, If you call a dog Hervey, I shall love him.” At Hervey’s table Johnson sometimes enjoyed feasts which were made more agreeable by contrast. But in general he dined, and thought that he dined well, on sixpennyworth of meat and a pennyworth of bread at an alehouse near Drury Lane.

The effect of the privations and sufferings which he endured at this time was discernible to the last in his temper and his deportment, His manners had never been courtly. They now became

IIO almost savage.

JOHNSON, SAMUEL Being frequently under the necessity of wearing

shabby coats and dirty shirts, he became a confirmed sloven. Be-

he published a work which at once placed him high among ths

writers of his age. It is probable that what he had suffered during ing often very hungry when he sat down to his meals, he con- his first year in London had often reminded him of some parts of tracted a habit of eating with ravenous greediness. Even to the the satire in which Juvenal had described the misery and degrada. end of his life, and even at the tables of the great, the sight of food tion of a needy man of letters, lodged among the pigeons’ nests in affected him as it affects wild beasts and birds of prey. His taste the tottering garrets which overhung the streets of Rome. Pope's in cookery, formed in subterranean ordinaries and à la mode beef admirable imitations of Horace’s Satires and Epistles had recently shops, was far from delicate, Whenever he was so fortunate as to appeared, were in every hand, and were by many readers thought have near him a hare that had been kept too long, or a meat pie superior to the originals. What Pope had done for Horace, Johnmade with rancid butter, he gorged himself with such violence son aspired to do for Juvenal. that his veins swelled and the moisture broke out on his forehead. Johnson’s London appeared without his name in May 1738. He The affronts which his poverty emboldened stupid and low-minded received only ten guineas for this stately and vigorous poem; but men to offer him would have broken a mean spirit into sycophancy, the sale was rapid and the success complete. A second edition was but made him rude even to ferocity. Unhappily the insolence required within a week. Those small critics who are always desi. which, while it was defensive, was pardonable, and in some sense rous to lower established reputations ran about proclaiming that respectable, accompanied him into societies where he was treated the anonymous satirist was superior to Pope in Pope’s own peculiar with courtesy and kindness. He was repeatedly provoked into department of literature. It ought to be remembered, to the honstriking those who had taken liberties with him. All the sufferers, our of Pope, that he joined heartily in the applause with which the however, were wise enough to abstain from talking about their appearance of a rival genius was welcomed. He made inquiries beatings, except Osborne, the most rapacious and brutal of book- about the author of London. Such a man, he said, could not long sellers, who proclaimed everywhere that he had been knocked be concealed. The name was soon discovered; and Pope, with down by the huge fellow whom he had hired to puff the Harleian great kindness, exerted himself to obtain an academical degree Library. and the mastership of a grammar school for the poor young poet, About a year after Johnson had begun to reside in London he The attempt failed, and Johnson remained a bookseller’s hack. was fortunate enough to obtain regular employment from Edward It does not appear that these two men, the most eminent writer Cave (g.v.) on the Gentleman’s Magazine. That periodical, just of the generation which was going out, and the most eminent entering on the ninth year of its long existence, was the only one writer of the generation which was coming in, ever saw each other. in the kingdom which then had what would now be called a large They lived in very different circles, one surrounded by dukes and circulation. Johnson was engaged to write the speeches in the “Re- earls, the other by starving pamphleteers and index-makers,

ports of the Debates of the Senate of Lilliput” (see REPORTING), under which thin disguise the proceedings of parliament were pub-

lished. He was generally furnished with notes, meagre indeed and inaccurate, of what had been said; but sometimes he had to find arguments and eloquence both for the ministry and for the opposition. He was himself a Tory, not from rational conviction—for his serious opinion was that one form of government was just as good or as bad as another—but from mere passion, such as inflamed the Capulets against the Montagues, or the Blues of the Roman circus against the Greens. In his infancy he had heard so much talk about the villainies of the Whigs, and the dangers of the Church, that he had become a furious partisan when he could scarcely speak. Before he was three he had insisted on being taken to hear Sacheverell preach at Lichfield Cathedral, and had listened to the sermon with as much respect and probably with as much ' intelligence, as any Staffordshire squire in the congregation. The work which had been begun in the nursery had been completed by the university. Oxford, when Johnson resided there, was the most Jacobitical place in England; and Pembroke was one of the most Jacobitical colleges in Oxford. The prejudices which he brought up to London were scarcely less absurd than those of his own Tom Tempest. Charles II. and James II. were two of the best kings that ever reigned. Laud was a prodigy of parts and learning over whose tomb Art and Genius still continued to weep. Hampden deserved no more honourable name than that of the “zealot of rebellion.” Even the ship-money Johnson would not pronounce to have been an unconstitutional impost. Under a government which allowed to the people an unprecedented liberty of speech and action, he fancied that he was a slave. He hated Dissenters and stockjobbers, the excise and the army, septennial parliaments, and Continental connections. He long had an aversion to the Scots, an aversion of which he could not remember the commencement, but which, he owned, had probably originated in his abhorrence of the conduct of the nation during the Great Rebellion. It is easy to guess in what manner debates on great party questions were likely to be reported by a man whose judgment was so much distorted by party spirit. A show of fairness was indeed necessary to the prosperity of the Magazine. But Johnson long afterwards owned that, though he had saved appearances, he had taken care that the Whig dogs should not have the best of it; and, in fact, every passage which has lived, every passage which bears the marks of his higher faculties, is put into the mouth of some member of the opposition. A few weeks after Johnson had entered on these obscure labours,

Among Johnson’s associates at this time may be mentioned Boyse, who, when his shirts were pledged, scrawled Latin verses sitting up in bed with his arms’ through two holes in his blanket, who composed very respectable sacred poetry when he was sober, and who

was at last run over by a hackney coach when he was drunk; Hoole, surnamed the metaphysical tailor, who, instead of attending to his measures, used to trace geometrical diagrams on the board where he sat cross-legged; and the penitent impostor, George Psalmanazar, who, after poring all day, in a humble lodging, on the folios of Jewish rabbis and Christian fathers, indulged himself at night with literary and theological conversation at an alehouse in the City. But the most remarkable of the persons with whom at this time Johnson consorted was Richard Savage, an earl’s son, a shoemaker’s apprentice, who had seen life in all its forms, who had feasted among blue ribands in St. James’s Square, and had lain with fifty pounds weight of irons on his legs in the condemned ward of Newgate. This man had, after many vicissitudes of fortune, sunk at last into abject and hopeless poverty. His pen had failed him. His patrons had been taken away by death, or estranged by the riotous profusion with which he squandered their bounty, and the ungrateful insolence with which he rejected their advice. He now lived by begging. He dined on venison and champagne whenever he had been so fortunate as to borrow a guinea. If his questing had been unsuccessful, he appeased the rage of hunger with some scraps of broken meat, and lay down to rest under the piazza of Covent Garden in warm weather, and, in cold weather, as near as he could get to the furnace of a glass house. Yet in his misery he was still an agreeable companion. He had an inexhaustible store of anecdotes about that gay and brilliant

world from which he was now an outcast. He had observed the great men of both parties in hours of careless relaxation, had seen the leaders of opposition without the mask of patriotism, and had heard the prime minister roar with laughter and tell stories not

over-decent. During some months Savage lived in the closest fa-

miliarity with Johnson; and then the friends parted, not without tears. Johnson remained in London to drudge for Cave. Savage went to the west of England, lived there as he had lived everywhere, and in 1743 died, penniless and heartbroken, in Bristol Gaol. Soon after his death, while the public curiosity was strongly excited about his extraordinary character and his not less extraordinary adventures, a life of him appeared widely different from the catchpenny lives of eminent men which were then a staple article

of manufacture in Grub Street. The style was indeed deficient,m

JOHNSON, SAMUEL ease and variety; and the writer was evidently too partial to the

Latin element of our language. But the little work, with all its faults, was a masterpiece. No finer specimen of literary biography existed in any language, living or dead; and a discerning critic might have confidently predicted that the author was destined to

be the founder of a new school of English eloquence. The Life of Savage was anonymous; but it was well known in

literary circles that Johnson was the writer.

During the three

years which followed, he produced no important work; but he was

not, and indeed could not be, idle. The fame of his abilities and learning continued to grow. Warburton pronounced him a man of parts and genius; and the praise of Warburton was then no light thing. Such was Johnson’s reputation that, in 1747, several eminent booksellers combined to employ him in the arduous work of preparing a Dictionary of the English Language, in two folio volumes. The sum which they agreed to pay him was only fifteen hundred guineas; and out of this sum he had to pay several poor men of letters who assisted him in the humbler parts of his task. The prospectus of the Dictionary he addressed to the earl of Chesterfield. Chesterfield had long been celebrated for the politeness of his manners, the brilliancy of his wit and the delicacy of his taste. He was acknowledged to be the finest speaker in the House of Lords. He had recently governed Ireland, at a momentous conjuncture, with eminent firmness, wisdom and humanity; and he had since become secretary of state. He received Jobnson’s homage with the most winning affability, and requited it with a few guineas, bestowed doubtless in a very graceful manner, but was by no means desirous to see all his carpets blackened with the London mud, and his soups and wines thrown to right and left over the gowns of fine ladies and the waistcoats of fine

gentlemen, by an absent-minded scholar, who gave strange starts and uttered strange growls, who dressed like a scarecrow and ate like a cormorant. During some time Johnson continued to call on his patron, but, after being repeatedly told by the porter that his lordship was not at home, took the hint and ceased to present himself at the inhospitable door. Johnson had flattered himself that he should have completed his Dictionary by the end of 1750; but it was not till 1755 that he at length gave his huge volumes to the world. During the seven years which he passed in the drudgery of penning definitions and marking quotations for transcription, he sought for relaxation in literary labour of a more agreeable kind. In January 1749 he published The Vanity of Human Wishes, an excellent imitation of the tenth satire of Juvenal, for which he received fifteen guineas. A few days after the publication of this poem, his tragedy of Irene, begun many years before, was brought on the stage by his old pupil, David Garrick, now manager of Drury Lane Theatre. The relation between him and his old preceptor was of a very singular kind. They repelled each other strongly, and yet attracted each other strongly. Nature had made them of very different clay; and circumstances had fully brought out the natural peculiarities of both. Sudden prosperity had turned Garrick’s head. Continued adversity had soured Johnson’s temper. Johnson saw with more envy than became so great a man the villa, the plate, the china, the Brussels carpet, which the little mimic had got by repeating, with grimaces and gesticulations, what wiser men had written; and the exquisitely sensitive vanity of Garrick was galled by the thought that, while all the rest of the world was applauding him, he could obtain from one morose cynic, whose opinion it was impossible to despise, scarcely any compliment not acidulated with scorn. Yet the two Lichfield men had so many early recollections in common, and sympathized with each other on so many points on which they sympathized with nobody else in the vast population of the capital, that, though the master was often provoked by the monkey-like impertinence of the pupil, and the pupil by the bearish rudeness of the master, they remained friends till they were parted by death.

Garrick now brought Zrene out, with alterations sufficient to displease the author, yet not sufficient to make the piece pleasing to

the audience. After nine representations the play was withdrawn. The poet however cleared by his benefit nights, and by the sale of

the copyright of his tragedy, about three hundred pounds, then a great sum in his estimation.

III

About a year after the representation of Irene, he began to publish a series of short essays on morals, manners and literature. This species of composition had been brought into fashion by the success of the Tatler, and by the still more brilliant success of the Spectator. A crowd of small writers had vainly attempted to rival Addison. The Lay Monastery, the Censor, the Freethinker, the Plain Dealer, the Champion, and other works of the same kind had had their short day. At length Johnson undertook the adventure in which so many aspirants had failed. In the 36th year after the appearance of the last number of the Spectator appeared the first number of the Rambler. From March 1750 to March 1752 this paper continued to come out every Tuesday and Saturday. From the first the Rambler was enthusiastically admired by a few eminent men. Richardson, when only five numbers had appeared, pronounced it equal if not superior to the Spectator. Young and Hartley expressed their approbation not less warmly. In consequence probably of the good offices of Bubb Dodington, who was then the confidential adviser of Prince Frederick, two of his royal highness’s gentlemen carried a gracious message to the printing office, and ordered seven copies for Leicester House. But Johnson had had enough of the patronage of the great to last him all his life, and was not disposed to haunt any other door as he had haunted the door of Chesterfield. By the public the Rambler was at first very coldly received. Though the price of a number was only twopence, the sale did not amount to five hundred. The profits were therefore very small. But as soon as the flying leaves were collected and reprinted they became popular. The author lived to see thirteen thousand copies spread over England alone. Separate editions were published for the Scotch and Irish markets. A large party pronounced the style perfect, so absolutely perfect that in some essays it would be impossible for the writer himself to alter a single word for the better. Another party, not less numerous, vehemently accused him of having corrupted the purity of the English tongue. The best critics admitted that his diction was too monotonous, too obviously artificial, and now and then turgid even to absurdity. But they did justice to the acuteness of his observations on morals and manners, to the constant precision and frequent brilliancy of his language, to the weighty and magnificent eloquence of many serious passages, and to the solemn yet pleasing humour of some of the lighter papers. , The last Rambler was written in a sad and gloomy hour. Mrs. Johnson had been given over by the physicians. Three days later she died. She left her husband almost broken-hearted. Many people had been surprised to see a man of his genius and learning stooping to every drudgery, and denying himself almost every comfort, for the purpose of supplying a silly, affected old woman with superfluities, which she accepted with but little gratitude. But all his affection had been concentrated on her. He had neither brother nor sister, neither son nor daughter. Her opinion of his writings was more important to him than the voice of the pit of Drury Lane Theatre, or the judgment of the Monthly Review. The chief support which had sustained him through the most arduous labour of his life was the hope that she would enjoy the fame and the profit which he anticipated from his Dictionary. She was gone; and in that vast labyrinth of streets, peopled by eight hundred thousand human beings, he was alone. Yet it was necessary for him to set himself, as he expressed it, doggedly to work. After three more laborious years, the Dictionary was at length complete. It had been generally supposed that this great work would be dedicated to the eloquent and accomplished nobleman to whom the prospectus had been addressed. Lord Chesterfield well knew the value of such a compliment; and therefore, when the day of publication drew near, he exerted himself to soothe, by a show of zealous and at the same time of delicate and judicious kindness, the pride which he had so cruelly wounded. Since the Rambler had ceased to appear, the town had been entertained by a journal called

the World, to which many men of high rank and fashion contributed. In two successive numbers of the World, the Dictionary was, to use the modern phrase, puffed with wonderful skill. The writings of Johnson were warmly praised. It was proposed that he

should be invested with the authority of a dictator, nay, of .a pope,



EN

northern

United

States %

is a summer visitor, wintering jp Central America, Cuba, Perų and Bolivia. The bird owes its name to the fury with which the

E>

cock will attack any bird that ap

KING-BIRD (TYRANNUS TYRANNUS),

proaches his nest. The plumage is ashy-grey above and white þeneath, with erectile feathers og the crown, which part to reveal an orange base, passing inte scarlet and then to white farther back. The king-bird lives om insects. The nest is large, neatly

A NEW-WORLD

lined

Te tock

OR me

BE REN IPN ZS

EN

er

BY COURTESY OF NATURAL HISTORY

THE

|

sAN

NB DARN

AMERICAN

MUSEUM

OF

FLYCATCHER

with

fine grass

and cœ

taining five or six pale salmon-coloured eggs, spotted with purple, brown and orange, especially near the larger end. The allied chickeree (T. dominicensis) of the West Indies is even more pugnacious. It eats berries as well as insects. The Tyrannids are a numerous and diverse group, confined to America. Perhaps the most beautiful form is Mzscivora regia. Many of this family are called fly-catchers in America.

KING-CRAB, Xiphosura.

a marine

arachnid, belonging to the order

Four or five species, belonging to three genera, ar

anointing and vesting were but the outward and visible symbol

of a divine grace adherent in the sovereign by virtue of his title. Even Roman Catholic monarchs, like Louis XIV., would never have admitted that their coronation by the archbishop constituted any part of their title to reign; it was no more than the consecration of their title. In England the doctrine of the divine right of kings was developed to its extremest logical conclusions during the political controversies of the 17th century. Of its exponents the most distinguished was Hobbes, the most exaggerated Sir Robert Filmer. It was the main issue to be decided by the Civil War, the royalists holding that “all Christian kings, princes and governors” derive their authority direct from God, the parliamentarians that this authority is the outcome of a contract, actual or implied, between sovereign and people. In one case the king’s power would be unlimited, according to Louis XIV.’s famous saying: “L'état, c'est moil”, or limitable only by his own free act; in the other his actions would be governed by the advice and consent of the people, to whom he would be ultimately responsible. The victory of this latter principle was proclaimed to all the world by the execution of Charles I. The doctrine of divine right, indeed, for a while drew nourishment from the blood of the royal “martyr”; it was the

guiding principle of the, Anglican Church of the Restoration; but it suffered a rude blow when James II. made it impossible for, the clergy to obey both their conscience and their king; and

OPERCULUM, ARE SEEN ABDOMINAL

FROM

PARKER

BEHIND WHICH THE

OTHER

APPENDAGES

AND

HASWELL,

“TEXT

BOOK

OF

ZOOLOGY”

KING-CRAB (LIMULUS POLYPHEMUS), DORSAL ASPECT

The living species of Limulus occur only on the eastern shores of Ameriss and Asia; fossil species are known from the Triassic and later periods

recognized, the best known being Limulus (or Xiphosura) polt phemus, which inhabits the eastern coast of America from to Yucatan. It burrows in sand or mud, feeding on marine wou Large numbers are caught for use as a fertiliser and as sw and poultry food. The eggs are laid during May, June aad Juy.

KINGFISHER—KINGS

395

At this period, the king-crabs come into extremely shallow water

to mark the supposed scene of the accident.

at high tide, the male clinging to the back of the female of claspers. Fertilisation is external and the eggs are the sand, where they are hatched by the heat of the wg only gradually acquire the long tail, which is

to the Kirkcaldy district group of parliamentary burghs. At PetTycur, r m. to the south, is a good small harbour, and at Kinghorn Ness a battery in connection with the fortifications on Inchkeith. About 1 m. north of Kinghorn is the estate of Grange, which belonged to Sir William Kirkcaldy. INCHKEITH, an island, nearly 1m. by 4 m., in the fairway of the Firth of Forth, 24 m. S. by E. of Kinghorn and 34 m. N. by E. of Leith, belongs to the parish of Kinghorn. It is a barren rock, with a harbour, and a lighthouse on the summit. KINGLAKE, ALEXANDER WILLIAM (1809-1891), English historian and traveller, was born at Taunton on Aug. 5, 1809. His father, a successful solicitor, intended his son for a legal career. Kinglake went to Eton and Trinity college, Cambridge, where he matriculated in 1828, being a contemporary and friend of Tennyson and Thackeray. After leaving Cambridge he joined Lincoln’s Inn, and was called to the bar in 1837. While still a student he travelled, in 1835, throughout the East. Eothen, a sensitive and witty record of impressions keenly felt and remembered, was published in 1844; it remains a classic. In 1854 he went to the Crimea, and was present at the battle of the Alma. Lord Raglan suggested to Kinglake the plan for an elaborate History of the Crimean War, and placed his private papers at the writer’s disposal. For the rest of his life Kinglake was engaged upon this monumental history. Its eight volumes appeared at intervals between 1863 and 1887. Kinglake lived principally in London, and sat in parliament for Bridgwater from 1857 to 1868. He died on Jan. 2, 1891.

lever by the adults to enable them to regain their feet when overturned.

by means buried in sun. The used as a

The other species inhabit south-east Asia

and differ from L. polyphemus in details of

structure.

Perhaps

the best

known

is

Tachypleus gigas, ranging from the Bay

of Bengal to Japan. King-crabs inhabited Europe, Asia, and America in Secondary and Tertiary times, while allied forms, differing in the unfused posterior segments, occurred in the Silurian, Devonian, and

Carboniferous epochs. KINGFISHER.

See ARACHNIDA.

The common king-

fisher, Alcedo ispida, is a beautiful Eurobird, extending also to Northern

Africa and South-west

Asia

to Sindh.

Nowhere very abundant, the brilliant blue-green back and chestnut breast render if conspicuous.

The

sexes

are

alike. Its food, which it obtains by plunging into the water, consists of small fish, Crustacea and aquatic insects. The

legend of the kingfishers, the transformed

Ceyx and Alcyone, nesting on the waves during the seven “Halcyon days” (Ovid,

Above. Limulus phemus, young

poly(dorsal

aspect)

Below. Neolimulus falcatus, fossil, U. Silurian

Metam. bk. xi.) is but a legend. In actual fact, the birds nest, early in the year, in a tunnel which they excavate in a bank. The nest consists of the fish-bones which the parents throw up, and in it six to eight white, translucent eggs are laid. When the young hatch, the mixture of these bones with the faeces (which the parents, unlike most birds, do not remove) and decaying fish forms a dripping, fetid mass. The flesh of the kingfisher is said to be distasteful to birds of prey. The American belted kingfisher (Megaceryle alcyon) is larger ' and less brilliantly coloured. The family Alcedinidae to which the kingfisher belongs is related to the hornbills (Bucerotidee)} and consists of two subfamilies, Alcedininae and Daceloninee. Very uniform in structure, the kingfishers are characterized by the feebleness of the feet, in which the third and fourth digits are united (syndactylism); in two genera, Alcyone, PÀ and Ceyx, the second digit is> | aborted. Tanysiptera is remarkable for the elongation of the middle pair of tail feathers, which are spatulate. The family is COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL Cosmopolitan, though only one BYQF AUDUBON SOCIETIES genus, Megaceryle, is found in BELTED KINGFISHER (MEGACERYLE America. The Australian region ALCYON), OF NORTH AMERICA

is the headquarters of the group, and here are found the “laughmg Jackass,” Dacelo gigas, and its relatives. Many kingfishers live on insects, The only fossil kingfisher known is Halcyornés toliapicus, from

the Eocene of Sheppey. KINGHORN, royal and police burgh parish, Fifeshire, Scotd. Pop. (1931), 2,001.

It is situated on the Firth of Forth,

3} m. E. by N. of Burntisland, on the L.N.E. railway. It enjoys ‘ome repute as a summer resort. The leading industries are

Kinghorn belongs

KINGLET: see Gop-crest. KING-OF-ARMS: see Heratp. KING-POST, the vertical member in a king-post truss, which consists of a triangle, whose sloping sides form the main rafters, tied together at the bottom by a horizontal member, which is connected to the apex of the rafters by a vertical member, or king-post, in the centre. The king-post is not a true post, but, being in tension, is actually a tie. KINGS, FIRST AND SECOND BOOKS OF, in the Bible, the last two books of the “Earlier (or Former) Prophets.” They were originally reckoned as a single book (Josephus, Talmud, etc.), though modern Bibles follow the Septuagint, where | they are called the third and fourth books of “kingdoms,” the first and second being our books of Samuel. All four are closely connected. (See SAMUEL, Books oF.) General Character.—The most noticeable feature in Kings is

the recurring interest in the centralization of worship in the Temple at Jerusalem as prescribed in Deuteronomy and enforced by Josiah. To this 2 Sam. vii. and xxiv. are introductory. Amidst the great variety In style and manner which marks the several parts of the history, features which reflect the teaching of Deuteronomy recur regularly in similar stereotyped forms. They point to a specific redaction, and it would seem that the ““Deuteronomic” editor who treated the foundation of the Temple, the central event of Solomon’s life, as a religious epoch of the first importance, regarded this as the beginning of a new era—the history of Israel under the one sanctuary. Another characteristic feature is the chronological scheme; the events of each king’s reign are thrown Into a framework on this type: “In the twentieth year of Jeroboam, king of Israel, Asa began to reign over Judah, and reigned in Jerusalem forty-one years.” ... “In the third

year of Asa, king of Judah, Baasha began to reign over Israel in Tirzah twenty-four years.” The history moves between Judah and Israel according to the date of each accession; as soon as a new king has been introduced, everything that happened in his reign is discussed, and wound up by another formula as to the death and burial of the sovereign; and to this mechanical arrange-

ment the natural connection of events is often sacrificed. The elaborate synchronisms give an aspect of precision; but in reality

ship-building, bleaching and the making of flax and glue. Alex-

the data for Judah and Israel do not agree, and remarkable deviations are sometimes found. (See Brste: Old Testament, “Chro-

his horse over the cliffs, since called King’s Wud End, a to the west of the burgh. A monument was erected in 1887

history of a standard belonging to the later developments of

ander ITI., who created Kinghorn a burgh, was killed by a fall nology.”)

Another characteristic is the retrospective application to the

KINGS

396

Hebrew religion. Thus the redactor regards the sins of Jeroboam

as the cause of the downfall of Israel (2 Ki. xvii. 21 seg.), and passes an unfavourable judgment upon all its rulers, not merely to the effect that they did evil in the sight of Yahweh but that they followed in the way of Jeroboam. But his opinion was manifestly not shared by Elijah or Elisha, nor by the original narrator of the lives of these prophets. Moreover, the redactor in x Ki. ili. 2 seg. regards worship at the high places as sinful after the

building of the Temple, although even the best kings before Hezekiah made no attempt to suppress these shrines. This feature in the redaction displays itself especially in the speeches placed in the mouths of actors in the history. For his sources the compiler refers chiefly to two distinct works, the “words” or “chronicles” of the kings of Israel and those of the kings of Judah. How much is copied from these works and how much is expressed in the compiler’s own language is, of course, uncertain. The history consists usually of an epitome of each reign. It states the king’s age at succession (Judah only), length of reign, death and burial, with allusions to his buildings, wars, and other political events. In the case of Judah, also, the name of the royal or queen-mother is mentioned. The use which the

compiler makes of his sources shows that his aim was not the

history of the past but its religious significance. DIVISION OF THE BOOK

Solomon.—We may divide the book into three sections: (1) the life of Solomon, (2) the kingdoms of Ephraim (or Samaria) and Judah, and (3) the separate history of Judah after the fall of Samaria. The events which lead up to the death of David and the accession of Solomon (zx Ki. i., ii.) are closely connected with 2 Sam. ix.—xx. The unity is broken by the appendix 2 Sam. xxi.— xxiv. which is closely connected, as regards subject-matter, with v.~vili.; the literary questions depend largely upon the structure

of the books of Samuel (q.v.). It is evident that either the compiler drew upon other sources for the occasion and has been remarkably brief elsewhere, or that his epitomes have been supplemented by the later insertion of material not necessarily itself of

late origin. At present 1 Ki. i., ii. are both the close of David’s

life (no source is cited) and the necessary introduction to Solo-

mon. But both Lucian’s recension of the Septuagint (ed. Lagarde) and Josephus, begin the book at ii. 12, thus separating the annalistic accounts of the two. Since the contents of x Ki. iii—xi. do not form a continuous narrative, the compiler’s authority (“Acts of S.” xi, 41) can hardly have been an ordinary chronicle. The chapters comprise (a) sur.dry notices of the king’s prosperous and peaceful career, severed by (b) a description of the Temple and other buildings; and they conclude with (c) some account of the external troubles. After an introduction (iii.), (a) contains generalizing statements of Solomon’s might, wealth and wisdom (iv. 20 Seq., 25, 29—34; X. 23—25, 27) and stories of a late and popular character (ili. 16—28, x. 1—10, 13). The Septuagint has many deviations from the Hebrew text, and this, together with the present form of the parallel passages in Chronicles, show that the text was not fixed even at a late period (4th—2nd century B.c.). The account of the end of Solomon’s reign deals with his religious laxity (xi. 1-13, now in a Deuteronomic form), as the

after the Deuteronomic redaction, and breaks the connection he tween xii. 31 and xiii. 33 seg. The latter describe the idolatrog worship instituted by the first king of the schismatic north the religious attitude occurs regularly throughout the compiler epitome, however brief the reigns of the kings. The brief ye of Elah preserves an important extract in xvi. 9, but the date iny toa (LXX. omits) presupposes the late finished chronologins scheme. Zimri’s seven days receive the inevitable condemnati

bu: the older material embedded in xvi. 155-18 is closely Com.

nected with v. 9 and is continued in the non-editorial portions a

Omri’s reign (xvi. 21 seq., length of reign in v. 23, and v, 3

As regards Judah, the vivid account of the accession of Reh boam in xii. 1-16 is reminiscent of the full narratives in 2 Sap

ix-xx, and r Ki. i., ii. (cf. especially v. 16 with 2 Sam. XX} Ch. xii. 15 refers to the prophecy of Ahijah (see above) and

aaria aiaia Aare we

Tai” Taea

“unto this day,” v. 19, cannot be by a contemporary author: y,

17 (LXX. omits) finds a parallel in 2 Chron. xi. 16 seg. and may represent an Ephraimite standpoint. The Judaean Standpointjs prominent in vv. 21-24, where (a) the inclusion of Benjamin ang

(b) the cessation of war (at the command of Shemaiah) config with (a) xi. 32, 36, xii. 20 and (6) xiv. 30 respectively. Rely boam’s history, resumed by the redactor in xiv. 21—24, contine with a brief account of the spoiling of the Temple and palace by

Sheshonk (Shishak).

(The incident appears in 2 Chron. xii. ing

rather different context, before the details which now precede y,

21 seg.) The reign of Abijam is entirely due to the editor, whos

brief statement of the war in xv. 7b is supplemented by a lengthy story in 2 Chron. xiii. (where the name is Abijah). The accout

of Asa’s reign contains a valuable summary of his war wih Baasha xv. 16—22; the isolated v. 15 is possibly related to v, 18

(cf. also vii. 51). Jehoshaphat is dealt with in xxii. 41-50 after

the death of Ahab; but the Septuagint, which follows a different chronological scheme (placing his accession in the reign of Omri), gives the summary (with some variations) after xvi. 28. THE OVERTHROW

Ahab

OF OMRI’S DYNASTY

to Jehu.—The history of the few years between the

close of Ahab’s life and the accession of Jehu covers about on. third of the entire book of Kings. This is due to the inclusion of narratives, partly of a political character, and partly interested in the work of prophets. The climax is the overthrow of Omri’ dynasty by the usurper Jehu, when, after a period of close inter course between Israel and Judah, their two kings perished. The annals of each kingdom would naturally deal independently with these events, but the present literary structure of 1 Ki, xvii2 Ki. xi. is extremely complicated by the presence of the nary tives referred to. As regards the framework, the epitome of Ahab is preserved in xvi. 29-34 and xxii. 39; it contains some unknowm references (his ivory house and cities), and a stern religious judg ment upon his Phoenician alliance, on which the interveni chapters throw more light. The colourless summary of his som, Ahaziah (xxii. 51-53), concludes in 2 Ki. i. 17 seg. where v. 18 should precede the accession of his brother, Jehoram (v. 17b). Jehoram is again introduced in iii. 1-3 (mote the variant syr chronism), but the usual conclusion is wanting. In Judah, je

hoshaphat punishment for which the separation of the two kingdoms is Athaliah, announced; and the rise of the adversaries who, according to annalistic xi. 25, had troubled the whole of his reign, and are, therefore, not narrative.

was succeeded by his son, Jehoram, who had martial the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel (viii. 16-24); toth details (vv. 20-22) 2 Chron. xxi. 11 sqg. adds anove His son, Ahaziah (viii. 25 sqq.) is, like his father, denounced for his relations with Israel. He is again introduced in the isolated ix. 29, and Lucian’s recension adds after x. 364| variant summary of his reign but without the regular introduction Further confusion appears in the Septuagint, which inserts afte i. 18 (Jehoram of Israel) a notice corresponding to iii. 1-3,

the penalty for the sins of his old age. Both, however, form an introduction to subsequent events, and the life of Solomon concludes with a brief annalistic notice of his death, length of reign, successor, and place of burial. (See Soromon.) Ephraim and Judah.—lIn the history of the two kingdoms the redactor follows a scheme determined by the order of suc- concludes “and the anger of the Lord was kindled against th cession. The fluctuation of tradition concerning the schism is house of Ahab.” This would be appropriate in a position neart evident from a comparison with the Septuagint; and all that is ix. seg., where the deaths of Jehoram and Abaziah are described . related of Ahijah falls under suspicion of being foreign to the In 1 Ki. xx, xxii. 1-28 (xxi. follows xix. in the LXX.) Ahabi oldest history. The story of the man of God from Judah (xiii.) viewed rather more favourably than in the Elijah-narratives (x is shown to be late by its conceptions of prophetism and revela- xxi.) or in the compiler’s summary. Ch. xxii. 6, moreover, prove | tion, and by the term “cities of Samaria” (v. 32, for Samaria as that there is some exaggeration in xviii. 4, 13; the great co a province, cf. 2 Ki. xvii. 24, 26; for the building of this city by between Elijah and the king, between Yahweh and Baal, has beat | Omri see 1 Ki. xvi. 24). It is a late Judaean narrative inserted idealized. Ch. xxii. is important for its ideas of prophetism (© i

?

KINGS dally vv. 19-23; of. Ezek. xiv. 9; 2 Sam. xxiv. 1 (in contrast

o 1 Chron. xxi. 1); a gloss at the end of v. 28, omitted by the uagint, wrongly identiñes Micaiah with the well-known Micah (i. 2). Although the punishment passed upon Ahab in xxi. 20 sqq. (20b-26 betray the compiler’s hand; cf. xiv. 10 seg.) is modified

397

riah, Shallum and Menahem only the briefest records remain, now embedded in the editorial framework (xv. 8-25). The summary of Pekah (?the same as Pekahiah) contains excerpts which form the continuation of the older material in v. 25 (cf. also vv. 10, 14, 16, 19, 20). For a similar adjustment of an earlier record

to the framework, see above on 1 Ki. xv. 25-31, xvi. 8-25. Two accounts of the fall of Samaria are given, one under the reign of the contemporary Judaean Hezekiah (xvii. 1—6, xviii. g-12). Resome Elisha of stories the Of Elisha. of work the introduction to on the disappearance of the northern kingdom appear in flections 1-7), vi. 38-44, 1, (iv. gilds fnd him at the head of the prophetic in others he has friendly relations with the “king of Israel” and xvii. 7-23 and xviii. 12; the latter belongs to the Judaean history. the court. As a personage of almost superhuman dignity he moves The former is composite: xvii. 21-23 (cf. v. 18) look back to agree with ‘a certain narratives where political records appear to have been the introduction of calf-worship by Jeroboam I., and Judah and but vv. 19-20 include utilized to describe the activity of the prophets. With vi. 24—vii. the compiler’s usual standpoint; 20 (after the complete cessation of hostilities in vi. 23) compare presuppose the exile. The remaining verses survey types of idolathe general style of x Ki. xx., xxii.; with the famine in Samaria, try partly of a general kind (vv. 9-12, 16a), and partly charac(vv. 16b. 17). vi 25, cf. ibid. xvii.; with the victory, cf. ibid. xx, The account teristic of Judah in the last years of the monarchy history subsequent of in xvii. 24— the Israel brief account of The with relations friendly implies 7-15) of Elisha and Hazael (viii. settlers (v. 32Damascus (in v. 12 the terrors of war are in the future). 41 is not from one source; the piety of the new Ch, ix. 7-10 are a Deuteronomic insertion amplifying the mes- 34a, 41) conflicts with the later point of view in 34b-40. The sage in vv. 3-6 (cf. 1 Ki. xxi. 20 seg.). The oracle in ix. 25 seg. last-mentioned supplements the epilogue in xvii. 7-23, forms a is not that in x Ki. xxi. 19 seg. and mentions the additional detail solemn conclusion to the history of the northern kingdom, and is that Naboth’s sons were slain. Here his field or portion is located apparently aimed at the Samaritans. Later History of Judah—The summary of Jotham (xv. 32pear Jezreel, but in 1 Ki. xxi. 18 his vineyard is by the royal palace in Samaria (cf. xxii. 38 and contrast xxi. 1, where the 38) alludes to the hostility of Pekah (v. 37) upon which the LXX. omits reference to Jezreel). This variation reappears in 2 Israelite annals are silent. This is resumed in the account of Ki. x. 1, 11 seg., and 17; in ix. 27 compared with 2 Chron. xxii. Ahaz (xvi. 5 sgg.; v. 6 is confused), and is supplemented by a g; and in the duplication of an historical incident, viz., the war description, evidently from the Temple records, in which the against the Aramaeans at Ramoth-Gilead (a) by Jehoshaphat and ritual innovations by “King Ahaz” are described (vv. 10-18). Ahab, and (6) by Ahaziah and Jehoram, in each case with the The summary of Hezekiah (xviii. 1-8) emphasizes his important death of the Israelite king, at Samaria and Jezreel respectively religious reforms and includes two references to his military (see above, and observe the contradiction in 1 Ki. xxi. 29 and achievements. Of these v. 7 is supplemented by (a) the annalistic yrii. 38). These and other questions here are involved with (a) extract in vv. 13—16, and (b) narratives in which the great conthe probability that Elisha’s work belongs rather to the accession temporary prophet, Isaiah, is the central figure. (On these see of Jehu, with whose dynasty he was on most intimate terms until Hezexzan Isaran.) In the accounts of the reactionary kings his death some 45 years later (2 Ki. xiii. 14-21), and (0) the Manasseh and Amon, xxi. 7-15, refer to the exile and find a problem of the wars between Israel and Syria which appear to parallel in xxiii. 26 seg.; and xxi. 10 sgg. are replaced in 2 Chron. have begun only in the time of Jehu (x. 32). (See ELIJAH, xxxiii. 10-20 by a novel record of Manasseh’s penitence (see also ibid. v. 23 and note omission of 2 Ki. xxiii. 26 from Chron.). ELISHA.) Josiah’s reign forms the climax of the history. The usual Dynasty of Jehu.—There is no editorial introduction to Jehu (x. 32 sqq.). The summary mentions the beginning of the Ara- framework (xxii. 1; 2, xxiii. 28, 300) is supplemented by narramaean wars, the continuation of which is found in the redactor’s tives dealing with the Temple repairs and his reforms. These are account of his successor, Jehoahaz (xiii. 1-9). But xiii. 4—6 closely related to xi. seg. (cf. xxil. 3-7 with xii. 4 sqqg.), but have modify the disasters, and by pointing to the “saviour” or deliv- signs of revision; xxii. r6 seg., xxiii. 26 seg., point distinctly to the erer (cf. Judges iii. 9, 15) seem to anticipate xiv. 27. The self- exile, and xxiii. 16-20 are an insertion (the altar in v. 16 is already contained account of Jehoash (xiii. 10-13) is supplemented (a) destroyed in v. 15) after x1 Ki. xiii. The reforms of Josiah are by the story of the death of Elisha (vv. 14-21), who would seem described in terms that point to an acquaintance with the teaching to have flourished after the rise of Jehu and not before, and (b) of Deuteronomy which promulgates the reforms themselves. (See by some account of the Aramaean wars (vv. 22—25). Here, v. 23 DEUTERONOMY, JOSIAH.) For the last four kings of Judah, the reference to the worship is noteworthy for the sympathy towards the northern kingdom (similarly vv. 4-6). (c) The defeat of Amaziah of Judah ap- at the high places (presumably abolished by Josiah) are wanting; pears in xiv. 8—14 after the annals of Judah, although from an xxiv. 3 seq., and probably v. 2, which treat the fall of Judah as the punishment for Manasseh’s sins, are a Deuteronomic inserIsraelite source (v. 11b Bethshemesh is defined as Judaean.) In Judah Jehu’s reform and the overthrow of Jezebel (ix., tion; v. 13 seg. and v. 15 seg. are duplicates. With xxiv. 18~xxv. X. 15-28) find their counterpart in the murder of Athaliah and 21 cf. Jer. lii. 1—27 (the text of the latter, especially vv. 19 sqq., the destruction of the temple of Baal (xi. 18). The editorial is superior); and the fragments ibid. xxxix. 1~ro. Ch, xxv. 22-26 conclusion of the reign of Ahaziah, the introduction to that of appears in much fuller form in Jer. xl 7-9, xli. 1-3, 17 seg. It is Athaliah, and the sources for both are wanting. The lengthy noteworthy that Jeremiah (in contrast to Isaiah, above) does not document describing the accession of Joash and the abruptly enter into the history in Kings. The book of Chronicles in general introduced priest, Jehoiada, shows an obvious interest in the has a briefer account of the last years, and ignores both the narraTemple and temple-procedure; and both xi. and xii. resemble tives which also appear in Jeremiah and the concluding hopeful xxi. seg. Azariah (Uzziah) is briefly summarized in xv. 1-7, note struck by the restoration of Jehoiachin (xxv. 27-30). Conclusions.—It would seem that there was an independent hence the notice in xiv. 22 seems out of place; perhaps the usual statements of Amaziah’s death and burial (cf. xiv. 208, 22b), history of (north) Israel with its own chronological scheme. It Which were to be expected after v. 18, have been supplemented was based upon annals and fuller political records and at some

in v, 29, this is ignored in the account of his death, xxii. 38, which

takes place at Samaria. The ascension of Elijah (2 Ki. ii.) is the

The

period apparently passed through circles where the purely domestic stories of the prophets (Elisha) were current (cf. similarly the prophetic narratives in the books of Samuel). This was ulti-

chronological notes for the accession of Azariah imply different views of the history of Judah after the defeat of Amaziah; with

ence of the far-reaching reforms ascribed to the 18th year of

by the account of the rebellion (vv. 19, 20a, 21). Both xiv. 22

and xv. 5 presuppose fuller records of which 2 Chron. xxvi. 6-7, 16-20 may represent later and less trustworthy versions.

mately taken over by a Judaean editor who was under the influ-

in his XV. 17, cf. xiii. 1o, xiv. 2, 23, but contrast xv. 1, and again v. 8. Josiah (621 B.c.). Certain passages seem to imply that The important reign of Jeroboam II. of Israel is dismissed as time the Temple was still standing and the Davidic dynasty unbriefly as that of Azariah (xiv. 23-29). Of his successors Zecha- interrupted. On the other hand this could apply to the second

KING’S

398

BENCH—KING’S

Temples and to the resumption of the Davidic monarchy under Zerubbabel; and if the object of the compiler was to show from past history that “the sovereign is responsible for the purity of the national religion” (G. F. Moore, Ency. Bib., col. 2,079), a later date would satisfy the conditions. Moreover, although the phrase “unto this day” sometimes seems ta presuppose a pre-exilic date, it is retained even in the very late books of Chronicles (2 Chron. v. ọ, vili. 8, xxi. 10, compared with 1 Ki. viii. 8, ix. 21, 2 Ki. viii. 22). Again, not only is the history carried down to the death of Jehoiachin (2 Ki. xxv. 27, 29 sgqg.), but the chronological scheme (480 years from the beginning of the Temple to the return from Babylon) points to a date subsequent to 537. One may contrast the Israelite detailed narratives (relatively early) with those of Judaean origin (often secondary, and with an anti-Israelite bias). The sympathetic treatment of the northern history in 2 Ki. xiil. 4 seq. 23, xiv. 26, has literary parallels in the Deuteronomic redaction of Judges (where Israelite tradition is again predominant); and is quite distinct from the hostile (Judaean) feeling to the north which is also Deuteronomic. In other words, a twofold Deuteronomic redaction of Kings can be traced (similarly in the Book of Joshua); and, as the northern prophet Hosea (g.v.) approximates the Deuteronomic standpoint, it is possible that the first Deuteronomic compilation of Kings originated outside Judah. Note that an Israelite source could be drawn upon for an impartial account of Judaean history (2 Ki. xiv. 8—14), and that the book of Jeremiah, with its strong Deuteronomic colouring takes a sympathetic view of (north) Israel. Although ultimately Judaean writers rejected as heathen a people who claimed to be followers of Yahweh (Ezr. iv. 2; 2 Ki. xvii. 28, 33; contrast 2b. 34—40, a secondary insertion) the violent antiSamarian feeling had once been less prominent; and it may reasonably be supposed that relations between north and south had been closer. But the age wherein the composition of the book of Kings may be placed has been left exceptionally obscure; the Chronicler’s history (Chron.—Ezra-Nehemiah) has its own ideas of the course of events, and it has virtually superseded both Kings and Jeremiah, which now have an abrupt conclusion.

(See further: Jews.)

BrsLioGRAPHY.—Driver, Lit. of O. T. (1909), the commentaries (German) of Benzinger (1899) and Kittel (1900) ; F. C. Kent’s Israel’s Hist. and Biog. Narratives (1905); and the concise works of Barnes (Camb. Bible) and Skinner (Century Bible). On the Hebrew text consult Burney (1903); the article “Kings,” by W. R. Smith, Ency. Brit., 9th and rrth ed. (partly retained here), is revised by Kautzsch in the Ency. Biblica. (S. A.

KING’S

BENCH,

COURT

OF, is descended from the

court held coram rege when it was part of that undifferentiated Curia Regis which was still performing legislative and executive as well as judicial functions. It was a court to hear cases which concerned the king, or cases affecting great persons privileged to be tried only before the king himself. If the king was absent abroad, such cases were heard coram consilio nostro. It was also a court to correct the errors and defaults of all other courts, and

after the close of the civil wars of Henry III.’s reign was mainly

EVIL

” By the Judicature act, 1873, the court became the king’s

division of the High Court of Justice. It consists of a chief justice—now lord chief justice of England—and 18 puisne juden, Appeals from inferior courts come before a divisional court, com. posed of two or three judges of the division. For appeals fr the divisional court to the court of appeal see Practice = PROCEDURE. See Baldwin,

The

King’s Council;

vol. i.

Holdsworth,

Hist. Eng. Low, (H. H. L. B)

KINGSBRIDGE, a market town of Devonshire, Eng 48 m. S.S.W. of Exeter, on a branch of the G.W.R. Pop. of urbe

district (1931) 2,978. Kingsbridge (Kyngysbrygge) was fo

included in the manor of Churchstow, the first trace of its separate existence being found in the Hundred Roll of 1276, which reconk

that in the manor of Churchstow there is a new borough, whig

has a Friday market and a name Kingsbridge however later. Kingsbridge became the church was rebuilt and

separate assize of bread and ale,The does not appear till half a cen a separate parish before 1414 Whey consecrated to St. Edmund. In 1461

the abbot of Buckfastleigh obtained a Saturday market at Ki

bridge and a three-days’ fair at the feast of St. Margaret, bothof which are still held. The manor remained in possession of the abbot until the Dissolution, when it was granted to Sir Willi Petre. Kingsbridge was never represented in parliament or in corporated by charter, the government being by a Portreeve, and down to the present day the steward of the manor holds a com leet and court baron and appoints a portreeve and constables, Ip

1798 the town mills were converted into a woollen manufactory,

which up to recent times produced large quantities of cloth, and the serge manufacture was introduced early in the roth century,

The town has been famous from remote times for a beverage called “white ale.” Included in Kingsbridge is the little town of Dodbrooke, which at the time of the Domesday Survey had population of 42, and a flock of 108 sheep and 27 goats; andin 1257 was granted a Wednesday market and a fair at the Feast of St. Mary Magdalene. It lies 6 m. from the English Channel, at the head of an inlet, on a sharply sloping site. The church of $t. Edmund is mainly Perpendicular, but there are Transitional Norman and Early English portions.

KING’S COUNSEL, atitle conferred on barristers by Royal patent on the recommendation of the lord chancellor, the patent

of appointment being contained in the words “one of His Majesty's counsel learned in the law.” It confers certain rights of precedence.

The first such counsel was Sir Francis Bacon, appointed by Queen Elizabeth. The official costume includes a silk gown, hence the er pression to “take silk.”

KING’S COUNTY: see Orraty County. KING’S EVIDENCE, the evidence given to the Crown by an accomplice in crime upon an explicit promise of pardon. The conditions governing such evidence are subject to the discretion of the court. It is usually obtained, on application by the counsi for the prosecution, after acquittal of the person about to be examined in order that the full facts may be revealed without

occupied with the trial of criminal or quasi-criminal cases. In fear of reprisal. 1268 it obtained a chief justice of its own, but only very gradually In the United States such evidence goes under the name a did it become a separate court of common law. It still followed “State’s evidence.” This device of securing the testimony a the king whenever summoned to do so, although the presence of one criminal by a promise of immunity is in common use. Th the king in court became a fiction by the end of the rath century, promise is generally merely an agreement by the prosecuting attaduring which it lost its former close connection both with the king ney with the consent of the court to ol. pros. the case against the himself and with the king’s council. Thus it was not until a cen- testifying criminal if full disclosure be made, though the attorney tury after the court of common pleas (g.v.) had become a distinct may also agree to use his efforts to secure a pardon. court of common law that the court of king’s bench attained a KING’S EVIL, an old, but not yet obsolete, name given te similar position. It exercised a supreme and general jurisdiction, the scrofula, which in the popular estimation was deemed ca which comprised (1) criminal jurisdiction; (2) civil jurisdiction; of cure by the royal touch. The practice of “touching” for tht and (3) jurisdiction over the errors of inferior courts including scrofula, or “King’s Evil,” was confined amongst the natioss al those of the court of common pleas, until by the Act of 1830 Europe to the two Royal Houses of England and France. It cr the court of exchequer chamber became a court of appeal inter- not be traced back to an earlier date than the reign of mediate between the three common law courts and parliament. II. in England, and of St. Louis (Louis IX.) in France; cons It also heard appeals from the court of king’s bench in Ireland quently, it is believed that the performance of healing by th till 1783,-and exercised jurisdiction over officials and others by touch emanated in the first instance from the French cra means of the prerogative writs; e.g., kabeas corpus, certiorari, pro- king, whose miraculous powers were subsequently transmitted W ‘hibition, mandamus, quo warranto and ne exeat regno. his descendant and representative, Isabella of Valois, wife of

KINGSFORD—KINGSLEY ward Il. of England.

In any case, Queen Isabella’s son and heir,

ard III., claimant to the French throne by his mother, was

the first English king to order a public display of an attribute that had hitherto been associated

with the Valois kings alone.

From his reign dates the use of the “touch-piece,” a gold medal

‘ven to the sufferer as a kind of talisman, which was originally the angel coin, stamped with designs of St. Michael and of a threeed ship. gree actual ceremony seems first to have consisted of the sovereign’s personal act of washing the diseased flesh with water, but

399

Kingsley threw himself heartily into the movement known as

Christian Socialism, of which Frederick Denison Maurice was the recognized leader, and for many years he was considered as an extreme radical in a profession the traditions of which were conservative. While in this phase he wrote his novels Yeast and Alton Locke, in which he showed sympathy with the aims of the Chartists. Yet even then he considered that the true leaders of the people were a peer and a dean, and there was no real inconsistency in the fact that at a later period he was among the defenders of Governor Eyre in the measures adopted by him to put

down the Jamaican disturbances. He looked rather to the extension of the co-operative principle and to sanitary reform for the The king now merely touched his afflicted subject in the presence amelioration of the condition of the people than to any radical of the court chaplain who offered up certain prayers and after- political change. His politics might therefore have been described wards presented the touch-piece, pierced so that it might be sus- as Toryism tempered by sympathy, or as Radicalism tempered pended by a ribbon round the patient’s neck. The Hanoverian by hereditary scorn of subject races. He was bitterly opposed to kings declined to touch, and there exists no further record of any what he considered to be the mediaevalism and narrowness of the healing ceremony thenceforward at the English court. The prac- Oxford Tractarian movement. In Macmillan’s Magazine for Jan. tice, however, was continued by the exiled Stuarts, and was con- 1864 he asserted that truth for its own sake was not obligatory stantly performed in Italy by James Stuart, “the old Pretender,” with the Roman Catholic clergy, quoting as his authority John Henry Newman (g.v.). In the ensuing controversy Kingsley was and by his two sons. See A. M. Hocart, Kingship (1927). KINGSFORD, WILLIAM (1819-1898), British engineer completely discomfited. He was a broad churchman, who held and Canadian historian, was born in London on Dec. 23, 1810. what would be called a liberal theology, but the more orthodox He first studied architecture, but enlisted in the rst Dragoon and conservative elements in his character gained the upper hand Guards, from which he obtained his discharge in Canada in 1841. as time went on. As a novelist his chief power lay in his descriptive faculties. After serving in the office of the city surveyor of Montreal, he made a survey for the Lachine canal (1846-48), and was em- The descriptions of South American scenery in Westward Ho!, ployed in the building of the Hudson River railroad in 1849, and of the Egyptian desert in Hypatia, of the North Devon scenery on the Panama railroad in 1851. From 1853 to 1864 he was sur- in Two Years Ago, are among the most brilliant pieces of wordveyor, and later district superintendent, for the Grand Trunk painting in English prose-writing; and the American scenery is railroad. From 1872 to 1879 he held a Government post in charge even more vividly and more truthfully described when he had of the harbours of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence. He seen it only by the eye of his imagination than in his work At died on Sept. 28, 1898. Besides a History of Canada (10 vols., Last, which was written after he had visited the tropics. His 1887-97), ending with the union of Upper and Lower Canada sympathy for children taught him how to secure their interests. in 1841, his works include Canadian Archaeology (1886); and His version of the old Greek stories entitled The Heroes, and Water-babies and Madam How and Lady Why, in which he deals Early Bibliography of Ontario (1892). KING’S HIGHWAY, an American thoroughfare 90 m. in with natural history, rank high among books for children. In person Charles Kingsley was tall and spare, sinewy rather length extending from Plymouth, Mass., to Provincetown, in the than powerful, and of a restless excitable temperament. His comsame State. First called King’s eee, plexion was swarthy, his hair dark, and his eye bright and piercing. highway during colonial days, His temper was hot, kept under rigid control; his disposition this name was revived during the tender, gentle and loving, with flashing scorn and indignation Pilgrim Tercentenary of 1920. against all that was ignoble and impure; he was a good husband, Within sight of Cape Cod bay father and friend. One of his daughters, Mary St. Leger Kingsley and the Atlantic ocean through (Mrs. Harrison), became well known as a novelist under the much of the distance, nearly pseudonym of “Lucas Malet.” every mile contains historic landKingsley’s life was written by his widow in 1877, entitled Charles marks associated with the strug-

under Henry VII. the use of an ablution was omitted, and a regular office was drawn up for insertion in the Service Book.

gles of the hardy New England- &

es who helped

to found

the

10

15) «(20 MILES=

Union. Cape Cod, throughout which the highway passes, is a

Mecca for the tourist. Its attractions include woods, ponds, sea

views and quaint, picturesque villages, among which are Manoeh oo Barnstable, Yarmouth, Brewster, Eastham, Welleet, Orleans and Truro.

KINGSLEY, CHARLES

(1819-1875), English clergyman,

poet and novelist, was born on June 12, 1819, at Holne vicarage,

Dartmoor, Devon. His early years were spent at Barnack in the Fen country and at Clovelly in North Devon. The scenery of

both made a great impression on his mind, and was afterwards described with singular vividness in his writings. He was edu-

tated. at private schools and at King’s college, London, after his father’s promotion to the rectory of St. Luke’s, Chelsea. In 1838

he entered Magdalene College, Cambridge, and in 1842 he was

ordained to the curacy of Eversley in Hampshire, to the rectory of which he was not long afterwards presented, and this, with shortintervals, was his home for the remaining thirty-three years

of his life. In 1844 he married Fanny, daughter of Pascoe Grenfell, and in 1848 he published his first volume, The Saint’s

Kingsley, his Letters and Memoirs of his Life, and presents a very touching and beautiful picture of her husband, but perhaps hardly a justice to his humour, his wit, his overflowing vitality and boyish

un.

The following is a list of Kingsley’s writings:—Saini’s Tragedy, a drama (1848); Alton Locke, a novel (1849); Yeast, a novel (1849) ; Twenty-five Village Sermons (1849) ; Phaeton, or Loose Thoughts for Loose Thinkers (1852); Sermons on National Subjects (1st series, 1852) ; Hypatia, a novel (1853) ; Glaucus, or the Wonders of the Shore

(x85); Sermons on National Subjects (2nd series, 1854) ; Alexandria

and her Schools (1854); Westward Ho! a novel (1855) ; Sermons for the Times (1855); The Heroes, Greek fairy tales (1856) ; Two Years Ago, a novel (1857); Andromeda and other Poems (1858) ; The Good News of God, sermons (1859); Méscellanies (1859); Limits of Exact Science applied to History (Inaugural Lectures 1860); Town and Country Sermons (1861); Sermons on the Pentateuch (1863) ; Waterbabies (1863); The Roman and the Teuton (1864); David and other Sermons (1866); Hereward the Wake, a novel (1866); The Ancient Régime (Lectures at the Royal Institution, 1867) ; Water of Life and other Sermons (1867); The Hermits (1869); Madam How and Lady Why (1869); Aé last (1871); Town Geology (1872); Discipline and other Sermons (1872); Prose Idylis (1873); Plays and Puritans (1873) ; Health and Education (1874) ; Westminster Sermons (1874) ; Lectures delivered in America (1875). He was a large contributor to

Tragedy. In 1859 he became chaplain to Queen Victoria; from

periodical literature; many of his essays are included in Prose Idylls and other works in the above list. His contributions to the Christian E and Politics for the People were frequently signed “Parson

In 1873 he became a canon of Westminster. He died at Eversley 00 Jan. 23, 1875,

KINGSLEY, HENRY (1830-76), English novelist, younger brother of Charles Kingsley, was born at Barnack, Northampton-

1860 to 1869 he was professor of modern history, at Cambridge.

Of.

KINGSLEY—KING’S

4.00

REGULATIONS

shire on Jan. 2, 1830. In 1853 he left Oxford, where he was an undergraduate at Worcester college, for the Australian goldfields. This venture, however, was not a success, and after five years he returned to England. He then wrote Recollections of Geoffrey

has ranked high among English seaports from early times It is 97 m. N. by E. from London, by the L.N.E.R. On thelng side the town was formerly defended by a fosse; there are mains of the old wall, including the handsome rsth century

Hamlyn (1859), a novel of Australian life. This was the first of a

Gate.

series of novels of which Ravenshoe (1861), his best work, and The Hillyars and The Burtons (1865) are the best known. He edited for 18 months the Edinburgh Daily Review, for which he had acted as war correspondent during the Franco-German War. He died at Cuckfield, Sussex, on May 24, 1876.

calling the similar flethe of Hamburg. The Public Walks is a.Drom,

has two towers, and contains two of the finest monumental brags

See a memoir by C. K. Shorter prefixed to a reprint Kingsley’s novels.

known (dated 1349 and 1364). St. Nicholas chapel, at the north end of the town, is also Perpendicular, with a tower

KINGSLEY, MARY traveller,

ethnologist

and

HENRIETTA author,

(1894)

of

(1862-1900), English

daughter

of George

Henry

Kingsley (1827—1892), brother of Charles Kingsley (g.v.), was born in Islington, London, on Oct. 13, 1862. She studied sociology at Cambridge, and on the death of her parents she resolved to study native religion and law in West Africa. From 1893-94, she pursued her investigations at Kabinda, Old Calabar, Fernando Po, and on the Lower Congo. After a short visit to England, she returned in Dec. 1894, and, proceeding via Old Calabar to the French Congo, ascended the Ogowé river, traversing much unknown country. Returning to the coast Miss Kingsley went to Corisco and to the German colony of Cameroon, where she made

Several by-channels of the river are known as fleets, p

enade parallel to the wall. In the centre stands an oc Chapel of the Red Mount (Perpendicular), once frequented by pilgrims. The church of St. Margaret, formerly the priory church,

earlier date. All Saints’ church in South Lynn is a Decomty

cruciform structure. Of a Franciscan friary there remains th Perpendicular Grey Friars’ Steeple, and the doorway remains g a priests’ college founded in 1502. The grammar school wy

founded in the reign of Henry VIII.

The guildhall has 2 Re.

aissance front, the custom-house is of the 17th century. The fisheries are important, including extensive mussel-fisheria, |

under the jurisdiction of the corporation, and there are also, con. mills, iron and brass foundries, agricultural implement manufy. tories, ship-building yards, rope and sail works.

KING’S

MOUNTAIN,

a mountainous

ridge in Gaste

county, North Carolina, and York county, South Carolina, US4 It is an outlier of the Blue Ridge running parallel with it, ig,

the ascent of the Great Cameroon (13,760 ft.) from a direction until then unattempted. She returned to England in Oct. 1895. north-east and south-west; but in contrast with the other mom. The story of her adventures and her investigations in fetish is tains of the Blue Ridge, King’s Mountain has a crest marke with sharp and irregular notches. Its highest point and grey vividly told in her Travels in West Africa (1897). Her chief concern was for the development of the negro on escarpment are in North Carolina. About rm. S. of the li African lines and for the government of the British possessions between the two States, where the ridge is about 6oft. above th on the West Coast by methods which left the native “a free surrounding country and very narrow at the top, the battle g unsmashed man—not a whitewashed slave or an enemy.” Miss King’s Mountain was fought on Oct. 7, 1780, between a fore Kingsley made preparations for a third journey to the West of about roo Provincial Rangers and about 1,000 Loyalist militi Coast, but the Boer War changed her plans, and she went first under Maj. Patrick Ferguson, and an American force of abon to South Africa to nurse fever cases. She died of enteric fever goo backwoodsmen under Cols. Wiliam Campbell, Benjami at Simon’s Town, where she was engaged in tending Boer pris- Cleveland, Isaac Shelby, John Sevier and James Williams, i oners, on June 3, 1900. Miss Kingsley’s works, besides her which the Americans were victorious. The British loss is stated Travels, include West African Studies, The Story of West Africa, as 119 killed (including the commander), 123 wounded and 6b a memoir of her father prefixed to his Notes on Sport and Travel prisoners; the American loss was 28 killed (including Col. Wi (1899), and many contributions to the study of West African liams) and 62 wounded. The victory largely contributed to th law and folk-lore. success of General Greene’s campaign against Lord Cornwalls See a notice by George A. Macmillan prefixed to a second edition (zgor) of the Studies.

KING’S LYNN,

a town and seaport in Norfolk, England,

on the estuary of the Great Ouse near its outflow into the Wash. Pop. (1931) 20,580. As Lynn (Lun, Lenne, Bishop’s Lynn) owes its origin to the trade which was carried by the Ouse and its tributaries, its history dates from the period, of settled occupation by the Saxons. It belonged to the bishops of Thetford before the Conquest. Herbert de Losinga (c. 1054-1119) granted its jurisdiction to the cathedral of Norwich but this right was resumed by a later bishop, John de Gray, who in 1204 had obtained from John a charter establishing

Lynn as a free borough. A grant in 1206 gave the burgesses a gild merchant, the husting court to be held once a week only, and general liberties according to the customs of Oxford, saving the rights of the bishop and the earl of Arundel, whose ancestor William D’Albini had received from William IT. the moiety of the tolbooth. Henry VIII. granted Lynn two charters, the first (1524) in-

corporating it under mayor and aldermen; the second (1537) changing its name to King’s Lynn and transferring to the corporation all the rights hitherto enjoyed by the bishop. Edward VI. added the possessions of the gild of the Trinity, or gild merchant, and St. George’s gild, while Queen Mary annexed South Lynn. Admiralty rights were granted by James I. Lynn, which had declared for the crown in 1643, surrendered its privileges to Charles II. in 1684, but recovered its chartér on the eve of the Revolution. In the 18th century besides the pleasure fair, still held in February, there was another in October, now abolished. A royal charter of 1524 established the cattle, corn and general provisions market, still held every Tuesday and Saturday. Lynn

A monument erected in 1815 was replaced in 1880 by a muh larger one, and a monument for which Congress appropriated $30,000 in 1906 was completed in 1909. See L. C. Draper, King’s Mountain and its Heroes (Cincinnati

1881); Edward McCrady, South Carolina in the Revolution 177+ r780 (x901); Kathrine Keogh White, The King’s Mountain Mm (Dayton, Va., 1924).

KINGSPORT, a rapidly growing industrial city of Sulliva county, Tennessee, U.S.A., on the Holston river, in the mounta® ous north-eastern part of the State. It is on Federal highway 11, and is served by the Clinchfield railroad. The population ws 5,692 in 1920 and it had increased to 11,914 by the Federal censs

of the year 1930. It is in a rich lumbering, mining and fam ing region of beautiful scenery, and has large manufacturing indy

tries, including pulp and paper mills, book printing and bind plant, tanneries, textile mills, and plants making brick, cem, glass and chemicals. The city was planned by John Nolen, Wi out in 1916 and incorporated in 1917.

KING’S PROCTOR,

,

the proctor or solicitor representing

the Crown in the courts of probate and divorce. By the Matr

monial Causes Act of 1860 the king’s proctor may, under tl direction of the attorney-general, intervene in petitions of diver

or declarations of nullity of marriage for the purpose of provmy collusion between the parties concerned (see Drvorcé). king’s proctor may also act in an official capacity as Treas solicitor to administer the personal estate of an intestate has lapsed to the Crown. In this capacity he is responsible for enforcement of payments due to the Treasury and conducts is

legal business in general. See PROCTOR and SOLICITOR. | KING’S REGULATIONS, the regulations governing the

organization and discipline of the British navy and army, in volume form under the authority of the king.

401

KINGSTON KINGSTON, ELIZABETH, Ducuess or (1720-1788), sometimes called countess of Bristol, daughter of Colonel Thomas Chudleigh (d. 1726), was appointed maid of honour to Augusta, princess of Wales, in 1743. On Aug. 4, 1744, she was privately married to August John Hervey, afterwards 3rd earl of Bristol. Their union was kept secret to enable Elizabeth to retain her post

at court. She became the mistress of Evelyn Pierrepont, znd duke of Kingston, and was a very prominent figure in London society.

Hervey wished for a divorce from his wife; but Elizabeth was unwilling to face publicity. However she began a suit of jactitation

against Hervey, and the court in Feb. 1769 pronounced her a spinster. She married Kingston, who died four years later, leaving her all his property on condition that she remain a widow. The duchess was received with honour in Rome by Clement XIV.; after which she returned to England to defend a bigamy charge preferred against her by Kingston’s nephew, Evelyn Meadows (d. 1826). The House of Lords in 1776 found her guilty, and she hurriedly left England. She lived in Calais, St. Petersburg, Paris, Rome and elsewhere, and died in Paris on Aug. 26, 1788. The duchess was

ridiculed as Kitty Crocodile by the comedian Samuel Foote in a play A Trip to Calais, which he was not allowed to produce. See J. H. Jesse’s Memoirs of the Court of England, 1688-1760, vol.

iv. (1901). KINGSTON, WILLIAM HENRY GILES (1814-80), English novelist, son of Lucy Henry Kingston, was born in London on Feb. 28, 1814. Much of his youth was spent at Oporto, where his father was a merchant, and he entered the London ofice of the firm. He early wrote newspaper articles on Portuguese

subjects. These were translated into Portuguese, and the author

received a Portuguese order of knighthood and a pension for his services in the conclusion of the commercial treaty of 1842. In

1844 his first book, The Circassian Chief, appeared, and in 1845 The Prime Minister, a Story of the Days of the Great Marquis of Pombal. The Lusitanian Sketches describe Kingston’s travels in Portugal. In 1851 Peter the Whaler, his first book for boys, indicated his true vocation. Kingston retired from business, and within 30 years he wrote upwards of 130 tales of adventure for boys. He had a practical knowledge of seamanship, and his stories of the sea, full of thrilling adventures and hairbreadth escapes, exactly hit the taste of his boy readers. Classic examples are The Three Midshipmen (1862); The Three Lieutenants (1874); The Three Commanders (1875); and The Three Admirals (1877). He died at Willesden on Aug. 5, 1880.

KINGSTON, the chief city of Frontenac county, Ontario, Canada, at the north-eastern extremity of Lake Ontario, and the mouth of the Cataraqui River. Pop. (1931) 23,439. It is an important station on the Canadian National and Canadian Pacific railways, and has steamboat communication with other ports on Lake Ontario and the Bay of Quinte, on the St. Lawrence and the Rideau canal. It contains a stone graving dock, 280 it. long, 100 ft. wide, and with a depth of 16 ft. at low water on the sill. The fortifications, which at one time made it one of the strongest fortresses in Canada, are now out of date. The sterility of the surrounding country and the growth of railways have

lessened its commercial importance, but it still contains a number of small factories and important locomotive works

and ship-

building yards. As an educational and residential centre it re-

tams high rank, and it is a popular summer resort. It is the seat of an Anglican and of a Roman Catholic bishopric, of the Royal Military College (founded by the Dominion government

in 1875), of an artillery school, and of Queen’s University, an

institution founded in 1839 under the nominal control of the Presbyterian ‘church, including (1925-26) about 3,219 students.

In the suburbs are a Dominion penitentiary and a provincial

lunatic asylum. Founded Ly the French in 1673, under the name Kateracoui, soon changed to Fort Frontenac, it played an important part in the wars between English and French. Taken

and destroyed by the English in 1758, it was refounded in 1782 under its present name, and was from 1841 to 1844 the capital

York city; the county seat of Ulster county and the first capital of the State. It is served by the New York, Ontario and Western, the Ulster and Delaware, and the West Shore railways, and by river steamers. The population in 1930 was 28,088. It is in the midst of beautiful mountain scenery: the Catskills to the northwest, the Shawangunk mountains to the south-west, and the Berkshires in the distance across the river. The immense Ashokan reservoir (with a shore-line of 40m.) of the New York city watersupply system is 6m. W. The city has railroad repair shops, shirt and cigar factories, and many brick yards. The diversified products of its many factories were valued in 1927 at $15,695,336. In 1614 a small fort was built by the Dutch at the mouth of the Rondout, and in 1652 a settlement was made near by, which was abandoned after three or four years because of threatened attacks from the Indians. In 1658 a stockade was built by order of Gov. Peter Stuyvesant, who in 1661 named the place Wiltwyck and gave it a municipal charter. In 1663 it was burned by the Indians, and most of the inhabitants were massacred or taken captive. The English took possession in 1664, naming it Kingston (1669) after Kingston Lisle, the family seat of Gov. Francis Lovelace. In 1673-1734 it was again under the Dutch, who called it Swanenburg. The convention which drafted the first State constitution met in Kingston in 1777; and here the constitution was adopted (April 20), Gov. Clinton was inaugurated (July 30), John Jay held the first term of the New York supreme court, and the New York council of safety met. The low stone building (erected about 1676) where the first state senate met, is now the property of the State, and houses a colonial museum. On October 16, 1777, the town was sacked and burned by the British under

Gen. Sir John Vaughan.

Kingston was one of the places con~

sidered in 1787 for the site of the national capital. It was incorporated as a village in 1805 and chartered as a city in 1872.

KINGSTON, a borough of Luzerne county, Pa., U.S.A., on

the Susquehanna river, opposite Wilkes-Barre. It is served by the Central of New Jersey, the Lackawanna and the Lehigh Valley railways. The population was 8,952 in 1920 (20% foreign-born white) and was 21,600, 1930, by the Federal census. Anthracitemining is the dominant industry, and there are railway repair shops and factories making silk, hosiery, underwear and adding machines. In the early days Kingston (or Kingstown, from Kings Towne, R.I.) was commonly known as the “Forty Township,” because the first permanent settlement was made by 40 pioneers from Connecticut, sent out by the Susquehanna company in 1769. In 1772 the famous stockade called “Forty Fort” was built here, and in 1777 it was enlarged and strengthened. Here on July 3, 1778, gathered 400 men and boys who went out under the command of Col. Zebulon Butler (1731-95) to meet a force of 1,100 British troops and Indians, commanded by Major John Butler and Old King (Sayenqueraghte)}. The Americans were defeated in the engagement that followed, and many of those captured were massacred or tortured by the Indians. A monument has

been erected near the site of the fort. (See WyomInc VALLEY.) Kingston was incorporated as a borough in 1857.

KINGSTON,

the capital and chief port of Jamaica, West

Indies. Pop. (1921) 62,560, mostly negroes. It is situated on the south of the island, near the eastern end, fronting a splendid landlocked harbour. Area, with suburbs 1,080 acres. The town has a good modern equipment including electric trams. The Institute of Jamaica maintains a public library, museum and art gallery especially devoted to local interests. The old parish church in King Street, dating probably from 1692, was the burial-place of Admiral Benbow (1702). The suburbs are remarkable for their beauty. The climate is dry and healthy; the temperature ranges from 93° to 66° F. Kingston was founded in 1693, after the town of Port Royal at the harbour mouth had been ruined by an earthquake in 1692. In 1703, Port Royal having been again laid waste by fire, Kingston became the commercial, and in 1872 the political, capital of the island, superseding Spanish Town. On several occasions Kingston has been almost entirely consumed by fire, the conflagrations of 1780, 1843, 1862 and 1882 being particularly

of Canada, KINGSTON, a city of New York, U.S.A., on the W. bank of severe. On Jan. 14, 1907, it was wrecked by a violent earthquake Hudson, at the mouth of Rondout creek, gom. N. of New A long immunity had led to the erection of many buildings not

4.02

KINGSTON-ON-THAMES—KING

specially designed and practically the whole town had to be rebuilt. In 1923 Kingston and the adjacent Parish of St. Andrew were incorporated under a joint mayor and council which administers all municipal services. (See JAMAICA.)

KINGSTON-ON-THAMES,

a town and borough in Sur-

rey, England, rı m. S.W. of Charing Cross, London; on the S.R. Pop. (1931) 39,052. The position of Kingston on the Thames where it was fordable accounts for its origin; its later prosperity was due to the bridge which existed in 1223 and possibly long before. In 836 or 838 it was the meeting-place of the council under Ecgbert, and in the roth century some if not all of the West Saxon kings were crowned at Kingston. In Edward the Confessor’s time it was a royal manor, and in 1086 included a church, five mills and three fisheries. Domesday also mentions bedels in Kingston.

The original charters were granted by John

in 1200 and 1209. Henry III. sanctioned the gild-merchant which had existed previously, and granted other privileges. Henry VI. incorporated the town. The market, still held on Saturdays, was granted by James I., and the Wednesday market by Charles II. To these a cattle-market on Thursdays has been added by the corporation. The only remaining fair, now held on Nov. 13, was granted by Henry III. It is near Richmond and Bushey Parks, and is a residential district. The ancient wooden bridge (1223) was superseded by a structure of stone in 1827. The parish church of All Saints, mainly Perpendicular, contains several brasses of the rsth century, and monuments by Chantrey and others; the grammar school, rebuilt in 1878, was originally founded as a chantry by Edward Lovekyn in 1305, and converted into a school by Queen Elizabeth. Near the parish church stood the chapel of St. Mary, where the Saxon kings were crowned. The ancient stone used as a throne at these coronations was removed to the market-place in 1850. There are large market gardens in the neighbourhood, and the town possesses oil-mills, flour-mills, iron foundries. Its industries include paper making and stationery, and manufacture of machinery. Kingston returns one member to parliament. j KINGSTON-UPON-HULL, EARLS AND DUKES

OF.

These titles were borne by the family of Pierrepont, or

Pierrepoint, from 1628 to 1773. ROBERT PIERREPONT (1584-1643), second son of Sir Henry Pierrepont of Holme Pierrepont, Nottinghamshire, was M.P. for Nottingham in 1601, and was created Baron Pierrepont and Viscount Newark in 1627, being made earl of Kingston-upon-Hull in the following year. He remained neutral on the outbreak of the Civil War; but afterwards he joined the king, and was appointed lieutenant-general of the eastern counties. Whilst defending Gainsborough he was taken prisoner, and was accidentally killed on July 25, 1643, while being conveyed to Hull. The earl had five sons, one of whom was Francis Pierrepont (d. 1659), a colonel in the parliamentary army and afterwards a member of the Long Parliament; and another was William Pierrepont, a leading member of the parliamentary party. His son HENRY PIERREPONT (1606-1680), 2nd earl of Kingston and. 1st marquess of Dorchester, represented Charles I. during the negotiations at Uxbridge. In 1645 he was made a privy councillor and created marquess of Dorchester; but in 1647 he compounded for his estates by paying a large fine to the parliamentarians. After the Restoration he was restored to the privy council, and was made recorder of Nottingham and a fellow of the Royal Society. The title of marquess of Dorchester became extinct at his death on Dec. 8, 1680. He was succeeded as 3rd

earl of Kingston by Robert (d. 1682), a.son of Robert Pierrepont of Thoresby, Nottinghamshire, and as 4th earl by Robert’s brother William (d. 1690). Evetyn Prerreront (c. 1655-1726), sth earl and ist duke of Kingston, another brother, had been member of parliament for East Retford before his accession to the peerage. He was made a privy councillor and in 1715 was created duke of Kingston; afterwards serving as lord privy seal and lord president of the council. The duke, who died on March 5, 1726, was a prominent figure in society. He was twice married, and had five daughters, among whom was Lady Mary Wortley Montagu (g.v.}, and one

WILLIAM’S

TOWN

son, William, earl of Kingston (d. 1713). The latter’s son, EVELYN PIERREPONT (1711—1773), SUCCeeded

his grandfather as second duke of Kingston.

When the rebelii

of 1745 broke out he raised a regiment called “Kingston’s light horse,” which distinguished itself at Culloden. The duke Why attained the rank of general in the army, is chiefly famous for his connection with Elizabeth Kingston (g.v.), who claimed to be duchess of Kingston. The Kingston titles became extinct Onthe duke’s death without children on Sept. 23, 1773. See R. B. Moffat, Pierrepont Genealogies (1913).

KINGSTOWN

(Down LaocHarre), a seaport of Co. Duty

Ireland, at the south-eastern extremity of Dublin Bay, 6m 5 p from Dublin by rail. Pop. of urban district (1926) 18,992, The

original name

of Kingstown

was Dunleary,

which was ¢

after the embarkation of George IV. at the port in 182r, The

town was a fishing village before the construction of an extensive harbour, begun in 1817 and completed in 1859. The easter pier

has a length of 3,500 ft, and the western of 4,950 ft., the total area enclosed being about 250 ac., with a varying depth of frog 1o to 28 feet.

Kingstown is the station of the mail steamers ig

Holyhead in connection with the L.M.S.R.

The principal export

is cattle, and the principal imports corn and provisions. Kings town is the centre of an extensive sea-fishery.

KINGSVILLE, a town of southern Texas, U.S.A., 42m. SW.

of Corpus Christi, served by the Missouri Pacific railway. The

population was

6,815 in 1930. There are oil and gas fields nox

by. The town ships cotton, corn, fruits, vegetables and cattle, and has cotton-seed oil and cotton mills, railroad car shops ani other manufacturing industries. It is the seat of the South tem State Teachers college.

KING-TE-CHEN,

an historic centre of porcelain manufs.

ture in China. It lies in north-east Kiangsi at the mouth of a valley rising across the Anhwei border and from the upper reaches of which King-te-chen draws its supplies of clay an

kaolin.

There

are workable

coal-beds in the vicinity of th

town. The industry had its beginnings as far back as the Chen dynasty (A.D. 557—587) and early in the eleventh century curing the reign of King Te of the Sung dynasty it began to make pore. lain for Imperial use. The town then adopted the name of th Emperor. Since the T’aiping rebellion of the mid-nineteenth century the industry has declined somewhat in importance and its staple product has become rice bowls in place of fine porcelain KINGUSSIE, police burgh, Inverness-shire, Scotland. Pop (1931) 1,067. It lies at a height of 750 ft. above sea-level, on the left bank of the Spey, here crossed by a bridge, 464 m. S. by SE

of Inverness by the L.M.S. railway. It was founded towards tle end of the 18th century by the duke of Gordon, in the hope of ks becoming a centre of woollen manufactures. This expectation ws not realized, but in time the place grew popular as a health reson,

the surrounding scenery being beautiful. On the right bank of th river is Ruthven,

where James Macpherson was born in 1736

KING WILLIAM?’S TOWN is situated 1,314 feet above su level on the Buffalo River, South Africa, 42 m. by rail WNW,d

East London. In 1921 the population consisted of 2,875 natives 68 Asiatics, 778 coloured, etc., and 5,928 whites. The latter bal increased by 1926 to 6,444. “King,” as the town is locally called stands 1,275 ft. above the sea at the foot of the Amatola Mom tains, and in the midst of a thickly populated agricultural distad. The town is well laid out and most of the public buildings am merchants’ stores are built of stone. There are manufactoriesd sweets and jams, candles, soap, matches and leather, and alarge trade in wool, hides and grains is done with East London. “Kisy’ is also an important entrepôt for trade with the natives through |

standin hei an SAS, aR Wn enh

out Kaffraria, with which there is direct railway communicatie Founded by Sir Benjamin D’Urban in May 1835 during th

Kaffir War of that year, the town is named after William IV. E was abandoned in December 1836, but was reoccupied in18 and was the capital of British Kaffraria from its creation in 18# to its incorporation in 1865 with Cape Colony. Many ofte colonists in the neighbouring districts are descendants of mèè bers of the German legion disbanded after the Crimean War:

provided with homes

in Cape Colony;

hence such name 8

4

t

KINKAJOU—KINSHIP Berlin, Potsdam, Braunschweig, Frankfurt, given to settlements iq this part of the country.

KINKAJ OU (Cercoleptes caudivolvulus), the single species of an aberrant genus of the raccoon family (Procyonidae). A

native of the forests of the warmer parts of South and Central

403

stone age. In the east are the Lomond hills and in the south Benarty and the Cleish hills, where hard caps of intensive basalt have preserved the soft sandstones and marls of the upper old red sandstone which have been denuded to a lower level in the central lowland or plain of Kinross. Gravel, sand and other glacial de-

America, the kinkajou is about the size of a cat, of a uniform tritus overlie wide areas. The lowland borders Loch Leven (g.v.), _ yellowish-brown colour, nocturnal and arboreal in habits, which is less noted for scenic beauty than for its historical assofeeding on fruit, honey, eggs and small birds and mammals. It ciations and trout fishing. On the river Devon, which forms part of the boundary with Perthshire, there is beautiful scenery, nois often tamed as a pet. (See CARNIVORA.) KINKEL, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1815-1882), German tably at the gorge of the Devil’s Mill, at Rumbling Bridge (where t, was born on Aug. 11, 1815 at Obercassel, and in 1846 became actually one bridge surmounts another of earlier date), and at

extraordinary professor of art at Bonn. He had already published his Gedichte (1843), and his prettily told verse tale, Otto der Schütz, eine rheinische Geschichte in swolf Abenteueren (1846;

Caldron Linn. The parishes of Kinross and Orwell, previously part of Fife, seem to have been constituted a shire about the middle of the 13th century. At the date of Edward I.’s ordinance for the

of 1848, he was sentenced to imprisonment for life but escaped

government of Scotland (1305) this shire had become an hereditary sheriffdom, John of Kinross then being named for the office. Close to the town of Kinross, on the margin of Loch Leven, stands Kinross house, built in 1685 by Sir William Bruce for the duke of

asth ed. 1896). Captured fighting in the revolutionary outbreak

from Spandau in 1850. He spent some time in the United States, and in England, until 1866, when he became a professor at Zurich. There he died on Nov. 13, 1882. His works include an yofinished lyric-epic cycle, Der Grobschmied von Antwerpen

York (James II.) in case the Exclusion bill should debar him from the throne of England, but the mansion, however, never was occupied by royalty. See A. Strodtmann, Gottfried Kinkel (2 vols, Hamburg, 1851); and O. Henne am Rhyn, G. Kinkel, ein Lebensbild (Ziirich, 1883). More than half of the holdings exceed 50 ac. each. Much of KINNOR, the Hebrew name for an ancient stringed instru- the land has been reclaimed. Oats are the principal crop and ment, the first mentioned in the Bible (Gen. iv. 21), where it is wheat is grown. Turnips and potatoes are the chief green crops. now always translated “harp.” The identification of the instru- The raising of livestock is widely pursued. Many cattle are pasment has been much discussed, but the weight of evidence sup- tured on the lowland farms. The number of sheep is high for the ports the view that the Semitic kinnor is the Greek cithara (q.v.). area. Tartans, plaids, and other woollens, and linen are manuKINO, an astringent drug obtained from East India, Malabar, factured at Kinross and Milnathort (a centre for livestock sales). or Amboyna. It is the evaporated juice flowing from incisions in The L.N.E. railway runs through the county via Kinross with a the trunk of Pterocarpus Marsupium, a tree of the family Legu- branch line from Mawcarse Junction. The population was 7,454 in 1931. The only town, Kinross, had minosae, though Botany Bay or eucalyptus kino is used in Australia. When exuding from the tree it resembles red-currant a pop. in 1931 of 2,525. Kinross is the county town and of conjelly, but hardens in a few hours after exposure to the air and siderable antiquity. The county unites with Perthshire to return sun and breaks up into angular, brittle fragments of a blackish-red two members to parliament. It forms a sheriffdom with Fifecolour and shining surface. In cold water it is only partially shire and a sheriff-substitute sits at Kinross. KINSALE, a market town and seaport of Co. Cork, Ireland, dissolved, leaving a pale flocculent residue which is soluble in boiling water but deposited again on cooling. It is soluble in alco- on the east shore of Kinsale Harbour (the estuary of the Bandon river) 24 m. south of Cork by rail. Pop. of urban district (1926) hol and caustic alkalis, but not in ether. The chief constituent is kino-tannic acid (about 75%). It is 2,881. Kinsale is said to derive its name from cean tatle, the not absorbed at all from the stomach and only very slowly from headland in the sea. At an early period the town belonged to the the intestine. Other constituents are gum, pyrocatechin, and ki- De Courcys, a representative of whom was created baron of Kinnoin, a crystalline neutral principle. Kino-red is also present in sale or Kingsale in 1181. It received a charter of incorporation small quantity, being an oxidation product of kino-tannic acid. from Edward III., having previously been a borough by prescripThe drug is frequently used in diarrhoea, its value being due to tion. It was the scene of an engagement between the French and the relative insolubility of kino-tannic acid, which enables it to English fleets in 1380, was forcibly entered by the English in 1488, affect the lower part of the intestine. In this respect it is parallel captured by the Spaniards and retaken by the English in 1601, and entered by the English in 1641, who expelled the Irish inhabiwith catechu. KINORHYNCHA, an isolated group of minute animals tants. It was the scene of the landing of James II. and of the containing the single genus Echinoderes, with some 18 species. French army sent to his assistance in 1689, and was taken by the English in the following year. The Charles Fort was completed They occur in mud and on seain 1677 and captured by the earl of Marlborough in 1690, The weeds at the bottom of shallow parish church of St. Multose is said to have been founded as a seas below low-water mark, and conventual church in the r2th century. Kinsale, with the neighdevour organic debris. The body bouring villages of Scilly and Cove, is much frequented by sumis enclosed in a stout cuticle, promer visitors, and is the headquarters of the South of Ireland Fishlonged in places into spines and ing Company, with a fishery pier and a harbour with a depth at bristles. These are especially conthe pier of 20 ft. at spring tide, at the quay 14 ft., while at neap spicuous in two rings round the tide both have 9 ft. of water; but the general trade ts of little proboscis and in the two posteimportance owing to the proximity of Queenstown and Cork. mor caudal spines. The body is KINSHIP. I. Kinship in Human Culture.—Birth, suckling divided into 11 segments and the

(1868), and a history of Christian art (1845).

ee

proboscis

Into

twO.

FROM

HARTOG,

“CAMBRIDGE

NATURAL

HIS-

m cna Consists Of KINORHYNCHA (ECRINODERES SP), :

i

intestine. The sexes are separate.

KINROSS-SHIRE,

TORY”

Brgy

(MACMILLAN LTD.)

meee

cere

county of Scotland, bounded on the

north and west by Perthshire, on the south-west by Clackmannan-

shire, and on the south and east by Fife; area (excluding water) 'f $2392 acres, Excepting Clackmannanshire it is the smallest ft

county in Scotland in point both of area and of population. In the

| worth and

| fisting of

west it includes several summits of the Ochil hills, con-

volcanic lava and agglomerates of lower old red sand-

and the tender cares bestowed by the parents on their offspring

establish bonds of union between the members of a family, both in human and in animal societies. The devotion of the suckling mother is not an exclusively human virtue; the watchful and protecting father is to be found among many species of birds and mammals; and the pathetic response of the young to their parents

moves the heart of the animal lover as well as of the philanthropist. With many animals, kinship, the protective sentiment of the parents, and the child’s response to it, constitute part of the innate endowment indispensable for the survival of the species. With man, however, we find physiological kinship deeply modi-

404.

KINSHIP

fied and grown into what is perhaps the most important social institution of mankind. Kinship controls family life, law, social organization and economics, and it deeply influences religion, morality and art. With us the parental relation figures in the ten commandments; maternal love remains the symbol and prototype of many moral virtues; the relations within the Trinity, the obligations between man and his Maker, and those of Christian to Christian are conceived in terms of kinship—Son to Father; child to One addressed as “our Father which art in heaven”; brother to brother. In other societies, the cult of a Mother Goddess, or again ancestor-worship, or kinship with animals or spirits give the dominant tone to religion, morality and art, and directly influence law, social organization and economics. Every human culture is built upon its own system of kinship, that is, upon a special type of personal bonds primarily derived from procreation and family life. Without a deeper understanding of kinship it is impossible to grasp the organization, the modes of thought and the general character of human civilization from its humblest origins to its

vice of method or insufficiency of material. It often happens jp science that the seemingly simplest and most fundamental lems are really the most difficult and remain longest debated and unsettled. As the physicists cannot make up their mings Py matter, force or energy, as the chemists change their views Onthe atom and the elements, as the mathematicians are least certai about space, time and numbers, so the social anthropologists

highest development.

recognition of the father’s primary importance in establish descent; nor is his right to exercise authority or to hand over hs position, wealth and privileges to his son universal. In many sed. eties the mother is the parent through whom kinship is counted her brother is the male head of the family and inheritance of goods, succession of office and all rights, obligations and privileges are passed from a man to his sister’s children.

:

II. The Family as the Source of Kinship.—At first sight kinship, the bonds of union between parents and children and between more remote relatives, appear to be simple enough: the

typical family (q.v.), a group consisting of mother, father and their progeny, is found in all communities, savage, barbarous and civilized; everywhere it plays an important rôle and influences the whole extent of social organization and culture. Indeed it seems hardly to differ at all from its modern, civilized counterpart, as we know it from our own experience. Among native tribes mother, father and children share the camp, the dwelling, the food and the life. The intimacy of family existence, the daily round of meals, the domestic occupations and outdoor work, the rest at night and the awakening to a new day, run in both civilized and savage societies on strictly parallel lines, allowing for the difference in levels of culture. The members of the household are as a rule as closely bound together in a native tribe as they are in a European society, attached to each other, sharing

life and most of its interests, exchanging counsel and help, company, cheer and economic co-operation. The same bonds unite them as unite our family, the same distances and barriers separate

them from other households. In Australia, as well as among most North American Indians, in Oceania and in Asia, among the African tribes and in South America, the individual undivided family stands out conspicuous, a definite social unit marked off from the rest of society by a clear line of division. It would be easy to illustrate this picture by a host of actual descriptions. In no ethnographic area is the family absent as a domestic institution. Putting these facts together with our childhood’s vision of the first marriage—Adam and Eve in paradise— with the patriarchal traditions of the Bible and of classical antiquity, with the early sociological theories from Aristotle onwards, we might conclude with Sir Henry Maine that it would be impossible to imagine any form of social organization at the beginning of human culture, but that of the patriarchal family. And we might ‘be led to assume that our own type of family is to be found wherever we go, and that kinship is built on the same pattern in every part of the world. III. The Controversy on Kinship.—The layman is therefore not unjustifiably taken aback, when on opening a modern scientific book on primitive society, he finds himself confronted by extreme dissension and acrimonious controversy about the very subject on which he expected a simple statement of obvious fact. Broadly speaking, anthropologists are divided on the questions: does the essential unit consist of the family, or of a wider group, such as the clan, the horde, the “undivided commune”; was marriage between single pairs present from the outset or did it evolve from a preceding promiscuity or group marriage; was human kinship originally individual or communistic? One school stands by

individual marriage and kinship, and the importance of the family, the other affirms an original communism

in sex, economics and

kinship—and the two schools are still disputing the issue. This great anthropological rift, however, is not due merely to

be forgiven if they still debate, at times hotly, kinship—that ception in which centre all their other problems and ideas. IV. Modes of Counting Descent.—Kinship, indeed, apparently simple when regarded as ties of union arising within the

family out of procreation and the rearing of the young, becomy | far more complex when we study it in its further ramifications{q` tribal life. Qn one point of great importance a correction has

be made in the traditional view that had undivided sway, befor

Bachofen, McLennan and Morgan revolutionised social anthro pology during the latter half of the 19th century. Kinship5 by no means invariably patriarchal; it is not always based on th,

This legal system is called mother-right

(see Marrtarcny),

or more correctly matriliny; and the relation between a man ang his sister’s son, avunculate (q.v.). The circumstance that ky

ship can be traced through both father and mother has bem termed (by Lowie) “the bilateral principle of counting descent”: while the almost universal fact that in any given culture empha sis is laid upon one side only has been defined as the wunilaterg

mode of regarding kinship.

The bilateral aspect of kinship į

never completely obliterated and unilateral counting only meam more or less limited emphasis on one side and never a compkte elimination of the other. ' -> V. The Hypertrophy of Primitive Bonds.—Another featwe which makes kinship in many a native culture very different from our own is its extraordinary hypertrophy: it transcends the limits of the family, of the local group, at times even of the widest circle of acquaintances. Perhaps the most baffling and disquieting symptom of these cok lective aspects of kinship is the queer linguistic usage known s the “classificatory” system of kinship nomenclature. In mes savage tongues a man applies such terms as father, mother. brother, sister and so on, not only to the members of his family but, according to rules which vary with the social organization. to classes of people who stand in a definite relation to his paremts In some communities, indeed, for example in Australia, kinship terms go as far as actual social relations and even beyond—tht | is, even distant strangers never met or seen are regarded as potet | | tially belonging to one class of kindred or another. Thus language and linguistic usage seem apparently to break !

the bonds of family, to obliterate parenthood by substituting # ! “sroup of fathers” for the individual one, a “group of mother |

for the real mother, and so on. Nor is this usage a mere ruleof i

politeness: the “classificatory?” terms are applied according 8

i ij

strict rules, to a number of people, whose relationship is tra by pedigree or by membership in a clan or class. Behind the linguistic usage there is always a set of mutual obligations betwee an individual and all those whom he calls “fathers,” “mothers, “brothers,” etc. The “fathers” or “brothers” act as a group@ certain occasions and they are therefore a well-defined social clas and not merely a name.

VI. Clans, Moieties and Classes of Relatives—Thus i

classificatory use of kinship terms is not alone in grouping into classes of kindred. The majority of native tribes are act

divided not only into families, but into bigger groups, which ya

possess to a certain extent a kinship character. areas, the tribe falls into two halves or moieties.

Thus m ¢ Each ofihes

has its name, its collective sense of unity, usually a special

the perversity and pugnacity of specialists, nor to any inherent | defining its character and its relation to the other moiety.

4.05

KINSHIP division of certain Australian tribes into the moieties of Eagle-

hawk and Crow and the bi-partition of the eastern North American Indians are classical examples of this division. Usually this

halving of the tribe is associated with strict prohibitions of mar-

riage within the same moiety, so that a man of the first must

a woman of the second and vice versa. (See DUAL ORGANIzation.) In other tribes there are four clans or classes, in others

again eight, these sections regulating marriage and playing a con-

spicuous part in ceremonial and economic life. Crasses.)

(See MARRIAGE

Among the majority of peoples, however, there is an

odd number of clans which cannot be brought under the dual or any other numeric principle.

What makes it difficult to understand these modes of grouping is precisely their kinship character. The members of a clan regard themselves as kindred, trace their descent from a common ancestor, conceive of their exogamous prohibitions as of a variety or extension of incest, and, under certain conditions behave to each other like kinsmen. Thus there exist tribes where an individual really seems to acknowledge many “fathers,” many “mothers,” “sisters,” “wives,” and so on.

And yet in every such case, the man also possesses

one real or own relative, a father, a few own brothers and own sisters and certainly an individual mother.

VII. The Hypotheses of Group Marriage and Group Kinship.—As to the fathers, a plausible hypothesis suggests that their plurality might be perhaps due to uncertainty of fatherhood under a system of primitive group marriage. Was not marriage originally promiscuous, communal, between two groups rather than between two individuals? Was not therefore Kinship, derived from such group-marriage, originally group-kinship? Is not the classifica-

tory use of kinship terms partly the expression of such groupfamily relations as they still persist, partly the survival of a more

definitely communistic kinship of primeval times?

And we see

how a plausible reasoning has led many an anthropologist—from Morgan to Rivers, from McLennan to Frazer, from Bachofen to

Sydney Hartland—to the theory of a primitive group-marriage and group-family, and to the assumption that primitive kinship was a class kinship, between groups and not between individuals. On the other hand this position has been vehemently disputed by the other school, who cannot reconcile it with the supreme importance of the family, with the apparently primeval nature of marriage between single pairs and with the individuality of Motherhood. By Darwin as well as by Westermarck, by Andrew Lang and by Crawley almost every assumption of the groupkinship school has been disputed, while recently Lowie and Malinowski have tried to show by the analysis of actual facts that the family is after all the foundation of all social order. VIII. Individual and Collective Kinship.—The problem has been undoubtedly vitiated by the uncompromising championship of the clan versus the family, primitive monogamy versus group-marriage, individual relations versus clanship. The question

confusion. Thus in technology we frequently find that the same word is used to designate the natural objects from which the material is taken, the material in its raw form, the various stages of manufacture,

and finally the finished object.

In Melanesia,

for instance, the same term waga describes a tree as it stands in the forest, its felled and lopped trunk, the dug-out in its various stages, and the finished canoe.

Similarly such words as “magical

power” (mana, wakan, orenda, etc.), “prohibition” (zabu), and what not, cover a great variety of meanings. The first thing to ask then about kinship terms is, whether they really “confuse,” “merge” or “lump” the various relatives designated by the same term, or whether on the contrary each time they are used, they receive a distinct meaning, that is, refer to one individual only? As a matter of fact, in actual use kinship terms have always a distinct and concrete meaning and there never is any doubt in the mind of the speaker or hearers as to who is designated in each case. The emotional tone in the first place usually indicates whether a word such as Mother, Father, Son, Daughter, Brother, Sister, is used towards or about “own” relatives, or merely “‘classificatory” ones. And emotional intonation is an important part of phonetic equipment. In the second place, there is always an additional apparatus of adjectives, suffixes and other circumlocutions which make it possible to specify whether the actual mother is meant or her sister, or yet another of those whom the classificatory term “mother” embraces. Recently, in Spencer and Gillen’s new book (The Arunta, 1928) we are given a very rich auxiliary terminology of this kind, which proves that even in that stronghold of classificatory kinship, Central Australia, there exist highly developed linguistic means for differentiating individuals within each class. Finally we have the context of situation and narrative, the most powerful index of semantic discrimination of meaning in primitive languages. Thus in reality each so called classificatory term is a class label for a number of distinct words, every one of

which has its own specific individual meaning. These individual words are in actual use differentiated from each other phonetically, by the index of emotional tone; lexicographically by the index of circumlocution; contextually by the index of situation. The individual meanings are moreover not built up in a haphazard manner; they are related to each other; they start with a main or primary reference; which then through successive extensions engenders a series of derived meanings. X. The Initial Situation of Kinship.—What is throughout humanity the initial situation of kinship in which the primary meanings of the terms are formed; and above all is that initial situation individual or collective? Does the child form its kinship meaning on one set of parents, one Mother and one Father, or is it surrounded—at the time when its first sociological categories are being shaped—by a group-family, by classes of Mothers and Fathers? This as we know (cf. above, IIT.) is the point at issue, and apparently the answer seems to frame itself according as we approach facts from the side of maternity or paternity (cf.

is not whether Kinship is individual or communal—it evidently is hoth—but what is the relation between its two aspects? It is above, VII.). A deeper sociological analysis shows however that the problem an undeniable fact that the family is universal and sociologically more important than the clan which, in the evolution of humanity,

it preceded and outlasted. But the clan is in certain communities extremely vital and effective. What is the relation between them? Individual legal prerogatives and self-interest are always predominant, but corporate feeling, co-operation, joint ownership and joint responsibility are important elements in primitive justice and legal organisation. All these bonds and relations, individual as well as communal, are founded on kinship and the sense of kin-

ship. The real task of the enlightened anthropologist is not to join

tither “school” in denying or belittling one side of kinship or the other, but to establish the relation between the two sides. IX. The Variety of Meanings in each Classificatory Term.

~The traditional approach to the problem, since Morgan, has through language. The classificatory character of the terms made a. great. impression upon anthropologists (cf. above, V.)—but they failed to analyse it linguistically! Now in all human languages we find homonyms, that is, words with a variety of meanings, and

_ ® primitive languages such words abound and do not cause any

of Maternity and that of Paternity are not so different.

XI. Biological and Sociological Parentage.—Biological factors, though important, are not, however, in human societies the omnipotent, exclusively determining element, which they apparently are in animal ones (cf. I.). Legal rules, social institutions, moral and religious doctrines and practices deeply modify the ideas, sentiments and the behaviour of man. Kinship which in its final form, is a product of the institutions and doctrines of a society is always shaped by laws and normative ideas.

Indeed

there is no reason why the transformation should not go so far that the sentimental and legal bond between a child and its mother should not become collective instead of individual. Indeed a brilliant anthropologist (Rivers) has recently propounded the

hypothesis of a sociological “group motherhood” as a correlate to “group marriage” and “group fatherhood” and this hypothesis has been made one of the foundation stones in a new matriarchal

theory of primitive culture. (The Mothers by Briffault, 1927.) Thus both maternity and paternity are partly based on bio-

406

KINSHIP

logical arrangements of the human organism and innate mental | various social, magical and moral rules separate the mother from

tendencies, and both are deeply modified by social institutions , her husband and isolate her with her child. The few femab and norms. In both, the facts must be examined carefully; neither relatives who often assist her are her nearest individual king a mere zoological induction, nor plausibly brilliant hypotheses women. There is no transformation of an individual birth into 3 about the omnipotence of society can yield a satisfactory answer. : group PE ree eae ae on the sha ther XII. Sex and the Uncertainty of Fatherhood.—It will be is a social imposition of individual burdens, responsibilities ang best in fact to discuss maternity and paternity together. The two | sentiments upon the real mother. The father, though very much sides of parenthood are linked by sexual life. The laxity of sav- | in the shadow, participates through customs of the couvade (ga. ages has been given a great and undue prominence in discussions | type, vigils and tabus in his wife’s confinement, and this he alse

on kinship. Wherever sexual relations occur between two groups, | does individually, as in the Pirrauru custom of Central Australia and sporadically; XV. No Group Parenthood.—The

ideas and

in Siberia and Melanesia; or are merely allowed as between mar- | which control conception, pregnancy and birth, show institution that these riage classes and clans, some anthropologists are inclined to speak | cannot be regarded by the anthropologist as mere physiological

at “a au sating aoran be sorgi AR that auer im-

i a as

he oe EE

A a socialorganin

pies iar more than the right of sexual intercourse. Again, in | tion. Conception is not left to the chanc ree Intercourse, various customs of religions and ceremonial nature {temple pros- | even where this = ee but eeeager condition $ marriage. titution, jus primae noctis, ritual defloration, bridal night relaxa- | Parenthood, to be normal, must be made legitimate, that is, based

tions, sex hospitality and exchange of partners) survivals of a | ona socially approved, but individual marriage contract. Soc primitive sex communism have been discerned. This, combined | decrees that the initial setting of kinship be the individual family with the testimony of classificatory terms, has led to the hypothe- : based on individual marriage. And this social decree backs up ao IR S a A Meem a manete eee airia mawe ee

ri group family. fae E SR a and a -o aBy ares in n reality, however, se reedom is an entirely different mat- | the human, as well as in the animal, parent. e chi j ter from the liberty of parenthood, and between the two there responds with a unique, life-long attachment to the one rie Se ae paging

.

The

Frage ciple of

sat and legal rules,

and one man who constitute its first social horizon—that is to Legitimacy.—tin fact the tolerance | its mother and father.

of free intercourse wherever this exists is not extended to the liberty of conception.

AVI. The Extensions of Kinship.—The

relation of parents

The rule in most savage tribes which allow | and children is individual, and so is that between brothers and

pre-nuptial relations is that unmarried boys and girls may enjoy | sisters, who are to each other the natural playmates and helpa ee ena ea poe ares se there n a n ae mm and remain the legal partners and moral allies

reol (g.v.}, the untrammelled artistic | in later life. fraternities of Polynesia, heavy penalties are inflicted on the un-| The household is thus the workshop where kinship ties age rp mother, ar PEA children are killed or aborted | forged, and the constitution of the individual family See INFANTICIDE). At times the putative father is penalised un- | pattern upon which they are built. We return thus supplies the to the si he marries the girl, or again important economic and social | view so long prevalent in tradition and pre-scientific though pressure make it advantageous for him to marry her. Almost |IL), but now we have established it by a survey and analysis ef universally the child born before wedlock has a different status facts, made it precise—and at the same time qualified it consider. from the legitimate offspring, usually very much to his disad- | ably. For the individual household provides only the initial sit. vantage. Very interesting are the cases where, as among the Todas, | ation of kinship; and the individual parents, brothers and sisters one of the physiologically possible fathers of a polyandrous house- | supply only the primary meaning of kinship terms. This fact is hold has to perform a special rite in order to assume the legal | of the greatest importance, but to appreciate it fully it is neces position of fatherhood. A child deprived of such a legal father | sary to follow the further development of kinship bonds. is disgraced for life, even though born in wedlock. As the child grows beyond the earliest stages of infancy, it is And this brings us to the important point. Physiological pater- brought into contact with other households—those of the gran nity, the begetting of a child, is not, as a rule, sufficient and may | parents and those of the even be irrelevant in determining social fatherhood. In fact Perhaps the most importantbrothers and sisters of either parent. among these persons is the mother’s native peoples have naturally but an imperfect idea of the mechan- | sister. ism of procreation. Some

(Cent ral Australians, certain MelaXVII. The Substitute Mother.—The mother is the physienegians, & few African tribes) attribute the child to the agency | logically and morally indispensable parent in all societies. Ye of spiritual beings ; others again (Ba-Ila, Rossel Islanders, some | there is always the danger of her failing, temporarily or permeAustralian tribes) over-emphasize the man's share. But in all ;nently. The substitution of one person for another—in case af cases, where the subject has been competently investigated, we |death, illness or incapacity—is one of the fundamental elements find that the mechanism of procreation 1s conceived in a manner | of primitive organization, and this substitution always takes place in which some biological knowledge is arbitrarily mixed up with |on the basis of kinship. In a matrilineal society, the natural su animistic beliefs, This doctrine stands in a definite relation to | stitute for a mother is her sister, usually the one nearest inage. the kinship ideas and legal principles of a community. Invariably , In matrilocal communities, she is on the spot, in patrilocal ones alse the bond of kinship, believed to be established by

the act of | she has to be summoned

if it is necessary; even when not needed procreation, bodily or spiritual, is of an individual nature and | she will come on long visits. Thus the child, as a rule, becomes fatherhood

has at times to be reaffirmed by a special legal cere- ! familiar early in life with its mother’s sister. She again—having mony, alsa individual. performed important duties during pregnancy and a XIV. Natural and Sociological Maternity.—Maternity is | perhaps childbirth—is especialy devoted to her sorential ward.Sheoften ooviousiy as much involved in native doctrines of conception as | assists mother, in case of illness replaces her, occasionally may is fatherhood. Indeed, the ban on prenuptial children hits the | take thethechild her own home for a time. She and the mother mother harder than the father, and it penalises always an indi- | both know that,to under circumstances, she may have to act as& ere A group. An individual woman suffers the disadvan- | mother to the child. Later on in life the child comes also te a = child, unless there

isa man legally united | realize this and to regard her as substitut e or secondary The substitute mother is, in certain respects, equivalentmother. to tht Whereve: lar is an attempt to cause or prevent conception | real one; the child sees ber in the intimacy of the household, side pongo Eas rites, these refer always to an individual | by side with the real rasan _— ole vear becomes usually subject to tabus | realizes that at times mother, receives the same services from het, she replaces the real parent, acting thus @ urin pre — individually and of which ber |a secondary or substitut —— = = ishare. welfare of the child concerns | however, that this is e mother. The child equally weli realises, mother ather even before itisborn. At birth again ome. A new relationshipa very different “Mother” from the red is thus built up for which the firstont

wo

R shares her responsibility.

407

KINSHIP is certainly the pattern, but the process is never asimple repetition. |

Domestic life and all those relations which start in the family,

Linguistically, the extension of the same term Mother to the

that is parent and child, brother and sister, are permanently pro-

mother’s sister is obviously no more a complete assimilation than

in its emotional tone. When he calls his mother’s sister “Mother,”

tected from the upsetting influence of sex by the tabu of incest. Later on, when the savage child, sexually ripe at an early age, enters the wider group of his village community and tribe, an important division is established in all his associations by the unilateral principle. Some people, male and female, become his

be neither fuses the two ideas nor confuses the two people. He merely emphasizes the similarity while he ignores the differences. This one-sided emphasis corresponds to the fact that similarity

natural associates in work, legal interests and spiritual concerns. These are his wider kindred, his clansmen and clanswomen, to whom he extends the modified and diluted family attitude, com-

is here the basis of legal obligation.

prising among others, the rules of incest which here become the much wider and weaker tabus of exogamy. The other group consists of women with whom he may amuse himself and pursue his amorous inclinations, and of men with whom he enters into relations of more or less friendly rivalry or reciprocity. The unilateral principle is thus instrumental in securing for the clan the same condition of sexually undisturbed co-operation as is secured for the family by the prohibition of incest. Unilateral descent is also intimately bound up with the nature of filiation, that is, with the handing over of status, power, office and possessions, from -one generation to the other. Order and simplicity in the rules of filiation are of the greatest importance for social cohesion. Indeed, we find that most political quarrels and tribal dissensions are due, apart from sex, to questions of inheritance and succession,—from lowest savagery right up to modern civilization. Rivalries during lifetime, fights and rifts after the death of a man, especially if he be powerful, are of universal occurrence. For, as we know, mother-right and father-right are never absolute and the rules are always elastic and sometimes ambiguous. The generalization may, therefore, be laid down that the simpler and stricter the laws of filiation, the more stringently enforced either mother-right or father-right at the expense of the other, the greater will be the order and cohesion in a community, the smoother will be the transmission of authority, tradition and wealth from one generation to the other.

is its sociological equivalent. The child forms a new meaning for the old word—in fact, it acquires a new word with the same form, but a different referent and usually a different phonetic character

The mother’s sister is be-

bolden to the child in virtue of her equivalence to the mother. It is this which has to be expressed and the child is taught to call her “Mother” since in doing so it puts her under an obligation. The difference is obvious, irrelevant—in a way to be obliterated or glossed over. The verbal magic, which is the first form by which legal obligations are established, has to create a fictitious identity between Mother’s Sister and Mother.

What has been said about the mother’s sister applies also to the father’s brother who, under father-right, is often regarded as a

substitute father. His wife would then act as a substitute mother, especially in case of adoption. Under mother-right again, the mother’s sister’s husband would be the substitute father.

XVIII. The Special Relations of Mother-right and Fatherright——Among the people closely related to the parents there

are, however, some to whom no extension of an already existing kinship attitude is possible.

The grandparents obviously be-

long here, and also the father’s sister and the mother’s brother. Under mother-right

and exogamy,

the father’s sister is never

of the mother’s kin and cannot be assimilated to the mother while,

though of the father’s kin, she is not of his sex and, therefore, cannot be assimilated to him. Under unilateral father-right, she

again is the chief kinswoman of the child. The mother’s brother occupies the same singular position both under mother-right and father-right. New attitudes have to be built towards these relatives and, as a rule, we find also special terms for them. The children of the mother’s sister and of the father’s brother, ow “parallel cousins” as they are called in Anthropology, are usually regarded by a savage child as his “secondary” brothers and

sisters and addressed by these terms.

To them the primary

family attitude is also partially extended, as it is to their parents. The children of the mother’s brother and father’s sister—the “eross-cousins” as they are technically called—usually require the creation of a new type of bond. The terminologies of the crosscousins often present strange verbal assimilations. Thus, in matri-

lineal societies, the paternal cross-cousin is often called “Father”; and under father-right mother’s brother’s daughter is labelled “Mother.” If we consider, however, that under mother-right, the paternal cross-cousin (father’s sister’s son) is not Ego’s real kinsman—that he is related to Ego only as the father’s nearest kinsman—then the verbal identification is less strange. The appellation then really means: “that man who is to me only in so far related as he is my father’s nearest in blood.” And a similar psychological attitude underlies the strange use of Mother to a cross-cousin and other anomalous terms of this type. XIX. The Elimination of Sex from Workaday Life—The wailateral principle which declares that kinship is counted through mother or father only (compare above, IV.) means, in fact, looked at concretely as it enters the life of an individual, that the family are extended on one side only. An important aspect of this me-sided extension is the development of rules of exogamy out ef rules of incest. These rules eliminate sex out of the household ad the clan respectively. Incomprehensible in their biological , Since biologists agree that occasional inbreeding is in-

axcuous, they can be accounted for by the incompatibility of

rual interest with practical co-operation in everyday life. The Motional tension which accompanies erotic play, the jealousies

d dissensions which it arouses as well as its obsessive and disimective influence, make it difficult to mingle sex with serious purHence war and hunting, agriculture and trading enterprises, s and public ceremonial, are often hedged round with

XX. The Further Extensions of Kinship.—So

far mainly

the principles of extension have been analysed—its driving forces, so to speak: such as the need of substitute parents; the value of eliminating sex from household and clan; the importance of establishing order in filiation. The process itself consists, as in the case of mother substitution, in a series of successive extensions, each of which brings about a partial loosening and modification of the old ties, and the formation of new ones upon the old model. In the earler stages, the infant is mainly passive—as when it forms the first bonds by accepting the parental cares; as when it is weaned from the mother; taught to name its parents; to accept a substitute mother and father and to extend to them the parental appellations. Later on when the baby assumes the status of a child, often by donning the first dress, when he begins to follow the parents and takes some part in their pursuits, his interest in new associations and in the formation of new bonds becomes more active too. Then there comes, in some tribes at least, again a stage of abrupt, passively received training. The rites of tribal initiation as a rule, entail a dramatic break with the old life and the creation of new bonds. The novice is made to forget his associations with the family, especially with its female members, above all with the mother. In the course of the moral and mythological training which he receives, he is taught in a systematic way what kinship means, he is instructed in the principles of unilateral descent, the rules of exogamy,

the duties and

responsibilities

towards his kindred and relatives. In other tribes, where there are no initiation rites, the same moral and legal education is given gradually, spread over a longer period—but it always has ta be received, and it is always given with reference to kinship.

The boy and girl now enter the active life of the tribe. Often

the individual has to change his residence, the girl on marrying inte another village, the boy on assuming his full unilateral kinship status. In matriarchal and patrilocal communities, for, instance, he leaves his father’s place and joins his mother’s brother.

With this a new recrystallization of kinship bonds takes place— always, however, on the same principle: with the old pattern

KINSHIP

4.08

carried over, but adjusted to the individual’s new status and to his new conditions of life. Marriage opens a new phase and constitutes another transition (see s.v.). Here a new set of relatives is acquired, besides the individual mate, and the terminology is enriched by another set of expressions, as a rule some taken over from the old vocabulary of kinship, and some new ones added. Incidentally a new household is founded, with which the whole kinship story starts afresh. Later on, with old age, with the marriage of children and the arrival of grandchildren, the kinship horizon changes once more, as a rule by the growth and multiplication of the younger generation, lineal and collateral, and by their gradual taking of duties, responsibilities and privileges out of Ego’s hands. XXI. The Nature of the Extensions.—Thus each successive transformation of kinship bonds is, as a rule, associated with a biological stage in human life; each corresponds to a different type of social setting; each is conditioned by different functions performed by the group. Kinship invariably begins in the family —mother, father and child, the latter depending for nourishment, comfort and safety upon its parents. From the individual household and the mainly biological functions of the family, the child passes into the social horizon of a few associated households, which by the first extension of kinship, furnish him with his “substitute” parents, brothers and sisters, and by the formation of new relationships, supply his grandparents, his maternal uncle, paternal aunt and his cross-cousins. At, and after, puberty, he learns, in a more explicit and systematic manner, the principles of his tribal kinship and law. This is done through initiation or training within the horizon of the local community. Entering afterwards the stage of active life, as a member of his clan he takes part in most tribal concerns—economic, ceremonial, legal, warlike or religious. Soon, also, he makes a choice of his matrimonial mate, according to the kinship rules regulating marriage in his tribe. One side of the whole process consists in the gradual assimilation of the new ties to the old ones; the other side, in the creation of new interests, adoption of new functions and formation of new ties. Even when the old ties are purposely destroyed, as in initiation, the new ones are built on their pattern. Throughout the process each extension leads to the formation of new ties and thus to the weakening of the old ones, but never to their complete obliteration, nor to the confusion of thè two sets. The new relationships receive some elements of the old ones, which become incorporated in them, but invariably they contain new elements also. At the end, the individual finds himself not with one confused or amalgamated mass ọf kindred, but rather, surrounded by a number of gradually widening circles: the family, the collateral relatives, the local kinsmen and relatives, the clansmen, and the relatives within the tribe; and, cutting athwart this concentric system, his own new household and his relatives-in-law.

XXII.

The Persistence

of Family

Ties—Why

does the

family pattern persist throughout these extensions, not only in terminology, but in legal fiction, in totemic tradition and in the character of the various rules? It must never be forgotten, of course, that kinship at the tribal end is by no means identical with kinship at the family end. As the ties widen, their original family character becomes more and more attenuated and diluted by other ingredients. Tribal kinship bears only a remote, at times mainly figurative, resemblance to the family ties, but that it is built unter their influence and as an extension of them is beyond doubt.

The main force which brings about this extension is the extreme strength of family ties. The power of the earliest family experiences to influence all subsequent social relations is a universal fact which was not sufficiently appreciated until recently. In spite of their exaggerated claims and fantastic distortions, psychoanalytic writers have helped to show how all-pervading the family sentiments are in society, and how the reminiscences of paternal authority and of maternal tenderness enter into most relations of later life. In the small communities of savages, where all social relations are direct: and personal, where all co-operation is by actual con-

tact, where solidarity and substitution operate within groups of people constantly in touch with each other, the family pattem

can be adapted to all wider formations much more concretely ang

liberally. In all the extensions the new bonds and obligations ar

formed on account of the old ones; therefore, to an extent, in their image.

The unilateral principle deflecting the spread of the

family pattern to one side only, makes its sway within the clap only the more concentrated, while it frees from its constraint a

whole sphere of relations—those between clans. The final product of the process of kinship extensions: the clan system, with its twofold relationships within the kinship group and across the groups, is thus the natural product of the influences which drive family kinship into wider spheres of action and of the unilateral principle. XXIII. The Clan and the Family.—Nothing is as important and difficult in the study of primitive sociology as the correc} understanding of the nature of the clan and its relation to the

family. The primary and fundamental elements of parent to child kinship—the bonds of procreation, the physiological services, the

innate emotional response—which

make

up the family bonds,

vanish completely from the relationship within the clan. Totemic identity, the mythological fiction of common totemic descent, magical, religious and legal functions, are new elements which have

entered into it, and which constitute the greatly modified kinship of the clan.

But though the clan is essentially non-reproductive, non-sexual and non-parental, though it never is the primary basis and source of kinship, its connection with the family is real and genetic. The clan grows out of family kinship round one of the parents by the affirmation of the exclusive procreative relevance of this one parent, by the injunction of legal solidarity with one side of kindred, accompanied often by legal fiction and linguistic metaphor. The clan differs from the family, however, not only in the

nature of its bonds but also in structure.

It is the result of the

widest possible extension of kinship ties, but on one side only. While the family contains essentially the two principles, male and female, present in procreation, in the physiological division of functions and in sociological protection, the clan is based upon the elimination of either the paternal or the maternal element from relevant kinship. It is rather the clan of the relevant parent, plus the clan of the irrelevant parent, plus the other clans related to Ego by marriage or other forms of affinity, which together embrace the classificatory body of relatives. In fact the classificatory nomenclature always refers to the tribe or the community ora wider portion of it, and never to one clan only. It is the tribe,

therefore, as a correlated system of as is embraced by the classificatory sponds to the widest circle of kinship It is an easy but dangerous mistake

clans, of such portion of it nomenclature, which correextensions. to maintain that “the classi-

ficatory system and our own are the outcome of the social insti-

tutions of the clan and the family respectively,” and to say that as “among ourselves this (the essential) social unit is the family” so “amongst most peoples of rude culture the clan or other exogamous group is the essential unit of social organization” (Rivers, Kinship and Soctal Organization, pp. 74, 75). This view carries

on Morgan’s mistaken opinion that the clan is a domestic insti-

tution, made ad hoc for purposes of group-marriage, a mistake which has recently been reaffirmed in the phrase that “the clan,

like the family, is a reproductive group” (Briffault, 1927). All this is a continuous source of error in that it construes the clan into an independent, self-sufficient kinship unit, whereas the clan is essentially a group correlated to other groups of a similar nature, and dependent upon their existence. In its simplest form the correlated system is reduced to two clans, but never to one. It is this compound system which corresponds to the family, which

itself is a self-sufficient independent kinship unit. The clan in fact never bears the imprint of extended full family kinship, but only of one side of it. It is a curious mistake to take savage

fiction and linguistic

simile at their face value, and to regard, with Morgan, the clan as a “domestic institution,” made ad koc for purposes of groupmarriage; or, with Rivers, to imagine that the clan has been the

KINSTON— KIPLING foundation of classificatory nomenclature in the same sense as the family is the basis of our own

terminology ; or to affirm that

“the clan, like the family, is a reproductive group.”

The function of the clan system is neither generative nor domes-

tic; exogamy is not primarily an injunction to marry a woman of another clan, but the prohibition of sexual intercourse within the clan. Again the relations between the older and younger generation within the clan, or between age-grades, are neither an equiva-

lent nor a copy of the parent to child relations—above all, not as regards reproductive functions! The relation of the members of a clan is a modified and extended kinship solidarity; it implies co-operation in most com-

munal undertakings and the exclusion of sexual interests. Thus some elements of the later parent to child and brother to sister relationship are carried over into clanship, but two elements never

enter it: the matrimonial relation and early parent to child relation. The first of these is extended, in a modified form, into the

relationship between different clans, members of which may pursue amusements and sexual interests in common, as between males

and females; and between individuals of the same sex, render each other reciprocal services from group to group, and join in enterprises on @ tribal scale. XXIV. Summary and Conclusions.—We can now define kinship, in the first place, as the personal bonds based upon procreation, socially interpreted; and, in the second place, as the wider bonds derived from the primary ones by the process of gradual extensions which occur in all communities during the lifehistory of the individual. On the level of savagery and lower barbarism, the powerful persistence of family bonds is given freer

play, hence the extensions are more numerous and more definitely

systematized; they are backed up by legal fictions of totemic descent; by ideas of one-sided procreation or mystic identity; and they lead to the formation of wider groups such as the clan, moiety or exogamous division. Kinship is thus a class of social relations, which must be subdivided into several varieties: primary kinship always founded on marriage and family; and the derived forms, correlated with the group of cognate households, the village-community and the clan. The terms of kinship, which are but linguistic expressions of all these relationships, have obviously also a manifold meaning, which corresponds to the social reality. Thus is explained the existence, side by side of individual and classificatory terms, of the family and the clan, of the individual and communal aspects of kinship. The enigmatic and apparently anomalous character of primitive kinship vanishes with a closer scrutiny of the facts. To explain kinship there is no need of an appeal to a fanciful history of mankind, beginning ‘with Promiscuity or Hetairism, passing through Group-Marriage, Marital Gerontocracy and Anomalous Marriages, and only ending, after many errors and efforts, in monogamous marriage. Where empirical facts yield a sufficient explanation hypotheses are superfluous—they are a disease of method. Especially erroneous in these speculations is the neglect of domesticity and the influences of everyday life in early childhood, combined, as this neglect often is, with an overemphasis on sex. Sex, far from being the principal clue to kinship, plays only a subordinate part in its formation, separated as it is from parenthood by the rule of legitimacy. It is the elimination of sex and not indulgence in it which, through the rules of incest and exogamy, really influences kinship and clanship. The study of kinship, far from demonstrating the small importance of the family, proves the tenacity of its bonds and their persistence through life as a standard for all wider social relatons. The age-long experience of mankind, which Anthropology

alone can unravel, teaches us that the institutions of marriage and family have never been absent in human history, that they form

the indispensable foundation for the structure of human society,

and that, however they might become modified in the future, they will never be destroyed nor their influence seriously impaired. ; i (B. Ma.) See also ÅVUNCULATE; CLAN; DUAL ORGANIZATION; ENDOGAMY; OGAMY; FAMILY; GROUP MARRIAGE; MARRIAGE; MARRIAGE CLASSES;

TRIARCHY; RELATIONSHIP SysTEMS; SORORATE.

4.09

BristiocraPoy.—Classical Works: J. J. Bachofen, Das Mutterrecht (1861) ; H. S. Maine, Ancient Law (1861); L. H. Morgan, Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity of the Human Family (1871) ; J. F. McLennan, Studies in Ancient History (1886); A. E. Crawley, The Mystic Rose (1902; new ed. 1927); A. Lang, “The Origin of Terms of Human Relationship,” Proc, Brit. Acad., vol. 3 (1907); J. G. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy (1910); E. A. Westermarck, The History of Human Marriage (sth ed., 1921). Recent Theoretical Studies: A. L. Kroeber, “Classificatory Systems of Relationship,” Jour. Roy. Anthr. Inst., vol. 39 (1909); W. H. R. Rivers, Kinship and Social Organisation (1914), Social Organisation (1924); R. H. Lowie, Culture and Ethnology

(1917), Primitive Soci-

ety (1920) ; E, W. Gifford, Californian Kinship Terminologies (1922) ; B. Malinowski, Sex and Repression in Savage Society (1927); R. Briffault, The Mothers (1927) ; B. Z. Seligman, “Marital Gerontocracy in Africa,” Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst., vol. 54 (1924). Descriptive Accounts: A. R. Radcliffe Brown, “Three Tribes of Western Australia,” Jour. Roy. Anthr. Inst., vol. 43 (1913), The Andaman Islanders (1925) ; W. E. Armstrong, Rossel Island (1928) ; B. Malinowski, The Family among the Australian Aborigines (1913), Crime and Custom in Savage Society (1926), The Sexual Life of Savages in NorthWestern Melanesia (1928); W. H. R. Rivers, The Todas (1906), The History of Melanesian Society (1914); R. Thurnwald, Die Gemeinde der Banaro (1921); H. A. Junod, The Life of a South African Tribe (1927); E. W. Smith and A. M. Dale, The Ila-Speaking Peoples of Northern Rhodesia (1920); R. S. Rattray, Ashanti (1925); L. Spier, “The Distribution of Kinship Systems in North America,” Univ. of Washington Pub. in Anthropology, vol. 1 (1925); A. L. Kroeber, “California Kinship Systems,’ Univ. of Calif. Pub. in Anthrop., vol. 12 (t917); M. A. Czaplicka, Aboriginal Siberia (1914); B. Z. Seligman, “Studies in Semitic Kinship,” Bull. School of Oriental Studies (London), vol. 3 (1923).

KINSTON, acity- of North Carolina, U.S.A., on the Neuse river, 70m. S.E. of Raleigh; the county seat of Lenoir county. It is on Federal highway 70, and is served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Carolina, the Kinston Carolina and the Norfolk Southern railways. The population was 9,775 in 1920 (41% negroes) and was 11,362 in 1930 by the Federal census. It is a shipping point for tobacco, cotton, live stock, poultry and garden produce, and has various manufacturing industries, with an annual output valued at $14,886,000. The city was founded about 1750, incorporated as a town in 1762, and chartered as a city in 1826. KIOWA, This American Indian tribe of the western Plains is generally considered to constitute a separate linguistic stock, but may prove related to the Tanoan Pueblo. They were nonagricultural, unsettled, warlike, predatory, and with the Comanche raided Mexicans, Texans, Americans and Indians. Their culture is of southern Plains type. About 1,600 survive in Oklahoma.

(See J. Mooney, Bur. Am. Ethn. Report, xvi., 1898.) (A. L. K.)

KIPCHAK, the Mongol designation of the Khanate, more

generally known as the Golden Horde. This khanate was ruled by the successors of Genghis Khan and was, at the height of its expansion, of huge extent, reaching from the Dnieper in Europe far into Central Asia. In 1242 its capital was set up at Sarai on the Volga, and in 1395 Timur (Tamerlane) sacked it. The Golden Horde gradually disintegrated from internal secession. (See MonGOLS.)

KIPLING, RUDYARD (1865- _ ), British author, was born in Bombay on Dec. 30, 1865. His father, John Lockwood Kipling (1837-1911), an artist of considerable ability, was from 1875 to 1893 curator of the Lahore museum in India. His mother was Miss Alice Macdonald of Birmingham, two of whose sisters were married respectively to Sir E. Burne-Jones and Sir Edward Poynter. He was educated at the United Services College, Westward Ho, North Devon, which is the scene of his story Stalky and Co. On his return to India he became at the age of 17 subeditor of the Lahore Civil and Military Gazette. In 1886, in his 21st year, he published Departmental Ditties, a volume of light yerse chiefly satirical, only in two or three poems giving promise of his authentic poetical note. In 1887 he published Plain Tales from the Hills, a collection mainly of the stories contributed to his own journal. During the next two years he brought out, in six

slim paper-covered volumes of Wheeler’s Railway Library (Allahabad), Soldiers Three, The Story of the Gadsbys, In Black and

White, Under the Deodars, the Phantom ’Rickshaw and Wee Willie Winkee, at a rupee apiece. These were in form and substance a

410

KIPPER— KIRCHER

continuation of the Plain Tales. This series of tales, all written before the author was 24, revealed a new master of fiction. They were unequal, as his books continued to be throughout; the sketches of Anglo-Indian social life being generally inferior to the rest. The style was to some extent disfigured by jerkiness and mannered tricks. But Kipling possessed the supreme spell of the story-teller to entrance and transport. The freshness of the invention, the variety of character, the vigour of narrative, the raciness of dialogue, the magic of atmosphere, were alike remarkable. The soldier-stories, especially the exuberant vitality of the cycle

(stories), 1909; Rewards and Fairies (1910, a companion Volume to Puck of Pook’s Hill); 24 poems contributed to a History of England (1911) for young people, in which he joined C. R, L

Fletcher; The Irish Guards in the Great War (1925), the moş

notable of his war books; Debits and Credits (1926); and A Boo}

of Words (1928), a collection of speeches and addresses delivered between 1906 and 1927. Of Kipling’s longer narratives Kim isthe

most successful; picaresque in design it gives a series of delight.

ful pictures of Indian life, and is a classic in its kind. In Puch of

Pook’s Hill and Rewards and Fairies Kipling sought to create for

which contains the immortal Mulvaney, established the author’s children a semi-historical mythology of the English country-side: fame throughout the world. this patriotism was to be rooted in the sense of the history of The new author’s talent was quickly recognized in India, but it the land beneath their feet, in the “instinct of inherited’ continu. was not till the books reached England that his true rank was ity,’ to use a phrase from one of his addresses. But everythi appreciated and proclaimed. Between 1887 and 1880 he travelled he wrote, even to a farcical extravaganza inspired by his enthys,. through India, China, Japan and America, finally arriving in Eng- asm for the motor-car, breathed the meteoric energy that was the land to find himself already famous. His travel sketches, con- nature of the man. A vigorous and unconventional poet, a pioneer tributed to The Civil and Military Gazette and The Pioneer, were in the modern phase of literary Imperialism, and one of the rare afterwards collected (the author’s hand having been forced by un- masters in English prose of the art of the short story, Kipling authorized publication) in the two volumes From Sea to Sea had already by the opening of the 2oth century won a conspicu(1889). A further set of Indian tales, equal to the best, appeared ous place among the creative literary forces of his day which was in Macmillan’s Magazine and were republished with others in recognized by the award of the Nobel prize for literature in 1907, Life’s Handicap (1891). In The Light that Failed (1891, after BrsLiocrapHy.—C. Charles, Rudyard Kipling (1911) ; W. A. Young, appearing with a different ending in Lippincott’s Magazine) Kip- A Dictionary of the Characters and Scenes in the Stories and Poems o ling essayed his first long story (dramatized 1905), but with com- Rudyard Kipling (1911); R. Durand, A Handbook to the Poetry of Rudyard Kipling (1914); C. Falls, Rudyard Kipling (1915); J, parative unsuccess. In his subsequent work his delight in the dis- Palmer, Rudyard Kipling (1915) ; A. Rumson, Kipling’s India (191s): play of descriptive and verbal technicalities grew on him. His W. W. Worster, Merlin’s Isle: a Study of Rudyard England polemic against “‘the sheltered life” and “little Englandism” be- (1920); R. T. Hopkins, Rudyard Kipling (1921); Kipling’s Kipling’s Sussex came more didactic. His terseness sometimes degenerated into (1921); G. F. Monkshood, The Less Familiar Kipling and Kiplingana (1922); E. W. Martindell, A Bibliography of the Works of Rudyard abruptness and obscurity. Kipling (1923); R. T. Hopkins, The Kipling Country (1924); RudBut in the meanwhile his genius became prominent in verse. yard Kipling’s World (1925). (W. P. J.; X.) Readers of the Plain Tales had been impressed by the snatches of KIPPER, properly the name by which the male salmon is poetry prefixed to them for mottoes, certain of them being sub- known at the approach of the breeding season, when he develops a scribed “Barrack Room Ballad.” Kipling now contributed to the sharp cartilaginous beak, known as the “kip” from which “kipper” National Observer, then edited by W. E. Henley, a series of Bar- is said to be derived. From the practice of rendering the breedrack Room Ballads. These vigorous verses in soldier slang, when ing (że., “kipper”) salmon fit for food by splitting, salting, and published in a book in 1892, together with the fine ballad of “East smoke-drying them, the term “kipper” ïs also used of other fish, and West” and other poems, won for their author a second fame, particularly herrings, cured in the same way. A “bloater” as diswider than he had attained as a story-teller. In this volume the tinct from a “kipper” is a herring cured whole without being Ballads of the “Bolivar” and of the “Clampherdown,” introducing split open. Kipling’s poetry of the ocean and the engine-room, and “The KIPPIS, ANDREW (1725-1795), English Nonconformist Flag of England,” finding a voice for the Imperial sentiment, divine and biographer, son of Robert Kippis, a silk-hosier, was which—largely under the influence of Kipling’s own writings— born at Nottingham on March 28, 1725. He was educated at had been rapidly gaining force in England, gave the key-note of Sleaford, and at Dr. Doddridge’s academy at Northampton. He much of his later verse. In 1898 Kipling paid the first of several was pastor successively of churches at Boston, Dorking and at visits to South Africa and became imbued with a type of Imperial- Westminster, where he died on Oct. 8, 1795. He was classical and ism that reacted on his literature, not altogether to its advantage. philological tutor in training colleges for the Presbyterian ministry Before finally settling in England Kipling lived some years in at Hoxton and at Hackney. In 1778 he was elected a fellow of America and married in 1892 Miss Caroline Starr Balestier, sister the Antiquarian society, and a fellow of the Royal Society in 1779. of the Wolcott Balestier to whom he dedicated Barrack Room BalKippis contributed to The Gentleman’s M. agazine, The Monthly lads, and with whom in collaboration he wrote the Naulahka Review and The Library; and he had a good deal to do with the (1891), one of his less successful books. establishment and conduct of The New Annual Register. He pubThe next collection of stories, Many Inventions (1893), con- lished also sermons, pamphlets and biographies. His chief work tained the splendid Mulvaney extravaganza, “My Lord the Ele- is his edition of the Biographia Britannica, of which, however, he phant”; a vividly realized tale of metempsychosis, “The Finest only lived to publish 5 vols. (folio, 1778-93). Story in the World”; and in that fascinating tale “In the Rukh,” KIRBY, WILLIAM (17 59-1850), English entomologist, the prelude to the next new exhibition of the author’s genius. This was born at Witnesham, Suffolk on Sept. 19, 1759. He was edu-

came in 1894 with The Jungle Book, followed in 1895 by The Second Jungle Book. With these inspired beast-stories Kipling conquered a new world and a new audience, and produced what many critics regard as his most flawless work. His chief subsequent publications were The Seven Seas (poems), 1896; Captains Courageous (a yarn of deep-sea fishery), 1897; The Day’s Work

(collected stories), 1898; A Fleet in Being (an account of a cruise in a man-df-war), 1898; Stalky and Co. (mentioned above), 1899; From Sea to Sea (mentioned above), 1899; Kim, 1901; Just So Stories (fot children), 1902; The Five Nations (poems, conclud-

ing with what proved Mr. Kipling’s most universally known

and popular’ poem, “Recessional,” originally published in’ The Times on July 17, 1897, on the occasion of Queen Victoria’s second Jubilee), Puck

1903; Traffics and Discoveries (collected stories), 1904;

of Pook’s Hill (stories),

1906;

Actions and Reactions

cated at Caius College, Cambridge, and after taking orders in

1782, spent his entire life at Barham in Suffolk. His Monographia

Apum Angliae (2 vols., 1802), the first scientific treatise on its subject, brought him to the notice of the leading entomologists of his own and foreign countries, and his Introduction to Entomology

(4 vols., 1815~26; 7th ed., 1856), written in collaboration with

W. Spence, was equally successful. Kirby died on July 4, 1850. Besides the books already mentioned

he published

The

Habits and Instincts of Animals (2 vols., 1835), several papersHistory, the Transactions of the Linnean Society, the Zoological Journal and inother eee

í

j

and some devotional works.

See the Life by J. Freeman

,

KIRCHER, ATHANASIUS (1 601-1680), German scholar and mathematician, was born on May 2, 1601, at Geisa near

Fulda. He was educated at the Jesuit college of Fulda, and be-

came a novice of the order at Mainz in 1618. He taught philo-

KIRCHHEIM-UNTER-TECK—KIRGHIZ

41I

REPUBLIC

sophy, mathematics and Oriental languages at Wiirzburg, whence he was driven (1631) by the troubles of the Thirty Vears’ War

Entstehungszeit

to Avignon. In 1635 he settled in Rome, where he taught mathe-

The following works are the result of his epigraphical and palaeographical studies: Die Umbrischen Sprachdenkmdler (1851); Das Stadtrecht von Bantia (1853), on the tablet discovered in 1790 at Oppido near Banzi, containing a plebiscite relating to the municipal affairs of the ancient Bantia; Das Gotische Runenalphabet (1852);

matics in the Collegio Romano,

but resigned in 1643 to study

archaeology. He died on Nov. 28, 1680.

His works include Prodromus Coptus (1636); Lingua Aegyptiaca yestituta (1643); Obelescus Pamphilius (1650); and Oedipus Aegyptiacus—(1652-55)-——works which may claim the merit of having frst called attention to Egyptian hieroglyphics. The valuable collection of antiquities which be bequeathed to the Collegio Romano has been described by Buonanni (Musaeum Kircherianum, 1709; republished by

tara in 1773).

P

BAET,

:

i

,

Anastasius Kircher, ein Lebensbild

(1877).

His auto-

des Herodotischen

Die Fränkischen Runen

(1855); Studien zur Geschichte des Griech-

KIRGHIS. The term Kirghis or Kirghiz is very loosely used. The Russians usually include under this term a variety of peoples, including the Kaizak (qg.v.). The term should probably be limited to those Turkic tribes whose original home was the upper Yenisei, but most of whom

KIRCHHEIM-UNTER-TECK, a town in the republic of

K QI

Lapk

Yy f

and pigs. In the vicinity are the ruins of the castle of Teck, the hereditary stronghold of the dukes of that name. Kirchheim

now live south of Yarkand, and to the north of Kashgar and Aksu. Although some are agricul-

has belonged to Württemberg since 138r.

KIRCHHOFF, GUSTAV ROBERT (1824-87), German physicist, was born at Königsberg (Prussia) on March 12, 1824, and was educated at the university of his native town. extraordinary professor of physics at Breslau in 1850. Four years later he was appointed professor of physics at Heidelberg, and in 1875 he was transferred to Berlin, where he died on Oct.

17, 1887. Kirchhoff’s contributions to experimental and mathematical physics were numerous and important. In his work in electricity Kirchhoff was greatly influenced by Weber. He modified the resistance bridge as designed by Wheatstone, and developed a theorem which gives the distribution of currents in a network. Kirchhoff extended Ohm’s theory for a linear conductor to the case of conductors in three dimensions, and so generalised the equations dealing with the flow of electricity in conductors. He also tried to establish a connection between electrostatic and electrodynamic conceptions of electricity. Another important piece of work was the demonstration that an electric disturbance is propagated along a wire with the same velocity as light is propagated in free space. In other papers, various miscellaneous topics were treated—the thermal conductivity of iron, crystalline reflection and refraction, certain propositions in the thermodynamics of solution, vaporization and chemical reaction. An important part of his work was contained in his Vorlesungen uber

mathematische Physik

(1876), in which the principles of dy-

namics, as well as various special problems, were treated in a

somewhat novel and original manner. His name is best known for the researches, in conjunction with R. W. von Bunsen on the development of spectrum analysis. He can scarcely be called an inventor, for not only had many investigators already used the prism as an instrument of chemical inqury, but considerable progress had been made towards the explanation of the principles upon which spectrum analysis rests. But to him belongs the merit of having, most probably without knowing what had already been done, enunciated a complete

account of its theory and established the method on a solid

basis. Kirchhoff gave the explanation of the Fraunhofer lines and thus opened up to investigation a new field in spectrum anal-

ysis applied to the composition of celestial bodies. Kirchhoff’s work is collected in Gesammelte Abhandlungen

B

(Leipzig,

See W. Voigt, Zum Gedächtniss von G. Kirchhof (Göttingen,

the inthe 1-3,

1877-91), are edited by him.

Württemberg, situated on the Lauter, at the north-west foot of the Rauhe Alb, 15 m. S.E. of Stuttgart by rail. Pop. (1925) 5,385. The town has a former royal castle built in 1538. The

After acting as Privatdozent at Berlin for some time, he became

(2nd ed.,

ischen Alphabets (4th ed., 1887). The second part of vol. iv. of Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum (1859, containing the Christian scriptions) and vol. i. of the C. J. Atticarum (1873, containing inscriptions before 403), with supplements thereto (vol. iv. pts.

biography in Latin was translated into German (1901) by N. Seng.

manufactures include hosiery, soap, pianofortes, machinery, furniture, chemicals and cement. It also has wool-spinning establishments, breweries, and a corn exchange, and trades in wool, timber

Geschichtswerkes

1878); Thukydides und sein Urkundenmaterial (1895).

turists and hunters, the culture of the majority differs in few respects from the horse-breeding nomadism of the Mongols whose customs, in spite of Czaplicka’s statement, are also very similar to those of the Kirghis. They are exogamous in relation to the blood clan, but enjoy a good deal

45D -

BY COURTESY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF

of

antenuptial

freedom

within

Caen eee ae MAE Oit Revae) yp(L E D.B)

NATURAL HISTORY LOCK RIFLE

|

i

the

clan.

(See

also

KIRGHIZ

KIRGHIZ REPUBLIC,

a

autonomous Socialist Soviet republic, in the Russian S.F.S.R., lying to the south-east of Kazakstan, which forms its northern boundary. It lies between 43° 24° N. and 39° 17’ N. and 70° E. and 80° E. Chinese Turkistan lies on the east, the autonomous Badakshan area and the Tajik A.S.S.R. on the south, while on the west are the Uzbek A.S.S.R. and Kazakstan. It is a mountain within the western extension of the Tian Shan

region, lying range which

branches off from the Khan-tengri mountain knot (23,600 ft.) in 80° rr’ E. and 42° 13’ N., on the western border of Chinese Turkistan. The Kunghei Ala-tau skirts the north of Lake IssykKul; its southern slopes lie in the Kirghiz A.S.S.R., and its northern in Kazakstan. Most of the Alexander range, a western continuation of the Kunghei-Ala-tau, lies within the Kirghiz republic, as does the valley to the north, where the Chu river is the frontier between

Kazakstan and the Kirghiz A.S.S.R. as far west as the village of Kamyshanka. The Alexander range bifurcates into two branches, the southern or Talas-tau lying within the Kirghiz A.S.S.R. The Terskei Ala-tau skirts the south of Lake Issyk-Kul, separating

the lake, which appears to be a hollow of tectonic origin, from the high valley of the Naryn river. Striking south-westwards from Khan-tengri is the Kok-shal tau, whose crest forms the boundary between Russia and Chinese Turkistan. This range terminates in the Terek-tau, from which the Ferghana mountains branch northwest and form a knot with the Talas-tau. The Naryn river enters the Ferghana valley through a deep cleft in the Ferghana range, the northern portion of which is sometimes called the Uzun-tau.

From the knot, the Ala-tau branch to the north-west and the

KIRCHHOFF, JOHANN WILHELM ADOLF (18261908), German classical scholar and epigraphist, was born in Berlin, His works include Die Homerische Odyssee (1859), putting forward a new theory as to the composition of the Odyssey; editions of Plotinus (1856), Euripides (1855 and 1877-78), Aeschylus (1880), Hesiod (Works and Days, 1889), Xenophon,

On the Athenian

Constitution

(3rd ed., 1889);

Uber die

Chatkal-tau to the south-west. The Naryn river rises in two streams, the little and the great Naryn and between them, and parallel with them, lies the Dzhitym-tau range; south of ; the Naryn, below the town of Narynsk, lies the Kalkagar range, with

the Dongus-tau to the north.

Lake Son-Kul lies between this

range and the Dzhungal-tau. Stretching from the Talas-tau to the Dongus-tau is the Susamyr-tau. From Lake Chatyr-Kul. to LL Da e a A

412

KIRGHIZ

the north-east, the great Ak-Sai plateau extends with the Ak-Sai river flowing along to Chinese Turkestan. The topography of the region has been profoundly influenced by its geological history. The closely folded Palaeozoic limestones and slates, which form the Tian Shan system were once a peneplain, in which warping and tilting took place, and in the basins thus formed late Mesozoic and Tertiary sandstones and shales were deposited, and the whole surface was

once more worn

down.

But in late Tertiary times

folding took place and the region was pushed to a great height, so that the plateau south of Lake Issyk-Kul is at an average elevation of 12,000 ft. Lake Issyk-Kul itself is 5,000 ft. above

sea level. The main mass of the plateau is about 150 m. in width and consists of broad shallow basins (altitude c. 10,000 ft.) running in an east-west direction, separated by the broad ridges mentioned previously which slope gently to altitudes of 13,000 to 16,000 ft., their flat tops reminiscent of the ancient peneplain. The Kokshal-tau range (16,000 ft.) has a more typical young fold mountain appearance, with sharp-edged peaks. The republic is a glacial region, the numerous small glaciers varying from one to five miles in length and occurring usually at altitudes of 12,000 ft. Broad U-shaped glacial valleys are the prevailing type, though V-shaped river gorges alternate picturesquely with them. Terraces occur in the river valleys, sometimes half a dozen, one above the other. Ellsworth Huntington concluded from his examination of the region that there had been at least five decreasingly severe

REPUBLIC crops are dependent on primitive irrigation channels.

The milk,

meat and “kumiss” or fermented mare’s milk, diet, is increasingly

supplemented by grain, tea and sugar. The tents and their furiture are much the same as those in Kazakstan (¢.v.). In the

fertile loess belt extending from Frunze to the north-east of Lake

Issyk-Kul, there are colonies of Russian settlers, and here and

in the loess region round Dzhalyal-Abad

and Osh, where the

eastern end of the Ferghana valley penetrates into the republic, irrigation-cultivation of an intensive type is carried On; cotton in 1926—27 yielded 38,000 tons, and grain and fruits, vine, apricot,

peach and melon were raised in quantity. Rice and opium poppy

are grown near Dzhalyal-Abad, and the silkworm is bred, about 128,000 tons of cocoons per annum being produced. A little coal and rock salt are mined, but lack of transport facilities prevents the working of the coal, naphtha, ozokerite, iron, copper, lead,

silver, zinc, gold and asbestos known to exist. Homespun woollen, cotton and silk goods are made; felt and rugs for the tents, ornamented leather goods and small metal utensils, but they are essen. tially peasant industries to meet local needs.

Factory industry is almost non-existent, except for a few dis-

tilleries and oil pressing works, but since 1925 three or four cottoncleaning factories have been successfully established in the Dzhalyal-Abad-Osh district. Means of communication in this

remote and difficult region are almost absent.

A branch of the

Orenburg-Tashkent railway passes through Frunze and has been glacial advances, with interglacial periods of warm climate. recently extended to Tokmak, and a branch of the KokandThe climate varies with altitude and exposure; slopes exposed Andizhan railway reaches Dzhalyal-Abad, but these two regions to the west or north receive winds bearing more moisture and are on the fringes of the republic. Steamers ply on Lake Issykhave less insolation and are therefore more favourable to vegeta- Kul. Education and medical help are available only in a few tion. Rainfall increases steadily with altitude up to 10,000 ft., settlements; the vast majority of the Kirghiz are beyond their after which precipitation takes the form of snow, even in the reach. Of the 9% of the population able to read and write, most height of summer, and hard frosts occur at night. The prevailing are Russians. The population in 1926 was about 990,000, of whom vegetation, in dependence on this abundant precipitation and on 66-6% were Kara-Kirghiz, 11-1% Uzbeks, 11-7% Russians and the altitude, is alpine and sub-alpine meadow, with luscious grass 6-4% Ukrainians. The administrative centre is Frunze, mainly a and abundance of gaily coloured flowers. Forests are rare, except Russian town; Naryn, in the centre of the high plateau, pop. in the valley bottoms and along some of the northern slopes; they. (1926) 1,547 is the only settlement of town type where the Kirare coniferous in type, with some birch and poplar. According ghiz predominate. The Kara-Kirghiz are a branch of the same to P. P. Semenov, the northern slopes may be roughly divided Turkish (Mongol-Tatar) race as the Kazak-Kirghiz and resemble into a steppe region reaching 1,575 ft. in altitude, a zone of cul- them in physical type and language (see KazAKSTAN). The name tivation to 4,300 ft., then coniferous trees to 8,100 ft., sub-alpine, Kirghiz originally applied to them alone and they trace it from a and alpine pasture to 11,900 ft., with perpetual snow above. legendary chief named Kirghiz. Kara (black) was prefixed beApple, plum and apricot grow wild in a few valleys up to 7,000 cause of the colour of their felt tents or “kibitkas.” Russian writft., but fruits and berries are rare. The abundance of flowers, ers refer to them as Cherniye (Black) or Dikokammen iye (Wild especially

east of Lake Issyk-Kul makes bee-keeping profitable, and 820 tons of honey were exported in 1914. Wild animal life

Stone or Rocky) Kirghiz, and a few English writers have called them Black Kirghiz. is scarce, though birds are numerous in the lower slopes, especially The name Kirghiz first occurs in an account of an embassy round the lakes. The mouflon, antelope and argalleh are found, sent to them by the East Roman emperor, Justin II. in 560. and also rabbits. Between 9,000 and 12,000 ft., where the grass Chinese chroniclers (1280-1367) refer to them as Ki-li-ki-tz’ and is richest, the marmot is found in great numbers. The chief place their territory north-west of Pekin, about the head-streams wealth of the region, in dependence on the fact that 90% of the of the Yenisei, while the earlier records of the T’ang dynasty useful land is occupied by meadow and pasture, is in its flocks (618-907) refer to them as Kha-kia-tz’ (pronounced Khaka, and and herds. The fat-tailed sheep is the most numerous and there sometimes transliterated Haka). These records also, afford eviwere about 4,000,000 in 1926~27, furnishing milk, meat, wool and dence of their Mongol-Tatar origin. They have been settled in leather. Cows and yaks are also bred mainly as milch and draught these mountain fastnesses at least since the 13th century and catile, the latter to be exported to the agricultural areas of probably earlier. At one time the upper Yenisei and Baikal regions the other central Asiatic republics. Horses of a small, shaggy, were occupied by the Kara-Kirghiz and they were referred to by stocky breed come next in numbers, and are valued mainly for the Mongols as Burut, ut being the Mongolian plural ending modiriding, not as pack animals. The two-humped Bactrian camel is fied to Buriat (see Buriat-Moncor S.S.R.). However, in the bred, both for sale in the lowlands and as a beast of burden; its 17th century the Russians and Kazak-Kitghiz exterminated those milk and hair are also useful. Goats, often used to lead the flocks east of the Irtish, and drove the remainder west and southof sheep, are kept and in a few valleys pigs are bred. Watch dogs west. Most of them sought refuge with their nomad Kara-Kirghiz guard every encampment. kinsmen in the highlands of the Tian The ancient nomad method of relying entirely on pasture both The Kara-Kirghiz are grouped into the OnShan and Pamir region. (right or east) section winter and summer is fast dying out. To-day the largest group of occupying the Issyk-Kul, Chu, Tekes and Naryn valleys and the inhabitants depends on herding plus some cultivation, often the Sol (left or west) section, occupying the region between the growing of lucerne. Many Kirghiz are in the semi-nomadic Talass and Oxus headstreams. Nomad groups often visit the stage of relying on some particular valley for wintering their Pamir plateau in summer, and Kara-Kirghiz are to be found in flocks. This means that hay must be grown and dried for winter Chinese Turkistan. Their region was annexed to Russia in 1864, use, and grain, especially wheat and barley, is often grown as well. and under the tsarist Government formed part of the Turkistan The houses in these winter “auls” are built of mud, with flat roofs, province. For a time after 1917 there was a Turkistan republic, on which are stored the haystacks for winter use; the grain fields which included the Kara-Kirghiz region. In 1924 it ceased to exist are roughly divided by mud and stone walls. In many places the and the Kara-Kirghiz autonomous area, reorganized in 1926 as 3

413

KIRIN—KIRKCUDBRIGHT .

republic, was created.

BrLi0cRAPHY.—N. B. Arkhipov, Central Asiatic Republics (1927, in

in Russian) ; Ellsworth Huntington, “The Mountains of Turkestan,”Tian Geographical Journal (1905, pp. 22-40 and 139-158); see also Sgan and RUSSIA: Bibliography.

IRIN: see MANCHURIA.

To the west lies Beveridge park of 110 acres, including a large sheet of water, which was presented to the town in 1892. The harbour has an inner and outer division, with wet dock and wharves. Extensions, which include the lengthening of the east pier and the construction of a south pier, a tidal harbour and a dock, were opened in 1909.

Besides the manufacture of sheeting,

towelling, ticks, dowlas and sail-cloth, the principal industries ministrator, son of the Rev. Jobn Kirk, was born at Barry, near include flax tow and jute spinning, net and rope making, bleaching, Arbroath, on Dec. 19, 1832 and died on Jan. 15, 1922. He was dyeing, brass and iron founding, and there are potteries, machine educated at Edinburgh for the medical profession, and after serv- works, fisheries, and factories for the making of oil-cloth and ing on the civil medical staff in the Dardanelles throughout the linoleum. In 1847 Michael Nairn invented the method of making Crimean War, was appointed in Feb. 1858 physician and naturalist oil-cloth. Kirkcaldy has kept the predominance in its manufacture to David Livingstone’s second expedition to Central Africa. He to which Nairn’s enterprise entitled it, and is the centre of the was by Livingstone’s side in most of his journeyings during the oil-cloth and linoleum manufacture of the kingdom. Kirkcaldy next five years, and was one of the first four white men to behold combines with Dysart, Buckhaven (with Methil and Innerleven), Lake Nyassa (Sept. 16, 1859). He was finally invalided home on Kinghorn and Burntisland to return one member to parliament. KIRKCALDY OF GRANGE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1520May 9, 1863. The reputation he gained during this expedition 1573), Scottish politician, was the eldest son of Sir James Kirkled to his appointment in Jan. 1866 as acting surgeon to the political agency at Zanzibar. In 1867 he was made vice-consul caldy of Grange (d. 1556). Sir James was lord high treasurer of Zanzibar, and in 1868 became assistant political agent, being of Scotland from 1537 to 1543 and was a determined opponent raised to the rank of consul-general and agent in 1873. He retired of Cardinal Beaton, in whose murder (1546) he was assisted by in 1887. The twenty-one years spent by Kirk in Zanzibar cov- William Kirkcaldy. In July 1547 he was captured by the French ered the most critical period of the history of European interven- and sent as a prisoner to Normandy, whence he escaped in 1550. tion in East Africa; and during the greater part of that time he He was employed in France as a secret agent by Edward VI., was the ritual ruler (see ZANZIBAR). Kirk resigned his post being known as Corax; and later he served in the French army. (July 1887), retiring from the consular service. In 1889-1890 The sentence passed on Kirkcaldy for his share in Beaton’s he was a plenipotentiary at the slave trade conference in Brussels, murder was removed in 1556, and he returned to Scotland in and was one of the delegates who fixed the tariff duties to be 1557. He was one of the leaders of the lords of the congregation imposed in the Congo basin. In 1895 he was sent by the British in their struggle with the regent, Mary of Lorraine. He opposed government on a mission to the Niger; and on his return he Queen Mary’s marriage with Darnley, and was forced to seek was appointed a member of the Foreign Office committee for refuge in England (1566). Returning to Scotland, he was acconstructing the Uganda railway. As a naturalist Kirk took high cessory to the murder of Rizzio, but he had no share in that rank, and many species of the flora and fauna of Central Africa of Darnley; and he was one of the lords who banded themselves were made known by him, and several bear his name, e.g., the Oto- together to rescue Mary after her marriage with Bothwell. After gale kirkii (a lemuroid), the Madoqua kirkii (a diminutive ante- the fight at Carberry Hill the queen surrendered to Kirkcaldy, and he was mainly responsible for her defeat at Langside. After the lope), the Landolphia kirkii and the Clematis kirkii. KIRKBY, JOHN (d. 1290), English ecclesiastic and states- murder of Murray Kirkcaldy ranged himself definitely among the man, entered the public service as a clerk of the chancery during friends of the imprisoned queen. Defying the regent Lennox, he the reign of Henry III., and became keeper of the great seal in began to strengthen the fortifications of Edinburgh castle, of 1272. In 1282 he was employed by Edward I. to collect money in which he was governor, and which he held for Mary, and early the counties and boroughs. His services to Edward were rewarded in 1573 he refused to come to an agreement with the regent by several valuable benefices in the church. In 1286, two years Morton because the terms of peace did not include a section of after he had become treasurer, he was elected bishop of Ely, and his friends. After this some English troops arrived to help the he was ordained priest and consecrated by John Peckham, Arch- Scots, and in May 1573 the castle surrendered. Strenuous efforts were made to save Kirkcaldy from the vengeance of his foes, but bishop of Canterbury. He died at Ely on March 26, 1290. they were unavailing; he was hanged on Aug. 3, 1573. Kirkby’s Quest is the name given to a survey of various English

KIRK, SIR J OHN

(1832-1 922), British naturalist and ad-

counties which was made

under

the bishop’s direction probably in

1284-85. For this see Inquisitions and Assessments relating to Feudal

Aids, 1284-1431, Vol. i. (1899).

KIRKCALDY, a royal and police burgh, parish, and seaport, of Fifeshire, Scotland. Pop. (1931), 43,874. It lies on the Firth of Forth, 26 m. N. of Edinburgh by the L.N.E. railway, via the Forth bridge. Although Columba is said to have planted a church here, the authoritative history of the town does not begin for several centuries after the era of the saint. In 1240 the church was bestowed by David, bishop of St. Andrews, on Dunfermline abbey, and in 1334 the town with its harbour was granted by

David IT. to the same abbey, by which it was conveyed to the

bailies and council in 1450, when Kirkcaldy was created a royal burgh. In the course of another century it had become an important commercial centre, the salt trade of the district being then the largest in Scotland. In 1644 it was made a free port, and six years later it was assessed as the sixth town in the kingdom. After the Union its shipping fell off, Jacobite troubles and the American War of Independence accelerating the decline. But its linen manufactures, begun early in the 18th century, restored

prosperity. It is called the “lang toun,” as since it absorbed Link-

town and Abbotshall on the west, and Pathhead, Sinclairtown and Gallatown on the east, it has reached a length of nearly 4m. The parish church was mainly rebuilt in 1809, but has a Norman lower. The high school (1894) has succeeded the burgh school

(1582).

Thomas

Carlyle

was

its master

1816-18.

See Sir James Melville, Memoirs, ed. T. Thomson (Edinburgh, 1827); J. Grant, Memoirs and Adventures of Sir W. Kirkcaldy (Edinburgh, 1849); L. A. Barbé, Kirkcaldy of Grange (1897); and A. Lang, History of Scotland, vol. ii, (1902).

KIRKCUDBRIGHT

(Kur-k60’bri),

royal burgh, parish

and county town, Kirkcudbrightshire, Scotland. Pop. (1931) 2,311. It is situated at the mouth of the Dee, crossed here by a bridge, 6 m. from the sea and 30 m. S.W. of Dumfries by the L.M.S. railway, being the terminus of a branch line. The old form of the name of the town was Kilcudbrit, from the Gaelic Cit Cudbert, “the chapel of Cuthbert,” the saint’s body having lain here for a short time during the seven years that lapsed between its exhumation at Lindisfarne and the re-interment at Chester-leStreet. The estuary of the Dee is divided at its head by the pen-

insula of St. Mary’s isle, but though the harbour is good, the

distance to which the tide retreats impairs its usefulness. The market cross stands in front of the old court-house, now a factory. The ivy-clad ruins of Bomby castle, founded in 1582 by Sir Thomas Maciellan, ancestor of the barons of Kirkcudbright, stand

at the end of the chief street. The town, which witnessed much of the international strife and Border lawlessness, was taken by Edward I. in 1300. It received its royal charter in 1455. After the battle of Towton, Henry VI. crossed the Solway and landed at Kirkcudbright to join Queen Margaret at Linlithgow. It withstood the English siege in 1547 under Sir Thomas Carleton, but after the country had been overrun was compelled to surrender.

a

414

KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE—KIRKLAND

Lord Maxwell, earl of Morton, as a Roman Catholic, mustered his tenants here to act in concert with the Armada; but on the approach of King James VI. to Dumfries he took ship at Kirkcudbright and was captured. On St. Mary’s isle was situated the seat of the earl of Selkirk, at whose house Robert Burns gave the famous Selkirk grace. Some ha’e meat, and canna eat, And some wad eat that want it; But we ha’e meat, and we can eat, And sae the Lord be thankit.

example

KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE

of the Early Pointed

a

The only railway communication is by the L.M.S. railway, run. | ning from Dumfries to Castle Douglas, from which there is a

branch to Kirkcudbright, and the line beginning at Castle Douglas

and leaving the county at Newton Stewart. The population was 30,341 in 1931, when 83 persons spoke

The chief towns are Castle Douglas (pop.

Gaelic and English.

in 1931, 3,008), Dalbeattie (3,011), Kirkcudbright (2,311), Max-

welltown (6,094, 1921). The shire returns I member to parliament,

KIRKE, PERCY

(c. 1646-1691), English soldier, was the

son of George Kirke, a court official to Charles I. and Charles IL,

DUNDRENNAN ABBEY, 44 m. S.E., was the greatest achievement of Fergus, Lord of Galloway, a celebrated church builder of the rath century. It was a Cistercian house, colonized from Rievaulx, and was built in 1140. There now remain only the transept and choir, a unique

LAKE

style.

(also known as the STEWARTRY

OF KIRKCUDBRICHT and Easr GALrLoway), county, Scotland, bounded north and north-west by Ayrshire, west and south-west by Wigtownshire, south and south-east by the Irish sea and Solway firth, and east and north-east by Dumfriesshire. It includes the small islands of Hestan and Little Ross, used as lighthouse stations. The north-western part of the shire is rugged and desolate. In this quarter the principal mountains are Merrick (2,764 ft.), the highest in the south of Scotland, and the group of the Rinns of Kells. Towards the south-west the chief hills are Lamachan, Larg and the bold mass of Cairnsmore of Fleet. In the south-east Criffel stands almost isolated. In the north rises the fine hill of Cairnsmuir of Carsphairn, and close to the Ayrshire border is the Windy Standard. Much of the highest ground consists of intrusive granite masses, but the rocks of widest extent are Silurian and Ordovician, folded in a direction north-east—south-west and consisting mainly of shales and grits. The south of the shire is mostly level or undulating, but picturesque: glacial deposits here cover much of the surface. Large stretches of sand are exposed in the Solway at low water. The number of “burns” and “‘waters” is remarkable, but their length seldom exceeds 7 or 8 miles. Among the longer rivers are the Cree, which rises in Loch Moan and reaches the sea near Creetown after a course of about 30 m., during which it forms the boundary, at first of Ayrshire and then of Wigtownshire; the Dee or Black Water of Dee (so named from the peat by which it is coloured), which rises in Loch Dee and after a course mainly south-east and finally south, enters the sea at St. Mary’s isle below Kirkcudbright, its length being nearly 36 m.; the Urr, rising in Loch Urr on the Dumfriesshire border, falls into the sea a few miles south of Dalbeattie 27 m. from its source; the Ken, rising on the confines of Ayrshire, flows mainly southerly and joins the Dee at the southern end of Loch Ken after a course of 24 m.; and the Deugh which, rising on the northern flank of the Windy Standard, pursues a winding course ing the Ken. The Nith, during the last forms the boundary with Dumfriesshire, to wholly belongs. Lochs and mountain tarns

of 20 m. before reachfew miles of its flow, which county it almost are many; but except Loch Ken, which is about 6 m. long by 4 m. wide, none is large. There are several passes in the hill regions, but the only wellknown glen is Glen Trool, not far from the district of Carrick in Ayrshire, and famous for its wild scenery and its associations with Robert Bruce. ‘Agriculture.—The major part of the land is either waste or poor pasture, but considerable tracts have recently been reclaimed. More than half the holdings consist of 50 ac. and over. Oats are the predominant grain crop, the acreage of barley and wheat being insignificant. Turnips and potatoes are grown. Sheep and cattle-breeding are followed with success; Ayrshires are gradually ousting the black Galloway breed. Horses are raised, the small Galloway horses having given place to larger breeds. Pig-rearing

is important. The honey of the shire is in good repute. Industries.—The granite quarries near Dalbeattie and Creetown occupy a large number of hands. Sandstone also is quarried. The manufactures, mostly of woollen goods, are unimportant; tanning, corn-milling and paper-making are carried on, and.salmon are caught, Dee fish being notable.

entered the army in 1666, was with Monmouth at Maestricht (1673), and was present during two campaigns with Turenne on the Rhine. In 1680 he became lieutenant-colonel, and soon afterwards colonel of one of the Tangier regiments (afterwards the King’s Own Royal Lancaster Regt.). In 1682 Kirke became governor of Tangier, and colonel of the old Tangier regiment. He was a successful governor, though he gave offence by the roughness of his manners and the wildness of bis life. On the evacuation of

Tangier “Kirke’s Lambs” (so called from their badge) retumed to England, and in 1685 their colonel served as a brigadier in Faversham’s army. After Sedgemoor the rebels were treated with great severity. Brigadier Kirke took a notable part in the Revolution three years Jater. He commanded at the relief of Derry, and made his last campaign in Flanders in 1691. He died, a lieutenant. general, at Brussels in Oct. 1691.

KIRKINTILLOCH,

police burgh and parish, Dumbarton-

shire, Scotland. Pop. (1931) 11,817. It is situated 8 m. N.E. of Glasgow by the L.N-E. railway. It lies on the Forth and Clyde canal, and the Kelvin—from which Lord Kelvin, the distinguished scientist, took the title of his barony—flows past the town, where it receives from the north the Glazert and from the south the Luggie, commemorated by David Gray. The Wall of Antoninus ran through the site of the town, the Gaelic name of which (Caer,

a fort, not Kirk, a church) means “the fort at the end of the ridge.” The town became a burgh of barony under the Comyns in 1170. The cruciform parish church (1644), with crow-stepped gables, is used as a childrens’ church, a new parish church haying been built; the Broomhill bome for incurables is largely due to Miss Beatrice Clugston, to whom a memorial was erected in 1891. In 1898 the burgh acquired as a private park the Peel, containing traces of the Roman wall, a fort, and the foundation of Comyn’s castle. The leading industries are chemical manufactures, ironfounding, muslin-weaving, coal and iron mining and nickel-works. Lenzie, a suburb, a mile to the south of the old town with a junc-

tion station, contains the towered building, in the Elizabethan style, of the Glasgow dental hospital, and the Glasgow convalescent home.

KIRK-KILISSE or SARANDEKLISIE, a town of Euro-

pean Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople, 35 m. E. of Adrianople. Pop. (1905), about 16,000, of whom about half were Greeks, and the remainder Bulgarians, Turks and Jews. The Greeks have now left. Kirk-Kilisse is built near the headwaters of several small tributaries of the river Ergene, and on the western slope of the Istranja Dagh. It owes its chief importance to its position at the southern outlet of the Fakhi defile over these mountains, through which passes the shortest road from Shumla

to

Constantinople.

churches,”

The

name

and the town possesses

Kirk-Kilisse many

signifies “forty

mosques

and Greek

churches. It has an important trade with Constantinople in butter

and cheese, and also exports wine, brandy, cereals and tobacco. The Turkish army was defeated here in 1912. From 1920 to 1922 the town was in Greek territory.

KIRKLAND

LAKE, a thriving town of 4,000 inhabitants,

in the district of Temiskaming in northern Ontario, Canada, 60m. N. of Cobalt, on the Nipissing Central railway. It is the centre

of the Kirkland Lake gold camp, one of the richest concentrations of gold values in the world, and the most important gold producing locality in Canada outside Porcupine.

At present it I

cludes six producing mines, viz., Kirkland Lake, Teck-Hughes,

Lake Shore, Wright Hargreaves, Sylvanite, and Tough Oakes

Burnside, and further search for new mines is being carried on constantly both to the west and east.

415

KIRKSVILLE—KIRWAN The first gold discovery in the vicinity was made in 10911,

through the opening up of the country by the Temiskaming and

Northern railway.

Since then production has steadily increased.

In 1926 gold was produced to the value of $7,173,065; in 1927 production was estimated at $9,500,000, and it is expected to in-

crease greatly during the next few years. As a result of the gold discoveries in this district and in the Porcupine area, Canada now holds third place among the gold producing countries of the rid.

"KIRKSVILLE, a city of north-eastern Missouri, U.S.A., on the rolling prairie, at an altitude of 846ft.; the county seat of Adair county. It is on Federal highway 63, and is served by the Quincy,

Omaha and Kansas City and the Wabash railways; also motor bus

lines. The population was 7,213 in 1920, and 8,293 in 1930. Itis the commercial centre for a large agricultural and coal-mining region, and has shoe factories and other manufacturing industries.

It is the seat of the North-east Missouri State Teachers college, founded by Joseph Baldwin in 1867 and adopted by the State in

1870; and of the Andrew T. Still college of Osteopathy and Surgery (opened 1892), founded by and named for the originator

of osteopathic treatment, who settled here in 1875. Kirksville was laid out in 1842, incorporated as a town in 1857, and chartered as a city in 1892. It was named after Jesse Kirk. In April, 1899, a

cyclone caused serious damage. KIRKUK, an important foothill town in eastern ‘Iraq situated in 35° 30’ N., 45° 30’ E. The city was probably the capital of ancient Gutium, whose local god was Ramman, the thunder god. It does not appear to have been known during the period of Ur. It lies on the railroad from Baghdad to be extended to Mosul, and is one of the chief market centres of Kurdistan, in the centre

of a corn and fruit district. There is also a considerable sheep industry. The population consists mostly of Kurds and is estimated as high as 20,000. The town exports agricultural products and wood. The first large producer of the Turkish Petroleum Co. was drilled near here in 1927, with a showing for 60,000—-90,000 bbl. per day production of light oil.

KIRKWALL, a royal burgh, seaport and capital of the Orkney islands, county of Orkney, Scotland. Pop. (1931) 3,517. It is situated at the head of a bay of the same name on the east of the island of Pomona, or Mainland, 247 m. N. of Leith and 64m. N. of Wick by steamer. Much of the town is old-fashioned, its main street (nearly 1 m. long) being in parts so narrow that two vehicles cannot pass each other. Kirkwall has very few manufactures, the linen, kelp and straw-plaiting industries being extinct, but distilling and boat-building are carried on. The town is important not only as regards its shipping and the deep-sea fishery, but also as a distributing centre for the islands and the seat of the superior law courts. The port has two piers. Kirkwall received its first charter from James III. in 1486, but as it was disregarded by the earls of Orkney and others, parliament passed an act in 1670 confirming the charter granted by Charles

II. in 166r. The cathedral of St. Magnus, a stately cruciform red sandstone structure in severest Romanesque with touches of Gothic, was founded by Jarl Rognvald (Earl Ronald) in 1137

in memory of his uncle Jarl Magnus who was assassinated ın the island of Egilshay in 1115, and afterwards canonized and adopted as the patron saint of the Orkneys. The remains of Rognvald and St. Magnus were found in the cathedral in 1926. The choir was lengthened and the beautiful eastern rose window added by Bishop Stewart in 1511, and the porch and the western end of the nave were finished in 1540 by Bishop Robert Reid. Saving that the upper half of the original spire was struck by lightning in 1671, and not rebuilt, the cathedral is complete, but it underWent extensive repairs in the r9th century. The disproportionate

height and narrowness of the building lend it a certain distinction,

but the sandstone has not resisted the effects of weather, and much of the external decorative work has perished. The choir is used as the parish church. The church of St. Olaf, from which the town took its name, was burned down by the English in 1502; and of the church erected on its site by Bishop Reid—the gréatest building the Orkneys ever had—only a fragment survives.

Nothing remains of the old castle, founded by Sir Henry Sinclair (d. 1400), earl and prince of Orkney and rst earl of Caithness, and the earthwork to the east of the town thrown up by the Cromwellians has been converted into a battery of the Orkney

Artillery bishop’s Largs in contains who also

Volunteers. Adjoining the cathedral are the ruins of the palace, in which King Haco died after his defeat at 1263. The round tower, added by Bishop Reid in 1550, a niche with an effigy believed to represent the founder, endowed the grammar school which is still in existence.

To the east are the ruins of the earl’s palace, built about 1600 for Patrick Stewart, 2nd earl of Orkney, and on his forfeiture given to the bishops for a residence. Tankerness house is a characteristic example of the old mansion of an Orkney laird. There is daily communication with Stromness, and with Scrabster pier (Thurso), via Scapa pier, about 14 m. to the S. of Kirkwall; and steamers sail regularly from the harbour to Lerwick, Aberdeen, Leith, and other islands in the Orkneys. Good roads place the capital in touch with most places in the island.

KIRKWOOD, a city of St. Louis county, Missouri, U.S.A., 14m. W. of the City Hall of St. Louis; served by the Frisco and the Missouri Pacific railways. It is a residential suburb, with a population in 1930 of 9,169.

KIRRIEMUIR, a burgh of barony and police burgh of Forfarshire, Scotland. Pop. (1931), 3,326. It is situated on a height above the glen through which the Gairie flows, 64 m. N.W. of Forfar by a branch line of the L.M.S. railway of which it is the terminus. The staple industry is linen-weaving. Sir J. M. Barrie (b, 1860) was born here, and made the town famous under the name ot “Thrums.” The original Secession church—the kirk of the Auld Lichts—was founded in 1806 and rebuilt in 1893.

KTRSANOYV, a town of the Russian S.F.S.R. in the province

of Tambov, in 52° 39’ N., 42° 42’ E., on a small tributary of the Vorona river, and on the railway. Pop. (1926) 25,043. It has grown rapidly since 1900, and has smelting works and steam flour mills and a grain elevator. It was founded at the beginning of the 18th century as a result of the working of iron in the locality.

KIRSCH or KIRSCHENWASSER, a potable spirit distilled

from cherries. Kirsch is manufactured chiefly in the Black forest

in Germany, and in the Vosges and Jura districts in France. Generally the raw material consists of the wild cherry known as Cerasus avium The cherries are subjected to natural fermenta-

tion and subsequent distillation.

Occasionally a certain quantity

of sugar and water is added to the cherries after crushing, and the mass so obtained is filtered or pressed prior to fermentation. The spirit is usually “run” at a strength of about 50% of absolute alcohol Compared with brandy or whisky the characteristic features of kirsch are (a) that it contains relatively large quantities of higher alcohols and compound ethers and (b) the presence in this spirit of small quantities of hydrocyanic acid, partly as such and partly in combination as benzaldehydecyanhydrine, to which the distinctive flavour of kirsch is largely due.

KIR-SHEHER, the chief town of a vilayet in Asia Minor,

situated on a tributary of the Kizil Irmak (Halys), on the AngoraKaisarieh road. The town gives its name to the excellent carpets made in the vicinity. On the outskirts there is a hot chalybeate spring. Pop. (1927) 67,731. Kir-sheher represents the ancient Mocissus, a small town which became important in the Byzantine period: it was enlarged by the emperor Justinian, who re-named

it Justinianopolis, and made it the capital of a large division of Cappadocia.

KIRWAN,

RICHARD

(1733-1812),

Irish scientist, was

born at Cloughballymore, Co. Galway, in 1733.

In 1766 he was

called to the Irish bar, but in 1768 abandoned practice in favour

of scientific pursuits. During the next nineteen years he resided chiefly in London, enjoying the. society of the scientific men

living there. His experiments on the specific gravities: and at-

tractive powers of various saline substances formed a substantial

contribution to the methods of analytical chemistry, and, in 1.782 gained him the Copley medal from. the Royal Society, of which he was elected a fellow in 1780; and in 1784 he was’ engaged in

KI-SEKI—KISH

416

a controversy with Cavendish in regard to the latter’s experiments on air. In 1787 he removed to Dublin, where four years later he became president of the Royal Irish Academy. He was one of the last supporters in England of the phlogistic hypothesis, for which he contended in his Essay on Phlogiston and the Constitution of Acids (1787), identifying phlogiston with hydrogen. This

work, translated by Madame Lavoisier, was published in French with critical notes by Lavoisier and some of his associates; Kirwan

attempted to refute their arguments, but they proved too strong for him, and he acknowledged himself a convert in 1791. His other books included Elements of Mineralogy (1784), which was the first systematic work on that subject in the English language, and which long remained standard; Am Estimate of the Temperature of Diferent Latitudes (1787); Essay of the Analysis of Mineral Waters (1799), and Geological Essays (1799). He died in Dublin in June 1812.

KI-SEKI (rare or strange stones): see BON-SEKI.

KISFALUDY, KAROLY [Cxartes] (1788-1830), Hun-

garian author, was born at Téte, near Raab, on Feb. 6, 1788, His birth cost his mother her life and himself his father’s undying hatred. He entered the army as a cadet in 1804; saw active service in Italy, Serbia and Bavaria (1805-1809), distinguishing himself at the battle of Leoben (May 25, 1809). During the war he composed his first poems, e.g., the tragedy Gyilkos (“The Murder,” 1808), and numerous martial songs. He fell hopelessly in love with the beautiful Katalin Heppler, the daughter of a wealthy tobacco merchant. Kisfaludy, contrary to his father’s wishes, now threw up his commission and went to live with a married sister at Vérréck. In 1812 he studied painting at Vienna, till the theatre attracted him. In 1812 he wrote the tragedy Klára Zách, and in 1815 went to Italy to study art more thoroughly. But he was back again within six months, and for the next three years lived a wandering life. The elder Kisfaludy refused any reconciliation. But the son became immediately famous with the production (1819) of his drama Jlka, written for the Fehérvár dramatic society. Subsequent plays,

The Voivode Stiber and The Petitioners (the first original Magyar dramas), were equally successful. Kisfaludy may be said to have created the Hungarian drama. In May 1820 he wrote three new plays which still further increased his reputation. From 1820 onwards, under the influence of the critic Kazinczy, he learnt to polish and refine his style, while his friend and adviser Gyorgy

Gaal (who translated some of his dramas for the Vienna stage) introduced him to the works of Shakespeare and Goethe. By this time Kisfaludy had evolved a literary theory of his own which inclined towards romanticism; and in collaboration with his elder brother Alexander (see below) he founded the periodical Aurora (1822), which attracted many young authors (including Vörösmarty, Bajza and Czuczor) and became the organ of romanticists. Kisfaludy contributed to Aurora ballads, epigrams, short epic pieces, and, best of all, his comic stories. His comic types amuse and delight to this day. When the folktale became popular in Europe, Kisfaludy set to work upon folk-tales also, and produced (1828) some of the masterpieces of that genre. He died on Nov. 21, 1830. Six years later the great literary society of Hungary, the Kisfaludy Társaság, was

founded

to commemorate

his genius.

Kisfaludy

revived and

nationalized the Magyar literature, giving it a range and scope undreamed of before his time. The first edition of Kisfaludy’s works, in ro volumes, appeared at Buda in 1831, shortly after his death, but the 7th edition (Budapest, 1893) is the best and fullest. See Ferenc Toldy, Lives of the Magyar Poets (Hung.) (Budapest, 1870) ; Zsolt Beéthy, The Father of Hungarian Comedy (Budapest, 1882) ; Tamas Szana, The Two Kisfaludys (Hung.) (Budapest, 1876). Kisfaludy’s struggles and adventures are also most vividly described in Jékai’s novel, Eppur st muove (Hung.).

KisFaLupy

SÁNDOR

[ALEXANDER]

(1772-1844),

Hungarian

poet, elder brother of the preceding, was born at Zala on the 27th of September 1772, educated at Raab, and graduated in philosophy ahd jurisprudence at Pressburg. He entered the Life Guards (1793) and plunged into the gay life of Vienna. In 1796 he was transferred to the army in Italy for being concerned

with other officers in certain irregularities. When Milan was captured by Napoleon Kisfaludy was sent a prisoner of war to Vaucluse, where he studied Petrarch with enthusiasm and fel violently in love with Caroline D’Esclapon, a kindred spirit to whom he addressed his melancholy Himfy Lays. He left the army in September 1799, and married his old love Rózá Szegedy at the beginning of 1800. The first five happy years of their life were passed at Kám in Vás county, but in 1805 they removed to Siimeg where Kisfaludy gave himself up entirely to literature, He had published a volume of erotic poetry which made him famous, and his reputation was still further increased by his

Regék or Tales. In 1820 the Marczebanya Institute crowned his Tales.

Karoly

In 1822 he started the Aurora with his younger brother

(see above).

He died on Oct.

28, 1844.

Alexander

Kisfaludy’s art was self-taught, solitary and absolutely inde. pendent. If he imitated any one it was Petrarch; indeed his famous Himfy szerelmei (“The Loves of Himfy”), as his cok lected sonnets are called, have won for him the title of “The Hungarian Petrarch.” Of his plays Hunyádi János (1816) need alone be mentioned. The best critical edition of Sandor Kisfaludy’s works is the fourth complete edition, by David Angyal, in eight volumes (Budapest, 1893). See Tamas Szana, The Two Kisfaludys (Hung.) (Budapest, 1876); Imre Sándor, The Influence of the Italian on the Hungarian Literature (Hung.) (Budapest, 1878) ; Kalman Sümegi, Kisfaludy and his Tales (Hung.) (Budapest, 1877). (R. N. B.)

KISH, an island in the Persian gulf. (See Qars.) KISH (modern Tal al-Uhaimer), one of the most ancient and important cities of Sumer and Akkad, lies in a direct line about 8 miles from Babil, and ro from Hillaa, in 32° 30’ N. 45° E. The site is a very extensive one and is in the course of excavation by a joint expedition of the University of Oxford (Weld) and the Field Museum of Chicago. The city lies on either side of the old bed of the Euphrates, and for descriptive purposes may be divided into eastern and western Kish, in relation to the river. There was also a great canal running through the eastern city. The ruins are extremely extensive. The western flank of the city is guarded by two mounds, probably the fortress of the city, the later mound to the south being known to-day as Tal Khuzna, “the hill of treasure.” The fortress consists of a large buttressed rampart, containing large chambers; some pottery of the Hammurabi period has been found here. The two hills stand up about forty feet above the plain, and from them (near the south-west corner of extensive city ruins) runs a massive wall and moat terminating in a low mound, no doubt a fort on the western bank of the old river channel. The city ruins which cover a wide area east of the twin western forts consist of a series of low mounds, which on their northern aspect extend as far as the ziggurat. These mounds have been extensively pillaged by illicit diggers and are probably the site from which many contracts have come. They terminate to the north-east in the great stage which rises 90 ft. above the plain and has received its modern name of Tal al-Uhaimer, the “little red mound,” from the great mass of

baked bricks of the period of Samsu-iluna which stands out very prominently across the plain and has protected the rest of the tower from erosion. East of the ziggurat is a series of low mounds, identified by Langdon as the ruins of Emete-ursag. These ruins cover a wide area and Langdon believes that they are the

remains of one of the most extensive temples of Sumer and Akkad. South of the ziggurat and between it and the southern wall there is a wide space which seems originally to have been a city park. In addition to these extensive ruins in western Kish there are also chains of mounds which lead to the new bed of the Euphrates. These can with certainty be identified with the outer defences which Nebuchadrezzar claims to have’made. Their great extent is probably responsible for the large dimensions

attributed by Herodotus and other ancient authorities to the walls of Babylon (see Basyton).

Western Kish must therefore

have formed in later times, long after the river changed its course, if not an important city, at least an important element m the outer defences of its successor, the town of Babylon. Eastern Kish lying about a mile from the ziggurat is much

417

KISHANGARH more extensive and impressive.

It consists of two parts, divided

by an old canal. Between this and the river bed there are first 4 series of three mounds, which were probably forts.

The most

southerly lies on the other side of the river from the fort which

uards the end of the wall of western Kish. Between these forts

and the canal there lies a mound about three quarters of a mile

long and about 25 ft. high, which contained a large number of tablets and some late graves. The canal which lay east of this mound is marked to-day by a long series of narrow mounds,

which stand out and are most impressive, especially when half concealed by the mists at dawn. The canal appears to have been reconstructed at various times, and may even have been in use

as late as the Abbasid period.

If this was so the water must

have been brought, as is the case with the modern canal a little distance away, from the new bed of the river near Hillaa.

Im-

mediately east of the canal are a series of sites. To the north lies a large flat area, not a mound, covered with plano-convex

pricks. It appears that this must have formed an important part

of Kish in early Sumerian times, and included the palace of the kings. It was entirely abandoned about 3000 B.c.

Further down

ihe canal and south-east of this area lies the great horse shaped Tal Bandar, “the harbour mound,” a very descriptive name. This

mound which is about 60 ft. high and 280 ft. in its greatest dimension from east to west, probably dates from the first Babylonian dynasty. It does not seem to have been a temple, but at present its purpose is quite undetermined, Immediately south of the “harbour mound” is a further mound, about 4o ft. above

the plain and about 2% acres in extent. A short distance south of this, and immediately opposite the city ruins on the west bank of the canal, lie the most impressive ruins of eastern Kish., They consist of two great stage towers and a huge temple area, adjoining which there are extensive city ruins. The central mounds, known to-day as Jnghara, a word of uncertain meaning, include two ziggurats joined together by a mass of ruins, and a mass of temple débris on the slopes of the mounds. The tower is 75 ft.

high and the spur to the north is 3 ac. in extent and almost as high as the tower. All around is a large area covered with temples in ancient times. To the east of the old temple area there are extensive city ruins which are protected to the east by two forts. The residential quarter covers nearly $ sq.m. and is in most places about 30 ft. high. The upper strata at least are NeoBabylonian.

It seems probable that the eastern forts mark the limits of the ancient city of Kish. Two miles, however, to the east, in a region of sand and desolation, lie the great mounds called by the Arabs Abu Sudaira, “the father of the Christ’s Thorn,” so-called from the single evidence of vegetation, a single shrub of Ziziphus Spina Christi which grows on the top. The mounds are irregular in shape and the lower summit is crowned with the remains of a Parthian tower. The whole surface is strewn with pottery of various dates, including some as late as Arab glazed pottery. There are Nebuchadrezzar bricks, and extensive traces of a cemetery, probably of no great antiquity. The mounds still await excavation. Farther east there is a further series of mounds; indeed the whole region between the Tigris and Kish contains abundant traces of intensive habitation. Some miles away, in 1925, Langdon excavated an early site at Jemdet-Nazr, “the hill of the saviour.” This mound, at present far from water, is probably on the site of some old stream bed, as the vegetation suggests traces

of underground water. Langdon found here the remains of an

ancient city whose pottery consisted entirely of painted ware. Its name and history are unknown. It certainly is of great anUquity from the pictographic tablet and the pottery, but nothing more is known. From the enormous numbers of pottery sickles

lying on the surface it must once have been the centre of an

yet been fully explored archaeologically. This agricultural prosperity dates from as early in Sumerian times as it is possible at present to identify with any certainty. The city of Kish itself formed the dominating fortified city of the region, just as to-day so many walled cities in China dominate an agricultural area. Sargon, himself a native of Kish, abandoned the city after making war on it and during the dark period which followed little is known of the city, which may have been one of the very earliest sites of Sumerian civilization in Mesopotamia. In spite of attempts to do so, Kish never again regained her supremacy, which passed to Babylon (no doubt owing to the change in the bed of the Euphrates, although we have at present no information when this change took place). Towards the end of the third millennium B.c. Hammurabi and’ his successor did much work on the rebuilding of the temples, and Kish remained an important city as one of the most revered religious shrines of Akkad. In Neo-Babylonian times it again entered into a period of prosperity, forming almost an outer suburb of Babylon. The last actual reference to Kish occurs in the Nabonidos Chronicle, 539 B.c. A Greek tomb was found in the place in eastern Kish, but probably western Kish was abandoned in the Persian period. It is curious that in Kish itself apart from this one tomb nothing later than Nabonidos has been found, whereas all the mounds along the Shatt al Nil, to the east of Kish, are strewn with later pottery. Two different processes have been at work: one, political, that which led to the fall of Kish from its predominance, and the other the reduction of so much of the area to entire desolation. A study of the canals shows that they gradually silted them-

selves up, but the more easterly, the Shatt al Nil, still remained as a possible supplier of water. Owing however to the lie of the land this canal runs to the east of Kish, and it is clear that the site has been progressively abandoned from the west, although it is probable that in early Sumerian times, when the river still

ran past the city, eastern Kish was the earlier site. In spite of the possibility that the canal in the centre of the city was finally repaired in Abbasid times, it is more probable that the true site of Kish was entirely abandoned in ancient times and the city moved about two miles east, where there are abundant traces of later habitation, but where there was already a city at least as early as Nebuchadrezzar. Finally this site was abandoned also. Langdon is inclined to suggest that this final abandonment of the whole site was due to desiccation. The breaking down of the canal system under the Mongols would equally suffice to produce

this result. The modern canal, based no doubt on water levels, runs east of Kish quite close to the sites of Abu Sudaira, and is playing an important part in rapidly converting that desolate region into irrigated land. In conclusion, it may be said that the city of Kish depended on the river itself and that, except for ancient prestige and religious sanctity, it ceased to be important when the river deserted it. When the town was reduced to a supply of water from the new

bed of the river, that canal was dug more to the east and so produced the Kish of Parthian, Persian and Arab times. When the canal system failed then those sites too melted into the desert. Meanwhile Babylon on the river usurped the place of Kish, and the site continued to be occupied, even though other later towns for various reasons succeeded to Babylon. BrsriocraPHy.—S. Langdon, Excavations at Kish, vol. i. (1924) and further publications of the University of Oxford (Weld) Field Museum (Chicago) Expedition to Mesopotamia (in the course of publication). 5

(L. H. D. B.)

KISHANGARH, an Indian state in the Rajputana agency. Area, 858 sq.m.; pop.

(1921), 77,734.

The state was founded

in the reign of the emperor Akbar, by a younger son of the raja

agricultural district,

_ the history of Kish is especially interesting from its geograph-

of Jodhpur. In 1818 Kishangarh first came into direct relations with the British government, by entering into a treaty, together with the other Rajput states, for the suppression of the Pindari

ical aspect. In early Sumerian times, though the details have yet

marauders

to be filled in, the whole region was the centre of a great wheat

growing district. It was watered by the Euphrates and the water

from the river was conducted in all probability across the present

desert, regions towards the Tigris, although this area has not as

by whom

the

country

was

at that

time

overrun.

The chief, whose title is maharaja, is a Rajput of the Rathor clan, and enjoys a salute of 15 guns. Irrigation from tanks and wells hds been extended; factories for ginning and pressing ¢otton have

been started; and the social reform movement, for discotiraging

KISHINEV—-KITASATO

418

excessive expenditure on marriages, has been very successful. The town of KiswaNcarH is 18 m. north-west of Ajmere by rail. Pop. (1921), 9,452. chants.

KISHINEV

It is the residence of many Jain mer,

(Rumanian,

Chisinau), a town of Bessarabia,

Rumania, capital of the department of Kishinev and formerly of the Russian

Government

of Bessarabia.

Pop.

(1924),

190,000,

a mixture of Jews (nearly 50%), Rumanians, Russians, Tatars, Germans, Bulgarians and gypsies. Kishinev lies on the river Byk, on the railway between Odessa and Jassy; a direct line to south Bessarabia was under construction in 1928. Kishinev is seat of the bishop of Bessarabia, and contains a cathedral, an ecclesiastical seminary, a faculty of theology, a college, a museum, a public library, a botanic garden and a sanatorium with sulphur springs. The suburbs are remarkable for their gardens, which produce fruits (especially plums, which are dried and exported), mulberry leaves, tobacco and wine. There is a depot of the Government tobacco monopoly in the town, and a school of viticulture. Trade is active, and there are local industries. Kishinev was founded in 1436, but had only 7,000 inhabitants in 1812, when acquired by Russia from Moldavia. Since that date it has increased rapidly, and has been largely rebuilt. The old town is on the banks of the Byk, the new on high crags, 450 feet above the river. A notable pogrom was committed here in 1913.

KISHM, an island in the Persian gulf. (See QISHM.)

KISKUNFÉLEGYHÁZA, a Hungarian town, 80 m. S.S.E. of Budapest. Lying at the edge of the drift-sand region it is surrounded by vineyards, orchards, tobacco and rye fields but is chiefly noted for its great cattle-market. Local finds point to a long history of settlement but the modern town dates from 1743 when the district was recolonized after the Turkish devastation of the 17th century. Pop. (1920), 36,797.

KISLOVODSK, a town and health-resort in the North Cau-

casian Area of the Russian S.F.S.R. in lat. 43° 57’ N., long. 42° 45’ E., situated at an altitude of 2,690 ft., in a deep cauldron-

shaped valley on the north side of the Caucasus.

The town is the

terminus of a branch line from Georgievsk through Piatigorsk. Pop. (about 4,000 in 1897) was 31,345 in 1926. There is a civic electricity and water supply. The limestone hills which surround the town rise by successive steps or terraces, and contain numerous caves. The mineral waters are strongly impregnated with carbonic acid gas and have a temperature of 51° F. The principal spring is known as Narsan, and its water is called by the Circassians the “‘drink of heroes.”

KISMET, fate, destiny, a term used by Muslims to express all the incidents and details of man’s lot in life. The word is the Turkish form of the Arabic gismat, from gasama, to divide.

KISS, the act of pressing or touching with the lips, the cheek,

hand, or lips of another, as an expression of love, affection, reverence or greeting. Skeat (Etym. Dict., 1898) connects the Teut. base kussa with Lat. gustus, taste. For the liturgical osculum pacis, or “kiss of peace,” see Pax. See, further, C. Nyrop, The Kiss and its History, trans. by W. F. Harvey (1902) ; J. J. Claudius, Dissertatio de salutationibus veterum (Utrecht, 1702); and “Baisers d’étiquette” (1689) in Archives curieuses de Phistoire de France (1834—90, series ii., tom. r2).

KISSAR

or GYTARAH

BARBARYEH,

the ancient

Nubian lyre, still in use in Egypt and Abyssinia, and having instead of the traditional tortoise-shell back a shallow, round bowl of wood, covered with a sound-board of sheepskin. ' KISSI, a long-headed, dark-skinned, short-statured and slender-limbed patrilineal folk inhabiting a district lying on the fron-

tiers of Sierra Leone and Liberia and extending into southern French Guinea between the upper Meli and Moa (Makona) rivers, who, speak a language related to Bulom and Kim. They live in confederated villages under a paramount chief. Free choice of a wife is allowed. Inheritance passes to the surviving brother, whom failing, to the nephew. The people are engaged in cultivation, arboriculture and hunting, and are animists.

above sea-level, 62 m. E. of Frankfort-on-Main, and 43 NNE of Würzburg by rail. Pop. (1925) 6,517. The salt springs were known in the gth century, and their medicinal properties were recognized in the 16th, but it was only during the roth century that Kissingen became a popular resort. The town belonged ty the counts of Henneberg until 1394, when it was sold to the bishop of Wiirzburg. With this bishopric it passed later to Bavaria. The three principal springs are the Rákóczy, the Pandur and the May. brunnen, of which the first two, strongly impregnated with iron and salt, havea temperature of 51-26° F; the last (50-72°) iş like Selters or Seltzer water. At short distances from the town are the intermittent artesian spring Solensprudel, the Schönbornsprudel and the Theresienquelle; and in the same valley as Kissingen are the minor spas of Bocklet and Briickenau. They are all highly charged with salt, and productive government salt-works were at one time stationed near Kissingen.

KISTNA

(or KrisHNA), a district of British India, in the

N.E. of the Madras Presidency. Masulipatam is the district head. quarters. Area, 5,907 sq.m. The district is generally a flat country, but the interior is broken by a few low hills, the highest being 1,857 ft. above sea-level. The principal rivers are the Kistna, which cuts the district into two portions, and the Munyeru, Palery

and Naguleru (tributaries of the Gundiakamma and the Kistna), The Kolar lake, which covers an area of 21 by 14 m., and the Romparu swamp receive the drainage on the north and south sides of the Kistna respectively. The population (2,133,314 in 1921) is increasing owing to the growing area of irrigated land. The Kistna delta system of irrigation canals, which are available also for navigation, connect with the Godavari system. The principal crops are rice, millets, pulse, oil-seeds, cotton, tobacco andalittle sugar-cane. There are sey-

eral factories for ginning and pressing cotton and a sugar factory; lace and embroidery are made, and a number of rice milling and cleaning works have recently been established. The manufacture of chintzes at Masulipatam has decayed, but cotton is woven for domestic use. Salt is evaporated, under government supervision, along the coast. Bezwada, at the head of the delta, isa place of growing importance, as the central junction of the East Coast railway system, which crosses the inland portion of the district in three directions. Some sea-borne trade, chiefly coasting, is carried on at the open roadsteads of Masulipatam and Nizampatam, both in the delta.

KISTNA or KRISHNA, a river of southern India. It rises

near Mahabaleshwar in the Western Ghats, only about 40 m. from the Arabian sea, and flows across almost the entire peninsula from west to east for a distance of 800 m. before discharging into the Bay of Bengal. Its source is held sacred, and is frequented by pilgrims. From Mahabaleshwar the Kistna runs southward ina rapid course into the nizam’s dominions, then turns to the east, and falls into the sea by two principal mouths, carrying with it the waters of the Bhima from the north and the Tungabadhra from the south-west. Along this part of the coast runs an extensive strip of land which has been entirely formed by the detritus washed down by the Kistna and Godavari. The river channel is throughout too rocky and the stream too rapid to allow navigation even by small native craft. In utility for irrigation the Kistna is also inferior to its two sister streams, the Godavari and Cauvery. By far the greatest of its irrigation works is the anicut at Bezwada, where the river bursts through the Eastern Ghats and spreads over the alluvial plain. The channel there is 1,300 yd. wide. During the dry season the depth of water is barely 6 ft., but sometimes it rises to as much as 36 ft. Of the two main canals connected with the dam, that on the left bank breaks into two branches, the one running 39 m. to Ellore, the other 49 m. to Masulipatam. The canal on the right bank proceeds nearly parallel to the river, and also sends off two principal branches, to Nizampatam and Comamur. The total length of the main channels is 349 m. and the total area irrigated in 1919-20 was 716,500 acres. A project for

the building of a further dam was under consideration in 1928. The river is crossed by a fine railway bridge near Wadi junction. ' KISSINGEN, a town‘and watering-place of Germany, in the KITASATO, SHIBASABURO (1856), Japanese republic ‘of Bavaria, situated on the Franconian Saale, 656 ft. doctor of medicine, was born at Kumamoto and studied in Ger

+. “ee Arcin, La Guinée Francaise (1907).

KITCHEN— KITCHENER

419

many under Koch from 1885 to 1891. In 1892 he became director

see EGYPT, MILITARY OPERATIONS. Kitchener’s work was crowned and the power of the Mahdists utterly destroyed by the victory

eases. He worked with Bering on the tetanus and diphtheria bacilli, and discovered (1894) the bubonic plague bacillus, and (1898) that of dysentery. In 1900 he discovered a second plague bacillus and prepared a new serum for that disease. At various times he investigated outbreaks of plague at Kobé, Osaka and in Manchuria and issued reports on his observations. He also studied

of Omdurman (Sept. 2, 1898), for which he was raised to the peerage as Baron Kitchener of Khartum, received the G.C.B., the thanks of parliament and a grant of £30,000. Before Kitchener left the Sudan he went with an escort up the White Nile to Fashoda, and explained to Colonel Marchand that the French flag could not be hoisted in the Khedive’s dominions. After Omdurman was taken by the Anglo-Egyptian forces under General Kitchener, the seat of government was again transferred to Khartum. It speedily arose from its ruins, being rebuilt on a much finer scale than the original city. In 1899 the railway from Wadi Halfa was completed to Khartum, and in 1906 through communication by rail was established with the Red Sea. Little more than a year afterwards, while still sirdar of the Egyptian army, he was promoted lieutenant-general and ap-

of the Imperial Japanese Institute for Study of Infectious Dis-

the mode of infection in tuberculosis and read a paper on this

subject at the International Congress of Medicine at Budapest in 1909. Kitasato was elected an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society in 1908. In 1915 he resigned his directorship and founded

a private institute where he was joined by his former colleagues.

Kitasato was created a baron by the emperor of Japan in 1924 and in the following year obtained the Harben gold medal of the Royal Institute of Public Health.

KITCHEN, the room or place in a house set apart for cook-

pointed chief-of-staff to Roberts in the South African War. (See

ing, in which the culinary and other domestic utensils are kept.

TRANSVAAL: History.) In this capacity he served in the campaign of Paardeberg, the advance on Bloemfontein and the subsequent northward advance to Pretoria, and on Roberts’s return to England in November 1900 succeeded him as commander-inchief, receiving at the same time the local rank of general. In

KITCHEN CABINET, a kitchen fitting in the shape of an

June 1902 the long and harassing war came to its close, and Kitchener was made a viscount, received a grant of £50,000 and the Order of Merit. His method of wearing down the guerrilla resistance of the Boers was severely criticised then and afterwards. But when the Boers submitted Kitchener’s influence was

Archaeologists have used the term “kitchen-midden,” 7.e., kitchen rubbish heap, for the rubbish heaps of prehistoric man, containing bones, remains of edible shell-fish, implements, etc. (see SHELL-MOUNDS).

enclosed dresser, fitted with doors, drawers and special containers, designed to economize space and to save labour by giving order and handiness to many materials and supplies. The kitchen is the workshop of the home, and any appliance which will make it more

eficient is essential equipment.

Although American in origin, the

early American kitchen cabinet was an adaptation of the German

kitchen cupboard, but included a kitchen table. The first American kitchen cabinets were brought out about the beginning of the twentieth century in the Middle West. Most kitchen cabinets are made of wood, either oak, ash, birch or chestnut, but some of the higher priced cabinets are made of steel. Most kitchen cabinets have containers for flour, sugar, bread and cakes. The upper section is designed for food packets, groceries, crockery, etc. An extending porcelain top table is usually fitted, and in the lower sections are drawers for towels, cutlery, bread and cakes, and a cupboard for pots and pans. Kitchen cabinets are sometimes designed to incorporate additional units or sections, further to centralize the equipment of the kitchen. These units are placed on either side of the cabinets to hold such appliances as cooking pans, china and oven ware.

KITCHEN EQUIPMENT:

see HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES.

KITCHENER, HORATIO HERBERT KITCHENER, Fart (1850-1916), British field marshal and statesman, was ‘the son of Lieut.-Colonel H. H. Kitchener and was born at Bally Longford, Co. Kerry, on June 24, 1850. He entered the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, in 1868, and was commissioned second lieutenant, Royal Engineers, in 1871. In 1870 his parents were living at Dinan, and Kitchener volunteered for service in the army of the Loire. He was soon invalided out, but the love of France which impelled him remained. As a subaltern he was employed in survey work in Cyprus and Palestine, and on promotion to captain in 1883 was attached to the Egyptian amy, then in course of re-organization under British officers. In the following year he served on the staff of the British expeditionary force on the Nile, and was promoted successively major and lieutenant-colonel by brevet for his services. From 1886 to

1888 he was governor-general of the Eastern Sudan, with headquarters at Suakin. In 1889 he commanded the cavalry in action against the dervishes at Gamaizieh and Toski.

From 1889

to 1892 he served as adjutant-general of the army. He had become brevet-colonel in the British army in 1888, and he received the C.B. in 1889 after the action of Toski. In 1892 Kitchener succeeded Francis Grenfell as sirdar of the Egyptian army, and three years later, when he had completed his predecessor’s work of re-organizing the forces of the khedive, he

began the formation of an expeditionary force on the vexed

military frontier of Wady Halfa. ‘The advance into the Sudan was prepared by thorough administrative work on his part which

gained universal admiration. For the events of the River War

felt in the moderation of the peace terms. Immediately after the peace he went to India as commanderin-chief in the East Indies, and in this position, which he held for seven years, he carried out not only many far-reaching administrative reforms but a complete re-organization and strategical redistribution of the British and native forces. In India he came into severe conflict with the viceroy, Lord Curzon, and he ultimately induced the secretary of state to give the commanderin-chief fuller powers over army expenditure. On leaving India in 1909 he was promoted field marshal, and succeeded the duke of Connaught as commander-in-chief and high commissioner in the Mediterranean. This post, not of great importance in itself, was ‘regarded as a virtual command of the colonial as distinct from the home and the Indian forces, and on his appointment Kitchener (after a visit to Japan) undertook a tour of inspection of the forces of the empire, and went to Australia and New

Zealand in order to assist in drawing up local schemes of defence.

In this mission he was highly successful, and earned golden opinions. But soon after his return to England in April 1910 he declined to take up his Mediterranean appointment, owing to his dislike of its inadequate scope, and he was succeeded in June by Ian Hamilton. In the late summer of 1911 he became British agent and consul-general in Egypt. Egypt.—On the day he landed at Alexandria, Italy was presenting an ultimatum to Turkey, and there is no doubt that Kitchener’s presence and his prestige were mainly responsible for the safe passage of Egypt through the critical period of the Tripoli and Balkan wars, and that no one but himself would have been ‘able to prevent collisions between the Greek and Italian colonists and the natives. His idea was to keep the country busy with the contemplation of its own affairs, and he initi-

ated a policy of economic reform the effects of which were to be enduring. His programme comprised village savings banks, the five feddan law, the opening of cotton markets all over the country, cantonal courts, the promotion of the Department for Agriculture to a ministry, school buildings, sanitation and press supervision, and the heightening of the Aswan dam—all of ab-

sorbing interest to him, all receiving his assiduous care.

At the War Office.—Earl Kitchener (he had just received an earldom for his services in Egypt) came home on leave in June

1914, intending to return in September.

But on July 37, all

heads of missions were ordered to repair to their posts, and, on Aug. 3 Kitchener was actually on board the Channel’ boat, when a message arrived from the prime minister requiring him to stay in England. Three days later he ‘took over the seals of the War

4.20

KITCHENER— KITCHENETTE

Office, and instantly laid his plans for an army of 7o divisions, coolly calculating that its maximum strength would be reached during the third year of the War, just when the enemy would be undergoing a sensible diminution of his resources in man-power. His scheme, of course, ran clean contrary to all accepted ideas: it had always been held that in time of war, though armies could be expanded, they could not be created, and to imagine otherwise seemed as surprising to our friends as to our enemies. In the early days of 1916 Kitchener could tell the Cabinet that 67 divisions were afoot and three in the mould; he was met by a representation that we must choose between a diminution of our forces and a reduction of our monetary advances to our Allies. He declined

the dilemma.

He did not think that England could present either

of these conclusions to her Allies without proof positive that expenditure could not be reduced nor national income increased, that her administration was free from extravagance, that her taxable capacity was fully exploited and that all parts of the Empire were pulling their weight. The conflict of opinion was sharp and short, with the upshot that the 70 infantry divisions were assured of their existence, and the way was prepared for the Kitchener armies to take their part in the battle of the Somme which he knew was planned for the coming summer. “I have no fear,” he said, “about winning the War; I fear very much we may not make a good peace.” If he did not live to take his place at Versailles, at least as regards the creation and placing in the field of the great force which was to hold high England’s honour he could review a finished work, for his last division to go overseas took ship the very day on which he himself set out on the journey from which he was not to return. Kitchener’s vision or intuition served him to protest, though vainly, against the concentration of the original B.E.F. so far forward as Maubeuge; his rapid and accurate grasp of a situation caused him to hurry to France after the retreat from Mons to insist, in the name of the Government, on the British Army remaining in the Allied line; and enabled him in 1915 to pronounce that the evacuation of the Gallipoli peninsula could be effected with infinitely less loss than had been gloomily predicted.

ammunition worth speaking of was delivered from the Ministry of Munitions factories or orders, and not until April 1916 that the first complete round, made and filled under the orders and arrangements of the Ministry, was delivered to the army author. ities. In other words, the army, for a period of more than 33 months, was furnished with continually increasing supplies unde: the former arrangements.

If Kitchener did not travel quite easily on political lines, hi close personal touch with England’s Allies was not the least of

his contributions to the War, and his early and constant friend. ship with France gave him, so to speak, a flying start in gaining the best relationships with her public servants.

Russia’s réle was

to him a matter of vital importance if the War was to be brought even within his own three years’ limit; but in the autumn of rgrts he said to Joffre at Chantilly, “You are calculating on Russia remaining till the end of the War; I am making my calcu lations on her being out within six months.” He had not been

afraid to commit himself to serious responsibilities as to arming and equipping the almost weaponless Russian hosts, but even so

it is difficult to account for his great influence throughout Russia He was thus able to criticise Russian methods with a freedom and to press his advice—more especially at the critical moment when Italy was hanging back—with an insistence that would have been tolerated at the hands of no other foreigner. Proposed Visit to Russia.—Early in May 1916 the Tsar urged that Kitchener should visit Russia, promising that his counsel would be taken to the full even if that counsel included certain transfers of control into British hands. Kitchener was to start from Scapa Flow on June 5 for Archangel. He was asked to examine thoroughly the whole Russian situation: he was given a free hand to make arrangements and conditions which he thought advisable; he was to use all the influence which he had already acquired with the Tsar and the Russian military authorities to set the Russian military house in order, and he was asked

to come back to England with all speed. On the afternoon of the appointed day, Kitchener, having paid a visit to Lord Jellicoe on his flagship, embarked on the

Apart from these occasions he did little to interfere with the

“Hampshire,” which was directed to proceed on what, with the prevailing wind—as reported—would be the lee side of the Orkneys and Shetlands. The arrangements made for the voyage of the cruiser have been, and perhaps always will be, open to question. It is at least certain that an unswept channel was chosen for her passage and that, under stress of weather, the destroyers who formed her titular escort turned about, leaving the vessel, with her priceless freight, to steam to her doom. The

the Front might conceivably have, within narrow

The loss of Kitchener was felt to be a national calamity. The Queen-Mother at once placed herself at the head of a movement to secure a permanent and practical memorial, and in answer to her appeal there poured in from every point of the Empire— from men, women and children of all colours, classes and creeds— a stream of money, gathering in volume until it reached the astonishing sum of over £700,000. On Dec. TO, 1925 a memorial chapter in St. Paul’s Cathedral was dedicated to Earl Kitchener and all who fell in r914~8.

actual conduct of operations in the field. He knew and sympathised with the commanders, gave full consideration to their views, and gave them his entire trust and his unswerving support. His recruiting work was wonderful. His stirring appeals to the nation received immediate answer. The first call was for 100,000 and was followed by analogous appeals at short intervals. He has been criticized for not making greater use of the existing Territorial Army organizations in the early days—the numbers at

limits, been

increased more rapidly had he done so. He had resolved to transform Great Britain into a great military Power while the struggle was actually in progress and success eventually crowned his efforts, If clothing and equipping the swarms of new armies presented obstacles at first, the skilfully tapped textile wealth of

the country overcame them within a short space of time.

He had no easy task at the War Office, coming there as he did for the first time. There was no precedent for a great soldier occupying the position at a moment of great emergency. He was not familiar with the various ramifications of the existing military

organizations. But, on the other hand his countrymen trusted him and were roused to enthusiasm by the magic of -his name and his strength of character. Of the great difficulties which beset the Secretary for War, perhaps the greatest and the most discussed was that of providing guns and ammunition for a constantly and rapidly increasing

army. For the history of the provision of munitions for the army and the controversies arising out of it see MUNITIONS OF Before the end of the War, Kitchener’s work was challengeWar. d in some quarters on this point; the answer furnished by the dossier of the master-general of ordnance presented a defence of the War Office, whence, as a of high explosive for use of Munitions was set up Was not until the end of

matter of in France. during the Oct. 1915

fact, came the first proposal To be precise, the Ministry first week of June 1915. It that a single component of

“Hampshire” struck a mine, and went down with nearly all hands.

See

Sir George Arthur, Life of Lord Kitchener (1920); also Churchill, The River War (1899), and the official records of the War in South

Africa and the World War. An official narrative of the citcumstances of his death, The Loss of H.M.S. Hampshire appeared

In 1926.

KITCHENER, a city and port of Ontario, Canada, and the

capital of Waterloo county, 58 m. W. of Toronto, on the Grand Trunk railway. It is the centre of a prosperous farming and

manufacturing district, inhabited chiefly by German immigrants and their descendants, and was formerly called Berlin, the name being changed during the World War. The city contains a beet Sugar refinery, automobile, leather, furniture, shirt and collar, felt, glove, button and rubber factories. Pop. (1931), 30,793.

KITCHENETTE, a small space, usually an alcove or closet,

with a compact equipment for simple cooking for those who take

most of their meals in restaurants. The specially designed miniature fittings may include an electric or gas stove, a cabinet for

dishes and food, a sink with running water and a refrigerating

4.21

KTTE—KITE-FLYING box. The kitchenette is now an integral part of the most luxurious suites in residential hotels and service apartments. KITE, the name given to several birds of prey, including

money on credit (cf. “raising the wind”), or in political slang for

the common

Kite-flying for scientific purposes began in the middle of the r8th century. In 1752 Benjamin Franklin made his memorable kite experiment, by which he attracted electricity from the air and

European

species

(Milvus

ictinus),

recognizable

by its forked tail. Formerly extremely common in Britain, where it acted as a scavenger even in London, the kite is now restricted to a few localities in Wales and elsewhere, where it maintains a precarious foothold. _ On the European : Continent, the kite is a summer visitor s

from Africa. Some 25~27in. long, the bird

is pale reddish-brown, barred with black;

FEO

the head is greyish-white. The nest is built |

en

of sticks, rags, etc., in the crotch of a large tree and contains three or four white

eggs, spotted with brown and lilac.

|.

The smaller M. ater also inhabits Europe.

M. govinda is the pariah kite of India, and other species of the genus

occur

RR

sz-

in |.

various parts of the Old World. The wide- P

ranging American swallow-tailed kite (Elanoides forficatus) is notable for the lengthof |X its wings and tail and its power of flight; § the South European black-winged kite (E. K

caeruleus), a beautiful little bird, is its ally Vy

and others occur elsewhere.

The Missis-

sippi kite (Ictinia mississippiensis) be-

:

INDIAN KITE

longs to an American genus. Other genera occur in South America.

KITE-FLYING, the art of sending up into the air, by means

of the wind, light frames of varying shapes covered with paper or

cloth (called kites, after the bird—in German Drache, dragon), which are attached to long cords or wires held in the hand or wound on a drum. When made in the common diamond form, or triangular with a semi-circular head, kites usually have a pendulous tail appended for balancing purposes. The tradition is that kites were invented by Archytas of Tarentum four centuries before the Christian era, but they have been in use among Asiatic peoples and savage tribes like the Maoris of New Zealand from time immemorial. Kite-flying has always been a national pastime of the Koreans, Chinese, Japanese, Tonkingese, Annamese, Malays and

East Indians. It is less popular among the peoples of Europe. The origin of the sport, although obscure, is usually ascribed to religion. With the Maoris it still retains a distinctly religious character, and the ascent of the kite is accompanied by a chant called the kite-song. The Koreans attribute its origin to a general, who, hundreds of years ago, inspirited his troops by sending up a kite with a lantern attached, which was mistaken by his army for a new star and a token of divine succour. Another Korean general is said to have been the first to put the kite to mechanical uses by employing one to span a stream with a cord, which was then fastened to a cable and formed the nucleus of a bridge. In Korea, Japan and China, and indeed throughout Eastern Asla, even the tradespeople may be seen indulging in kite-flying while waiting for customers. Chinese and Japanese kites are of many shapes, such as birds, dragons, beasts and fishes. They vary in size, but are often as much as 7ft. in height or breadth, and are constructed of bamboo strips covered with rice paper or very thin silk. In China the oth day of the oth month is “‘Kites’ Day,” when men and boys

of allclasses betake themselves to neighbouring eminences and fly

their kites. Kite-flying is a highly popular pastime in Eastern Asia. The cord near the kite is usually stiffened with a mixture of glue and crushed glass or porcelain.

The kite-flyer manoeuvres to get

hiskite to windward of that of his adversary, then allows his cord to drift against his enemy’s, and by a sudden jerk to cut it through

and bring the kite to grief. The Malays possess a large variety of kites, mostly without tails. The Sultan of Johore sent to the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893 a collection of 15 different kinds. Asiatic musical kites bear one or more perforated reeds or bamboos which emit a plaintive sound that can be heard for

great distances. The ignorant, believing that these kites frighten away evil spirits, often keep them flying all night over their houses.

ere are various metaphorical uses of the term “kite-flying,”

such as in commercial slang, when “flying a kite” means raising

seeing “how the wind blows.” guage, are the topmost sails.

demonstrated

And ‘“‘flying-kites,” in nautical lan-

the electrical nature

of lightning.

A more

syste-

matic use of kites for scientific purposes may, however, be said to date from the experiments made in the last quarter of the roth century. (E. Br.) Meteorological Use—~Many European and American meteorological services employ kites regularly, and obtain information not only of the temperature, but also of the humidity and velocity of the air above. The kites used are mostly modifications of the so-called box-kites, invented by L. Hargrave. Roughly these kites may be said to resemble an ordinary box with the two ends removed, and also the middle part of each of the four sides. The original Hargrave kite, the form generally used, has a rectangular section; in Russia a semi-circular section with the curved part facing the wind is most in favour; in England the diamondshaped section is preferred for meteorological purposes owing to its simplicity of construction. Stability depends on a multitude of small details of construction, and long practice and experience are required to make a really good kite. The sizes most in use have from 30 to 8osq.ft. of sail area. There is no difficulty about raising a kite to a vertical height of one or even two miles on suitable days, but heights exceeding three miles are seldom reached. On Nov. 29, 1905, at Lindenberg, the Prussian Aeronautical Observatory, the upper one of a train of six kites attained an altitude of just 4 miles. The total lifting surface of these six kites was nearly 300sq.ft., and the length of wire a little over 9 miles. The kites are invariably flown on a steel wire line, for the hindrance to obtaining great heights is not due so much to the weight of the line as to the wind pressure upon it, and thus it becomes of great importance to use a material that possesses the greatest possible strength, combined with the smallest possible size. Steel piano

wire meets this requirement, for a wire of sy in. diameter will

weigh about 16 lb. to the mile, and stand a strain of some 250— 280 lb. before it breaks. Some stations prefer to use one long piece of wire of the same gauge throughout without a join, others prefer to start with a thin wire and join on thicker and thicker wire as more kites are added. The process of kite-flying is as follows: The first kite is started either with the self-recording instruments secured in it, or hanging from the wire a short distance below it. Wire is then paid out, whether quickly or slowly depends on the strength of the wind, but the usual rate is from two to three miles per hour. The quantity that one kite will take depends on the kite and on the wind, but roughly speaking it may be said that each 1osq.ft. of lifting surface on the kite should carry roooft.

of 4, in. wire without difficulty. When as much wire as can be

carried comfortably has run out another kite is attached to the line, and the paying out is continued; after a time a third is added, and so on. Each kite increases the strain upon the wire, and moreover adds to the height and makes it more uncertain what kind of wind the upper kites will encounter; it also adds to the time that is necessary to haul in the kites. In each way the risk of their breaking away is increased, for the wind is very uncertain and is liable to alter in strength. Since to attain an exceptional height the wire must be strained nearly to its breaking point, and under such conditions a small increase in the strength of the wind will break the wire, it follows that great heights can only be attained by those who are willing to risk the trouble and expense of frequently having their wire and train of kites break away. The weather is the essential factor in kite-flying. In the south-east of England in winter it is possible on about two days out of three, and in summer on about one day out of three. The usual cause of failure is want of wind, but there are a few days when the wind is too strong. (For meteorological results, etc., see METEOR-

OLOGY.)

(W. H. D.)

Military Use.—A kite forms so extremely simple a method of lifting anything to a height in the air that it has naturally been suggested as being suitable for various military purposes, such as

422

KIT-FOX—KIVU

signalling to a long distance, carrying up flags, or lamps, or semaphores. Kites have been used both in the army and in the navy for floating torpedoes on hostile postions. As much as two miles of line have been paid out. For purposes of photography a small kite carrying a camera to a considerable height may be caused to float over a fort or other place of which a bird’s-eye view is required, the shutter being operated by electric wire, or slow match, or clockwork. Many successful photographs have been thus obtained in England and America. The problem of lifting a man by means of kites instead of by a captive balloon is a still more important one. The chief military advantages to be gained are: (1) less transport is required; (2)

KITTIWAKE, the name on both sides of the Atlantic for the sea-gull Rissa tridactyla, in which the hind toe is reduced to a knob. It inhabits the north Atlantic. A subspecies R. t. pollicaris inhabits the N. Pacific south to Lower California. A secong

species, R. brevirostris, the red-legged kittiwake, is found in the Bering Sea. (See GULL.) KITTO, JOHN (1804-1854), English biblical scholar, was the son of a mason at Plymouth, where he was born on Dec, 4

1804. An accident brought on deafness, and in Nov. 1819 he was sent to the workhouse, where he was employed in making lis shoes. He received assistance to obtain schooling, and was they employed by the Church Missionary Society. He spent some time

they can be used in a strong wind; (3) they are not so liable to as a missionary in Baghdad. After his return he published various damage, either from the enemy’s fire or from trees, etc., and are popular works, of which the most important was the Cyclopaedia easier to mend; (4) they can be brought into use more quickly; of Biblical Literature (2 vols., 1843—45) edited under his superin. (5) they are very much cheaper, both in construction and in main- tendence. In 1850 he received an annuity of £100 from the civil tenance, not requiring any costly gas. list. He died at Cannstatt on the Neckar, on Nov. 25, 1854. See Kitto’s own work, The Lost Senses (1845); J. E. Ryland, Captain B. F. S. Baden-Powell, of the Scots Guards, in June 1894, constructed, at Pirbright Camp, a huge kite 36ft. high, with Memoirs of Kitto (1856); J. Eadie, Life of Kitto (1857). which he successfully lifted a man on different occasions. He KITZINGEN, a town of Germany, in the republic of Bavaria afterwards improved the contrivance, using five or six smaller on the Main, 95 m. S.E. of Frankfort-on-Main on the railway to kites attached together in preference to one large one. With this Regensburg. Pop. (1925) 10,272. Kitzingen possessed a Benearrangement he frequently ascended as high as 1ooft. The kites dictine abbey in the 8th century, and later belonged to the were hexagonal, being 12ft. high and raft. across. The apparatus, bishopric of Wiirzburg. It is still surrounded by its old walls and which could be packed in a few minutes into a simple roll, weighed towers, and has two old convents. Its chief industries are brewin all about r cwt. This appliance was proved to be capable of ing, cask-making, the spinning of horsehair and the manufacture raising a man even during a dead calm, the retaining line being of cement and colours. Considerable trade in wine, fruit, grain fixed to a wagon and towed along. Lieut. H. D. Wise made some and timber is carried on by boats on the Main. trials in America in 1897 with some large kites of the Hargrave KIUKIANG, a treaty port of China on the Vang-tze midpattern (Hargrave having previously himself ascended in Aus- way in its course between the Central (Hupeh) Basin and the tralia), and succeeded in lifting a man 4oft. above the ground. In Delta. Lying just above the debouchure into the Yang-tze of the the Russian army a military kite apparatus has also been tried, Po-yang lake, which receives the drainage of Kiangsi, the port and was in evidence at the manoeuvres in 1898. Experiments have gathers up much but not all of the Yang-tze trade of the province. also been carried out by most of the European powers. The It is also linked by rail directly with Nanchang, its commercial German kite balloon invented by Parseval being very efficient. focus and capital. Behind the port there rise the ranges of the (B. F. S. B.-P.) Kiu-kung-shan, the chief tea-growing district of Kiangsi, for KIT-FOX, a small fox (Vulpes velox) a native of north- whose teas Kiukiang is the collecting centre. These are green western America, measuring less than a yard in length, inclusive teas and are gathered up by Hankow for export to Russia. While of nearly a foot of tail. There is a good deal of variation in the tea is the main item in the port’s export trade, porcelain, paper colour of the fur, the prevailing tint being grey. The specific name and grass-cloth, the more important manufactured products of was given on account of the swiftness of the animal. Kiangsi, also pass through Kiukiang. Kiukiang itself has a couple KITING CHEQUES, a method of obtaining credit for of factories of modern type. In 1926 the total trade of the port funds at a bank, or of keeping up a fictitious balance by means was Hk. Tis. 56,034,253, making it the twelfth among Chinese of the deposit of a cheque backed by no funds or by insufficient ports. On the slopes of the ranges behind Kiukiang is the little funds. For example, A and B, having accounts in different banks, mountain summer resort of Kuling, frequented by the European may exchange cheques to any amount, and each deposit the other’s population of the Yang-tze Valley. cheque in his own bank, trusting that neither will be presented KIUSTENDIL: see Kvustenpiz. for payment at the bank upon which it is drawn until the next KIVU, a large lake of central Africa, lying in the western rift day, or, if in distant cities, until several days have elapsed, before valley and mid-way between Lakes Edward and Tanganyika; which time each person expects to make a deposit at his own it discharges into the latter by the river Russisi. It is 55 m. long bank to cover the cheque. The same thing is sometimes accomand 30 m. wide at its widest point. It is about 4,830 ft. above plished by a single person who, having accounts in two banks, sea-level and is roughly triangular in outline, the longest side lying deposits in one bank a cheque drawn against the other, in which to the west. The coast-line is much broken, especially on the there are not sufficient funds to cover the cheque, expecting to south-east, where the indentations have a fjord-like character. make good before the cheque is presented for collection. Many The rift valley has dropped down Archaean gneisses and schists banks prevent this practice by declining to credit any cheque de- but both north and south of the lake are volcanic centres (the posit until the collection has been made. (J. H. B.) lavas are phonolites, etc.) some of which are still active. The lake, KITTANNING, a borough of western Pennsylvania, U.S.A., is deep, and the shores are everywhere high, rising in places in on the east bank of the Allegheny river, at 8soft. elevation, 50m. bold precipitous cliffs of volcanic rock. A large island, Kwijwi N.E. of Pittsburgh; the county seat of Armstrong county. It is runs in the direction of the major axis of the lake, south-west on Federal highway 422, and is served by the Pennsylvania and of the centre, and there are many smaller islands. The lake has the Pittsburgh and Shawmut railways. In tgro the population many fish, but no crocodiles or hippopotami. South of Kivu the was 4,311; in 1920, 7,153 (94% native white); in 1930, 7,808 rift valley is blocked by huge ridges, through which the Russisi by the Federal census of that year. River and wooded hills now breaks its way to descend 2,000 ft. to the lacustrine plain at provide a beautiful setting. The region is rich in coal, gas, lime- the head of Tanganyika. The lake fauna is fresh-water, presenting stone, sandstone and clay, and an ‘ample supply of electric power no affinities with the so-called marine fauna of Tanganyika, but is available. The borough has important manufactures of pottery, is similar to that shown to have existed in the more northern parts brick, tile, oil and gas-well supplies and machinery. The assessed of the rift valley. The former outlet or extension in this direction valuation of property in 1927 was $10,298,000. Kittanning took seems to have been blocked in recent geological times by the its name from ‘the Kittanning Indian path across the State from elevation of the volcanic peaks. east to’ west. A trading post was established here at: an early interest and has various names, This volcanic region is of great that most used being Mfumbiro date, and settlement began in 1795. (q.v.). Kivu and Mfumbiro were

first heard of by J. H. Speke

KIWANIS—KLACZKO in 1861, and first visited by a European, Count von Götzen, in 1394. The lake now lies entirely in the Belgian Congo.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. —R. Kandt, Caput Nili (Berlin, 1904) and Karte des Kiviisees, 1: 285,000, with text by A. v. Bockelmann (Berlin, 1902); E. S. Grogan and A. H. Sbarpe, From the Cape to Cairo (London,

423

deep accumulations of fertile loess.

KIZLYAR

(Kisliar or Kizlar) is a town in the Daghestan

A.S.S.R., in the low-lying delta of the Terek river, left of the main stream, between two of the larger secondary branches. The bed of the river is above the level of the town and floods are 1900); J. E. S. Moore, The Tanganyika Problem (1903); A. St. H. Gibbons, Africa from South to North, ii. (London, 1904); Sir A. frequent. The town is 35 m. inland from the Caspian, in lat. 43° Sharpe, “The Kivu Country,” Geogr. Journ. (1916); C. G. Stigand 51’ N. long. 46° 40’ E. The population (1926) 9,514 is mainly and A. Holmes, “Structure of the Tanganyika—Nile Rift Valley,” supported by gardens and vineyards irrigated by canals from the Geogr. Journ. (1919). river. Kizlyar wine is famous and finds a ready market at NizhniKIWANIS, an international organization of business and pro- Novgorod fair. A government vineyard and school of viticulture fessional men interested in “promoting the adoption and applica- are situated 34 m. from the town. The town proper, which spreads tion of higher social, business, and professional standards,” and in out round the citadel, has Tatar, Georgian and Armenian quarthe development of “intelligent, aggressive and serviceable citizen- ters. The public buildings include the Greek cathedral, dating ship.” Practically every city, town and village in the United States from 1786; a Greek nunnery, founded by the Georgian chief has a Kiwanis club; the activities of these clubs are recorded in Daniel in 1736; the Armenian church of SS. Peter and Paul, remarkable for its size and wealth. Kizlyar is mentioned as early the Kiwanis magazine. KIWI, the name of the New Zealand flightless birds of the as 1616, but the most notable accession of inhabitants (Armenians, genus Apteryx, forming a group of the section Ratitae (q.v.). The Georgians and Persians) took place in 1715. Its importance as a fortress dates from 1736, but the fortress is no longer kept in rewings are almost entirely aborted ; pair. The district between the Terek and the Kuma is known as the nostrils are at the tip of the Kizlyar steppe; in the north it provides grazing specially suitthe maxilla; the feathers have no able for sheep, while in the south, where there is a good irrigation aftershaft; and a back toe is system, maize, wheat, fruits and vine are grown. It is planned to present. Three species are known, settle 10,000 hill people from the poverty stricken regions of A. mantelli of the North Island, southern Daghestan in the Kizlyar steppe within the next five A. australis from the South years (1928-33); some have already been settled there. Island, and A. oweni, occurring in both. They are brown birds, KJERULF, THEODOR (1825-1888), Norwegian geologist, was born at Oslo on March 30, 1825, and died there on Oct. 25, about the size of a domestic fowl, 1888. He worked under Bunsen at Heidelberg, and in 1858 became with a long beak, and feed largely professor of geology at Oslo. The results of his study of Noron earthworms. They are nocwegian geology, especially in southern Norway, are embodied in turnal in habit and can run his Udsigt over det sydlige Norges Geologi (1879). swiftly. When brought to bay, they use the sharp claws on the LESS BIRD OF NEW ZEALAND KLABUND, pseudonym of ALFRED HENSCHKE (1891—1928), feet as weapons. They are now rare. The egg is, relative to the German poet, who was born at Krossen (Oder) on Nov. 4, 1891, size of the bird, the largest laid by any living species. and died on Aug. 14, 1928, at Davos, of tuberculosis. In his short KIZILBASHES, a nickname meaning “Redheads” given by life he made a great name in contemporary German literature. the Orthodox Turks to the Shiitic ‘Turkish immigrants from Per- His works include volumes of verse, Morgenrot (1913), Klabunds sia, who are found chiefly in the plains from Kara-Hissar along Karussel (1914), Die Himmelsleiter (1916), and others, from Tokat and Amasia to Angora. There are also many Kizilbashes in which a selection, Gedichte, appeared in 1926. Klabund also wrote novels, mainly on historical subjects, Afghanistan. The name seems to have been first used in Persia for the Shiites in allusion to their red caps. Their immigration ranging from Mohammed (1917) to Pjotr (Peter the Great, 1923). Among his plays may be mentioned especially the Kirschdates from 1737. They are an industrious honest folk. See Ernest Chantre, Recherches anthropologiques dans l'Asie occi- blütenfest, the Japanese play produced originally at Hamburg dentale (Lyons, 1895). with an exquisite setting, and the Chinese play Kreidekreis, proKIZIL IRMAK, i.c., “Red River” (anc. Halys), the longest duced at Meissen in 1924. Among his latest dramas was Cromriver in Asia Minor, rising in the Kizil Dagh at an altitude of well (1926). KLACZKO, JULIAN (1825-1906), was born at Wilno in 6,500 ft., and running south-west past Zara to Sivas and on to Kaisarie. In this section of its course it follows roughly the old 1825. He studied at Heidelberg university, and early proved his East to West drainage of the Anatolian plateau. From the literary and linguistic ability by articles written in German, mainly neighbourhood of the Tuz Geul it turns north-north-eastwards on the Russo-Polish question, and by his brochure Die Deutschen to the Black Sea. This section of its course represents the newer Hegemonen (1849). In 1849 he went to Paris, where he made his drainage scheme of the plateau occasioned by the gradual subsi- fame by his brilliant contributions on literature, politics and art dence of the southern section of the Black Sea. In the neigh- to the Polish and French press, notably to the Revue des Deux hourhood of Osmanjik and Vezir Keupri further sections of Mondes in which most of his subsequently published books first older lines of weakness are visible in its course. The Kizil Irmak appeared. His article “La Poésie Polonaise au Dix-Neuvieme discharges into the Black Sea between Sinope and Samsun, where Siècle et le Poète Anonyme” (Revue des Deux Mondes, Jan. 1, it forms a large delta. The only important tributaries are the 1862) remains one of the finest existing criticisms on the poet Delije Irmak, showing a similar structural pattern in its course Krasinski. From that date Klaczko wrote almost exclusively in flowing in on the right, and the Geuk Irmak on the left bank. French. At the same time he took an active part in the national and literary life of the Polish exiles in Paris, frequently employing The total length of the Kizil Irmak is about 600 miles. KIZIL-KUM, a desert in Asiatic Russia, in the Kazakstan his pen in behalf of the Polish cause, especially during the Rising AS.S.R., stretching south-east of the Aral sea between the river of 1863. His national sympathies led him tọ a close study of Syr-darya on the north-east and the river Amu-darya on the contemporary politics, the chief fruits of which were: Etudes de south-west. It measures some 370 by 220 m., and is in part cov- Diplomatie Contemporaine (Paris, 1866), an exposure of Bisered with drift-sand or dunes, many of which are advancing slowly marck’s policy which created a considerable impression at the but steadily towards the south-west. In character they resemble time, and Deux Chanceliers (1876). From 1869 to 1870 he those of the neighbouring desert of Kara-kum (g.v.). On the was attached to the Austrian foreign ministry. After the Austrowhole the Kizil-kum slopes south-west towards the Aral sea, Prussian and Franco-Prussian wars, Klaczko, despairing of supWhere its altitude is only about 160 ft. as compared with 2,000 in port for Poland from either France or Austrią, abandoned „his the south-east. In the vicinity of that lake the surface is covered political studies, and devoted himself to,Italian literature and

with Aralo-Caspian deposits; but in the south-east, as it ascends towards the foothills of the Tian-shan system, it is braided with

art. He wrote two very popular books on,these subjects; Causertes

.Française, and Florentines (1880), crowned by. the Académie

424

KLADNO—KLAPROTH

Rome et la Renaissance (1898). He died in Cracow in 1906. His works are characterized by their piercing insight and mordant wit, and by the fascination of his style.

KLADNO, mining town of Bohemia, Czechoslovakia, 18 m.

W.N.W. of Prague, is of recent growth due to the coal deposits of the Kladno-Rakovnik field. Prior to 1842 it was a village of no importance. It has now large iron and steel foundries. Pop. (1923) 19,III.

KLAFSKY, KATHARINA

(1855-1896), Hungarian oper-

atic vocalist, was born at Szt Janos, Wieselburg, of humble parents, and began life as a nurserymaid, but became none the less one of the first Wagnerian singers of her generation. In 1892 she appeared in London, and had great success as Briinnhilde and Isolde. She sang in America in 1895 as a member of Damrosch’s company and took New York by storm. A Life, by L. Ordemann, was published in 1903 (Leipzig).

KLAGENFURT,

the capital of the province of Carinthia,

Austria, in a fertile basin and on the right bank of the Glan. It is a well-planned town with broad, regular streets and large squares and as the centre of a rich agricultural and mining region is important both for its market and its manufactures. The latter include iron and machine foundries, and white lead factories. Communication with the Wérther-see is maintained by the Lend canal, 24 m. long, railway and tramway. Much of the modern aspect of this old town is due to the rebuilding necessitated through destructive fires in 1535, 1636, 1723 and 1796, but it has preserved some of its early buildings, notably the r4th century Landhaus or house of assembly, which contains a museum of natural history and antiquities and an art gallery. There are, too, a number of churches, the oldest being the parish church of St. Aegidius (1709) with a fine tower 298 ft. in height, Amongst the most beautiful of its open spaces is the Botanical gardens. During the Middle Ages Klagenfurt became the property of the crown, but by a patent of Maximilian I. of April 24, 1518, it was conceded to the Carinthian estates. Pop. (1923) 27,423.

KLAJ (Latinized Crayus), JOHANN

(1616-1656), German

poet, was born at Meissen, Saxony, studied at Wittenberg, and went to Nuremberg as a “candidate for holy orders.” There, in conjunction with Georg Philipp Harsdorffer, he founded in 1644 the literary society known as the Pegnitz order. In 1647 he received an appointment as master in the Sebaldus school in N uremberg, and in 1650 became preacher at Kitzingen, where he died in 16 56. Klaj’s poems consist of mystery plays among which are Héllenund Himmelfahrt Christi (Nuremberg, 1644), and H erodes, der Kindermörder (Nuremberg, 1645); and a poem, written jointly with Harsdörffer, Pegnesische Schäfergedicht (1644), which gives in allegorical form the story of his settlement in Nuremberg. See J. Tittmann, Die Niirnberger Dichterschule

(Göttingen, 1847).

expeditions until the capitulation of Világos in August put ay

end to the war in the open field. He then brilliantly defended Komárom for two months, and finally surrendered on honourable terms. Klapka left the country at once, and lived thenceforward for many years in exile, at first in England and afterwards chiefiy

in Switzerland.

He

continued

to work

for Hungarian ing.

pendence, especially at moments of European war, such as 1854

1859 and 1866, when an appeal to arms seemed possible. After the war of 1866 (in which as a Prussian major-general he organ-

ized a Hungarian corps in Silesia) Klapka was permitted to retum

to Hungary, and in 1867 was elected to the Hungarian Chamber of Deputies, as a supporter of Deák. In 1877 he attempted to reorganize the Turkish army in view of the war with Russia. He died at Budapest, May 17, 1892. He wrote Memoiren (Leipzig, 1850) ; Der Nationalkrieg in Ungar, etc. (Leipzig, 1851); a history of the Crimean War, Der Krieg im

Orient . . . bis Ende Juli 1855 (Geneva, 1855) ; and Aus meinen Erin.

nerungen (translated from the Hungarian, Zürich, 1887).

KLAPPENHORN, a horn resembling a bugle, that is, fitted with keys to govern the length of tube used, and thus make the different notes sounded. (See BUGLE.) KLAPROTH, HEINRICH JULIUS (1783-1835), Ger-

man Orientalist and traveller, was born in Berlin on Oct. II, 1783, the son of the chemist Martin Heinrich Klaproth (q.v.).

He received an appointment in the St. Petersburg Academy, and in 1805 accompanied Count Golovkin on an embassy to China. On his return he was despatched by the academy to the Caucasus on an ethnographical and linguistic exploration (1807—1808), and was afterwards employed for several years in connection with the

academy’s Oriental publications.

In 1812 he moved to Berlin;

but in 1815 he settled in Paris, and in 1816 Humboldt procured him from the king of Prussia the title and salary of professor of Asiatic languages and literature, with permission to remain in

Paris as long as was requisite for the publication of his works,

He died in that city on the 28th of August 183 5. Klaproth’s great work Asia polyglotia (Paris, 1823 and 1831, with Sprachatlas), though now superseded, was a résumé of all that was known on the subject, and formed a new departure for

the classification of the Eastern languages, more especially those of the Russian Empire.

Klaproth’s other works include: Reise in den Kaukasus und Georgien in den Jahren 1807 und 1808 (Halle, 181 2—14; French translation, Paris, 1823); Geographisch-historische Beschreibung des östlichen Kaukasus (Weimar, 1814); Tableaux historiques de V’Asie (Paris, 1826) ; Mémoires relatifs à Asie (Paris, 1824~28) ; Tableau historique, geographique, ethnographique et ‘politique de Caucase (Paris, 1827); and Vocabulaire et grammaire de la langue géorgienne (Paris, 1827). The Itinerary of a Chinese Traveller (1821) is spurious.

KLAPROTH, MARTIN HEINRICH (1743-1817), German chemist, was born at Wernigerode on Dec. I, 1743. During the southern boundary of the State; county seat of Klamath a large portion of his life he followed the profession of an apothecounty. It is on Federal highway 97 and is served by the cary, and from 1782 he was pharmaceutical assessor of the OberSouthern Pacific and the Great Northern railways. The populaCollegium Medicum in Berlin. In 1787 he was appointed lecturer tion was 447 in 1900; 4,802 in 1920 (90% native white); and in chemistry to the Royal Artillery, and when the university was had grown to 16,093 in 1930 (Federal census). It is beautifully founded in 1810 he was selected to be the professor of chemistry. situated, 4,100 ft. above sea-level, on the Upper Klamath lake He died in Berlin on Jan. 1, 1817. Klaproth was the leading (37 m. long and 4-5 m. wide). Mt. Shasta is visible in the dischemist of his time in Germany. He was an exact and conscientance. It is the distributing point for the agricultural and lumbering industries of the county, which have 140,000 ac. under irri- tious worker and did much to improve and systematize the processes of analytical chemistry and mineralogy; his appreciation gation and a stand of pine timber estimated at 30,000,000,000 ft. of the value of quantitative methods led him to become one of The city has large saw-mills and manufactures great quantities of the earliest adherents of the Lavoisierian doctrines outside France. box boards. Crater lake is 62 m. N.; the Klamath Indian reser„He was the first to discover uranium, zirconium, cerium and vation, 40 m. N.; and the Modoc lava beds, in California, to the titanium, and to characterize them as distinct elements, though south-east. The city was founded about 1878. KLAPKA, GEORG (1820-1892), Hungarian soldier, was he did not obtain any of them in the pure metallic state. He elucidated the composition of numerous substances till then imborn at Temisoara (Temesv4r) on April 7, 1820, and entered the perfectly known, including compounds of the then newly recogAustrian army in 1838. Immediately on the formation of the rized elements: tellurium, strontium, beryllium and chromium. National Hungarian army in 1848, he offered his services, and His papers, over 200 in number, were collected by himself in was at first employed on staff duties; then early in 1849, given command of a corps, he took a conspicuous share in the victories Beiträge zur chemischen Kenntniss der M. ineralkörper (17951810) and Chemische Abhandlungen gemischten Inhalts (1815). of Kapdlna, Isaszeg, Waitzen, Nagy Sarlo and Komárom. Later, He also published a Chemisches Wörterbuch (1807-1810), and after a short period as minister of war, Klapka took command at are revised edition of F. A. C. Gren’s Handbuch der Chemie Komárom, from which fortress he conducted many successfu l 1806).

KLAMATH

FALLS, a city of Oregon, U.S.A., 20 m. from

425

KLAUSTHAL—KLEIST KLAUSTHAL, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province

of Hanover, lying on a bleak plateau, 1,860 ft. above sea-level, Pop. (1925) 12,370. Klausthal was W.S.W. of Halberstadt. founded in the rath century

around

a Benedictine

monastery

At a the beginning of the 16th century the dukes of Brunswick made which (closed in 1431), remains of which still exist in Zellerfeld.

new settlement here, and under their directions the mining, had been begun by the monks, was carried on more energetically.

of the The first church was built in 1570. In 1864 the control chief the is Klausthal state. the of hands the into passed mines

mining town of the Upper Harz Mountains, and practically forms one town with Zellerfeld, which is separated from it by a small

stream, the Zellbach. It has a mining college and a disused mint. Its chief mines are silver and lead, but it also smelts other ores.

KLEBER, JEAN BAPTISTE

(1753-1800), French gen-

eral, the son of a builder, was born on March 9, 1753, at Stras-

bourg. He was trained as an architect, but obtained a nomination

to the military school of Munich. Thence he obtained a commission in the Austrian army, but resigned it in 1783. Returning to France he was appointed inspector of public buildings at Belfort, where he studied military science. In 1792 he enlisted in the Haut-Rhin volunteers, and soon became lieutenant-colonel. At the defence of Mainz he so distinguished himself that though imprisoned with the rest of the garrison, he was promptly reinstated, and in Aug. 1793 promoted general of brigade. He was made general of division for his services in La Vendée, where his intimacy with Marceau began, but was later recalled for ad-

vocating lenient measures towards the Vendéans. In 1794 he was reinstated and sent to the army of the Sambre-et-Meuse, distinguishing himself particularly at Fleurus and in the siege of Mainz (1794-95). In the offensive campaign of 1796 he was Jourdan’s most active and successful lieutenant. After the retreat to the Rhine (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY Wars) Kléber de-

clined the chief command and retired early in 1798. He accepted a division in the expedition to Egypt under Bonaparte, but, owing to a head wound which he received at Alexandria, was afterwards appointed governor of Alexandria, as he was unable to take any further part in the campaign. In the Syrian campaign of 1799 he won the great victory of Mount Tabor on April 15, 1799. When Napoleon returned to France towards the end of 1799 he left Kléber in command of the French forces, when he was forced to make the convention of El-Arish. But when Lord Keith, the British admiral, refused to ratify the terms, he defeated the Turks at Heliopolis, with but 10,000 men against 60,000, on March 20, 1800. He then retook

Cairo, which had revolted from the French. He was assassinated at Cairo by a fanatic on June 14, 1800. Kléber was undoubtedly one of the greatest generals of the French revolutionary epoch, though he distrusted his powers and declined the responsibility of supreme command. His conduct of affairs in Egypt at a time when the treasury was empty and the troops were discontented for want of pay, shows that his powers as an administrator were little —if at all—inferior to those he possessed as a general,

Emouf, the grandson of Jourdan’s chief of staff, published in

1867 a valuable biography of Kléber. See also Reynaud, Life of Merlin de Thionville; Ney, Memoirs; Dumas, Souvenirs; Las Casas, Memorial de Ste Héléne; J. Charavaray, Les Généraux morts pour la patrie; General Pajol, Kléber; lives of Marceau and Desaix; M. F. Rousseau, Kléber et Menou en Egypte (1900).

KLEBS, EDWIN (1834-1913), German physician, was born

al Königsberg on Feb. 6, 1834. He became assistant to Virchow at the Pathological institute, Berlin (1861-66), and subsequently professor of pathological anatomy at Berne (1866), Wurzburg (1871), Prague (1873) and Zurich (1882). He died at Berne on Oct. 23, 1913. Garrison (Hist. of Med.) calls him “with Pasteur

perhaps the most important precursor in the bacterial theory of

infection.” Klebs discovered with Löffler the diphtheria bacillus,

investigated traumatic infections, malarial fever and the bacteriology of gunshot wounds, and was the first to produce tubercuous lesions in animals. nar)chief works are two text-books on pathology (1869 and 7).

KLEIN, FELIX

(1849-1925), German mathematician, was

born at Dusseldorf on April 25, 1849, and after studying at the universities of Bonn, Göttingen and Berlin was appointed professor of mathematics at the University of Erlangen (1872—75). He later took up similar professorships at the Munich technical college (1875-80), and at the universities of Leipzig (1880-86) and Göttingen (1886-1913), and finally became Professor Emeritus at the latter university. He died at Göttingen on June 22, 1925. Klein wanted to specialize in the application of mathematics and mechanics to physics, but was obliged to modify his plans

owing to the breakdown of his health on two occasions. He limited himself to lectures and to the large number of books which he published.

Most of these books were notes of lectures taken by

Klein’s students, revised and supervised by him. To further his idea of linking up mathematics with physics he founded the Encyklopadie for mathematics in 1895, he formed a committee from the German academies to accept responsibility for it and obtained contributors from many countries. Klein was the editor of the Mathematische Annalen from 1872. Klein’s researches in mathematics were chiefly on geometry and the theory of functions, he supervised the collection and publication of his papers in three volumes (1921-23) and added an account of his mathematical development with many personal references. His well-known treatise on the teaching of mathematics in Germany appeared in 1909. Klein was a member of many learned societies and was awarded the Copley Medal of the Royal Society in 1912. He travelled a good deal and lectured both in England and in America. Among Klein’s other works should be mentioned Vorlesungen über das Ikosaeder und die Auflésungen der Gleichungen vom fünften Grad (1884), Vortäge über ausgewählte Fragen der Elementargeometrie (1895), Theorie der elliptischen Modulfunctionen with Fricke (2 vols. 1890 and 1892); Vorlesungen über die Theorie der automorphen Functionen with Fricke (2 vols. 1897 and 1902), Erlangen Programm (1872) and a monumental treatise on the theory of the top, with Sommerfeld (1897-1910), His Vorlesungen iiber die Entwicklung der

Mathematik in 19 Jahrhundert was published posthumously

(2 vols.,

1926 and 1927).

VON WILHELM HEINRICH KLEIST, BERND (1777-1811), German poet, dramatist and novelist, was born at Frankfort-on-Oder on Oct. 18, 1777. After a scanty education, he entered the Prussian army in 1792, served in the Rhine campaign of 1796, and retired from the service in 1799 with the rank of lieutenant. He next studied law and philosophy in his native city, and in 1800 entered the Ministry of Finance at Berlin. Next year

his roving, restless spirit got the better of him, and taking leave of absence he visited Paris and other places with his sister, and then settled in Switzerland, on Lake Thun, with the intention of developing his talent in quiet communion with nature. The decision cost him the love of Wilhelmina von Zenge, to whom he bad been betrothed. In Switzerland he found friends in Heinrich Zschokke (qg.v.), and August Wieland (1777-1819), son of the poet; and to them he read the draft of his first drama, a gloomy tragedy of the Sturm und Drang type, in which his genius was already apparent, Die Familie Schrofenstein (1803), originally entitled Die Familie Ghonorez. In the autumn of 1802 Kleist returned to Germany; he visited Goethe, Schiller and Wieland in Weimar. At Weimar he began to work on his play Robert Guiscard, but was so discouraged that he began to doubt his own powers. He then wandered to Leipzig, Dresden and Paris. In Paris in an attack of nerves bordering on madness he burnt the MS. of his play, of which only the first act was saved. On returning to Berlin in 1804 he was transferred to the Domdnenkammer (department for the administration of crown lands) at Königsberg. There he found Wilhelmina von Zenge married to Professor Krug. At Königsberg he wrote the

comedy Der zerbrochene Krug, a classic in German comedy. On a journey to Dresden in 1807 Kleist was arrested by the French as a spy, and being sent to France was kept for six months a close prisoner at Chalons-sur-Marne. He was released in July, and in August returned to Dresden, where, with Heinrich Müller (17791829), he published in 1808 the journal Pkébus, in which many

of his poems and the tragedy Penthesilea appeared.

426

KLEIST— KLESL

In 1809 he went to Prague, and ultimately settled in Berlin, where he edited (1810-11) the Berliner Abendblaiter, which combatted the policy of Hardenberg. Meanwhile he had written the romantic drama Das Kdthchen von Heilbronn (1808), and some admirable short tales, among them Michael Kohklhaas, a story of

the days of Luther, which is a landmark in German fiction. ‘The great works of his Berlin period only appeared (Kleists hinterlassene schriften, ed. Tieck, 1821) after his death; they were the patriotic drama Die Hermannschlacht (1809), in which Varus and the Romans are but names for N apoleon and the French, and Prinz Friedrich von Homburg, the scene of which is laid in the time of the great elector. The full history of the tragic close of Kleist’s life is not clear. He was embittered by the cool reception given to some of his work, and the closing down of the Abendblétter reduced him to poverty. He had a fatal passion for Henriette Vogel, and shot first the lady and then himself on the shore of the Wannsee near Potsdam, on Nov. 21, 1811. His Gesammelte Schriften were published by Ludwig Tieck (3 vols., 1826) and in many other editions,

including a critical edition by E. Schmidt (5 vols., 1904-05). His Ausgewählte Dramen were published by K. Siegen (Leipzig, 1877) ; and his letters by E. von Bülow, Heinrich von Kleists Leben und Briefe (1848). See further A. Wilbrandt, Heinrich von Kleist (1863) ; Henri de Kleist, sa vie et ses oeuvres (1894) ; H. Conrad, R. Bonafous, von Kleist als Mensch und Dichter (1896) ; R. Steig, HeinrichHeinrich von Kleists Berliner Kämpfe (1901); F. Servaes, Heinrich von Kleist (1902); S. Wukadinowic, Kleist-Studien (1904) ; C. Gassen, Die Chronologie der

a pleasing expression. In manner he is somewhat gentle and quiet, seldom boisterous or pushing, and rarely emphatic in speech,

for he commonly thinks before he speaks or acts. He

is careful, intelligent,

and

sociable,

and

the keynote of his

character is imitativeness and receptiveness. For this reason any culture that he has, has been acquired. He very often becomes

by conversion to Islam, a Malay, and in some cases adopts the customs of Mohammedans before actually becoming one; having embraced Islam, he easily settles down as a respectable citizen

His affinities lie most with the Kenyahs,

a Kenyah-Klemantay

mixture being common in the northern part of the island. The Klemantan is usually a poor farmer, not depending al. together upon his own crops for his needs. In the minor arts, such as carving, bead-work, and the plaiting and lashing of rattans for various purposes, he excels. As a maker of swords, spears,

and may the out for and

boats he is inferior to both the Kayan and the Kenyah. He be said to have adopted, with modifications, a number of arts, crafts, and various activities of the other tribes, with-

improving upon them; being indolent by nature, he looks labour-saving devices rather than efficiency or excellence: what he lacks in energy and thoroughness, he makes up for in versatility. See Borneo; also C. Hose and W. McDouga ll, The Pagan Tribes of Borneo (1912). (C. H.) KLERK, M. DE (1884-1923), Dutch artist, born Nov. 24, 1884, leader of a group of architects in Amsterd Novellen H. von Kleist (Weimar, 1920); R. Unger, am, interested Herder, Novalis mainly in apartment houses. Disregarding Cuipers’ und Kleist, Studien über die Entwicklung des Todes-p s watchword— rational building—he desired only to give form to his furt, 1922) ; P. Witkop, H. von Kleist (Leipzig, 1922) roblems (Frankpoetic vision, ; W. Silz, H. von Kleist’s conception of the tragic (Gottingen, 1923). His work is the expression of feeling, intuitively controlle d, and imitation of it, always tempting, has been the more dangerou KLEIST, EWALD CHRISTIAN VON (1715-1759), Gers for this absence of intellectualism. He collaborated with Kramer man poet, was born at Zeblin, near Késlin in Pomeran and ia, on van der Mey in the Shipping house in Amster dam in IQ13; since March 7, 1715. After attending the Jesuit school in Deutsch krona then his greatest works have been numerous housingand the gymnasium in Danzig, he proceeded in xr731 to the uni- city, completed respectively in IQI3, 1914, 1917, blocks in that versity of Königsberg, Where he studied law and 1920 and 1922, mathematics. of which that of 1917 is perhaps the most individual and that of On the completion of his studies, he entered the Danish army, 1920 the most acceptab le. De Klerk went very far in construction, in which he became an officer in 1736. He served in the and it is important to consider the swing and rhythm of his buildPrussian army from 1740 onwards. In the course of his garrison ings as a whole without allowing the sometimes duties he met J. W. L. Gleim (g.v.) at Potsdam and excrescent detail Lessing at to become a distraction. It has been said by Mieras Leipzig. He was mortally wounded at Kunersdorf that de Klerk (Aug. 12, and W. M. Dudok, municipal architect of Hilversum, where he has 1759), and died at Frankfort-on-Oder on the 24th. Kleist’s erected some notable public buildings, represen t the chief work is a poem in hexameters, Der Friihling (1749), for of the contemporary Dutch movement. But Dudok, two extremes which Thomson’s Seasons largely supplied ideas. who works in In his descrip- unbroken masses of concrete with a masterl y use tion of the beauties of nature Kleist shows real poetica l genius, an the height of the grouped masses, however differentof variation in almost modern sentiment and fine taste. He his means of also wrote some expression, undoubtedly resembles de Klerk in working from poetic charming odes, idylls and elegies, and a small epic poem Cissides inspiration. The colder and more intellectual und Paches (1759), the subject being two Thessa work of the Rotterlian die an heroic death for their country in a battle friends who dam architects is in greater essential contrast. Among the Amsteragainst the dam group somewhat influenced by de Klerk’s manner are P. L. Athenians. Kramer (g.v.); C. J. Rutgers Chousing-block 1921); J. F. Staal Kleist published in 1756 the first collection of his Gedicht e, which (housin g-block was followed by a second in 1758. After his 1922) and H. Th. Wydeveld (housing-block 1924). death his friend K. W. Ramler

published an edition of Kleists sämtliche Werke in 2 vols. (1760). A critical edition, which includes his lished by A. Sauer, in 3 Vols. (1880-1882). Cf.correspondence, was pubfurther , A. Chuquet, De Ewaldi Kleistiz vita et scriptis (Paris, 1887), der Grosse und die deutsche Literatur (18472) and H. Pröhle, Friedrich .

KLEMANTANS,.

The word Klemantan js the name by

which no tribe or set of tribes is called, but is a convenient generic term devised, at the suggestion of the writer, by the Cambridge university expedition of 1898 to comprise a large group possessing certain common. characteristics. It is derived from the term Pulo Klemantan (Mango island) the name given to Borneo, by the Malays. Klemantans number , perhaps, as many aS I,500,000, or more than a third of the pagan popula the island, most of them being found in Dutch Borneo tion of , but both there and elsewhere chiefly on the lower reaches of the rivers. Their numbers and variations have made anythi ng a general classification impossible, their chief charact more than eristic being (as might be expected in so large a group), mediocrity, or an absence of any specially typical features.

Generally speaking, the Klemantan: gives the impression of belonging to a highly

: civilized community; he is, usually, of medium stature, well proportioned, and gracef ul, with well-shaped _ and well-balanced features, a good mouth , eyes, and skin, and

See J. P. Mieras and F. R. Yerbury, ed. Dutch Architecture of the (eee ee (1926); J. G. Wattjes, Modern Dutch Architecture 1928).

KLERKSDORP, a town of S. Africa, 117 m. by rail S.W. of

Johannesburg; alt. 4,347 ft. White population (1926), 3,391; in 1921 the population included 3,121 whites, 2,062 natives, Asiatics and 302 mixed and other races; total 5,686. The 201 town, built on the banks of the Schoonspruit, 10 m. above its junction

with the Vaal, has several fine public buildings. The old village on the right

bank was founded in 1838, and was the first Boer settlement in the Transvaal. The modern town, on the opposite bank, dates from 1888. Gold and diamonds occur in the vicinity.

KLESL, MELCHIOR (1552-1630), Austrian statesman and

ecclesiastic,

was

the son

of a Protestant

baker.

became bishop of Vienna in 1598. Klesl was the chief and most Hetrusted adviser

of the archduke Matthias, whose election to the imperial

throne he helped to procure in 1612. His advice that the question

of the imperial succession should be postponed until agreement with the Protestant princes could be reached, caused the archduke

Ferdinand (afterwards Emperor Ferdinand) to believe that Kles was hostile to his candidature. In June 161 8, a few months

before the death of Matthias, he was seized by order of the .archdukes and imprisoned at Ambras in Tirol, In 1622 Klesl, who had been

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KLING—KLOPSTOCK a cardinal since 1615, was transferred to Rome by order of Pope Gregory XV., and released from imprisonment. In 1627 Ferdi-

ings: “Deliverances of Sacrificial Victims told in Ovid,” “A Brahms Phantasy,” “Eve and the Future,” “A Life,” and “Of

nand II. allowed him to return to his episcopal duties in Vienna, where he died on Sept. 18, 1630.

Death”; but in his use of the needle he does not aim at the tech-

See J. Freiherr von Hammer-Purgstall, Khlesls Leben (Vienna, Klesls 1847-51) ; A. Kerschbaumer, Kardinal Klesl (Vienna, 1865) ; and Briefe an Rudolfs IT. Obersthofmeister A. Freiherr von Dietrichstein, edited by V. Bibl. (Vienna, 1900).

KLING or TLING, a term used in the Malay peninsula for people of Indian origin, derived from the term Kalinga or Telinga (see ASIA, FurTHER AsIA), of which Telugu is probably another

form. The Telingas are a people of Dravidian race, speaking a highly developed agglutinative language. They amalgamate readily with the Malay, and the hybrids (called Jawi Pékan) form alarge, clever and industrious community. Muslims of the Madras coast trading to the Malay straits are known as “Kling Islam.” See Winstedt, Malaya (1923).

(J. H. H.)

KLINGER, FRIEDRICH MAXIMILIAN VON (17521831), German dramatıst and novelist, was born of humble parentage at Frankfurt-on-Main, on Feb. 17, 1752, and had a hard childhood, as he was early left an orphan. He was befriended by Goethe who knew him from childhood. In 1775 Klinger gained with his tragedy Die Zwillinge a prize offered by the Hamburg theatre, and in 1776 was appointed Theaterdichter to the “Seylersche Schauspiel-Gesellschaft.” In 1778 he entered the Austrian

military service and took part in the Bavarian war of succession. In 1780 he went to St. Petersburg, and became an officer in the Russian army. He married a natural daughter of the empress Catherine, and was made praeses of the Academy of Knights in 1799. From 1803 to 1817 he was curator of the university of Dorpat. He then gradually gave up his official posts. He died at Dorpat on Feb. 25, 1831. The bitter experiences and deprivations of Klinger’s youth are largely reflected in his dramas. It was one of his earliest works, Sturm und Drang (1776), which gave its name to tbis literary epoch. In addition to this tragedy and Die Zwillinge (1776), the chief plays of his early period of passionate fervour and restless “storm and stress” are Die neue Arria (1776), Simsone Grisaldo (1776) and Stilpo und seine Kinder (1780). To a later period belongs the fine double tragedy of Medea in Korinth and Medea auf dem Kaukasos (1791). In Russia he devoted himself mainly to the writing of philosophical romances, of which the best known are Fausts Leben, Taten und Hollenfahrt (1791), Geschichte Giafors des Barmeciden (1792), Geschichte Raphaels de Aquillas (1793), and Der Weltmann und der Dichter (1798), the finest of them all. In 1803 he summed up his human and literary experi-

ences in Betrachtungen und Gedanken über verschiedene Gegenstinde der Welt und der Literatur. In this work Klinger gives calm and dignified expression to the leading ideas which the period of Sturm und Drang had bequeathed to German classical

nical excellence of the great masters; it supplies him merely with means of expressing his ideas. After 1886 Klinger devoted himself more exclusively to painting and sculpture. In his painting he aims neither at classic beauty nor modern truth, but at grim impressiveness not without a touch of mysticism. His “Pieta” at the Dresden gallery, the frescoes at the Leipzig university, and the “Christ in Olympus,” at the Modern gallery in Vienna, are characteristic examples of his art. The Leipzig museum contains his sculptured “Salome” and ‘‘Cassandra.” In sculpture he favours the use of varicoloured materials in the manner of the Greek chryselephantine sculpture. His “Beethoven” (1902) is a notable instance of his work in this direction. His last enterprise was a colossal monument to Richard Wagner, which remained unfinished at his death at Leipzig on July 5, 1920. The Leipzig museum has a representative collection of his work which is exhibited in a hall designed by the artist himself. i Max 1926).

Schmid

and Vogel, Max Klinger (Bielefeld and Leipzig

KLINT, KAARE

(1888-

), a Danish architect, who was

born at Copenhagen on the rsth of December, 1888. Like the main body of Danish architects, Klint is not yet taking part in the international movement towards industrialized building which, it has been argued, began in Denmark in the roth century with Bindesvolt and Herholdt, but meeting with little favour, never developed; he believes nevertheless that we must acknowledge the present and not falsely endeavour to re-create the past. His work, however, owes something to Danish Gothic and is more traditional than might at first sight be suspected. In common with Danish colleagues Klint believes that the first requirement of a building is to take its place with graceful suitability in the surrounding countryside, and that the style adopted by him best fulfils that condition of architectural beauty in Denmark. He completed a church and a Y.M.C.A. building at Odense in 1921 and 1923 respectively, while the magnificent Grundtvig Memorial

church in Copenhagen was completed in 1926. ea

1927).

Fisker and F. R. Yerbury, Modern

Danish Architecture

KLIPSPRINGER, a small African mountain-antelope (Oreotragus saltator), ranging from the Cape through East Africa to Somaliland and Abyssinia, characterized by its rounded hoofs, thick hair and gold-spangled colouring. It represents a genus by itself. The activity of these antelopes is marvellous.

KLONDIKE,

a district in Yukon Territory, north-western

Canada, approximately in 64° N. and 140° W. The limits are rather indefinite, but the district includes the country to the south of the Klondike river, which comes into the Yukon from the east and has several tributaries, as well as Indian river, a second literature. branch of the Yukon, flowing into it some distance above the Klinger’s works were published in twelve volumes (1809-15). A Klondike. The richer gold-bearing gravels are found along the selection will be found in A. Sauer, Stürmer und Dränger, vol. i. creeks tributary to these two rivers within an area of about (1883). See E. Schmidt, Lenz und Klinger (1878) ; M. Rieger, Klinger es Sturm- und Drangperiode (1880) ; and Klinger in seiner Reife 800 sq.m. Rich gravel was discovered on Bonanza Creek in 1896, and a wild rush to this almost inaccessible region followed, a KLINGER, MAX (1857-1920), German painter, etcher and population of 30,000 coming in within the next three or four years sculptor, was born at Leipzig on Feb. 18, 1857. He attended the with a rapidly increasing output of gold, reaching in 1900 the classes at the Carlsruhe art school in 1874, and went in the fol- climax of $22,000,000, Since then the production has steadily lowing year to Berlin, where in 1878 he created a sensation at the declined, until in 1906 it fell to $5,600,000, and in 1925 to $988,Academy exhibition with two series of, pen-and-ink drawings— 465. The richest gravels were worked out before 1910, and most the “Series upon the Theme of Christ” and “Fantasies upon the of the population had left the Klondike for Alaska and other Finding of a Glove.” The daring originality of these imaginative regions; so that Dawson, which for a time was a bustling city of and eccentric works caused an outburst of indignation, and the more than 10,000, dwindled to about 2,000 inhabitants. As the artist was voted insane; nevertheless the “Glove” series was ground was almost all frozen, the mines were worked by a thawbought by the Berlin National Gallery, From 1883 to 1886 he ing process, first by setting fires, afterwards by using steam, new

studied in Paris and then visited Italy. In 1893 he settled at Leipzig. His painting of “The Judgment of Paris” caused another storm of indignant protest in 1887, owing to its rejection of all conventional attributes and the naive directness of the conception. His vivid and somewhat morbid imagination, with its leaning

towards the gruesome and disagreeable, and the Goyaesque turn of his mind, found their best expression in his “cycles” of etch-

methods being introduced to meet the unusual conditions.

Later

dredges and hydraulic mining were resorted to with success... In recent years the silver-lead ores of Veno and Galena hills, in the Mayo district, have assumed some importance. pyle KLOPSTOCK, GOTTLIEB FRIEDRICH (1724-1803), German poet, was born at Quedlinburg, on July 2, 1724,: the eldest son of a lawyer, a man of sterling character and of a deeply

428

KLOSTERNEUBURG—KNARESBOROUGH

religious mind. Both in his birthplace and on the estate of Friedeberg on the Saale, which his father later rented, young Klopstock passed a happy childhood; and more attention having been given to his physical than to his mental development he grew up a strong healthy boy and was an excellent horseman

and skater. In his thirteenth year Klopstock returned to Quedlinburg where he attended the gymnasium, and in 1739 proceeded to the famous classical school of Schulpforta. Here he soon became an adept in Greek and Latin versification, and wrote some meritorious idylls and odes in German. His original intention of

making the emperor Henry I. (‘The Fowler”) the hero of an epic, was, under the influence of Milton’s Paradise Lost, with which he became acquainted through Bodmer’s translation, abandoned in favour of the religious epic. While yet at school, he

had already drafted the plan of Der Messias. On Sept. 21, 1745, he delivered on quitting school a remarkable “leaving oration” on epic poetry—Abschiedsrede tiber die epische Poesie, kulturund literargeschichtlich erliutert—and next proceeded to Jena as a student of theology, where he elaborated the first three cantos of the Messias in prose. Klopstock removed in 1746 to Leipzig, and here joined the circle of young contributors to the Bremer Beiträge. In this

periodical the first three

cantos

of the Messias in hexameters

were anonymously published in 1748. In Leipzig he also wrote a number of odes, the best known of which is An meine Freunde (1747), afterwards recast as Wingolf (1767). He left the university in 1748 and became a private tutor in the family of a relative at Langensalza. Here unrequited love for a cousin (the “Fanny” of his odes) disturbed his peace of mind. He accepted in 1750 an invitation from Jakob Bodmer (q.v), the translator of Paradise Lost, to visit him in Zurich. Here Klopstock was at first treated with every kindness and respect and rapidly recovered his spirits. Bodmer, however, was disappointed to find in the young poet of the Messias a man of strong worldly

interests, and a coolness sprang up between the two friends. At this juncture Klopstock was invited by Frederick V. of

Denmark, on the recommendation of his minister Bernstorff, to settle at Copenhagen, with an annuity of 400 talers, with a view to the completion of the Messias. On his way to the Danish capital Klopstock met at Hamburg Margareta (Meta) Moller, (the “Cidli” of his odes), an enthusiastic admirer of his poetry, who became his wife in 1754. His happiness was short; she died in 1758, leaving him almost broken-hearted. His grief at her loss finds pathetic expression in the rsth canto of the Messias. The poet subsequently published his wife’s writings, Hinterlassene

Werke

von Margareta Klopstock

(1759), which give evidence

of a tender, sensitive and deeply religious spirit. Klopstock now relapsed into melancholy; new ideas failed him, and his poetry became more and more vague and unintelligible. He turned his

attention to northern mythology, which he conceived should re-

place classical subjects in a new school of German poetry. In 1770, on the dismissal of Bernstorff from office, he retired with

him to Hamburg, but retained his pension together with the rank of councillor of legation. Here, in 1773, he issued the last five cantos of the Messias. In the f ollowing year he published his scheme for the regeneration of German letters, Die Gelehrten-

republik (1774).

In 1775 Klopstock travelled south, and making the acquaintance of Goethe on the way, spent a year at the court of the

margrave of Baden at Karlsruhe. Thence, in 1776, with the title of Hofrat and a pension from the Margrave, which he retained together with that from the king of Denmark, he returned to Hamburg where he spent the remainder of his life. His latter years he passed in retirement. The French Republic sent him the diploma of honorary citizenship: but, horrified at the terrible scenes the Revolution had enacted in the place of liberty, he returned it. When 67 years of age he contracted a second marriage with Johanna Elisabeth von Winthem, a widow and a niece

of his late wife, who for many years had been one of his most intimate friends. He died at Hamburg on March 14, 1803, mourned by all Germany, and was buried by the side of his first wife in the churchyard of the village of Ottensen.

Klopstock’s nature was best attuned to lyrical poetry, and ù

it his deep, noble character found its truest expression. He Was less suited for epic and dramatic representation; for, wrapt Upin himself, a stranger to the outer world, without historical Culture, and without even any interest in the events of his time, he was lacking in the art of plastic representation such as a great epic

requires. Thus the Messias, despite the magnificent Passages which especially the earlier cantos contain, cannot Satisfy the

demands such a theme must necessarily make.

The poem wag

translated into seventeen languages and led to numerous imita-

tions. In his odes Klopstock had more scope for his peculiar talent. Among the best are An Fanny; Der Zürchersee; Die tote Klorissa; An Cidli; Die beiden Musen; Der Rheinwein; Die

frühen Gräber; Mein Vaterland.

His religious odes mostly take

the form of hymns, of which the most beautiful is Die FrühlingsJeter. His dramas, in some of which, notably Hermanns Schlacht

(1769) and Hermann und die Fiirsten (1784), he celebrated the

deeds of the ancient German hero Arminius, and in others, Der

Tod Adams (1757) and Salomo (1764), took his materials from the Old Testament, are essentially lyrical in character and de.

ficient in action.

In addition to Die Gelehrtenrepublik, he was

also the author of Fragmente über Sprache und Dichthunst (1779) and Grammatische Gespräche (1794), works in which he made important contributions to philology and to the history of German poetry. l Klopstock’s Werke first appeared in seven quarto volumes (147981809). At the same time a more complete edition in twelve octavo volumes was published (1798—1817), to which six additional volumes

were added in 1830. More recent editions were published in 1844-49, 1854-55, 1879 (ed. by R. Roxberger, 1884 ed. by R. Hamel) and

1893 (a selection edited by F. Muncker). A critical edition of the Odes was published by F. Muncker and J. Pawel in 1889; a commentary on these by H. Diintzer (1860; 2nd ed., 1878). For Klopstock’s correspondence see K. Schmidt, Klopstock und seine Freunde (18x10) ; C. A. H. Clodius, Klopstocks Nachlass (1821) ; J. M. Lappenberg, Briefe von und an Klopstock (x867). Cf. further K. F. Cramer, Klopstock, er und über ihn (1780-92); J. G, Gruber} Klopstocks

Leben (1832); R. Hamel, Klopstock-Studien (1879-80); F. Muncker,

F. G. Klopstock, the most authoritative biography

(1888); F. G.

Klopstock, Klopstock, 2. Juli, 1724. Zur Feier seines zweihundertjahrigen Geburtstages (Berlin, 1926); E. Bailly, Etude sur la vie et les oeuvres

de Klopstock

(Paris, 1888).

KLOSTERNEUBURG,

a town in Lower Austria, on the

right bank of the Danube at the foot of a spur of the Wiener Wald, Pop. (1923) 14,100. The chief occupation of its inhabitants is the preparation of wine from the many vineyards that line the slopes behind the town, which reflects its dominant

activity in its possession of a school:and experimental station of wine and fruit cultivation; there is also a large cement factory near the town. Klosterneuburg is famous for the magnificent buildings of the Augustine canonry, founded in 1106 by Margrave Leopold the Holy. This foundation, one of the oldest and richest.in Austria, has numerous interesting features, notably the 12th century altar of Verdun, the r4th century chapel containing Leopold’s tomb, the picture gallery, the treasury and the

library containing 30,000 volumes and many MSS. KLUCK, ALEXANDER VON (1846), Prussian general, was born May 20, 1846 at Münster, Westphalia. He took part in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and was twice wounded at the battle of ColombeyNeuilly. In 1906 he was promoted to the rank of general of infantry, and at the outbreak of the World War was inspector-

general of the VIII. Army Inspection. He was placed in chief command of I. Army of the West, which he led in the battles of Maubeuge and St. Quentin and the advance upon the Marne. (See FRONTIERS, BATTLES OF THE.) At the battle of the Marre,

the faulty disposition of the German forces in the line of battle

and the success of the Allied offensive compelled Von Kluck to

Withdraw his army to the Aisne positions.

(See MARNE, First

BATTLE OF THE.) In March 1915 he was wounded while visiting

the front trenches, and was placed on the retired list in Oct. 1916. He gave his account of the earlier operations in Der Marsch auf

Paris und die Marne-Schlacht (1920).

-

KNARESBOROUGH, an urban district of the West Riding

of Yorkshire, England, 164 m. W. by N. of York by the L.NE.

429

KNAUS—KNELLER Its railway and 34 m. N.E. of Harrogate. Pop. (1931), 5,942. river the of bank left steep the on que, jjtuation is most pictures Nidd, which here follows a well-wooded valley, hemmed in by

and Helmholtz. His drawings are very able and studies of character. See L. Pietsch, Knaus (Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1896).

limestone cliffs. Knaresborough

borough was forfeited by Eustace Fitzjohn, grandson of de Burgh,

KNAVE, originally a male child, a boy (cf. Ger. Knabe, boy) ; early used as a name for any lad employed as a servant, and so of male servants in general. The current meaning, a rogue, was, however, an early usage. In playing-cards the lowest court card of each suit, representing a mediaeval servant, is called the “knave.” See also VALET.

derers of Thomas 4 Becket, who, with his accomplices, is said to have remained in hiding in the castle for a whole year. During the 13th and 14th centuries, the castle and lordship changed hands

poet and translator, was born at the castle of Wallerstein in Franconia on Nov. 30, 1744. After serving for ten years in the Prussian army he became tutor to one of the Weimar princes, and introduced Goethe to the hereditary prince, Charles Augustus.

(Camardesburg, Cnarreburc, Cknareburg), Crown property before the Conquest, formed part of William the Conqueror’s grant to his follower, Serlo de Burgh, who probably

founded Knaresborough castle.

In the reign of Stephen, Knares-

and was granted to Robert de Stuteville. From his descendants it passed, through marriage, to Hugh de Morville, one of the mur-

very frequently;

they were granted successively to Hubert

de

Burgh, whose son forfeited them, after the battle of Evesham,

to Richard, earl of Cornwall, whose son Edmund died without issue; to Piers Gaveston; and finally to John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, and so to the Crown as parcel of the duchy of Lancaster. In 1317, John de Lilleburn, who was holding the castle for Thomas, duke of Lancaster, against the king, surrendered, under

conditions, to William de Ros of Hamelak, but, before leaving the castle, managed to destroy all the records of the liberties and privileges of the town, which were kept in the castle. An inquisition was taken, in 1368, to ascertain these privileges, and the jurors

found that the burgesses held “all the soil of their borough yielding 7s. 4d. yearly and doing suit at the king’s court.” In the

reign of Henry VIII. Knaresborough is said by Leland to be “no ereat thing and meanely builded but the market there is quik.”

The castle was probably founded in 1070, but its remains, which include a massive keep rising finely from a cliff above the Nidd, are mainly of the 14th century. During the Civil Wars the Royal-

ists were obliged to surrender it to Fairfax after Marston Moor, and it was dismantled in 1646, A charter granted by Charles II., confirming earlier charters, allows a market on Wednesday, which is held in the open market square, and a fortnightly fair on the same day from the Feast of St. Mark to that of St. Andrew. The Knaresborough free grammar school was founded in 1616. The church of St. John the Baptist is Early English, but has numerous Decorated and Perpendicular additions; it is a cruciform building containing several interesting monuments. Linen and

leather are manufactured, and the limestone quarries employ a number of people, but the population is largely agricultural. Lead ore was found and worked on Knaresborough common in the 16th century. From 1555 to 1867 the town returned two members to parliament, but in the latter year the number was reduced to one, and in 1885 the representation was merged in that of a district constituency.

KNAUS,

LUDWIG

(1829-1910),

noted

German

genre

painter, was born at Wiesbaden on Oct. §, 1829, the son of an optician. From 1845-48 he studied at the Düsseldorf academy, form-

ing his style on the great masters of the Dutch school (Ostade, Brouwer). He was one of the founders of the famous artists’ club, Malkasten, at Düsseldorf. But his realistic rendering of nature was not understood by the classicist, W. Schadow, who was then director of the Academy. In 1852 Knaus went to Paris, where his picture, “Morning after Kirmes,” exhibited at the Salon of 1853, was awarded the gold medal. “A Walk in the Tuileries Gar-

KNEBEL, KARL LUDWIG

sympathetic

VON (1744-1834), German

This was the beginning of Goethe’s intimate connection with the

Weimar court. In 1798 he married the singer Luise von Rudorf,

and retired to Ilmenau; but in 1805 he removed to Jena, where he lived until his death on Feb. 23, 1834. Knebel’s Sammlung kleiner Gedichte (1815), issued anonymously, and Distichen (1827) contain many graceful sonnets, but it is as a translator that he is best known. His translations of the elegies of Propertius, Elegien des Properz (1798), and of Lucretius’ De rerum natura (2 vols., 1831) are deservedly praised. Knebel’s Literarischer Nachlass und Briefwechsel was edited by K. A. Varnhagen von Ense and T. Mundt in 3 vols. (1835; 2nd ed.,

a I

See Hugo

von

Knebel-Ddberitz,

Karl

Ludwig

von Knebel

e

KNEE, in human anatomy, the articulation of the upper and lower parts of the leg, the joint between the femur and the tibia.

(See Jornts.)

The word is also used of articulation resembling

the knee-joint in shape or position in other animals; it thus is applied to the carpal articulation of the foreleg of a horse, answering to the ankle in man, or to the tarsal articulation or heel of a bird’s foot.

KNEISEL, FRANZ

(1865-1926), violinist and founder of

the Kneisel quartet, was born at Bucharest on Jan. 26, 1865. At the age of 14 he went to the Vienna conservatoire to study under Griin and Hellmesberger, and was only 16 when he became Koncertmeister of the Hofburg theatre, Vienna, a position which was followed in 1884 by a similar appointment in connection with the Bilse orchestra, Berlin. In 1885, through the good offices of Col. Henry L. Higginson, patron of the Boston symphony orchestra, he settled in the United States, as leader of that orches-

tra and in the same year established in Boston the famous quartet

with which his name is associated. It soon took rank with the leading bodies of its kind, and in virtue of the superior quality of its performance set a standard for chamber-music playing in America which had never been approached before. The other original members of the quartet were E. Fiedler (2nd violin),

Louis Svencenski

(viola), and Fritz Giese

(cello), and it re-

mained in existence, with various changes of personnel, no fewer than 32 years, giving its last concert on April 3, 1917. Subse-

quently, Kneisel devoted himself mainly to his work as chief violin professor at the Institute of Musical Art, New York. died in New York on March 26, 1926.

KNELLER,

SIR GODFREY

He

(1648-1723), Engiish por-

trait painter of German extraction, was born in Liibeck of an ancient family, on Aug. 8, 1648. He studied in the school of Rembrandt, and under Ferdinand Bol in Amsterdam. In 1672 he dens” was acquired for the Luxembourg gallery and is now in the removed to Italy. In Rome, and more especially in Venice, Kneller Louvre. After a period of travel, he settled at Berlin in 1874; he earned considerable reputation by historical paintings as well as there taught at the Academy till 1882, His art had a great vogue portraits. In 1674 he came to England at the invitation of the in Germany; and his success was mainly due to the choice of his duke of Monmouth and was introduced to Charles II., of whom subjects—his rustic scenes telling an anecdote. In this work he he made many portraits. Charles sent him to Paris, to take the was helped by his sympathetic and keen observation of the psy- portrait of Louis XIV., and appointed him court painter; and he chology in human situations. Moreover, his feeling for colour, his continued to hold the same post into the days of George I. Under harmonious gold tone, and his broad and loose technique had a William III. (1692) he was made a knight, under George I.

salutary influence on the development of German art. He is rep-

(1715) a baronet, and by order of the emperor Leopold I. 'a

tesented in most German and United States galleries. Among his knight of the Roman Empire. His studio had at first been in hest pictures are “The Children’s Treat,” “His Highness upon his Covent Garden, but in his closing years he lived in Kneller Hall, Travels,” “The Card Players,” and “The Golden Wedding.” He Twickenham. He died on Nov. 7, 1723. He was buried in also painted portraits of distinguished men, including Mommsen Twickenham church, and has a monument in Westminster Abbey.

4.30

KNICKERBOCKER—KNIGHTHOOD

An elder brother, John Zachary Kneller, an ornamental painter, had accompanied Godfrey to England, and had died in 1702. The style of Sir Godfrey Kneller as a portrait painter represented the decline of that art as practised by Vandyck. His works have much freedom, and are well drawn and coloured; but they are mostly slight in manner, and to a great extent monotonous. The colouring may be called brilliant rather than true. Among Kneller’s principal paintings are the ‘Forty-three Celebrities of the Kit-Cat Club,” and the “Ten Beauties of the Court of William ITT.,” now at Hampton Court. He executed altogether the likenesses of ten sovereigns, and a number of his works appear in the National Portrait Gallery, London. KNICKERBOCKER, HARMEN JANSEN (c. 1650-c. 1716), Dutch colonist of New Amsterdam (New York) and founder of the Knickerbocker family in America, came from Holland about 1674 and in 1682 purchased land near Albany, N.Y. There he lived until 1704, when he bought land near Red Hook in Dutchess county and moved down the Hudson river to his new seat. The oldest son, Johannes Harmenson, remained in Albany county and settled for the remainder of his life at Schaghticoke on land which remained for over 200 years in the Knickerbocker name. His son Johannes (1723-1803), a colonel in the revolutionary army, and his grandson Harmen (1779-1855), a Federalist representative in Congress 1809~11, were well known to Washington Irving, who borrowed their name for use in his Knickerbocker’s History of New York (1809). Largely owing to this book the name “Knickerbockers” has passed into current use as a designation of the early Dutch settlers in New York and their descendants.

KNIFE,

a small cutting instrument, with the blade either

fixed to the handle or fastened with a hinge so as to clasp into the handle (see Cuttery). For the knives chipped from flint by prehistoric man see ARCHAEOLOGY and FLINTs. KNIGGE, ADOLF FRANZ FRIEDRICH, Frernerr VON (1752-1796), German author, was born on the family estate of Bredenbeck near Hanover on Oct. 16, 1732. He was attached successively to the courts of Hesse-Cassel and Weimar until 1777, and had no official appointment until 1791 when he became Oberhauptmann in Bremen, where he died on May 6, 1796. Knigge, under the name “Philo,” was one of the most active members of the /uminatt, a society founded by Adam Weishaupt, and later affliated to the Freemasons. After the J/luminati had been suppressed in Bavaria they were dispersed throughout Germany. Knigge denounced the institutions of royalty and nobility with revolutionary fervour. Knigge wrote several novels, but his most

famous work was Uber den Umgang mit Menschen

(1788), in

which he lays down rules to be observed for a happy life.

Knigge’s Schriften were published in 12 volumes (1804~06). See K. Goedeke, Adolf, Freiherr von Knigge (1844) ; and H. Klencke, Aus einer alien Kiste (Briefe, Handschriften und Dokumente aus dem Nachlasse Knigges) (1853).

KNIGHT, CHARLES

(1791-1873), English publisher and

author, the son of a bookseller and printer at Windsor, was born on March 15, 1791. He published (1820-21) The Etonian, and

(1823-24) Knight’s Quarterly Magazine, to which W. M. Praed, Derwent Coleridge and Macaulay contributed. In 1827 Knight became the superintendent of the publications of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, for which he projected and edited The British Almanack and Companion, begun in 1828. In 1829 he resumed business on his own account with the publication of The Library of Entertaining Knowledge, writing several volumes of the series himself. In 1832 and 1833 he started The Penny Magazine and The Penny Cyclopaedia (completed, 1844) both of which had a large circulation. Besides many illustrated editions of standard works, including in 1842 The Pictorial Shakeseare, which bad appeared in parts (1838-41), Knight published many popular illustrated works, including his Popular History of England (8 vals., 1856-62). In 1864 he retired from business, but he continued to write nearly to the close of his long life, publishing Phe Shadows of the Old Booksellers ( 1865) and an autobiography under the title Passages of a Working Life during Half a Century

(3-vols,, 1864-65). He died at Addlestone, surrey, Mar. 9, 1873.

See A. A. Clowes, Knight, a Sketch (1892).

KNIGHT, DANIEL RIDGWAY

(1845-1924), American

artist, was born at Philadelphia (Pa.), in 1845. He was a pupil at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris, under Gleyre, and late worked in the private studio of Meissonier. After 1872 he lived

in France, having a house and studio at Poissy on the Seine. He painted peasant women out of doors with great popular sy. cess. He was awarded the silver medal and cross of the Legion of Honour, Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1889, and was made

a knight of the Royal Order of St. Michael of Bavaria, Munich,

1893, receiving the gold medal of honour from the Pennsylvania

Academy

of Fine Arts,

Philadelphia,

18093.

His

“Hailing the

These

two words,

Ferry” is in the Pennsylvania Academy, Philadelphia, and “The Shepherdess” in the Brooklyn Institute Museum. He died jp Paris on March 9, 1924.

KNIGHTHOOD

and CHIVALRY.

nearly but not quite synonymous,

designate a single subject of

inquiry, which presents itself under three aspects. It may he regarded in the first place as a mode of feudal tenure, in the second place as a personal attribute or dignity, and in the third place as a scheme of manners. The first aspect is discussed under

the headings Frupatism and KNIcHT SERVICE: we are concerned here only with the second and third. For the more important religious orders of knighthood the reader is referred to the head-

ings ST. JOHN OF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS OF; TEUTONIC Knicurs: and TEMPLARS.

“The growth of knighthood” (writes Stubbs) “is a subject on

which the greatest obscurity prevails”: and, though J. H. Round

has done much to explain the introduction of the system into England, its origin in Europe is still obscure in many details.

The words knight and knighthood are the modern forms of the

Old English cntht and cnikthdd.

Of these the primary significa.

tion of the first was a boy or youth, and of the second the period of life between childhood and manhood. But before the middle of the r2th century they had the meaning of the French chevalier and chevalerie. In a secondary sense cnikt meant a servant answering to the German Knecht, and in the Anglo-Saxon Gospels a disciple is a leorning cniht. In a tertiary sense the word was occasionally employed as equivalent to the Latin miles—usually translated by thegn—which in the earlier middle ages was used for the domestic as well as the martial officers or retainers of princes or great personages. Thegn itself, used as the description of an attendant of the king, appears to have meant more especially a military attendant. Besides the king, the ealdormen, bishops and king’s thegns themselves had their thegns, and to these it is more than probable that the name of cniht was applied. Around the Anglo-Saxon magnates were a crowd of retainers among whom were some called cniktas who were not always the humblest of their number. In the reign of Edward the Confessor was a large class of landholders who had commended themselves to some lord; their condition in many respects similar to that of a vast number of unquestionably feudal tenants who appear after the Norman Conquest. If consequently the former were called cnthtas, it seems probable that the appellation should have been continued to the latter, practically their successors. And if the

designation of knights was first applied to the military tenants of the earls, bishops and barons—who although they held their lands of mesne lords owed their services to the king—its extension to the whole body of military tenants need not have been a very violent or prolonged process. Assuming, however, that knight was originally uSed for the military tenant of a noble person, as catht had sometimes been used to describe the thegn of a noble person, it would, to begin with, have defined rather his social

status than the nature of his services. But those whom the English called knights the Normans called chevaliers, by which term the nature of their services was defined, while their social status

was left out of consideration. And at first chevalier in its general and honorary signification seems to have been rendered not by knight but by rider, as may be inferred from the Anglo-Saxon

Chronicle, wherein it is recorded under the year 108s that William the Conqueror “dubbade his sunu Henric to ridere.” But, as E. A. Freeman says, “no such title is heard of in the earlier

KNIGHTHOOD days of England.

The thegn, the ealdorman, the king himself,

fought on foot; the horse might bear him to the field, but when the fighting itself came he stood on his native earth to receive the onslaught of her enemies.”

In this perhaps we may behold one

of the most ancient of British insular prejudices, for on the Conti-

nent the importance of cavalry was already understood. From the word caballarius, which occurs in the reign of Charlemagne, came the words for knight in all the Romance languages.

In Germany

the chevalier was called Ritter, but neither rider nor chevalier pre-

viled against knight in England.

And it was long after knight-

wod had acquired its present meaning with us that chivalry was incorporated into our language. It may be remarked too that in oficial Latin, in England and in all Europe, the word miles

held its own against both eques and caballarius. Origin of Mediaeval Knighthood.—Concerning the origin of knighthood or chivalry as it existed in the middle ages—implying as it did a formal assumption of and initiation into the profession of arms—nothing beyond conjecture is possible. But some of the rudiments of chivalry may be detected in early Teutonic customs, and they may have made some advance among

the Franks of Gaul. We know from Tacitus that the German tribes in his day were wont to admit the of their warriors with much ceremony. were called together; his qualifications if he were deemed worthy, his chief,

young man into the ranks The people of his district were inquired into; and, his father, or one of his

near kinsmen presented him with a shield and a lance. Again, among the Franks we find Charlemagne girding his son Louis the Pious, and Louis the Pious girding his son Charles the Bald with

the sword, when they arrived at manhood. It seems certain here that some ceremony was observed which was a thing of recognized importance. It does not follow that a similar ceremony extended to personages less exalted than the sons of kings and emperors. But if it did we must suppose that it applied first to the mounted warriors of the Franks. It was among the Franks indeed that cavalry first acquired the place which it long maintained in Europe. In early society, where the army is the armed nation, the cavalry must consist of the noble and wealthy, and cavalry and chivalry, as Freeman observes, will be the same. Since then we discover in the Capitularies of Charlemagne mention of “caballari” as a class of warriors; it may be concluded that formal investiture with arms applied to the “caballarii” if it was a usage extending beyond the sovereign and his heir-apparent. In spite of the silence of our records, Stubbs thinks that such kings as Ethelred, Canute and Edward the Confessor could hardly

have failed to introduce into England the institution of chivalry then springing up in every country of Europe; it is nowhere mentioned as a Norman innovation. Yet the fact that Harold received knighthood from William of Normandy makes it clear either that Harold was not yet a knight, which in the case of so tried a warrior would imply that “dubbing to knighthood” was not yet known in England, or, as Freeman thinks, that in the middle of the rrth century the custom had grown in Normandy

43%

Continent the employment of mercenaries was both an early and a common practice. Besides the convenience of sovereigns and their feudatories, there were other causes which contributed towards bringing about those changes in the military system of Europe which were finally accomplished in the 13th and r4th centuries. During the crusades vast armies were set on foot in which feudal rights had no place. It was thus established that pay, the love of enterprise and the prospect of plunder were as useful for enlisting troops and keeping them together as the tenure of land and the solemnities of homage and fealty. Moreover, the crusaders who survived an expedition to Palestine were seasoned and experienced although frequently impoverished and landless soldiers, ready to hire themselves to the highest bidder, and well worth their wages. Knighthood Independent of Feudalism.—To distinguished soldiers of the cross the honours and benefits of knighthood could hardly be refused on the ground that they did not possess a sufficient property qualification—of which perhaps they had denuded themselves in order to get equipment for the Holy War.

And thus the conception of knighthood as of something distinct from feudalism arose and gained ground. It was then that the analogy was first detected between the order of knighthood and

the order of priesthood, and that a union of monachism and chivalry was effected in the religious orders of which the Knights Templars and the Knights Hospitallers were the most eminent examples. Somewhat later is marked the existence of a large and noble class who either from the subdivision of fiefs or from the effects of the custom of primogeniture were very insufficiently provided for. To them only two callings were generally open, that of the churchman and that of the soldier, and the latter as a rule offered greater attractions. Hence men of birth, although not of fortune, would attach themselves to some prince or magnate in whose military service they were sure of maintenance, and might hope for reward in the shape of booty or of ransom. It is probably to this period and these circumstances that we must look for, at all events, the rudimentary beginnings of the military as well as the religious orders of chivalry. It seems likely enough therefore that there should grow up bodies of knights banded together by engagements of fidelity, although free from monastic obligations; wearing a uniform or livery, and naming themselves after some special symbol or some patron saint of their adoption. And such bodies placed under the command of a sovereign or grand master, regulated by statutes and enriched by endowments would have been precisely what in after times such orders as the Garter in England, the Golden Fleece in Burgundy, the Annunziata in Savoy and the St. Michael and Holy Ghost in France actually were. Grades of Knighthood.—During the 14th and 15th centuries, as well as somewhat earlier and later, the arrangements of a European army were always and everywhere pretty much the same.

Under

the sovereign

the constable

and the marshal

or

marshals held the chief commands, their authority being partly into “something of a more special meaning” than it bore in joint and partly several. Attendant on them were the heralds, who were the officers of their military court wherein offences England. As a military organization, the feudal system of tenures was committed in the camp and field were tried and adjudged, and better adapted to the purposes of defensive than of offensive among whose duties it was to carry orders and messages, to dewatfare. When kings and kingdoms were in conflict, and distant liver challenges and call truces, and to identify and number the and prolonged expeditions became necessary, it was discovered wounded and the slain. The main divisions of the army were that the resources of feudalism were inadequate. Then there grew distributed under the royal and other principal standards, smaller up all over Europe a system of fining the knights who failed to divisions under the banners of some of the greater nobility or of respond to the sovereign’s call or to stay their full time in the knights banneret, and smaller divisions still under the pennons feld; and in England this fine developed, from the reign of of knights or, as in distinction from knights banneret they came Henry II. to that of Edward II., into a war-tax called escuage to be called, knights bachelors. All knights whether bachelors or of scutage (g.v.). In this way funds for war were at the disposal bannerets were escorted by their squires. But the banner of the of sovereigns, and the conditions under which feudatories served banneret always implied a more or less extensive command, while Were altogether changed. Their military service was now far more every knight was entitled to bear a pennon and every squire a the result of special agreement. In the reign of Edward I., whose pencel. All three flags were of such a size as to be conveniently watlike enterprises after he was king were within the four seas, attached to and carried on a lance, and were emblazoned with this alteration does not seem to have gone very far. But the armies the arms or some portion of the bearings of their owners. But or of Edward III., Henry V. and Henry VI. during the century of while the banner was square the pennon was either pointed: warfare between England and France were recruited and sus- forked at its extremity, and the pencel had a single tail or streamer:

tained to a very great extent on the principle of contract. On the

If indeed we look at the scale of chivalric subordination from

432

KNIGHTHOOD

another point of view, it seems to be more properly divisible into four than into three stages, of which two may be called provisional and two final. The bachelor and the banneret were both equally knights, only the one was of greater distinction and authority than the other. In like manner the squire and the page were both in training for knighthood, but the first had advanced farther than the second. It is true that the squire was a combatant while the page was not, and that many squires voluntarily served as squires all their lives owing to the insufficiency of their fortunes to support the costs of knighthood. But in the ordinary course of a chivalrous education the conditions of page and squire were passed through in boyhood and youth, and the condition of knighthood was reached in early manhood. Every feudal court and castle was a school of chivalry, and although princes and great personages were rarely actually pages or squires, the discipline through which they passed was not different from that to which less exalted candidates for knighthood were subjected. In many castles, and perhaps in most, the discipline followed simply a natural and unwritten code of “fagging” and seniority, as in public schools or on board men-of-war some 100 years or so ago. Modes

of Conferring

Knighthood.—Two

modes

of con-

ferring knighthood appear to have prevailed from a very early period. In the one the accolade constituted the whole or nearly the whole of the ceremony, in the other it was surrounded with many additional observances. The former.and simpler of these modes was naturally that used in war: the candidate knelt before

“the chief of the army or some valiant knight,” who struck him

thrice with the flat of a sword, pronouncing a brief formula of creation and of exhortation which varied at the creator’s will.

In this form a number of knights were made before and after almost every battle between the rith and the 16th centuries, and its advantages gradually led to its general adoption both in time of peace and time of war. On extraordinary occasions indeed the more elaborate ritual continued to be observed. But in England about the beginning of the xrsth century it came to be appropriated to a special taking of knighthood. When Segar, garter king of arms, wrote in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, he does not even mention that there were two ways of creating knights bachelors. “He that is to be made a knight,” he says, “is stricken by the prince with a sword drawn upon his back or shoulder, the prince saying, ‘Soys Chevalier,’ and in times past

was added “Saint George.’ And when the knight rises the prince sayeth ‘Avencez.’” In our days when a knight is personally made he kneels before the sovereign, who lays a sword drawn, ordinarily the sword of State, on either of his shoulders and says, “Rise,” calling him by his Christian name with the addition of “Sir” before it. Very different were the solemnities which attended the creation of a knight when the complete procedure was observed. “The ceremonies and circumstances at the giving this dignity,” says Selden, “in the elder time were of two kinds especially, which we may call courtly and sacred. The courtly were the feasts held at the creation, giving of robes, arms, spurs and the like. The sacred were the holy devotions and what else was used in the church at or before the receiving of the dignity.” But the full solemnities for conferring knighthood seem to have been so largely and so early superseded by the practice of dubbing or giving the accolade alone that in England it became at last restricted to such knights as were made at coronations and some other occasions of State. And to them the particular name of Knights of the Bath was assigned. It is usually supposed that the first creation of Knights of the Bath under that designation was at the coronation of Henry IV.; and before the order of the Bath as a companionship or capitular body was instituted the last creation was at the coronation of Charles II. But all knights were also knights of the spur or “equites aurati,” because their spurs were golden or gilt—the spurs of squires being of silver or white metal; the spurs together with the sword were always employed as the leading ensigns of knighthood. With regard to knights banneret, various opinions have been

entertained as to both the nature of their dignity and the qualifications they were required to possess for receiving it at different

periods and in different countries. Du Cange divides the Mediaeval . nobility of France and Spain into three classes: first, barons » ricos hombres; secondly, chevaliers or caballeros; and thirdly

g écuyers or infanzons; and to the first, the greater nobility

either country, he limits the designation of banneret and the right of leading their followers to war under a banner or square flag. At any rate to commencé with, it seems probable that ban. nerets were in every country merely the more important clagg of feudatories, the “ricos hombres” in contrast to the knights bache.

lors, who in France in the time of St. Louis were known » “pauvres hommes.” In England all the barons or greater nobility

were entitled to bear banners, but it is clear that from a compara.

tively early period bannerets whose claims were founded on personal distinction rather than on feudal tenure gradually came to the front, and much the same process of substitution appears to have gone on in their case as that which we have marked in the case of simple knights. The knight bachelor whose services and landed possessions en. titled him to promotion would apply formally to the commande

in the field for the title of banneret.

If this were granted, the

heralds were called to cut publicly the tails from his pennon: o the commander, as a special honour, might cut them off with his own hands.

What the exact contingent was which bannerets were expected

to supply to the royal host is doubtful.

But in the reign of

Edward III. and afterwards bannerets appear as the commanders of a military force raised by themselves and marshalled under their banners: their status and their relations both to the Crom

and to their followers were mainly the consequences of voluntary

contract not of feudal ténure. It is from the reigns of Edward

III. and Richard II. also that the two best descriptions we possess of the actual creation of a banneret have been transmitted

to us. Sir Thomas Smith, writing towards the end of the réth century, says, after noticing the conditions to be observed in the creation of bannerets, “but this order is almost grown out of use in England”; and, during the controversy which arose between the new order of baronets and the Crown early in the 17th century respecting their precedence, it was alleged without contradiction before the privy council that “there are not bannerets now in being, peradventure never shall be.” Sir Ralph Fane, Sir Francis Bryan and Sir Ralph Sadler were created bannerets by the Lord Protector Somerset after the battle of Pinkie in 1547, and the better opinion is that this was the last occasion on which the dignity was conferred. Existing Orders of Knighthood.—On the continent of Ev rope the degree of knight bachelor disappeared with the military system which had given rise to it. It is now therefore peculiar to

the British empire, where, although very frequently conferred by letters patent, it is yet the only dignity which is still even occa sionally created—as every dignity was formerly created—by means of a ceremony in which the sovereign and the subject personally take part. Everywhere else dubbing or the accolade seems to have become obsolete, and no other species of knighthood, if knighthood it can be called, is known except that which is dependent on admission to some particular order. It isa common error to suppose that baronets are hereditary knights. Baronets

are not knights unless they are knighted like anybody else; and, so far from being knights because they are baronets, one of the privileges granted to them shortly after the institution of their dignity was that they, not being knights, and their successors and

their eldest sons and heirs-apparent should, when they attained their majority, be entitled if they desired to receive knighthood.

It is a maxim of the law indeed that, as Coke says, “the knight

is by creation and not by descent,” and, although we hear of such designations as the “knight of Kerry” or the “knight of Glin,” they are no more than traditional nicknames, and do not by any

means imply that the persons to whom they are applied are knights

in a legitimate sense. Notwithstanding, however, that simple knighthood has gone out of use abroad, there are innumerable grand crosses, commanders and companions of a formidable assortment of orders in almost every part of the world. (See the section on “Orders of Knighthood” on p. 434.)

KNIGHTHOOD Great Britain has nine orders of knighthood—the Garter, the Thistle, St. Patrick, the Bath, the Star of India, St. Michael and st. George, the Indian Empire, the Royal Victorian Order and the Order of the British Empire; and, while the first is undoubt-

edly the oldest as well as the most illustrious anywhere existing, a fictitious antiquity has been claimed for the second and fourth.

Order of the Garter.—It is, however, certain that the “most noble” Order of the Garter at least was instituted in the middle

of the 14th century, although in what particular year this event

sccurred is and has been the subject of much difference of pinion, since the original records of the order until after -1416

have perished. The dates which have been selected vary from

to 1351. 1344 (given by Froissart, but almost certainly mistaken) It is indisputable that in the wardrobe account from Sept. 1347 to Jan. 1349, the issue of certain habits with garters and the moito embroidered on them is marked for St. George’s day; that the letters patent relating to the preparation of the royal chapel

of Windsor are dated in Aug. 1348; and that in the treasury accounts of the prince of Wales there is an entry in Nov. 1348 of

the gift by him of “24 garters to the knights of the Society of

the Garter.” But the order was not in existence before the summer of 1346. Nobody who was not a knight could under its statutes have been admitted to it, and neither the prince of Wales nor several others of the original companions were knighted until the middle of that year. Sir Harris Nicolas contends that the order had no loftier imme-

diate origin than a joust or tournament.

It consisted of the king

and the Black Prince, and 24 knights divided into two bands of

12 like the tilters in a hastilude—at the head of the one being the

first, and of the other the second;

and to the companions

belonging to each, when the order had superseded the Round Table and had become a permanent institution, were assigned stalls either on the sovereign’s or the prince’s side of St. George’s chapel. No change was made in the numbers until 1786, when the sons of George III. and his successors were made eligible notwithstanding that the chapter might be complete. In 1805 another alteration was effected by the provision that the lineal descendants of George II. should be eligible in the same manner, except the Prince of Wales for the time being, who was declared to be “a constituent part of the original institution”; and again in 1831 it was further ordained that the privilege accorded to the descendants of George II. should extend to those of George I. The records during the 14th and 15th centuries show that ladies were received into the order leaves no doubt that they were regularly

received into it. The queen consort, the wives and daughters of knights, and some other women of exalted position, were designated “Dames de la Fraternité de St. George,” and entries of the delivery of robes and garters to them are found at intervals in the Wardrobe Accounts from 1376 to 1495. The effigies of Margaret Byron, wife of Sir Robert Harcourt, K.G., at Stanton Harcourt, and of Alice Chaucer, wife of William de la Pole, duke of

Suffolk, K.G., at Ewelme, which date from the reigns of Henry

VI. and Edward IV., have garters on their left arms. Persons Empowered to Confer Knighthood.—It has been the general opinion, as expressed by Sainte Palaye and Mills, that formerly all knights were qualified to confer knighthood. But it

may be questioned whether the privilege was thus indiscriminately enjoyed even in the earlier days of chivalry; the sounder conclusion appears to be that the right was always restricted to sovereign princes, to those acting under their authority or sanction, and toa few other personages of exalted rank and station. In several of the

wuts for distraint of knighthood from Henry ITI. to Edward III.

a distinction is drawn between those who are to be knighted by the king himself or by the sheriffs of counties respectively, and bishops and abbots could make knights in the 11th and 12th cen-

433

that he should be authorized in express terms to confer knighthood, which was also done by Edward VI. in his own case when he received knighthood from the duke of Somerset. In the middle ages it was a common practice for sovereigns and princes to dub each other knights much as they were afterwards, and are now, in the habit of exchanging the stars and ribbons of their orders. Long after the military importance of knighthood had practically disappeared, a knight’s title was recognized in all European countries, and not only in that country in which he had received it. In modern times, however, by certain regulations, made in 1823, and repeated and enlarged in 1855, not only is it provided that the sovereign’s permission by royal warrant shall be necessary for the reception by a British subject of any foreign order of knighthood, but further that such permission shall not authorize “the assumption of any style, appellation, rank, precedence, or privilege appertaining to a knight bachelor of the United Kingdom.” Degradation.—The cases in which a knight has been formally degraded in England are exceedingly few; Dallaway says that only three were on record in the College of Arms when he wrote in 1793. The last case was that of Sir Francis Michell in 162r, whose spurs were hacked from. his heels, his sword-belt cut, and his sword broken over his head by the heralds in Westminster Hall. Roughly speaking, the age of chivalry properly so called may be said to have extended from the beginning of the crusades to the battle of Bosworth. Even in the way of pageantry and martial exercise it did not long survive the middle ages. In England tilts and tourneys were even. occasionally held until after the death of Henry, prince of Wales. But on the Continent they were discredited by the fatal accident which befell Henry II. of France in 1599. The golden age of chivalry has been variously located. Most writers would place it in the early 13th century, but Gautier would remove it two or three generations further back. It may be true that, in the comparative scarcity of historical evidence, tath-century romancers present a more favourable picture of chivalry at that earlier time; but even such historical evidence as we possess, when carefully scrutinized, is enough to dispel the illusion that there was any period of the middle ages in which the unselfish championship of “God and the ladies” was anything but a rare exception. The Spirit of Chivalry.—lIt is difficult to describe the true spirit and moral influence of knighthood, if only because the ages in which it flourished differed so widely from our own. At its very best, it was always hampered by the limitations of mediaeval society. Moreover, many of the noblest precepts of the knightly code were a legacy from earlier ages, and have survived the decay of knighthood just as they will survive all transitory human institutions, forming part of the eternal heritage of the race. Indeed, the most important'of these precepts did not even attain to their highest development in the middle ages. As a conscious effort to bring religion into daily life, chivalry was less successful than later puritanism; while the educated classes of our own day far surpass the average mediaeval knight in discipline, self-control and outward or inward refinement. In its own age, chivalry rested practically, like the highest civilization of ancient Greece and Rome, on slave labour; and if many of its most brilliant outward attractions have now faded for ever, this is only because modern civilization tends so strongly to remove social barriers. The knightly ages will always enjoy the glory of having formulated a code of honour which aimed at rendering the upper classes worthy of their exceptional privileges; ‘yet we must judge chivalry not only by its formal code but also by its practical fruits.

Abuses in Practice.—Far too much has been made

of the

luies. At all periods the commanders of the royal armies had

extent to which the knightly code, and the reverence paid to the Virgin Mary, raised the position of women. As Gautier himself

the power of conferring knighthood; under James I. an ordinance of 1622, confirmed by a proclamation of 1623, for the registration of knights in the college of arms, is rendered applicable to all mioshould receive knighthood from either the king or any of Jodeutenants. But: when in 1543 Henry VIII. appointed Sir . Join Wallop to be captain of Guisnes, it was considered necessary

person from her fief: lands and women were handed over together, as a business bargain, by parents or guardians. In theory, the knight was the defender of widows and orphans; but in practice wardships and marriages were bought and sold as a matter of everyday routine like stocks and shares in the modern market.

admits, the feudal system made it difficult to separate the woman’s

434

KNIGHTHOOD

Thomas, lord of Berkeley (1245-1321), counted on this as a regular and considerable source of income. Late in the 15th century, in spite of the somewhat greater liberty of that age, we find Stephen Scrope writing nakedly to a familiar correspondent “for very need [of poverty], I was fain to sell a little daughter I have for much less than I should have done by possibility,” że., than the fair market price. Startling as such words are, it is perhaps still more startling to find how frequently and naturally,

in the highest society, ladies were degraded by personal violence. The proofs of this from the Ckansons de Geste might be multiplied indefinitely. The Knight of La Tour-Landry (1372) relates, by way of warning to his daughters, a tale of a lady who so irritated her husband by scolding him in company, that he struck her to the earth with his fist and kicked her in the face, breaking her nose. Upon this the good knight moralizes: “And this she had for her euelle and gret langage, that she was wont to saie to her husbonde.” This was a natural consequence not only of the want of self-control which we see everywhere in the middle ages, but also of the custom of contracting child-marriages for unsentimental considerations. Between 1288 and 1500 five marriages are recorded in the direct line of the Berkeley family in which the ten contracting parties averaged less than 11 years of age: the marriage contract of another Lord Berkeley was drawn up before he was six years old. Moreover, the same business considerations which dictated those early marriages clashed equally with the strict theory of knighthood. In the same Berkeley family, the lord Maurice IV. was knighted in 1338 at the age of seven to avoid the possible evils of wardship, and Thomas V. for the same reason in 1476 at the age of five. Smyth’s record of this great family shows that, from the middle of the 13th century onwards, the lords were not only statesmen and warriors,‘ but gentlemen-farmers on a great scale, even selling fruit from the castle gardens, while their ladies would go round on tours of inspection from dairy to dairy. Indeed, economic causes contributed much to the decay of romantic chivalry. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that at least as early as the middle of the 13th century the commercial side of knighthood became very prominent. Although by the code of chivalry no candidate could be knighted before the age of 21, we have seen how great nobles like the Berkeleys obtained that honour for their infant heirs in order to avoid possible pecuniary loss; and French writers of the 14th century complained of this knighting of infants as a common abuse. Moreover, after the knight’s liability to personal service in war had been modified by the scutage system, it became necessary in the first quarter of the 13th century to compel landowners to take up the knighthood which in theory they should have coveted as an honour—a compulsion which was soon systematically enforced

(Distraint of Knighthood, 1278), and became a recognized source of royal income. An indirect effect of this system was to break down another rule of the chivalrous code—that none could be dubbed who was not of gentle birth. This rule, however, had often been broken before; even the romances of chivalry speak not infrequently of the knighting of serfs or jongleurs. While knighthood was avoided by poor nobles, it was coveted by rich citizens. It is recorded in 1298 as “an immemorial custom” in Provence

that rich burghers enjoyed the honour of knighthood; and less than a century later we find Sacchetti complaining that the dignity is open to any rich upstart, however disreputable his antecedents. Similar causes contributed to the decay of knightly ideas in warfare. Even in the r2th century, when war was still

rather the pastime of kings and knights than a national effort, the

English commanders

(e.g., Sir Robert Knolles and Sir Thon, Dagworth) were of obscure birth, while on the French side eye

Du Guesclin had to wait long for his knighthood because he belonged only to the lesser nobility. The tournament again, whid for two centuries had been under the ban of the church, was often almost as definitely discouraged by Edward IIT. as it was encgy. aged by John of France; and while John’s father opened th Crécy campaign by sending Edward a challenge in due form of

chivalry, Edward took advantage of this formal delay to amy

the French king with negotiations while he withdrew his army by

a rapid march from an almost hopeless position. A quotation fron Froissart will illustrate the extent to which war had now become a mere business. At the battle of Aljubarrota, as also at Agincourt, the handful of victors were obliged by a sudden panic ty

slay their prisoners. “Lo, behold the great evil adventure that fej that Saturday. For they slew as many good prisoners as woul well have been worth, one with another, 400,000 franks.” BrsriocraPaHy.—Froissart is perhaps the source from which we may gather most of chivalry in its double aspect, good and bad The brilliant side comes out most clearly in Joinville, the Chronique de Du Guesclin, and the Histoire de Bayart; the darker side appears in the earlier chronicles of the crusades, and is especially emphaswed by preachers and moralists like Jacques de Vitry, Etienne de Bourbon,

Nicole Bozon and John Gower. John Smyth’s Lives of the Berkeleys (Bristol and Gloucs. Archaeol. Soc., 2 vols.) and the Book of the Knight of La Tour-Landry (ed. A. de Montaiglon, or in the olf

English trans. published by the Early English Text Soc.) throw a very vivid light on the inner life of noble families. Of modern books,

see A. Schultz, Héfisches Leben 2. Zeit der Minnesinger

(Leipzig,

1879) ; S. Luce, Hist. de Du Guesclin et de son Epoque (2nd ed., 1882): Léon Gautier, La: Chevalerie (1883) ; F. W. Cornish, Ce a a ORDERS

OF KNIGHTHOOD

When orders ceased to be fraternities and became more and more marks of favour and a means of recognizing meritorious services to the Crown and country, the term. “orders,” became loosely applied to the insignia and decorations themselves. Thus “orders,” irrespective of the title or other specific designation they confer, fall in Great Britain generally into three main categories, according as the recipients are made “knights grand cross,” “knights commander” or “companions.” In some orders the classes are more numerous, as in the Royal Victorian, for instance, which has five, numerous foreign orders a like number, some six, while the Chinese “Dragon” boasted no less than rr degrees. Generally speaking, the insignia of the “knights grand cross” consist of a star worn on the left breast and a badge, usually some form of the cross-paty, worn suspended from a ribbon over the shoulder or, in certain cases, on days of high ceremonial from a collar. The “commanders” wear the badge from a ribbon round the neck, and the star on the breast; the “companions” have no star and wear the badge from a narrow ribbon at the button-hole, Orders may, again, be grouped according as they are (1) Prog ORDERS oF CHRISTENDOM, conferred upon an exclusive class only. Here belong, or belonged, the well-known orders of the Garter (England), Golden Fleece (Austria and Spain), Annunziato (Italy), Black Eagle (Prussia), St. Andrew (Russia), Elephant

(Denmark)

and Seraphim (Sweden).

only, which are usually held to are historically identified with bestowed upon members of the humbler individuals according

Of these the first three

rank inter se in the order given, chivalry. (2) .Famry ORDERS, royal or princely class, or upon to classes, in respect of “per-

sonal” services rendered to the family. In this category are such

orders as the Royal Victorian and the Hohenzollern (Prussia). (3) Orpers oF Merit, whether military, civil or joint orders. Such have, as a rule, at least three, oftener five classes, and here

strict code of chivalry was more honoured in the breach than in the observance. Already about 1160 Peter of Blois had written, belong such as the Order of the Bath (British) and the Legion of “The so-called order of knighthood is nowadays mere disorder” : Honour (France). There are also certain orders, such as the half a century earlier still, Guibert of Nogent gives an equally recently instituted Order of Merit (British), which have but one unflattering picture of contemporary chivalry in his De vite sua. class. , But when the Hundred Years’ War brought a real national conOf the great military and religious orders were the Teutonic flict between England and France, when archery became of su- Order and the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem (Johanniter preme importance, and a large proportion even of the cavalry Orden, Malteser Orden), for the history of which and the present were mercenary soldiers, then the exigencies of serious warfare state see TEUTONIC ORDER and St. JoHN oF JERUSALEM, KNIGHTS swept away much of that outward display and those class-con- OF THE ORDER OF. SS ventions on which chivalry had always rested. Several of the best _ Great Britain.—The history and constitution of the “most

KNIGHTHOOD

435

noble” Order of the Garter has been treated above. The officers

Order of the Indian Empire, of both of which the viceroy of India

of the order are five—the prelate, chancellor, registrar, king of

for the time being is ex officio grand master. Of these the first was instituted in 1861 and enlarged in 1876, 1897 and 1903, in three classes, knights grand commanders, knights commanders and companions, and the second was established (for “companions” only) in 1878 and enlarged in 1887, 1892, 1897 and 1903, also in the same three classes, in commemoration of Queen Victoria’s assumption of the style and title of empress of India. The collar of the Star of India is composed of alternate links of the lotus flower,

arms and usher—the first, third and fifth having been attached to it from the commencement, while the fourth was added by Henry V. and the second by Edward IV. The prelate has always been the

bishop of Winchester; the chancellor was formerly the bishop of Salisbury, but is now the bishop of Oxford; the registrarship and the deanery of Windsor

have

been united

since the reign of

Charles I.; the king of arms, whose duties were in the beginning

discharged by Windsor herald, is Garter Principal King of Arms; and the usher is the gentleman usher of the Black Rod. The chapel of the order is St. George’s chapel, Windsor. The “most ancient” Order of the Thistle was founded by James

IL in 1687, and dedicated to St. Andrew.

It consisted of the

sovereign and eight knights companions, and fell into abeyance at the Revolution of 1688. In 1703 it was revived by Queen Anne, when it was ordained to consist of the sovereign and 12 knights companions, the number being increased to 16 by statute

in 1827. The officers of the order are the dean, the secretary, Lyon King of Arms and the gentleman usher of the Green Rod. The chapel, in St. Giles’s, Edinburgh, was begun in 1909. The collar is formed of thistles, alternating with sprigs of rue, and the motto is Nemo me impune lacessit.

The “most illustrious” Order of St. Patrick was instituted by George III. in 1788, to consist of the sovereign, the lord lieutenant of Ireland as grand master and 15 knights companions, enlarged

to 22 in 1833. The king of arms is Ulster King of Arms; Black Rod the usher. The chapel is in St. Patrick’s cathedral, Dublin.

red and white roses and palm branches enamelled on gold, with

an imperial crown in the centre; that of the Indian Empire is composed of elephants, peacocks and Indian roses. The Royal Victorian Order was instituted by Queen Victoria on April 25, 1896, for personal services rendered to her majesty and her successors. It consists of the sovereign, chancellor, secretary and five classes—knights grand commanders, knights commanders, commanders and members of the fourth and fifth classes. To the class of orders without the titular appellation “knight” belongs the Order of Merit, founded by King Edward VII. on the occasion of his coronation. The order includes those who have gained distinction in the military and naval services of the empire,

and such as have made themselves a great name in the fields of science, art and literature. The number of British members has been fixed at 24, with the addition of such foreign persons as the sovereign shall appoint. A lady, Miss Florence Nightingale, received the order in 1907. The badge is a cross of red and blue enamel surmounted by an imperial crown; the central blue medallion bears the inscription “For Merit” in gold, and is surrounded

The collar is formed of alternate roses with red and white leaves, by a wreath of laurel. The badge of the military and naval memand gold harps linked by gold knots; the badge is suspended from bers bears two crossed swords in the angles of the cross. The a harp surmounted by an imperial jewelled crown. The motto is ribbon is garter blue and crimson and is worn round the neck. The Distinguished Service Order, an order of military merit, Quis separabit? The “most honourable” Order of the Bath was established by was founded on Sept. 6, 1886, by Queen Victoria, to recognize George I. in 1725, to consist of the sovereign, a grand master and the special services of officers in the army and navy. It consists 36 knights companions. This was a pretended revival of an order of one class only, who take precedence immediately before the 4th supposed to have been created by Henry IV. at his coronation in class of the Royal Victorian Order. The badge is a white and 1399. But, as has been shown in the preceding section, no such gold cross with a red centre bearing the imperial crown surrounded order existed. Knights of the Bath, although they were allowed by a laurel wreath. The ribbon is red, edged with blue. The precedence before knights bachelors, were merely knights bache- Imperial Service Order was likewise instituted on June 26, 1902, lors who were knighted with more elaborate ceremonies than and finally revised in 1908, as a recognition of services rendered others and on certain great occasions. In 1815 the order was to the British Crown by the members of the civil service in the instituted, in three classes, “to commemorate the auspicious empire, to consist of companions only. In precedence the order termination of the long and arduous contest in which the empire ranks after the Order of the British Empire, 4th class. In addition to the above, there are two British orders confined has been engaged”; and in 1847 the civil knights commanders and companions were added. Exclusive of the sovereign, royal princes to ladies. The Royal Order of Victoria and Albert, instituted in and distinguished foreigners, the order is limited to 55 military 1862, is a purely court distinction. The Imperial Order of the and 27 civil knights grand cross, 145 military and 108 civil knights Crown of India is conferred for like purposes as the Order of the commanders, and 705 military and 298 civil companions. The Indian Empire. Its object is to recognize the services of ladies officers of the order are the dean (the dean of Westminster), connected with the court of India. Bath King of Arms, the registrar and the usher of the Scarlet Rod. As was inevitable, the huge number of people engaged in the The “most distinguished” Order of St. Michael and St. George World War made it necessary that appointments to all the British was founded by the prince regent, afterwards George IV., in 1818, Orders should be made on a greatly increased scale, while two m commemoration of the British protectorate of the Ionian additional Orders were instituted. A change in the method of islands, “for natives of the Ionian islands and of the island of wearing the badge of the Third Class (Companion) of some Malta and its dependencies, and for such other subjects of his British Orders was made. Where it used to be worn medal-fashion majesty as may hold high and confidential situations in the on the left breast, it is now hung round the neck. Mediterranean.” By statute of 1832 the lord high commissioner The Order of the British Empire was instituted in June r917, ofthe Ionian islands was to be the grand master. After the repu- to reward War services in all capacities, military and civil. In diation of the British protectorate of the Ionian islands, the order 1918 a Military Division of the Order was created. The essential was placed on a new basis, and by letters patent of 1868 and features of the latest statute of the Order, published on Dec. 29, 1877 it was extended and provided for such of “the natural born 1922, are as follows :— There are five classes of the Order, which (like the Order of subjects of the Crown of the United Kingdom as may have held or shall hold high and confidential offices within her majesty’s the Bath) is divided into military and civil divisions. Each class colonial possessions, and in reward for services rendered to the can be conferred upon men and women equally, crow in relation to the foreign affairs of the empire.” The chapel Highest Class—Knights Grand Cross and Dames Grand Cross of the order, in St. Paul’s cathedral, was dedicated in 1906. The (G.B.E.). star of the knights grand cross is a seven-rayed star of silver with ena Class—Knights Commander and Dames Commander asmall ray of gold between each, in the centre is a red St. George’s (K.B.E. and D.B.E.). -> , ae Sa a, ctoss bearing a medallion of St. Michael encountering Satan, surThird Class—Commanders (C.B.E.). iets coe Fourth Class—Officers (O.B.E.). |, ate ee ee tounded by a blue fillet with the motto Auspicium melioris aevi. «he Order of St. Michael and St. George ranks between the Fifth Class—Members (M.B.E.). 0 ©.) 0.0) thee sal most exalted” Order of the Star of India and the “most eminent” The two highest classes of the Order, wear-a star, which:is of

4.36

KNIGHTHOOD

silver, of two designs. In the centre is a golden medallion showing a representation of Britannia seated, surrounded by a circlet of crimson enamel bearing the motto of the Order, “For God and the Empire.” The members of the first class wear the larger star on the left breast, and the badge of the Order (see below) is also worn on the sash, which, in the case of men, is 33 in. wide, in the case of women, 24 in. wide, and crosses the breast from the right shoulder to the left hip, the badge resting on the hip. A collar has been instituted for this class. The members of the second class wear the smaller star on the left breast, with the badge suspended, in the case of men, by a ribbon zr} in. wide passing round the neck, and in the case of women, from a bow of ribbon of the same width, placed on the left side, above the star. The third class wear the badge, in the case of men, from a ribbon of the same width as the second class round the neck, and, in the case of women, from a bow on the left side. The fourth and fifth classes wear the badge on the left breast, from a ribbon 14 in. wide, medal-fashion in the case of men, from a bow in the case of women. The badge is a cross paty, bearing in the centre the medallion and circlet as in the star. An imperial crown in gold surmounts the cross. For the first three classes the cross is enamelled in pearl grey, bordered with gold, while the circlet is of red enamel with the motto in gold. The commander’s badge is smaller than that for the other two classes. The badge of the fourth class is entirely silvér gilt, while that of the lowest class is entirely silver. The ribbon of the Order is purple for the civil division, and purple with a narrow red central stripe for the military division. There are also two medals belonging to the Order: The gallantry medal, which is rare, and is only awarded for conspicuous bravery, where the recipient knew, when he performed the deed of gallantry, that his life was in danger, and the meritorious service medal, given for meritorious service. The order of Companions of Honour was instituted in June ' ¥g17, at the same time as the Order of the British Empire. It may be conferred upon either men or women who have rendered conspicuous national service; it confers no title or precedence. It consists of the Sovereign and 50 members, and there is only one class. This order ranks next after the first class of the Order of the British Empire. The sovereign’s permission by royal warrant is necessary before a British subject can receive a foreign order of knighthood. For other decorations, see under MEDALS.

The Golden Fleece (La Toison d’Or) ranks historically and

in distinction as one of the great knightly orders of Europe. It became divided into two branches, Austria and Spain. It was founded on Jan. 10, 1429~30, by Philip the Good, duke of Burgundy, on the day of his marriage with Isabella of Portugal at Bruges, in her honour and dedicated to the Virgin and St. Andrew. No certain origin can be given for the name. It seems to have been in dispute even in the early history of the order. At its con-

stitution the number of the knights was limited to 24, exclusive of the grand master, the sovereign. The sovereign undertook to consult the knights before embarking on a war, all disputes between the knights were to be settled by the order, at each chapter the deeds of each knights were held in review, and punishments and admonitions were dealt out to offenders; to this the sovereign was expressly subject. Thus we find that the emperor Charles V. accepted humbly the criticism of the knights of the Fleece on his over-centralization of the government and the wasteful personal attention to details. The knights could claim as of right to be tried by their fellows on charges of rebellion, heresy and treason, and Charles V. conferred on the order exclusive jurisdiction over all crimes committed by the knights. It was in defiance of this

right that Alva refused the claim of Counts Egmont and Horn

to be tried by the knights of the Fleece in 1568. By the marriage of Mary, only daughter of Charles the Bold of Burgundy to Maximilian, archduke of Austria, 1477, the grand mastership of the order came to the house of Habsburg and, with the Netherlands provinces, to Spain in 1504 on the accession of Philip, Maximilian’s son,‘to Castile. On the extinction of the Habsburg

dynasty in Spain by the death of Charles Il. in 1700 the grang. mastership, which had been filled by the kings of Spain after thy loss of the Netherlands, was claimed by the emperor Charles VI, and he instituted the order in Vienna in 1713. Protests were made at various times by Philip V., but the question was never decided by treaty, and the Austrian and Spanish branches continued a; independent orders as the principal order of knighthood in the respective States. While the Austrian branch excludes any other than Roman Catholics from the order, the Spanish Fleece may

be granted to Protestants. The badges of the two branches vary slightly in detail, more particularly in the attachment of fire. stones and steels by which the fleece is attached to the ribbon of the collar. The collar is composed of alternate links of furisons and double steels interlaced to form the letter B for Burgundy. Austria-Hungary.—The following were the principal orders

other than that of the Golden Fleece. The Order of .t. Stephen of Hungary, the royal Hungarian order, founded in 1764 by the empress

Maria Theresa.

The

Order of Leopold,

for civil and

military service, was founded in 1808 by the emperor Francis ], in memory of his father Leopold II. The Order of the Iron Crown, z.€., of Lombardy, was founded by Napoleon as king of Italy in

1809, and refounded as an Austrian order of civil and military

merit in 1816 by the emperor Francis I. The Order of Francis Joseph, for personal merit of: every kind, was founded in 1849 by the emperor Francis Joseph I. The Order of Maria Theresa was founded by the empress Maria Theresa in 1757. A purely military order, it was given to officers for personal distinguished conduct in the field. The Order of Elizabeth Theresa, also a military order for officers, was founded in 1750 by the will of Elizabeth Christina, widow of the emperor Charles VI. It was renovated in 1771 by her daughter, the empress Maria Theresa. The Order of the Starry Cross, for high-born ladies of the Roman Catholic faith who devoted themselves to good works, was founded in 1668 by the empress Eleanor, mother of Leopold I., to commemorate the recovery of a relic of the true cross from afire in

the palace at Vienna.

The relic was

supposed to have been

peculiarly treasured by the emperor Maximilian I. and the emperor Frederick III. The Order of Elizabeth, also for ladies, was founded in 1898.

Belgium.—The Order of Leopold, for civil and military merit, was founded in 1832 by Leopold I., with four classes, a fifth being added in 1838. The badge is a white enamelled cross, with gold borders and balls, suspended from a royal crown and resting on a green laurel and oak wreath.

In the centre a medallion, sur-

rounded by a red fillet with the motto of the order, L'union fait la force, bears a golden Belgian lion on a black feld. The ribbon is watered red. The Order of the Iron Cross, the badge of which is a black cross with gold borders, with a gold centre bearing a lion, was instituted by Leopold II. in 1867 as an order of civil merit. The military cross was instituted in 1885. There are also the following orders instituted by Leopold II. for service in the

Congo State: the Order of the African Star (1888), the Royal Order of the Lion (1891) and the Congo Star (1889).

Bulgaria.—The Order of SS. Cyril and Methodius was insti-

tuted in 1909 by King Ferdinand to commemorate the elevation of the principality to the position of an independent kingdom. It now takes precedence of the Order of St. Alexander, which was

founded by Prince Alexander in 1881, and reconstituted by Prince

Ferdinand in 1888.

Denmatk.—The Order of the Elephant, one of the chief European orders of knighthood, was, it is said, founded by ChristianI in 1462; a still earlier origin has been assigned to it, but its

regular institution was that of Christian V. in 1693. The order,

exclusive of the sovereign and his sons, is limited to 30 knights, who must be of the Protestant religion. The ribbon is light watered blue, the collar of alternate gold elephants with blue

housings and towers, the star of silver with a purple medallion

bearing a silver or brilliant cross surrounded byasilver laurel

wreath.

The motto is Magnanime pretium.

The Order of the

Dannebrog is, according to Danish tradition, of miraculous origi,

and was founded by Valdemar II. in 1219 as a memorial of a victory over the Esthonians, won by the appearance in the sky

KNIGHTHOOD

437

ofa red banner bearing a white cross. Historically the order dates from the foundation in 1671 by Christian V. at the birth of his

and science.

four arms the inscription Gud og Kongen (For God and King).

St. Michael had fallen, Fienry ITI. founded in 1578 the Order of the Holy Ghost (St. Esprit). The badge of the order was a white Maltese cross decorated in gold, with the gold lilies of France at

son Frederick. The badge of the order is, with variations for the different classes, a white enamelled Danish cross with red and gold borders, bearing in the centre the letter W (V) and on the The ribbon is white with red edging. Egypt.—Since the war, the king of Egypt has founded six new

Orders. The chief of them is the Order of Mohammed Ali (1915), with three classes: the ribbon is of watered green silk with a white line near to each edge. In 1922 was founded the Order o f Ismail,

the second Egyptian Order; the ribbon dark blue with a stripe of red towards the edges. The Order of the Nile (1915) has a ribbon of watered blue silk with a golden-yellow stripe at each edge. For ladies is the Order of Al Kamal (191s). The other orders are those of Agriculture (1915) and of the Military Star of King Fuad (1919). France.—The Legion of Honour, the only order of France,

and one which in its higher grades ranks in estimation with the highest European orders, was instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte on May 19, 1802 (29 Floreal of the year X.), as a general mili-

toutes bétes.

In 1816 the order was granted for services in art

In view of the low esteem into which the Order of

the angles, in the centre a white dove with wings outstret ched,

the ribbon was sky blue (cordon bleu). The Order of St. Louis was founded by Louis XIV. in 1693 for military merit, and the Order of Military Merit by Louis XV. in 1759, originally for Protestant officers. Germany.—Officially, the old orders of the German empire have now ceased to exist, although the decorations are often worn. i. Anhalt-—The Order of Albert the Bear, a family order or Hausorden, was founded in 1836 by the dukes Henry of AnhaltKöthen, Leopold Frederick of Anhalt-Dessau and Alexande r Charles of Anhalt-Bernburg. li. Baden.—The Order of Fidelity or Loyalty (Hausorden der Treue) was instituted by William, margrave of Baden-Durlach in

1715, and reconstituted in 1803 by the elector Charles Frederic k. There was, in the end, only one class, for princes of the reigning house, foreign sovereigns and eminent men of the State. The tary and civil order of merit. All soldiers on whom “swords of military Order of Charles Frederick was founded in 1807. The honour” had been already conferred were declared legionaries order was conferre d for long and meritorious military service. ipso facto, and all citizens after 25 years’ service were declared The Order of the Zähringen Lion was founded in 1812 in comeligible, whatever their birth, rank or religion. On admission all memoration of the descent of the reigning house of Baden from were to swear to co-operate so far as in them lay for the assertion the dukes of Zähringe n. of the principles of liberty and equality. The organization as laid a distinct order; it was After 1896 the Order of Berthold I. was founded in 1877 as a higher class of the down by Napoleon in 1804 was as follows: Napoleon was grand Zähringen Lion. master; a grand council of seven grand officers administered the iii. Bavaria.—The Order order; the order was divided into 15 “cohorts” of seven grand most distinguished knightly of St. Hubert, one of the oldest and orders, was founded in 1444 by Duke officers, 20 commanders, 30 officers and 350 legionaries, and at Gerhard V. of Jiilich-Berg in honour of a victory over Count the headquarters of the cohorts, for which the territory of France Arnold of Egmont at Ravensberg on St. Hubert’s day. The was separated into 15 divisions, were maintained hospitals for the knights wore a collar of golden hunting horns, whence the order support of the sick and infirm legionaries. Salaries varying in was also known as the Order of the Horn; the order fell into each rank were attached to the order. In 180 5 the rank of abeyance at the extinction of the dynasty in 1609. It was revived “Grand Eagle” (now Grand Cross or Grand Cordon) was insti- in 1708, and its constitution was altered at various times, its final tuted, taking precedence of the grand officers. At the Restoration form being given in 1808. The Order of St. George, said to have many changes were made, the old military and religious orders been founded in the reth century as a crusading order and rewere restored, and the Legion of Honour, now Ordre Royale de vived by the emperor Maximilian I. in 1494, dated historically la Légion d'Honneur, took the lowest rank. The revolution of from its institution in 1729 by the elector Charles Albert, afterJuly 1830 restored the order to its unique place. The constitution wards the emperor Charles VII. It was confirmed by the elector of the order now rests on the decrees of March 16 and Nov. 24, Charles Theodore in 1778 and by the elector Maximilian Joseph 1852, the law of July 25, 1873, the decree of Dec. 29, 1892, and IV. as the second Bavarian order. Besides the above Bavaria the laws of April 16, 1895, and Jan. 28, 1897, and a decree of possessed the Military Order of Maximilian Joseph, 1806, and June 26, 1900. The president of the republic is the grand master the Civil Orders of Merit of St. Michael, 1693, and of the Bavaof the order; the administration is in the hands of a grand chanrian Crown, 1808. There were also the two illustrious orders for cellor, who has a council of the order nominated by the grand ladies, the Order of Elizabeth, founded in 1766, and the Order of master. The chancellery is housed in the Palais de Ia Légion Theresa, in 1827. ` @'Honneur, which, burnt during the Commune, was rebuilt in iv. Brunswick.—The Order of Henry the Lion, for military and 1878. The order consists of the five classes of grand cross (limited civil merit, was founded by Duke William in 1834. to 80), grand officer (200), commander (1,000), officers (4,000), v. Hanover.—The Order of St. George was instituted by King and chevalier or knight, in which the number is unlimited. These Ernest Augustus I. in 1839 as the family order of the house of limitations in number do not affect the foreign recipients of the Hanover; the Royal Guelphic Order by George, prince regent, order. Salaries are attached to the military and naval recipients afterwards George IV. of Great Britain, in 1815; and the Order of the order when on the active list. The numbers of the recipients of Ernest Augustus by George V. of Hanover in 1865, These of the order sans traitement are limited through all classes. In orders have not been conferred since 1866, when Hanover ceased ordinary circumstances 20 years of military, naval or civil service to be a kingdom, and the Royal Guelphic Order, which from its must have been performed before a candidate can be eligible for institution was more British than Hanoverian, not since the rank of chevalier, and promotions can only the death be made after of William IV. in 1837. The last British grand cross was the definite service in the lower rank. Extraordinary service in time late duke of Cambridge. of war and extraordinary services in civil life admit to any rank. vi. Hesse—Of the various orders founded by the houses of Women have been decorated, notably Rosa Bonheur, Madame Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt the following survived in the Curie and Madame Bartet. In the present order of the French grand duchy of Hesse. The Order of Louis, founded by the tepublic the symbolical head of the republic appears in the centre, grand duke Louis I. of Hesse-Darmstadt in 1807; the Order of and a laurel wreath replaces the imperial crown; the inscription Philip the Magnanimous, founded by the grand duke Louis IT. round the medallion is République francaise. in 1840. The Order of the Golden Lion was founded in 1770 by Among the orders swept away at the French Revolution, re- the landgrave Frederick II. of Hesse-Cassel. Stored in part at the Restoration, and finally abolished at the vil. Mecklenburg—The grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin revolution of July 1830 were the following: The Order of St. and Mecklenburg-Strelitz possessed jointly the Order of the

chael was founded by Louis XI. in 1469 for a limited number

of knights of noble birth. Later the numbers were so much increased under Charles

TX. that it became known as Le Collier à

Wendish Crown, founded in 1864 by the grand dukes’ Frederick

Francis IT. of Schwerin and Frederick William of Strelitz’ The Order of the Griffin, founded in 1884 by Frederick Francis ITT.

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KNIGHTHOOD

of Schwerin, was made common to the duchies in 1904. viii. Oldenberg.—The Order of Duke Peter Frederick Louis, a family order and order of merit, was founded by the grand duke Paul Frederick Augustus in 1838. ix. Prussia.—The Order of the Black Eagle was founded in 1701

by the elector of Brandenburg, Frederick I., in memory of his coronation as king of Prussia. The order consisted of one class only and the original statutes limited the number, exclusive of the princes of the royal house and foreign members, to 30, but the number has been exceeded. It was only conferred on those of royal lineage and upon high officers of State. Only those who had received the Order of the Red Eagle were eligible. The Order of the Red Eagle, the second of the Prussian orders, was founded originally as the Order of Sincerity in 1705 by George William, hereditary prince of Brandenburg-Bayreuth. The original constitution and insignia were afterwards changed, with the exception of the red eagle which formed the centre of the cross of the badge. The order had almost fallen into oblivion when it was revived in 1734 by the margrave George Frederick Charles as the

Order of the Brandenburg Red Eagle. On the cession of the principality to Prussia in 1791 the order was transferred and King Frederick William raised it to its high place in Prussian orders. The Order for Merit (Ordre pour le Mérite), one of the most highly prized of European orders of merit, had two divisions, military and for science and art. It was originally founded by the

electoral prince Frederick, afterwards Frederick I. of Prussia, in 1667 as the Order of Generosity; it was given its later name and granted for civil and military distinction by Frederick the Great, 1740.

In 1810 the order was made one for military merit against

the enemy in the field exclusively. In 1840 the class for distinction for science and art, or peace class, was founded by Frederick William IV. The number was limited to 30 German and 30 foreign members. The Academy of Sciences and Arts on a vacancy nominated three candidates, from which one was selected by the king. It is interesting to note that this was the only distinction which Thomas Carlyle would accept. The Order of the Crown, founded by William I. in 1861, ranked with the Red Eagle. Other Prussian orders were the Order of William, instituted by William II. in 1896; a Prussian branch of the knights of St. John of Jerusalem, Johanniter Orden, in its later form dating from 1893; and the family Order of the House of Hohenzollern, founded in 185r by Frederick William IV. There was also for ladies the Order of Service, founded in 1814 by Frederick Wiliam III., in one class, but enlarged in 1850 and in 1865. The decoration of merit for ladies (Verdienst-kreuz) founded in 1870, was raised to an order in 1907. For the famous military decoration, the Iron Cross, see MEDALS. | x. Saxony-—The Order of the Crown of Rue was founded as a family order by Frederick Augustus I. in 1807. It was of one class only, and the sons and nephews of the sovereign were born knights of the order. It was granted to foreign ruling princes and subjects of high rank. Other Saxon orders were the military Order of St. Henry; the Order of Albert, for civil and military merit; the Order of Civil Merit, 1815. For ladies there were the Order of Stdonia, 1870, in memory of the wife of Albert the Bold, the mother of the Albertine line; and the Maria Anna Order, 1906. xi. The duchies of Saxe Altenburg, Saxe Coburg Gotha and Saxe Meiningen had in common the family Order of Ernest, founded in 1833 in memory of Duke Ernest the Pious of Saxe Gotha and as a revival of the Order of German Integrity founded in 1690. Saxe Coburg Gotha and Saxe Meiningen had also separate crosses of merit in science and art. -+ xii, Saxe Weimar.—The Order of the White Falcon or of Vigilance was founded in 1732 and renewed in 1815.

xii. Württemberg: —The Order of the Crown of Württemberg

was founded in 1818, uniting the former Order of the Golden

Eagle and an order of civil merit. Besides the military Order of

Merit founded in.1759, and the silver cross of merit, 1900, Wiirttemberg had also the Order of Frederick, 1830, and the Order of Olga, 1871, which was granted to ladies as well as men. ....Greece.—-The Order of the Redeemer was founded as such in 4833. by King Otto, being.a conversion of a decoration of honour

instituted in 1829 by the National Assembly at Argos. There Were

five classes, the numbers being regulated for each. In r912 wa instituted the Order of George I. Holland.—The Order of Wiliam, for military merit, was founded in 1815 by William I.; there are four classes; the badge

is a white cross resting on a green laurel Burgundian Cross, in the

centre the Burgundian flint-steel, as in the order of the Golde, Fleece. The motto Voor Moed, Beleid, Trouw (for Valour, Deyo. tion, Loyalty), appears on the arms of the cross. The cross jg surmounted by a jewelled crown; the ribbon is orange with dark blue edging. The Order of the Netherlands Lion, for civil merit, was founded in 1818. The family Order of the Golden Lion of Nassau passed in 1890 to the grand duchy of Luxembourg (see under Luxemburg). In 1892 Queen Wilhelmina instituted the Order of Orange-Nassau. The Teutonic Order (q.v.), surviving in the Ballarde (Bailiwick) of Utrecht, was officially established in the Netherlands by the States General in 1580. It was abolished by Napoleon in 1811 and was restored in 1815. Italy.—The Order of the Annunziata, the highest order of knighthood of the Italian kingdom, was instituted in 1362 by Amadeus VI., count of Savoy, as the Order of the Collare o Collar, from the silver collar made up of love-knots and roses, which was its badge, in honour of the 15 joys of the Virgin: hence the number of the knights was restricted to 15, the 1 chaplains recited 15 masses each day, and the clauses of the original statute of the order were 15 (Amadeus VIII. added five others in 1434). Charles IIE. decreed that the order should be

called the Annunziata, and made some other alterations in 1518,

His son and successor, Emmanuel Philibert, made further modifications in the statute and the costume. The knights of the Annunziata have the title of “cousins of the king,” and enjoy precedence over all the other officials of the State. The costume

of the order is of white satin embroidered in silk, with a’purple velvet cloak adorned with roses and gold embroidery, but it is now never worn; in the collar the motto Fert is inserted, on the meaning of which there is great uncertainty, and from it hangs a pendant enclosing a medallion representing the Annunciation. The motto has been taken as the Latin word meaning “he bears” or as representing the initials of the legend Fortitudo Ejus Rhodum Tenuit, with an allusion to a defence of the island of Rhodes by an ancient count of Savoy.

The Order of St. Maurice and St. Lazarus

(SS. Maurizio e

Lazzaro), is a combination of two ancient orders. The Order of St. Maurice was originally founded by Amadeus VIII., duke of Savoy, in 1434, when he retired to the hermitage of Ripaille, and consisted of a group of half-a-dozen councillors who were to advise him on such affairs of State as he continued to control. When he became pope as Felix V. the order practically ceased to exist. It was re-established at the instance of Emmanuel Philibert by Pope Pius V. in 1572 as a military and religious order, and the following year it was united to that of St. Lazarus by Gregory XIII. The latter order had been founded as a military and religious community at the time of the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem with the object of assisting lepers, many of whom were among its members. Popes, princes and nobles endowed it with estates and privileges, including that of administering and

succeeding to the property of lepers, which eventually led to grave abuses.

With the advance of the Saracens the knights of

St. Lazarus, when driven from the Holy Land and Egypt, migrated to France (1291) and Naples (1311), where they founded leper

hospitals. The order in Naples, which alone was afterwards recognized as the legitimate descendant of the Jerusalem community, was empowered to seize and confine anyone suspected of

leprosy, a permission which led to the establishment of a regular

inquisitorial system of blackmail. In the 15th and 16th centuries the order declined in credit and wealth, until finally the grand

master resigned his position in favour of Emmanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, in 1571. Two years later the orders of St. Lazarus and St. Maurice were incorporated into one community, the members of which were to devote themselves to the defence of

the Holy See and to fight its enemies as well as to continue assisting lepers. The galleys of the order subsequently took part in

KNIGHTHOOD various expeditions against the Turks and the Barbary pirates. Leprosy, which had almost disappeared in the 17th century, broke out once more in the 18th, and in 1773 a hospital was established by the order at Aosta. The knighthood of St. Maurice and St.

Lazarus is now a dignity conferred by the king of Italy (the grand master) on persons distinguished in the public service, science, art and letters, trade, and above all in charitable works,

to which its income is devoted. The military Order of Savoy was founded in 1815 by Victor

439

aspect was abandoned, and with the exception that its members had to be of the Roman Catholic faith, it was entirely secularized. The Order of the Tower and Sword was founded in 1808 in Brazil by the regent, afterwards King John VI. of Portugal, as a revival] of the old Order of the Sword, said to have been founded by Alfonso V. in 1459. It was remodelled in 1832 under its later name as a general order of military and civil merit. The Order of St. Benedict of Aviz (earlier of Evora), founded in 1162 as a religious military order, was secularized in 1789 as an order of

Emmanuel of Sardinia; badge modified 1855 and 1857. The military merit. The Order of St. James of the Sword, or James Civil Order of Savoy, founded in 1831 by Charles Albert of Sar- of Compostella, was a branch of the Spanish order of that name dinia, is of one class, and is limited to 60 members. The Order of (see below under Spain). It also was secularized in 1789, and in the Crown of Italy was founded in 1868 by Victor Emmanuel II. 1862 was constituted an order of merit for science, literature and art. In 1789 these three orders were granted a common badge in commemoration of the union of Italy into a kingdom. Luxemburg.—The Order of the Golden Lion was founded as uniting the three separate crosses in a gold medallion; to the a family order of the house of Nassau by William III. of the separate crosses was added a red sacred heart and small white Netherlands and Adolphus of Nassau jointly. On the death of cross. There were also the Order of Our Lady of Villa Vigosa William in 1890 it passed to the grand duke of Luxemburg. The (1819), for both sexes, and the Order of St. Isabella, 1801, for Order of Adolphus of Nassau, for civil and military merit, was ladies. Rumania.—The Order of the Star of Rumania was founded in founded in 1858, and the Order of the Oak Crown as a general 1877, and the Order of the Crown of Rumania in 1881, for civil order of merit in 184r, modified 1858. Monaco.—The Order of St. Charles was founded in 1858 by and military merit; the ribbon of the first is red with blue borders, Prince Charles III. and remodelled in 1863. It is a general order of the second light blue with two silver stripes. Russia.—The Order of St, Andrew was founded in 1698 by of merit. Montenegro.—The Order of St. Peter, founded in 1852, was a Peter the Great. It was the chief order of the empire, and adfamily order, in one class, and only given to members of the mission carried with it according to the statutes of 1720 the princely family; the Order of Danilo, or of the Independence of orders of St. Anne, Alexander Nevsky, and the White Eagle; there was only one class. The Order of St. Catherine, for ladies, ranked Montenegro, was a general order of merit also founded in 1852. Norway.—The Order of St. Olaf was founded in 1847 by Oscar next to the St. Andrew. It was founded under the name of the I. in honour of St. Olaf, the founder of Christianity in Norway, Order of Rescue by Peter the Great in 1714 in honour of the as a general order of merit, military and civil. The Order of the empress Catherine and the part she had taken in rescuing him Norwegian Lion, founded in 1904 by Oscar IT., has only one class; at the battle of the Pruth in 1711. The Order of St. Alexander foreigners on whom the order is conferred must be sovereigns or Nevsky was founded in 1725 by the empress Catherine I. The Order of the White Eagle was founded in 1713 by Augustus IT. heads of States or members of reigning houses. ~ Papal.—The arrangement and constitution of the papal orders of Poland and was adopted as a Russian order in 1831. The was remodelled by a brief of Pius X. in 1905..The Order of Christ, Order of St. Anne was founded by Charles Frederick, duke of the supreme pontifical order, is of one class only; for the history Holstein-Gottorp in 1735 in honour of his wife, Anna Petrovna, of this ancient order see Portugal (infra). The Order of Pius was daughter of Peter the Great. It was adopted as a Russian order founded in 1847 by Pius IX. The Order of St. Gregory the Great, in 1797 by their grandson, the emperor Paul. Other orders were founded in 1831, is in two divisions, civil and military. The Order those. of St. Vladimir, founded by Catherine II., 1782, and of of St. Sylvester was originally founded as the Order of the Golden St. Stanislaus, founded originally as a Polish order by Stanislaus Spur by Paul IV. in 1559 as a military body, though tradition Augustus Poniatowski in 1765, and adopted as a Russian order assigns it to Constantine the Great and Pope Sylvester. It was in 1831. The military Order of St. George was founded by the reorganized as an order of merit by Gregory XVI. in 1841. In empress Catherine IT. in 1769 for military service on land and 1905 the order was divided into three classes, and a separate order, sea, with four classes; a fifth class for non-commissioned officers that of the Golden Spur or Golden Legion (Militia Aurata) was and men, the St. George’s Cross, was added in 1807. [These orders established, in one class, with the numbers limited to roo. The were naturally ended by the Soviet revolution which has given cross Pro Ecclesia et Pontifice instituted by Leo XIII. in 1888 is rise to the Order of the Red Flag, for service to the international a decoration, not an order. There remains the venerable Order of revolution, an order which perhaps does not come under this the Holy Sepulchre, of which tradition assigns the foundation to heading.| Godfrey de Bouillon. It was, however, probably founded as a Spain.—The branch of the Order of the Golden Fleece has military order for the protection of the Holy Sepulchre by been dealt with above. The three most ancient orders of Spain— Alexander VI. in 1496. The right to nominate to the order was of St. James of Compostella, or St. James of the Sword, of Alcanshared with the pope as grand master by the guardian of the tara and of Calatrava—still exist as orders of merit, the last two Patres Minores in Jerusalem, later by the Franciscans, and then as orders of military merit. They were all originally founded as

by the Latin patriarch in Jerusalem.

In 1905 the latter was

nominated grand master, but the pope nomination. The badge of the order is red Latin crosses in the angles. Poland.—Since the restoration of Order of the White Eagle has been set

reserves the joint right of a red Jerusalem cross with Polish freedom, tbe old up again. It is given only

for exceptional service: the ribbon is light blue. The origin of the Order of Polonia Restituta needs no explanation. There are

five classes; the badge is a white cross with the eagle of Poland on it; the ribbon consisting of the Polish national colours, red with

military religious orders, like the crusading Templars, and the Hospitallers, but to fight for the true faith against the Moors in Spain. The present badges of the orders represent the crosses that the knights wore on their mantles. That-of St. James of Compostella is the red lily-hilted sword of St. James; the ribbon is also red. The other two orders wear the cross fleury—Alcan-, tara red, Calatrava green, with corresponding ribbons. A short history of these orders may be here given. Tradition gives the foundation of the Order of Knights of St. James of Compostella to Ramiro II., king of Leon, in the roth century, to com-

white edges.

memorate a victory over the Moors, but, historically the order

Portugal.— The Order of Christ was founded on the abolition of the Templars by Diniz of Portugal in 1318 in conjunction with Pope John XXII, both having the right to nominate to the order. e papal branch survives as a distinct order. In 1522 it was

dates from the confirmation in r175 by Pope Alexander IET.. It gained great reputation in the wars against the Moors ahd became very wealthy. In 1493 the grand-mastership was annexed by Ferdinand the Catholic, and was vested perthanently in thë crown of Spain by Pope Adrian VI. in r522% - 0) 0 5 JRO 0O00 The Order .of Kuights. of Alcantara, instituted. about r156 by

formed 48 a distinct Portuguese order and the grand mastership

vested in the crown of Portugal.

In 1789 its-original. religious

440

KNIGHTHOOD

the brothers Don Suarez and Don Gomez de Barrientos for pro- | in 1811, is granted to Freemasons of high degree. It is thus quite

tection against religious order Alexander ITI. of San Julian

the Moors, In 1177 of knighthood under Until about 1213 they del Pereyro; but when

they were confirmed as a Benedictine rule by Pope were known as the Knights the defence of Alcantara,

newly wrested from the Moors by Alphonso IX. of Castile, was entrusted to them they took their name from that city. For a

unique.

Turkey.—The Nischan-i-Imtiaz, or Order of Privilege, wy

founded by Abdul Hamid II. in 1879 as a general order of meri in one class; the Nischan-el-Iftikhar, or Order of Glory, also ong | class, founded 1831 by Mahmoud

II.; the Nischan-i-M ejidi, the |

Mejidieh, was founded as a civil and military order of merit in 1851 by Abdul Medjid. The Nischan-i-Osmanie, the Osmanieh,

considerable time they were in some degree subject to the grand master of the kindred order of Calatrava. Ultimately, however, for civil and military merit, was founded by Abdul Aziz in 136, they asserted their independence by electing a grand master of The Nischan-t-Schefakat of Compassion or Benevolence, wy their own. During the rule of 37 successive grand masters, simi- instituted for ladies in 1878 by the sultan in honour of the wor,

larly chosen, the influence and wealth of the order gradually increased until the Knights of Alcantara were almost as powerful as the sovereign. In 1494-95 Juan de Zufiiga was prevailed upon to resign the grand-mastership to Ferdinand, who thereupon vested it in his own person as king; and this arrangement was ratified by a bull of Pope Alexander VI., and was declared permanent by Pope Adrian VI. in 1523. In r540 Pope Paul III. released the knights from the strictness of Benedictine rule by giving them permission to marry, though second marriage was forbidden. The three vows were henceforth obedientia, castitas conjugalis and conversio morum. In modern times the history of the order has been somewhat chequered. When Joseph Bonaparte became king of Spain in 1808, he deprived the knights of their revenues, which were only partially recovered on the restoration of Ferdinand VII.

in 1814. The order ceased to exist as a spiritual body in 1835, The Order of Knights of Calatrava was founded in 1158 by Don Sancho IIT. of Castile, who presented the town of Calatrava, newly wrested from the Moors, to them to guard. In 1164 Pope Alexander ITT. granted confirmation as a religious military order under Cistercian rule. In 1197 Calatrava fell into the hands of the Moors and the order removed to the castle of Salvatierra, but recovered their town in 1212, In 1489 Ferdinand seized the grandmastership, and it was finally vested in the crown of Spain in 1523. The order became a military order of merit in 1808 and was reorganized in 1874. The Royal and Illustrious Order of Charles III, was founded in 1771 by Charles III.; it was abolished by Joseph Bonaparte in 1809, together with all the Spanish orders except the Golden Fleece, and the Royal Order of the Knights of Spain was established, In 1814 Ferdinand VII. revived the order. The Order of Isabella the Catholic was founded in 1815 under the patronage of St. Isabella, wife of Diniz of Portugal; originally instituted to reward loyalty in defence of the Spanish possessions in America, it is now a general order of merit. Other Spanish orders are the Maria Louisa, 1792, for noble ladies; the military and naval orders-of merit of St. Ferdinand, founded by the Cortes in 811; of St. Ermenegild (Hermenegildo), 1814; of Military Merit and Naval Merit, 1866, and of Maria Christina, 1890; the Order of Beneficencia for civil merit, 1856; that of Alfonso XII. for merit in science, literature and art, 1902, and the Civil Order of Alfonso XII., 1902. Sweden.—The Order of the Seraphim (the “Blue Ribbon’). Tradition attributes the foundation of this most illustrious order of knighthood to Magnus I. in 1280; more certainty attaches to the fact that the order was in existence in 1336. In its modern form the order dates from its reconstitution in 1748 by Frederick I. Exclusive of the sovereign and the princes of the blood, the order is limited to 23 Swedish and eight foreign members. The native members .must be already. members of the Order o f the Sword or the Pole Star. There is a prelate of the order which is administered by a chapter; the chapel of the knights is in the ‘Riddar Holmskyrka at Stockholm. The collar is formed of alternate gold seraphim and blue enamelled patriarchal crosses. The motto is Zesus Hominum Salvator. The Order o f the Sword (the “Yellow Ribbon”), the principal Swedish Military order, was founded, it is said, by Gustavus I. Vasa in 1522, and was reestablished by Frederick I., with the Seraphim and the Pole Star in 1748. The Order of the Pole Star (Polar Star, North Star, the “Black Ribbon”), was founded in 1748 for civil merit. The Order of Vasa (the “Green kibbon”), was founded by Gustavus III, in 1772

as an order of merit for services rendered to the national industries and manufactures. The Order of Charles XIII . founded

done for the non-combatant victims of the Russo-Turkish war of 1877, There was also the family order, for Turkish princes, the Hanédani-Ali-Osman, founded in 1893, and the Ertogroul, in 1903. "Vuxodavie.— The Order of the White Eagle, the principal order, was founded by Milan I. in 1882; the ribbon is blue and red; the Order of St. Sava, founded 1883, is an order of merit for science and art; the Order of the Star of Karageorgevitch, was

founded by Peter I. in 1904. The orders of Milosch the Great, founded by Alexander I. in 1898 and of Takovo, founded originally by Michael Obrenovitch in 1863, reconstituted in 1883, are since the dynastic revolution of 1903 no longer bestowed. The Order of St. Lazarus is not a general order, the cross and collar

being only worn by the king. Estonia has established the Liberty Cross; Finland the White Rose of Finland; Latvia the Order of the Three Stars.

Non-European Orders.—Of the various States of Central and South America, Nicaragua has the American Order of San Juan or Grey Town, founded in 1857; and Venezuela that of the Bust

of Bolivar, 1854. Mexico has abolished its former orders, the Mexican Eagle, 1865, and Our Lady of Guadalupe, 1853; as has Brazil those of the Southern Cross, 1822, Dom Pedro I., 1826, the Rose, 1829, and the Brazilian branches of the Portuguese orders of Christ, St. Benedict of Aviz and St. James. The republican Order of Columbus, founded in 1890, was abolished in rg1. China.—There were no orders for natives, and such distinctions as were conferred by the different coloured buttons of the mandarins, the grades indicated by the number of peacock’s feathers, the gift of the yellow jacket and the like, were rather insignia of rank or personal marks of honour than orders in the European sense.

For foreigners, however, the emperor in 1882 established

the sole order, that of the Imperial Double Dragon. The recipients eligible for the various classes were graded, from the first grade of the first class for reigning sovereigns down to the fifth class for merchants and manufacturers. Japan.—The Japanese orders were all instituted by the emperor Mutsu Hito. In design and workmanship the insignia of the orders are beautiful examples of the art of the native enamellers, The Order of the Chrysanthemum (Kikkwa Daijasho), founded in 1877, has only one class. It is but rarely conferred on others than members of the royal house or foreign rulers or princes. The Order of thé Paulownia Sun (Tokwa Daijasho), founded in 1888, in one class, may be in a sense regarded as the highest class of the Rising Sun (Kiokujitsasho) founded in eight classes, in 1873. The badge of both orders is essentially the same, viz., the red sun with white and gold rays; in the former the lilac flowers of the

Paulownia tree, the flower of the Tycoon’s arms, take a prominent

part.

The last two classes of the Rising Sun wear a decoration

formed of the Paulownia flower and leaves. The Order of the

Mirror or Happy Sacred Treasure (Zaihosho) was founded in 1888. There is also an order for ladies, that of the Crown, founded in 1888. The military order of Japan is the Order of the

Golden Kite, founded in 1890.

Persia-——The Order of the Sun and Lion, founded by Fath ‘Ali Shah in 1808, had five classes. It is understood that the crea tion by the present Shah of a new set of orders and decorations, is imminent. Siam—The Sacred Order, or the Nine Precious Stones, was

founded in 1869, in one class only, for the Buddhist princes of the royal house. The Order of the White Elephant, founded in 1861, is the principal general order. The badge is a striking exam-

KNIGHT-SERVICE—KNIGHTS le of oriental design adapted to a European conventional form.

The circular plaque is formed of a triple circle of lotus leaves in gold, red and green, within a blue circlet with pearls a richly caparisoned white elephant on a gold ground, the whole surmounted by the jewelled gold pagoda crown of Siam; the collar

OF THE

GOLDEN

CIRCLE

441

supposed, 60,000, but probably somewhere between 5,000 and 6,000. Similar returns were made for Normandy, and are valuable

for the light they throw on its system of knight-service. The principle of commuting for money the obligation of military service struck at the root of the whole system, and so com-

is formed of alternate white elephants, red, blue and white royal

plete was the change of conception that “tenure by knight-service of a mesne lord becomes, first in fact and then in law, tenure Crown (Mongkut Siam), founded 1869; the family Order of by escuage (z.e,, scutage).” By the time cf Henry III., as Bracton Chulah-Chon-Clao, 1873; and the Maha Charkrkri, 1884, only for states, the test of tenure was scutage; liability, however small, to princes and princesses of the reigning family. (C. We.) scutage payment made the tenure military. KNIGHT-SERVICE, the dominant and distinctive tenure The disintegration of the system was carried farther in the latter of land under the feudal system. Its origin may be traced to the half of the 13th century as a consequence of changes in warfare, mailed horseman, armed with lance and sword, who became the which were increasing the importance of foot soldiers and making maost important factor in battle. This novel system, was introduced the servicé of a knight for 40 days of less value to the king. The. after the Conquest by the Normans, who relied essentially on their barons, instead of paying scutage, compounded for their service by mounted knights, while the English fought on foot. They were the payment of lump sums, and, by a process which is still obscure, already familiar with the principle of knight-service, the knight’s the nominal quotas of knight-service due from each had, by the fee, as it came to be termed in England, heing represented in Nor- time of Edward I., been largely reduced. The knight’s fee, howmandy by the fief du haubert, so termed from the hauberk or coat ever, remained a knight’s fee, and the pecuniary incidents of miliof mail (Zorica) which was worn by the knight. The coronation tary tenure, especially wardship, marriage and fines on alienation, charter of Henry I. (1100) speaks of those holding by knight- long continued to be a source of revenue to the Crown. But at the Restoration tenure by knight-service was abolished by 12 Car, IL , service as milites qui per loricam terras suas deserviunt, The Conqueror divided the lay lands of England among his c. 24, and these vexatious exactions disappeared. BrIsiIoGRAPHY.—For the returns of 1166 see the Liber Niger, ed. followers, to be held by the service of a fixed number of knights in his host, and imposed the same service on most of the great eccle- by Hearne, and the Liber Rubeus or Red Book of the Exchequer, ed. by Hall, The later returns are in Testa de Nevill (Record Commissiastical bodies. No record evidence exists of this action on his part, sion, 1807) and in the Record Office volumes of Feudal Aids, arranged and the quota of knight-service exacted was not determined by the under counties. For the financial side see the early pipe-rolls of the area or value of the lands granted, but was based upon the unit Record Commission and the Pipe Roll Society, and abstracts of later of the feudal host, the constabularia of ten knights. Of the tenants- ones in The Red Book of the Exchequer; but the editor’s view must received with caution and checked by J. H. Round’s Studies on in-chief or barons (ż.e., those who held directly of the Crown), be the Red Book of the Exchequer (for private circulation). The Baronia the chief ones were called on to find one or more of such units, Anglica of Madox may also be consulted. The existing theory on while of the lesser ones some were called on for five knights, że., knight-service was enunciated by Mr. Round in English Historical monograms and gold pagoda crowns. Other orders are the Siamese

half a constabularia.

The same system was adopted in Ireland

when that country was conquered under Henry II. The baron who had been enfeoffed by his sovereign on these terms could provide the knights required either by hiring them for pay or, more conveniently when wealth was mainly represented by land, by a process of subenfeoffment, analogous to that by which he himself had been enfeoffed. The primary obligation incumbent on every knight was service in the field, when called upon, for 40 days a year, with specified armour and arms. There was, however, a standing dispute as to whether he could be called upon to perform this service outside the realm, nor was the question of his expenses free from difficulty. In addition to this primary duty he had, in numerous cases at least, to perform that of ‘“‘castle ward” at his lord’s chief castle for a fixed number of days in the year. On certain baronies also was incumbent the duty of providing knights for the guard of royal castles, such as Windsor, Rockingham and Dover. Under the feudal system the tenant by knight-service had also the same pecuniary obligations to his lord as had his lord to the king. These consisted of (1) “relief,” which he paid on succeeding to his lands; (2) “wardship,” i.e., the profits from his lands during a minority; (3) “marriage,” i.e., the right of giving in marriage, unless bought off, his heiress, his heir (if a minor) and his widow; and also of

Review, vi., vii., and reissued by him in his Feudal England (1898).

It is accepted by Pollock and Maitland (Hist. Eng. Law), who discuss the question at length; by J. F. Baldwin in his Scutage and Knight-service in England (Univ. of Chicago Press, 1897), a valuable monograph with bibl.; and by Petit-Dutaillis, in his Studies supplenN to Stubbs’ Constitutional History (Manchester TE Series,

1908).

:

:

KNIGHTS OF COLUMBUS, THE, the leading Catholic

laymen’s organization in the world, was founded by the Rev. M. J. McGivney in 1882 in New Haven, Conn. From an original membership of xr it grew from city to city in Connecticut and then from State to State and beyond national boundaries, until its membership in 1928 was more than 7oo,000. It operates in the United States and its possessions, in Canada, Newfoundland, Mexico and Cuba. The primary object of the Knights of Columbus is to associate Catholic men for religious and civic usefulness. There are four degrees of membership, none having any secret or oath-bound stipulation, The Knights have maintained, since their inception, an insurance feature for members. Non-~insurance members are associates. Previous to their emergence into general public notice as an agency of war welfare work the Knights had done educational and social work. In launching a new movement for boys in 1928, the Columbian Squires, the Knights undertook the task of organizing Catholic youth in the seven countries in the three “aids” (q.v.). The chief sources of information for the which the order operates, where a demand for such organization extent and development of knight-service are the returns (cartae) was felt to justify it. of the barons (i.e., the tenants-in-chief) in 1166, informing the KNIGHTS OF THE GOLDEN CIRCLE, a semi-military king, at his request, of the names of their tenants by knight- secret society in the United States, in the Middle West, 1861-64, service with the number of fees they held, supplemented by the the purpose of which was to bring the Civil War to a close and payments for “scutage” (g.v.) recorded on the pipe-rolls, by the restore the “Union as it was.” After the outbreak of the Civil later returns printed in the Testa de Nevill, and by the still later War many of the Democrats of the Middle West, who were opones collected in Feudal Aids, In the returns made in 1166 some posed to the war policy of the Republicans, organized the Knights of the barons appear as having enfeoffed more and some less than of the Golden Circle, pledging themselves to exert their influence the number of knights they had to find. In the latter case they to bring about peace. In 1863, owing to the disclosure of some described the balance as being chargeable on their “demesne,” że., of its secrets, the organization took the name of Order of Amerion the portion of their fief which remained in their own hands. can Knights, and in 1864 this became the Sons of Liberty. The These returns further prove that lands had already been granted total membership of this order probably reached 250,000 to

for the service of a fraction of a knight, such service being in 300,000, principally in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin,

Practice already commuted for a proportionate money payment; and they show that the total number of knights with which land held by military service was charged was not, as was formerly

Kentucky and south-western Pennsylvania. Fernando Wood of New York seems to have been the chief officer and in r864 Clement L. Vallandigham of Ohio was second in command. The

442,

KNIPPERDOLLINCK—KNOLLES

great importance of the Knights of the Golden Circle and its successors was due to their opposition to the war policy of the Republican administration. The plan was to overthrow the Lincoin government in the elections and give to the Democrats the control of the state and Federal governments, which would then make peace and invite the Southern States to come back into the Union on the old footing. The most effective work done by the order was in encouraging desertion from the Federal armies, preventing enlistments and resisting the draft. Wholesale arrests of leaders and numerous seizures of arms by the United States authorities resulted in a general collapse of the order late in 1864. Three of the leaders were sentenced to death by military commissions, but sentence was suspended until 1866, when they were released under a decision of the United States Supreme Court. AUTHORITIES.—An Authentic Exposition of the Knights of the Golden Circle (Indianapolis, 1863); E. McPherson, Political History of the Rebellion (Washington, 1876); and W. D. Foulke, Life of O. P. Morton (2 vols., 1899); Treason History of Sons of Liberty, F, G. Stundy (Chicago, 1903); J. F. Rhodes, History of the United States from the Compromise of 1850, vol. v. (1905).

KNIPPERDOLLINCK BERNT

(Berenp

or KNIPPERDOLLING,

or BERNHARDT)

(c. 1490-1536),

German

divine, was a prosperous cloth-merchant at Miinster when in 1524 he joined Melchior Rinck and Melchior Hofmann in a business journey to Stockholm, which developed into an abortive religious errand. Knipperdollinck, a man of fine presence and glib tongue, noted from his youth for eccentricity, had the ear of the Miinster populace when in 1527 he helped to break the prison of Tonies Kruse, in the teeth of the bishop and the civic authorities. For this he made his peace with the latter; but, venturing on another business journey, he was arrested, imprisoned for a year, and released on payment of a high fine—in regard of which treatment he began an action before the Imperial Chamber. Though his aims were political rather than religious, he attached himself to the reforming movement of Bernhardt Rothmann, once (1 520) chaplain of St. Mauritz, outside Miinster, now (1532) pastor of the city church of St. Lamberti. A new bishop directed a mandate

(April 17, 1532) against Rothmann,

which had the effect of

alienating the moderates in Miinster from the democrats. Knipperdollinck was a leader of the democrats in the surprise (Dec. 26, 1532) which made prisoners of the negotiating nobles at Telgte, in the territory of Münster. In the end, Münster was by charter from Philip of Hesse (Feb. 14, 1533) constituted an evangelical city. Knipperdollinck was made a burgomaster in Feb. 1534. Anabaptism had already (Sept. 8, 1533) been proclaimed at Münster by a journeyman smith; and, before this, Heinrich Roll, a refugee, had brought Rothmann (May 1533) to a rejection of infant baptism. From Jan. 1, 1534, Roll preached Anabaptist doctrines in a city pulpit; a few days later, two Dutch emissaries of Jan Matthysz, or Matthyssen, the master-baker and Anabaptist prophet of Haarlem, came on a mission to Miinster. They were followed (Jan. 13) by Jan Beukelsz (or Bockelszoon, or Buchholdt), better known as John of Leyden. It was his second visit to Miinster; he came now as an apostle of Matthysz. He was 25, with a winning personality, great gifts as an organizer, and plenty of ambition. Knipperdollinck, whose daughter Clara was ultimately enrolled among the wives of John of Leyden,

came under his influence. Matthysz himself came to Miinster (1534) and lived in Knipperdollinck’s house, which became the

centre of the new movement to substitute Miinster for Strasbourg (Melchior Hofmann’s choice) as the New Jerusalem. On the death of Matthysz, in a foolish raid (April 5, 1534), John became supreme. Knipperdollinck, with one attempt at revolt, when he claimed the kingship for himself, was his subservient henchman, wheedling the Miinster democracy into subjection to the fantastic rule of the “king of the earth.” He was made second in command, and executioner of the refractory, He fell in with the polygamy innovation, the protest of his wife being visited with a Penance. In the military measures for resisting the siege of Miinster he took no leading ‘part, On the fall of the city (June 25, 1535) he hid in a dwelling in the city wall, but was betrayed by his landlady. After Sixi months’ incarceration, his trial, along with his comrades, took

place on Jan. 19, and his execution, with fearful tortures, on Jan. 22, 1536. Knipperdolinck attempted to strangle himself, hy

was forced to endure the worst. His body, like those of the others

was hung in a cage on the tower of St. Lamberti, where the cages are still to be seen.

An alleged portrait, from

an engraving of

1607, is reproduced in the appendix to A. Ross’s Pansebeia (1655), See L. Keller, Geschichte der Wiedertéufer und ihres Reichs zy Miinster (1880); C. A. Cornelius, Historische Arbeiten (1899); EF, Belfort Bax, Rise and Fall of the Anabaptists (1903). (A. Go.)

KNITTING,

the art of forming a single thread or strand of

yarn into a texture or fabric of a loop structure, by employing needles or wires. Crochet work is an analogous art in its simplest form.

It consists of forming a single thread intoa single chain of

loops. All warp knit fabrics are built on this structure. Knitting

may be said to be divided into two principles, viz., (1) hand knit. ting and (2) frame-work knitting. (See Hosrery.) In hand knit. ting the wires, pins or needles used are of different lengths or

gauges, according to the class of work wanted to be produced, They are made of steel, bone, wood or ivory. Some are headed to prevent the loops from slipping over the ends. Flat or selvedged work can only be produced on them. Others are pointed at both ends, and by employing three or more a circular or cir-

cular-shaped fabric can be made.

In hand knitting each loop is

formed and thrown off individually and in rotation and is left

hanging on the new loop formed.

The cotton, wool and silk fibres

are the principal materials from which knitting yarns are manufactured—wool being the most important and most largely used, ‘“‘Lamb’s-wool,” “wheeling,” “fingering” and worsted yarns are all produced from the wool fibre, but may differ in size or fineness and quality. Those yarns are largely used in the production of knitted underwear. Hand knitting is to-day principally practised as a domestic art, but in some of the remote parts of Scotland and Ireland it is pursued as an industry to some extent. In the Shetland Islands the wool of the native sheep is spun and used in its natural colour, being manufactured into shawls, scarves, ladies’ jackets, etc. The principal trade of other districts is hose and halfhose, made from the wool of the sheep native to the district. The formation of the stitches in knitting may be varied in a great many

ways, by “purling” (knitting or throwing loops to back and front in rib form), “slipping” loops, taking up and casting off and work-

ing in various coloured yarns to form stripes, patterns, etc. The articles may be shaped according to the manner in which the wires and yarns are manipulated.

KNOBKERRIE,

a strong, short stick with a rounded knob

or head used by the natives of South Africa in warfare and the

chase (from the Taal or South African Dutch, knopkirie, derived from Du. knop, a knob or button, and kerrie, a Bushman or Hottentot word for stick). It is employed at close quarters, or as a missile, and in time of peace serves as a walking-stick. The name has been extended to similar weapons used by the natives of Australia, the Pacific islands, and other places.

KNOLLES, RICHARD

(c. 1545-1610), English historian,

a native of Northamptonshire, was educated at Lincoln college, Oxford. He became a fellow of his college, and was master of a school at Sandwich, Kent, where he died in 1610, In 1603 Knolles published his Generall Historie of the Turkes, of which several editions subsequently appeared, among them a good one edited by Sir Paul Rycaut (1700), who brought the history down

to 1699. It was dedicated to King James I., and Knolles availed

himself largely of Jean Jacques Boissard’s Vitae et Icones Sultanorum Turcicorum (Frankfort, 1596). See the Athenaeum, Aug. 6, 1881.

KNOLLES (or KNOLLYS), SIR ROBERT (c. 13251407), English soldier, belonged to a Cheshire family. In 1346 he served in Brittany, and he was one of the English survivors who

were taken prisoners by the French after the famous “combat of the thirty” in March 1351. He was soon released and took ad-

vantage of the civil war in Brittany to win fame and wealth. In 1356 he transferred his operations to Normandy, when he served under the allied standards of England and of Charles II. of

Navarre. He led the “great company” in their work of devastation along the valley of the Loire, winning a terrible reputation by his.

KNOLLYS—KNOT-GRASS ravages. After the treaty of Brétigny in 1360 Knolles returned to

Brittany, and took part in the struggle for the possession of the duchy between John of Montfort (Duke John IV.) and Charles of Blois, gaining great fame by his conduct in the fight at Auray (September I 364). In 1367 he fought in Spain with the Black

443

bury her relatives were regarded with suspicion. Wallingford had to resign his appointments, but he reguined the royal favour, and was created earl of Banbury in 1626. He died in London on May

Prince and in 1369 in Aquitaine. In 1370 he headed an expedition which invaded France and marched on Paris, but a mutiny

broke up the army, and he was forced to take refuge in his

Breton castle of Derval. In 1363 Knolles again assisted John of Montfort in Brittany, where he acted as John’s representative; ater he led a force into Aquitaine, and was one of the leaders of the fleet sent against the Spaniards in 1377. In 1380 he served in France under Thomas of Woodstock, afterwards duke of Gloucester, distinguishing himself at the siege of Nantes; and in 1381 he went with Richard II. to meet Wat Tyler at Smithfield. He died at Sculthorpe in Norfolk on Aug. 15, 1407. Sir Robert built a college and an almshouse at Pontefract; he restored the churches of Sculthorpe and Harpley; and he helped to found an English

hospital in Rome. Knolles won an immense reputation by his skill and valour in the field, and ranks as one of the foremost captains

25, 1632. For the controversy over the Banbury peerage in the 17th and 18th centuries see Sir H. N. Nicolas, Treatise in the Law of Adulterine Bastardy (1833).

Sir W. T. Knollys.—His descendant, Sir William Thomas Knollys (1797—1883), entered the army and served with the Guards during the Peninsular War. Remaining inthe army after the conclusion of the peace of 1815 he rose high in his profession. From 1855 to 1860 he was in charge of the military camp at Aldershot, then in its infancy, and in 1861 he was made president of the council of military education. From 1862 to 1877 he was comptroller of the household of the prince of Wales, afterwards King Edward VII. From 1877 until his death on June 23, 1883, he was gentleman usher of the black rod; he was also a privy

councillor and colonel of the Scots Guards.

Viscount Knollys.—His son Francis (1837-1924), private secretary to: Edward VII. and George V., was created Baron Knollys in 1902 and received a viscounty in rgIt. of his age. French writers call him Canolles, or Canole. Another son, Sir Henry Knollys (b. 1840), was private secreKNOLLYS (nélz), name of an English family descended from Sir Thomas Knollys (d. 1435), lord mayor of London. The first tary to King Edward’s daughter Maud, queen of Norway until distinguished member of the family was Sir Francis Knollys (c. IQIO. 1514-96), English statesman, son of Robert Knollys, or Knolles KNORR, LUDWIG (1859-1921), German chemist, was (d. 1521), a courtier in the service and favour of Henry VII. and born on Dec. 2, 1859, at Munich. He studied at Munich, HeidelHenry VIII. Robert had also a younger son, Henry, who took berg and Erlangen. He held the following posts: assistant in the

part in public life during the reign of Elizabeth and who died

in 1583. SizPandi Knollys—Francis Knollys, who entered the service of Henry VIII. before 1540, became M.R. in 1542 and was knighted in 1547 while serving with the English army in Scotland. A strong supporter of the reformed doctrines, he retired to Germany after Mary’s accession, returning to England to

become a privy councillor, vice-chamberlain of the royal household and a member of parliament under Queen Elizabeth, whose cousin Catherine (d. 1569), daughter of William Carey and niece of Anne Boleyn, was his wife. Knollys was sent in 1566 to Ireland, his mission being to obtain for the queen confidential reports on the lord-deputy Sir Henry Sidney, of whose conduct of affairs he gave a good report. In 1568 he was sent to Carlisle to take charge of Mary Queen of Scots; he was afterwards in charge of the queen at Bolton castle and then at Tutbury castle. He gave up the position of guardian just after his wife’s death in January 1569. He was treasurer of the royal household from 1572 until his death on July 19, 1596. His monument may still be seen in the church of Rotherfield Grays, Oxfordshire. Knollys

chemical laboratories of the University of Munich

(1880-82), at

the University of Erlangen (1882-85), director of the analytical department of the chemical laboratories at the University of Würzburg (1885-88), “professor extraordinarius” of chemistry at Wiirzburg (1888-89), and finally professor at the University of Jena. He died at Jena on June 4, 1921. Knorr’s researches were in organic chemistry; he isolated and synthesized a number of organic compounds, and did experimental and theoretical work on tautomerism. He isolated, synthesized and gave a proof of the structure of pyrazole; he also isolated the di-keto, keto-enol and di-enol forms of dibenzoylsuccinic esters and of diacetylsuccinic esters. He synthesized pyrazolone, antipyrine and quinoline. Knorr also did some work on the alkaloids, particularly the morphine alkaloids. He plotted the solubility and melting point curves of a number of tautomeric compounds and worked on the tautomerism of methylpyrazole, of benzene and of diacylsuccinic esters.

KNOSSOS:

see Creve.

KNOT, a Limicoline bird, very abundant at certain seasons

on the shores of Britain and of many northern countries.

There

are few of the Limicolae that present greater changes of plumage was Elizabeth’s commissioner on such important occasions as according to age or season. The knot (Calidris canutus) is the trials of Mary Queen of Scots, of Philip Howard earl of rather larger than a snipe, but with a shorter bill and legs. In Arundel, and of Anthony Babington. winter the plumage is ashy-grey above (save the rump, which is Sir Francis’s eldest son Henry (d. 1583), and his sons Edward white) and white beneath. In summer the feathers of the back (d. c. 1580), Robert (d. 1625), Richard (d. 1596), Francis (d. are black, broadly margined with light orange-red, mixed with ¢, 1648), and Thomas, were all courtiers and served the queen in white, those of the rump white, more or less tinged with red, parliament or in the field. His daughter Lettice (1540-1634) and the lower parts are of a nearly uniform deep chestnut. The married Walter Devereux, earl of Essex, and then Robert Dudley, birds which winter in temperate climates seldom attain the earl of Leicester; she was the mother of Elizabeth’s favourite, brilliancy of colour exhibited by those that arrive from the south. the end earl of Essex. Young birds are ashy-grey above, each feather banded with dull Some of Knollys’s letters are in T. Wright’s Queen Elizabeth and her black and ochreous; while the breast is tinged with warm buff. Times (1838) and the Burghley Papers, ed. S. Haynes (1740); and a There are four protectively coloured eggs. The bird has been few of his manuscripts are still in existence. A speech which Knollys found breeding in the islands north of Siberia and elsewhere. delivered in parliament against some claims made by the bishops was In winter its wanderings printed in 1608 and again in W. Stoughton’s Assertion for True and probably having a circumpolar range. Christian Church Policie (London, 1642). are extensive, as it is recorded from Surinam, Brazil, South Africa, Sir William Knollys.—Sir Francis Knollys’s second son China, Queensland and New Zealand. Formerly this species was William (¢. 1547-1632) served as a member of parliament and a netted in England, and the birds fattened for the table.

soldier during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, being knighted in

1586. William became in 1596 a privy councillor and comptroller of the royal household; in 1602 he was made treasurer of the household. James I. created him Baron Knollys in 1603 and Viscount Wallingford in 1616. Through his' second wife

Elizabeth (1586-1658), daughter of Thomas Howard, earl of tolk, Knollys was related to Frances, countess of Somerset, aad when this lady was tried for the murder of Sir Thomas Over-

KNOT-GRASS,

Kwot-weep

the

or Bristort,

common

names for various plants of the genus Polygonum (family -Polygonaceae). All members of the genus, which contains about 275 species, mostly in temperate regions, are herbaceous.

The flowers,

mostly with a five-leaved perianth and about eight stamens, are

usually brightly coloured, and consequently visited by insects. In some species, however (e.g., P. aviculare), cleistogamous flowers are produced, while in P. wviparum' many of the lower t

444

KNOTS

flowers are replaced by bulbils. About 12 species, inclusive of the foregoing, occur in the British Isles. In North America upwards of 75 species are found, among which are several which have been introduced from the Old World. The name knot-grass is sometimes used in the southern United States to denote the joint-grass, Paspalum distichum, which is a true grass (Gramineae) and a good fodder-plant.

KNOTS, an interlacement of the parts of one or more ropes, cords, threads, etc.; commonly used as a device for binding to-

gether various objects. The word is from the O.E. cnotta, from a

l

cleat and tuck a bight under the standing part b. Can be slipped

` loose by a pull on a. Bowline (fig. 1-L). Forms a loop that cannot slip. A Very com, mon and useful knot. Lay the end a over the standing par h! form with 6 a bight c over a; take a round behind b and through the bight c. Running Bowline (fig. 1-M) is a convenient temporary

running noose. Formed by making a bowline over its own stani. ing part. Bowline on a Bight (fig. 1-N) is a more comfortable stin for a man than a simple bowline. Double the rope on itself: stay as if to make a bowline in the doubled rope, but finish by passing

Teutonic stem knott; cf. “knit” and Ger. knoten. A description the loop c around the loop b. of the more familiar knots is given below. The word is also apSheepshank (fig. 1-0). Used for temporarily shortening a rope, plied to any hard mass resembling a knot drawn tight as, for ex- A half hitch is taken with the standing parts a round the bights 5, ample, to the one formed in the trunk of a tree at the intersection Blackwall Hitch (fig. 1-P). Form a bight at the end of the Tope of a branch. “Knot” or “knob” is an architectural term for a and put the hook of the tackle through the bight so that the eng bunch of flowers, leaves or other ornamentation carved on a of the rope may be jammed between the standing part and the corbel or on a boss. In heraldry, a “knot” is an ornamental figure hook. This and the next two are used for hooking tackle on ty formed by intertwining the parts of one or more cords. The word the end of a rope. is used on shipboard to denote the distance marks on a log line, Double Blackwall, or Stunner Hitch (fig. 1-Q). Pass the end, and hence as the equivalent of a nautical mile. It is twice round the hook under the standing part b at the last cross applied figuratively to any intricate problem, hard to disentangle, Cat’s Paw (fig. 1-R). Twist up two parts of a lanyard in opposite a use stereotyped in the proverbial expression “cutting the Gordian directions and hook the tackle through the two eyes thus formed knot.” (See Gorprum,) Sheet or Becket Bend, also called a Weaver's Knot (fig. 15), Suitable for uniting ropes of different sizes. Pass the end of one’ KNOTS, BENDS, HITCHES, SPLICES AND SEIZINGS rope through a bight of the other, around both parts of the other, These are all ways of fastening together the parts of one or more and under its own standing part. An ordinary net is a series of ropes, cords, etc., or of attaching a rope to some such object as a sheet bends. Similar in principle is the Double Sheet Beng ring or spar. In the narrow sense, a “knot” is a knob on a rope, (fig. r-T). usually formed by untwisting the strands at an end and weaving Carrick Bend (fig. 1-U). Lay the end of one rope over its own them together (cf. “wall knot,” fig. 2G), though sometimes by part so as to form a bight. Pass the end of the other rope through turning the rope on itself through a loop (cf. “overhand knot,” the bight, etc., as shown in the figure. Double Carrick Bend (fig. fig. 1TA), A “bend” and a “hitch” are ways of fastening ropes to 1-V). Commonly used for bending hawsers together. If the two one another or to spars, etc. A “splice” is made by untwisting two parts are of different sizes each part should be seized back on rope ends and weaving them together. A “seizing” is made by itself. May be tied in either of two ways shown. fastening together two spars, two ropes, or two parts of the same Reeving Line Bend (fig. 1-W). Particularly useful when the rope by means of another rope. The use of the various terms is, lines are to be veered through a small pipe. however, often arbitrary. Generally speaking, the knot and seizEnglish or Fishermans Knot. Used for fastening gut ends, ing are meant to be permanent and must be unwoven in order to etc. The ends are laid alongside pointing in ‘opposite directions be unfastened, while the bend and hitch can be undone, at once, and an overhand is made in each around the end of the other. by pulling the ropes in the reverse direction from that in which Two ropes -are sometimes united by means of a square knot they are meant to hold. The governing principle in the design of (fig. 1-C) or by means of two interlinking bowlines, one on each these last is that the strain which pulls against them shall draw rope. them. together. Clove Hitch or Builder’s Knot (fig. 1-X). Pass the end a round Many forms of fastening are employed on shipboard and in in- a spar and cross it over b. Pass it round the spar again and put dustry. Some of the more important ones are here described and the end a through the second bight. Two Half Hitches: the half

pictured; for further details, the reader is referred to any book on seamanship. In the figures, the knots are in general drawn very slack and open, so that their structure may be more plainly exhibited.

Knots for Fastening—Overhand Knot (fig. 1-A). Used to

make a knob on a rope, or as the commencement of another knot.

Pigure-of-Eight Knot (fig. 1-B), Turned in the end of a rope to prevent unreeving. It will not jam as an overhand does. Square, or Reef Knot (fig. 1-C). Two overhand knots turned in opposite ways. Should be carefully distinguished from the Granny (fig. 1-D) which jams when it does not slip. A square knot is unsat-

isfactory for uniting ropes of different sizes, as the parts will slip unless stopped down. For fastenings of a temporary nature the second knot is sometimes turned over a bight in the end a of one

of the ropes (fig. 1-E). By a pull on a, the knot can be slipped loose. A Thief Knot (fig. 1-F), though similar in appearance to a square knot, will slip under a strain applied to the two standing parts 6 and b’. To make a Surgeon’s Knot (fig. 1-G), take an additional twist after turning the first overhand, and draw the partially completed knot taut. The parts will be held in place by the friction of the cord while the second overhand is being tied. Used in tying

a ligature around a cut artery.

Half-Hitch (fig. 1-H). Pass the end of the rope round the stand-

ing part b and through the bight. Half-Hitch over a Pin (fig. x-I). Should be made so as to continue the lay of the rope about the pin. Midshipman’s Hitch (fig. 1-J). Slippery-Hitch (fig. 1-K.). Pass the end a under a belaying pin or a

hitch repeated; or a Round Turn and Two Half Hitches (fig. 1Y).

Fisherman’s Bend. Take two turns round a spar, then a half hitch round the standing part and between the spar and tums. An added half hitch round the standing part gives an Anchor Bend (fig. 2-A), used to bend a cable to an anchor; or if in place of the last half hitch the end a is tucked under one of the round turns we obtain a Studding Sail Halyard Bend (fig. 2-B). A Magnus Hitch has two round turns, then a third on the other side of the standing part, with the end through the bight. Stud-

ding Sail Tack Bend (fig. 2-C). Will not come adrift by the flapping of the sail.

Timber Hitch (fig. 2-D). Take the end of a rope round a spat, then round the standing part, then several times around its own part against the lay of the rope. Timber and H. alf Hitch (fig. 2-E). Used for towing or dragging a spar.

Rolling Hitch (fig. 2-F). Very handy when one rope is to be fastened to the standing part of another or to a spar, as the rope can be put on and taken off very rapidly. For hauling a spat,

two round turns are taken round the spar in the direction in which it is to be hauled and a half hitch on the other side of the hauling part.

.

Knots Worked in the End of a Rope.—Wall Knot (fig. 2-G).

Unlay the end of a rope and with the strand a form a bight; take

the next strand b round the end of a; take the last strand c round

the end of b and through the bight made by a. Haul the ends taut. Wall and.Crown (fig. 2-H). Form. a wall knot and lay one of

the ends a over the knot, Lay b over a and ¢ over b and through

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(A) ANCHOR

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BEND,

(C) STUDDIN

(F) ROLLING HITCH, (G) WALL, (H) WALL AND CROWN, (1) l AN por C MATTHEW MBER HITE AT CROWN OR MAN ROPE, i (J)ENDSINGLE MATTHEW WALKER,(Ey TIBER (K) DO UBLE (RY AIN eiie i GuNOUD EnGE: Ch) atinaee: Tes oeSHORT SPLICE, (O) EYE SPLICE, (P) SAILMAKER’S EYE SPLICE, (Q) cone SPLICE,

TACKLE TO BARRELS, (Y) TREFOIL KNOTS

:

ANISH WINDLASS,» (V) SENNIT, (W) WORMING A ROPE, (X) METHODS OF FASTENING

447

KNOTS the bight of a. Haul the ends taut.

Double Wall and Double

Crown, or Man Rope Knot (fig. 2-I). Form a wall and crown and let the ends follow their own parts round until all the parts appear double. Put the ends down through the knot. Single Matthew Walker (fig. 2-J). Unlay the end of a rope and with the strand a form a bight; take the next strand b round

the end of a and through the bight made by a; take the last strand c round the ends of a and b and through the bight made by b. Haul the ends taut. Double Matthew Walker (fig. 2-K). Unlay the ends of a rope. Take the first strand round the rope and through its own bight; the second round the rope, through the bight of the first and through its own bight; the third through

all three bights. Haul the ends taut.

Single Diamond Knot (fig. 2-L). Unlay the ends of a rope and with the strands form three bights down the sides. Pass strand g over b and through the bight of c; pass strand b over c and through the bight of a; pass strand c over a and through the

bight of b. Haul the ends taut, and lay the rope up again. Double Diamond Knot (fig. 2-M). First make a single diamond. Make strands a and b follow the lead of the single knot through two single bights, so that they come up on top of the knot; make strand c pass through two double bights. Haul the ends taut and lay the rope up again.

Splices.—Short Splice (fig. 2-N). The strands at the end of each rope are unlaid, married and tucked through the lay of the other rope, over one strand and under the next, two or three times

each way. To render the splice neater the strands should be trimmed down to two-thirds their original size before being tucked under for the second time, and to one-third their original size before the last tuck. Eye Splice (fig. 2-O). The strands at the end of a rope are brought back on the body of the rope at such a distance as to

give an eye of the size wanted.

The unlaid strands are then

tucked through the strands of the rope (which are opened out

by a spike), in the manner trimmed and tucked again, passing over one strand and short splice. Satlmaker’s Eye

shown in the figure. They are then trimmed and tucked a third time, under the next, as in the case of a Splice (fig. 2-P). Used in the roping

of sails. Continues the original lay of the rope around the eye. Cut Splice and Horseshoe Splice. Similar to an eye splice but made out of two pieces of rope; therefore with two splices. In a horseshoe splice the part of one rope between the two splices is much shorter than the corresponding part of the other.

Long Splice (fig. 2-Q). The ropes are unlaid for a considerable distance and their ends brought together with strands interlacing. One strand of each rope is then unlaid for a further distance and the vacant space filled by the adjacent part of the other rope. The splice is thus practically divided into three parts; at each the two strands are halved, knotted and turned in twice. Chain Splice (fig. 2-R). For splicing a rope to a chain. Shroud Knot (fig. 2-S). Used when shrouds or stays are broken. A stop is passed at such distance from each end of the broken shroud as to afford strands of sufficient length. The strands are then unlaid, the parts married as if to make a short splice, and a wall knot formed in each, as shown in the figure. After the knot has been well stretched the ends are tapered, laid smoothly between the strands of the shroud, and firmly served over. Seizings—These are used to lash together spars, ropes or

parts of the same rope. Various types of seizings are illustrated

In fig. 2-T. With heavy ropes, where power is necessary to heave the parts together, some such device as a Spanish Windlass (fig. 2-U), may be employed. The marlinspike, which may act as a

lever, is attached to the rope of the windlass by a Marlinspike

Hitch, as shown in the figure.

scellaneous.—There are various ways of securing blocks to ropes. One simple method is to splice an eye of suitable size at

one end of the rope. The eye is passed over the end of the block and held in position by a round seizing clapped on close under

the block. A single strap is made by joining the ends of a rope

by a short splice. The strap is passed over the end of the block

and secured by a seizing, as in the previous case. An iron thimble with a hook is frequently strapped to a block. When this is

done the strap is reeved through the eye of the hook and over the groove of the thimble. A seizing is clapped on between the thimble and the block. Grommet Strap. Made from a single strand of somewhat more than three times the length of the circumference of the strap. Lay one end of the strand over the standing part to form a ring, then with the long end follow the lay of the rope until the ring becomes three-stranded. Split the ends, knot two of the halves together so that the knot will fall in the lay of the rope, cut off the remaining halves, and tuck the knotted halves under the lay of the rope, as in finishing a long splice. Selvagee Strap. This is a pliable strap used for clapping a tackle on gear, etc. It is made by winding rope yarns around two or more pegs placed at suitable distances from one another, until a strap of the desired stoutness has been obtained. The. yarns are then secured together by half hitching with marline. Sennit (fig. 2-V). Made by plaiting together three rope yarns. It makes a flat lashing, or gasket. À Worming a rope consists in winding spun yarn between the strands, following the lay of the rope (fig. 2-W). This helps to keep out the moisture and renders the surface of the rope smooth for parcelling. Parcelling consists in winding a strip of tarred canvas spirally around the rope, as a further protection from the wet. Serving consists in wrapping small stuff snugly over the parcelling. Ordinarily a serving mallet is used for hauling each turn taut. Various methods for fastening tackle to barrels, casks, etc., are illustrated in fig. 2-X. THE MATHEMATICAL

THEORY OF KNOTS

In the sense of analysis situs (g.v.), a knot is any simple, closed curve in three dimensional space, a curve which never passes more than once through the same point of space and which may be thought of as starting at a point P and ultimately returning to P. Two knots are said to be of the same class if there exists a continuous deformation of space carrying one knot into the position initially occupied by the other. If a knot is of the same class as a circle it is said to be unknotted, for it is convenient to treat an unknotted curve as a special case of a knot, just as it is convenient to treat a straight line as a special case of a curve. No general method has, as yet, been found for telling when two arbitrarily given knots are of the same class, or even for telling whether or not a curve is unknotted. The structure of a perfectly general mathematical curve can be so complicated that, in most discussions on knots, attention is confined to curves of a reasonable degree of regularity. These last may be thought of, without serious error, as physical threads, arbitrarily twisted and tangled, and closed by having their two ends sealed together. From this physical point of view, the problem of classifying knots reduces to the problem of telling under what conditions it is possible, by a process of bending, stretching and shrinking, to deform one of two arbitrarily given threads into a thread of the same shape as the other. The knot problem seems to have been originally proposed and studied by J. B. Listing in one of the earliest works ever published on the subject of analysis situs. It was again attacked, independently, by P. G. Tait at a time when attempts were being made to interpret material atoms as vortex lines in the ether and to account for the differences in the various chemical elements by ascribing to the atoms of each a characteristic type of knottedness. When we fix our eyes on a knotted thread we notice a certain number of apparent crossing points where, from our point of observation, one branch of the thread is seen to pass in front of another. This number of apparent crossing points may be varied either by deforming the knot or by shifting our point of observation, but if we start with any particular knot there is a certain minimal number & of crossing points which may be. attained by suitably deforming the knot, but below which it is impossible to pass. The number & is a knot invariant, called, the number of irreducible crossings of the knot. The simplest possible knot is one of zero crossings: ‘that is to say, one’ which is unknotted. Next in order of simplicity come:the two trefoi knots

KNOT

44.8

SIGNS—KNOWLEDGE

(fig. 2-Y) with three crossings each. These knots are not of the same class. The problem of effectively determining the number of irreducible crossings of an arbitrarily given knot is still unsolved. A classification of the more elementary knots according to the number of their irreducible crossings was begun by Tait and later extended by Kirkman, Little and others, so that tables now exist which exhibit all possible kinds of knots of xxr or less crossings. These tables are not altogether satisfactory, however, for they were arrived at by essentially empirical methods. It has never actually been proved, for instance, that no two knots listed in the tables as of distinct classes can be transformed into one another. The first effectively calculable knot invariants were discovered by J. W. Alexander and, later, independently by K. Reidemeister. With the aid of these invariants, Alexander and Briggs have shown that all knots of eight or less crossings listed as distinct by Tait actually do belong to different classes. However, the new invariants appear to be insufficient to solve the knot problem completely, for they fail to distinguish between certain knots of nine crossings which give every indication of belonging to different classes. It is even doubtful whether they are sufficient to determine whether or not an arbitrary thread is unknotted. A neat classification of braids has been made by Artin. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—J. B. Listing, Vorstudien zur Topologie (Géttingen, 1848); P. G. Tait, Edinburgh Proc. (1877-79); Edin. Trans. (1879— 85); M. Dehn and P. Heegaard, “Analysis Situs,” Encyklopddie der Mathematischen Wissenschaften (1907); M. Dehn, Mathematische Annalen 69 (1910); “Topologie,” in E., Pascals Repertorium der Höheren Mathematik, II. (1910) ; E. Artin, Abk. aus dem Math. Semi. der Hamburgischen Universität, iv. (1925) ; K. Reidemeister, Abk. aus dem Math. Semi. der Hamburgischen Universität, V. (1926); J. W. Alexander and G. B. Briggs, Annals of Math. (1927) ; J. W. Alexander, Trans. of Amer. Math. Soc. (1928). (J. W. A.)

KNOT

SIGNS.

One of the commonest devices to recall to

mind something to be done is to tie a knot in a handkerchief. It is probable that the untrained memory would fail to recall the meaning attached to more than a very limited number of knots

(see QuiPus). The simplest application of these knots is in keeping a record of a number of days, as is related by Herodotus (iv. 98) of Darius, who, on crossing the Ister in his Scythian expedition, left with the Greeks appointed to guard the bridge a thong with a number of knots equal to the number of days that their watch over the bridge was to be continued. One knot was to be undone each day, and if the king had not returned by the time that all the knots were undone, the Greeks were to break down the bridge and go away.

KNOUT,

the whip used in Russia for flogging criminals and

political offenders.

It is said to have been introduced under Ivan

III. (1462-1505).

The knout had different forms.

One was a

lash of raw hide 16in. long, attached to a wooden handle, gin. long. The lash ended in a metal ring, to which was attached a second lash as long, ending also in a ring, to which in turn was attached. a few inches of hard leather ending in a beak-like hook. Another kind consisted of many thongs of skin plaited and interwoven with

wire, ending in loose wired ends, like the cat-o’-nine-tails. The victim was tied to a post or on a triangle of wood and stripped, receiving the specified number of strokes on the back. A sentence of roo or 120 lashes was equivalent to a death sentence, but few lived to receive so many. Peter the Great is traditionally accused of knouting his son Alexis to death. The emperor Nicholas I.

abolished the earlier forms of knout and substituted the pleti, a three-thonged lash. (See PUNISHMENT.)

KNOWLEDGE, THEORY OF, that branch of philosophy

which has for its province the investigation of the nature and structure of knowledge as such, with a view to determine the conditions of its possibility, and the significance, worth or validity of its contents as representing the nature and relations of the real. 1. THE CHARACTER AND SCOPE OF THE INVESTIGATION It is only within a comparatively recent period that episte-

mology has come to be recognised as a distinct. department of

philosophical inquiry. Since the days of Kant, German thinker have been in the habit of grouping under the head of Erkenjy nistheorie a nurober of problems which belong together,—prop. lems which have always, from the time of Plato, been includeg within the domain of philosophy. The term epistemology would

appear to have been used for the first time in Ferrier’s Institutes of Metaphysics, published in 1854. Philosophy according to Fer.

rier, consisted of two main divisions—epistemology, the doctrine or theory of knowing, and ontology, the science of that which truly is. Of these, the latter, he maintained, naturally comes ig

us first,—in the order of time, the proximate question of phil osophy has been that of the nature of real or ultimate being. But in the logical order the former comes first; we cannot even get a footing in ontology unless we have at least attempted to know

what is. And we are not in a position to know what is, until we have found an answer to the questions—What is the meaning

of to know?

£

No sooner is the effort made to treat knowledge as itself the subject-matter of investigation than there comes to the front an antithesis that would seem to be of fundamental importance, There would seem, namely, to be implied in the very notion of

knowledge a distinction and a relation between the inner or mental process of knowing and the outer world of fact, to which the act of knowing or cognising refers. To the former there has been as-

signed the technical name, the subjective, and to the latter the

technical name, the objective. In all knowledge these two distinguishable aspects seem to be brought together into a certain unity. And we call the result which may be attained the acquisition of truth—a term again involving in another way the antithesis of subjective and objective. Thus, three great fields of human research are at once indicated,—(a) the structure of the subjective process called knowing; (0) the specific character of

the objects of the external world; and (c) the nature of truth, as discriminated alike from the mind that recognises it and from the facts which it is “about.” The first belongs to psychology,

the second forms the domain of the natural sciences and the third constitutes the subject-matter of the theory of knowledge and logic. Epistemology and Psychology.—The exact nature of the fundamental problem with which epistemology is concerned may be made manifest by considering the ways in which knowledge is dealt with by psychology and epistemology respectively. The psychologist proposes to scrutinize the subjective aspect of knowledge,—the activity of knowing, as a condition of the individual mind, as so much matter of fact that can be inspected and analysed in the manner in which every other matter of fact can be, and with respect to which there may be discovered wnformities of structure and of succession, uniformities which may be designated natural laws. These “states of consciousness” are,

for him, so many events which happen at a definite time and m

a definite set of connections with other psychical states. Take, for example, such a psychical event as the perception of a sensequality. The business of the psychologist is to determine its nature as a transient phase in the history of an individual mental

life. If he deems it to be simple and irreducible, he needs to inquire how it stands related to those concomitant events which

serve as occasions for calling forth its exercise. If he deems tt to be complex, he needs to disengage the components of which

it consists, and to find out how these are combined into the unity of the apparently simple act. And in this investigation no special weight will be laid upon the question whether the sense-quality apprehended is a char-

acteristic belonging to physical things or merely a way in which physical things appear to us to be characterised.

Or, take what

is called a belief. The aim of the psychologist will be to exhibit the antecedent

mental

conditions

that led to its being enter-

tained, how it is related to the emotional and volitional sides of

the mental life in question, with what states of the bodily organ-

ism it is connected, and so on. But obviously there remains 4 characteristic set of problems which this psychological treatment of cognition leaves entirely untouched. The act of perception pur ports to give what is called knowledge of the external world. In

449

KNOWLEDGE entertaining @ belief, the conscious subject is persuaded of its truth, that is to say, that it corresponds to something that is

real and independent of the act of believing.

This contrast between the existence in an individual mind of a state or act of knowing and the significance of what is contained therein—the contrast between knowing as a psychical occurrence

and knowledge as representative

of relations in the material

known—presses upon us whatever portion of cognitive activity be selected, whether perceiving or imagining or thinking. How is it possible that in and through means of a subjective act there

should be awareness of what is, ex hypothesi, distinct both from the act and from the mind of which the act is a transitory phase? Again, from the nature of a cognitive act, as the psychologist describes it, it is evidently possible that it may fail to accomplish its natural end, the attainment of truth; its content may not cor-

to criticise. experience

Psychology begins by assuming that the world of can be broadly divided into two realms

of facts,—

those which it is customary to call outer and inner, objective and subjective,—and all its explanations are based upon the mutual interconnection of these. But from the point of view of a critical theory of knowledge, the division between outer and inner, between objective and subjective, itself demanded investigation and defence. The meaning of such a distinction for the conscious subject within whose experience it presents itself called for consideration, and the conditions under which it is recognised by him required to be shown. Or, in other words, knowledge exhibits the two characteristic features—reference to a self that knows and reference to a reality

respond to fact. We are, therefore, driven to ask, under what conditions and in what forms is such a correspondence to be obtained, when and where can we be reasonably assured that our

other than self; and the former is no less a problem than the latter. It has to be confessed that Kant was not always successful in keeping his own treatment within the limits he had prescribed; but it was he who first fully realised the import of the problems that fall to a theory of knowledge.

chological, and, without going to the extent of saying that in the

2. TREATMENT OF KNOWLEDGE IN THE HISTORICAL SYSTEMS OF PHILOSOPHY

representation of the real is true? Such questions are manifestly of a different order from those which have been designated psyattempt to answer

them psychological

considerations

are alto-

gether irrelevant, it may safely be assefted that they are insuffi-

cient. The worth or significance of knowledge can never be determined by tracing the stages of its history. LOCKE

AND KANT

The difference between the two points of view was indicated by Locke. In the Introduction to the Essay, Locke gives a pre-

liminary statement of the subjects with which he proposes to

deal in the second and fourth Books. “First,” he writes, “I shall inquire into the original of those ideas, notions, or whatever else

you please to call them, which a man observes, and is conscious

to himself he has in his mind; and the ways whereby the understanding comes to be furnished with them.” This is a psychological inquiry. He proposes to try to find out what the cognitive states of the individual mind are, which of them are complex and which simple, and to analyse the former into their constituents. Furthermore, he proposes to trace the genesis and development of cognition, and the way in which it gradually comes to be what we find it to be in ourselves. But he proceeds: “Secondly, I shall endeavour to show what knowledge the understanding hath by those ideas, and the certainty, evidence and extent of it.” This is, in brief, the subject-matter of epistemology. He proposes here to try to find out how by means of our mental states we obtain information about the world in which we are, how far that information is reliable, and the degree to which we are justified in placing credence in it. Unfortunately, however, although he had thus shown himself to be aware that these two lines of inquiry are different, Locke, in his subsequent procedure, is constantly confusing what he had carefully distinguished, and drawing upon considerations which properly belong to one of these sets of problems in dealing with the other. It was in Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason that the methods and aims of epistemology were first definitely formulated, and in which it was exhibited as the mode of approach to the other problems of philosophy. More than once Kant lays emphasis upon the consideration that the first part of the Critique would be misconstrued if regarded as a treatise on the psychology

of cognition. The question with was concerned to answer was the question quid facti, the question and not the question as to the

A, In Greek Philosophy.—The problems which are now grouped under epistemology are many of them nearly as old as philosophy itself. It is true that human reflection always looks outward before it looks inward; and that, consequently, cosmo‘logical Inquiries into the nature of the physical world precede in the order of time inquiries into the way in which knowledge of the physical world is acquired. In Greek thought, these cosmological inquiries centred round the attempt to discover a “‘ material principle” or “cause” of things. From the time of Thales (born

about 625 B.c.) to that of Protagoras (born about 480 B.c.) there can be traced a tolerably well demarcated line of speculation the aim of which was to come upon some known permanent substratum of natural fact and to exhibit the ways in which that sub-

stratum is connected with the particular phenomena of concrete experience. Only by degrees did problems of knowledge come into prominence, and therefore, only gradually did there evince itself a deliberate trend of human reflection towards their solu-

tion. Probably Socrates (born about 470 B.C.) first set the current of Greek thought definitely in this direction. The view that Socrates was a mere moralist is ill-founded. That Socrates did select practical conduct as matter worthy above all of rational consideration can scarcely be disputed. And to do this was in effect to accentuate the intimate relation of objective fact to human thought. It was as introducing this subjective element into Greek speculation that Socrates brought to the front issues of an epistemological character. Doubtless he was crystallizing much of the current opinion of his time—particularly that which prevailed among the Sophists and their followers, —but no sooner had the step been taken than we find Greek

philosophy occupied with special and well-marked problems*of the kind we should now call epistemological. In the Theaetetus (completed about 368 B.c,), three theories of the nature of knowledge (émzorjun) are submitted to examination, In this dialogue Plato’s aim is to show that these three theories break down under the weight, of criticism that may be brought to

bear upon them. More than half the dialogue is occupied witha theory which was not only that propounded by certain well-known philosophic

respect to knowledge which it inquirers but an answer to the question likely to be given by anyquestion quid juris and not the one who has pondered over the matter,—namely, that knowledge as to the validity of knowledge is identical with sense-apprehension (aloOnovs). This view is imnatural conditions under which mediately connected with the doctrine of Protagoras that “‘man is knowledge grows up in the individual mind. Taking for granted the measure of all things,” and interpreted as implying the relathat knowledge is possible, Kant seeks to show how it is possible, tivist position that things ere for me as they appear to me, and to inspect it in its character as apprehensive of fact and to deter- for you as they appear to you. A thing zs to each man as it apmine the conditions implied in its nature. Empirical psychology pears to him, and to say that it appears to him is equivalent to seemed to him to stand related to this “‘critical” inquiry in much saying that he perceives it. Sensation, then, is of something that the same way as the natural sciences stood related to it. It is, and is exempt from error; it is certain knowledge. As Taylor Involved in its methods of research presuppositions which it was has pointed out, it is not a doctrine of “subjectivism” that is here the business of a theory of knowledge to examine, and it em- attributed to Protagoras; it is not suggested that he meant to ployed notions which it was the business of a theory of knowledge assert of “what appears” that it is a mental state of the percipient.

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Rather the point is that, according to Protagoras, we are not entitled to assume a common real world apprehensible by any number of percipients; each individual percipient lives in a private

world known only to himself, and, since no two of these private worlds have anything in common, each percipient can be said to be infallible in regard to what he perceives. Socrates is represented as attempting to work out the theory more elaborately before proceeding to judge its merits. It virtually depends, he argues, upon an ontological position, such as that which had been

advocated by Heracleitus, that every thing real is in a condition of ceaseless flux, that what is called “being” is but change. So re-

garded the entities we speak of as “existents” are streams of events and movement is the ultimate reality. Applying this doctrine to sense-apprehension,

we should be entitled to say that, for example, a colour seen is neither “in” our eye nor “in” an external object, for, as a matter of fact what we call our eye and the external object are two sets of process,

which when they come into contact give rise to the momentary appearance of the colour. Hence the colour will not appear the

same to an animal as it appears to a man, nor even appear to a man twice the same. It is not likely that this elaboration of the theory was derived from the work of Protagoras; it is probably Plato’s version of what he had learned from Cratylus, the Heracleitean, with whose doctrines Aristotle tells us he was in his

youth familiar. The second of the theories advanced is that knowledge is true belief or opinion (56a) ,—judgment, that is to say, based on the impressions obtained by the individual in and through the process of perception. We form, on the ground of perception, empirical notions of the things we encounter in nature, and in so far as these notions correctly represent the things in question, they may be said to constitute what is meant by knowledge. Who exactly

the thinkers are that Plato had here in mind it is difficult to say; perhaps, indeed, none in particular. For the theory is more or less that of ordinary common-sense reflection, and may be regarded as having been that tacitly assumed by various contemporary philosophers. Finally, a third theory of considerable interest in the history of the subject is examined,—namely, that knowledge is true be-

lief accompanied by definition (uerd Aéyou).

According to this

view, the simple elements out of which things are composed are undefinable and therefore unknowable. They can be apprehended by sense and they can be named, but nothing can be predicated of them, because to attribute, a predicate to them would be to violate the hypothesis of their simplicity. The things compounded of them can, however, be defined, for if we give the names of their

elements we obtain assertions (Ad-you) which make the things in question knowable. The doctrine is, in fact, a doctrine of extreme

nominalism. Truth consisted of identical propositions of the form A is A, or of what amount to the same thing, analytical propositions of the form A is X, when A is compounded of X and Y and Z—a doctrine which plays a conspicuous part in subsequent philosophical thinking. It would seem highly probable that Plato had here in mind the teaching of Antisthenes, a contemporary of Socrates, and founder of the Cynic School. We are informed by Aristotle that Antisthenes maintained that nothing could be predicated of a thing except the expression peculiar to itself, one of one (dtKéos Adyos, êv êp’ évós), and this doctrine was afterwards elaborated by the Stoics, who inherited many of the tenets advocated by the Cynic thinkers, Socrates’ View of Knowledge—It would appear to have been largely in opposition to the first of the theories discussed in the Theaetetus that Socrates developed his own view of the nature of knowledge. That knowledge is identical with sense-perception seemed to Socrates a position that was incapable of withstanding the slightest critical scrutiny. The contention that the contents of each man’s knowledge are private to himself is not only inconsistent with the possibility of such general knowledge as is implied in ‘being aware of sense-objects themselves, but is irreconcilable

with the most obvious facts involved in the use of language as the expression of thought, and with the assumptions which every one admittedly makes that on some things he is wiser than others

and on some things others are wiser even formulate in terms which do the doctrine that to know consists with the changing, transitory, limited percipient.

than he. Indeed, we cannot not contradict the Premises simply in being acquainted impressions of the individual

As contrasted, then, with this Protagorean thesis, Socrates advanced the view that in general notions is to be found the truth of things. The two logical processes of induction (éraxrixo} Oyo) and definition (rò épifeo@at Kafodov), the original employment

of which Aristotle ascribes to Socrates, had for their aim the attainment of such general notions. By collecting, comparing and sifting a number of instances of things called by the same name, omitting what is peculiar to each and determining what is com.

mon to all, there would necessarily be reached the thought of the essence of the things in question. In two fundamental respects, the Socratic position presents, then, the sharpest contrast to that

just mentioned.

On the one hand, the process of reasoning by

means of which concepts are reached was a process which, unlike

that of sense-perception, did not vary from individual to individ.

ual but was, when rightly carried out, similar in character in every

individual mind; and on the other hand, the concepts thus obtained were not the private property of any one thinking being but the common property of all thinking beings. Thus, positively there is involved in the Socratic method the principle that knowledge, completeness of insight, is attainable only through means of concepts or notions that possess the characteristics of generality and stability, of which the vague, fluctuating presentations of sense are devoid. And negatively there is involved the further principle that in what is contrasted with the faculty of forming notions, the unreflective casual process of sense-apprehension, is to be found the ground of error or illusion, In the Socratic teaching there must have lain from the outset the implicit thought of an ideal of human knowledge, from which the crude beliefs formed on the basis of individual perceptions widely diverge. What gives point to the Socratic confession of ignorance, what enables us to get to the real meaning of the maxim on which Socrates proceeded that self-knowledge is the only way to dispel apparent knowledge and to attain truth, is just the presence of this ideal of knowledge which animated his thought throughout. While in so far accepting the Sophistic dictum as it emphasised the intimate relation of the human mind to the world of truth and reality, Socrates brought into prominence the distinctive character of the human, as distinguished from the animal, mind on which that relation rested, and in virtue of which the human individual transcending his own individuality, participates

in that which is common and abiding. Not as a sentient but asa

thinking, rational being, man is the measure of all things.

PLATONIC THEORY OF IDEAS The theory of Ideas is not to be conceived as an absolutely new philosophical standpoint introduced for the first time by Plato (427-347 B.c,). The form and elaboration which the theory received in the Platonic Dialogues were unquestionably of so origi-

nal and unique a character as at once to give to it a position of

quite exceptional significance in the history of Greek thought; but the root conceptions from which it emanated are readily discoverable in prior speculation, and the problems of which it was

offered as the solution had already been formulated by earlier inquirers. To Plato the reality of Ideas doubtless seemed, as Zeller observes, to be the direct and inevitable outcome of the Socratic doctrine of concepts. So far as rival views of the nature of knowledge were concerned, that which identified it with

alo@nocs had been effectively handled by Socrates. It was through criticism of the other two definitions expounded in the Theaetetus that Plato proceeded to his own effort at construction. As regards

the third of these, it was not difficult to show that it was exposed to objections of a formidable kind. If the complex which is asserted to be knowable is simply the sum of its parts, it is im-

possible to understand how it can be knowable while they are not;

while if the “complex” is an indivisible unity which, though it sprang out of a conjunction of elements, is wholly different from them, it would be in the same. predicament as they, and conse-

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KNOWLEDGE

real and the phenomenal and two modes of apprehension, thought or intellect, a pure unmixed activity of the soul, and belief or telligible meaning would be that it is a statement of that charac- opinion, a combination of thought and perception. A large part teristic of a thing which distinguishes it from other things, its of his philosophical work was directed to solving the problem as diferentia (dvadopa, ôLapopórns). If, however, we merely add to to the way in which these two are to be conceived as related. the true belief we already have a true belief about the diferentia For he had never doubted that in some sense the world of generawe get no further; while if we are supposed in some way to know tion or becoming is—that it was impossible to relegate it, after the diferentia, we shall be stranded with the circular definition the manner of Parmenides, to the realm of non-being—although that “knowledge is true belief together with knowledge of the its existence could not be existence in the full significance of that term, seeing that it depended for its explanation upon what was diferentia.” at It was, then, the second definition, that knowledge is true be- other than itself, upon what possessed marks of which it was conlief or opinion, with which Plato had chiefly to reckon. Convinced spicuously destitute. Aristotle lays repeated emphasis upon the by Socrates that there is such a thing as a body of knowable fact that the Ideas were for Plato xwpiord, transcendent, sepatruth, which is valid for every thinking mind, he was confronted rate from the things or events of ordinary experience, and there by the doctrine that the only knowledge we possess is that which is is little or no reason to doubt the accuracy in this respect of furnished by the ordinary, unsystematised experience of everyday Aristotle’s account. Nevertheless, the separation could not have been for Plato an life, for that is what was meant by the term ddéa, the union of perception and thought through which certainly a specific kind absolute one. In the comparatively early dialogues—the Phaedrus, Symposium, Republic and Phaedo—the Ideas are definitely conof information is obtainable. The stress of the argument in the Theaetetus is directed to nected with the process of generalisation. Wherever particulars showing that, on the basis of this view, no satisfactory explana- are grouped together in a class there we may recognise to be intion can be given of the possibility of error. The obvious explana- volved (a) an act of mind entirely distinct from sense-perception, and (b) an object which differs from the things perceived through tion that suggests itself is that false belief ensues when we combine elements together in thought after a manner which does not means of the senses. It is true that the terms which are used to represent reality. But that presupposes that we have some inde- express the relation do not throw much light on its nature. Thus, pendent mode of access to the real, which it is the express purpose it is said that a thing participates or shares in (ueréxer) the Idea; of the theory ‘to dispute. Again, if we say that a false belief is a that things have communion with (xorvwyé) the Idea, or that the belief to which no object corresponds, we should be assuming Idea is present to (wdpeorc) them; or again that the things are that the “unreal” or “what is not” (rò uw) dv) can stand in a simi- “imitations” or “‘copies” (ueunuara) of Ideas, that the Ideas are lar relation to our faculties of apprehension as the “real” or types or models (7rapaéelypara) after which things are fashioned. “what is,’—-an assumption to which no intelligible meaning can What all these different metaphors seem intended to convey is, be attached. Or, once more, it may be argued that false belief that when we predicate of any particular thing a characteristic, arises from confusing one thing with another thing (é\dodoéia). we are assigning to it a feature which in and for itself cannot be Yet if both the things are known, how can one be mistaken for sensuously apprehended, that in so far as the thing in question can the other? Or if both are not known, how can either one that is be said to be knowable it is in virtue of its possessing features known be mistaken for one that is not known, or one unknown which in and for themselves can only be grasped by the faculty thing be mistaken for another unknown thing? Furthermore, it of thought. Whenever we are justified in asserting the same prediis evident that a person may entertain a “true belief” without cate of a plurality of particulars, the predicate in every case knowledge. If, for example, by skilful advocacy an accused in- names one and the same characteristic, and it is these characteris~ dividual be rightly convicted of dishonesty, the judges have no tics which Plato called etéy. The edn are, in fact, universals; yet doubt a “true belief” about him, but they cannot be said to they are existent realities of which we think, and are not to be know that he is guilty of the crime, because for such knowledge supposed to be “thoughts (vouara) in our minds.” And it is only they would need actually to have seen the act committed. Ac- in and through these existent realities that the particulars possess cordingly, knowledge and belief must be held to be radically dis- such existence as can be ascribed to them. The eldos is the estinct. The one can only be acquired by learning or being taught, sence of the particulars, the one in the many, though what is to the other may be engendered by mere persuasion. Knowledge im- be understood in this context by the word “in” was left obscure. plies that grounds or reasons can be given for what is asserted; Furthermore, an “Idea” can be “in” or “present to” a particubelief, even when true, is but the convinced state of the individual lar in varying degrees. A sensuous object may, for instance, be believer, and its correspondence with the truth of things is acci- extremely beautiful, or imperfectly beautiful, while it may well dental to its nature, a correspondence of which the thinker can be the case that no sensuous object is ever completely beautiful. only become aware on grounds external to the belief itself. From this point of view, the Idea presents itself as an Ideal Ideas and Phenomena.—In the Timaeus (51 d and e) the towards which the things of experience can only approximate. existence of the “Ideas” (€:67) is represented as a necessary impliIntelligible Reality.—These incorporeal, changeless, selfcation of the reality of the distinction just referred to. Were identical essences were, then, regarded as together making up the knowledge and true belief identical, there would need to be no ob- sum total of intelligible reality. The world of Ideas must be jects other than those of the sensible world; if, however, they are conceived as presenting an orderly arrangement from the more different, there must be a corresponding difference between’ their general to the less general, and knowledge of it could not be respective objects. Granted that knowledge is of the nature Soc- considered as complete until proceeding from the highest (the rates had disclosed, then it involves the existence of entities that Idea of Good) we were able to work our way downwards without are permanent, invariable, self-subsistent,—entities that exist not breach of continuity to the lowest, and thus exhaust the realm of merely for us or by reason of our cogitation, but in and for them- being. selves, Although apprehended only by means of thought, they are Hence the importance which Plato assigned to the two formal M no sense to be conceived as products of thought. They are no processes of dialectic—evraywyń, the synthetic or combining mere generalisations from the so-called things of experience, even process of bringing the many under one notion, and diaipeccs, though the apprehension of them on our part may come about division or classification. But in the end the procedure would through the suggestions of experience. That experience should appear to be frustrated, on the one hand, by the boundless sea thus suggest is dependent on the fact that it is confronted by a of indeterminate particulars, and, on the other hand, by the soul which carries in itself the faculty (vods) of apprehending the thought of that which it is not, the thought of difference, as the Ideas, The Ideas have, then, objective reality: they constitute, inevitable shadow, so to speak, accompanying the thought of the in their systematic interconnection and interdependence, the realm ideal realm itself. It was the conjunction of these two features+—

uently not an object of knowledge. Moreover, what precisely could be meant by the term Aóyos in this context? The only in-

of absolute being.

Accordingly, there were for Plato two realms of objects, the

indeterminate particularity and the opposite of .being—that: became increasingly prominent in Plato’s Jater ‘descriptions of’ the 1

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KNOWLEDGE

phenomenal world; and in the Sophist we get perhaps the clearest indication of the line of reflection eventually pursued by him. In that dialogue emphasis is laid upon the consideration that there must be systematic relatedness among the Ideas, otherwise rational contemplation of them would be impossible; and, in the attempt to determine which Ideas are communicable with others and which are not, special stress is laid upon the important pair of Ideas, identity and difference(ravrov and @arepov). Each etôos is one with itself and shares in the nature of being and identity; it is likewise other than all the éléy besides itself, and shares, therefore, in the nature of non-being or difference. It is probably to this notion of otherness (črepov), that we must look for a means of understanding the non-being which Plato was wont to regard as characteristic of what is phenomenal. For by non-being, we do not denote the absolute opposite (évavtiov) of being, mere nothingness, but that which is the other of being, that which is different from it. The entire realm of Ideas is, in fact, interpenetrated by the form of otherness. Furthermore, in the Timaeus the necessity is insisted upon of recognising, besides Ideas and phenomena, a third entity which, while affording a place for all that comes into being, is itself eternal. This third element, described as the receptacle (tzrod0x7) of all becoming, is identified with space; and space would seem to be contemplated as the very essence of otherness, or of difference. In itself, it is absolutely void and formless; it is not that out of which but that in which things become. In short, in relation to the whole realm of Ideas, it is just the factor of non-being which according to the argument of the Sophist, is inherently involved in the notion of being. Along this line of reflection it was natural that Plato should have assigned the importance he did to the geometrical aspects of phenomena. As presented under the form of externality, an Idea is wont to appear as though it were differentiated into a multiplicity of shapes or images (ciorovra xal éf6vra) ; instead of its oneness, we get in-

numerable copies or likenesses (ueunuara) of it. Not a material substratum but a figured portion of space was the basis of a physical thing, and that in which sense-qualities were situated. Natural World.—aAccordingly, when sensible things are said to be “copies”-of the Ideas, what is really meant is that they exhibit, to a certain extent, conformity to law. Only the conformity is never complete; in the phenomenal world there is always a “surd,” an irreducible factor, which eludes rational explanation; the uniformity actually verifiable in experience is only approximate. So far as the Ideas and mathematical entities are concerned exactitude is possible, because the intellect is there concerned with objects in which there is no change, and with reference to which time has not to be taken into account. But in regard to things that are incessantly undergoing variation, that are perpetually ‘‘turning out’ to be more or less than we had supposed them to be, it is necessary to be constantly revising any results we may have reached. In cosmology or natural science, we cannot expect more than eikóres ħóyot, “likely stories,” understanding thereby not indeed baseless fictions but accounts that are more or less probable. Thus the natural world is the proper object of ófa and any interpretation we can offer of its course of development must be largely pictorial or mythical in character.

angle or circle of which the “visible” one is an image. Moreoye ôåvora proceeds from certain assumptions or postulate (varoféoes), which it takes as ultimate, although in truth they am

in need of proof and confirmation. Hence we are led on to a q. minating stage of intelligence vónņeis or émiorhun, that which iş aimed at by “dialectic,” which has for its objects the ety them. selves, and contemplates them without the aid of sensuous repre. sentations.

Starting with the axioms and postulates of the previous Stage

the dialectician will not treat these as ultimate, but as points of departure for advancing to a principle which is supreme and yp. conditional, an dvumdferos apx7. The axioms and postulates of

dvavora, will thus be seen to be necessary deductions from this self-evident principle.

The ideal of knowledge will be attained

only when reason ascends from one branch of truth to another until it reaches a truth beyond which it cannot go; and then from the cognition of it descends again to its consequences and tra-

verses without break the whole realm of the knowable.

The Problem of False Belief.—It has been remarked that

for Plato the real problem of the “theory of knowledge” is not knowledge but error, that for him the difficulty was to explain

not why our judgments are sometimes true but why they are ever anything else. In Plato’s time, the problem of “false belief” was, indeed, one of the main questions of controversy, forced

to the front by the Sophists, who contended that there was no such thing, but that “belief” is always true,—true, that is to say, for the individual who entertains it. And it was in order to come to close quarters with the matter that the inquiry into the nature of non-being was undertaken in the Sophist. Having disposed of

the paradoxical notion that non-being is mere nothingness, having

shown that when we say that “S is not P” we do not mean that $ is nothing at all, but only that it is something other than P, he was free to inquire whether this pervasive feature of otherness or difference does not in fact penetrate into language and belief, so as to render it possible for us to say and to think “what is not.” It is shown that every significant assertion is compounded of a noun and a verb; also that it must be “of” or “about” something,

have a subject, and be of a certain quality (morós ris). Thus, for example, the assertions that “Theaetetus is sitting down” and “Theaetetus is now flying” are both about Theaetetus, but the quality of the first is that of being true and the quality of the second that of being false. Obviously, then, some combinations of nouns and verbs are false. Now, thinking is a silent dialogue of the mind with itself; and belief is the positive or negative determination of such thinking, which is sometimes accompanied by sensation, and then we call it “phantasy.” Since, then, a false assertion is possible, it follows that false belief and false phantasy are equally possible, But a false belief is not a belief about nothing at all; it is a belief which assigns to something a characteristic other than that which does belong to it. As Taylor points out, this solution of the problem turns on distinguishing the use of “is”? as the logical copula from the existential sense of “is”; and, in taking that step, Plato may fairly be said to have originated scientific logic.

The Aristotelian System.—In approaching the Aristotelian

system from the point of view of Platonism, the first impression is

In a famous passage that of its irreconcilable opposition. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) of the Republic (vi., 509 d. sgq.), Plato distinguishes four stages unfolds his most characteristic views largely through hostile critiof cognition. There are two grades of 66£a,—the one described as cism of Platonic doctrine. Yet, notwithstanding numerous differeixagla, conjecture or guess-work, the mental condition of one ences in matters of detail, there is substantial agreement in general who accepts every presentation, so long as it lasts, as equally true spirit and in final result. For Aristotle, as for Plato, philosophical with any other, and has not learned to discriminate the shadow explanation of the world of nature consisted in connecting it with or reflection from that which casts it; the other described as the world of absolute being. He fully recognised that the world wiotts, conviction or assurance, the state of mind in which we are of generation stands in need of a principle which lies beyond it, aware of what we call the actual things of the world and distin- and that the necessity for such a principle becomes manifest when guish them from their semblances or images. A higher stage is we follow out the general lines of connection within the world of reached when we pass from dé&@ to that grade of “knowledge” generation. But his contention was that nothing is gained.by first that is designated d:avoca, understanding or discursive thinking. placing over against the world of generation a duplication of its Here the thinker is still occupied with sensible things, but he main features which, as distinct im kind, can furnish no explana employs them as symbols of something which is not sensible. The tion of what is ¿z the world of generation. In particular, the fact mathematician uses diagrams and models, but what he is really of change was altogether inexplicable by reference simply to thinking of is the triangle or circle as such, the “intelligible” tri- immutable essences. To Aristotle, then, it appeared that the I

KNOWLEDGE Platonic £d0s was merely a product of thought, a generality, not

an existent entity per sé. It indicated a common element or attribute of things, not a thing, since, in his judgment, no generality can be regarded as having substantive existence.

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being perceived. The perceptive faculty operates, according to Aristotle, not only as specialised into the five senses, but in a common or unspecialised

For Aristotle as for Plato true knowledge is knowledge of the

way; and the functions of the so-called sensus communis are (a) to apprehend the “common sensibles” and the “incidental sensibles,” (b) to enable us to become aware that we perceive,—

tnowledge is complete as lying in a sphere entirely its own, the

that is to say, to be aware of self in perceiving, and (c) to

mniversal and necessary; but for Aristotle, while the essence of essence of “things” must necessarily be in them and not in a

region beyond them.

Thus

the Aristotelian

conception of the

world of reality is that of a connected and graduated scheme of being extending from the pure indeterminateness of what he called “pest matter” (mporn An) up to the completed actuality, the deity. Each concrete individual thing in nature, each róôe Ti, is to be conceived as a obvoAov, a combination of matter (idm) and form (eîôos or mopph). Matter is the substratum (brokeluevor) of all becoming, that which is to be determined; form is that which determines, that which gives to matter qualities and properties,

the intelligible essence of a thing, that which enables us to say

what a thing is. We can distinguish these in thought, but in real existence they are never to be found in isolation. Or, using another pair of Aristotelian opposites, the whole realm of existence presents itself as a chain of occurrences in which each transition is from

the potential to the actual, from dvvayus to evepyera. These two

terms, as the other two, are to be understood as strictly relative to each other. The sculptor’s shapen block is, for example, rela-

tively to the finished statue a dbvajus but relatively to the rock from which it was hewn it is an évépyyera. Every stage, then, in the process of nature exhibits the actualisation of what potentially was prepared for it in the stage immediately beneath. All the stages are knit together as exhibiting the ways in which development takes place; and the real subjects of change are individual things, the concrete ways in which the actualisation of what is potential can alone come about. Probably the one notion that most comprehensively expresses the Aristotelian view is that of téAos, end. The nature of a thing is equivalent to its end, each thing is to be conceived as being, or as coming to be, in definite relations with its surroundings, and so ultimately with the whole to which it belongs. And, as member of the whole, it necessarily has some function to fulfill, and in fulfilling that function it necessarily has some structure which will enable it to accomplish its end. Hence the importance of a comprehensive knowledge of the particular circumstances which attend on the exercise of its functions by anything. An exhaustive knowledge of these particular circumstances would be essentially a knowledge of how the thing stood related to the whole of which it is a part; and even though this cannot be attained, yet knowledge of the particular circumstances is always of assistance in the attempt to discover a thing’s essential nature. Aristotle viewed the several forms of cognitive activity as falling into a kind of order or scale. The first, that which is the basis of the whole, is sense-perception (aic@yovs) which has for its objects individual things (rà évra). Sense-perception was regarded

by him as the faculty of receiving the forms of things apart from their matter, just as the figure of a seal is taken on by the wax without the gold or other metal of which the seal is composed.

But sense-perception was not merely a passive receptivity; it was an act of the mind, a discriminative act. In the content of

sense-perception Aristotle recognised (a) for each sense a special characteristic, as, for example, colour for the eye, sound for the ear

(ia aic@yr&),

(b) common properties which are apprehended

by several of the senses, or by sense in an unspecialised way, as, for example, figure or movement (xowd aicOnrd) and (c) what he calls “incidental” properties (alcOy7d& xara oupBeByxds), as for

example, that the white object seen is the son of Diares. Senseperception proper is the awareness of a sensum (an aleĝnróv)

Which is distinct from the act of sensing, and is a concomitant of an object (dzroxelyerov). The sensum is indeed dependent upon the perceiver; it results from the meeting of a certain object and a certain percipient subject; and if either the object or the percipient’s body undergoes change a different sensum will be produced. Yet the object, through the stimulation of which the act ol perception arises, has a nature of its own independent of its

enable us to discriminate

and

compare

the data afforded

by

the several senses. All creatures endowed with alcO@nots have a certain power of knowing, but only those that in addition possess the power of memory (uvjun), the power of preserving and reproducing presentations and of referring them to what has been perceived in the past, are able to advance to generalised knowledge. Memory is dependent upon imagination (¢avracia), the mechanically determined consequent of perception, which operates after the sensible object has gone, upon the relics or images (davrdouara) that remain in the sense-organs. Through the aid of memory there is generated in the mind that kind of knowledge to which Aristotle gave the name of experience (éu7retpia), the essence of which consists in the grouping of resembling particulars under general heads. Experience, or empirical knowledge, was distinguished from the higher forms of science and practical skill(éruorjun and réxvn) by the fact of its going in no way beyond the resemblance of the particulars compared. When, on the other hand, generalisations are seen to rest on a reason, then scientific insight has been attained. A truly scientific proposition must, therefore, necessarily be universal, and the universality has a two-fold aspect. The proposition is (a) Kara wapros, it embraces a whole class in its scope; it

is (b). xa0’ atrd, it states the essence (eld0s) which underlies the

empirically discoverable resemblances in the several members of the class. The highest stage of all is furnished by the faculty of intellect or reason (vols), which is receptive of “intelligible form,” as sense is of “sensible form.” It was certainly difficult for Aristotle to exhibit his doctrine of vots in strict conformity with what he had said respecting sense-perception and scientific insight. On the one hand, he describes it as the faculty which apprehends principles,—that is to say, truths which are not mediated by any discursive reasoning, which are immediate, and in regard to which it is not possible that there should be the alternative open to other propositions of being either true or false. First principles are directly or intuitively apprehended. On the other hand, vols was not supposed by him to operate zm absiracto. It apprehended principles in and through the matter furnished by the lower faculties of mind. Although a thought is not an image, we cannot think without images. The perplexing distinction between “active” and “passive” reason has caused endless trouble to Aristotle’s interpreters. In so far as it has relation to the other faculties of the soul, reason, so Aristotle would seem to say, must be contemplated from the point of view appropriate to all the world of generation as exhibiting the contrast between the potential and the actual. Obviously, indeed, reason is not constantly active in the human subject, and yet in its own nature it is nothing but activity. The limitation of its exercise in man must, therefore, be dependent on the fact that it is only realised under conditions connected with the life of the soul; in man, vols exists potentially until called into exercise. What calls it into exercise, Aristotle affirms, is the presence of the intelligible (rd vonrov) exhibited in sense and its concomitant faculties. Hence the activity of vo¥s consists in the simple apprehension of the abstract essence; the vonrév may present itself as existing in the particulars, but as grasped by voùs it is a simple essence, and holds the same relation to vols as the sensible holds to sense. Accordingly, there is postulated at both ends of the scale a mode of cognition wholly distinct from discursive thinking. At the one end, there is a kind of apprehension which is free from the antithesis of true and false; the first principles must either be just apprehended or not at all. At the other end likewise, sense-perception as such does not admit of the antithesis true or false; the sense-particular must either be just apprehended or not at all. Thus, the whole realm of demonstrable knowledge lay for Aris.

454

KNOWLEDGE =

totle between the particulars (rà xa8’ ëkasra) on the one hand, and the primary, undemonstrable principles (the mp@ra kal äuera) on the other. The business of science was to connect these two extremes, for the great body of knowledge consists neither of the crudely apprehended data of sense nor of purely apprehended essences. Scientific demonstration, d7rddevéts, is reasoning which proceeds from true and necessary premises and yields a conclusion which is, therefore, at once true and necessary and de-

terminate of the essence.

Since any concrete thing or 76d Ti is

what it is by reason of its general character, complete knowledge of it would be obtained if we were able to connect all its features with the primitive components of its essence. But Aristotle recognised with Plato that the particular has in it something which resists perfect reduction to scientific generality,—the factor, namely, which in the metaphysical analysis is described as matter (v7). Apodictic was not, however, conceived by Aristotle in Platonic fashion as a method of deduction from one set of universally valid principles. It is characteristic of his view that, in addition to the common or general principles (kowai adpxat), of which the most fundamental is the principle of contradiction, each distinct

kind of fact, has its own special principles (térac &pxal), on which all demonstration respecting it must be based, or about which all demonstration turns. It is equally characteristic of Aristotle that he should recognise the two-fold manner in which we approach the problem of obtaining scientific knowledge, whether by apprehending isolated facts and so by comparison, rejection and the like, attaining an insight into what is universal, or by deductive procedure from already established or assumed universals. The world may be regarded in respect to knowledge under two aspects, (a) as a multiplicity of particulars, and (b) as a system of general laws on which the particulars depend. To the individual knower the particulars stand relatively nearer than the universal laws; they are the more easily cognised from his point of view. They are mpòs ġĝuâs mpórepa, prior and better known relatively to us. In the nature of things, or in the order of truth, the universal principles are, however, prior

to the particulars, and may even be said to be the better known, because it is by knowing them that we explain the particulars.

They are dioer mwpdrepa. The great forms of reasoning which Aristotle was the first to analyse, induction and syllogism, correspond to this difference between prior relatively to us and prior in nature. For in induction (éraywy7), which is, in fact, syllogistic in form, we proceed from the particulars, and, by collection of instances, advan¢e by means of a ground or reason to a conclusion, while in the syllogism we proceed to our conclusion from premises involving a middle term (uécov), which is the reason for the connection arrived at in the conclusion. In the order of time, induction is a necessary step in the progress of intelligence to that stage in which it can grasp the universal as such, but it is only in and through the process of amoddergts that the essential character of the universal becomes

known. The universal (rd xafédov) is that which can be predicated

of a whole class of things (xara mavrés) just because it can be predicated of every member of the class essentially (xaO’ atzé,) and truly universal judgments, which it is the function of darddeéts to obtain, express this relation. Evidently the process of ardée:Es presupposes that things have a fixed nature, and that this fixed nature is apprehensible. Knowledge rests, therefore, upon the principle of contradiction (“the same essential characteristic cannot both belong and not belong to the same class of things”); and this principle cannot itself be proved, because it is the condition of all proof. It is, however, sufficiently established by showing that its denial would be tantamount to denying that the real has any permanent character

ao to asserting that knowledge of the real is consequently impossible. Clearly Aristotle was assuming that the human mind is endowed

from the start with capacities which enable it naturally to advance from crude sense intuition to the intuitive grasp of first principles.

He was assuming that the innate discriminating power he calls per-

ception naturally effects a certain abstraction from particularising circumstances (Post. Anal. ii. 19). Then, on the basis of these first

generalities, and through the aid of imagination and memory, w collect by induction instances which agree and reach the stage of empirical knowledge,

a stage in which

grounds

or reasons ar

however, not as yet definitely contrasted with their consequences

And when this stage is reached, it becomes possible to take , further step, to pass from the mere contingency of fact to the necessity of reason, to apprehension of the grounds of what is offered in experience. Lacunae in the Treatment.—There is much in this treatment

that is of permanent value, but that it leaves many formidable difficulties unresolved is undeniable.

Granting the discriminating

activity of perception, the development up to the stage of ep. pirical knowledge has been a natural one. But when the further step to reason is taken, there appears to ensue an absolute break, a difference of kind, shown in the content apprehended as that between the contingent and the necessary and in the faculty itself by its mode of procedure. The principles which reason grasps are necessary truths; they present themselves as isolated items of contemplation admitting of no question. And reason operates in a direct, intuitive manner, resembling in no way the discursive

activity of the naturally developing intelligence. Reason, Aris. totle has to admit, is not a part of the human soul but distinct therefrom; and he does not hesitate to say that vos is introduced into the soul ab extra (@bpafev), and to speak of it as the divine element in man. But more. Let it be assumed that reason, aided by the preparatory work of induction, has seized the essential mark of some species or type of existence. In the first place, however, it has to be admitted that these essential marks are not all that enters into the concrete nature of this type of existence, that there are in addition accidental features concerning which we are told knowledge is impossible. In the second place, amongst the necessary characteristics themselves a distinction has to be made between the essential, those without which the type in question

would not be what it is, and the derivative, those which can be proved to be necessary because dependent on the essential. Yet the nature of this dependence is left in obscurity. The essential attributes are called grounds of the derivative, but what the relation is that objectively corresponds to the relation of ground and consequent Aristotle has nowhere attempted to determine. A further point calls for notice. Aristotle’s theory both of knowledge and of real existence was dominated by the thought of the subject-predicate relation. A thing, an existent, was regarded as that about which predication may be made, the predication finding expression in one or other of the so-called “categories.”

The fundamental category, that of substance (otcia), is the concrete individual, not an atom, but the individual as a member of a natural kind, an infima species; while the other nine categories indicate the general differences among all the predicates whereby our knowledge of the individual is expressed. It is only the concrete individual that has the characteristic of never appearing as a predicate. In so defining the ultimate subject of predication Aristotle brings forward in all its difficulty his fundamental doctrine that the individuals are always members of a natural kind. For, defined from this point of view, the ultimate subject of predication would seem to be rather the numerical individual than

the natural kind.

But the numerical plurality of the members

of a natural kind Aristotle persistently regarded as a final accldent, so to speak, attaching to the real subjects of predication m

consequence of their existence in the world of generation. And since knowledge is always knowledge of the universal, we seem to be landed in the predicament of saying that the numerical individual is beyond the range of knowledge. B. In Scholastic Philosophy.—Here attention must be con-

fined to one problem. The Scholastic thinkers gave to the doctrine of the real existence of universals the name

of realism.

They distinguished sharply, however, between the realism of Plato and the realism of Aristotle. The Platonic realism they summed up in the formula universalia ante rem; and they em ployed the formula universalia in re as descriptive of the Aristotelian realism. After the time of Abelard (1079-1142), Platonism; even in its Neo-Platenic guise, found few supporters, but

KNOWLEDGE in the thirteenth century, the century of Aquinas (1225-1274)

and of Duns Scotus (1274~1308), Aristotelianism was widely

represented. , ea These thirteenth century thinkers maintained that the universal

was real, or objective in character, one ¿n many, as Aristotle had

455

beliefs and opinions with which he had grown up, until by a process of elimination he should reach at last a datum so clear and distinct that doubt with respect to it was no longer possible. Neither in the realm of sense-perception nor even in the realm of mathematical science could such a datum be found, for sense-

said, and that the particular, which was likewise real, had to be explained by reference to the universal and not the universal by reference to it. Largely on account of the difficulties it appeared to throw in the way of any doctrine of human freedom, a reaction against the realistic theory made itself felt, however, and, in the later period of Scholasticism, William of Ockham, at the beginning of the fourteenth century, insisted that, if the tmiversal were not a substance, it could not be anything objec-

experience is often illusory and we can never be sure that it is not, and so far as their relation to the mind is concerned mathematical principles may be deceptive. Ultimately, then, he was left with the bare fact of thinking or being conscious. Cogito ergo sum; the thinker could not doubt the fact of his own consciousness, for that was as necessarily manifest in his doubting as in his knowing. He exists through being conscious; and his being conscious assures him with indubitable certainty that he is at tively and essentially real, but that it was an “intentio mentis,” least part of the realm of existence. In the fact of self-consciousa conceptual object, a thought in mente. ness, Descartes wants to say, truth and existence are identical. Thus, there was developed, in opposition to realism, the docConscious Existence.—The dictum was serviceable mainly as trine known as conceptualism, according to which the only ex- affording a clue to a quite general rule or criterion of certitude: istent realities are individual entities, while universals are mental whatsoever is apprehended with the same degree of clearness and constructs, concepts, “ideas” in our sense of the term, obtained distinctness as the connectedness of consciousness and existence by a process of abstraction from resembling individual objects. in the proposition cogito ergo sum is true. Or conversely, where An extreme form of this doctrine found expression in the con- we can disjoin our ideas, and clearly and distinctly apprehend tention that, since thought or generalisation is impossible without them as separate, there we are bound to deny that the existents the use of words, the universal is a mere name (a nomen or flatus we take to correspond to them are necessarily conjoined or imvocis), a device of language for the purpose of human inter- plied in one another. A rapid application of this rule led Descartes course. Hence the designation nominalism came into vogue. It at once to certain fundamental positions in regard to the facts was applied originally to the extreme view just indicated, which, of experience. The notion of conscious existence does not imply although not rightly ascribable to William of Ockham, was held that of extended body; and in like manner the notion of extended by some Scholastics (as, for example, by Roscellin as early as body does not imply that of consciousness. Mind and body are, the eleventh century) and in the seventeenth century by the therefore, not necessarily connected, but must be regarded as philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679). It has since, however, independent of one another; and if they be in any way conbecome more or less customary to use the term nominalism in a joined, the conjunction must be contingent. | wider significance, and to understand by it the general doctrine So, too, we can distinguish between the essential and the accithat the ultimate constituents of the world of existence are indi- dental attributes of each of these types of existents. Extendedvidual entities and not universals. The Scholastics summed up ness is obviously the essential attribute of the corporeal, but in the principle both of conceptualism and of extreme nominalism the notion of extendedness there is not involved that of movein the formula universalia post rem. ment. Movement in the external world must, therefore, be reC. In Modern Philosophy.—It will be convenient to group garded as a contingent addition. Similarly, in the inner world,

the main historical theories of knowledge of the modern period under the three heads of rationalistic, empirical and critical.

a. The Rationalistic Theories——Modern

philosophy, par-

ticularly as regards the treatment of knowledge, begins with Descartes (1596-1650). He, for the first time, definitely placed the problem of knowledge in the forefront of philosophical inquiry. The nature of the Cartesian doubt is only to be understood in the light of the contrast between the ideal of knowledge, as Descartes conceived it, and the accepted scientific doctrines of his time. His ideal of knowledge in so far resembled Plato’s that it may be termed a generalisation of the mathematical ideal.

In

the three features exemplified in mathematical procedure (a) simplicity and certainty of data, (b) strict proof in the connection between data and conclusion, and (c) completeness of survey, he discerned the marks of systematic knowledge and his contention was that so far from being restricted to the sphere of reas these features should characterise knowledge as a whole. The main processes of knowledge should be accordingly three. We should start with the intuition of simple data and axioms,— data which we can clearly and distinctly apprehend and therefore be sure of directly, propositions between the terms of which we Can see immediately a necessary connection, We should proceed by deduction from these simple truths to the more complex notions that depend upon them, passing progressively from con-

| dition to conditioned, and at each step being certain that the connection is as clear and distinct as are the simple truths them-

selves. And, finally, by induction or enumeration we should pass m review all the elementary factors of any complex so as to make sure that the work of deduction has been completely accomplished. Viewed more generally, the two last processes might be tamed synthesis and analysis respectively.

Satisfied that the heterogeneous and disconnected principles on

Which the science of the time proceeded in no sense: fulfilled these requirements, Descartes resolved to doubt provisionally all the l

Descartes was inclined to regard the understanding (intellectus) as the essential attribute, and the will (voluntas) as a contingent one. It is noteworthy that the opposition expressed by the terms extendedness and movement comes very near to the opposition discernible in the Platonic system. So far as the essence of the corporeal world is concerned, we might work out.a complete geometrical explanation. Our propositions would, in that case, be all universal in significance; they would define the character of any change, if change occurred, but they would not determine the conditions under which any change might, or must, occur. Moreover, in regard to any actual change taking place in time, it is impossible to maintain that in the notion of what precedes there is implied the notion of what succeeds. For each content of each moment of time can be conceived separately. ‘There is nothing in the fact that the real world has been so far kept in existence which renders it necessary that it should go on existing. Epistemologically considered, then, the Cartesian doctrine of nature brings into prominence the opposition between two types of propositions. On the one hand, there are propositions which constrain assent so soon as their terms are understood, which are seen to be absolutely necessary; truths of reason, as we may call them. On the other hand, there are propositions the truth of

which, if they can be said to be true, must be described as contingent; their validity is not guaranteed by the relation in which the ideas contained in them stand to one another. They may be called truths of fact. It is in reference to the latter class of truths that the crucial difficulties of the Cartesian theory of knowledge come to the front. What precisely is the guarantee for the objective validity, or correspondence to fact, of (say) our judgments of perception? In the fact of perceiving there are, according to Descartes, two ele ments involved,—a certain amount of sensuous data and an idea of the object perceived. Neither of these ‘can be legitimately thought of as produced by any external thing supposed ‘to :corfe-

spond to the process of perceiving and, in, view of .the4genéral

456

KNOWLEDGE

principle just mentioned, there are no means within the mind itself of accounting for these occurrences. No other expedient is, therefore, available than that of resorting to what is equally demanded by the very conception of the finite, namely, an Infinite. Briefly, Descartes’ solution of the problem is that the divine power must be thought of as coordinating changes in the external world with perceptions of the finite mind,—a doctrine which when more fully elaborated by the later Cartesians came to bear the title Occasionalism. Stated generally, then, in Descartes’ view, finite existents, whether minds or corporeal things, must be regarded as contingent, and any

proposition relating to them can refer only to possible existence. There can be but one notion which by its own nature and in virtue of its own content indicates not only possible but necessary,

and therefore actual, existence, —the notion, namely, of the Infinite, Indeed, the finite in its very conception implies an Infinite and the distinction between minds and extended things implies the

dependence

of these upon an absolute ground or God.

Ulti-

mately, all certainty of knowledge rests on the necessity of accepting the existence of an absolute ground, and the very notion

(a) the “idea” or essence, more or less confusedly apprehended

of extendedness, and (b) the complex of sensations or feeling

(sentiments), which we erroneously suppose to represent Qualities of external things. Thus Malebranche was driven to the conclu sion that we do not know but only infer the concrete existence of material things; and, indeed, although on theological grounds he was assured of their existence, he made no attempt to explain how “intelligible extension” (the essence of extension in the divine mind), containing as it did no particularising features, can be determined to manifest itself in the form of concrete entities,

Obviously, strictly in accordance with the principles of the Cartesian system, the existence and nature of the external worl ought to have been shown to be involved in the existence ang nature of the infinite ground. To such a position both Descartes

himself and Malebranche were always disinclined, although it alone would have made the system even apparently coherent. The

step was taken by Spinoza (1632-1677).

Spinoza follows Des.

cartes in regarding what Locke called “secondary qualities,” as being simply appearances, having nothing corresponding to them in corporeal nature except figures and motions.

But the material

universe or res extensa is, in his view, no creation of God; it js

we have of such an absolute ground involves the notion of neces- an Attribute of God’s nature, a form of God’s being. sary existence. In this one case at least it is as legitimate as it is Briefly, Spinoza’s monistic philosophy is based upon the fund. necessary to take thought as a perfectly adequate assurance of mental distinction between “substantial” or self-dependent being objective reality. And, since veracity must be one of the attributes and “modal” or dependent being, between that which is “in itself” of a perfect being, we have secured additional confirmation of our (im se) and conceived “through itself” (per se) and that which is knowledge of finite facts. For it is through clear and distinct “in another” (in alio) and is conceived through that other, ideas that we apprehend truth, and these ideas the finite mind Whereas for Aristotle finite individual entities were alone entitled does not produce but accepts. The question, indeed, forces itself to be called “substances,” as the subjects of predicates, it is the here to the front as to how that obscurity through which we fall contention of Spinoza that, when considered in the light of its into error arises at all, and Descartes attempted to answer it by antecedents, every finite individual entity will be found to have drawing a radical distinction between understanding and will. forfeited its supposed substantive character and will turn out to The understanding is passive; in strictness the term is but a be itself predicable as a phase or modification of something else, collective one for the several ideas which the mind possesses. Consequently, there can be but one self-dependent Being or The will, on the other hand, is active, and a more or less arbitrary Substance, namely, Reality in its entirety and completeness, power; and, in its function of judging, it is not constrained to What we take to be independent, substantive entities, whether operate In accordance with truth, and may bring about the result physical or mental, must ultimately evince themselves as deriva that we take for clear ideas what are in fact the reverse of clear tive “modes” or states (affectiones) of the one absolute Being, as, for example, when we are led to suppose that the vague, con- ways in which that one absolute Being expresses or manifests itself, fused sensations of colour, hardness and so on are objective char- and which “follow from” it as consequents from ground. Using the acteristics of a material thing. These sensations are not ideas, Cartesian term “Attribute” to express “that which intellect appreand it is doubtful whether of them we have so much as images. If, hends of Substance as constituting its essence,’ Spinoza conceives then, by an arbitrary act of will we assume that what is thus in- that the concrete nature of God demands for its expression an distinct and confused corresponds to reality, we are deceiving infinite variety of Attributes, although to the human intellect He ourselves. is manifested under two Attributes only, extension and thought Failure of Cartesian Account.—In numerous respects it is or consciousness (cogitatio). There are not, however, two realms, manifest that the Cartesian account of knowledge fails to satisfy a realm of extension and a realm of consciousness; it is one and the conditions which Descartes had himself laid down. To assert, the same reality that manifests both aspects. All res particulares for instance, that the understanding is passive would seem at once are, regarded from one point of view, modes of extension, and to imperil the contention that it is the mind’s essential attribute. regarded from another point of view, modes of consciousness. For, if the ideas of which the understanding consists all flow from Spinoza and Knowledge.—Knowledge would, then, accordthe activity of God, it is but a short step to the doctrine of Male- ing to Spinoza, attain its ideal were it able to present the whole branche (1638-1715) that this complex of ideas constitutes the content of that which is to be known as an orderly system of immanence of God in us, or the vision which we have of the consequents following from the supreme ground. But between divine nature. “All our clear ideas are,” writes Malebranche, “so this ideal of knowledge to which rational reflexion leads and the far as their intelligible reality is concerned, in God. It is only knówledge of the world acquired in ordinary human experience in Him that we see them.” It is true that, like Descartes, he still there would seem to be a wide gulf, of which Spinoza was fully inconsistently speaks of the understanding as the essential at- sensible. No distinction is more frequently emphasised by him tribute of the finite mind, but, as a matter of fact, its contents than that between what he calls imagination (imaginatio) or are, according to him, devoid of any subjective colouring, they are belief (opinio), the equivalent of the Platonic term and objective in character. Even in sense-perception, the contents reason (ratio). Under the former term he includes ôófa not only directly known by us are essences or “ideas” in God. What alone sense-perception but memory, as also the generic images and induces us to assert the existence of material entities correspond- general concepts such as are hastily and confusedly attained ing to these “ideas” is the complex of confused imagery and through the vague experience (experientia vaga) of everyday corporeal feeling, produced by bodily stimulation. On the oc- life. Such knowledge is always “inadequate’—incomplete and casion of such stimulation, there occur “modalities,” or modifica- partial. We know external objects, for example, only in so fat tions, of the mind—acts of “sensing’—and through these we as they affect our bodily organism, but not in the innumerable become aware of the primary and essential qualities, the ideas, of relations in which they stand to other things; we apprehend them things. The “ideas” are universal, each “modality” or operation as torn from their context, and in a fragmentary fashion. _ of the mind is particular; the “ideas” are immutable, our modes The more, however, our knowledge advances, the less possible of perceiving are all of them temporal in character. is it for us to rest content with this confused picturing of imagIn the awareness of a concrete thing, there are, then, involved ination. When the stage of ratio is reached, we have become pos-

KNOWLEDGE sessed of common notions (notiones communes) and “adequate” ideas of the properties of things—ideas of what all things have in common and of what is alike in the part and in the whole. Jf there be any characteristic which is common to all things in so far as they are corporeal or in so far as they are conscious, then, when we have determined such a property, our knowledge will be, so far as it goes, adequate. Science starts with such common notions and endeavours to construct a coherent account of the universe by a process of deductive inference, the validity

457

RATIONALISM OF SPINOZA AND LEIBNIZ At first sight the contrast between the rationalism of Spinoza

and that of Leibniz (1646-1716) seems sufficiently sharp and decisive. Leibniz repudiates emphatically enough the monism of Spinoza, and substitutes a monadism, according to which the constituents of reality are strictly individual entities, psychical in nature, dependent, indeed upon an ultimate ground but not contained therein. He reverts in a way, to the Aristotelian definition of substance as that which can only be the subject of a of which is guaranteed by the nature of intellect itself, for it is proposition, and never a predicate; but this definition, he conthe essential mark of the intellect to perform the function of tends, is not sufficient, and is in itself merely verbal. Every true deduction accurately.

Yet even this is not the highest stage of intellectual appre-

hension. Science begins and remains throughout within the region

of general laws or principles.

It enables us to understand the

universal and necessary interconnection on which the eternal order and coherence of the universe is based; it does not enable us to grasp the concrete individuality of things, nor their specific manner of connectedness in the whole. Finally, then, in what Spinoza called intuitive knowledge (scientia intuitiva), the concrete individualities of imaginative experience are restored, but at a

higher level,—a level where individual things are no longer conceived fragmentarily and in isolation, but in their relationship to and in their dependence upon the infinite ground. Such knowledge is intuitive not in the sense of being prior to or independent of

reasoning, but in the sense of being the culmination of inferential knowledge, when we are able at a glance to see the relation of the part to the whole. In Spinoza’s system what it has now become customary to call the coherence theory of truth obtains, for the first time, definite form and expression. The theory so named differs from the Cartesian conception of knowledge as a building made up of separate

bits of truth and also from the conception of mere consistency, employed by formal logic. For it is the conception, on the one hand, of a system of truth, not of truths, and, on the other hand, of a significant whole which is manifested in all the concrete articulations of its structure. Knowledge, so regarded, implies systematic coherence,—such connection among the parts of that which is known as constitutes them to a large extent what they are. Each known fact is as known related to innumerable other facts; and complete knowledge of it would be the representation in thought of all the possible relations by which its place and function are determined. Thus the fundamental idea involved in knowledge is not that of a collective sum of being, but the idea of the essence of reality, of that which manifests itself in the particulars, and which is likewise involved in all our thinking. Our knowledge is itself a part of the system of things, in and through it the essence of the system is consciously realised. There is, indeed, no contrast to be drawn between truth and reality; the true is the real and the realis the true. Ordo et connexio idearum idem est ac ordo et connexto rerum. There are, indeed, degrees of reality and of truth. Just as no finite thing can be completely real, although one finite thing

predication must have a basis in the nature of things, and even when the predicate is not explicitly contained in the subject, it is still necessary that it should be implicitly contained in it. The content, then, of the subject must always include that of the predicate in such a way that, if one understood perfectly the subject-concept, one would know that the predicate necessarily belongs to it. The concept, therefore, of any individual substance involves everything which can happen to that substance; and, in contemplating this concept, a perfect intelligence would be able to discern whatsoever can be truly said about such individual, just as in the nature of a circle it would be able to discern all the properties which can be derived therefrom. Each monad is, in this respect, a substance, and in so far an entire world, or a mirror of the whole world. ‘The universe is in a manner multiplied as many times as there are substances.” Moreover, since each monad is thus all-inclusive, and therefore unaffected by any other, it was necessary to assume a concomitance (a “pre-established harmony”) as subsisting in the universe, so that to each experience in one monad there would be a corresponding experience in every other. Again, since no two individuals can be absolutely alike and at the same time numerically different, each must mirror the universe from a different “point

of view,” so that the universe is in a manner multiplied as many times as there are substances. Once more, in the life of each monad there is continual development, or advance from one perception to another, due to conation, the advance being proportional to the clearness of apprehension on the part of the monad. The basis of all knowledge is, according to Leibniz, perception, and of perception there are differences of degree but not of kind. The lower stage may be said to be that of unconscious or crude perception, in which there is union of a manifold in what is per-

ceived but of neither is the subject clearly aware. A further stage is that of “apperception” in which the perceptions have reached a certain measure of clearness and distinctness, and the subject is aware of the multiplicity which is united in the content apprehended. And a higher stage, still, is that of reflection, or of selfconscious cognition, in which the subject marshals its perceptions or ideas in the light of the fundamental principles of contradiction and sufficient reason (i.e., the principle of causality). These two principles are concerned each with a special kind of truths,—the one with truths of reason, of which the one crimay be more real than another, so the content of no single human terion is self-consistency, and the other with truths of fact. judgment can be completely true, although one may be truer Whereas the Cartesians and Spinoza had maintained that all real than another. If we take our ideas for no more than what they knowledge was of one kind and that no fact could be explained are, they do not deceive us. In their own context and order, even except by showing its dependence on the one supreme ground, Leibniz insists that to statements relating to matters of fact the Imaginative ideas are so far true. Error arises through our misinterpretation of imaginative ex- test of self-consistency cannot be satisfactorily applied, that we perience, through our tendency of conceiving the fragmentary can only point to a sufficient reason why we believe such statethings thus recognised as res completae, as complete in them- ments to be true, without professing that we can fully explain why selves. From the fact, for example, that external things affect they are. our Sensory nerves, we are aware of sensations of colour and sound While, then, all necessary truths are expressible in analytical etc, But since we are ignorant of the mechanism occasioning these propositions, wherein the relation of predicate to subject can be effects, we ascribe the sense-qualities in question directly to the clearly apprehended, contingent truths are not thus expressible, external things themselves, although these external things are at but only in propositions which Kant called later synthetical, Most only in part their causes. Most critics would, however, wherein the relation of predicate to subject cannot be clearly agree that this solution of the problem of error throws into relief apprehended. It is true that Leibniz often speaks of this disone of the main difficulties of Spinoza’s theory. Errors and tinction as though it were in the long run a distinction of degree, lusions are, after all, not mere “negations”; there is a positive not of kind. Could we survey with perfect clearness the long actor involved in them which must in some way be grounded in series of grounds of any matter of fact, we should see that ultithe nature of the real. And it is impossible to find that ground in mately the consequences were capable of being analytically deduced, only the series of grounds required for such a purpose Substance, as Spinoza conceived it.

KNOWLEDGE

4.58

would be infinite. Vet, although in consistency with his general theory Leibniz was bound to say this, it is evident that even on the score of the difference between infinite regress and finite mediation, the contention cannot be sustained. All thought or perception is, according to Leibniz, thought or perception of something. But what is really outside the monad can only be the other monads and God, and, since there is no external influence exerted on the monad, it can only ideally represent what is taking place in its environment. It follows that what we describe as a material world, extended in space, must be phenomenal in character, a way in which ultimate reality is obscurely represented through means of sense-perception. Nevertheless, owing to the singleness of plan underlying the development of all the monads, it is not to be supposed that material nature has only that mode of being we assign to images of phantasy. It is a well-founded phenomenon (bene fundatum). So, too, that characteristic of the material world which the Cartesians had taken to be existent in the same sense that minds are existent, spatial extendedness, must likewise be phenomenal in character. Yet, there is a reality underlying what we perceive as spatial extendedness,—namely, the order of coexistence of the monads, no substance but a relation among substances. The characteristics of space as apprehended are, then, in one sense subjective, in that they do not correspond to what is real, and in another sense objective in that they are common to the perceptions of all the monads at a certain stage of development. It is doubtful how far Leibniz would have been willing to follow out the line of reflection involved in the consideration that with increasing advance of knowledge the limitations of our spatial picture of things would be gradually removed. He certainly held that in the divine mind, the ideas forming the objects of the divine intellect are not contemplated as in spatial relations to one another. It would, therefore, have been possible for Leibniz to maintain that the spatial form is incidental to that confused mode of apprehension which we call sense-perception. This is what Kant did take to be implied in his doctrine. It constitutes, indeed, one of Kant’s main criticisms of the Leibnizian position that according ‘to it the sensuous apprehension of things which clothes them with space-relations and the intellectual apprehension which leaves such space-relations out differ only in degree of clearness, that it is the same world of things confusedly apprehended by sense as a spatially extended realm which is intellectually apprehended as related only in the fashion of coexistences, whatever that phrase may mean. And, of course, similar considerations apply to Leibniz’s contention that time, as we apprehend it in perception, is but the obscure and confused picture of the grounds which determine the order of succession, whatever the term “succession” may mean. 6. Empirical Theories—The term “experience” is an excessively ambiguous term, and in one or another of the various ways in which it has been employed, well-nigh every theory of knowledge might be said to be empirical. We noted, however, the manner in which Aristotle distinguished what he called éurapta from miorun, and that distinction will afford a clue to the meaning of the term in the present context. For, according to the theories now to be considered, knowledge is ultimately based upon sense-apprehension, and the objects thereby apprehended are built up of particular, isolated elements—sensations or impressions—given to the mind from without, which in and through such apprehension are in some way welded together. So that the task of a theory of knowledge will largely consist in analysing the complex objects of perception into their simple constituents, and in tracing the threads of connection by which these are combined together in what is described as “experience.” ' Locke (1632-1704) may be taken as having given the first definite exposition of an empirical theory of knowledge in the Essay concerning the Human Understanding. In this work, he endeavours to conduct the inquiry into the origin, certainty and

extent of human knowledge “in a simple historical way,” that is, by showing whence and how we come to have “ideas,” and by examining the processes’ of manipulation these undergo iù the a

bo

l,

,

»

m

bby

aly

oe

mature

intelligence.

Defining the term

“idea” as that which

serves best to stand for “whatsoever is the object of the under. standing when a man thinks,” his preliminary task is the negative one of disposing of the view that certain of our “ideas” ate “innate” possessions of the mind itself.

Viewing, then, the mind as at the start like an “empty cabinet»

void of all furniture, Locke finds that the several “ideas” which form the raw material of knowledge are supplied to it by the two

avenues, sensation and reflection, or external and internal ob.

servation.

By the former we obtain our ideas of sensible things,

by the latter our ideas of the mind’s own operations, such as pe.

ceiving, thinking, doubting, willing, etc. While so far agreeing with the Cartesian thinkers as to regard the real world as being

made up of two kinds of entities, material and mental, he yet took for granted, despite the Cartesian criticism, that things and

minds act causally upon one another. Things produce in us ideas of sensation by “impulse” or impression, although he was far from considering that such a metaphor explains what actually happens. Furnished, thus, with simple ideas, as its data, the mind

can, in virtue of the powers or faculties with which it is ep. dowed, manipulate that raw material in a variety of ways. It can retain the “ideas” it passively receives, combine them, put then

in relation with one another, and exercise upon them the process of abstraction. Complex ideas are, in that way formed, and they bear obvious marks of the mind’s operation. Furthermore, among simple ideas of sensation, Locke made the distinction between ideas of primary and ideas of secondary qualities. The former are resemblances or copies of the actual

properties of things; the ideas we have of the extension, figure, texture and motion of the parts of things accurately represent the nature of the things that give rise to them. The latter are not resemblances of any characteristics possessed by things themselves, but are effects produced, through the operation upon our senses, of powers which things possess by reason of their primary qualities. Locke and “Ideas.”—“Ideas” had for Locke, as they had for Descartes, a two-fold aspect. They had, on the one hand, an immediate aspect, inasmuch as they were themselves the direct objects of our apprehension; they had, on the other hand, a representative aspect, inasmuch as it was through them that we come to know real things, such “things” being distinct from “ideas.” It is in reference to this latter aspect that the crucial difficulties of Locke’s theory evince themselves. How far can we ever be assured that by sensation we have a knowledge of things? Seeing that any comparison of sense ideas with real things is precluded, we cannot have that intuitive certainty concerning the latter which Locke thinks we have of the existence of self, nor that demonstrative certainty which he thinks we have of the existence of God. And he has to admit that what we have here is only entitled to be called “assurance” rather than knowl edge,—assurance which approaches knowledge in proportion as the “ideas” concerned are perfectly simple, as is the case with the ideas of simple sense qualities, more particularly of those called primary. The difficulty comes to a head in the account he has to give of the idea of “substance.” Since this idea could not

have been obtained by sensation or reflection, Locke was compelled to ascribe it to the workmanship of the mind, and he did so without considering apparently the consequences which would have ensued had he remained faithful to his dictum that whatsoever was thus added to the given ideas of sense or reflection was ideal only and to be allowed no share in determining the content of the real.

‘Berkeley.—The

line of thought by which Berkeley (1685-

1753) reached the fundamental

principle of his own theory of

knowledge took its rise from reflection upon the dubious function im the development of experience attributed in the Essay to

material substances. In arguing that to call in the powers: of matter as the originating causes of the occurrence of “ideas was to have recourse to an occult mode of activity, Berkeley was

reverting to a line of argument which the Cartesians had made familiar. BAR

But in the light of Locke’s investigation, he was convinced that

KNOWLEDGE he could push his way further. Locke had maintained that the range of our knowledge did not extend beyond the range of our “ideas”; and had, at the same time, not only detected in knowl-

edge a reference to “things” other than “ideas” but had introduced into his catalogue of ideas those called abstract, which were confessedly devoid of the characteristics of “ideas” as supplied by sense or reflection. Indeed, in both the ordinary and the scientific notion of external things, Berkeley discerned a striking illustration of the result of attempting to carry out the illusory process of abstraction. For these external things were supposed to

have somehow a place in the world of perceived reality, and yet

to be of such a nature as to preclude the possibility of their being perceived. There is first withdrawn from them every characteristic necessary to constitute them possible objects of experience, and then they are still spoken of as though they did form part of our

experience. Locke would have repudiated the doctrine of univer-

salia ante rem, but what he actually meant by such terms as matter,’ “substance,” and the like were just universals of this

description, 7.e., hypostatised abstractions.

Berkeley’s polemic

against “abstract ideas” was intended, therefore, to prepare the

way for his own construction. Although discarding Locke's doc-

trine of abstraction, he recognises that generalisation is indispensable for knowledge and for communication of knowledge.

Locke had not ignored, but had certainly not done justice to, the function that accrues to an “idea” in virtue of its being

representative of other “ideas”; and it is this function upon which Berkeley fastens in the present connection.

“An idea which, con-

sidered in itself is particular, becomes general by being made to

represent or stand for all other particular ideas of the same sort.”

It must be confessed, however, that important though the relation of sign and that which is signified is in the development of knowledge, it will not bear the weight that Berkeley here reposes upon it, for the “sort” or species must in some way have been already determined before any particular idea could “stand for” or “represent” it. The new principle which Berkeley claimed to have discovered may be expressed as follows. A unit or moment of experience is always a mind or conscious subject apprehending an object. Berkeley certainly did not mean that the object and the act of apprehending are identical, but only that they are inseparably connected, and that if they be thought of as existing independently, experience is being treated abstractly. To indicate its dependence on mind, he called the object, in accordance with Locke’s nomenclature, an “idea”; and the emphasis laid upon this dependence probably suggests that the existence of the object is secondary and derivative. From a certain point of view, Berkeley no doubt would have said that in the synthesis of subject and object, the former is primary both in the order of thought and in that of fact. But he who is serious with the notion of the correlation of mind and object must regard the correlation as holding equally of each of the terms. If there can be no objects or ideas without a mind, neither can there be a mind without objects or ideas. And, as a matter of fact, such mutual dependence is explicitly admitted by Berkeley. In truth, then, using the phrase “idea of’ is one great

459

there remains no alternative but to have recourse to the hypothesis of an infinite mind. On the one hand therefore, considered objectively, the world of perception is independent of finite minds, and has its own unity and identity, because it is constituted by the way in which one infinite mind consistently and systematically affects our finite

minds, and indeed there is a permanent support for ideas in that infinite mind. On the other hand, subjectively considered, as regards our belief in the externality and independence of what we perceive, the explanation is to be found in the fact that owing to the regular order and combination in which sense-ideas are given to us, they tend to be associated, so that each becomes in nae a sign which suggests the ideas habitually conjoined

with

it. There are manifest, however, in Berkeley’s procedure as in Locke’s, two lines of thought which refuse to be brought together. On the one hand, he preserves a large portion of the empirical theory of knowledge; on the other hand there is involved in his speculation a conception of mind and of our ways of knowing mind that cannot even be stated in terms of the empirical theory. For he was compelled to admit that minds are not to be known through means of “ideas”; neither of our own mind nor of other minds have we “ideas” but only “notions,” although how such “notions” differ from “ideas” and how the difference is compatible with his analysis of experience he nowhere attempts to determine. A similar difficulty comes to the front in his attempt to account for the generality of mathematical knowledge. Moreover, it can scarcely be doubted that the conception of a world

of ideas in the mind of God is exposed to the very criticism which Berkeley directed upon the notion of material substances. In fact, there are numerous indications, especially in his later writings, that Berkeley’s reflection was tending rather to the later Critical theory than to the more strenuous empirical doctrine of his immediate successor.

Hume.—The analysis of experience offered by Hume

(1711-

1776) may be said to be that offered by Berkeley with the exclusion of the factor of mind. He conceives the components of experience as being from the first of the kind we call mental, as, in his terminology, perceptions, which consist of the two classes “Impressions” and ‘“‘ideas,’”’ or sensations and their images. But he declines to admit that the term “mental” implies over and above perceptions a mind the function of which is to be aware of these as objects. “An object that exists when it is not perceived, a mind that is more than a series of perceptions, are things with reference to which we cannot ask how they exist, but only how they come to be supposed to exist.” Perceptions as such carry no tidings of their mode of origin with them; they testify to their own reality, but they can guarantee no other. The problem which Hume had, therefore, before him may be said to be that of showing that there are no ideas which are not copies of former impressions, since otherwise a workmanship on the part of the mind, conceived as more than a series of perceptions, would require to be postulated. Accordingly, he sought to transfer all those processes of combining, discriminating, judging, which Locke had spoken of as cause of mistake; ideas are not intermediaries between the mind faculties of the mind, to the perceptions themselves, and to and its objects, they are its objects. Yet nature, the course of regard these so-called faculties as on the one hand modes of external events, seems to have an externality and independence grouping among the ideas and on the other as particular ways of of its own, and these features have an immense significance in having ideas, the differences of which are due to variations of all our practical experience. They require, therefore, to find ex- an indefinable element of feeling, giving rise to what he vaguely planation in terms of a theory according to which mind and ideas called “belief.” All those references to external existents, which are the sole components of experience. perceptions seem to carry with them, are to be ascribed to this In proceeding to face this problem, Berkeley points first of mysterious factor of “‘belief,”—-mysterious because it obviously allto the distinction that must be drawn between ideas of imagina- implies that very distinction between mind and its perceptions tion and memory which arise through our own productive agency, which Hume was refusing to recognize. | and ideas of perception which come to us with such qualities as Since the constituents of experience are discrete units, it folcannot be ascribed by us to our own agency, and in an order in- lowed that the relations between them must be wholly external dependent of our will. Berkeley, then, assumes that these given to the units themselves, and can be only relations of order, the ideas must have a cause. And since the notion of cause can find order in which the units’'come together and succeed one another.

no expression at all in terms of objective experience, the causal

From this point of view, it is difficult to see why Hume. should

agency must be mind. Since, further, no more than an excessively small proportion of our ideas can be ascribed to other finite minds,

have repeated

the familiar

distinction

between

two

types

of

knowledge,—relations of ideas and matters of fact,—because one

KNOWLEDGE

460

would have supposed that the only possible type of knowledge would have been the latter. And, in truth, Hume does not admit any fundamental difference. Necessity in thought signifies for him non-contradiction. Accordingly, a relation between ideas must be either an actual occurrence, and then its non-occurrence would involve no contra-

diction, the characteristic, namely, of matters of fact, or it must be restricted to the content of the single idea, that is to say, the proposition expressing it must be purely analytical. Although in the well-known passage of the Inquiry, he instances mathematical propositions as coming under the head of relations of ideas, he did not really regard them either as analytical or as necessary and universal. They have, he was ready to assert, no other basis than experience; it is just as impossible to extract a mathematical proposition, a proposition implying a relation, from the content of a single idea, as it is to extract from any one perception taken by itself the idea of its cause or effect. And in reference to the idea of cause, the only ground of explanation which experience can furnish is that of custom or habit. Impressions come to us in certain orders of sequence or coexistence, and this natural conjunction, frequently recurring, gives rise to a particular feeling, which occasions the belief that they are necessarily connected. Similarly with reference to our ideas of permanent things and of the individual self. The former is due to the

resemblance of recurring impressions which we take to be impressions of the same object, although, in truth, each is an independent fact. The latter arises from and is based upon the ease and rapidity with which each new impression or idea is conjoined with the train of ideas already present. The value of Hume’s work is largely dependent upon the thoroughness with which he attempted to work out a theory of knowledge ’from the strictly empirical point of view. Given only isolated mental states, he has done all that it is possible to do in attempting to show how the knowledge which we appear to have of things and their relations comes about. And in the end he was constrained to confess that the attempt had been unsuccessful, and names with penetrating sagacity the exact reason of the failure. His effort terminated in a position of thorough scepticism. It may be that the beliefs to which experience leads correspond to fact; but, if they do, there are no possible means by which we can logically show that such is the case. c. The Critical Theory.—The empirical and rationalistic theories of knowledge, while diverging widely in fundamental principles, had been brought to a stand before similar problems. The rationalistic method had terminated in a complete severance of thought from things. Throughout the movement ‘from Descartes to Leibniz it is discernible that the final conception of perfect knowledge was destined to become that of a mere system of isolated notions, each possessed no doubt of inner relations, but deprived of any significance as interpretative of real fact. On the other hand, the empirical method in its developed form as presented by Hume, found itself in the difficulty of offering, in terms of its main conception, any explanation of knowledge at all. Each isolated idea might either be called real or regarded as indicative of what was real, as by Hume and Locke respectively, but in either case the isolation seemed to make all relation of ideas, all systematic insight into existent reality,

impossible. Indeed, the empirical theory easily led to a final view as to

the kinds of knowledge which even in words is almost identical

with that reached by rationalism. Each isolated idea, seeing that it exists, has at least the formal mark of inner consistency. There appear to be always possible with regard to it those judgments which do not go beyond mere consistency,—analytical judg-

ments. But any judgments whose import is relation among real facts must be pronounced to be impossible, or be designated by other terms than that of knowledge. KANT’S

,

CRITICAL

THEORY

if this result is the divorce of mind from reality, then the

underlying conception of the critical theory of Kant (1724-1804) is that knowledge or experience is only explicable in terms

involving equally mind and real fact, though? and things. I; may be that, in the end, the Kantian view tends again to a severan which reproduces the old difficulties, but the leading idea ig

undoubtedly that of a synthesis which shall give to both ming

and its objects their due place in the constitution of experience. In describing his method as “critical” Kant intended to empha.

sise the the ing

the change in the point of view from which he was regarding problem of knowledge from that adopted by what he called “dogmatic” method—the method of dealing with facts enterinto knowledge without having first of all inquired into th

meaning and legitimacy of the notions by which an attempt is made to interpret or explain those facts. All the difficulties jn which the dogmatic method became involved seemed to him ty result from neglect of that prior investigation into the nature of knowledge or experience itself, whereby alone can be determined

what worth is to be assigned to the notions through which objects of knowledge are interpreted. It was this prior investigation that

constituted the essence of the critical method.

As the central problem of a theory of knowledge Kant singled

out the characteristic of objectivity. Why was it that what was known stood over against the knowing subject as other than and distinct from his act of knowing? By inspecting concrete instances of the knowledge or experience of objects, he became convinced that there is always involved therein a synthesising process which

sensibility, regarded as a way in which mind is affected by things, is incapable of performing. It was only in so far as the receptivity of sense is conceived as being merely one ingredient in the process of knowing, the other being the combining activity of thought, that we can understand how there comes about the result,—the synthetical combination in the judgment whereby the conscious subject refers to a real object as known by him. The object cognised is essentially a complex of heterogeneous elements, and in and through the act of cognising a synthesis of these elements is brought about. The process involves (a) a multiplicity of sensuous material, of sense-presentations,—mere impressions, not per se even cognisable, and devoid of any power to arrange themselves. These elements are a posteriori, particular and given. The process

involves also (b) two general forms into which the manifold of

sense-data is received. As universal conditions of sense-apprehension, these forms of Space and Time, although sensuous in character, do not belong to any special sense, nor are they, although general, notions or concepts. They are pure a priori intuitions,—ways in which any intelligence which like ours is sensuously affected must receive the data of sense. And, once more, the process involves (c) the principles according to which the given elements of sense are combined and cognised. The manifold of sense is in itself a merely indefinite mass of disjointed particulars; it can become content of knowledge only through being brought into relation with the unity of the self, and as referred to this unity the data of sense have imposed upon them systematic connectedness. The categories, the ultimate universals of thought,—such notions as those of unity and plurality, substance and attribute, cause and effect—are the ways in which

the unity of consciousness expresses itself in relation to the empirical data, the modes in which the unity of consciousness plants itself out, so to speak, in the given material. And the gist of Kant’s contention is that it is precisely the function of this act of synthesis to supply that centre of reference which is what we mean by objectivity. All knowledge or experience zs only for self-consciousriess— such was Kant’s central position. But the unity of consciousness which finds expression in the categories was not to be identified with the individual subject. Rather was it to be conceived as the unity which is implied as a prior condition in making even the inner life an object of contemplation. It was the common factor

in all individual subjects—consciousness in general, as Kant himself described it, which while characterising each individual centre of consciousness

yet transcends the latter in the aspect of a

“super-individual function.” In every act of knowing, the indvidual must, therefore, conform to the conditions imposed by consciousness as such; it is precisely in virtue of being conditions

KNOWLEDGE due to the nature of consciousness in general that the categories

are universal and necessary. individual knower

The object is apprehended by the

as something

distinct from himself because

the categories by which he apprehends it are not his private property, but the common property of all knowing minds. When, however, Kant came to work out the implications of the

theory, a number of conflicting considerations were allowed to intrude. In consequence of his unfortunate mode of dealing with the so-called faculties of sensibility and thought in isolation from one another, the central principle tended in his treatment to be lost from sight. While insisting that experience is possible only

as a synthetic combination in the unity of consciousness, and that

nothing can enter into experience save what is in harmony with the conditions of such combination, he would have it that the matter of experience was extraneously given, and that it was the

given data which constituted the elements of the synthesis. Consequently, the objects of knowledge could only be phenomena,—

appearances possibly of realities not thus built up of sensuous material, but appearances which in any case are essentially distinct from that of which they are appearances. As a result, the realm of reality and the world of sense-objects fall asunder; and a

baffling mode of existence comes to be assigned to phenomena as distinct from things-in-themselves. The weakest position of the Kantian theory comes here to light. The conception of pres-

entations as given to the mind is irreconcilable with the notion of the unity of consciousness as a universal principle, which was not itself an existent entity that could be acted upon, or influenced by, other existent entities. There are in the Kantian writings trends of reflection tending in a direction radically opposed to the subjectivism of Berkeley, Particularly, for example, in dealing with the notion of the whole

of experience as adapted to human reason, Kant was led to a much more concrete determination of the nature of the unity in cognition than appears often permissible on the basis of his teaching, The relation of universal to particular, he here argues, is a relation only possible for intelligence. Represented as a relation of things-in-themselves, of things taken apart from-the synthesis of mind and its objects, such a relation is meaningless. And in the idea of the adaptation of the particulars of experience to reason, it is in fact implied that the arrangement, order, distribution of those particulars is determined in accordance with the general principles necessary to secure the adaptation in question. We frame for ourselves, therefore, in all our procedure under the regulative principle of the unity of reason, the conception of the ground of things as an intelligence wherein the universal is not formed from, but is determinative of, the particulars. Kant himself would allow, it is true, no more than subjective possi-

bility to this thought of an “intuitive understanding,” whose procedure is not that merely of apprehending particular things by the help of general notions but of producing, by reason of its notions, the particulars which exemplify and realise them. But in the hands more especially of Hegel (1770-1831) what Kant thus hints at was elaborated into the conception of absolute thought as exhibiting itself in the whole detailed structure of experience. Rejecting im toto the assumption of things-in-themselves as beyond the realm of the knowable, Hegel repudiated no

less the Kantian view of knowable things as phenomena. A dis-

401

in character. And this position, it was claimed, is in no way incompatible with what, as mere matter of fact, is and must be admitted in respect to thinking and knowing as modes of the finite mind’s activity. As portions of the total world of reality these subjective activities have their function;

in and through

them the world of intelligible reality finds expression; but the fact that they are portions of that world in no way invalidates the view that the essential relations of all reality are relations of thought. In describing the universals which form the necessary and essential framework, so to speak, of real fact “thoughts,” Hegel was desirous of emphasising the consideration that they are dependent upqn Mind or Self-consciousness as their ultimate ground, that they are, in truth, the unfolding in abstract terms of the very structure of Mind. And as thus dependent, they are not to be conceived as disconnected and independent generalities, but as constituting of themselves a system, any portion of which must, evince itself as unintelligible and contradictory if regarded apart from its relation to the rest. In trying to exhibit the contents of this organic system and the mode of their interdependence, Hegel was doing no more than disentangling from concrete reality, as he viewed it, its indispensable elements. But it seemed to him that the universals, the categories, must be considered in themselves and in their relation to each other, and not alone in relation to the concrete facts in which they are realised, if they are to be exhibited not as instruments which the finite mind uses but as moments or phases in a process which in its unity Mind itself zs. Just as the scientist takes a specific fact or set of facts by itself, not in order to find out what it is apart from its relations to other facts or sets of facts but in order to disclose those relations, so Hegel took the various categories— those of Being, Essence, Cause, etc.—each by itself, in order to show that it is not merely capable of being combined with the others, but that there is contained that within it which must of necessity lead on to the others, and develop into them. Any one category, that is to say, when conceived in isolation, reveals inherent contradiction, passes over into its opposite—an opposition that is only overcome through both evincing themselves as ingre-~ dients in a category higher than either of them. Then this again exhibits a similar logical movement, with the same result as before. And so on, through ever-widening ranges of differentiation and integration, until at length the whole system of thoughts is compassed and seen to constitute an organic unity, or Thought in its entirety.

In laying out what he took to be the intelligible framework of reality Hegel was not attempting to deduce concrete facts from the system of pure thought. He was attempting rather to show what the fundamental nature of reality is and not how every detail of the world exhibits that nature,—a task obviously incapable of fulfilment. But it was his view that could we discover what every detail was we should discern that it was a logical consequence of the ultimate ground. In other words, like Plato and Spinoza, he was identifying truth and real existence; he was saying that although we cannot deduce concrete fact from the universals of thought, yet in the long run it must be deducible therefrom. “In the Absolute truth and existence are one.” We come here upon the fundamental problem in the theory of

| tinction between the real and the phenomenal might, indeed, be knowledge. On the one hand, thought has been regarded as a purely subdrawn, but it was a distinction between features that fall within the realm of experience and not between that which is without and jective procedure of the finite mind, and whatever contribution it may make towards clearing up and methodising the information that which is within it. The Hegelian System.—The cardinal position of the Hegelian we otherwise gather in respect to real existence, it does not in system might be expressed by saying that reality is reality in and itself constitute the way in which real existence is manifested to for Mind or Self-Consciousness, that its nature or structure, when us. Only through direct affection of ourselves in the form of laid out in the abstract, is just such a system of pure thoughts sensations can there be given us indubitable signs of actually or notions as Kant had adumbrated under the head of Categories existing things. And then the difficulty is that the world of real 2 Ideas. Thought and reality, in other words, are one and the fact would seem to lie altogether beyond our ken,—at the best e. : knowledge is knowledge of phenomena only, which can never be By “thought,” however, in this context is not to be understood accurately described as knowledge of the real. the mere result of the subjective activity of thinking on the part On, the other hand, thought and reality are declared by Hegel to ofthe finite mind. The thought relations which were regarded as be identical, and since the principles involved in thought are vng the intelligible aspect of reality were taken to be objective the principles inherent in reality itself, the contents of logical

462

KNOWLEDGE

thought must be the contents of reality. There can be no inter-

between apprehended sense-qualities.

vening “ideas,” in Locke’s sense of the term, screening the real

monly accepted propositions, we can proceed to examine first the

from our view. The difficulty here is that, since the contents of thought are characterised throughout by universality, there appear to be no means of retaining as real the concrete particulars of experience. To deduce the particular from the universal would seem to evince itself as a futile undertaking, because from the very nature of the original position assumed, it must be impossible to extract from the universal, that wherein the particular specifically differs from it. Something over and above what is contained in the universal must be possessed by the particular; and this residuum can never be accounted for by reference to the universal. And one aspect of the antithesis is striking. The contents of thought, as universals, would seem to be independent of time and unaffected by change, whereas the realm of perceived fact presents itself as essentially temporal in character and as con‘stantly undergoing change. Certainly, the succession of categories in the Hegelian dialectic was not conceived as a temporal development; and, since the dialectic was regarded as the key to all reality, it is clear that reality was held to be timeless. Yet, in that case, the appearance of temporal succession and change calls for explanation, and all attempts hitherto made to furnish such explanation seem to be singularly unsuccessful. Naturally, then, in recent epistemological work, the general inquiry as to the relation in which the processes or results of thinking stand to the nature and relations of real existence has remained the central problem.

3. PROBLEMS OF CONTEMPORARY EPISTEMOLOGY

On the basis of these com.

nature of our knowledge of physical objects by way of sense. perception. At the outset let us ask what is to be understood by the “given” which it is said perception simply accepts? What Lotze unde.

stood by it is not doubtful. The “given” consisted, in his viey, of impressions which the excitation of the nervous system called forth in the mind, and, until recently that has been the prevalent

view. No one, indeed, doubts the fact that when a conscious being is (say) visually perceiving a coloured object, his visual organ has undergone stimulation, and that in consequence an some sort has been conveyed to the cerebral centre the optic nerve is connected. But it may well be whether the immediate result of that change is the

influence of with which questioned production

of a patch of colour either in the mind, or, in virtue of bodih

reaction, for the mind. On the contrary, what we do seem to be justified in asserting is that either concomitantly with or in consequence of the cerebral change, there occurs a mental state or

mode of activity in and through which, when a certain other set

of conditions has been fulfilled, there definitely coloured object.

ensues

awareness

of a

What, then, is this set of conditions which must be fulfilled?

For one thing, the mental act must be directed upon something other than itself—something which comes to be regarded as a physical object. If, now, this act itself, as thus directed, is intro. spectively scrutinised, it reveals itself not at all as an act of constructing the parts of that of which it becomes aware. Viewed from within, it invariably evinces itself as a process, not of manufacturing an object, but of differentiating the features of one. and of tracing connections which were not at first discerned. It

We may begin with a contention upon which stress was repeatedly laid by Lotze (1817—1881). As against the Hegelian conception, Lotze regarded thought as a process of subjective activity, evinces itself, that is to say, as an act of discriminating, and this, which neither passively mirrors the real nor necessarily corre- rather than, as Kant maintained, synthesising, would seem to be sponds to the real. As an activity in rerum natura, it shares in its essential nature. ; the general traits that characterise real existence, and is adapted In the situation described as “perception of an object” two to real existence, but it reacts in its own way on the given, a concrete facts are, accordingly, implicated, the object on the one way only capable of explanation by reference to its peculiar hand and the act or process of perceiving it on the other, And nature. So that, in constructing its picture of reality, it follows if, following Aristotle, we distinguish between the existence and in part its own laws and in part is determined by the general essence or content, between the “that” and the “what,” of any characteristics of the given material. concrete fact, we may say that each of these concrete facts Now, Lotze urges, that no effort of thinking in and for itself exhibits the two aspects of existence and content. can render intelligible the significance either of concrete inBut, in view of the circumstance that in this situation the condividual things or of change; and, in particular, change is that of scious subject is gradually discriminating the content of the obwhich no thinking could ever inform us. It is only perception that ject, we need to distinguish what may be called the content apprecan bring before us the fact of change. This contention rests upon hended both from the content of the object and from the cona separation the legitimacy of which it is imperative to examine. tent of the mental act itself. The content of the mental act is Is it possible thus to sever these two mental processes, perceiving or becomes, partially at least, the awareness of qualities which are and thinking, without assigning to them so special a meaning as taken to be qualities of the object, and it would seem clear that to deprive our general problem of more than half its significance? the qualities in question must be distinguished from the awareDoubtless, if we start by confining thought to those activities ness of them. Furthermore, as distinguished from the content of which operate on already given apprehended contents, what Lotze the mental act, the content apprehended is that which is freasserts of it is true. But what are we then to make of perception in quently designated the “appearance” of the object to the perwhich there is no element of thinking? What are we to make of cipient. Now, again, this “appearance” can hardly be the object an experience which is opposed to thought and which must there- upon which the mental act is directed, because in order that it fore be presumed to be devoid of thought? ' should arise at all it would seem essential that the object should In order to come to close quarters with the issue, it is necessary be already there. Moreover, the sum of qualities of which the to determine the nature of an act of perception, and it has been conscious subject will be aware at any moment will be different with this problem that a great deal of recent research has been oc- from the sum of qualities of which he will be aware at another cupied. As the outcome of much labour and discussion there are moment, and either of these will be, at the best, but a fragment certain propositions which most of those (except Bertrand Rus- of the much larger sum of qualities which the object itself possell) who have devoted attention to the subject would accept. sesses. It follows, therefore, that the sum of apprehended feaThese may be stated as follows:—(a) Perception as it takes place tures (7.¢., the content apprehended, or the “appearance” of the in ourselves is a complex act, involving much more than can be object) is distinguishable from the larger sum of features constidescribed as direct apprehension of sense-qualities. (b) So far tuting the whole content of the object. as “sensations” are concerned, a distinction must be drawn beIf this analysis be so far on the right lines, an important consetween the act of sensing (sentire) and that which is sensed quence can at once be deduced—namely, that the content appre(sensum). (c) The sense-qualities or sensa of which we are aware hended or the “appearance” cannot be itself an existent. For it in apprehending a physical object are never simply identical with has evinced itself as only a selection from the features forming the physical object itself or with any physical part of it and may the content of the object, and ex kypothesi the content of anynot be identical with any qualities belonging to it. (d) What we thing is not to be confused with its existence. So far from being know through sense-perception is based in the long run on the there, as an existent entity, prior to the act of perception, and apprehension of sense-qualities and the perception of relations in ‘some way calling forth that act, it only‘comes to be in virtue

KNOWLEDGE of the perceiving act being directed upon an existent object, and apart from. the perceiving act it would have no “being” of any kind. The main issue in regard to the nature of perception centres

round the point just referred to. If the content apprehended be regarded as an existent—be it of the kind called an “idea” or a “presentation” or a “sensum” or what not—it assumes the position of a tertium quid between the apprehending mind and the physical thing, and the old difficulties of the empirical theory as propounded by Locke recur. It is, indeed, difficult to see how,

in that case, it can be said to be an “appearance” of a physical

object at all. Moreover, if apprehended contents are existents, they are existents of a very peculiar kind. They cannot be de-

scribed as physical existents, for they do not, as such, act and

react upon each other; they do not obey the law of gravitation, or any other physical law; they are not modes of energy. And

equally they cannot be described as mental existents, at all events not in the sense in which states of feeling or of cognising or of

conation are so described.

Further, their mode of generation is even more peculiar.

they are generated by physical and physiological

processes,

If it

must be in a way totally different from that in which change in one physical thing is said to be the cause of change in another, and why physical existents acting on other physical existents should give rise to existents which are not physical is a mystery. On the other hand, if they are generated by reaction of the mind

on stimulation, it is no less inexplicable how the mind, being of the nature the psychologist finds it to be, should give rise to an immense number of qualities altogether unlike in character the

qualities it is known to possess. Meanwhile, then, let us assume

that “appearances” or “apprehended contents” are not, as such, existents, and see how far on that assumption we can advance toa coherent view of the nature of knowledge. The next point to emphasise is that the process of perception is immensely furthered by the circumstance that in ourselves it takes place in a mind which by dint of long and repeated practice has come to perform such acts of discriminating habitually and by aid of the facility of retention or revival. What, however, is it that is “revived” or “reproduced”? Not the “content apprehended,” for iż obviously cannot be preserved after the act through which it has its being has ceased to exist. That content cannot persist in and for itself, because it is not an entity and it cannot persist in the mind, because, in the strict sense, it has never been “in” the mind. But the contents of our own cognitive acts, the awarenesses which we live through (erleben) are the mind’s own property, or rather go to constitute its very structure, and these we are bound to recognise it has the power, in some form, of retaining and reviving. And in mature perception, a vast amount of what we appear to be immediately discerning is not, as a matter of fact, immediately discerned, it is discerned through the aid of the revival of previous awareness of similar objects. Thus, our apprehension of things tends, as the mental life develops, to become, in one sense, less and less direct. The contents of what we call our knowledge come gradually to assume the form of an inward possession, constituting as it were an intrument wherewith we proceed further to differentiate the fea-

tures of the world to be known.

So that in the case of a familiar

object, we do not require on each occasion to discriminate afresh ts manifold features; it is enough that we discriminate at the moment relatively few of them; these immediately suggest the awareness of features previously discriminated, and the object is

apprehended with a rapidity and ease that would otherwise have been impossible. When, however, we proceed to what are called the “images” of memory and imagination there would seem, at first sight, to be more ground for assuming that these apprehended contents

ae existents. Yet here, again, it is extremely doubtful whether We are forced to assume that they are. For it is at least arguable atthe process of imagining is of one piece with that of per-

vng, the chief difference being that in the former a relatively atger proportion of revived factors are involved.

It is quite pos-

e, namely, that in imagination where objective imagery is

4.63

present, where a so-called “image” appears to stand over against the conscious subject as an object, there is, in fact, as in perception, a physical object upon which the act of discriminating is directed, and that this accounts for the objective character which the content apprehended seems to possess, although the number of the features actually discriminated is far less than in perception, and the portion of the apprehended content ascribable to revived awareness considerably greater and more arbitrary and haphazard. It will be necessary, no doubt, to recognise that bodily factors, and not only extra-organic things, may and do, in these circumstances, function as objects. Finally, when we pass to thought, in the more specific sense of the term, to the apprehension of universals as such, to vonots or vods as Aristotle termed it, there is no break in the course of development. It is only in virtue of the mind being able to revive the awareness of previously perceived contents, to compare these, and to free them from the accidental concomitants with which they were originally presented, that any generalisation on its part is possible. And any distinction recognised by the conscious subject involves the initial step of the liberation just referred to. For it is only by a process of comparing different contents that we are able to recognise resemblances or differences as such, and every resemblance or difference thus recognised is, by the very fact of its being a resemblance or difference, general in character. The act of thought is, then, similar in character to the act of perceiving or of imagining. It, likewise, is essentially an act of discriminating, of comparing, and of relating. Moreover, here, too a distinction similar in nature to that already noted in the case of perceiving and imagining calls for acknowledgment. It is essential, namely, to distinguish the act of cognising a universal both from the universal itself and from the way in which that universal, in and through the act in question, is cognised. A mental state of conceiving is clearly a concrete event, which, although characterised by a plurality of properties possessed by it in common with other mental states, is in itself as definitely particular as any one of them. A concept, the content apprehended, is a way in which a universal is conceived, a mode in which it is apprehended by thought, and is obviously not to be confounded with the act through and by means of which it has

been attained. And, once more, although it is usual to identify concepts and the universals to which they refer, the identification is illegitimate. A concept is a product of thought, reached by a process that is at once analytic and synthetic; a process, on the one hand, of singling out what is imbedded in a matrix of reality, and, on the other hand, of bringing together what is presented in numerical difference. The universal to which it refers is, or may be, a quality characterising a number of particulars, often widely removed from one another in time and space,—a “pervasive character of things.” Furthermore, in thinking there is invariably a reference to the objective order of things as contrasted with the merely subjective play of the inner life. Yet this, again, is no new feature, but the natural development from the establishment in consciousness of the distinction between subjective activity and objective reality. In judgments of perception the act of thinking is directed upon an actually present object, and in the higher stages signs and symbols probably play a part not wholly dissimilar to that played by the nucleus of perceived fact in the case of imagination. We are thus led to recognise that cognition is, in all its various forms, essentially of one character. From the very first it is a process of discriminating, of distinguishing, of comparing; and, although in its earlier stages differing enormously in degree of completeness from those acts which we are in the habit of describing specifically as acts of comparing and relating, is yet similar to them. We are led, in short, to recognise that, as we trace back the stages of mental development, we come upon a discriminative activity that evinces itself in ever simpler and more rudimentary forms,—a discriminative activity which is prior to that in which so-called “ideas of relation” are consciously used, and on the basis of which these are subsequently formed and applied. We are returning, in fact, to the Aristo-

464

KNOWLEDGE

telian conception of cognitive activity as exhibiting ascending grades of scope and completeness, with, however, the important difference that we are not admitting, either at one end of the scale or at the other, a mode of apprehension that is intuitive in character as distinguished from what he too described as discriminative. The old Aristotelian difficulty recurs when it is claimed that there is a fundamental distinction to be drawn between “knowledge by acquaintance” and “knowledge by description,” and that by the first we have immediate awareness of sensedata and of, at least, certain universals, as contrasted with the

mediate awareness of things and of truths which is obtained by the other. There are specific reasons for doubting the tenability of this view. It is hard to realise what a cognitive act can be which does not involve those simple functions of discriminating

minds and without which they would not become intelligible at | all. The distinction between truth and concrete fact comes mg clearly to the front in what we call thinking; but it is involved in

the simplest processes of apprehension. And in this connection it seems advisable to add a word respecting one aspect of the

opposition between perceiving and thinking which is frequently emphasised and to which reference has already been made, The

contents of thought are representative of an order that is indepen.

dent of time. Temporal succession may be represented in ang through the contents of thought, but taken in themselves, a

concepts of universals, these contents are timeless.

On the other

hand, it is urged, perception is always apprehensive of Chang. ing fact, and is essentially concerned with temporal events,

The contrast thus drawn is, however, wrongly made. If we which afterwards evince themselves in the highly developed forms | have regard to the mental processes themselves, both Perceiving

of mental activity for which the name “thinking” or “judging” and thinking are temporal occurrences, dependent upon temporal is usually reserved. There would seem, then, to be a continuous conditions, and temporal determinations may be represented by advance from the simplest forms of cognition to the higher forms, means of thought no less than by means of perception. On the and the generalising work of thought does not leave perception other hand, if we have regard to the conten‘ apprehended in itself unaffected; perception is no longer what it was in its cruder each case, no such contrast can be constituted. A content perstages, it too comes to involve generalisation. ceived is, no less than a content thought, qué content, outside the From the point of view here taken, the question as to the rela- region of temporal flux and change. Nothing can alter it, for the tion between thought and reality assumes an aspect altogether simple reason that it is not an existent entity that can be operated different from that which it assumed in any of the historic theories on, acted on, or affected in any manner whatsoever. dealt with above. Thought cannot be regarded as constructive of Truth and Existence—We have been speaking of existents the world of concrete fact in the way in which either Kant or and contrasting them with entities of which existence cannot Hegel conceived it to be, nor on the other hand, can there be be predicated, and it is now necessary to say something further that opposition between thought and concrete fact, which the about this distinction. To define an ultimate term, such as the empirical writers would constitute. Cognitive activity is one term “existence,” is impossible, but, by considering instances ingredient in the whole of existent reality, and as such can neither to which it is applicable, it is possible to give a description of it. be identified with the whole nor divorced from it. It presupposes Broad (The Mind and its Place in Nature, p. 18) distinguishes as conditions of its possibility existent entities other than itself, | between what he calls “abstracta” and “existents.” In the first and there is something incongruous in the notion that thinking | place, an existent can be referred to in a proposition only as a which is throughout determined by the concrete material of |logical subject, although some abstracta share this property with the world within which it makes its appearance should in its existents. In the second place, however, all existents are either procedure thoroughly distort that material. directly and literally in time, or at least appear to human minds Here, once more, the problem of error rather than that of to be so, while abstracta, on the other hand, neither are nor appear truth would appear to be the crucial problem. The errors to | to be directly and literally in time. And under the head of “abwhich perception, for example, is liable cannot be accounted for by stracta”’ he includes qualities, relations, numbers, and also proposiany one mode of explanation; there are numerous circumstances tions and classes, if there be such entities. which, in each specific case, require to be considered. But if Reality, then, is a much wider and more fundamental category perception þe of the nature indicated, if the characteristics are than existence; all existents must be real but not all that is real discriminated always in a more or less fragmentary fashion, and exists. And it is convenient to employ the term subsistence in under some conditions much more imperfectly than under others, | speaking of those entities which are real but which do not exist. one general principle of explanation is at once provided. It is, | Moreover, the term “subsistents” is more appropriate than Broad's indeed, precisely in the contrast between the fragmentary and | term “abstracta,” because there are, as we have seen, some entithe complete that the significance of what is denoted by the term ties, such as sensible appearances, which are not existents, but “appearance” is to be discerned. In contradistinction: to the |which may yet not be suitably designated “abstracta.” It is obvifulness of cantent possessed by the existent object, the “appear- | ous that some subsistents are very closely connected with existents ance” carries with it marks of poverty, of mutilation, and these |} and thereby become indirectly connected with time. A universal may result in leading to positive error. Always in sense-perception | may, for example, change in its relation to conscious minds. It there must, arise this contrast, but it does not imply that a new will be thought of at one time and not at another, and may thus object, the “appearance,” has come into existence, and is thence|be in relation to many minds or to few at the same time. It can, forward there ready to he apprehended whenever the opportu- again, change in respect to the particular existents it is said to nity occurs. The6 “appearance” is no more than. a way in which | qualify or relate. The characteristi ; c of being crimson may apply the existent object is known. And, mutatis mutandis, similar |to a particular rose at ane time and not at another. But the nature considerations hold with reference to the more developed pro- | of a universal does not change, nor can its relation to another cess of thinking. universal, except as involving one of the relations mentioned to In the long run, the Hmitation of our thought is a result of a particular. the position of the fimite mind as part of the totality to which Passing now to what we ordinarily describe as truth in employwe give the name reality; the finite mind stands, as Lotze put it, | ing such a phrase as that mathematics is a body of truths or that not at the centre of things, but has a modest position somewhere | m the extreme ramifications of reality. AI the same, the cate- philosophy is an effort to grasp the truth of things, it is clear gories of thought are not mere forms capriciously invented by |that, however we may define the term “truth,” we do not mem _ by it anything to which the term existence is applicable, In refer finite minds. It is true that the relations of logical dependence |ence to existent entities, we have seen reason for concluding that which we represent by means

of judgments and syllogisms are | they are not dependent either for their existence

or their characnot to be: regarded as precise copies of relations that subsist in the realm of concrete fact. But in the first place, we never in |teristic qualities upon the circumstance of being perceived o known. But are we also entitled to say that the being and nature our thinking assume any such literal correspondence; and, in the | second place, the forms of thought are ways in which the modes of truth is likewise independent of its being known? That isa difficult question, abot which great difference of opinion prevails. of connectedness of concrete fact bécome intelligible te thinking | One thing, however, can be definitely asserted. Truth does not

KNOWLES depend upon its being known byindividual human minds. Truth

465

conform or fail to grasp it. By our thinking we can neither make

coherence will disclose itself. And that is an error which has not seldom been committed in expositions of the theory in question. For metaphysics doubtless a vast problem is thus created, that,

vent it; and its nature is unaffected by the circumstance that at , particular time and under certain conditions it is acknowledged py us. The truth that 24+-2=4 would subsist even though there were no human minds to know it.

to amalgamate them by introducing into the one conditions which determine the coherence of the other.

has à nature of its own to which our individual thinking must

nor alter truth; we may come to recognise it, but we cannot in-

namely, of so conceiving the whole of reality as to render intelligible the presence in it of these two subordinate and correlative systems; but nothing but confusion can result from attempting

What, then, is the relation of truth to concrete existing fact?'

Brstiocrapny.—The Histories of Philosophy by J. E. Erdmann, F. Ueberweg and W. Windelband. Zeller’s History of Greek Philosophy; R. Adamson’s Development of Greek Philosophy (1908); J.I. truth that has Greek Theories of Elementary Cognition (1906) ; J. Burnet’s or does exist or will exist. But it does concern a very large por- Beare’s Greek Philosophy from Thales to Plata (1914). David Peipers, Die tion of what we may describe as the whole of truth. The answer ' Erkenntnistheorie Plato’s (1874); Paul Natorp, Piato’s Ideenlehre of those thinkers who have recognised the distinction between (1903); Hans Raeder, Platons Philosophische Entwickelung (190s) ; truth and existence has usually been that there is a correspon-, Nicolai Hartmann, Platos Logik des Seins (1909); A. E. Taylor, Plato

may be The question concerns not all truth, for obviously there no reference to anything which either has existed

dence between these two realms of being, that a proposition is (1926). F. F. Kampe, Die Erkenntnistheorie des Aristoteles (1870) ; H. Maier, Sylogistik des Aristoteles, 3 vols. (1896-1900) ; W. Freytag, true when it corresponds to the “facts,” or that a scientific theory' Die Entwickelung der griechischen Erkenntnistheorie bei Aristoteles is true when it corresponds to the nature of the things in reference | (1905); A. Görland, Aristoteles und Kant bezüglich der Idee der the-

to which it is asserted to hold. And that a correspondence of oretischen Erkenntnis (1909); W. D. Ross, Aristotle (1923) and Arissome sort does obtain between the truth about existent facts: totle’s Metapkysics, Text and Commentary, 2 vols. (1924). Ọn Schol-

and the existent facts themselves may be accepted as indispw-| astic theories: A Stöckl, Gesck. der Philosophie des Mittelalters, 4 vols. (1861—67); B. Hauréau, Hist. de la philosophie scholastique, 3 table. To determine the exact character of the correspondence| vols. (1872-80) ; M. de Wulf, Hist. de la philosophie médiéval (19005).

may well be, however, a task beyond our power of accomplishing. | For the Modern Period: R. Adamson, Development of Modern PhilosoCertainly, truth is no mere likeness of reality, there is no *‘one- phy, 2 vols. 1903, and A Short History of Logic (1911) ; Ernst Cassirer, one” correspondence between them. The order and connection; Die Erkenntnisproblem in der Phil. u. Wissenschaft der neueren Zeit, 2 vols. (1906-07) ; P. Natorp, Descartes’ Erkenntuistheorie (1882) ; N. of truths is not the same as the order and connection of things., Kemp Smith, Studies in the Cartesian Philosophy (1902) > M. Ginsberg, In the realm of concrete existence there are no connections of: Malebranche’s Dialogues on Metaphysics (1923); H. H. Joachim, A

which the purely logical connections of general and particular, of | Study of the Ethics of Spinoza (1901) ; B. Russell, A Critical Exposi-

tion of the Philosophy of Leibniz (1900); James Gibson, Locke’s Theory of Knowledge (1907) ; R. Metz, George Berkeley (1925); A. Meinong, Hume-Studien, (i. 1877, ii. 1882) ; T. H. Green, Introduction to Hume’s Treatise, Vol. i., 1885; C. Hedvall, Humes Erkenntnistheotie velopment of things. To use Lotze’s illustration, “this horse ' (1906) ; H. Cohen, Kants Theorie der Erfahrung (1871, 2 ed. 1888) ; E. was not to begin with animal in general, then vertebrate in general, | Caizd, Philosophy of Kant (1877), The Critical Philosophy of Kant later on mammal, and only at the last stage of all, horse; nor can! (1889); R. Adamson, On the Philosophy of Kant (1879); J- Volkelt, Erkenntnistheorie (1879); Max Apă, Kants Erkenntnistheorie we at any moment of its life separate off as an independent set of| Kants (1895); G. Dawes Hicks, Die Begrife Phinomenon u. Noumenon bei qualities the more fully defined group of properties which make it' Kant (1897); H. A. Prichard, Kant’s Theory of Knowledge (1909) ; a horse from the more general and less determinate which would: J. H. Stirling, Tke Secret of Hegel, 2 vols. (1865) ; J. M. E. McTaggart, make it a vertebrate, or from those most indeterminate of all: Studies in Hegelian Dialectic (1896) and A Commentary on Hegel’s which would merely constitute it an animal as such.” Yet to set: Logic (1910); J. B. Baillie, The Origin and Significance of Hegels

ground and consequent are precise parallels. The subordination: of notion to notion, for example, in a logical scheme of classi-: fication has no strict counterpart in the actual structure and de-.

aside a crude conception of that sort is in no way to undermine | what is known as the “correspondence theory.” In order to: justify the theory, it is not necessary that we should be in a posi-i tion to formulate the precise kind of correspondence here involved. It may be questioned whether there is any real incompatibility | between the correspondence theory of truth and the view of

Logic (1901).

Current Epistemology-——J. F. Ferrier, Institutes of Metaphysics (1854); J. S. Mill, Examination of Hamilton’s Philosophy (1868) ; J. Grote, Exploratio Philosophico (i. 1865, ii. 1900); H. Lotze, Logic

(Trans. by B. Bosanquet, 1884); J. Volkelt, Erfahrung u. Denken (1886); W. K. Clifford, The Common-sense of the Exact Sciences (2885) 5 W. Wundt, Logik, Bd. i. Erkenntnislehre (2 ed. r893); C. Sigwart, Logic, 2 vols. (Trans. by H. Dendy, 1895); L. T. Hobhouse, truth as systematic coherence. The latter is the conception of| The Theory of Knowledge (1896, 2 ed. 1921); B. Russell, Principles truth as a significant whole, and, in the long run, it is not between' of Mathematics (1903) ; G. T. Ladd, Philosophy of Knoapledge (1903) ; H. Joachim, The Nature of Trutk (1906); L. J. Walker, Theories tits of truth and isolated facts of reality, but between the whole | H. of Knowledge (1910) ; P. Coffey, Epistemology, 2 vols. (ror7); N. O. of truth and the whole of reality that correspondence would need Lossky, The Intuitive Basis of Knowledge (Trans. by N..A. Duddingto evince itself. From the point of view of human intelligence,| ton, 1919) ; W.. E. Johnson, Logic (i. 1921, li. 1922, iii. 1924) ; J. Cook the conception of a whole of truth is an ideal; and, although' Wilson, Statement and Inference (2 vols. 1926); James Ward’s Natu4$ t

nothing in our partial knowledge answers precisely to the demands!

ralism and Agnosticism (2 vols. 1897, 2 ed. 1903); S. H. Hodgson’s

of Experience (4 vols. 1898); T. H. Bradleys Principles of such an ideal, yet it would seem to be essentially involved.|| Metaphysics Of Logic (1883, new ed. 1922), Appearance and Reality (r892) and

By taking typical instances of true judgment, and asking what: Essays on Truth and Reality (1914)5 B. Basanquet’s Knowledge and their truth virtually implies, it may be shown that any such judg-` Reality (1885), Ldgic {2 vols. 1888; 2 ed. 1911), Implication and ment expands into a system of wider scope, a process which evi-| Linear Inference (1920) ; J. Baillie’s Idgalistic Construction -of Experi-

ence (1906); and J. M. E. McTaggart’s The Nature of Existence (i. dently can reach no terminus save that of a system at once self- 192m, H. 1927). For Pragmatism: F.'C. S. Schillers Arioms as Postu-

tontained and all-embracing. Every iteħ of truth tends, so to; speak, to open out and to be absorbed into a completer truth, and’ that tendency is the expression of the ideal struggling in it for seli-fulfilment. When, for example, a fragmentary truth is absorbed into such a body of truth as we call a science, it does not retain the identical character which it possessed per se; it loses in large measure its fragmentariness, and gains in richness of meaning through its relation with the rest of the whole of which it aS become a part. And whenever what purports to be a truth, refuses to fit into such

a coherent system ït at once

awakens:

dates (in Personal Idealism) (1902) ; “William Jame? Pragmatism(1907) and The Meaning of Truth (x909) and the vol. edited by F. Dewey, Studies in Logical Theory (1903). In ‘Germany, Franz Brentano (1838-1917) initiated most of the more recent epistemological research. See his Versuch über die Erkenntnis (edited by A. Kastil, 1925). Largely under his influence were A. Meinong, Ueber Annahmen (1902, 2 ed. 1910) and Abhandlungen zur Erkenntnistheorie u. Gegenstandstheorie (1913). Also €. Husserl, Logische Untersuchungen (i. 1900, ii. 1901) and Ideen zu einer reinen Phänomenologie (1913), For the realistic standpoint, B. Russell, Philosophical Essays (x910), ProbJems of Philosophy (1912), Our Knowledge of the External World

(1914); A. N. Whitehead, An Inquiry concerning the Principles of

Suspicion as to its claim. But the truth can only form a coherent| Natural Knowledge (1919) 4G. E. Moore, Philosophical Essays (1922) ; system in so far as the constituents of that system are truths.; C.D. Broad, Perception, Physics and Reality (1914), Scientific Thought tG. D. H) If truths and existent entities be indiscriminately mingled, and} (1923), The Mind and dts Place in Nature (1925). these be supposed to be related to one another in a way similar! KNOWLES, SIR JAMES (1831-1908), English architect lo that in which either of them are related among themselves, no‘ an editor, was born in London in r831, and was eđucated, with

466

KNOWLES—KNOW

a view to following his father’s profession, as an architect at University college and in Italy. In 1867 he was introduced to Tennyson, whose house, Aldworth, on Blackdown, he designed; this led to a close friendship, Knowles assisting Tennyson in busihess matters, and among other things helping to design scenery for The Cup, when Irving produced that play in 1880. In 1869, with Tennyson’s co-operation, he started the Metaphysical society, the object of which was to attempt some intellectual rapprochement between religion and science by getting the leading representatives of faith and unfaith to meet and exchange views. Its members included Dean Stanley, Seeley, Martineau, W. B. Carpenter, Hinton, Huxley, Hutton, Ward, Bagehot, Froude, Tennyson, Tyndall, Gladstone, Manning, Knowles, Lord Avebury, F. Harrison, Father Dalgairns, Sir G. Grove, Shadworth Hodgson, H. Sidgwick, Mark Pattison, duke of Argyll, Ruskin, Robert Lowe, Grant Duff, Greg, A. C. Fraser, Henry Acland, Bishop Magee, Croom Robertson, FitzJames Stephen, W. K. Clifford, Lord Selborne, Jobn Morley, Leslie Stephen, Gasquet, A. J. Balfour, James Sully and others. The last meeting of the society was held on May 16, 1880. The society formed the nucleus of the distinguished list of contributors who supported Knowles in his capacity as editor (187077) of the Contemporary Review, and (1877-1908) of the Wineteenth Century. Knowles, who was knighted in 1903, died at Brighton on Feb. 13, 1908.

KNOWLES,

JAMES

SHERIDAN

(1784-1862),

Irish

dramatist and actor, was born in Cork, on May 12, 1784. His father was the lexicographer, James Knowles (17 59-1840), cousingerman of Richard Brinsley Sheridan. The family removed to London in 1793, and the boy’s talents secured him the friendship

NOTHING

Among his more important books are Fossil Wood and Lignite of the Potomac Formation (1889) ; Fossil Flora of Alaska (1894) ;Foss

Flora of the Yellowstone National Park (1898) ; A Catalogue of ity Cretaceous

and Tertiary Plants of North America

the Montana

Formation

(1900);

(1808): Flora of

Birds of the World

(1909)+4

Catalogue of the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Plants of North Americ, (1919) ; The Loramie Flora of the Denver Basin (1922) ; Plants of the Past (1927).

KNOW

NOTHING

or AMERICAN

PARTY, in Unites

States history, a political party of great importance in the decade before 1860. Its principle was political proscription of naturalized citizens and of Roman Catholics. In the years 1830-60 Ing,

immigration became increasingly preponderant; and that of Cath. olics was even more so. The geographical segregation and the clannishness of foreign voters in the cities gave them a power that Whigs and Democrats alike strove to control, to the great aggravation of naturalization and election frauds. “No one can deny that ignorant foreign suffrage had grown to be an evil of

immense proportions” (J. F. Rhodes). In labour disputes, political feuds and social clannishness, the alien elements—especially the Irish and German—displayed their power, and at times gave offence by their hostile criticism of American institutions. In

immigration centres like Boston, Philadelphia and New York, the Catholic Church, very largely foreign in membership and proclaiming a foreign allegiance of disputed extent, was really

“the symbol and strength of foreign influence” (Scisco); many regarded it as a transplanted foreign institution, un-American in organization and ideas. Thus it became involved in politics. The decade 1830-40 was marked by anti-Catholic (anti-Irish)

riots in various cities and by party organization of nativists in

of Hazlitt, who introduced him to-Lamb and Coleridge. He served many places in local elections. Thus arose the American-Repubfor some time in the Wiltshire and afterwards in the Tower lican (later the Native-American) Party, whose national career Hamlets militia, leaving the service to study medicine under began practically in 1845, and which in Louisiana in 1841 first received a State organization. New York city in 1844 and Boston Robert Willan (1757-1812). But he forsook medicine for the stage, making his first appearance probably at Bath, and playing in 1845 were carried by the nativists, but their success was due Hamlet at the Crow theatre, Dublin. At Wexford he married, in to Whig support, which was not continued, and the national Oct. 1809, Maria Charteris, an actress from the Edinburgh theatre. organization was practically extinct by 1847. In the early *sos In 1810 he wrote Leo, in which Edmund Kean acted with great nativism was revivified by an unparalleled inflow of aliens. In success; another play, Brian Boroihme, written for the Belfast 1853-54 there was a widespread “anti-popery” propaganda and theatre in the next year, drew crowded houses, but his earnings riots against Catholics in various cities. Meanwhile the Know were so small that he had to turn to school-teaching, first at Bel- Nothing Party had sprung from nativist secret societies, Like fast and then at Glasgow. His Caius Gracchus was produced at these, its organization was secret; and hence its name—for a Belfast in 1815; and his Virginius, written for Edmund Kean, was member, when interrogated, always answered that he knew nothfirst performed in 1820 at Covent Garden. In William Tell ing about it, Selecting candidates secretly from among those nom(1825) Macready found one of his favourite parts. His best- inated by the other parties, and giving them no public endorseknown play, The Hunchback, was produced at Covent Garden in ment, the Know Nothings, as soon as they gained the balance of 1832; The Wife was brought out at the same theatre in 1833; power, could shatter at will Whig and Democratic calculations. and The Love Chase in 1837. In his later years he became a Their power was evident by 1852—from which time, accordingly, Baptist preacher, and attracted large audiences at Exeter hall and “Know-Nothingism” is most properly dated. The charges they elsewhere. He published two polemical works directed against brought against naturalization abuses were only too well founded; and those against election frauds not less so. The proposed prothe special doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church. Knowles

scription of the foreign-born knew no exceptions: many wished

for some years received an annual pension of £200, bestowed by Sir Robert Peel. He died at Torquay on Nov. 30, 1862.

never to concede to them all the rights of natives, nor to their

A full list of the works of Knowles and of the various notices of him will be found in the Life (1872), privately printed by his son, Richard Brinsley Knowles (1820-82), who was a well known journalist.

the real animus of Know-Nothingism was against political Romanism; therefore, secondarily, against papal allegiance and epis-

KNOWLTON,

FRANK

HALL

(1860-1926), American

palaeobotanist,, was born at Brandon, Vt., on sept. 2, 1860, and graduated at Middlebury college in 1884. He became an aid at the U.S. National Museum in Washington, D.C., and in 1887 was made curator of botany and fossil plants at that institution. He resigned in 1889 to take a position as assistant palaeontologist

with the U.S. Geological Survey.

In 1900 he became palaeon-

tologist and, in 1907, geologist of the survey, serving in the latter position until his death at Ballston, Va., on Nov. 22, 1926. His chief contribution to science was his studies of the distribution and structure of fossilized plants, a subject upon which he became, perhaps, the leading authority in the United States. His investigation led him on many field trips throughout the Western

States. He was the founder of The Plant World and its editor from. 1897-1904.

200.

His papers in scientific journals number over

children unless educated in the public schools. As for Catholics,

copal Church administration (in place of administration by lay

trustees, as was earlier -common practice in the United States);

and, primarily, against public aid to Catholic schools, and the

alleged greed (ż.e., the power and success) of the Irish in politics.

The times were propitious for the success of an aggressive third party, but the Know Nothings lacked aggression. In entering

national politics the party abandoned its mysteries, without making compensatory gains. When it was compelled to publish4 platform of principles, factions arose in its ranks; moreover, it “straddled” the slavery question. In 1854, however, Know Noth ing gains were remarkable. In this year “American Party” be-

came the official name.

Its strength in Congress was almost

thirtyfold

It elected

that of 1852.

governors,

legislatures,

both, in four New England States, and in Maryland, Kentucky

‘and California; and almost won six Southern States. Thereafter the organization spread like wildfire in the South, in which section there were

almost no

aliens.’ Know

N othing evasion of

407

KNOX davery question probably helped the South, but neither Republicans nor Democrats would endure the evasion; Douglas and Seward, and later (1855-56) their parties, denounced it. In the North-West the Know Nothings were swept into the antigavery movement in 1854 without retaining their organization. The national platform of 1856 (adopted by a secret grand council), besides including anti-alien and anti-Catholic planks, offered

sops to the North, the South and the “dough-faces” on the slavery ‘ssue. Millard Fillmore was nominated for the presidency. Eight months later the Republican wave swept the Know Nothings out of the North. Their popular vote in the North was under oneseventh, in the South above three-sevenths, of the total vote cast. By 1859 the party was confined almost entirely to the border States. The Constitutional Union—the “Do Nothing”—Party of 1860 was mainly composed of Know Nothing remnants. The year

1860 practically marked, also, the disappearance of the party as a local power. Except in city politics nativism had no vitality. Public opinion has never accepted its estimate of the alien nor of

Catholic citizens. Some of its anti-Church principles, however— as the non-support of denominational schools—have been generally accepted. See G. H. Haynes, “A Know Nothing Legislature” (Mass., 1855), in American Historical Assoc. Report, pt. x (1896); J. B. McMaster, With the Fathers, including “The Riotous Career of the Know Nothings” (1896); L. F. Schmeckebier, Know Nothing Party in Maryland (Johns Hopkins university, Baltimore, 1899); L. D. Scisco, Political Nativism in New York State (doctoral thesis, Columbia university, New York, 1901); H. F. Desmond, The Know Nothing Party (Washington, 1905); J. P. Senning, “The Know-Nothing Movement in Illinois, 1854-56,” Ill. State Hist. Soc. Jour., vol. vii.,

p. 7-33 (Springfield, II., 1914); E. E. Robinson, Tke Evolution of American Political Parties (1924); Benjamin Tuska, Know-Nothingism in Baltimore, 1854-60 (1925); and H. R. Bruce, American Parties

ond Politics (1927).

KNOX, HENRY

(1750-1806), American general, was born

in Boston, Mass., of Scottish-Irish parentage, on July 25, 1750. He was prominent in the colonial militia and tried to keep the Boston crowd and the British soldiers from the clash known as the Boston massacre (1770). In 1771 he opened the “London bookstore’ in Boston. He had read much of tactics and strategy, joined the American army at the outbreak of the Revolutionary War, and fought at Bunker Hill, planned the defences of the camps of the army before Boston, and brought from Lake George and border forts much-needed artillery. At Trenton he crossed

the river before the main body, and in the attack rendered such good service that he was made brigadier-general and chief of artillery in the Continental army. He was present at Princeton; was chiefly responsible for the mistake in attacking the “Chew House” at Germantown; urged New York as the objective of the campaign of 1778; served with efficiency at Monmouth and at Yorktown; and after the surrender of Cornwallis was promoted major-general. His services throughout the war were of great value to the American cause; he was one of Washington’s most trusted advisers, and he brought the artillery to a high degree of efficiency. In April 1783 he had drafted a scheme of a society to be formed by the American officers and the French officers who had served in America during the war, and to be called the “Cincinnati”; of this society he was the first secretary-general (1783-99) and in 1805 became vice-president-general. Knox was

secretary of war in 1785-94, being the first to hold this position after the organization of the Federal Government in 1789. He urged ineffectually a national militia system, to enroll all citizens over 18 and under 60 in the “advanced corps,” the “main corps” or the “reserve.” For this and for his close friendship with Washington he was bitterly assailed by the Republicans. He died in Thomaston, Me., on Oct. 25, 1806.

letters, especially the latter, are often vividly autobiographical. Even the year of his birth, usually given as 1505, is matter of dispute. Beza makes it r515; Sir Peter Young (tutor to James VI. of Scotland), writing to Beza from Edinburgh in 1579, says 1513; and a strong case has been made out for holding that the generally accepted date is due to an error in transcription.

(See

Dr. Hay Fleming in the Bookman, Sept. 1905.) He was a son of William Knox, who lived in or near Haddington, his mother’s name was Sinclair, and his forefathers on both sides had fought under the banner of the Bothwells. William Knox was perhaps a prosperous East Lothian peasant. John went to school and to the university, where he sat “at the feet” of John Major.

Major exchanged his “regency” or professorship in Glasgow University for one in that of St. Andrews in 1523. If Knox’s college time was later than that date (as it must have been, if he was born near 1515), it was no doubt spent, as Beza narrates, at St. Andrews, and probably exclusively there. But in Major’s last Glasgow session a “Joannes Knox” matriculated there; and if this were the future reformer, he may thereafter either have followed his master to St. Andrews or returned from Glasgow straight to Haddington. But there is no trace of him for another

twenty years. Then he reappears in his native district as a priest without a university degree (Sir John Knox) and a notary of the diocese of St. Andrews. In 1543 he signed himself ‘‘minister of the sacred altar’ under the archbishop of St. Andrews. But in 1546 he was carrying a two-handed sword in defence of the reformer George Wishart, on the day when the latter was arrested by the archbishop’s order. Knox would have resisted, though the arrest was by his feudal superior, Lord Bothwell; but Wishart himself commanded his submission, with the words “One is sufficient for a sacrifice,” and was handed over for trial at St. Andrews. Next year the archbishop himself had been

murdered, and Knox was preaching in St. Andrews a fully developed Protestantism. Knox gives us no information as to how this startling change in himself had been brought about. After Wishart’s execution he fled from place to place, and, hearing that certain gentlemen of Fife had slain the cardinal and were in possession of his castle of St. Andrews, he gladly joined himself to them. In St. Andrews he taught “John’s Gospel” and a certain catechism— probably that which Wishart had got from “Helvetia” and translated; but his teaching was supposed to be private and tutorial and for the benefit of his friends’ “bairns.” The men about him however—among them Sir David Lindsay of the Mount, “Lyon King” and poet—saw his capacity for greater things, and, on his at first refusing “to run where God had not called him,” planned a solemn appeal to Knox from the pulpit to accept “the public office and charge of preaching.” At the close of it the speaker (in Knox’s own narrative) “said to those that were present, ‘Was not this your charge to me? And do ye not approve this vocation?’ They answered, “It was, and we approve it.’ Whereat the said Johnne, abashed, burst forth In most abundant tears and withdrew himself to his chamber,” remaining there in “heavi-

ness” for days, until he came forth resolved and prepared.

Knox

is probably not wrong in regarding this strange incident as the spring of his own public life. The St. Andrews invitation was really one to danger and death; John Rough, who spoke it, died a few years after at Smithfield. What to the others was chiefly a promise of personal salvation became for the indomitable will of Knox an assurance also of victory, even in this world, over embattled forces of ancient wrong. It is certain at least that from this date Knox never changed and scarcely even varied his

public course. And looking back upon that course afterwards, he records with much complacency how his earliest St. Andrews sermon built up a whole fabric of aggressive Protestantism upon See F. S. Drake, Memoir of General Henry Knox (Boston, 1873); Puritan theory, so that his startled hearers muttered,’ “Others and Noah Brooks, Henry Knox (1900) in the, “American Men of sned (snipped) the branches; this man strikes at the root.” me Energy” series; and W. R. Sandham, “General Henry Knox,” Illinois Meantime the system attacked was safe for another thirteen State Hist. Soc. Journal, vol. xviii., pp. 436-439 (1925). years. In June 1547 St. Andrews yielded to the French fleet, and KNOX, JOHN (c. 1505-1572), Scottish reformer and his- the prisoners, including Knox, were thrown into the galleys on torian. Of his early life very little is certainly known, in spite the Loire, to remain in irons and under the lash for at least nineof the fact that his History of the Reformation and his private teen months. Released at last (apparently through the influence P

R 7

KNOX

468

of the young English king, Edward VI.), Knox was appointed one of the licensed preachers of the new faith for England, and stationed in the great garrison of Berwick, and afterwards at Newcastle. In 1551 he seems to have been made a royal chaplain; in 1552 he was certainly offered an English bishopric, which he declined; and during most of this year he used his influence, as

preacher at court and in London, to make the new English settlement more Protestant. To him at least is due the Prayer-book rubric which explains that, when kneeling at the sacrament is ordered, “no adoration is intended or ought to be done.” While in Northumberland Knox had been betrothed to Margaret Bowes, one of the fifteen children of Richard Bowes, the captain of Norham Castle. Her mother, Elizabeth, co-heiress of Aske in Yorkshire, was the earliest of that little band of women-friends whose correspondence with Knox on religious matters throws an unexpected light on his discriminating tenderness of heart. But now Mary Tudor succeeded her brother, and Knox in March 1554 escaped into five years’ exile abroad, leaving Mrs. Bowes a fine treatise on “Affliction,” and sending back to England twò editions of a more acrid “Faithful Admonition” on the crisis there. He first drifted to Frankfort, where the English congregation was divided, and the party opposed to Knox got rid of him at last by a complaint to the authorities of treason against the emperor Charles V. as well as Philip and Mary. At Geneva he found a more congenial pastorate. Christopher Goodman (c. 15201603) and he, with other exiles, began there the Puritan tradition, and prepared the earlier English version of the Bible. Here, and afterwards at Dieppe (where he preached in French), Knox kept in touch with the other Reformers, studied Greek and Hebrew in the interest of theology, and having brought his wife and her mother from England in 1555 lived for years a peaceful life. But even here Knox was preparing for Scotland, and facing the difficulties of the future, theoretical as well as practical. In his first year abroad he consulted Calvin and Bullinger as to the right of the civil “authority” to prescribe religion to his subjects— in particular, whether the godly should obey “a magistrate who enforces idolatry and condemns true religion,” and whom should they join “in the case of a religious nobility resisting an idolatrous sovereign.” In August 1555 he visited his native country and found the queen-mother, Mary of Lorraine, acting as regent in place of Mary, queen of Scots, now being brought up at the court of France. Knox was allowed to preach privately for six months throughout the south of Scotland, and was listened to with an enthusiasm which made him break out, “O sweet were the death which should follow such forty days in Edinburgh as here I have had three!” Before leaving he even addressed a letter to the regent, urging her to favour the Evangel. She accepted it jocularly as a “pasquil,” and Knox on his departure was condemned and burned in efħgy. But he left behind him a “Wholesome Counsel” to Scottish heads of families, reminding them that within their own houses they were “bishop and kings,” and recommending the institution of something like the early apostolic worship in private congregations. Knox, though in exile, seems to have been henceforward the chief adviser of the Protestant lords; and before the end of 1557 they, under the name of the “Lords of the Congregation,” had entered into the first of the religious “bands” or “covenants” afterwards famous. In 1558 he published his “Appellation” to the nobles, estates and commonalty against the sentence of death recently pronounced ‘upon him, and along with it a stirring appeal “To his beloved brethren, the Commonalty of Scotland,” urging that the care of religion fell to them also as being “God’s creatures, created and formed in His own image,” and having a right to defend their conscience against persecution. About this time, indeed, the regent showed a remarkable degree of toleration, but next year she forbade the reformed preaching in Scotland. A rupture ensued at once, and Knox appeared in Edinburgh on May 2, rs59 “even in the brunt of the battle.” He was promptly “blown to the horn” at the Cross there as an outlaw, but escaped to Dundee, and commenced public preaching in the chief towns of central Scotland. At Perth and at St. Andrews his sermons were followed by the destruction of the monasteries. But while he notes that in Perth the act was w

that of “the rascal multitude,” he was glad to claim in St. An. drews the support of the civic “authority.”” Edinburgh was still doubtful, and the queen regent held the castle; but a truce between

her and the lords for six months to Jan. 1, 1560 was arranged on the footing that every man there “may have freedom to yg his own conscience to the day foresaid”—a freedom interpreted

to let Knox and his brethren preach publicly and incessantly Scotland, like its capital, was divided. Both parties lapsed

from the freedom-of-conscience solution to which successful appealed; both betook themselves to immediate future of the little kingdom was to be external alliances. Knox now took a leading part

each when yp. arms; and the decided by its in the transac.

tion by which the friendship of France was exchanged for that

of England.

accession to Scotland had against what government)

He had one serious difficulty.

Before Elizabeth’,

the English crown, and after the queen mother iy disappointed his hopes, he had published atreatise he called “The Monstrous Regiment (regimen or of Women.” Elizabeth never forgave him; but

Cecil corresponded with the Scottish lords, and their answer in July 1559, in Knox’s handwriting, assures England not only of their own constancy, but of “a charge and commandment to ow

posterity, that the amity and league between you and us, con. tracted and begun in Christ Jesus, may by them be kept invio. lated for ever.” The league was promised by England; but the army of France was first in the field, and towards the end of the year drove the forces of the “congregation” from Leith into

Edinburgh, and then out of it in a midnight rout to Stirling

“that dark and dolorous night,” as Knox long afterwards said,

“wherein all ye, my lords, with shame and fear left this town,”

and from which only a memorable sermon by their great preacher roused the despairing multitude into new hope. Their leaders renounced allegiance to the regent; she died in the castle of

Edinburgh; the English troops, after the usual Elizabethan delays and evasions, joined their Scots allies; and the French embarked from Leith. On July 6, 1560, a treaty was at last made, nominally between Elizabeth and the queen of France and Scotland; while Cecil instructed his mistress’s plenipotentiaries to agree “that the government of Scotland be granted to the nation of the land.” The revolution was in the meantime complete. Knox, who takes credit for having done much to end the enmity with England which was so long thought necessary for Scotland’s independence, was destined, beyond all other men, to leave the stamp of a more inward independence upon his country and its history. At the first meeting of the Estates, in August 1560, the Protestants were invited to present a confession of their faith. Knox and three others drafted it, and were present when it was offered and read to the parliament, by whom it was approved.

The Scots

confession, Calvinist rather than Lutheran, remained for two centuries the authorized Scottish creed, though in the first instance the faith of only a fragment of the people. Yet its approval

became the basis for three acts passed a week later: the first abolishing the pope’s authority and jurisdiction in Scotland; the second, rescinding old statutes which had established and enforged that and other Catholic tenets; the third, inflicting heavy penalties, with death on a third conviction, on those who should celebrate mass or even be present at it. The reformer and his friends

could no longer be described as, in Knox’s words, “requiring nothing but the liberty of conscience, and our religion and fact

to be tried by the word of God.” Already “in our towns and places reformed,” as the Confession puts it, there were local or “particular kirks,” and these grew and

spread and were provincially united, till, in the Jast month of

this memorable year, the first General Assembly of their representatives met, and became the “universal kirk,” or “the whole

church convened.”

It had before it the plan for church govern-

ment and maintenance, drafted in August at the same time witb

the Confession, under the name of The Book of Discipline, and

by the same, framers.

Knox was even more clearly in this case

the chief author, and he had by this time come to desire a much

more rigid Presbyterianism than he had sketched in his “Wholesome

Counsel”

of 1555.

In planning it he seems to have used

his acquaintance with the “Ordonnances” of the Genevan Church

i

KNOX der Calvin, and with the “Forma” of the German Church in London under John Laski (or A. Lasco).

Starting with “truth”

contained in Scripture as the church’s foundation, and the Word and Sacraments as means of building it up, it provides ministers

and elders to be elected by the congregations, with a subordinate class of “readers,” and by their means sermons and prayers each “Cunday” in every parish. In large towns these were to be also on other days, with a weekly meeting for conference or “prophesying.” The “plantation” of new churches is to go on everywhere under the guidance of higher church officers called superintendents. All are to help their brethren, “for no man may be permitted to live as best pleaseth him within the Church of God.” And above all things

the young

and the ignorant

are to be

instructed, the former by a regular gradation or ladder of parish or elementary schools, secondary schools and universities. Even the poor were to be fed by the Church’s hands; and behind its moral influence, and a discipline over both poor and rich, was to be not only the coercive authority of the civil power but its

money.

Knox had from the first proclaimed that “the teinds

(tithes of yearly fruits) by God’s law do not appertain of neces-

sity to the kirkmen.” And this book now demands that out of them “must not only the ministers be sustained, but also the poor and schools.” But Knox broadens his plan so as to claim also

the property which had been really gifted to the Church by

princes and nobles—given by them indeed, as he held, without

any moral right and to the injury of the people, yet so as to be Church patrimony. From all such property, whether land or

the sheaves and fruits of land, and also from the personal property of burghers in the towns, Knox now held that the state should authorize the kirk to claim the salaries of the ministers, and the salaries of teachers in the schools and universities, but above all, the relief of the poor—not only of the absolutely “indigent” but of “your poor brethren, the labourers and handworkers of the ground.” For the danger now was that some gentlemen were already cruel in exactions of their tenants, “requiring of them

whatever before they paid to the Church, so that the papistical

tyranny shall only be changed into the tyranny of the lords or of the laird.” . The danger foreseen alike to the new Church, and to the commonalty and poor, began to be fulfilled a month later, when the lords, some of whom. had already acquired, as others were about to acquire, much of the Church property, declined to make any of it over for Knox’s magnificent scheme. It was, they said, “a devout imagination.” Seven years afterwards, however, when the contest with the Crown was ended, the kirk was expressly acknowledged as the only Church in Scotland, and jurisdiction given it over all who should attempt to be outsiders; while the preaching of the Evangel and the planting of congregations went on in all the accessible parts of Scotland. Gradually too stipends for most Scottish parishes were assigned to the ministers out of the yearly teinds; and the Church received—what it retained even down to recent times—the administration both of

the public schools and of the Poor Law of Scotland.

But the

victorious rush of 1560 was already somewhat stayed, and the very next year raised the question whether the transfer of intolerance to the side of the new faith was as wise as it had at first seemed to be successful. Mary Queen of Scots had been for a short time also queen of France, and in 1561 returned to her native land, a young

widow on whom the eyes of Europe were fixed. Knox’s objections to the “regiment of women” were theoretical, and in the present case he hoped at first for the best, favouring rather his queen’s marriage with the heir of the house of Hamilton.

Mary had

put herself into the hands of her half-brother, Lord James Stuart afterwards earl of Moray, the only man who could perhaps have pulled her through. A proclamation now continued the state of religion” begun the previous year; but mass was celebrated in the queen’s household, and Lord James himself de-

fended it with his sword against Protestant intrusion. Knox pub-

lily protested; and Moray, who probably understood and liked oth parties, brought the preacher to the presence of his queen.

ere is nothing revealed to us by “the broad clear light of

4.69

that wonderful book,’! The History of the Reformation in Scotland, more remarkable than the four Dialogues or interviews, which, though recorded only by Knox, bear the strongest stamp of truth, and do almost more justice to his opponent than to himself. Mary took the offensive, and very soon raised the real question. “Ye have taught the people to receive another religion than their princes can allow; and how can that doctrine be of God, seeing that God commands subjects to obey their princes?” The point was made keener by the fact that Knox’s own Confession of Faith (like all those of that age, in which an unbalanced monarchical power culminated) had held kings to be appointed “for maintenance of the true religion,” and suppression of the false; and the reformer now fell back on his more fundamental principle, that “right religion took neither original nor authority from worldly princes, but from the Eternal God alone.” All through this dialogue too, as,in another at Lochleven two years afterwards, Knox was driven to axioms, not of religion but of constitutionalism, which Buchanan and he may have learned from their teacher Major, but which were not to be accepted till a later age. “ ‘Think ye,’ quoth she, ‘that subjects, having power, may resist their princes?’ ‘If their princes exceed their bounds, Madam, they may be resisted and even deposed,’ ” Knox replied. But these dialectics, creditable to both parties, had little effect upon the general situation. Knox had gone too far in intolerance, and Moray and Maitland of Lethington gradually withdrew their support. The court and parliament, guided by them, declined to press the queen or to pass the Book of Discipline; and meantime the negotiations as to the queen’s marriage with a Spanish, a French or an Austrian prince revealed the real difficulty and peril of the situation. Her marriage to a great Catholic prince would be ruinous to Scotland, probably also to England, and perhaps to all Protestantism. Knox had already by letter formally broken with the earl of Moray, ‘‘committing you to your own wit, and to the conducting of those who better please you”; and now, in one of his greatest sermons before the assembled lords, he drove at the heart of the situation—the risk of a Catholic marriage. The queen sent for him for the last time and burst into passionate tears as she asked, “What have you to do with my marriage? Or what are you within this commonwealth?” “A subject born within the same,” was the answer of the son of the East Lothian peasant; and the Scottish nobility, while thinking him overbold, refused to find him guilty of any crime, even when, later on, he had “convocated the lieges” to Edinburgh to meet a crown prosecution. In 1564 a change came. Mary had wearied of her guiding statesmen, Moray and the more pliant Maitland; the Italian secretary David Rizzio, through whom she had corresponded with the pope, now more and more usurped their place; and a weak fancy for her handsome cousin, Henry Darnley, brought about a sudden marriage in 1565 and swept the opposing Protestant lords into exile. Darnley, though a Catholic, thought it well to go to Knox’s preaching; but was so unfortunate as to hear a

very long sermon, with allusions not only to “babes and women” as rulers, but to Ahab who did not control his strong-minded wife. Mary and the lords still in her council ordered Knox not

to preach while she was in Edinburgh, and he was absent or

silent during: the weeks which preceded the murder of Rizzio. During the rest of the year Knox was hidden in Ayrshire or elsewhere, and throughout 1566 he was forbidden to preach when the court was in Edinburgh. But he was influential at the December Assembly in the capital where a greater tragedy was now preparing, for Mary’s infatuation for Bothwell was visible to all. At the Assembly’s request, however, Knox undertook a long visit to England, where his two sons by his first wife were being educated, and were afterwards to be fellows of St. John’s, Cambridge, the younger becoming a parish clergyman. It was thus during the reformet’s absence that the murder of Darnley, the abduction and subsequent marriage of Mary, the flight of Bothwell, and the imprisonment in Lochleven of the queen, unrolled 1Tohn Hill Burton ( Hist. of Scotland, iii. 339). Mr. Burton’s view (differing-from that of Professor Hume Brown) was that the dialogues —the earlier of them at least—must have been spoken in the French tongue, in which Knox had recently preached for a year.

4.70 themselves before the eyes of Scotland.

KNOX Knox returned in time

to guide the Assembly which sat on June 25, 1567, in dealing

with this unparalleled crisis, and to wind up the revolution by preaching at Stirling on July 9, 1567, after Mary’s abdication, at the coronation of the infant king. His main work was now really done; for the parliament of 1567 made Moray regent, and Knox was only too glad to have his old friend back in power, though they seem to have differed on the question whether the queen should be allowed to pass into retirement without trial for her husband’s death, as they had differed all along on the question of tolerating her private religion. Knox’s victory had not come too early, for his physical strength soon began to fail. But Mary’s escape in 1568 resulted only in her defeat at Langside, and in a long imprisonment and death in England. In Scotland the regent’s assassination in 1570 opened a miserable civil war, but it made no permanent change. The massacre of St. Bartholomew rather united English and Scottish Protestantism; and Knox in St. Giles’ pulpit, challenging the French ambassador to report his words, denounced God’s vengeance on the crowned murderer and his posterity. When open war broke out between Edinburgh Castle, held by Mary’s

friends, and the town, held for her son, both parties agreed that the reformer, who had already had a stroke of paralysis, should remove to St. Andrews. While there he wrote his will, and published his last book, in the preface to which he says, “I heartily take my good-night of the faithful of both realms . . . for as the world is weary of me, so am I of it.” And when he now merely signs his name, it is “John Knox, with my dead hand and glad heart.” In the autumn of 1572 he returned to Edinburgh to die, probably in the picturesque house in the “throat of the Bow,” which for generations has been called by his name. With him were his wife and three young daughters; for though he had lost Margaret Bowes at the close of his year of triumph, 1560, he had four years after married Margaret Stewart, a daughter of his friend Lord Ochiltree. She was a bride of only seventeen and was related to the royal house; yet, as his Catholic biographer put it, “by sorcery and witchcraft he did so allure that poor gentlewoman that she could not live without him.” He died on Nov. 24, 1572, and at his funeral in St. Giles’ Churchyard the new Regent Morton, speaking under the hostile guns of the castle, expressed the first surprise of those around that one who had “neither flattered nor feared any flesh” had now “ended his days in peace and honour.” Knox was a rather small man, with a well-knit body; he had a powerful face, with dark blue eyes under a ridge of eyebrow, high cheek-bones, and a long black beard which latterly turned grey. This description, taken from a letter in 1579 by his junior contemporary Sir Peter Young, is very like Beza’s fine engraving of him in the Jcones—an engraving probably founded on a portrait which was to be sent by Young to Beza along with the letter. The portrait, which was unfortunately adopted by Carlyle, has neither pedigree nor probability. After his two years in the French galleys, if not before, Knox suffered permanently from gravel and dyspepsia, and he confesses that his nature “was for the most part oppressed with melancholy.” Yet he was always a hard worker; as sole minister of Edinburgh studying for two sermons on Sunday and three during the week, besides having innumerable cares of churches at home and abroad. He was undoubtedly sincere in his religious faith, and most disinterested in his devotion to it and to the good of his countrymen. But like too many of them, he was self-conscious, self-willed and dogmatic; and his transformation in middle life, while it immensely enriched his sympathies as well as his energies, left him

unable to put himself in the place of those who retained the views which he had himself held. All his training too, university,

priestly and in foreign parts, tended to make him logical overmuch. But this was mitigated by a strong sense of humour (not

leaving it to later critics to reconcile his theories of action, By hence too he more than once took doubtful shortcuts to som of his most important ends; giving the ministry within the ney Church more power over laymen than Protestant principles would

suggest, and binding the masses outside who were not member of it, equally with their countrymen who were, to join in its

worship, submit to its jurisdiction, and contribute to its support

And hence also his style (which contemporaries called anglicizej and modern), though it occasionally rises into liturgical beauty and often flashes into vivid historical portraiture, is generally

kept close to the harsh necessities of the few years in which he had to work for the future. That work was indeed chiefly done by the living voice; and in speaking, this “one man,” as Eliza-

beth’s very critical ambassador wrote from Edinburgh, was “able

in one hour to put more life in us than five hundred trumpets con. tinually blustering in our ears.” But even his eloquence was con. straining and constructive—a personal call for immediate and wiversal co-operation; and that personal influence survives to this day in the institutions of his people, and perhaps still more in their character. His countrymen indeed have always believed that to Knox more than to any other man Scotland owes her political and religious individuality. And since his roth century biography by Dr. Thomas McCrie, or at least since his recognition in the following generation by Thomas Carlyle, the same view has taken its place in literature. BrBLioGRAPHY.—Knox’s books, pamphlets, public documents and letters are collected into the great edition in six volumes of Kno+’s Works, by David

Laing

appendices and notes.

(Edinburgh,

1846-64),

with introductions,

Of his books the chief are the following: 1—

The History of the Reformation in Scotland, incorporating the Confession and the Book of Discipline. Begun by Knox as a party

manifesto in 1560, it was continued and revised by himself in 1566

so as to form four books, with a fifth book apparently written after his death from materials left by him. It was partly printed in London in 1586 by Vautrollier, but was suppressed by authority and published by David Buchanan, with a Life, in 1664. 2.—On Predestination: an Answer to an Anabaptist (London, 1591). 3-——On Prayer (1554). 4-—On Affliction (1556). 5—Epistles, and Admonition, both to English Brethren in 1554. 6—~The First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of Women (1558). 7-—An Answer to a Scottish Jesuit (1572). Knox’s life is more or less touched upon by all the Scottish histories and Church histories which include his period, as well as in the mass of literature as to Queen Mary. Dr. Laing’s edition of the Works contains important biographical material. But among the many express biographies two especially should be consulted—those by Thomas McCrie (Edinburgh, 1811; revised and enlarged in 1813, the later editions containing valuable notes by the author); and by P. Hume Brown (Edinburgh, 1895). John Knox and the Reformation, by Andrew Lang (1905), is not so much a biography as a collection of materials, bearing upon many parts of the life, but nearly all on the unfavourable side. See also J. Glasse, John Knox, a Criticism and

an Appreciation (1905) ; Edwin Muir, John Knox (1929). (A. T. 1)

KNOX,

PHILANDER

CHASE

(1853-1921), American

lawyer and cabinet officer, was born at Brownsville, Pa., on May 6, 1853. He graduated at Mount Union college, Ohio, in 1872, studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1875. The following year he was appointed assistant U.S. attorney for the westem district of Pennsylvania. In 1877 he opened an office in Pittsburgh where he practised law continuously until in rgoz he was appointed attorney-general by President McKinley and was retained by President Roosevelt. While in this office he instituted many important suits, notably those against the “beef trust” and

the Northern Securities Company, which marked a new policy on the part of the Government with regard to regulation of business. These prosecutions, together with his reports upon the regulation of trusts, mark him as one of the most capable of

those who have held the office. He resigned in 1904, to fill the unexpired term of Matthew S. Quay, as senator for Pennsylvania, and was re-elected to serve in 1905—11.

His service in the Senate was interrupted by President Taft

summoning him in 1909 to ‘become secretary of State, which always sarcastic, though sometimes savagely so), and by tender- position he filled until the end of the Taft Administration in ness, best seen in his epistolary friendships with women; and it March 1913. Knox’s attempt to use the influence of the State was quite overborne by an instinct and passion for great practical Department to encourage and extend American financial and affairs. Hence it was that Knox as a statesman so often struck commercial: interests, especially in Latin-America, the Near-East successfully at the centre of. the complex motives of his time, and the Far-East, was criticized as “dollar diplomacy.” In 191

KNOXVILLE—KNUTSFORD ne made a tour of Central and South American countries to allay the suspicion aroused in these countries by the financial and industrial policy of the United States and by its Panama canal he

policy. In 1917 he was again returned to the Senate.

There

became one of the foremost opponents of the League of Nations. He died in Washington (D.C.), Oct. 12, 1921. KNOXVILLE, a city of Tennessee, U.S.A., on the Tennessee river; the largest city in the eastern half of the State, a port

47%

Palamedes made an offering of his newly invented game. According to a still more ancient tradition, Zeus, perceiving that Ganymede longed for his playmates upon Mount Ida, gave him Eros for a companion and golden dibs with which to play, and even condescended sometimes to join in the game (Apollonius). It is significant, however, that both Herodotus and Plato ascribe to

of entry and the county seat of Knox county. It is on Federal highways II, 25 and 70; and is served by the Louisville and

Nashville and the Southern railways. The population was 77,818 in 1920 (145% negroes) and had grown to 105,802 (by Federal

census) in 1930. It lies among the foot-hills of the Clinch and the Chilhowee mountains, at an altitude of 850 to 1,oooft. in the valley hetween the Cumberland and the Great Smoky ranges, and thus is near one of the most beautiful regions in the eastern part of the country. There are zinc, copper, coal and iron mines, and some 30 large marble quarries, in the vicinity. The leading agricultural products are tobacco, apples, peaches, strawberries, cherries,

poultry, corn and small grains. The city is the principal trading centre and shipping point for a large area, and has important manufacturing industries, with an output in 1927 valued at $61,668,004. There are large railroad shops, and the cotton mills

the game a foreign origin. Plato (Phaedrus) names the Egyptian god Theuth

as its inventor,

while Herodotus

relates that

the

Lydians, during a period of famine in the days of King Atys, originated this game and indeed almost all other games except chess. There were two methods of playing in ancient times. The first, and probably the primitive method, consisted in tossing up and catching the bones on the back of the hand, very much as the game is played to-day. In the Museum of Naples may be seen a painting excavated at Pompeii, which represents the goddesses Latona, Niobe, Phoebe, Aglaia and Hileaera, the last two being engaged in playing at Knucklebones. According to an epigram of Asclepiodotus, astragals were given

as prizes to school-children, and we are reminded of Plutarch’s anecdote of the youthful Alcibiades, who, when a teamster threatened to drive over some of his knucklebones that had fallen

into the wagon-ruts, boldly threw himself in front of the advancing team. This simple form of the game was generally played only by women and children, and was called pentalitha or fiveknitting 1,600 and looms 3,500 spindles, 200,000 about had in 1928 stones. There were several varieties of it besides the usual toss and 19, $483,525,5 to machines. Bank debits in 1927 amounted and catch, one being called tropa, or hole-game, the object having the assessed valuation of property for 1927 was $164,698,996. been to toss the bones into a hole in the earth. Another was the the Among Tennessee. of y Universit the of seat the Knoxville is simple and primitive game of “odd or even.” other institutions are Knoxville college for negroes (United The second, probably derivative, form of the game was one of Presbyterian; 1875), the eastern State hospital for the insane, pure chance, the stones being thrown upon a table, either with and deaf the for negroes) for and white (for and State schools the hand or from a cup, and the values of the sides upon which dumb. There is a national cemetery with 3,865 graves. The home. they fell counted. In this game the shape of the pastern-bones of William Blount, governor of “the Territory South of the Ohio,” used for astragaloi, as well as for the zalz of the Romans, with still stands in the heart of the city. whom knucklebones was also popular, determined the manner of Knoxville was settled in 1786 by James White, a North Carolina counting. The pastern-bone of a sheep, goat or calf has, besides pioneer, and was known at first as White’s Fort. The town was two rounded ends upon which it cannot stand, two broad and two laid out in 1791, and was named after Gen. Henry Knox, then narrow sides, one of each pair being concave and one convex. The. secretary of War. In the early years it was attacked by the convex narrow side, called chios or “the dog” counted 1; the Indians several times, but was never captured. During the Civil convex broad side 3; the concave broad side 4; and the concave War it was taken by Gen. Burnside (Union) on Sept. 2, 1863, narrow side 6. Four astragals were used and 35 different scores and was then unsuccessfully besieged by Confederate troops under were possible at a single throw, many receiving distinctive names Longstreet from Nov. 16 to Dec. 4. such as Aphrodite, Midas, Solon, Alexander, and, among the

KNUCKLE,

the joint of a finger, probably the diminutive

of a German word Knoke, bone. ‘The knuckle-joint of an animal killed for eating is the tarsal or carpal joint of its leg. In machinery a knuckle is the round projecting part of a hinge through = the pin is run, and in shipbuilding the acute angle on certain : timbers.

(Hvucxrerones, Dmwæs, JACKSTONES, KNUCKLEBONES CHUCKSTONES, FIVE-STONES), a game of very ancient origin,

played with five small objects, originally the knucklebones of a sheep, which are thrown up and caught in various ways. Modern

“knucklebones” consist of six points, or knobs, proceeding from

a common base, and are usually of metal. The winner is he who

first completes successfully a prescribed series of throws, which,

Romans, Venus, King, Vulture, etc. The highest throw in Greece, counting 40, was the Euripides, and was probably a combination throw, since more than four sixes could not be thrown at one

time. The lowest throw, both in Greece and Rome, was the Dog. See Cassels Book of Sports and Pastimes (1896) ; W. W. Newell, Games and Songs of American Children (1893): and The Young Folk? Cyclopaedia of Games and Sports (1899), for the modern

children’s game. For the history see L. Becq de Fouquières, Les Jeux des Anciens (1869); Bolle, Das Knochelspiel der Alten (1886); W.

Richter, Die Spiele der Griechen und Römer (1887).

KNUR AND SPELL: see TRAP-BALL.

KNUTSFORD, SYDNEY GEORGE HOLLAND, 2ND Viscount (1855—), eldest son of the first Viscount Knutsford, was born on March 19, 1855. He was educated at Wellington and at Trinity Hall, Cambridge. He was called to the

while of the same general character, differ widely in detail. The simplest consists in tossing up one stone, the jack, and picking up one or more from the table while it is in the air; and so on until bar in 1879, and in 1883 married Lady Mary Ashburnham, all five stones have been picked up. Another consists in tossing daughter of the 4th earl of Ashburnham. He succeeded to the up first one stone, then two, then three, and so on, and catching title on the death of his father in 1914. He became a director other imthem on the back of the hand. Different throws have received of the Underground Electric Railways Company and portant companies, and was associated with a number of philandistinctive names, such as “riding the elephant,” “peas in the pod,” thropic enterprises. He was appointed chairman of the London and “horses in the stable.” The origin of knucklebones is closely connected with that of hospital, and his proposal that certain city churches should be dice, of which it is probably a primitive form, and is doubtless demolished in order to provide funds for the hospitals, though it

Asiatic. Sophocles, in a fragment, ascribed the invention of

attracted several supporters, embroiled him in controversy.

acter to knucklebones, and the Palamedes tradition, as flattering

KNUTSFORD, market town, urban district, Knutsford parliamentary division, Cheshire, England; 24 m. N.E. of Chester, on the L.M:S. railway and Cheshire lines. Pop. (1931) 5,878. It is pleasantly situated on an elevated ridge, with the fine domains of

as is indicated by numerous literary and plastic evidences. Thus

meres in these domains are especially picturesque.

draughts and knucklebones (astragaloi) to Palamedes, who taught them to his Greek countrymen during the Trojan War. Both the

Ikad and the Odyssey contain allusions to games similar in char-

to the national pride, was generally accepted throughout Greece,

Pausanias (Corinth xx.) mentions a temple of Fortune in which

Tatton park and Tabley respectively north and west of it. The

Among sev-

eral ancient houses the most interesting are a cottage dated 1411,

472

KOALA— KOCH

and the Rose and Crown tavern built in r641. In a churchyard a mile from the town stood the ancient church, which, though partially rebuilt in the time of Henry VIII., fell into ruin

in 1741. The church of St. John (1744), was supplemented (1880) by St. Cross church, in Perpendicular style. The town has a grammar school, founded in the 15th century, but reorganized in 1885. Lord Egerton built the Egerton schools in 1893. The industries comprise cotton, worsted and leather manufactures; but Knuts-

ford is mainly a residential area for Manchester. Knutsford was the birthplace of Sir Henry Holland, Physician Extraordinary to Queen Victoria (1788-1873); and his son, the second Sir Henry, afterwards Baron Knutsford. The name Knutsford (Cunetesford, Knotesford) is said to signify Cnut’s ford, but there is no evidence of a settlement here previous to Domesday. In 1086 Erthebrand held Knutsford immediately of William FitzNigel, baron of Halton, who was himself a mesne lord of Hugh Lupus earl of Chester. In 1292 William de Tabley, lord of both Over and Nether Knutsford, granted free burgage in both Knutsfords. This charter is the only one which

gives Knutsford a claim to the title of borough. In the same year, the king granted a market every Saturday at Nether Knutsford, and a three days’ fair at the Feast of St. Peter and St. Paul. When this charter was confirmed by Edward III. another market (Friday) and another three days’ fair (Feast of St. Simon and St. Jude) were added. The Friday market was certainly dropped by 1592, if it was ever held. The crowning of the May queen on the first Saturday in May attracts large crowds. A silk mill was erected here in 1770. See Henry Green, History of Knutsford

KOALA

(1859).

Phascolmyidae,

which

also

contains

Although the south and south-west parts of Japan are supposed to be immune from serious earthquakes, a shock in the Neigh.

bourhood of Kobe caused considerable damage and some loss of life in May 1925. KOBELL, WOLFGANG XAVER FRAN Z, Baron VON

(1803-1882), German mineralogist, was born at Munich on July

19, 1803. He studied chemistry and mineralogy at Landshut (1820—23), and in 1826 became professor of mineralogy in the University of Munich. He introduced new methods of mineral analyses, invented the stauroscope for the study of the optical

properties of crystals (1855), and described many new minerals,

He died at Munich on Nov. 11, 1882. His publications include Charakteristik der Mineralien 1830-31);

(2 vols, Tafeln zur Bestimmung der M ineralien, etc. (1833; and later editions ed. 12, by K. Oebbeke, 1884) ; Grundzüge der Mineralogie (1838), Geschichte der Mineralogie von 1650—1860 (1864) : and numer-

ous papers in scientific journals.

KOBLENZ:

see Cosrexz.

KOCH, ROBERT

(1843—1910), German bacteriologist, was

born at Klausthal, Hanover, on Dec. 11, 1843. He studied medi-

cine at Göttingen, where he came under the influence of Jacob

Henle. While he was practising as medical officer at Wollstein he began those bacteriological researches that made his name famous. In 1876 he obtained a pure culture of the bacillus of anthrax, announcing a method of preventive inoculation against that disease seven years later. Cohn, the botanist, hailed the discovery as one of the greatest importance, and printed Koch’s

account in bis Beiträge. Koch became a member of the sanitary

(Phascolarctos cinereus), a stoutly built marsupial,

of the family

Osaka, with which it is connected by electric railway; the hill of

Rokko-Zan behind the city has become a favourite summer resort

the wom-

bats. This animal, which inhabits the south-eastern parts of the Australian continent, is about 2ft. in length, and of an ashgrey colour, an excellent climber, residing in lofty eucalyptus trees, the buds and tender shoots of which form its principal food. From its shape the koala is called by the colonists the “native bear” or “native sloth.” The skins are imported into England, for the manufacture of articles in which a cheap and durable fur is required. The flesh is quite palatable.

KOBDO, a town and district situated in one of the intermontane basins at the northern foot of the Altai in North-west Mongolia. The immediate vicinity of the town is a stony, arid plain, but it is an important market for cattle-breeding nomads from a wide district around. Its historic rôle has been that of a trade-depôt linked commer- FOR AUSTRALIA cially with Peking, the exports to THE KOALA (PHASCOLARCTOS CINChina including large numbers of EREUS), AN AUSTRALIAN MARSUsheep, skins and wool. In recent PIAL years, however, there has been a marked tendency for the outer parts of Mongolia to be brought within the trade-sphere of Soviet Russia.

KOBE, a port of western Japan. Pop. (192 5) 644,212. A con-

siderable part of the trade of Yokohama was diverted to it as a consequence of the earthquake of 1923 and part of this trans-

ference will probably be permanent, owing to the excellent railway facilities of Kobe. Large sums have been spent on port improvement and land reclamation, and work is still in progress. A large shipbuilding yard, the fourth, was opened in 1917. In roro the bed of the Minatogawa river was reclaimed; the upper part has been made into a park, with a city hall and large market. The tramways have been extended to Hyogo, which is now administratively a part of Kobe. The City stretches five miles between the hills and the river, and is extending rapidly towards

commission at Berlin and a professor at the School of Medicine in 1880, and five years later he was appointed to a chair in Berlin university and director of the Institute of Health. By the im-

proved methods of bacteriological investigation he was able to elaborate, he transformed the science of infection. In 1882 he isolated the bacillus of tuberculosis, and in the following year, having been sent on an official mission to Egypt and India to study the aetiology of Asiatic cholera, he identified the comma bacillus as the specific organism of that malady. In 1890 great hopes were aroused by the announcement that in tuberculin he

had prepared an agent which exercised an inimical influence on the growth of the tubercle bacillus, but the expectations that were formed of it as a remedy for consumption were not fulfilled, though it proved useful as a means of diagnosing the existence of tuberculosis in animals intended for food. At the congress of tuberculosis held in London in r90z he maintained that tuberculosis in man and in cattle is not the same disease, the practical inference being that the danger to men of infection from milk and meat is less than from other human subjects suffering from the disease. One of the results of this statement was the appointment of a British royal commission to study the question. Dr. Koch also investigated the nature of rinderpest in South Africa

in 1896, and found means of combating the disease. In 1897 he

went to Bombay at the head of a commission formed to investigate the bubonic plague, and he subsequently undertook exten-

sive travels in pursuit of his studies on the origin and treatment of malaria. He was summoned to South Africa a second time in

1903 to give expert advice on other cattle diseases, and on his return was elected a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1906—7 he spent 18 months in.East Africa, investigating sleep-

ing-sickness. t9r0. Koch ever known. he must be

He died at Baden-Baden of heart-disease on May 28, was undoubtedly one of the greatest bacteriologists Apart from the immediate value of his discoveries, recognized as a pioneer in mew methods of bactetio-

logical work. Honours were showered upon him, and in 1905 he

was awarded the Nobel prize for medicine.

, Among his works may be mentioned:

Untersuchungen über die

Atzologie der Wundinfektionskrankheit (1878); Weitere Mitteilungen über ein Heilmittel gegen Tuberkulose (Leipzig, 1891); Heilmittel gegen

die Tuberkulose (1891); Über neue Tuberculinpräparate (1897); and Reiseberichte über Rinderpest, Bubonenpest in Indien und Afriki,

Tsetse- oder Surra-Krankheit, Texasfieber, tropische Malaria, Schwarzwasserfieber (1898). His Sämtliche Schriften (2 vols. 1912) were edited by Schwalbe, Gaffky and Pfahl. A bibliography of his works

is given by W. Becher, Robert Koch

(1891).

From

1836 onwards

KOCH—KOHAT he edited with Dr. Karl Flugge, the Zeitschrift fiir Hygiene und Injektionskrankhesten (published at Leipzig). See Loeffler, “Robert Koch, zum 60 ten Geburtstage” in Deut, Medizin. Wochenschr. (No.

go, 1903).

KOCH, a tribe of north-eastern India, which has given its

name to the state of Kuch Behar (g.v.). They are probably of Mongoloid stock, akin to the Mech, Kachari, Garo and Tippera

tribes, and originally spoke, like these, a language of the Bodo group. One of their chiefs established a powerful kingdom at

PASS

473

as chief of staff to Field Marshal Oyama, and it was well understood that his genius guided the strategy of the whole campaign, as that of General Kawakami had done in the war with China ten years previously. General Kodama was raised in rapid succession to the ranks of baron, viscount and count, and his death in 1907 was regarded as a national calamity.

KODUNGALUR,

town, southern India, in Cochin state,

within the presidency of Madras. Though now a place of little importance, its historical interest is considerable. Traditionally Kuch Behar in the 16th century and they have gradually become it was the first field of St. Thomas’s labours (A.D. 52) in India Hinduized, and now adopt the name of Rajbansi (=“of royal and the seat of Cheraman Perumal’s government. The Syrian Church was certainly firmly established here before the 9th cenlood”). : oa ÈK, CHARLES PAUL DE (1793-1871), French nov- tury, and probably the Jews’ settlement was still earlier. The elist, was born at Passy (Paris). He was a posthumous child, his latter, in fact, claim to hold grants dated a.D. 378. The cruelty father, a banker of Dutch extraction, having been a victim of of the Portuguese drove most of the Jews to Cochin. Up to 1314, the Terror. Paul de Kock lived on the Boulevard St. Martin, and when the Vypin harbour was formed, the only opening in the was one of the most inveterate of Parisians. He died in Paris on Cochin backwater, and outlet for the Periyar, was at Kodungalur, April 27, 1871, In 1820 he began his long and successful series of which must then have been the best harbour on the coast. In novels dealing with Parisian life with Georgette, ou la mère du 1502 the Syrian Christians invoked the protection of the PortuTabellion. His period of greatest and most successful activity guese, who in 1523 built their first fort there. In 1661 the Dutch was the Restoration and the early days of Louis Philippe, He was took the fort, the possession of which for the next forty years was relatively less popular in France itself than abroad, where he contested between this nation, the zamorin, and the raja of was considered as the special painter of life in Paris, Major Pen- Kodungalur. It was then taken by Tippoo in 1776, retaken by dennis’s remark that he had read nothing of the novel kind for the Dutch, ceded to Tippoo, sold to the Travancore raja, and 30 years except Paul de Kock, may be classed with the legendary finally sold to Tippoo, who destroyed it in 1790. The country question of a foreign sovereign to a Frenchman who was paying round Kodungalur now forms an autonomous principality, tribuhis respects, “Vous venez de Paris et vous devez savoir des nouv- tary to the raja of Cochin. KOESFELD, a town in the Prussian province of Westphalia, eles, Comment se porte Paul de Kock?” The disappearance of the grisette and of the cheap dissipation described by Henri Mur- on the Berkel, 38 m. by rail N.N.W. of Dortmund. Pop. (1925) ger practically made Paul de Kock obsolete. But to the student 10,564. The Gymnasial Kirche (Roman Catholic) is used by the of manners his portraiture of low and middle-class life in the Protestant community. Here are the ruins of the Ludgeri castle, first half of the roth century at Paris still has its value. With the formerly the residence of the bishops of Münster, and also the exception of a few not very felicitous excursions into historical castle of Varlar. The leading industries include the making of romance and some miscellaneous works of which his share in linen and cotton goods and machinery. La Grande ville, Paris (1842), is the chief, all his books are KOHAT, a town and district of British India, in the Northstories of middle-class Parisian life, of guinguettes and cabarets West Frontier Province. The town is 37 m. south of Peshawar by and various equivocal adventures. The most famous are André the Kohat Pass, along which a military road was opened in 1901. le Savoyard (1825) and Le Barbier de Paris (1826). The population in 1921 was 27,853, including 9,306 in the cantonHis Mémoires were published in 1873. See also Th. Trimm, La Vie ment. It is the military base for the southern Afridi frontier as de Charles Paul de Kock (1873). Peshawar is for the northern frontier of the same tribe, and it lies KODAIKANAL, a sanatorium of southern India, in the in the heart of the Pathan country. Madura district of Madras, situated in the Palni hills, among The District or KoHatT has an area of 2,694 sq.m. It consists beautiful scenery, about 7,000 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1921), chiefly of a bare and intricate mountain region east of the Indus, 4,203. It is difficult of access, being 50 m. from a railway station. deeply scored with river valleys and ravines, but enclosing a few It contains a government observatory, well known for investiga- scattered patches of cultivated lowland. The eastern or Khattak tions in terrestrial magnetism, seismology and solar physics. country especially comprises a perfect labyrinth of ranges. The _), one of the most original Miranzai valley, in the extreme west, appears by comparison a rich KODALY, ZOLTAN (1882and interesting of modern composers, was born at Kecskemét, and fertile tract. The frontier mountains, continuations of the Hungary, Dec. 16, 1882. He studied under Hans Koessler at Safed Koh system, attain in places a considerable elevation, the the Budapest Academy of Music, where he became professor two principal peaks, Dupa Sir and Mazi Garh, just beyond the of composition in 1907. A leading exponent of the ultra-modern British frontier, being 8,260 and 7,940 ft. above the sea respectendency in Hungarian music, he has devoted himself enthusiasti- tively. The Waziri hills, on the south, extend like a wedge between cally to the collection and arrangement of Hungarian and Slovak the boundaries of Bannu and Kohat, with a general elevation of folk-songs, and his pioneer work in this connection, carried on in less than 4,000 ft, The salt-mines are situated in the low line of conjunction with that of Béla Bartók, has been of great im- hills crossing the valley of the Teri Toi, and extending along both portance, as going to throw new light on Hungarian national music banks of that river. The deposit has a width of a quarter of a mile, in its earlier and more primitive forms. His own works, employ- with a thickness of 1,000 ft.; it sometimes forms hills 200 ft. in ing frequently folk song material, and strikingly, original and height, almost entirely composed of solid rock-salt, and may probindividual in treatment, includes two string quartets, a sonata. ably rank as one of the largest veins of its kind in the world. Petrofor violoncello and piano, a sonata for violoncello alone, songs leum springs exude from a rock at Panoba, 23 m. east of Kohat; and pianoforte pieces, and a fine setting of Psalm LV. (“Psalmus and sulphur abounds in the northern range. In 1921 the population Hungaricus”) for tenor solo, chorus and orchestra (1923), which was 214,123. The frontier tribes on the Kohat border are the was performed in England at the Gloucester festival of 1928 Afridis, Orakzais, Zaimukhts and Turis. All these are described under their separate names. A railway runs from Kushalgarh under the direction of the composer.

KODAMA, GENTARO, Count (1852-1907), Japanese general, was born in Choshu. He studied military science in Ger-

through

came governor-general of Formosa in 1900, holding a: the same

Province of India, connecting Kohat with Peshawar.

many, and was appointed vice-minister of war in 1892. He betime the portfolio of war. When the conflict with Russia became Imminent in 1903, he gave up his portfolio to become vice-chief

of the general staff, a sacrifice which elicited much public applause. Throughout the Russo-Japanese War (1904-5) he served

Kohat to Thal, and the river Indus is bridged

at

Kushalgarh.

KOHAT PASS, a mountain pass in the North-West Frontier

From the

north side the defile commences at 44 m. S.W. of Fort Mackeson,

whence it is about 12 or 13 m. to the Kohat entrance. The pass varies from 400 yd. to 14 m. in width, and its summit is some 600 to 700 ft. above the plain. It is inhabited by the Adam Khel

474

KOH-I-NOR—KOKAND

Afridis, and nearly all British relations with that tribe have been concerned with this pass, which is the only connection between two British districts without crossing and recrossing the Indus (see AFRIDI). It is now traversed by a cart-road.

KOH-I-NOR, a famous diamond, whose history can be traced

with certainty to the early 14th century.

It was one of Aurung-

zebe’s treasured possessions. In 1739 it passed into the possession of Nadir Shah, who gave the stone its name, which means “mountain of light.” After the annexation to Great Britain of the Punjab in 1849 the diamond passed through the hands of the East India company to Queen Victoria, since when it has remained the property of the British Crown. Originally it weighed 186,

carats, but it was re-cut in 1851 and reduced to 1064),carats. KOHISTAN, a tract on the Peshawar border of the NorthWest Frontier Province of India; also a district in Afghanistan and a tract of country in Sind. Kohistan means the “country of the hills” and corresponds to the English word highlands; but it is specially applied to a little known district to the south and west of Chilas, between the Kagan valley and the river Indus. It comprises an area of over 1,000 sq.m., and is bounded on the north-west by the river Indus, on the north-east by Chilas, and on the south by Kagan, the Chor Glen and Allai. It consists roughly of two main valleys running east and west, and separated by a mountain range over 16,000 ft. high. The mountains are snow-bound and rocky wastes from their crests downwards to 12,000 ft. Below this the hills are covered with fine forest and grass to 5,000 or 6,000 ft., and the valleys, especially near the Indus, are fertile basins under cultivation. The Kohistanis are Mohammedans, but not of Pathan race. They are a well-built, brave but quiet people who carry on a trade with British districts. There is little doubt that they are, like the Kafirs of Kafiristan,

Marburg on Jan. 17, 1910. His research work was mainly on electricity and magnetism: he devised a method of simultaneously determining the measure. ment of the horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field

and an electric current.

He carried out a series of important ip.

vestigations on electrolytic conductivity, using an alternatiy current in conjunction with a bridge method which reduced the

polarisation of the electrolyte. This method is used to-day and js called after Kohlrausch. He investigated the variation of cop. ductivity with dilution and showed that the ratio of the condu. tivity to the number of gram-equivalents of the salt per unit volume approached an upper limit for infinite dilution. He obtained a connection between this ratio and the sum of the velocities of the ions; this with the determination of the ratio of the velocities made by Hitorff enabled the absolute velocities of the ions to be found. Kohlrausch also did much to stimulate experimental work in physics, his Leitfaden der Praktischen

Physik (1870) ran into many editions, and was translated into English. He constructed a number of electric and magnetic measuring instruments. See Obituary Notice by Warburg in Deutsche Physikalische Gesell.

schaft Verhandlungen, xii. (1910).

KOKAND

or Koxan, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the Ko.

kand district of the Uzbek S.S.R., in 40° 28’ N. 70° 40’ E. Pop.

(1926) 68,426. Situated at an altitude of 1,375 ft., it has a severe

climate, the average temperatures being—year, 56°; January, 22°; July, 65°. Yearly rainfall, 3-6 in. It is the centre of a fertile irri-

gated oasis, and consists of a citadel, enclosed by a wall nearly

12 m. in circuit, and of suburbs containing luxuriant gardens. The town is modernized, has an electric plant, broad streets, large squares, and a particularly handsome bazaar. The former palace the remnants of old races driven by Mohammedan invasions from of the khans, which recalls by its architecture the mosques of the valleys and plains into the higher mountains. The majority have Samarkand, is the best building in the town. Kokand is one of the been converted to Islam within the last 200 years. The total most important centres of trade in Turkistan. It is a railway junction, from which one line branches north-east through Namanpopulation is about 16,000. An important district also known as Kohistan lies to the north gan, and another south-east to Andijan. Raw cotton and silk are the principal exports, while manufactured goods are imported of Kabul in Afghanistan, extending to the Hindu Kush. KOHL. ‘The name of the cosmetic used from the earliest from Russia. There are cotton cleaning factories and flour mills. times in the East by women to darken the eyelids, in order to A women’s co-operative store has been successfully established, increase the lustre of the eyes. It is usually composed of finely with a centre of instruction in health and infant welfare. Coins powdered antimony, but smoke black obtained from burnt al- bearing the inscription “Kokand the Charming,” and known as mond-shells or frankincense is also used. The Arabic word kodl, Rokands, had at one time a wide currency. The khanate of Kokand was a powerful state which grew up in from which has been derived “alcohol,” is derived from kakala, to stain. “Kohl” or “kohl-rabi” (cole-rape, from Lat. caulis, the 18th century. Its early history is not well known, but the cabbage) is a kind of cabbage (g.v.), with a turnip-shaped top, town was founded in 1732 by Abd-ur-Rahim under the name of Iski-kurgan or Kali-i-Rahimbai. This must relate, however, to the cultivated chiefly as food for cattle. KOHLHASE, HANS, the hero of Heinrich von Kleist’s fort only, because Arab travellers of the roth century mention novel, Michael Kohlhaas, was a merchant at K6lln in Branden- Hovakend or Hokand, the position of which has been identified burg. Unable to obtain redress in the courts of law for an attack with that of Kokand. Many other populous and wealthy towns on him by a Saxon nobleman on his way to Leipzig fair, the existed in this region at the time of the Arab conquest of Fergmerchant, in a Fehkdebrief, challenged not only his aggressor, but hana. In 1758-1759 the Chinese conquered Dzungaria and East the whole of Saxony. The elector of Saxony, John Frederick L., Turkistan, and the begs or rulers of Ferghana recognized Chinese set a price upon his head. Kohlhase now collected a band of suzerainty. In 1807 or 1808 Alim, son of Narbuta, brought all the criminals which spread terror throughout Saxony. In March 1540 begs of Ferghana under his authority, and conquered Tashkent Kohlhase and his principal associate, Georg Nagelschmidt, were and Chimkent. His attacks on the Bukharan fortress of Ura-tyube were however unsuccessful, and the country rose against him. He seized, and on the 22nd were broken on the wheel in Berlin. was killed in 1817 by the adherents of his brother Omar. Omat The life and fate of Kohlhase are dealt with in several dramas. See Burkhardt, Der historische Hans Kohthase und H. von Kleists was a poet and patron of learning, but continued to enlarge his kingdom, taking the sacred town of Azret (Turkistan), and, to Michael Kohlhaas (Leipzig, 1864).

KOHLRAUSCH, FRIEDRICH WILHELM (18401g10), German physicist, was born on Oct. 14, 1840, at Rinteln

‘protect Ferghana from the raids of the nomad Kirghiz, built

fortresses on the Syr-darya, which became a basis for raids of

Kokand people into Kirghiz land. This was the origin of a con-

on the Weser, the son of Rudolph Kohlrausch (1809-58), who, flict with Russia. Several petty wars were undertaken by the with Weber, had measured the ratio of the electro-magnetic to Russians after 1847 to destroy the Kokand forts, and to secure the electrostatic unit of charge. Kohlrausch studied at Göttingen and Erlangen. He held chairs at Göttingen (1866-70), at the

School of Technology, Frankfurt-on-Main (1870—71), at Darmstadt (1871-75), at Wiirzburg (1875-88), at Strasbourg (1388— 95), and finally he succeeded Helmholtz as president of the Reichanstalt at Charlottenburg.

In 1900 he was made honorary

professor of physics at the University of Berlin. He was a member

of the scientific societies of many European countries, including thé Royal Society and Physical Society of London. He died at

possession, first, of the Ili (and so of Dzungaria), and next of the Syr-darya region, the result being that in 1866, after the occupa-

tion of Ura-tyube and Jizakh, the khanate of Kokand was separated from Bukhara. During the forty-five years after the death

of Omar in 1822, the khanate of Kokand was the seat of continuous, wars between the settled Sarts and the nomad Kipchaks, the two parties securing the upper hand in turns. Kokand fell under the suzerainty of Bukhara, which supported Khudayar Khan, the

representative of the Kipchak party, in 1858~1866; while Alm

KOKOMO—KOLA Kul, the representative of the Sarts, put himself at the head of

the gazavat (Holy War) proclaimed in 1860, and fought bravely against the Russians until killed at Tashkent in 1865. In 1868 Khudayar Khan, having secured independence from Bukhara, concluded a commercial treaty with the Russians, but was compelled to flee in 1875, when a new Holy War against Russia was pro-

475

are treated in a somewhat loose and vague manner. Mörder, Hoffnung der Frauen (1907), Der brennende Dornbusch (1911), Hiob (1917) and Orpheus und Eurydike (1918) were first published in the Sturm and afterwards appeared in collected form under the title of Vier Dramen (1919). Mörder, Hoffnung der Frauen and Hiob were performed for the first time in Dresden

in 1919 and Der brennende Dornbusch was produced in Berlin under Kokoschka’s direction by the “Junge Deutschland.” In nition of Russian superiority by the amir of Bukhara, who con- his staging of this piece Kokoschka revealed original talent. His ceded to Russia all the territory north of the Naryn river. War, verse is, for the most part, complementary to the accompanying however, was renewed in the following year. It ended, in Feb. pictures. His poetical works include Die tréumenden Knaben 1876, with the capture of Andijan and Kokand and the annexation (Vienna, 1908; Leipzig, 1917); Der weisse Tiertéter (1920); of the Kokand khanate to Russia. Out of it was made the Russian Der gefesselte Kolumbus (1921); and among his more notable pictures and drawings are “Auswanderer” and “Der irrende Ritprovince of Ferghana, now merged in the Uzbek S.S.R. See: —The following publications are all in Russian: Kuhn, Sketch of ter.” As a painter he is one of the leading representatives of the Khanate of Kokand (1876) ; V. Nalivkin, Short History of Kokand the expressionist movement in Germany. See Paul Westheim, QO. (French trans., Paris, 1889); Niazi Mohammed, Tarihi Shahrohi, or Kokoschka (1919). History of the Rulers of Ferghana, edited by Pantusov (Kazan, 1885) ; KOKSHAROV, NIKOLAI IVANOVICH VON (1818Maksheev, Historical Sketch of Turkestan and the Advance of the Russigns (St. Petersburg, 1890); N. Petrovskiy, Old Arabian Journals of 93), Russian mineralogist and major-general in the Russian army, Travel (Tashkent, 1894) ; Russian Encyclopaedic Dictionary, vol. xv. assisted R. I. Murchison and de Keyserling in their survey of the (1895). In English: F. H. Skrine and E. D. Ross, The Heart of Asia Russian empire. He was later director of the institute of mines (1899). KOKOMO, acity of Indiana, U.S.A., som. N. of Indianapolis, and of the Imperial mineralogical society in St. Petersburg (Lenon Wildcat creek; the county seat of Howard county. It is on ingrad). His papers on euclase, zircon, epidote, etc., were conFederal highway 31; has an aviation field; and is served by the tributed to various scientific periodicals. He wrote Materialen zur Nickel Plate and the Pennsylvania railways and by inter-urban Mineralogie Russlands (10 vol., 1853-91), and Vorlesungen uber electric lines. The population was 30,067 in 1920 (93% native Mineralogie (1865). claimed. It ended in the capture of the strong fort of Makhram,

the occupation of Kokand and Marghelan (1875), and the recog-

white) and was 32,843 in 1930 by the Federal census of that year.

KOKSTAD, a town of South Africa, in 30° 30’ S., 29° 28’ E.;

It is the trade centre of a fertile farming region, and is an important industrial city, with over roo factories producing some 200 different articles and an aggregate output in 1927 valued at $25,745,381. Plate glass, rubber goods, steel wire and other metal

altitude 4,500 ft.; 156 m. by rail S.W. of Pietermaritzburg. The population consists of 3,300, of whom 1,150 are whites, and about a third Griquas. The town is situated near the foot of Mt. Currie, an igneous mass, which rises to a height of over 7,000 feet. It has a good water supply and the streets are lined with

There are over 200ac. of public parks and playgrounds, and a boulevard is under construction along the banks of Wildcat creek. The assessed valuation of property in 1927 was $41,171,810.

ings. Kokstad, which is named after its Griqua founder, Adam Kok, dates from 1869, and was granted municipal government in 1893. It is the chief centre of the Griqua people. A considerable trade in wool, grain and cattle is done with Basutoland, Pondoland and the neighbouring parts of Natal. The surrounding country is well known for its cheesemaking.

products are the outstanding manufactures. Abundant electric power is available from both hydro-electric and steam plants.

The region around Kokomo was a hunting ground of the Miami Indians, and some of their descendants still live in the village of Miami, 9m. N. of the city. In 1842 David Foster, an Indian trader,

bought several hundred acres for a few dollars from their chief, and built a cabin on the north bank of the Wildcat.

In 1844 the

little trading post (named after a Miami chief) was made the county seat, and in 1865 it became a city. The early years were a struggle with ague and swamp fever, as the 4oac. given by Foster for the town site were covered with water most of the year. In 1860 the population was only 1,040, but it Increased to 4,042 in 1880 and 10,609 in 1900, and in the next 20 years it was almost multiplied by three. The first practical automobile was built here

by Elwood Haynes in 1892. Here were made also the first pneumatic rubber tyres and the first aluminium castings.

KOKO-NOR.

The name of a lake of Central Asia in north-

east Tibet and of an administrative of China. The Koko-nor lake lies feet and measures 66 miles by 40. much of it very marshy, between

division under the jurisdiction at an altitude of about 10,000 It is part of a high-lying basin, the main axis of the Kunlun-

Koko-nor mountains on the south and the curving arc of the Nan-shan on the north, the latter separating it from the Tarim

basin, The level of the lake varies considerably. The administra-

tive district of Koko-nor or Tsing-hai was carved out of north-

eastern Tibet to protect the Kansu-Tarim corridor and unlike

Tibet proper, now virtually independent, it is administered by Chinese officials. It includes the Nan-Shan ranges as well as the

Koko-nor Depression. Most of the country is grazing-land interspersed with swamps. The population is thin and scattered, consisting mainly of nomadic Mongols in the north and of Tibetans in the south. In the extreme south-east a wild tribe of Tibetan

affinities known as the Golaks live a practically independent existence,

KOKOSCHKA,

OSKAR

(1886-

), German poet and

oak trees. There are two good hotels and several public build-

KOLA,

a peninsula of northern Russia lying between

the

Barents sea on the north and the White sea on the south and having an area of 50,000 sq.m. It is a plateau 600-700 ft. in height, mainly composed of granite and gneiss and is, geographically, an eastward extension of the mountainous region of Scandinavia. The snow capped granitic mountain masses of Umptek and Luyavrot reach a height of 3,500 to 4,000 ft. West of them lies a lowland gap stretching from Kola gulf in the north to the Kandalaksk gulf of the White sea in the south. Near the middle lies Lake Imandra, 67 m. from S.W. to N.E. from which the Niva river flows into Kandalaksk gulf, while to the north are smaller lakes connected by the Kola river. Lakes and rivers are numerous, and the watersheds are often ill-defined morasses, since the area is part of the Finnish moraine region. Towards the north ` the river valleys are clothed with birch and pine, in contrast to the general tundra nature of the region, but in the south thin birch woods extend over the whole area. Rapids make the rivers useless for navigation, and many are very shallow during summer and flooded in spring. Agriculture is impossible, the soil being poor and unproductive tundra, bog and podzol (see Russra: Soils) and the climate unfavourable, with a very short, cool summer average July temperature 548° F and a long winter, average January temperature 11-8° F, average rainfall per annum 8 in., half of which falls between June and August. The influence of the Atlantic drift is felt for some distance inland from the Murmansk coast (g.v.). The northern limit of cultivation excludes all the peninsula east of the Kola-Kandalaksk depression, but west of it potatoes, turnips and barley are grown to a small extent; the peninsula depends entirely on imported grain. Cattle and pigs are raised in the grassy valleys. Cloudberries, bilberries and crow-

berries are abundant in summer. Birds are numerous; especially the ptarmigan, willow grouse, capercailzie, eider-duck, goose and Wotks, written in whimsical vein, in which the problems of life puffin, The nomad tribes breed reindeer. Salmon are found in pamuter, was born at Pöchlarn, Austria, om March t, 1886. He

S an expressionist and has produced a number of semi-dramatic

476

KOLABA—KOLBERG

the rivers, and herring and seal are caught off thc White sea coasts. The settlements are mainly fishing stations on the Murmansk coast, and the chief town is Murmansk (¢.v.}. The railway constructed in. 1917 runs through the main depression northwards to Murmansk and settlements are springing up already (1928) along it. Otherwise communication is extremely difficult. There are a few reindeer sledge tracks in winter, but in summer they become swampy and mosquitoes are so numerous as to interfere with transit, and make it impossible for animals to be used. Mineral wealth consists mainly of silver, lead and zinc ore reported, but not worked, on the Murmansk coast, and silver mines worked on Medvied island in Kandalaksk gulf. A scientific expedition in 1927 under Professor Fersman found a marked magnetic anomaly suggestive of more extensive iron-deposits than the bogore already known to exist. Copper exists in the Ponoi valley near Umba and gold near Kola. Pearls are found in the rivers, especially in the Kola and Tuloma. Apart from the Russian Finns and Norwegians in the fishing settlements of the Murmansk district, the population consists mainly of Lapps. The Lapps are a Finno-Ugrian type, the shortest and most brachycephalic race in Europe. They have high cheek bones, narrow eyes, not. Mongalian in type, a good deal of hair on the face and a broad nose. They have been much modified by interbreeding with Russians and Norwegians and their numbers, including half-breeds, are probably about 2,500-3,000. They differ from the Finnish Lapps in dialect and in being entirely illiterate; their language somewhat resembles Mordvinian, but also shows Finnish influence. The Lyavozersk Lapps speak a different dialect from that of the Ponoi Lapps; and the latter have been much more influenced by Russian customs than the former. The Lapps are nomads and breed reindeer in a somewhat casual way. In summer they allow the reindeer to run wild and occupy themselves with fishing; in winter the herds are kept near the winter villages feeding on the reindeer moss, and this method means that the village becomes bare of lichen and is deserted every few years. Their food is reindeer flesh and dried or salted fish in the winter, and snow chickens, waterfowl and berries in the summer. They trade their reindeer products for knives, gunpowder and small articles with the Russians and Zirians and, before the railway came, did much transport of goods in their boat shaped reindeer sledges. Administratively the peninsula forms part of the Murmansk district of the Leningrad area. Its total population including the town of Murmansk was 23,016 in 1926. See Handbook of Siberia and Arctic Russia, ID. I207 (1920); A. O. Kihlmann and Palmén, Die Expedition nach der Halbinsel Kola (1887—92); A. O. Kibhlmann, Bericht einer naturwissenschaftlichen Reise durch Russisch-Lappland (Helsingfors, 1890) ; and W. Ramsay, Geologische Beobachtungen auf der Halbinsel Kola (Helsingfors, 1899).

KOLABA, a district of British India, in the southern division of Bombay. Area, 2,169 sq.m.; pop. (1921), 562,942. The headquarters are at Alibagh.

Lying between the Western Ghats and

the sea, Kolaba district is very hilly. The sea frontage, of about 20 m., is throughout the greater part of its length fringed by a belt of coco-nut and betel-nut palms. Behind this belt lies a stretch of

flat country devoted to rice cultivation. In many places along the banks of the salt-water creeks there are extensive tracts of salt marshland, and salt is largely manufactured. The district is traversed by a few small streams. Tidal inlets, of which the prin-

cipal are the Nagothna on the north, the Roha or Chaul in the west, and the Bankot creek in the south, run inland for 30 or 40 m., forming highways for a brisk trade in rice, salt, firewood, and dried fish and the fishing is of considerable value. The Western Ghats have two remarkable peaks—Raigarh, where Sivaji built his capital, and Miradongar. There are extensive teak and black wood forests, the value of which is increased by their proximity to Bombay. The Great Indian Peninsula railway crosses part of the district, and communication with Bombay is maintained by a steam ferry. Kolaba district takes its name from alittle island off Alibagh, which was one of the strongholds of Angria, the

Mahratta pirate of the 18th century.

KOLACEK,

FRANTISEK

(18 51-1913), Czech physicist,

studied in Prague under E. Mach and in Vienna under Stefan. In 2882 he was appointed lecturer at the Brno (Brunn) Polytechnic,

and in 1891 became professor of mathematical physics a the

Charles university in Prague. His numerous publicatio ns (mostly in Czech and German) dealing with electro-magnetic and Optical

theory and hydrodynamics include a paper “Zur Theorie der elektro-magnetischen Gleichungen in bewegten Medien” (Ann

der Phystk., 1907), which derives electromagnetic equations for moving media independently of the electron theory, and arrives | at Lorentz equations which are related to a system of co-ordinates connected with the observer, thus satisfying the relativity criterion. Koláček died in Dec. 1913.

KOLA NUT, the name given to the fruit of Cole acumingy

and C. vera, tropical African trees.

They are also known as guru

nuts and are used by the natives as food and, when chewed, asa stimulant.

KOLAR, a town and district of India, in the state of Mysore,

The town is 43 m. E. of Bangalore. Pop. (1921), 13,368, Al. though of ancient foundation, it has been almost completely mod. ernized. Industries include the weaving of blankets and the | breeding of turkeys for export. The District or Korar has an area of 3,149 sq.m. It occupies the portion of the Mysore table-land immediately bordering the Eastern Ghats. The principal watershed lies in the north-west, around the hill of Nandidrug (4,810 ft.), from which rivers radiate in all directions; and the whole country is broken by numerous hill ranges. The chief rivers are the Palar, the South Pinakini or Pennar, the North Pinakini, and the Papagani, which are utilized

for irrigation. The soil in the valleys consists of a fertile loam:

and in the higher levels sand and gravel are found. The hills are covered with scrub, jungle and brushwood. In 1921 the population was 704,657. The district is traversed by the Bangalore line of the Madras railway, with a branch ro m. long, known as the Kolar Goldfields railway. Gold prospecting in this region began in 1876, and five companies were at work in 1924. Oyer 62$ millions sterling worth of gold has been mined since 1882, and silver is also produced. The city called the Kolar Gold Fields had in 1921 a population of 87,682. Electricity fromi the falls of the Cauvery (93 m. distant) is utilized as the motive power in the mines, Sugar manufacture and silk and cotton Weaving are the other principal industries in the district. KOLBE, ADOLPHE WILHELM HERMANN (1818~ 1884), German chemist, was born on Sept. 27, 1818, at Elliehausen, near Gottingen, where in 1838. he began to study chemistry under F. Wöhler. In 1842 he became assistant to R. W. von Busen at Marburg, and three years later to Lyon Playfair at London. From 1847 to 1851 he was engaged at Brunswick in editing the Dictionary of Chemistry, started by Liebig, but in the latter year

he went to Marburg as successor to Bunsen in the chair of chemis-

try. In 1865 he was called to Leipzig in the same capacity, and he died in that city on Nov. 25, 1884. Kolbe developed chemical theory in regard to the constitution of organic compounds, which he viewed as derivatives of inorganic ones, formed from the latter, directly or indirectly, by simple processes of substitution. Unable to accept Berzelius’s doctrine of the unalterability of organic radicles in its entirety, he introduced a modified idea of the structural radicles, which, under the influence of his fellow-worker Edward Frankland’s conception of definite atomic saturationcapacities, contributed in an important degree to the subsequent establishment of the structure theory. A great achievement to his

credit was the forecast of the possible existence of secondary and

tertiary alcohols; these were subsequently discovered by Friedel (1862) and Butlerow (1864), respectively. Kolbe was a very suc cessful teacher, a ready and vigorous writer, and a brilliant ex-

perimentalist. He is best known for his work on the electrolysis of salts of fatty and other acids, for his preparation of salicylic acid from phenol and for his discovery of nitro-methane. Together with Frankland he found that nitriles are converted into the corresponding acids on hydrolysis.

His works include: Lehrbuch der organischen Chemie (1854); and Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der theoretischen. Chemie (1881).

KOLBERG or COLBERG, a town and seaport of the Prus-

sian province of Pomerania, on the right bank of the Persante,

which falls into the Baltic about a mile below the town, and at

KOLCHAK—KOLIN

several streams and many small lakes. The island is of recent geological formation and consists of sands and clays, which rise in the north-west to cliffs of 60 feet. A few boulders of sandstone and granite occur. Vegetation is sufficient to give pasture for a few herds of reindeer, owned by Samoyeds. There are bears,

the junction of the railway lines from Belgard and Gollnow. Pop. (1925) 30,276. Originally a Slavonic fort, Kolberg is one of the

widest places of Pomerania. At an early date it became the seat

of a bishop, and although it soon lost this distinction it obtained of the municipal privileges In 1255. From 1284 it was a member to the Hanseatic League. It passed by the treaty of Westphalia

its fortifications, which elector of Brandenburg, who strengthened were, however, razed in 1887. The red-brick church of St. Mary, with five aisles, one of the most remarkable churches in Pomerania, the 14th century. Bathing attracts a number of sumdates from a mer visitors, and

where there 18 a

motors and Po

ee

“8

P

the nAn A mine ane SEG mo eel

5

oe T

oe

a

die, n

aloy a R

i fa oo RE ADOVAT

i

T

1888

A

See A. Trevor-Battye, Ice Bound on Kolguev (London, 1893), with full scientific appendices and history; and A. Tolmachev, “Eine Sommerreise nach Kolgujew” Geog. Annalen, vol. ix. (Stockholm, 192 7),

KOLHAPUR,

a native state of India, within the Deccan

’ | division of Bombay, and the principal state under the political

cet salt1 amprey

COTONER

He served n the Ro d Japanci

e D

foxes and many birds.

eats, Clectri¢ | control of the government of Bombay.

aes

KOLCHAK, ae

1920), = 7 sian 1904-5 and at

nery, MOtOr

a

477

ACV

Western Ghats eastwards into the plain of the Deccan.

ae

Along

the spurs of the main chain of the Ghats lie wild and picturesque

a 5~ | hill slopes and valleys, producing

W

Together with its jagirs

or feudatories, it covers an area of 3,217 sq.m. In 1921 the population was 833,726. Kolhapur stretches from the heart of the little but timber.

One

tenth

of the district is reserved forest. The centre of the state is crossed

e acid Wee Sa a see q |PY several lines of low hills running at right angles from the command | main range. In the east the country opens into a well-cultivated ee

and treeless plain, broken only by an occasional river. Among aide emer es en ae ofa ee oeeos pyro € rank OF | the western hills are the ancient Mahratta strongholds of Panhala, 7 WE Goa h appointed comm rear-admiral. After the Revolution in 1917 he took an active part Vishalgarh, Bavda and Rungna. The rivers, though navigable

in the fighting against the Bolshevists in Siberia. On Nov. 18, |during the rains by boats of 2 tons burthen, are all fordable

1918, by a decision of the Russian Government at Omsk, Admiral | during the hot months. Iron ore exists, but is not now worked. During | The principal agricultural products are rice, millets, and sugarthe first half of 1919 the anti-Bolshevist army under his command | cane and coarse cloth and pottery are made.

Kolchak assumed the title of Supreme Ruler of Russia.

met with some success, but in the summer the army disintegrated, | “The rajas of Kolhapur trace their descent from Raja Ram, a there were risings in the rear, and Omsk, the capital of the Siberian

younger son of Sivaji the Great, the founder of the Mahratta

socialist administration at Irkutsk, Kolchak was asked to resign, to and on Jan. 4, 1920 he signed A ; a ukase transferring his powers

the early years of the roth century the misgovernment of the

Government was captured on Nov. 15, 1919. The Government | Dower. The prevalence of piracy, caused the British government was then transferred to Irkutsk, but after the creation of a new | fo send expeditions against Kolhapur in 1765 and 1792; and in sage Gen. Denikin. Later he fell into the hands of the Bolshevists, and

erations, and chief compelled the British to resort to militar te recent oe Geely 40 pola an ocer to a

__ | years the state has been conspicuously well governed, on the ; KOLCSEY FERENCZ (1790-1838), Hungarian poet, critic | pattern of British administration. The raja Shri Chhatrapati,in

was shot 5 at Irkutsk on Feb. 7, 1920.

and orator, was born at Szodemeter, in Transylvania, on Aug. 8, G.C.LE. (who is entitled to a salute of 19 guns) was born 1790. In his fifteenth year he made the acquaintance of Kazinczy, | 1897, and succeeded in 1922. The principal institutions are the and zealously adopted his linguistic reforms. From 1821 to 1826 | Rajaram college, the Albert Edward Hospital, the high school, a he published many separate poems of great beauty in the Aurora, | technical school, and training-schools. The state railway from

Hebe, Aspasia, and other magazines of polite literature.

He f Miraj junction to Kolhapur town is worked by the Madras and

joined Paul Szemere in a new periodical, Élet és literatura (4 vols. 1826-29). From 1832 toto 1835 he sat in the Hungarian Diet as 2

Southern Mahratta company. The town of KOLHAPUR (pop. 1921, 55,594) has, besides a a liberal. He was an original member of the Hungarian Academy. | number of handsome modern public buildings, many evidences of He died on Aug. 4, 1838. antiquity. Originally it appears to have been an important re-

ee = Poo

ee

eae) y oeBada

J. Feren works Pest, 1871); vols., 1856-58). e (2 Pest, Költö (2 vols., A Maearsar Irék The collected J.: Danielik, (1840-48). Pest at (6 vols.) appeared

ligious centre, and numerous Buddhist remains have been dis-

_ . . y the neighbourhood. It has a cotton mill, and manu covered in š i factures of pottery, paper, lace, etc.

KOLI, a low caste in India. Possibly akin to the Kols of BenKOLDING. a town of Denmark in the amé (county) of in Gujarāt, gal, they form the bulk of the agricultural labourers Vejle, on the east coast of Jutland, on the Koldingfjord, an inlet where they were once robbers, and extend into the Deccan and of the Little Belt, north of the German frontier. Pop. (1925),

16,745. The name of Kolding occurs in the roth century, but its

earliest known town-rights date from 1321. In 1644 it was the scene of a Danish victory over the Swedes, and on April 22, 1849, of a Danish defeat by the troops of Schleswig-Holstein. It'con-

Konkan.

The name is of unknown. origi, but certainly much

older in India than the Turki kulah, “slave.” Tt has been anglicized as “‘coolie.” In 1921 the Kolis numbered 3,336,039, including the Koris or Kolis, a weaving caste of northern India.

tains the oldest stone church in Denmark, dating from the 13th KOLÍN, a town in Bohemia, Czechoslovakia, lies on the Elbe century. To the north-west lie the ruins of the royal castle, “Kold- | 40 m. E. of Prague in the centre of a flourishing agricultural area,

inghus,” built in 1248, and partially destroyed by fire in 1808. | producing sugar beet, fruit, vegetables and cereals. The indusThe large square tower was built by Christian IV. (1588-1648). | tries are indicative of the surroundings and include flour-milling, museum

(1892). | sugar-refining, brewing and the manufacture of starch, syrup and

town is obtained from the Skamlingsbank, 84 m. S.E.

Kolding | ber of fine buildings, of which the r4th century Gothic church

It contains

an antiquarian

and

historical

A comprehensive view of the beautiful scenery surrounding the | spirits. Like many of the old Bohemian towns it contains a num-

has good railway connections, and an excellent ice-free harbour, | of St. Bartholomew with a depth of over 20 ft. It has large industrial concerns, and (1923).

is the

most

noteworthy.

Pop.

16,204

exports about 40,000 head of cattle yearly. Battle of Kolin, 1757.—This early battle of the SEvEN YEARS? KOLGUEV or KOLGUEFF,, an island in the south-eastern | War is described under the latter heading. It ended in the defeat part of the Barents sea, so m. off the coast of Russia, to which | of Frederick the Great owing to his excessive confidence not only it belongs. It is, roughly, oval in form, has an area of about 1,300 | in his ability to repeat the manoeuvre of Prague (q.v.) but in the sqm. and a maximum height of 250 feet. The sea around it is sluggishness of his Austrian opponents. It also furnished a strik-

shallow and blocked by ice throughout winter and spring. Tundra | ing historical example of the psychological axiom that soldiers, and great bogs cover the greater part of the surface; there are | even the most strictly disciplined, will be drawn towards

any

KOLLIKER—KOMARNO

478

point from which they are being fired on, to the abandonment of seized the crown. His legitimately born younger brother, Almos their assigned direction. This natural reaction to the magnetic did not submit to this usurpation and in 1108 won over the en, peror Henry V., who thereupon invaded Hungary. The Germay effect of fire caused Frederick’s manoeuvre to break down.

KOLLIKER, ALBRECHT VON (1817-1905), Swiss em-

bryologist and histologist, was born at Ziirich on July 6, 1817, and studied under Johannes Miiller.

He became professor of anatomy

at Ziirich in 1846 and a year later at Wiirzburg. His Entwicklungsgerschichte des Menschen und der Thiere, which appeared in 1861, was the first work on comparative embryology. His work on histology was the first formal treatise on the subject. Von Kölliker anticipated some of Mendel’s conclusions regarding heredity. Besides writing numerous papers on physiology and Darwinism, from 1849 he edited the Zettsch. fur wissenschaftliche Zoölogie. See hbis Erinnerungen aus meinem Leben

(Leipzig, 1899).

KOLLONTAI, ALEXANDRA MICHAILOWNA, Russian diplomatist, “first woman ambassador in the world,” was an active member of the Menshevik section of the Russian socialdemocratic party before 1914, but on the outbreak of the World War she joined Trotsky’s “Internationalist” section and worked actively with the Bolsheviks abroad. On return to Russia in 1917 she joined the Bolshevik party, and became very popular as a speaker in St. Petersburg (Leningrad). Mme. Kollontai was arrested by the Provisional Government in July 1917. She was elected to the central committee of the Bolshevik party in August 1917, took part in the October revolution, and became the first people’s commissar for social welfare in the Soviet Government. In 1920 she was prominent for her advocacy of the ‘Workers’ Opposition” views, and in 1922 she was sent to Norway as political and trade representative of the Soviet Government. In 1927 she was sent to Mexico as ambassador, but remained in that capacity for only a few months.

KOLLONTAJ, HUGO (1750-1812), Polish politician and writer, was born in 1750 at Niecislawice in Sandomir, and educated at Pinczow, Cracow and Rome, where he devoted himself enthusiastically to the study of the fine arts, especially of architecture and painting. At Rome too he obtained a canonry attached to Cracow cathedral, and on his return to Poland in 1775 attacked the question of educational reform, and despite the obstruction of the clergy, carried through his reform of its university, of which he was rector 1782-85. In 1786 Kollontaj was appointed referendarius of Lithuania, and during the Four Years’ Diet (1788-92) took a very active part in passing the constitution of May 3, 1791, and became vice-chancellor in June. On the triumph of the reactionaries he adhered to the new order, but probably less from ambition than from the desire to save gomething from the wreck of the constitution, He then emigrated to Dresden. On the outbreak of Kosciuszko’s insurrection he returned tọ Poland, and became member of the national government and minister of finance. But his radicalism had now become of a disruptive quality; he quarrelled with and thwarted Koscluszko for his refusal to adopt Jacobinic methods, and was himself regarded by the conservatives as “a second Robespierre,” and suspected of complicity in the outrages of June 17 and 18, 1794, when the Warsaw mob massacred the political prisoners. On the collapse of the insurrection Kollontaj emigrated to Austria, where from 1795 to 1802 he was detained as a prisoner. Released through the mediation of Prince Adam Czartoryski, he returned to Poland discredited, and died at Warsaw Feb. 28, 1812. Of his numerous works the most notable are: Political Speeches as Vice-Chancellor (Pol.) (in 6 vols., Warsaw, 1791); On the Erection and Fall of the Constitution of May (Pol.) (Leipzig, 1793; Paris, 1868) ; Correspondence with T. Czacki (Pol.) (Cracow, 1854) ; Letters written during Emigration, 1792-1794 (Pol.) (Posen, 1872). See Ignacz Badeni, Necrology of Hugo Kollontaj (Pol.) (Cracow, 1819) ; Henryk Schmitt, Review of the Life and Works of Kollontaj (Pol.) (Lemberg, 1860); Wojciek Grochowski, “Life of Kollontaj” (Pol) in Tygod Illus. (Warsaw, 1862).

KOLN: see COLOGNE. KOLOMAN (Hung. Karman)

(1070-1116), king of Hun-

were unsuccessful, and Koloman was reconciled with his brother for a time. Five years later Koloman imprisoned Almos and his

infant son, Béla in a monastery and had them blinded. Neverthe. less Koloman was a good king and a wise ruler. In foreign affairs he continued the policy of St. Ladislaus by trying to secure a se.

board for Hungary. In 1097 he overthrew Peter, king of Croati, and acquired the greater part of Dalmatia, though here he cam

into collision with the Greek and the German emperors, Venice, the pope and the Norman-Italian dukes, who were all alike inter. ested in the fate of the province.

By 1102, however, he was iy

possession of Zara, Traú, Spalato and all the islands as far as the Cetina. But it was as a legislator and administrator that Koloman

was greatest (see Huncary: History). He was not only one of the most learned, but also one of the most

statesmanlike soy.

ereigns of the earlier middle ages. Koloman died on Feb. 3, 1116, KOLOMEA: see Kotomyyja.

KOLOMNA,

a town of Russia, in the province of Moscow

situated on the railway between Moscow and Ryazan, 72 m. SE, of Moscow, at the confluence of the Moskva river with the Kolo-

menka in 55° 5’ N., 38° 38’ E. Pop. (1926) 17,666. It is an old town mentioned in the annals in 1177, and until the 14th century was the capital of the Ryazan principality. It suffered greatly

from the invasions of the Tatars in the 13th century, who de stroyed it four times, as well as from the wars of the ryth century; but it always recovered and has never lost its commercial

importance. interest.

It has several old churches of great archaeological

There

are railway workshops

where

locomotives and

wagons are made, and a munition factory which was specially active in 1917, when the population rose to 43,000.

KOLOMYJA, a Polish town in the province of Stanislawéy,

122 m. S. of Lemberg by rail. Pop. (1921), 41,400, of which half were Jews. It is situated on the Pruth, and has an active trade in agricultural products. It is an ancient town, and, as the capital of the frontier district of Pokucie, suffered severely in the 15th and 16th centuries from the inroads of the Moldavians and the Tatars.

KOLPINO,

a town in the Leningrad province of the Rus-

sian S.F.S.R., on the Izhora river, 16 m. south-east of the city of Leningrad, on the Leningrad-Moscow railway, 59° 43’ N., 30° 34’ E. Pop. (1926) 17,173. A government naval iron foundry was established here in the eighteenth century and is still working. The sacred image of St. Nicholas in the Trinity church was formerly much venerated and pilgrims visited it on May 22 in each year.

KOLS.

Hindus use the word “Kol” as a generic term for the

non-Aryan Munda (Austro-Asiatic) speakers of the Chota Nagpur plateau. “Most of the tribes simply call themselves ‘men,’ the same word, with dialectic variations, Kél, Köra, Kürkü (merely the plural of Kir), Har, H Grako (another plural), or H, being

used universally.” (Linguistic Survey of India, vol. i., p. 38, 1927.)

See E. T. Dalton, Ethnography of Bengal (1872); S. C. Ray, The Mundas (1912); Bengal Census Report, p. 1911; Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces (1916).

KOLYVAN,

a small village in the Novo-Sibirsk (Novo-

Nikolayevsk) district of the Siberian Area of the Russian S.F.S.R., in 55° 23’ N., 82° 36’ E., on the Chaus river, 5 m. from the Ob. It was formerly a wealthy town trading in cattle, hides, tallow, corn and fish, but its population had declined to 7,386 in 1923 and it was regraded as a village in 1924-25. It was founded in

1713 under the name of Chausky Ostrog and grew rapidly until the coming of the Trans-Siberian railway.

KOMARNO,

:

also called Komárom, Czechoslovakia, at the

confluence of the Váh and the Danube, the second harbour of Czechoslovakia. Settlement on its site dates back to Roman times though charter as a town was not obtained till 1263. Commanding

gary, was the`son of King Geza of Hungary by a Greek concubine.

important routes north and west Komárno occupies a powe strategic position and was once considered to be the strongest

no inclination for an ecclesiastical career and escaped to Poland. On the death ‘of Ladislaus (1095), he returned to Hungary and

tween 1543 and 1663, by the Austrians in the 1848-49 revolution, and sheltered the treasure of the Austrian national bank during the

King Ladislaus would have made him a monk, but Koloman had

fortress in Europe. It was besieged four times by the Turks be-

KOMATI—KOMI Austro-Prussian war of 1866. The, surrounding region is noted for cereals and wine, in which with timber, fish and stock a brisk export trade is carried on; river craft are also constructed. Komárno was transferred to Czechoslovakia from Hungary by 13,the Treaty of Trianon, 1920. Pop. (1921) 17,715, of whom 584 were Magyars.

KOMATI, a river of south-eastern Africa. It rises at an ele-

yation of about 5,000 ft. in the Ermelo district of the Transvaal,

11 m. W. of the source of the Vaal, and flowing in a general N.

and E. direction reaches the Indian ocean at Delagoa bay, after

479

and by the need for snow. In 1926-7, the number of reindeer was about 400,000, two thirds of them bred by Komi and the remaining third by Samoyedes and Russians. In 1925 a veterinary station for reindeer breeders was established at Izhma.

South of this region is the taiga forest; two thirds of Komi area is forest covered, and of this one half is pine clad. Firs are common, and in the Urals, Siberian cedar, silver fir and larch. Timber products in 1926-27 were considerably greater than in 1913. The greater part is floated down the Vychegda and Northern Dwina to Archangel and exported, while some is exported

a course of some 500 miles. The river descends the Drakensberg via the Perm railway either for local consumption or for the by a pass 30 m. S. of Barberton, and at the eastern border of Volga districts. Timber accounts for 75 to 80% of all the exports

Swaziland is deflected northward, along the western side of the of the region; the establishment of 3 electric stations in 1926 is Lebombo mountains. Just W. of 32° E. and in 25° 257 S. it is providing power for sawmills and much increasing the output. joined by one of the many rivers of South Africa named Croco- Tar and pitch preparation and the making of small wooden articles dile. A mile below the junction the united stream, which from are important kustar (home) industries. Linked with the forest this point is also known as the Manhissa, passes to the coastal is hunting for squirrel, hare, ermine, mink, marten, fox, arctic

plain through a cleft 626 ft. high in the Lebombo known as Komati Poort, where

are some

picturesque

falls.

At Komati

Poort, which marks the frontier between British and Portuguese territory, the river is less than 60 m. from its mouth in a direct

line, but in crossing the plain it makes a wide sweep of 200 m., first N. and then S., forming lagoon-like expanses and back-waters and receiving from the north several tributaries. In flood time

there is a connection northward through the swamps with the basin of the Limpopo.

The Komati enters the sea 15 m. N. of

Lourenco Marques. It is navigable from its mouth, where the water is from 12 to 18 ft. deep, to the foot of the Lebombo.

KOMI (Kami) or Zman, autonomous area of the Russian

SF.SR., a district created in 1921 stretching from the provinces of Archangel and Northern Dwina on the west to the Urals on the east. The Arctic ocean and the Kara sea lie on the north, and the Vyatka province on the south. It lies between 59° 30’ N. and 70° N., and 46° E. and 66° E., thus much of it is north of the Arctic circle. The Great Land Tundra is a swampy, district. The vegetation consists mainly of perennial lichens and mosses, with greatly developed root-systems, and stunted, matted, cushionlike aerial systems. The leaves may be succulent, or leathery, stiff and needle-shaped, with a waxy or hairy surface. Winter is long and severe, and the temperature may drop to —50° F; in spring the blocks of ice from the warmer south are piled by the current on the unthawed ice below, and extensive floods are formed. From May to July, the sun never sets below the horizon, and insects, especially mosquitoes flourish. In rare places of better drainage, where there is no perpetually frozen soil below, oases of brightly coloured blossoms, forget-me-nots, lupins, saxifrage,

pedicularis and poppies may occur. During July and August the mid-day temperature may reach 70° F and crakeberries and cloudberries ripen. Cumulus clouds, heavy showers and driving mist may result from evaporation, the water of the north flowing streams being warmer than the air. By the end of August gales and snowstorms set in and by mid-September, the whole region is snow and ice covered. From November to February the sun does not rise above the horizon and tremendous blizzards, lasting for days, sweep the land. Dwarf willow-scrub occurs near

the rivers and on sandy soil and provides fuel for the wandering Samoyedes and covert for the nests of the willow-grouse, Temming’s stint, white fronted goose and red-throated pipit. Ducks and wading birds, stints, ruffs, grey plover and pharalope nest

on the quaking treacherous moss bogs in summer, studded with

islands of sphagnum—or lichen—covered driftwood brought down

fox, otter, etc. The fur exports are still below pre-war level, partly through destructive exploitation and partly through forest fires. Game birds are also a source of income and the wings of the white partridge are exported. Hunting, however, forms a supplementary

source of income except in the Izhma-Pechora district, where it is the main occupation. Salmon, Siberian salmon and gang fish are prepared for export in the Pechora region. Cultivation occupies but a small area in the district. Forest clearings are made by burning; the stumps and roots are cleared away and the charcoal enriches the soil temporarily. Rye, barley, oats, flax, hemp and potatoes are grown; rye and barley occupy "8% of the sown area. Hay and vegetables are raised in a few places. The meadow lands near the rivers favour cattle breeding which is carried on more intensively than cultivation. Horses are useful in the timber industry, and draught cattle and cows are increasingly bred. Dairying is beginning and several butter fac-

tories have been built in the last few years. Industrial enterprises are at present non-existent, except for small sawmills, ironsmelting works and a salt preparing factory. But kustar or peasant industries and handicrafts have great importance and include the preparation of chamois leather, especially in the Izhma district, the making of harness, carpentry, flour-milling, tar and pitch preparation, blacksmith’s work, etc. In the Ustkulomsk and Shchugorsk districts whetstone is worked for millstones and grindstones both for the Russian and foreign market. The Komi area, Archangel and Vyatka occupy the first place in

the U.S.S.R. for the number of peasant artels producing kustar products. Means of communication, except for the rivers, are poor. The Vychegda through its tributary the Keltma is linked by the Catherine canal with the South Keltma, a tributary of the Kama river, and thus with the Volga. The Pechora and its tributaries, linking with the frozen Arctic, play a small réle. Roads are poor and there is no railway, beyond a few kilometres of the Vyatka-Kotlas railway in the south-west, A railway linking Murashi on that line with Ust-Sysolsk on the Sysola river and Ukhtinsk on the Izhma river is planned. The mineral wealth of the Komi area is incompletely surveyed and at present little worked, but an extensive coal-field was discovered in 1924. Iron ore was known in the 18th century in the Vychegda and Sysola districts; salt was worked on the Vyma, a tributary of the Vychegda as early as the 16th century, and grindstone was worked in the Tochil hills near the left bank of the Pechora from the beginning of the 17th century.

The settlements in the district are small, and Ust-Sysolsk, by the spring floods. The mammals of the tundra include reindeer, arctic fox and hare, wolf and ermine. The lemming is a pop. (1926) 4,980, the administrative centre, is the largest.

Vital link in the life-cycle of the tundra. Reindeer, both wild and

domesticated, are the most important economic animals. The Komi and latterly some Russians, have learned reindeer breeding from the Samoyedes, who are entirely dependent on reindeer for food, clothing and shelter. The splayed hoofs of the reindeer support

them on the snow and soft moss, and their broadly spatulate antlers enable them to push the snow aside in search of food. Reindeer breeders are compelled to be nomadic, for their herds are driven northwards in summer by the swarms of mosquitoes

The literacy rate, 39% in 1926, is higher than among many nationalities in the U.S.S.R., and two thirds of the children of school age are provided for; there are five schools for the Samoyedes. Medical and sanitary provision is far from adequate. The population in 1926 was about 207,000, almost entirely rural; the density of population is the smallest in European Russia, except for the Murmansk province. The Komi (Zirians) number 92-33%, Russians 6-6% and Samoyedes 1-0%. The Zirians (alternative spellings Syryenians, Zyrenians, Sirianians, Zirian-

KOMINTERN—KONIA

480

ians, Zyrians) call themselves Komi or Kami. They are a Finnish race of the Permian branch, with a language closely related to that of the Permyaks and Votyaks. Many Russian words have been adopted, and when the Komi learnt reindeer breeding from the Samoyedes, they borrowed Samoyedic words for the art. Castrén published a Komi grammar, but no ancient Komi literature exists. The Finns and Russians were living peacefully together as early as the oth century in this district, the Finns paying tribute: they have adopted many Russian village customs. They are fair, grey-eyed and of medium-stature and readily adapt themselves to commerce. Their log-houses (kerkas) have two rooms, with a store-shed between and a steam bath house, and in summer they take steam baths several times a week and then plunge immediately into the river. The national costume has been replaced by Russian attire. The nomadic Samoyede migrates north in summer and south in winter, following his reindeer, but many have become settled in the Komi villages. Their travelling tent or chym is made of about 20 fir poles, sharpened at each end, driven into the ground and lashed together at the top. Over these are tied large pieces of birch bark, secured by stones or lumps of earth to the ground. In winter the birch-bark is replaced by reindeer skin, well caulked with moss. A large flat stone serves as a fireplace. Their food is mainly reindeer meat, often in a semi-decaying condition. Syphilis, scurvy, smallpox and alcohol have much reduced their numbers and lessened their resistance to the increasing pressure of the Komi and Russians. They are entirely illiterate, but efforts are being made to teach the children and schools where instruction is given in the Samoyede language have been opened.

KONDYLES,

GEORGE

(1880-

statesman, was educated in Greece.

), Greek general ang

He entered the army as,

common soldier but left it in r905 in favour of comitaji warfare against Bulgaria in Macedonia. He fought through both Balkan Wars, and the World War, rising from non-commissioned office,

to colonel.

He resigned his commission in Dec. 1920, on King

Constantine’s

return, and retired to Constantinople,

where he

became an officer of the “National Defence.” He afterwards commanded a division in Thrace, again resigned his commission but again took command

in Oct. 1923 to crush the threatened

revolt against the “Revolutionary” Government. In Dec. 192; he entered parliament as a republican, became minister of war

under Papanastasion, formed a “National Republican Party” of

his own and became minister of the interior under Michalako. poulos in Oct. 1924. He resigned on June ro, 1925, but was nevertheless arrested by General Pangalos and banished for a time to Santonia. On Aug. 22, 1926, he made a coup d'état, overthrew Pangalos and became prime minister, pledging himself to retire after holding elections, which he did with great fairness, In the autumn he dissolved his party and withdrew from politics: but resumed active opposition a few ‘months later, suspecting the

cabinet of royalist sympathies. A typical soldier-politician, Kondyles had little experience, but much will. As minister of war, he used to take his whip into the Assembly and lay it on the table in front of him. He has been called “the Greek Cromwell,” while his own soldiers nick-

named him Keraunós

(Thunderbolt).

KONG, the name of a town, in the north-west of the Ivory

Coast colony, French West Africa. The “circle of Kong,” one of the administrative divisions of the Ivory Coast colony, covers 1207, 1920; M. D. Haviland, Forest, Steppe and Tundra, 1926; Atlas 32,500 sq. kilometres and has a population of some 400,000. The of the U.S.S.R., 1928; In Russian; M. I. Ivanovski, North Eastern inhabitants are of the Mandés-Dioulas. About a fourth of the Area, 1926. population profess Mohammedanism; the remainder are spirit KOMINTERN: see INTERNATIONAL, THE. KOMOTAU, a town of Bohemia, Czechoslovakia, at the foot worshippers. The town of Kong, situated in 9° N., 4° 20 W, of the Erzgebirge on the main line from Prague to Dresden. Local is not now of great importance. In 1888 Captain L. G. Binger was supplies of lignite and other raw materials support a varied the first European who visited the town; he has given an interestdevelopment of industry, ¢.g., woollens, linens, paper, breweries, ing description of it and estimated its population at 15,000. He distilleries and vinegar works; in addition there are large loco- induced the native chiefs to place themselves under the protecmotive workshops. Originally a Czech settlement, Komotau was tion of France, and in 1893 the protectorate was attached to the Germanized in the 13th century and thereafter was an object of Ivory Coast colony. For a time Kong was overrun by the armies dispute between Catholics and Protestants and the overlord. In of Samory (see SENEGAL), but the capture of that chief in 1898 1594 the lordship fell to the Crown, and, subsequently, in 1609 it was followed by the peaceful development of the district by was made a royal city. Pop. (1921), 21,123, of whom 18,245 France. (See Ivory Coast.) See L. G. Binger, Du Niger au golfe de Guinée (1892). were Germans. BreLtiocrapHy.—Handbook of Siberia and Arctic Russia, vol. i. I.D.,

KOMURA,

JUTARO,

Marovis

(1855-1911), Japanese

statesman, was born in Hiuga. He graduated at Harvard in 1877, and entered the foreign office in Tokyo in 1884. He served as chargé d’affaires in Peking, as Japanese minister in Seoul, in Washton, in St. Petersburg (Leningrad) and in Peking (during the Boxer trouble), earning a high reputation for diplomatic ability. In rgor he received the portfolio of foreign affairs, and held it throughout the course of the negotiations with Russia and the subsequent war (1904-05), being finally appointed by his sovereign to meet the Russian plenipotentiaries at Portsmouth, and subsequently the Chinese representatives in Peking, on which occasions the Portsmouth treaty of Sept. 1905 and the Peking treaty of November in the same year were concluded. For these services, and for negotiating the second Anglo-Japanese alliance, he received the Japanese title of count and was made a K.C.B. by King Edward VII. He resigned his portfolio in 1906 and became privy councillor, from which post he was transferred to the embassy in London, but he returned to Tokyo in 1908 and resumed the portfolio of foreign affairs in the second Katsura cabinet until Ig1t. He was created marquis in rgrr. He died at Hayama on Nov. 24, Igri.

KONARAK

or KANARAK, a ruined temple in India, in

the Puri district of Orissa, for its size “the most richly ornamental building—externally at least—in the whole world,” was erected in the middle of the 13th century, and dedicated to the sun-god. It consisted of a tower, once over r8oft. high, with a porch in front r4oft. high, sculptured with figures of lions, elephants, horses, etc.

KONGSBERG, a mining town of Norway in Buskerud amt

(county), on the Laagen, 500 ft. above the sea, and 61 m. W.S.W. of Oslo by rail. Pop. (1927) 7,533. With the exception of the church and the town-house, the buildings are mostly of wood. The origin and whole industry of the town are connected with the government silver-mines in the neighbourhood. Their frst discovery was made by a peasant in 1623, since which time they have been worked with varying success, but are now almost exhausted. During the 18th century Kongsberg was more important than it is now. Within the town are situated the smelting-works, and the royal mint. Three miles below the Laagen forms a fine fall of 140 ft. (Labrofos). The neighbouring Jonksnut (2,950 ft.) commands extensive views of the Telemark. KONIA. (r) A vilayet in Asia Minor which includes part of the Taurus range and the greater part of the central steppe. The population (502,228 in 1927) is for the most part agricultural and pastoral. The only industries are carpet-weaving and

the manufacture of cotton and silk stuffs. The principal exports

åre salt, minerals, opium, cotton, cereals, wool and live stock;

and the imports cloth-goods, coffee, rice and petroleum. (2) Its chief town (anc. Zconium), altitude 3,320 ft., situated at the south-west edge of the vast central plain of Asia Minor, amidst orchards famous in the middle ages for their yellow plums and apricots, and watered by streams from the hills. Pop. (1927)

101,674. After the capture of Nicaea by the Crusaders (1097),

Konia became the capital of the Seljuk Sultans of Rum. (Se SELJUKsS and Turks.)

It was temporarily occupied by Godfrey,

and again by Frederick Barbarossa, but this scarcely affected tts

KONIECPOLSKI —KÖNIGSMARK prosperity. During the reign of Ala ed-Din I, (1219-12 36) the city was

a centre

for

artists,

poets, _historians,

jurists

and

dervishes, driven westwards from Persia and Bokhara by the advance of the Mongols, and there was a brief period of great

481

in 1255 by the Teutonic order. Its first site was near the fishing village of Steindamm, but after its destruction by the Prussians in 1263 it was rebuilt in its present position. It received civic privileges in 1286, the two other parts of the present town—

and Kneiphof—receiving them a few years later, but plendour. After the break-up of the empire of Rum, Konia be- Lébenicht ame a secondary city of the amirate of Karamania and in part they were not united until 1724. In 1340 Königsberg entered the

Hanseatic league. From 1457 it was the residence of the grand master of the Teutonic order, and from 1525 till 1618 of the dukes of Prussia. The trade of Königsberg was much hindered by the constant shifting and silting up of the channels leading to its harbour; and the great northern wars did it immense harm, but before the end of the 17th century it had almost recovered. The Pregel flows through the town in two branches between mua (now Tekke great the are The most important mosques sum) which contains the tomb of Mevlana Jelal ed-din Rumi, a which lies the island of Kneiphof. Its greatest breadth within the mystic (sufi) poet, founder of the order of Mevlevi (whirling) town is from 8ọ to goyd., and it is usually frozen from November dervishes, and those of his successors, the “Golden” mosque and to March. Among the more interesting buildings are the Schloss, those of Ala ed-Din and Sultan Selim. The walls, largely the a long rectangle begun in 1255 and added to later, with a Gothic tower 277ft. high and a chapel built in 1592; and the cathedral, work of Ala ed-Din I., are preserved in great part and notable begun in 1333 and restored in 1856, a Gothic building with a is Konia them. into built s inscription for the number of ancient connected by railway with Constantinople and is the starting- tower 164ft. high, adjoining which is the tomb of Kant. The north-west side of the parade-ground is occupied by the point of the extension towards Baghdad. new university buildings, completed in 1865. The university (ColPolish ), (1591-1646 AUS KONIECPOLSKI, STANISL soldier, was the most illustrious member of an ancient Polish legium Albertinum) was founded in 1544 by Albert I., duke of family which rendered great seryices to the Republic. Educated Prussia, as a “purely Lutheran” place of learning. It possesses a at the academy of Cracow, he learned the science of war under famous observatory, established in 1811. Among its famous proJan Chodkiewicz, whom he accompanied on his Muscovite cam- fessors have been Kant (who was born here in 1724 and to whom paigns, and under Stanislaus Zolkiewski, whose daughter Cath- a monument was erected in 1864), J. G. von Herder, Bessel, F. erine he married. On the death of his first wife he wedded, in Neumann and J. F. Herbart. Königsberg has been an important naval and military fortress 1619, Christina Lubomirska. In 1619 he was captured by the and the protected position of its harbour has made it a very imOn years. three for ople Constantin in prisoner held and Turks his return he was appointed commander of all the forces of the portant commercial city. A channel has been made between it and Republic. For his victories against the Tatars at Martynow and its port, Pillau, 29m. distant, on the outer side of the Frische Haff, elsewhere he received the thanks of the diet and the palatinate of so as to admit vessels drawing 2oft. of watér right up to the quays Sandomeria from the king. In 1625 he was appointed guardian of Königsberg, and this canal is now being deepened to 26 feet. of the Ukraine against the Tatars, but in 1626 was transferred Among the industries of Königsberg are ship building, printingto Prussia to check the advance of Gustavus Adolphus, against works and manufactures of machinery, locomotives, carriages, whom he won repeated victories, although the parsimony of his chemicals, cork, sugar, beer, tobacco and cigars, pianos and especountry forced him to confine himself generally to guerilla war- cially amber wares. The principal exports are cereals and flour, fare, In 1632 he was appointed to the long vacant post of ketman eattle, horses, hemp, flax, timber, sugar, bristles, hides and oilcake. wielki koronny, or commander in chief of Poland, and in that It imports coal, phosphates and steel goods. It is a centre for capacity routed the Tatars and Turks repeatedly and, after years canal and air traffic and every spring and autumn an industrial of conflict, reduced to order the Cossacks, against whom he fair is held here.

fell to ruin. In 1472 1t was annexed to the Osmanli empire by

Mohammed II. In 1832 it was occupied by Ibrahim Pasha who defeated and captured the Turkish general, Reshid Pasha, not far from here. There are interesting remains of Seljuk buildings, all showing strong traces of Persian influence in their decorative details. The palace of Kilij Arslan If. contained a famous hall.

built the fortress of Kudak. He died in 1646, on the eve of a great expedition against the Turks. See an unfinished biography in Tyg. Illus. of Warsaw (1863) ; Stanislaw Przylenski, Memorials of the Koniecpolskis (Pol.) (1842).

KONIG, KARL RUDOLPH

(1832-1901), German physi-

cist, was born at Königsberg (Prussia)

on Nov. 26, 1832, and

studied at the university of his native town. About 1852 he went to Paris. The instruments for which his name is best known are tuning-forks, which speedily gained a high reputation among physicists for their accuracy and general excellence. From this business König derived his livelihood. Acoustical research was his real interest, and to that he devoted his spare time and money. König was the inventor and constructor of many beautiful pieces of apparatus for the investigation of açoustical problems, among which may be mentioned his wave-sirens, the first of which was shown at Philadelphia in 1876, and of a tonometric apparatus consisting of a large number of accurate tuning forks. His original work dealt, among other things, with Wheatstone’s sound-figures, the characteristic notes of the different vowels. He died in Paris

on Oct. 2, gor.

KONIGGRATZ: see Hrapec Krdzové.

KONIGINHOF: see Dvir KrAtové. KONIGSBERG (Polish Krolewiec), capital of the province of East Prussia and a garrison town. Pop. (1925) 279,880 (in-

l

cluding the incorporated suburbs). It is situated on rising ground, on both sides of the Pregel, 44m. from its mouth in the Frische Haff, 397m. N.E. of Berlin, on the railway to Eydtkuhnen and at the junction of lines to Pillau, Labiau and Kranz.

The Altstadt of Königsberg grew up around the castle built

KONIGSBORN,

a spa and suburb of Unna

(q.v.) in the

Prussian province-of Westphalia, famous for its salt works.

KONIGSHUTTE: see Krórewska HUTA.

KONIGSLUTTER,

town in the republic of Brunswick

Germany, 36 m. E. of Brunswick by rail. Pop. (1925) 5,718, It possesses a castle and some old houses. Its chief manufactures are sugar, machinery and paper. Near the town are the ruins of a Benedictine abbey founded in 1135. In its church are the tombs of the emperor Lothair IT., his wife.

KONIGSMARK,

MARIA

AURORA,

CountTEss

oF

(1662-1728), mistress of Augustus the Strong, elector of Saxony and king of Poland, belonged to a noble Swedish family, and was

born on May 8, 1662. Aurora went in 1694 to Dresden to make inquiries about her brother Philipp Christoph, count of Konigsmark, who had suddenly and mysteriously disappeared from Hanover. Augustus made her his mistress; and in Oct. 1696 she gave birth to a son Maurice, afterwards the famous marshal de Saxe. The elector soon tired of Aurora, who was made coadjutor abbess and lady-provost (Prépstin) of Quedlinburg, but lived mainly in

Berlin, Dresden and Hamburg. In 1702 she went on an unsuccessful diplomatic errand to Charles XII. of Sweden on behalf of Augustus. The countess, described by Voltaire as “the most famous woman of two centuries,” died at Quedlinburg on Feb. 16, 1728, See O. J, B. von Corvin-Wiersbitzki, Maria Aurora, Gräfin von Königsmark (Rudolstadt, 1902); P. Burg, Die schöne Gräfin Königsmark; aus den Briefen, Akten, etc. (1920).

KÖNIGSMARK, PHILIPP CHRISTOPH,

Count or

(1665-1694), was a member of a noble Swedish family, born on

KONIGSSEE—KOORT

482

March 14, 1665, at Stade, and is chiefly known as the lover of Sophia Dorothea, wife of the English king George I., then electoral prince of Hanover. After wandering and fighting in various parts of Europe he entered the service of Ernest Augustus, elector

of Hanover. Here he made the acquaintance of Sophia Dorothea, and assisted her in one or two futile attempts to escape from Hanover. Regarded, rightly or wrongly, as the lover of the princess, he was seized, and disappeared from history, probably by assassination, on July 1, 1694. See A. Köcher,

“Die Prinzessin von

Ahlden,” in the Historische

Zeitschrift (Munich, 1882); and W. H. Wilkins, The Love of an _ Uncrowned Queen (1900). See also the letters between Sophia Dorothea and Kénigsmark, printed in Briefwechsel des Grafen Königsmark und der Prinzessin Sophie Dorothea von Celle, edited by W. F. Palmblad (Leipzig, 1847).

KONIGSSEE, or Lake of St. Bartholomew, å lake in Upper Bavaria, about 24 m. S. from Berchtesgaden, 1,850 ft. above sealevel. It is 5 m. long, 500 yd. to over a mile wide and its greatest depth is 600 feet. Königssee is the most beautiful lake in the German Alps pent in by limestone mountains (rising to 6,500 ft.) which descend precipitously to the green waters below.

KÖNIGSTEIN,

a town of Germany,

in the republic of

Saxony, situated on the left bank of the Elbe, at the influx of the Biela, in the centre of Saxon Switzerland, 25 m. S.E. of Dresden by the railway to Bodenbach and Testchen. Pop. (1925) 3,745. The fortress of Königstein was probably a Slav stronghold as early as the 12th century, but is first mentioned in 1241 as a fief of Bohemia. In 1459 it was formally ceded by Bohemia to Saxony. About 1540 the works were strengthened, and the place was used as a point d’appui against inroads from Bohemia. Frederick Augustus IT. of Saxony completed it in its present form. A remarkable feature of the place is a well, hewn out of the solid rock to a depth of 470 feet. It has some small manufactures of machinery, celluloid, paper, vinegar and buttons. It is chiefly remarkable for the huge fortress, lying on a sandstone rock north-west of the town and rising abruptly from the Elbe to a height of 750 feet.

KÖNIGSWINTER, a town and summer resort in the Prussian Rhine province, on the right bank of the Rhine, 24 m. S.S.E. of Cologne by the railway to Frankfort-on-Main, at the foot of the Siebengebirge. Pop. (1925) 4,404. The Drachenfels (1,010 ft.)}, crowned by ruins of a castle (early 12th cent.) of the archbishop of Cologne, rises behind the town. A cave in the hill is said to have sheltered the dragon slain by the hero Siegfried. The mountain is quarried, and from 1267 onward supplied stone (trachyte) for the building of Cologne cathedral. The castle of Drachenburg, built in 1883, is on the north side of the hill. KONINCK, PHILIP DE (de Coninck, de Koningh, van Koening) (1619-1688), Dutch landscape painter, was born in Amsterdam in 1619. He was a pupil of Rembrandt, whose influence is to be seen in his work. He painted chiefly broad sunny landscapes, full of space, light and atmosphere. Portraits by him, somewhat in the manner of Rembrandt, also exist; there are examples of these in the galleries at Copenhagen and Christiania. Of his landscapes the principal are “Vue de l’embouchure d’une riviére,” at The Hague; a slightly larger replica is in the National Gallery, London; “Lisiére d’un bois,” and “Paysage” (with figures by A. Vandevelde) at Amsterdam; and others in Brussels, Florence (Uffizi), Berlin and Cologne, New York and in private collections in England.

KONKAN, a maritime tract of Western India, situated within

the limits of the presidency of Bombay, and extending from the

Portuguese settlement of Goa on the south to the territory of Daman, on the north. On the east it is bounded by the Western Ghats, and on the west by the Indian ocean. This tract comprises the three British districts of Thana, Ratnagiri, Kanara and Kolaba, and the native states of Jawhar, Janjira and Sawantwadi.

From

the mountains on its eastern frontier, which in one place attain a height of 4,700 ft., the surface, marked by a succession of irregular hilly spurs from the Ghats, slopes to the westward, where the mean

elevation of the coast is not more than too ft. above the level of ‘thersea. Several mountain streams, but none of any magnitude,

|1

traverse the country in the same direction. One of the most strik. jl ing characteristics of the climate is the violence of the monsog, |

rains. The coast has a straight general outline, but is much broke, into small bays and harbours. This, with the uninterrupted viey along the shore, and the land and sea breezes, which force vessels steering along the coast to be always within sight of it, rendered

this country from time immemorial the seat of piracy, which was not finally extinguished until 1812. The southern Konkan by

given its name to a dialect of Marathi, spoken mostly in Kanan

and Goa,

KONKO,

a people who physically and socially resemble the

Bassari, and inhabit the upper valley of the Oti, which lies partly in the northern territories, Gold Coast, partly in Togo. Th Konko speak a language akin to Kabre, are cultivators and cattle. raisers, and animist in religion.

KONTAGORA,

a Fula emirate in Northern Nigeria; since

1926 part of the Niger province. It lies on the east bank of the Niger to the north of Nupe and opposite Bussa. After the estab. lishment of British rule the emirate and certain adjacent ter. tories were formed into the province of Kontagora; in ro2s this province was split up. Before the Fula domination, which was established in 1864, the ancient pagan kingdom of Yauri, now 4 division of Sokoto province, was the most important of the lesser kingdoms which occupied this region. The Fula conquest was made from Nupe on the south and a tribe of independent and warlike pagans continued to hold the country between Kontagora and Sokoto on the north. The town of Kontagora was taken by the British in Jan. gor to put a stop to audacious slave raiding in territory already under British protection. The emir, Ibrahim, fled, was captured and after a year’s detention repented of his evil courses, took the oath of allegiance and (1903) was reinstated as emir. In 1904 an expedition reduced to submission the hitherto independent tribes in the northern belt, who had up to

that time blocked the road to Sokoto. Under British guidance the native government of Kontagora worked smoothly and with increasing efficiency. The emirate is but sparsely peopled, its depopulation being attributed largely to the merciless slave raiding by the Fulani in the last half of the roth century. KOODOO or KUDU, a large species of African antelope (g.v.), with fine corkscrew-like horns in the male, and the body marked with narrow vertical white lines in both sexes. The female is hornless. Strepsiceros strepsiceros is the true kudu, which ranges from the Cape to Somaliland; there is a smaller species (S. imberbis) in east and north-east Africa.

KOORINGA

or Burra Burra, a town of South Australia

some roo m. north bya little east of Adelaide (gq.v.). From the once famous mines near by (Cambrian slates and limestones) over 51,000 tons of copper (c. £4,750,000) were extracted between the years 1847—77, just as, at Kapunda (c. 50 m. N-E. of Adelaide) some £1,000,000 worth was mined between 1842 and 1878. Both these mines have been closed since 1877—8 but are believed still to contain large quantities of good ore, and they will probably be worked again when conditions favour. The Burra (pop. c. 1,800) and Kapunda (pop. c. 1,500) are centres of local importance for pastoral (sheep) and agricultural (wheat) areas. (Cf. WALLAROO.)

KOORT, JAN (1883), Estonian sculptor, born on Nov. 7, 1883 in the Tartu (Dorpat) district. He received his artistic training in the Baron Stieglitz art school at St. Peters burg (Leningrad) and from 1905-08 studied at the Ecole des

Beaux-Arts in Paris under Professor Mercier.

He then worked in

the private studios in Paris of Adler, R. Collin and Lucas. He was represented in the exhibitions of the Paris spring and autumn

salons in 1908.

In rgz5 he went to Moscow, where his best work was produced, and in r9r5 and 1916 took part in the exhibitions known under the name of “Mir Iskusstwa.”

The Tretjakow

gallery in Moscow acquired his granite “Frauenkopf,” and the por

trait of his wife executed in black granite is in the Moscow gallery. Koort, who worked in granite, marble and wood, produced various decorative works in memory of those who fell in the Estonian War-

of Independence. His great talents are most forcibly revealedin

a number of finely executed character heads.

iig

KOOTENAY—KORAN KOOTENAY, river in Canada and the United States, giving .

its name to a lake and district in south-eastern British Columbia The river, 400M. long, rises in the Rocky mountains

of British

Columbia, flows south into Idaho and Montana, U.S.A., turns north into British Columbia again, and enters Kootenay lake,

g m. long. This it leaves midway on the west side, to join the

Columbia river. The district is rich in lead and silver, zinc, copper,

gold and iron and in timber (cedar, hemlock, white pine, fir, etc.).

White and blue marble is quarried, and mixed farming and fruitgrowing (especially in the west) are well developed. Rainfall 28in. at varies, ranging for example from a mean annual fall of

483

many years assisted Liebig in editing the Annalen der Chemie and the Jahresbericht.

KOPRULU

or KUPRILI, a town of central Macedonia,

situated 600 ft. above sea-level, on the river Vardar, and on the Salonica-Belgrade railway, 25 m. S.E. of Uskub. Pop. (1905 J; about 22,000. Koprülü has a flourishing trade in silk; maize and mulberries are cultivated in the neighbourhood. Before 1922 the inhabitants were largely Muslim. The majority are now Slavonic Christians.

KORAN

(Arabic, Qur’än “recitation”), the name of the sacred

scripture of Islam, is regarded by Muslims as the Word of God, God—and some few Nelson to rsin. at Fort Steele. Nelson (g.v.) is the chief town, and, except in sūra I.—which is a prayer to XXVII., 93; XLII, 114; are 104, (VI., trades, Muhammad fruit which in and g passages lumberin the for centres, other among and speak in the first Cransqq.) and 164 farm, XXXVII., ntal 65; (XIX., experime n angels the or 8) Dominio the with nd Summerla is person, the speaker throughout is God. The rationale of revelabrook; and for mining, Fort Steele and Kaslo. Water-power developed at the Bonnington falls and Nelson. The district offers tion is explained in the Qur’ān itself as follows: In heaven is the original text (XLIII, 3; LV., 77; LXXXV., 22); by the process fne scenery, hunting and fishing. another (XXV., 34) KOOTENAY or KUTENAI, an American Indian tribe in of sending down (żanzīl), one portion after the intermediation of through half than Muhammad, to t more communicated somewha was a river, Columbi of drainage upper the (XXVI, 193), “Spirit” in the er sometimes remaind called is the who a, angel, an the total of 1,000 being in British Columbi later, “Gabriel” Montana and Idaho, An inter-mountain tribe with culture funda- sometimes the “holy Spirit” (XVI., 104), and, either, mentally of plateau type, the Kootenay became seasonal buffalo (only in IL, 91, 92; LXVI., 4). A single portion was called (possibly, the hunters after obtaining horses, and approximated the Plains like the entire collection, gur’dm, i.e., “recitation” Indians (g.v.) in customs. They are noted for birch-bark canoes equivalent of the Aramaic gerydnd “‘lectionary”); or kitab sepwith undershot ends, recalling those of Amur river in Siberia. “writing”; or sara “series.” The last is the name given to the of Kootenay speech, generally reckoned distinct, shows certain arate chapters, which are of very unequal length. The contents similarities to Algonkin (g.v.), which may indicate an original the Qur’an are extremely varied. The theological passages emof relationship. A. F. Chamberlain, in numerous scattered papers, phasize the Oneness, the Almightiness and the Righteousness (A. L. K.) God. Idolatry and the deification of created beings are condemned, is the principal authority. KOPEK or COPEK, a small Russian coin of bronze worth The joys of heaven and the pains of hell are depicted in vivid, sensuous imagery, and warnings are given of the approaching the hundredth part of a rouble (g.v.). advent of the last day and the judgment of the world. Believers on (g.v.), Berlin of suburb a KOPENICK or COPENICK, receive general moral instruction, as well as directions for special ceh12th the an island in the Spree. Képenick, which dates from deal with the ordinances of religion, tury, received municipal rights in 1225. Brandenburg and Meissen occasions. Many passages and pilgrimage; or are of the almsgiving fasting, prayer, as such favourite a became it and lly, both claimed it, the former successfu marriage and inheritconcerning laws, criminal or civil of nature residence of the electors of Brandenburg. In the palace the famous adultery, theft, murder, etc. court martial was held in 1730, which condemned the crown- ance, the punishment of Prophets.—The warnings which Muhammad addressed to his prince of Prussia, afterwards Frederick the Great, to death. countrymen were emphasized by stories of how God had fellow KOPISCH, AUGUST (1799-1853), German poet, was born those who rejected the message of his predecessors, the punished y in archaeolog studying was He 1799. 26, May on Breslau at of the Old and New Testaments, and others. But the Prophets Emst with he, swimmer, Italy (1822-28), when, being an expert from the Biblical narratives are very marked, and can deviations Fries, discovered (1826) the blue grotto of Capri. In 1828 he be traced to the legendary anecdotes of the Jewish cases most in William Frederick by pension a granted was and Berlin at settled Apocryphal Gospels. Much has been written. conthe and Haggada Gedichte IV. He died at Berlin on Feb. 3, 1853. Among his from which Muhammad derived this informasources the (1836) are some naive and humorous little pieces such as Die cerning Historie von Noah, Die Heinzelmdnnchen, Das griine Tier and tion; there is no evidence that he was able to read, and his dependDer Schneiderjunge von Krippstedt, which became widely popular. ence on oral communications may explain some of his misconceptions, e.g. the confusion of Haman, the minister of Ahasuerus, with His collected works were published in § vols. (1856). and the identification of KOPP, HERMANN FRANZ MORITZ (181 7-1892), the minister of Pharaoh (XL., 38), (Miryam), the mother of Mary with Moses, of sister the Miriam, German chemist, was born on Oct. 30, 1817 at Hanau, where his father, Johann Heinrich Kopp (1777-1858), a physician, was pro- Jesus (XIX., 29). It is certain that in Medina he had opportunifessor of chemistry, physics and natural history at the Lyceum. ties of becoming acquainted with Jews of some culture, and there He studied at Marburg and Heidelberg, and then, attracted by the is linguistic as well as literary evidence for his indebtedness to fame of Liebig, went in 1839 to Giessen, where he became a members of the Nestorian Church. Even in the rare passages where Privatdozent in 1841, and professor of chemistry twelve years we can trace direct resemblance to the text of the Old Testament later. In 1864 he was called to Heidelberg in the same capacity, (cf. XXI., 105 with Ps. XXXVII., 29; I., 5 with Ps. XXVII., 11) or the New (cf. VIIL., 48 with Luke XVI., 24; XLVI., 19 with Luke and he remained there till his death on Feb. 20, 1892. Kopp devoted himself especially to physico-chemical inquiries, XVI., 25), there is nothing more than might readily have been and his name is associated with several of the most important picked up in conversation with any Jew or Christian. His account correlations of the physical properties of substances with their of Alexander, introduced as “the two-horned one” (XVIII., 82) is chemical constitution. Much of his work was concerned with derived from the Romance of Alexander, which was current Syriac specific volumes, the conception of which he set forth in a paper among the Nestorian Christians of the 7th century in a published when he was only twenty-two years of age. He also version. Besides Jewish and Christian histories, there are a few

investigated the connection between the boiling-point of com-

references to early Arabian prophets, such as Salih (VII., 71) and Hüd (VIIL, 63; XI., 52).

hensive History of Chemistry in four volumes, to which three sup-

Qur’an was written down in Muhammad’s lifetime, but not brought together as a whole or arranged in order. As it exists now, it consists of 114 chapters, arranged generally (with the exception of the

pounds, organic ones in particular and their composition. Kopp was also a prolific writer; in 1843-1847 he published a compre-

plements were added in 1869-1875. The Development of Chemisiry in Recent Times appeared in 1871-1874, and in 1886 he published a work in two volumes on Alchemy in Ancient and Modern Times. In addition he wrote (1863) on theoretical and physical

Arrangement

of Chapters.—It is probable that the whole

first, the Fatika (lit. “opening”), in order of length, the longest

coming first, the shortest (often the earliest in date) coming at the

a title, the place of its chemistry for the Graham-Otto Lehrbuch der Chemie; and for end. At the head of each chapter (sūra) is

KORAT—-KORDOFAN

484

origin (Mecca or Medina) and the number of its verses (dydt)

together with the formula, “In the name of God, the Merciful, the Compassionate” (except in sūra IX.). For liturgical purposes the whole book is divided into 60 sections (@sza@b) or 30 divisions (ajzd), each subdivided into a number of prostrations (ruk‘a or sajda). Attempts have been made (by Nöldeke, Grimme, Hirschfeld, Rodwell, etc.) to arrange the chapters in chronological order. Muhammad’s position in Mecca, when he was only the despised preacher of a small congregation, was entirely different from that which he occupied after his migration to Medina (in 622), where he was from the first the leader of a powerful party, and gradually became the autocratic ruler of Arabia; and this difference appears

in the Qur’an, and in the majority of cases there is no doubt whatever whether a part first appeared in Mecca or Medina, and the revelations given in Medina frequently take notice of contemporary historical events; still in many cases it is exceedingly difficult to make out any strict chronological sequence. Abrogation.—Another difficulty presented by the Qur’an is the

fact that Muhammad

sometimes

revoked

whole verses and de-

clared them to be “abrogated” (II., roo, “Whatever verse We abrogate or cause to be forgotten, We bring a better or its like”; see also XVI., 103, 104). Thus the Qur’dn contains different directions as to the treatment which idolators are to receive at the hands of believers. The number of abrogated verses has been variously estimated by commentators at from five to five hundred. At the head of 29 of the chapters stand certain initial letters (e.g. ALM, HM, etc.), for which various interpretations have been offered, e.g. that they are abbreviations for the names of God, for the signature of owners of mss. etc. (See Néldeke-Schwally, IT., 68~78; E. Goossens in Der Islam, XIII., 191 sqq.), but no explanation has yet gained general acceptance.

KORAT, Nakawn

the capital of the provincial division (Monton) af

Raja Sima, or “the frontier country,” in Siam, p,

about 12,000, Kambodians, Eastern Laos and Siamese. Itig » ancient walled town, and the headquarters of a high commissioner an army division and a French vice-consul. It is on the railway from Bangkok, 164 miles distant, to Ubon. It is the distributing

centre for the plateau district of eastern Siam, and the centre of a silk-growing district and has a growing trade with Bangko chiefly in livestock. There are reputedly rich copper minesinth neighbourhood. Since the 14th century Korat has been tributary to, or part of Siam, with occasional lapses into independence g temporary subjection to Cambodia. Previously, as indicated the nature of local ruins, Korat was probably part of Cambodia,

KORBER,

ERNST

VON

(1850-1919), Austrian state.

man, was born at Trieste on Nov. 6, 1850.

He began his carga

as an official in the Austrian state service, and when the Emperor

Francis Joseph was compelled to rely on cabinets of officials in view of the obstruction in Parliament, Körber became minister ` of trade under Gautsch in 1897, of the interior under Clary in

1890 and Prime Minister in 1900. He was the first man other than an aristocrat to hold this post since Schmerling.

Körber attempted

to solve the nationalist question by honest negotiation and compromise, but finally was forced to rule, as his predecessos had done, with the help of para. 14 of the Austrian constitution (which allowed a Government to pass any measure on its joint responsibility, with “provisional validity,” should it prove impossible to pass the measure

through Parliament

in the ordinary

way). Körber employed this expedient on no fewer than 33 occasions. He resigned in Dec. 1904, when the obstruction of the Hungarian party of independence made it impossible to carry through the periodical compromise with Hungary. He returned to politics as common finance minister in Feb. 1915 and became

Recensions.—-When Muhammad died, separate pieces of the Qur’an appear to have been already written down by individuals, prime minister for the second time in Oct. 1916 after the murder but many portions had also been committed to memory. The first of Count Stürgkh. His old confidence, however, wás gone. He complete written version is attributed to Zayd ibn Thabit, who resigned in Dec, 1916 after a fresh dispute concerning the Hunhad been Muhammad’s secretary, and was instructed in the reign garian compromise and died in Baden, disregarded and embittered, of Abi Bakr to collect the scattered portions into one volume. on March 5, 1919. This copy passed into the possession of ‘Umar, and at his death to KORDOFAN, a country of north-east Africa, forming a his daughter, Hafsa, one of the widows of the Prophet, When in mudiria (province) of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. It lies mainly the reign of ‘Uthman quarrels arose in the army as to the true form between 12° and 16° W. and 29° and 324° E., and has an area of the revealed text, Zayd was again appointed by the Caliph, to- of about 130,000 sq.m. gether with three members of the tribe of the Quraysh, to prepare The greater part of Kordofan consists of undulating plains, an authoritative version. Copies of this were sent to the chief riverless, barren, monotonous, with an average altitude of 1,500 cities of the empire, and all earlier codices, except that of Hafsa, ft. In the west, isolated peaks, such as Jebel Abu Senum and were ordered to be burnt, This recension of ‘Uthman thus became Jebel Kordofan, rise from 150 to 600 ft. above the plain. Norththe only standard text for the whole Muslim world up to the west are the mountain groups of Kaja and Katul (2,000 to 3,000 present day. ft.), in the east are the Jebel Daier and Jebel Tagale (Togale), Commentaries.—The vast exegetical literature of Islam begins ragged granitic ranges with precipitous sides. In the south are with the explanations of individual verses attributed in the Hadith flat, fertile and thickly wooded plains, which give place to jungle to the Prophet himself and his companions. Much of the work of at the foot of the hills of Dar Nuba, the district forming the the early commentators is embodied in the vast Tafsir of Tabari south-east part of Kordofan. Dar Nuba is well-watered, the (ob. 922). The Kashshaf of the Mut‘tazilite theologian, Zamakh- scenery is diversified and pretty, affording a welcome contrast shari (ob, 1143) enjoyed a high reputation, in spite of its heretical to that of the rest of the country. Some of the Nuba hills exceed tendencies, and was made by Baydawi (ob. 1286) the basis of his 3,000 ft. in height. The south-western part of the country, @ _ own work, the most widely read commentary in the Muslim world. vast and almost level plain, is known as Dar Homr. Though Thousands of other commentaries have been written, many of there are no perennial rivers, there are watercourses (khors ot which still exist in manuscript form only. One of the most recent wadis) in the rainy season, the chief being the Khor Abu Habl, is that by Muhammad ‘Ali, The Holy Qur-dn, with English trans- which traverses the south-central region. In Dar Homr the Wadi lation and commentary (1917). For the history of Muslim exege- el Ghalla and the Khor Shalango drain towards the Homr affluent sis, in Arabic, see I. Goldziher, Die Richtungen der islamischen of the Bahr el Ghazal. During the rainy season there is a con-

Koranauslegung (1920); in Persian, C. A. Storey, Persian Literature. Section I., Qur’anic Literature, (1927).

siderable body of water in these channels, but the surface of the

BIBLioGRAPHY.—The most comprehensive work is Theodor Néldeke, Geschichte des Qordns, and ed. by F. Schwally and G. Bergstriasser (1909, 1919, 1926); H. Hirschfeld, New researches into the composition and exegesis of the Qoran (1902); H. U. W. Stanton, The Teaching of the Qur’in, with an account of its growth and a subject index (1919). Translations: G. Sale (1734, etc.), J. M. Rodwell

the granitic sand flows over the surface of the mica schist below

a supply of water can generally be obtained, though many of the wells are often dry for months together. These wells are narrow shafts going down usually 30 to so ft., but some are over 200

Mubammad ‘Alt (19127), Sources of the Quran: A. hat Mohammed aus dem Judenthume aufgenommen? J. Horovitz, Koranische Untersuchungen (1926); Tor Ursprung des Islams und das Christentum (1926); Syriac influence on the style of the Kur’in (1927).

enormous labour, and in few cases is any available for irrigation. The very cattle are trained to go a long time without drinking. Entire villages migrate after the harvest to the neighbourhood of some plentiful well. In a few localities the surface depression

(x876, etc., arranged

chronologically),

E. H. Palmer

(1880, etc.),

Geiger, Was (1833, 1902); Andrae, Der A. Mingana,

country dries rapidly. The water which has found its way through

and settles in the hollows, and by sinking wells to the solid rock

ft. deep. The water is raised by rope and bucket at the cost of

KOREA pold water for the greater part of the year but there is only one permanent lake—Keilat, which is some four miles by two.

The

rainy season lasts from mid-June to the end of September, rain usually falling every three or four days in brief but violent chowers. In general the climate is healthy except in the rainy sason, when large tracts are converted into swamps and fever is very prevalent. In the shita or cold weather (October to Feb-

ruary inclusive) there is a cold wind from the north. The seif or

hot weather lasts from March to mid-June; the temperature rarely

exceeds 105° F.

The chief constituent of the low scrub which covers the northern part of the country is the grey gum acacia (kashob). In the south the red gum acacias (żalk) are abundant. In Dar Hamid, in the north-west of Kordofan, date, dom and other palms grow.

The basbab or calabash tree is fairly common and being naturally hollow the trees collect water, which the natives regularly tap. Another common source of water supply is a small kind of water

melon which grows wild and is also cultivated. In the dense jungles of the south are immense creepers, some of them rubberyines. The cotton plant is also found. The fauna includes the elephant, rhinoceros, buffalo, giraffe, lion, leopard, cheetah, roan-

antelope, hartebeeste, kudu and many other kinds of antelope, wart-hog, hares, quail, partridge, jungle-fowl, bustard and guineafowl. The ril or addra gazelle found in north. and north-west Kordofan are not known elsewhere in the eastern Sudan. Ostriches are found in the northern steppes. The chief wealth of the

people consists in the gum obtained from the grey acacias, in oxen, camels and ostrich feathers. There are large herds of camel, the camel-owning Arabs usually owning also large numbers of sheep and goats. Barley, millets and cotton are cultivated in some districts. A little gold dust is obtained, but the old gold

and other mines in the Tagale country have been, apparently, worked out. Iron is found in many districts and is smelted in a few places. There are large beds of hematite some 6o m. N.W, and the same distance north-east of El Obeid. Inhabitants.—The population of Kordofan was officially estimated in 1926 to be 670,582. The inhabitants are roughly divisible into two types—Arabs in the plains and Nubas in the hills. Many of the villagers of the plains are however of very mixed blood—Arab, Egyptian, Turkish, Levantine and Negro. They all speak Arabic. The most important village tribe is the Gowama, who own most of the gum-producing country. Other large tribes are the Dar Hamid and the Bederia—the last-named living round El Obeid. The nomad Arabs are of two classes, camel

owners (Sia¢ El Jlbil) and cattle owners (Baggara), the firstnamed dwelling in the dry northern regions, the Baggara in southern Kordofan. The Baggara are great hunters, and formerly were noted slave raiders. They possess many horses, but when journey-

ing place their baggage on their oxen. They use a stabbing spear, small throwing spears, and a broad-bladed short sword. Some of the richer men possess suits of chain armour. The Nubas are split into many tribes, each under a mek or king, who is not uncommonly of Arab descent. The Nubas have their own lan-

guage, though the inhabitants of each dialect. They are a primitive race, but distinctive negro features; they aboriginal inhabitants of the country

hill have usually a different very black, of small build appear to have been the

and are believed to be the

original stock of the Nubians of the Nile Valley. (See Nusra.)

In

the northern hills are communities of black people with woolly

hair but of non-negro features. They speak -Arabic and are called Nuba Arabs. The capital, El Obeid (g.v.), is centrally situated. On it converge various trade routes, notably from Darfur and from Dueim, a town on the White Nile 125 m. above Khartum, which served as port for the province. Thence was despatched the gum for the

Omdurman market. But the railway from Khartum to El Obeid, via Sennar, built in 1909-1911, crosses the Nile some 60 m.

farther South above Abba Island. Nahud, 165 m. W.S.W. of El

i

eld, is a commercial centre which has sprung into importance since the fall of the dervishes. All the trade with Darfur passes through the town, the chief commerce being in cattle, feathers,

Vvory and cotton goods. Taiara, on the route between El Obeid

485

and the Nile, is a thriving mart for the gum trade. Bara is a small town some 50 m. N.N.E. of Obeid. Talodi and Tendek

are

government

stations

in the

Nuba

country.

The

Nubas have no large towns. They live in villages on the hillsides or summits. The usual habitation built both by Arabs and Nubas is the ¢uki, a conical-shaped hut made of stone, mud, wattle and daub or straw. In the chief towns houses are built of mud bricks with flat roofs.

History.—Of the early history of Kordofan there is little

record. It never formed an independent state. About the beginning of the 16th century Funj from Sennar settled in the country; towards the end of that century Kordofan was conquered by Suleiman Solon, sultan of Darfur. In 1821 Kordofan was conquered by Mohammed Bey the defterdar, son-in-law of Mehemet Ali, pasha of Egypt. It remained under Egyptian rule till 1882 when Mohammed Ahmed, the mahdi, raised the country to revolt. It was in Kordofan that Hicks Pasha and his army,

sent to crush the revolt, were annihilated (Nov. 1883). In 1899 the khalifa Abdullah met his death and the country passed into the hands of the new Sudan government. The chief difficulty experienced by the administration was to habituate the Arabs and Nubas, both naturally warlike, to a state of peace.

KOREA, a feudatory state of India, transferred from Bengal

to the Central Provinces in 1905. Area 1,631 sq.m.; pop. (1921) 79,189. It consists of an elevated tableland with hills rising to 3,000 ft. It lies to the north of Bilaspur district. It is wild country, agriculture poor and sparsely populated. The forests

include some valuable sal. The chief, a Chauhan Rajput, resides at Sonhat at the foot of the high plateau of that name. The principal river is the Hasdeo, a tributary of the Mahanadi. The inhabitants mostly belong to aboriginal tribes. The State is very inaccessible and such traffic as there is is mostly carried on pack bullocks.

KOREA, a country of Further Asia consisting of a peninsula

and about 200 islands. The peninsula stretches southwards from Manchuria, and has an estimated length of about 600 m., an extreme breadth of 135 m., a coast-line of 1,740 m. and an area of 86,000 sq.m. It extends from 34° 18’ to 43° N., and from 124° 36’ to 130° 47’ E. Its northern boundary is marked by the Tumen and Yalu rivers; the eastern boundary by the Sea of Japan; the southern boundary by Korea Strait; and the western boundary by the Yalu and the Yellow Sea. For rı m. along the Tumen river the north frontier is conterminous with Russia (Siberia); otherwise Korea has Manchuria on its land frontier. Nearly the whole surface of the country is mountainous. (For map, see JAPAN.) One native name for the country is Chosyén from the Chinese

Ch‘ao Hsien. It is also called Daz Han. Of the islands, two-thirds are inhabited, 100 are from roo to 2,000 ft. in height and many consist of bold bare masses of volcanic rock. The most important are Quelpart and the Nan Hau group. The latter, 36 m. from the eastern end of Quelpart, possesses the deep, excellent harbour of Port Hamilton, which lies between the north points of the large and well-cultivated islands of Sun-ho-dan and So-dan. The east coast of Korea is steep and rock-bound, with deep water and a tidal rise and fall of 1 to 2 ft. The west coast is often low and shelving, and abounds in mud-banks, and the tidal rise and fall is from 20 to 36 ft. Korean harbours are nearly all ice-free; the most important are Fusan (the landing point from Japan), Chemulpho, Mok-po, Chin-nampo and Gen-san. Korea is distinctly mountainous, and has no plains deserving the name. In the north there are mountain groups with definite centres, the most notable being Paik-tu San or Pei-shan (8,700 ft.) which contains the sources of the Yalu and Tumen. From these groups a lofty range runs southwards, dividing the empire into two unequal parts. On its east, between it and the coast, which it follows at a moderate distance, is a fertile strip difficult of access, and on the west it throws off so many lateral ranges and spurs as to break up the country into a chaos of corrugated and precipitous hills and steep-sided valleys, each with a rapid perennial stream. Farther south this axial range, which includes the Diamond Mountain group, falls away towards the sea in treeless spurs and small and often infertile levels. The northern groups

486

KOREA

The capital is the inland city of Seoul, with a population g and the Diamond Mountain are heavily timbered, but the hills are covered mainly with coarse, sour grass and oak and chestnut 302,711. Phyéng-yang, a city on the Tai-dong, was nearly &. scrub. The rivers are shallow and rocky, and are usually only navi- stroyed in the war of 1894, but it fast regained its population - gable for a few miles from the sea. Among the exceptions are the (1925), 109,285. It has five coal-mines within ten miles, and the Yalu (Amnok), Tumen, Tai-dong, Naktong, Mok-po and Han. district is rich in iron, silk, cotton and grain. It has easy con, The last, rising in Kang-wén-do, 30 m. from the east coast, cuts munication with the sea (its port being Chin-nampo), and is in, Korea nearly in half, reaching the sea on the west coast near portant historically and commercially. Auriferous quartz is worke Chemulpo: and, in spite of many serious rapids, is a valuable by a foreign company in its neighbourhood. Near the city is tty illustrated standard of land measurement cut by Ki-tze in ry highway for commerce for over 150 miles. Geology.—Crystalline schists occupy a large part of the coun- B.C., on rocks above the river bank. The provincial capitals and try, forming all the higher mountain ranges. They are always many other cities are walled, and most of the larger towns arein strongly folded and it is in them that the mineral wealth of Korea the warm and fertile southern provinces. The actual antiquities is situated. Towards the Manchurian frontier they are covered of Korea are dolmens, sepulchral pottery and Korean and Jay. unconformably by some 1,600 ft. of sandstones, clay-slates and nese fortifications. Race.—The origin of the Korean people is unknown. They are limestones, which contain Cambrian fossils and are the equivalents of a part of the Sinian system of China. Carboniferous beds, con- presumed to be of the Mongol family; their language is accredited sisting chiefly of slates, sandstones and conglomerates, are found to the so-called Turanian group, is polysyllabic, possesses an alin the south-eastern provinces. They contain a few seams of coal, phabet of 1x1 vowels and 14 consonants, and a script named but the most important coal-bearing deposits of the country be- On-mun. Literature of the higher class and official and upper class long to the Tertiary period. Recent eruptive and volcanic rocks correspondence are exclusively in Chinese characters, but since are met with in the interior of Korea and also in the island of 1895 official documents have been written in “mixed script.” The Quelpart. The principal mountain in the latter, Hal-la-san (or Koreans are distinct from both Chinese and Japanese in physiMount Auckland), according to Chinese records, was in eruption ognomy, though dark straight hair, dark oblique eyes and a tinge of bronze in the skin are always present. The cheek-bones are in the year 1007. Climate.—The climate is superb for nine months of the year, high; the nose inclined to flatness; the mouth thin-lipped and and the three months of rain, heat and damp are not injurious to refined among patricians, and wide and full-lipped among ple. health; although there is some malaria. The summer mean tem- beians; the ears are small, and the brow fairly well developed. perature of Seoul is about 75° F, that of winter about 33°; the The male height averages 5 ft. 44 in. The hands and feet are average rainfall, 36-3 in. in the year, and of the rainy season small and well-formed. The physique is good, and men marty at 21-86 in. The rains come in July and August on the west and from 18 to 20 years, girls at 16, and have large families. Women north-east coasts, and from April to July on the south coast, the are secluded and occupy a very inferior position. The Koreans approximate mean annual rainfall of these localities being 30, 35 are rigid monogamists, but concubinage has a recognized status. Production and Industries.—In Hwang-hai Do and else and 42 in. respectively. Flora and Fauna.—The plants and animals have so far been where, coal is found but the industry needs development. In little studied. Among the indigenous trees are the Abies excelsa, Phyéng-an Do iron is found in abundance and rich copper ore, Abies microsperma, Pinus sinensis, Pinus pinea, three species of silver and galena are common. Crystal is a noted product of oak, five of maple, lime, birch, juniper, mountain ash, walnut, Korea, and talc of good quality is also present. The foreign cow Spanish chestnut, hazel, willow, hornbeam, hawthorn, plum, pear, cessionnaires regard Korean labour as docile and intelligent. The peach, Rhus vernicifera (?), Rhus semipinnata, Acanthopanax ri- privilege of owning mines in Korea was extended to aliens under cinifolia, Zelkawa, Thuja orientalis, Elaeagnus, Sophora Japonica, the Mining Regulations of 1906, and the gold output for 1926 was etc. Azaleas and rhododendrons are widely distributed, as well as valued at £748,581. Korea is mainly agricultural. At the beginning of 1927 the culother flowering shrubs and creepers, Ampelopsis Veitchi# being — tivated area was nearly 12,000, universal. Liliaceous plants and cruciferae are numerous. The ooo acres: the chief crops being, persimmon attains perfection, and experiment has proved the suitrice, barley, wheat, beans and ability of the climate to many foreign fruits. The indigenous | grain of all kinds. In 1927 the economic plants are few, and are of no commercial value, except1 3| yield of rice was 84,998,445 bushing wild gimseng, bamboo, which is applied to countless uses, and fz els, and in the previous year over “tak-pul” (Hibiscus Manihot), used in the manufacture of paper. 200,000,000 lb. of cotton were The.tiger takes the first place among wild animals. Leopards are produced. Good land produces numerous, and have even been shot within the walls of Seoul. two

There are deer (at least five species), boars, bears, antelopes,

Area and Population.—The estimated area is 86,000 sq.m., including islands. The first complete census was taken in 1897, and returned the population in round numbers at 17,000,000, females being in the majority. At the end of 1925 the population was 19,035,526 and of the foreign population the greater number

is Chinese (46,196), although the Japanese government is doing its utmost to encourage the immigration of its subjects. The native population is absolutely homogeneous, and there is little emigration. Northern Korea, with its severe climate, is thinly peopled, while the rich and warm provinces of the south and west are _ populous: A: large majority ‘of the people: are engaged in agriculture. . 0. | E g ik wl

per

year.

Apples,

gages in whale-fishing, and silk-

worm rearing is a profitable industry. The fishing industry 3s

cyon and blue kingfishers, jays, nut-hatches, redstarts, snipe, grey

shrikes, hawks, kites, etc.

crops

pears, persimmons and mandarin oranges flourish. The coast em-

beavers, otters, badgers, tiger-cats, marten, an inferior sable, striped squirrels, etc. Among birds there are black eagles, peregrines (largely used in hawking), and, specially protected by law, turkey bustards, three varieties of pheasants, swans, geese, common and spectacled teal, mallards, mandarin ducks, white and pink ibis, cranes, storks, egrets, herons, curlews, pigeons, doves, nightjars, common and blue magpies, rooks, crows, orioles, halBY OF

COURTESY FOREIGN

OF

THE

PRESBYTERIAN

BOARD

MISSIONS

KOREAN LADY OF THE UPPER CLASS IN FULL REGALIA

being developed, the value of the catch in 1926 being over £500,000. There are provincial horse-breeding stations, where pony

stallions,

from

xo to 12

hands high, are bred for carrying

burdens.

Magnificent red bulls

are bred by the farmers for ploughing and other farming operations, and for the transport of goods. ` Many varieties of admirable paper, thin and poor silk, horsehair crinoline for hats, fine split bamboo blinds, hats and mats, coarse pottery, hemp cloth for mourners, brass bowls and grasscloth are the main side-industries. Paper and ginseng are the on: manufactured articles on the list of Korean exports.

Commerce.—-A commercial treaty was concluded with’ Japan in 1876, and treaties with the European countries and the Uz

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l. Wharf in the harbour of Chemulpho, the seaport of Seoul, capital of Korea. Chemulpho, which is on the western coast of the archipelago of Korea, is a two hours’ journey from Seoul, to which it is joined by railway 2. A pack train in the suburbs just outside Seoul, taking foodstuffs and timber into the city. Bullocks are the beasts of burden and the foodstuffs are principally rice, fish and turnips, the staples of the

Korean diet. The south gate of the city can be seen in the distance

ITS SEAPORT

CHEMULPHO

3. A Korean wedding scene at Seoul, showing sorcerers putting the crown of good luck on the head of the bride. The women with hair piled on their heads are matrons, those with hair hanging down are maidens. Men also wear their hair hanging in braids until their marriage, when they pin it up 4. The south gate of Seoul, all that is left of the fortified wall which surrounded Seoul in the 16th century, when Korea was one of the great powers of the East. An electric tram line runs through the city and connects it with suburbs

487

KOREA States of America were concluded subsequently. An imperial edict of the 20th of May 1904 annulled all Korean treaties with Russia.

After the opening of certain Korean ports to foreign trade, the comcustoms were placed under the management of European

missioners nominated by Sir Robert Hart from Peking. The ports and other towns

open are

Chemulpo,

Seoul,

Fusan, W6n-san,

Chinnampo, Mok-po, Kun-san, Ma-san-po, Song-chin, Wiju, VYong-ampo, and Phyong-yang. The value of foreign trade fluctuates considerably; in 1926 imports were £37,216,978 and exports £36,295,480.

The principal imports

are

cotton

goods,

was an official formality making little or no attempt at accuracy. By agreement of the 22nd of August 1904, Korea accepted a Japanese financial adviser.

standard.

were strung in hundreds on strings of straw, and, as about glb. weight was equal to one shilling, were excessively cumbrous, but

nevertheless stood at their face value; (ii.) nickel coins, which,

there were 21,503 m. of telegraph lines. Transport in the interior is largely by porters, pack-horses, oxen, river, motor-vehicles and rail. Bridges are made of posts, carrying a framework either covered with timber or with pine branches and earth. The larger rivers are unbridged, but there are numerous government ferries. A postal system, established in 1894—1895, has been gradually extended. The Japanese, under the agreement of r905, took over the postal, telegraphic and telephone services. Korea is connected with the Chinese and Japanese telegraph systems by a Japanese line from Chemulpo via Seoul to Fusan, and by a line acquired by the empire between Seoul and Wiju. The state has also lines from Seoul to the open ports, etc. Korea has regular steam communica-

tion with ports in Japan, the Gulf of Pechili, Shanghai, etc. Her own mercantile marine is considerable. The shipping entered in 1926 at the open ports represented a tonnage of 5,801,322, that cleared of 5,550,152. ADMINISTRATION

From 1895, when China renounced her claims to suzerainty, to 1910 the king (since 1897 emperor) was in theory an independent sovereign, Japan in 1904 guaranteeing the welfare and dignity of the imperial house. Under a treaty signed at Seoul on Nov. 17, 1905, Japan directed the external relations of Korea, and Japanese diplomatic and consular representatives took charge of Korean subjects and interests in foreign countries. Japan undertook the maintenance of existing treaties between Korea and foreign powers; and Korea agreed that her future foreign treaties should be concluded through the medium of Japan. A resident-general represented Japan at Seoul, to direct diplomatic affairs, the first being the Marquis Ito. Under a further convention of July 1907, the resident-general’s powers were enormously increased.

a Cah

railway

cowhides and ginseng are the chief exports, apart from gold. Communications.—Roads continue to improve in Korea and in 1927 there were nearly 11,000 miles of completed roads. In the same year the total length of railways had reached 1,821 m. and

AND

RO

92

In administrative reforms the Korean govern-

ment followed his guidance. By a treaty dated August 22nd 1910, which came into effect seven days later, the emperor of Korea made “complete and permanent cession to the emperor of Japan of all rights of sovereignty over the whole of Korea.” The entire direction of the administration was then taken over by the J oe resident-general, who was given the title of governorgeneral. Local Administration and Law.—Korea for administrative purposes is divided into provinces and prefectures or magistracies. Each provincial government has a Japanese secretary, police inspector and clerks. The secretary may represent the governor in his absence. In the institution of a new criminal code five classes of law courts were established, and provision was made

forappeals in both civil and criminal cases. Abuses in legal ad-

ministration and in tax-collecting were the chief grievances which led to local insurrections. Under the Japanese régime the judiciary and the executive were rigidly separated. The law courts, including the court of cassation, three courts of appeal, eight local courts and 115 district courts, were put under Japanese judges, and the codification of the laws was undertaken. The prison sys-

tem,was also reformed. ' Finance and Money.—Until 1904 the finances of Korea were completely disorganized; the.currency was chaotic, and the budget

rs [ey

A spo

materials, mining supplies and metals, tobacco, kerosene, timber and clothing. Japanese cotton yarns are imported to be woven into a strong cloth on Korean hand-looms. Beans and peas, rice,

GOVERNMENT

The currency was nominally on a silver

The coins chiefly in use were (i.) copper cash, which

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being profitable to mint, were issued in enormous quantities, quickly depreciated, and were moreover extensively forged. The Dai Ichi Ginko (First Bank of Japan), which has a branch in Seoul and agencies in other towns, was made the government central treasury, and its notes were recognized as legal tender in Korea. The currency of Korea being thus fixed, the first step was to reorganize the nickel coinage. From the rst of August 1905 the old nickels paid into the treasury were remitted and the issue carefully regulated; so also with the cash, which was retained as

a subsidiary coinage, while a supplementary coinage was issued of silver 1o-sen pieces and bronze 1-sen and half-sen pieces. Religion.—Buddhism, which swayed Korea from the 1oth to the 14th century, has been discredited for three centuries; Confucianism is the official cult and Confucian ethics are the basis of morality and social order. Ancestor-worship is‘ universal, The popular cult is, however, the propitiation of demons, a modification of the Shamanism of northern Asia. Putting aside the temporary Christian work of a Jesuit chaplain

to the Japanese Christian General Konishe, in 1594, during the Japanese invasion, as well as that on a larger scale by students who received the evangel in the Roman form from Peking in 1792, and had made 4,000 converts by the end of 1793, the first serious attempt at the conversion of Korea was made by the French Société des Missions Etrangéres in 1835. Protestant missionaries entered Korea in 1884-85 and an English bishop, clergy, doctors and nursing sisters arrived in 1890. Hospitals, orphanages, schools and an admirable college in Seoul have been founded, along with tri-lngual (Chinese, Korean and English) printing-presses; religious, historical and scientific works and the Bible have been

translated into On-mun.

There are now over 250 Protestant and

60 Roman Catholic missionaries in the country. Education.—The old Chinese system of education and examination has been abolished in favour of a Japanese curriculum. The Koreans are expert linguists, and the government made liberal grants to the linguistic schools. Modern Development.—In recent years Japan has felt to

the full the strain of an undeveloped country as a Colony and much careful thought and great expenditure has been necessary in arranging the affairs of the country on a workable basis. From a

peculiarly nationalistic attitude this arrangement has meant the

“Japanizing” of Korea—the money, postage stamps, newspapers, institutions, administration, buildings, all are typical of modern

Japan and bear its direct imprint. Place-names are “Japanized” too, since the railways

vernacular press

Japanese.

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all the powerful

and although there. is-a

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appear’ only "in

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In June 1905 a law of four years earlier: whereby Japanese money was to be the currency of Korea wads put in.force and-thus’

488

|

KOREA

Korea gave up the silver for a gold standard. The First Bank (Dai Ichi Ginko) was supplanted as a central bank by the Bank of Korea (renamed Bank of Chosen in 1911). The deposits in Korean banks in 1925 totalled the amazing figure of £424,950,200. Only in remote parts of the country is the old nickel coinage and cash seen and this is fast disappearing. The note is the principal medium of exchange in Korea and the volume of note issue has rapidly expanded. This has tended to foster foreign trade, especially with Japan and as this increases so the government puts on foot various enterprises for the further development of the country and the still greater expansion of foreign trade. The salt production in 1920 still being insufficient for home consumption the government laid out further thousands of acres of salt pans. The production of tobacco is being increased to help the Japanese Government monopoly and the first experiments have met with decided success. With the extended use of ginseng as a medicine in Korea, China and Japan as well as throughout Manchuria, the output has been increasing year by year, though no exact figures are available. A government scheme of afforestation is in working order over the 14,000,000 ac. of forest lands. The earlier mining laws were super-

seded in 1916 by one prohibiting foreigners from acquiring mining rights except as a legal Japanese corporation.

He revived the name Ch’ao-Hsien, changed the capital from Sone. do to Seoul, organized an administrative system, which with Some modifications continued till 1895, carried out vigorous reforms disestablished Buddhism, made merit in Chinese literary examina. tions the basis of appointment to office, made Confucianism the

state religion, abolished human sacrifices and the burying of ald

men alive, and introduced that Confucian system of educatio |

polity, and social order which has dominated Korea for fme ` centuries. Either this king or an immediate successor introduced the present national costume, the dress worn by the Chinese he.

fore the Manchu conquest. As the later emperors became lax, Japanese pirates ravaged the coasts. In 1592, by order of the |

great regent Hideyoshi, Korea was invaded by a Japanese amy | of 300,000 men. China came to the rescue with 60,000 men, and six years of a gigantic and bloody war followed, in which Japan

used firearms for the first time against a foreign foe. Seoul and several of the oldest cities were captured, and in some Instances destroyed, the country was desolated, and the art treasures and the artists were carried to Japan. The Japanese troops were ye.

called in 1598 at Hideyoshi’s death. The port and fishing privi-

leges of Fusan remained in Japanese possession, a heavy tribute was exacted, and until 1790 the Korean king stood in humiliating relations towards Japan. Korea never recovered from the effects of this invasion, which bequeathed to all Koreans an intense hatred

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—A. J. Brown, M astery of the Far East (London, 1919) ; H. Chung, Korean Treaties (Treaties and Conventi between of the Japanese. Korea and other Powers), p. 226 (New York, 1919) ; and ons The Case of Isolation.—In 1866, 1867, and 1871 French and US. Korea. A Collection of Evidence on the Japanese Dominat Punitive ion of Korea, etc. (London, 1922); “Outline of Administrative expedit ions attacked parts of Korea in which French missionarie Reforms in Chosen.” Reprinted from The Seoul Press, p.47 (Seoul, 1920) ; J. O. P. and American adventurers had been killed, and inflicted much Bland, China, Japan and Korea (1921); Korea: Treaties and Agree- loss of life, but retired without securing any diplomatic successes, ments (Carnegie Endowment for International Peace: Division of and Korea continued to preserv International Law, Pamphlet 43, Washington, 1921); e complete isolation. The first La Nouvelle Administration de la Corée. D’après la brochure publiée en indirect step towards breaking it down had been taken in 1860, þar le Gouvernement Général (1922); An Oficial Guide juillet ro21 when Russia obtained from China the cession of the Usury to Eastern Asia, vol. i., Chosen and Manchuria (Tokyo, 1920); Ireland, Tke province, thus bringing a European Power down to the Tumen, New Korea (New York, 1927); and the Annual A.Administ ration A large emigration of famine-stricken Koreans and Reports of the Chosen Government. persecuted (A. N. J. W.) Christians into Russian

HISTORY The beginnings of Korean history are associated with Dan Koon (2333 B.c.) according to both Chinese and Korean records. He sent a messenger to Yau of China from his capital, Jai Ryung, in Hwanh-hai province, and built temples at Kang Wha islands near Seoul. His dynasty lasted for 1,048 years.

By both Korean and Chinese tradition Ki-tze—a councillor of the last sovereign of the 3rd Chinese dynasty, a sage, and the reputed author of parts of the famous Chinese classic, the ShuKing—is represented as entering Korea in 1122 B.c. with several thousand Chinese emigrants, who made him their king. He came

to Paisu (787K) which divided his kingdom from Yen (H).

By general belief in Korea Ki-tze is recognized as the founder of Korean social order. He called the new kingdom Ch’ao-Hs ien, pacified and policed its borders, and introduced laws and Chinese

etiquette and polity. Korean ancient history is vague, but it seems clear that Ki-tze’s dynasty ruled until the 4th century s.c., when the separate provinces began a series of civil wars, until aggressions did something to unite them, Most historian foreign s say that Ki-tze went farther north than the peninsula, for the said “Paisu” river Daitong of Phyong-Yang which then was already governed by Three Hans. In the 4th century A.D., however, Korea was already a centre of literary culture and began transmitting Buddhism and Chinese literature and ethics to J apan, together with the Chinese script. Internecine wars were terminated about 913 by Wang the Founder, who

unified the peninsula under the name Korai, made Song-d o its capital, and endowed Buddhism as the state religion. In the rith century Korea was stripped of her territory west of the Yalu by a warlike horde of Tungus stock, since which time her frontiers have been stationary, The Wang dynasty perishe d in 1392, when Ni Taijo, or Litan, ascended the throne, after his country had suffered severely from Jenghiz and Khublai Khan. He tendered his homage to the first Ming emperor of China, received from him his investiture as sovereign, and accepte d from him the Chinese calendar and chronology, in itself a declaration of fealty.

territory followed. The emigrants were very kindly received, and many of them became thrifty and prosperous farmers. In 1876 Japan, with the consent of China,

wrung a treaty from Korea by which Fusan was fully opened to Japanese settlement and trade; and Won-san (Gensan) and Inchiun (Chemulpo) were opened to her in 1880. In 1882 China promulgated her “Trade and Frontier Regulations,” and America negotiated a commercial treaty, followed by Germany and Great Britain in 1883, Italy and Russia in 1884, France in 1886, and Austria in 1892. A “Trade Convention” was also concluded with Russia. Seoul was opened in 1884 to foreign residence, and the provinces to foreign travel, and the diplomatic agents of the contracting powers obtained a recognized status at the capital. During the negotiations, although under Chinese suzerainty, she was

treated with as an independent state. Between 1897 and 1899, under diplomatic pressure, 4

s ONEAN CHILDREN OF THE MIDDLE f ee ae ad oe oreign to trade residence. CLASS IN THEIR WINTER COSTUME 1882 1894and the chief event in the newly opened kingdom was a plot by the Tai-won-Kun, the father of the emperor, to seize the power, which led to an attack on the Japanese legation. Japan secured ample compensation;

and the Chinese resident, aided by Chinese troops, deported the Tai-won-Kun to Tientsin. China, always esteemed in Korea, consolidated her influence under the new conditions through a powerful resident; prosperity advanced, and certain reforms were projected by foreign “advisers.” In May 1894 a more important insurrectionary rising than usual led the king to ask armed aid

from China,

She landed 2,000 troops on June ro, having pre-

KOREA viously, in accordance with treaty provisions, notified Japan of

ner intention. Soon after this Japan had 12,000 troops in Korea, and occupied the capital and the treaty ports. Then Japan made three sensible proposals for Korean reform, to be undertaken jointly by herself and China. China replied that Korea must

beleft to reform herself, and that the withdrawal of the Japanese

Japan rejected this suggestion,

troops must precede negotiations.

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a Korean delegacy, headed by Prince Yong, a member of the imperial family, was sent out to lay before the Hague Conference of that year, and before all the principal governments, a protest against the treatment of Korea by Japan. The mission failed in its object—the removal of the Japanese yoke. At the instigation of the Korean ministry the emperor abdicated on July 19, 1907, handing over the crown to his son. Somewhat serious émeutes followed in Seoul and elsewhere, and the Japanese proposals for a new convention, increasing the powers

of the resident-general, had to be presented to the cabinet under a strong guard. The convention was signed en July 25. One of the reforms immediately undertaken was the disbanding of the Korean standing army, which led to an insurrection and an intermittent guerrilla warfare which, owing to the nature of the country, was not easy to subdue. Under the direction of Prince It6 (g.v.) the work of reform was vigourously prosecuted. In July

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489

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FIRST IRONCLAD WAR VESSEL, THE TORTOISE BOAT, INVENTED BY YI SOON SIN IN THE 16TH CENTURY, WHICH ENABLED THE KOREANS TO CONQUER THE GREAT JAPANESE GENERAL, HIDEYOSHI, IN CHINHAI BAY and on July 23 attacked and occupied the royal palace. After some further negotiations and skirmishes between Japan and China war was declared formally by Japan, and Korea was for some time the battle-ground of the belligerents. The Japanese victory resulted in the forced renunciation by the Korean king of Chinese suzerainty and his submission to the Japanese throne. Japan in-

troduced important reforms and the finances flourished under the control of Sir M’Leavy Brown. Large and judicious retrenchments were carried out in most of the government departments. A measure of judicial and prison reform was granted. Taxation was placed on an equable basis. The pressure of the trade gilds was relaxed. Postal and educational systems were introduced, and an approach to a constitution was made. Classes previously degraded were enfranchised, and the alliance between two essentially corrupt systems of government was severed. For about 18 months all the departments were practically under Japanese control. On Oct. 8, 1895, the Tai-won-Kun, with Korean troops, aided by Japanese troops under the orders of Viscount Miura, the Japanese minister, captured the palace, assassinated the queen, and made a prisoner of the king, who, however, four months later, escaped to the Russian legation, where he remained till the spring of 1897. Japanese influence waned, and a strong retrogade movement.set in. Reforms were dropped. The king, with the checks upon his absolutism removed, reverted to the worst traditions of his dynasty, and the control and arrangements of finance were upset by Russia. Changes.—In 1897 the king assumed the title of emperor, and

changed the official designation of the empire to Daz Han—Great

Han. By 1898 the imperial will, working under partially new con-

ditions, produced continual chaos, and by 1g00 succeeded in prac-

tically overriding all constitutional restraints. Meanwhile Russian

intrigue was constantly active. At last Japan resorted to arms, and her success against Russia in the war of 1904~5 enabled her to resume her influence over Korea. On Feb. 23, 1904, an agreement was determined whereby Japan resumed her position as administrative adviser to Korea, guaranteed the integrity of the country,

and bound herself to maintain the imperial house in its position. Her interests were recognized by Russia in the treaty of peace (Sept. 5, 1905), and by Great Britain in the Anglo-Japanese agree-

ment of Aug. 12, 1905. The Koreans did not accept the restoration

of Japanese influence without demur. Prolonged negotiations were necessary to the completion of the treaty of Nov. 17, 1905, whereby Japan obtained the control of Korea’s foreign affairs and relations, and the confirmation of previous agreements. In 1907

1909, General Terauchi, Japanese minister of war, became resident-general, with the mission to bring about annexation. This was effected on Aug. 29, 1910, the emperor of Korea by formal treaty surrendering his country and crown. (I. L. B.) BrsrtiocRAPHy.—Khordadbeh, an Arab geographer, oth century AD., wrote of Korea in his Book of Roads and Provinces (see Richthofen, China, p. 875) ; British Foreign Office Reporis on Korean Trade, Annual Series (London); Biblzographie koréanne (1897); Mrs. I. L. Bishop, Korea and her Neighbours (1897); M. von Brandt, Ostasiatische Fragen (Leipzig, 1897); J.S. Gale, Korean Sketches (Edinburgh, 1898); W. E. Griffis, The Hermit Nation (8th and revised edition, New York, 1907); H. Hamel, Relation du naufrage un vaisseau

Halindois, etc., traduite du Flamond par M. Minutoli (Paris, 1670); Okoji Hidemoto, Der Feldzug der Japanir gegen Korea im Jahre 1597,

translated from Japanese by Professor von Pfizmaier (Vienna, 1875) ; M. Jametel, “La Korée: ses ressources, son avenir commercial,”

L’Economiste

frangaise

(July,

1881);

V. de Laguerie,

La

Korée

indépendante, russe ou japonaise? (1898); J. Ross, Korea: Its History, Manners and Customs (Paisley, 1880); W. H. Wilkinson, The Korean Government: Constitutional Changes in Korea during the period 23rd July 1894-~30th June 1896 (Shanghai, 1896); A. Hamilton, Korea (1903); C. J. D. Taylor, Koreans at Home (1904); E. Boudaret, En Corée (1904); Laurent-Crémazy, Le Code pénal de la Corée (1904); G. T. Ladd, In Korea with Marquis It6é (1908); Dictionaries and vocabularies by the French Catholic fathers, Russians, J. S. Gale, and H. Underwood are excellent. On geology, see C. Gottsche, “Geologische Skizze von Korea,” Sitz. preuss. Akad. Wiss. (Berlin, Jahrg. 1886, pp. 857-873, Pl. viii.). A summary appears in Rev. scz. Paris, 5th series,

vol. i., Dp. 545-552 (1904).

AESTHETIC

DEVELOPMENT

The long wars which desolated China at the close of her Bronze age, toward the end of the first millenium, B.c., caused many of her people to flee for refuge into what were then the wilds of Manchuria and Korea. Thus Chinese influence quickly spread over most of the Korean peninsula and led eventually to the founding there of three kingdoms. One of these, Silla, in the south-east, said to date from A.D. 57, was the most advanced, and became in turn a notable civilizing centre. Further Effects of Buddhism.—The introduction of Buddhism from China soon after its establishment in that country gave a further great stimulus to Korean progress. An advance in all the arts was the immediate result. About the middle of the 7th century, Silla, with help from the Chinese T’ang dynasty, extended its sway over the entire peninsula and expelled the Japanese who until then had retained a foothold in the extreme south. An Arabic writer of the time states that Silla carried on an extensive foreign trade and was especially rich in gold. Recent excavations carefully conducted by the Japanese have abundantly

confirmed this. The Korai Dynasty.—During the roth century, the power of Silla was overthrown by the revolted northern province of Korai, whose name survives in the modern European appellations for the country. Under the Korai dynasty (A.D. 946-1392) was produced the finest Korean pottery, mainly of a celadon type, with a pellucid sea-green glaze. Its best examples attain a beauty of form and a taste in design rarely equalled in the history of ceramics. (See POTTERIES AND PORCELAIN.) , Chinese Influences.—This high civilization was greatly injured by the uncultured Mongols, who conquered the country late in the 13th century. After they withdrew, in the following

4.90

KOREA

century, a new dynasty, that of the Vi, was set up. China, newly organized under the sway of the Mings, was recognized as suzerain and its influence, lacking in originality as it then was, became paramount in everything, nowhere more so than in the arts. Still suffering, moreover, from the effects of the Mongol conquest, and torn by civil disorders beside, Korea never retrieved her former high culture. Late in the 16th century she underwent the great Japanese invasion, with further irreparable harm to her ancient civilization. During subsequent centuries she was content to remain a feeble imitation of the China of the Ming dynasty even after the Mings themselves had long vanished from the scene. To Chinese culture and the Buddhist faith Korea has owed her civilization and her art, to which, however, she has rarely succeeded in imparting any distinctive qualities of her own. When she was annexed to Japan in roro, she had long been merely vegetating. See Catalogue of the Le Blond Collection of Corean

Pottery, Victoria and Albert Museum. (1918). See also, CHINA: Aesthetic Development.

(C. W. B.)

KOREA UNDER

JAPAN

The organization of the Government-general of Chosen was established under Gen. Seiki Terauchi on Oct. 1, r910. During the following nine years the freedom of the Korean people was intolerably restricted. The governor was given practically absolute power, independent of the cabinet or diet, responsible only to the emperor, who approved important measures, but vetoed none. All foreigners were put under Japanese law, extra-territoriality being abolished. Some of the greatest Japanese soldiers, skilful police and expert statesmen were brought over to control affairs. The country made great material progress; railway mileage was increased, roads reconstructed, public buildings erected, agriculture and sanitation improved. However, this was done to establish military autocracy for the exclusive benefit of Japan. In carrying on the policy of Ito—Japanizing the people—the national ideals and culture of the Korean people have been ignored. The legal, social, intellectual and economic life of the country was distinctly divided into two parts—one for the Japanese and the other for the Koreans. High official positions are opened to the former. In salary, the Japanese receives 40% more than the Korean with the same rank and a similar post. In the Korean schools, the Korean language, the history of Korea and of Western nations, political economy or any subject that would stimulate patriotism are prohibited. Every book or paper published in the country has first to be submitted to the censor, even foreigners being subject to this regulation. Spies keeping “a fatherly eye” on all Korean scholars cause constant arrest and prompt imprisonment.

The police have the right to arrest anyone without a war-

rant. The Annual Report says “The total number of criminal cases decided during the year 1916 by police summary judgment reached 56,013, involving 82,121 offenders, being an increase of 14,777 cases and 21,750 offenders over those of the preceding year. Of the persons implicated in these cases, 81,139 were sentenced, 30 proved their innocence, and the remaining 952 were pardoned.” Fines, flogging, imprisonment and exile to inaccessible islands are common punishments.

migrated from Korea to north China in the year rọrọ. The Korean has no individual freedom, and is beatey and cuffed by the lowest Japanese coolie, regardless of his positin, The majority of the intelligent and patriotic Koreans are Chyi tians. In the autumn of 1911, the police arrested the le among them on the charge that they had been conspiring to assure. nate Governor-general Terauchi. Nine were exiled, three died under secret tortures and on Sept. 28, 106 of these accused me, including Baron Yun Chi Ho, after severe trial, were sentenced t prison. Since the Koreans have no privilege in press, use of the mother tongue, free speech, etc., they naturally migrate to other countries, whither the Japanese spies follow them. The movement in favour of independence is therefore most secret.

Unarmed Revolt.—At 2 p.m. March 1, r919, the Korean peo ple rose in unarmed revolt. More than 200,000 people, who hag the excuse of coming to Seoul to see the funeral services of the late

emperor, gathered on —1r1s5 Christians, 15 Buddhists, professors dependence, presented Conference, and went the country.

the streets of the capital. Thirty-three me, Chuntoists (see ToNGHAK) and thre and writers—drew up a declaration of ip. this to the Japanese Government and Paris to gaol. The movement spread throughout

But the Koreans, being unarmed, were easily taken

to prison by the hundreds.

There was no violence in the Korean

demonstration, but the Japanese attacked every gathering place, Within a fortnight, in Seoul alone, thousands were arrested. in prison they were subjected to torture to force them to denounce those who were leaders in the movement. In connection with this more than 11,000 were flogged between March r and the midde of July. The director-general of administration, I. Yamanaka, was

called to Tokyo for a conference. The Liberal premier, T. Hara, and his Government inaugurated a still harsher military rule. A new decree was promulgated on April 15, 1919, stating that after this date any Korean participating in the independence movement, either within or outside Korea, would be imprisoned for ten years. Reinforcements of soldiers and police were sent from Japan and every effort was made to root out the movement. Political Changes.—The realization on the part of the Japa-

nese Government that the Koreans were determined to win their liberty at whatever cost, brought many changes in the Goverment of Chosen. The governor, Yashimichi Hasekawa, was recalled and Admiral Makoto Saito took the post on Sept. 2, 1919. In order to keep down the revolutionists, it was necessary to revise or abolish nearly 150 laws and regulations, for which an appropriation of 280 million yen was made in the budget for the fiscal year of 1920. The use of uniforms and swords by officials and school teachers was abolished. Three daily newspapers in the Korean language—Shisa Simmun (edited by a Japanese and soon discontinued because of his sympathy with the Koreans), Chosen Ipo and Donga Ilpo—were given permission to publish between Dec. 1919 and Jan. 1920. A few Korean students were given passports to study in America and Europe. During the great earthquake of 1923 it was thought that the Korean anarchists would revolt. A movement was started to kill all the Koreans in Japan; and in Tokyo and its vicinity alone more than 9,000 Koreans were massacred.

cannot

Although the Koreans have not attained their end, there has

compete on equal terms with his Japanese fellow tradesman: in

followed a period of great spiritual and intellectual awakening in the country. Self-realization and intellectual progress have been marked. The reassertion of national rights has caused a cértain emancipation of the higher self. Poets and scholars have begun to humanize the classical writings of antiquity—populamz ing them in the language of the mass. The women who took part in the revolution also claimed a right to direct their own destiny. Their search for knowledge has sent many abroad. There was 4

The

Commercial

Position.—The

Korean

merchant

post offices and custom houses, for example, he must wait- until

all the Japanese have been attended to, Economic oppression has ruined many merchants and farmers. The Oriental Development company was established for the colonization of the Japanese immigrants, who are given Implements, lands and other necessary

assistance. By the agency of this and the Chosen Industrial Bank, Ltd—a semi-official banking institution and private Japanese organization—more than one-fifth of the richest lands in Korea are already in Japanese hands. Since the Korean is unpaid for laour in road construction, etc., and has tax obligations and his own necessities to meet, he sells his lands at a disadvantage. Japanese settlers are arriving in increasing numbers while the

Koreans are forced to withdraw to the north into Manchuria and -Niadivostok., The Chosen Government reports that 45,000 Koreans

victory, a triumph of Liberalism; a triumph of men of progressive

learning over the Conservatives of the established Confucian insti-

tutions. Choi Nam Sun, the author of the Declaration of Independence, Lee Kwang Soo, the novelist, and Park Eun Seek, the historian, became the leaders of the literary renaissance. | The Independence. Movement.—The independence move ment is still going on wherever Koreans live. The Provisional

491

KOREA—KORNEUBERG Government of the Korean

Republic, with its headquarters at

Shanghai, is supported by the Koreans under the leadership of

Lee Dong Whee and Kim Chao Chin in Siberia, Rhee Syngman

and Ahn Chang Ho in Hawaii and America and Kim Koo and Lee Tong Young in China. Such organizations as the Korean Young Academy, Korean National Association and Dongchi Hoi have

been established for the support of this movement. Newspapers— the Korean N ationalist Weekly, New Korea and National Herald _are also published toward this end. There are those who want to reach this goal by military force; others, still more radical want

a social revolution to get rid of the capitalistic yoke; while others

such as the Korean Commission, Washington, D.C., aim to win

the sympathy of other nations.

There are pacifists and revolutionists among the leaders of the Youth Movement in Korea, who are devoting their lives to the

education of youth. The most prominent among them are Cynn Hugh Heung-Wo, Kim Chang Jai, Song Chin Wo, Kim Sung Soo,

in few and simple highly idealized forms, with an absolute disregard either of realism or of the usual conventions. In lacquer Korin’s use of white metals and of mother-of-pearl is notable; but herein he followed Koyetsu. Ké6rin died on June 2, 1716, at the age of fifty-nine. His chief pupils were Kagei Tatebashi and Shik6 Watanable; but the present knowledge and appreciation of his work are largely due to the efforts of Héitsu Sakai, who brought about a revival of Korin’s style. See A. Morrison, The Painters of Japan (1902); 8. Tajima, Masterpieces selected from the Kérin School (1903); S, Héitsu, The roo Designs by Kérin (1815) and More Designs by K6rin ae mess

KORKUS,

an aboriginal tribe of India, dwelling on the Sat-

pura hills in the Central Provinces. They are the westernmost erm representatives of the Munda family of wl speech. Totemistic exogamy and adult + marriage are found. Each clan has a com-

fi munal

Choi Rin, Choi Nam Sun, Park Chung Hoon, Lee Seung Hoon,

‘i

Han Yong Woon, Chang Duk Soo, Kim Yang Soo, Choo Chong

Kyn and Ahn Jai Hong. These men believe that the success of the movement depends upon ability to control all forces of vio-

a NE

lence, preaching that Korea has a soul under the spell of mysticism

rameter

10,000,000 yen (£1,000,000). The first banking systems were introduced into Korea in rgor when the Dai Ichi Ginko of Tokyo established a branch office at Fusan. As Japanese residents spread over the country other banks followed suit and on its foundation in 1909 the Bank of Korea took over all the functions belonging to a central bank hitherto performed by the Dai Ichi Ginko. The activities of the bank of Chosen soon spread beyond the confines of the peninsula; branches were opened in Manchuria (where it enjoyed free circulation of its notes), in North China and East Siberia. More business is done by the bank in these areas than in Korea proper. In r918, stimulated by the steady expansion of its business, the bank increased its capital to 40,000,000 yen, and in 1920 a further increase brought it up to Y¥80,000,000. In 1918 many local banks (with a united capital of ¥ 2,600,000) merged themselves in the Bank of Chosen under special government protection with a capital of Y10,000,000 which has since been trebled. The bank, according to the Government policy has also made loans to China and has opened an agency in New York and sent representatives to London with a view to facilitating exchange operations and utilizing the foreign money market in the interests of Korea and Manchuria. The volume of business and its increase in 15 years may be judged from the

following figures; Capital subscribed (1910) Y10,000,000, (1925) ¥80,000,000: Capital paid up (1910) Y10,000,000, (1925) Y50,000,000; Government shares (1910) Y3,000,000, (1925) Y3,000,ooo; Reserve Fund (1910) Y366,000, (1925) ¥7,024,000; De-

posits (1910) Yxr8,355,000, (1925) Y217,597,000. The headquarters of the Bank are in Keijo, the capital, and there are

branches in all the more Manchuria and China.

important cities of Japan, Chosen, (H. Sa.)

KORIN, OGATA (c. 1657~1716), Japanese painter and lac-

Formerly

masters,

Tribes

and

Castes

KORMOCZBANYA:

of the

see

Central

Knrem-

NICA.

Often misunderstood and maligned, these leaders of a new movement attempt to attract the best in foreign countries while holding firmly to the proved virtues of old traditions. They have a heavy task and only the distant future will show whether they have the initiative and necessary energy to translate their thought into action.

KOREA, BANK OF. This bank (Chosen Ginko) was founded in r909 as a dejure central institution capitalized at

See

jan Provinces (1916).

Ps

which will not perish, and which can rise to triumph over the (Y. K.) physical might of Japan.

burial place.

with shifting cultivations, they are largely | farm servants and ploughmen, honest, | improvident. :

KORNER, KARL THEODOR (1791-1813), German poet and patriot, was born at Dresden on Sept. 23, 1791. | His father, Christian Gottfried Korner -| (1756-1831), a distinguished Saxon jurist, =",aa"

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4. Tela sfilata—

with

weaving

stitch.

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pattern, threads of background overworked with winding stitch. 7. 17th cent. Venetian needlepoint, enlarged (A) Ornamental stitches, fours or modes (B) Tie-bars or brides (C) Cordonnet (D) High relief work. &. Machine-made Venetian point type. 9. Bobbin lace, Chantilly, enlarged. 10. Machine-made Chantilly type

LACE-BARK TREE—LA per of motions, a motion being a clear position for the warp

threads to shog. A rack of bobbin net equals 240 meshes counted vertically. If it is desired to designate the net quality, the number of holes is counted horizontally and diagonally and the total number of holes in one inch is given as the quality; for example,

plain net machines are constructed from 2zooin. to 360in. wide,

the wider machines being usually of a coarser point.

machines which do

not use beams the preparation of the warp is a most important matter and small neat winding machines are used. As there are often about 3,000 such bobbins in work at a time, they have to be arranged to occupy the smallest space possible and all bobbins

on the modern lace machine are subjected to a pressure of several tons weight to each row. The modern lace machine has a remark-

able speed when one considers the complicated nature of the mo-

tions; on a machine making Mechlin lace, for instance, the speed

‘s about 350 motions per minute, the speed of the veiling machine varies between 175 and 200 motions per minute, the Gothro loom

averages 140, Whilst the Levers machine runs at about 108 motions per minute. In making small laces the individual breadths

are connected by a thread which can be afterwards drawn out

to separate one breadth from another. The lace curtain machine

is wide enough to take about eight curtains which finish 6oin. wide each, requiring 460in. of machine breadth. The Jacquard principle of selective mechanism has been adapted to the special requirements of the lace loom, and in the curtain machine, for instance, the threads of the warp pass through guides which are arranged in bars, each bar having gathered on

to it all the threads which require an identical movement in the fabric. The guides are controlled by a cam or small Jacquard one end of the machine and the pattern is actually produced intercepting certain threads through individual tricks, each which is controlled from an overhead Jacquard. The rolling locker plain net lace machine is distinct from

LACEDAEMON,

in historical times an alternative name

of Laconta (q.v.). Homer uses only the former, and in some passages seems to denote by it the Achaean citadel (Therapnae

Lace machines are built in widths varying from 146in. to 222in.,

Lace Machines.—In

571

ceae, and is grown in hothouses in Britain.

13 diagonal holes and 9 horizontal holes per inch in a fabric would give 13-+9=22 quality.

Speed of Modern

CHAISE-DIEU

at by of

of later times) in contrast to the lower town Sparta (G. Gilbert, Studien zur altspartanischen Geschichte, Gottingen, 1872, p. 34 foll.).

It is described by the epithets

“hollow”

and

“spacious”

and the name may be probably connected with Adxxos, lacus, “lake” or “basin.” The modern department of Lacedaemon is the upper half of the valley, with Sparta as capital. LACEPEDE, BERNARD GERMAIN ETIENNE DE

LA VILLE, Comte pve (1756-1825), French naturalist, was

born at Agen on Dec. 26, 1756. His education was carefully conducted by his father, and the early perusal of Buffon’s Natural History awakened his interest in that branch of study. His leisure he devoted to music, and two of his operas (never published) met with the approval of Gluck; in 1781-85 he also brought out in two volumes his Poétique de la musique. Meantime he wrote Essai sur Pélectricité (1781) and Physique générale

et particulière (1782-84), which led Buffon in 1785 to appoint

him sub-demonstrator in the Jardin du Roi, and to suggest that he continue his Histoire naturelle. This continuation was pub-

lished as Histoire des quadrupédes ovipares et des serpents (2 vols., 1788-89) and Histoire naturelle des reptiles (1789).

Having returned to Paris after the Revolution, he was appointed to the chair allocated to the study of reptiles and fishes. After the publication of vol. x of his Histoire naturelle des poissons (1798, vol. 5, 1803), politics began to absorb his attention. In 1799 he became a senator, in 1801 president of the senate, in 1803 grand chancellor of the legion of honour, in 1804 minister of state, and at the Restoration in 1819 he was created a peer. He died at Epinay on Oct. 6, 1825. Besides the above works, Lacépède wrote Histoire des cétacés (1804) and Hist. générale physique et civile de PEurope (18 vols., 1826). His collected works on natural history appeared in 1826.

LACEWING-FLY, the name given to neuropterous insects

of the families Hemerobiidae and Chrysopidae, with long delicate Levers, Gothro or curtain type, in that there are two tiers of antennae, slender bodies and two pairs of similar richly yeined carriages; the front tier is continually traversed to the right, wings: more than 30 species occur in the British Isles. The larvae whilst the back tier is traversed to the left. This gives the diagonal are stout grubs with prominent suctorial jaws and well developed effect to bobbin net laces which distinguishes them from all other legs: they roam about vegetation preying upon aphides and other soft-bodied insects. The Hemerobiidae include the brown lacetypes. Finishing.—The procedure regarding lace finishing varies in wings; their eggs are devoid of stalks and their larvae are genmany ways from that adopted in other branches of textiles. The erally naked. The Ckrysopidae include the green lacewings or fabric has to be examined or viewed and the examiner has to re- golden-eye flies; their eggs are laid at the apices of stalks formed create the pattern where it has broken down, and in the very of hardened secretion, and the larvae often cover themselves with complicated character of many of those designs it requires one the empty skins of their prey. (See NEUROPTERA.) LA CHAISE, FRANCOIS DE (1624-1709), father conwho has a thorough knowledge of the design structure. For white laces the material is bleached in the usual manner and the laces fessor of Louis XIV., was born at the chateau of Aix in Forey on are joined together and given a preliminary softening by steeping Aug. 25, 1624. During the long strife over the temporalities of the them in water overnight. This performs the usual functions of Gallican Church between Louis XIV. and Innocent XI. Pere de la steaming: it softens the material and also frees the larger and Chaise supported the royal prerogative, though he used his ingrosser impurities from the material. Keir boiling is next done in fluence at Rome to conciliate the papal authorities. He must be the usual manner by the use of a keir in which about 2 to 3% of held largely responsible for the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, caustic soda is used. After treatment in this way for several hours but not for the brutal measures applied against the Protestants. it is rinsed and at the next stages is treated with chloride of lime, He exercised 2 moderating influence on Louis XIV.’s zeal against after which the material is thoroughly washed and then run the ‘Jansenists. Père de la Chaise had a great affection for on through a weak acid bath to neutralize the lime. It is then Fénelon, which remained unchanged by the papal condemnati treated in the hydro extractor to remove the water, but the ma- of the Maximes. He died on Jan. 20, 1709. The cemetery of terial is left damp in preparation for the next process of starching, Père-la-Chaise in Paris stands on property acquired by the Jesuits which makes the fabric very stiff, and in this state it is stentered in 1826, and not, as is often stated, on property personally granted or stretched over hooks to draw it out. to the width required. The to Père de la Chaise. narrower laces are then treated with a spray of water to soften See R. Chantelauze, Le Pére de la Chaise: Etudes d'histoire religieuse fea ties them and prepare them for the calender, when they are passed (Paris and Lyons, 1859). LA CHAISE-DIEU, a town of central France, inthe dethrough between several pairs of heated rollers which impart a partment of Haute Loire, 29 m. N.N.W. of Le Puy by rail. Pop. gloss. (W. Ds.) LACE-BARK TREE, a native of Jamaica, known botani- (1926) 892. The town, which is situated 3,500. ft. above the sea, the

cally as Lagetta Lintearia, from its native name lagetto. The inner bark consists of numerous concentric layers of interlacing fibres resembling in appearance lace.

Collars and other articles of ap-

parel have been made of the fibre, which is also‘used in the manufacture of whips, etc. The tree belongs to the family Thymelaea-

owes its celebrity to its Gothic church built by Morel.in the 14th century at the expense of Pope Clement VI. It, belonged to, a

powerful Benedictine abbey founded in 1043. Trade in timber.and

linen and the making of lace chiefly occupy the inhabitants of the town.

E

;

LA CHALOTAIS—LACHMANN

572 LA

CHALOTAIS,

LOUIS

RENE

DE

CARADEUC

DE (1701—1785), French jurist, was born at Rennes, on Match 6, 1701. He was for 6o years procureur général at the parlement of Brittany. He was an ardent opponent of the Jesuits and drew

in mockery of its then owner, Robert Cavelier de la Salle (16431687), who dreamed of a westward passage to China. In 168) it was the scene of a massacre of the French by the Iroquois,

LACHISH, an ancient Amorite fortress in Southern Palestine

up in 1761 for the parlement a memoir on the constitutions of the

now identified with Tell el-Hesy, a mound in the Wady el-Hasy

Order, which did much to secure its suppression in France.

which runs from 6 m. S.W. of Hebron to the sea between Can

The

year 1763 began the conflict between the Estates of Brittany and

and Askalon.

the governor of the province, the duc d’Aiguillon (q.v.). The Estates refused to vote the extraordinary imposts demanded by

tablet of the Amarna period was found on the site mentioning Zimrida, known to have been a governor of Lachish at that period thus confirming the identification. Its fortunes were, generally speaking, those of any city situated on the borderlands between mighty empires, which, when called on to take sides in warfare

the governor in the name of the king. La Chalotais was the personal enemy of d’Aiguillon, and he took the lead in its opposi-

tion. The parlement forbade by decrees the lévy of imposts to which the Estates had not consented. The king annulling these decrees, all the members of the parlement but twelve resigned (Oct. 1764 to May 1765). The government considered La Chalotais one of the authors of this affair. La Chalotais, his son and four other members of the parlement were arrested on a charge of writing insulting anonymous letters to the governor of the province. On Nov. 16, 1765, a commission of judges was named to take charge of the trial. La Chalotais was exiled, but after a long conflict, was recalled in 1775, and was allowed to transmit his office to his son. The opposition to the royal power gained largely through this affair, and it may be regarded as one of the preludes to the revolution of 1789. La Chalotais died at Rennes on July 12, 1785. See, besides the Comptes-Rendus des Constitutions des Jésuites and

the Essai d’éducation nationale, the Mémoires de la Chalotais (3 vols., 1766-1767). Two works containing detailed bibliographies are Marion, La Bretagne et le duc d'Aiguillon (Paris, 1893), and B. Pocquet, Le Duc d’Aiguillon et La Chalotais (Paris, 1901); See also a controversy between these two authors in the Bulletin critique for 1902.

LA CHARITE,

It is mentioned in the Tell Amarna letters, and a

does so with fear and trembling.

It was destroyed by Josh,

assigned to Judah, fortified by Rehoboam, and was the scene of the murder of King Amaziah. Sennacherib made it his headquarters for his campaign against Judah, and it long resisted Nebuchad. rezzar, and maintained a precarious existence—now an. outpost

of Egypt, now a frontier fortress of Palestine. It was excavated for the Palestine Exploration Fund by Flinders Petrie and Bliss 1890-93. The excavations show that eight cities succeeded each other on the site, then its inhabitants abandoned it (c. 400 8.c) to erect their city on a new site. There is a mound in the neighbourhood (Umm Lakis) which preserves the name and probably

marks the site of the Roman city.

See W. M. Flinders Petrie, Tell el-Hesy (1891); F. J. of Many Cities (1898).

er A Fi

. Ro. LACHMANN, KARL KONRAD FRIEDRICH WILHELM. (1793-1851), German philologist and critic, was bom at Brunswick on March 4, 1793, and died on March 13, 1881, In 1815 he joined the Prussian army as a volunteer, and marched

a town of France in the department of to Paris. His life was spent in the study of philology, specially

Niévre, on the bank of the Loire, 17 m. N.N.W.

of Nevers on

Old and Middle High German, and from 1825 he was professor of philology at Berlin.

tury and reorganized as a dependency of the abbey of Cluny in 1052, Manufactures are hosiery, boots and shoes, tarpaulin, lime and cement, furniture, hats, iron goods and woollen goods.

spriingliche Gestalt des Gedichts der Nibelunge Not (1816), and still more in his review of Hagen’s Nibelungen and Benecke’s Bonerius, contributed in 1817 to the Jenaische Literaturzeitung, had already laid down the rules of textual criticism and elucidated the phonetic and metrical principles of Middle High German in a manner which marked a distinct advance in that branch of investigation. The rigidly scientific character of his method becomes increasingly apparent in the Auswahl aus den hochdeutschen Dichtern des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts (1820), in the edition of Hartmann’s Jwein (1827), in those of Walther von der Vogelweide (1827) and Wolfram von Eschenbach (1833), in the papers “Uber das Hildebrandslied,” “Uber althochdeutsche Betonung und Verskunst,” “Uber den Eingang des Parzivals,” and

the Paris-Lyon-Méditerranée railway. Pop. (1926) 3,716. It owes its celebrity to its priory, which was founded in the 8th cen-

LA CHAUSSEE, PIERRE

CLAUDE

NIVELLE

DE

(1692-1754), French dramatist, was born in Paris. La Chaussée was 40 years old before he produced his first play, La Fausse Antipathie (1734). His second play, Le Préjugé à la mode (1735), turns on the fear of incurring ridicule felt by a man in love with his own wife, a prejudice dispelled in France, according to La Harpe, by La Chaussée’s comedy. L’Ecole des amis (1737) followed, and, after am unsuccessful attempt at tragedy in Maximinien, he returned to comedy in Mélanide (1741). In Mélanide the type known as comédie larmoyante is fully developed. L’Ecole des mères (1744) and La Goxvernante (1747) form, with those already mentioned, the best of his work. He died on May 14, 1754. For the comédie larmoyante see G. Lanson, Nivelle de la Chaussée et la comédie larmoyante (1887),

LACHES, a term for slackness or negligence, used particularly in law to signify negligence on the part of a person in doing that which he is by law bound to do, in allowing an unreasonable time to elapse in asserting a right, seeking relief, or claiming a

privilege.

Statutes of limitation (g¢.v.) specify the time within

which various classes of actions may be brought, and various statutes granting remedies, etc., impose a definite time within which legal action must be taken, e.g., Affiliation, Public Officers Protection Acts, etc. Apart from statutes of limitation courts of equity will often refuse relief to those who have allowed unreasonable time to elapse in seeking it, on the principle vigilantibus ac non dormientibus jura subveniunt. l

LACHINE, a city in Jacques Cartier county, Quebée, Canada, $ m. W. of Montreal, on Lake St. Louis, an expansion of the St. Lawrence river, and at the upper end of the Lachine canal. Pop. (1931), 18,630. It is a station on the Canadian National railway and a port of call for steamers plying between Montreal and the

Lachmann

in his able “Habilitationsschrift”

Über die ur-

“Uber drei Bruchstiicke niederrheinischer Gedichte” published in

the Abhandlungen of the Berlin Academy, and in Der Nibelunge

Not und die Klage (1826, 11th ed., 1892), which was followed by a critical commentary in 1836. Lachmann’s Betrachtungen über Homers Ilias, first published in the Abhandlungen of the Berlin Academy in 1837 and 1841, m which he sought to show that the Ziad consists of 16 independent “lays” variously enlarged and interpolated, have had considerable influence on modern Homeric criticism (see Homer), although his views are no longer accepted. His smaller edition of the New Testament appeared in 1831, 3rd ed. 1846; the larger, in two vol-

umes, 1842-50. Besides Propertius (1816), Lachmann edited Catullus (1829); Tibullus (1829); Genesius (1834); Terentionus

Maurus (1836); Babrius (1845); Avianus (1845); Gaius (184I-

42); the Agrimensores Romani (1848—52); Lucilius (edited after his death by Vahlen, 1876); and Lucretius (1850). The last, which was the main occupation of the closing years of his life, from 1845, was perhaps his greatest achievement, and has been

characterized by Munro as “a work which will be a landmatk

for scholars as long as the Latin language continues to be studied. Lachmann also translated Macbeth

(1829).

list of Lachmann’s

F. Leo, Rede

See M. Hertz, Karl Lachmann, eine Biographie (1851), where a ful works

is given;

zur Säcularfeier

Great Lakes. It is a favourite summer resort for the people of K. Lachmanns (1893); J. Grimm, biography in Kleine Schriften; Montréal, arid is the site of the electric works, which furnish W. Scherer in Allgemeine deutsche Biographie, xvii., and J. E. Sandys, power and light for the city of Montreal. It was named in 1669 Hist. of Classical Scholarship, ii. (1968), pp. 127131.

LACINIUM—LACONTA LACINIUM, PROMUNTURIUM (mod. Capo delle Colonne), 7 m. S.E. of Croton (mod. Cotrone); the easternmost point of Bruttii (mod. Calabria).

On the cape still stands a single

column of the temple erected to Hera Lacinia, which is said to

have been fairly complete in the 16th century, but to have been destroyed to build the episcopal palace at Cotrone.

column with capital, about 27 ft. in height.

It is a Doric

In excavations in

1909 little was discovered but small fragments; but the entrance to the enclosure of the temple was found to correspond with the processional road from Crotona. The date of the erection. of the

temple may be given as 480-440 B.C.

LA CIOTAT, a coast town of south-eastern France in the

department of Bouches-du-Rhône, on the west shore of the Bay of La Ciotat, 26 m. S.E. of Marseilles by rail. Pop. (1926), 9,044.

573

mask (see Iron MASK). ‘ (A. L.; X.) LA CONDAMINE, CHARLES MARIE DE (1701-74), French geographer and mathematician, was born at Paris on Jan. 28, 1701, and was trained for the army. With Louis Godin and Pierre Bouguer he joined the expedition sent to Peru in 1735 to determine the length of a degree of the meridian in the neighbourhood of the equator, but finally separated from the rest and made his way from Quito down the Amazon to Cayenne. His was the first scientific exploration of the Amazon; he published the results with a map of the Amazon in Mém. de l’académie des sciences, 1745 (English translation 1745~47). He visited Rome with a view to determining the length of the Roman foot. The journal of his voyage to South America was published in Paris in 1751. He died at Paris on Feb. 4, 1774.

The large ship-

LACONIA, the ancient name of the south-eastern district of

building yards and repairing docks of the Messageries Maritimes

the Peloponnese (Gr. Aaxwzixy) of which Sparta was the capital. It has an area of some 1,048,000 acres, slightly greater than that of Somersetshire, and consists of three well-marked zones running north and south; (1) The valley of the Eurotas, which occupies the centre, is bounded west by (2) the chain of Taygetus (mod. Pentedaktylon, 7,900 ft.), which runs from the Arcadian mountains on ‘the north to the promontory of Taenarum (Cape Matapan). The eastern portion (3), a more broken range of hill country, rises in Mt. Parnon to 6,365 ft. and terminates in the Cape Malea. The range of Taygetus is well watered and in ancient times had forests which afforded excellent hunting; also iron mines and quarries of the famous rosso antico of Taenarum, as well as an inferior bluish marble. The quarries of green por-

The port is easily accessible and well sheltered.

company give employment to between 2,000 and 3,000 workmen. It has also copper works and manufactures tents and sails and has trade in wood and oil. Fishing and an active coasting trade are carried on; the town is frequented for sea-bathing.

LACKAWANNA,

city, Erie county, New York, U.S.A., on

Lake Erie, adjoining Buffalo

on the south, and served by the

Buffalo, Rochester and Pittsburgh, the New York Central and the

Pennsylvania railways. The population was 17,918 in 1920 (38% foreign-born white, largely from Poland and Hungary), and 23,948 in 1930. It is a vast workshop of the Bethlehem Steel company, which has extensive plants along the lake front. The city was incorporated in 1909.

LA

CLOCHE,

JAMES

DE

[“Prince

James

Stuart”]

phyry

(lapis Lacedaemonius)

were at Croceae.

Far poorer are

(16442-1669), a character who was brought into the history of the slopes of Parnon for the most part barren limestone scantily England by Lord Acton in 1862 (Home and Foreign Review, i. watered. The Eurotas valley, however, is fertile and produces 146-174: “The Secret History of Charles II.”). From informa- maize, olives, oranges and mulberries. Laconia has no large rivers tion discovered by Father Boero in the archives of the Jesuits in except Eurotas and its largest tributary Oenus (mod. Kelefina). Rome, Lord Acton averred that Charles II., when a lad at Jersey, The coast, especially on the east, is rugged with few good harhad a natural son, James. The evidence follows. On April 2, bours. Cythera island, q.v., lies south of Cape Malea. Important 1668, as the register of the Jesuit House of Novices at Rome towns, besides Sparta and Gythium, were Bryseae, Amyclae and attests, “there entered Jacobus de la Cloche.” His baggage was Pharis in the Eurotas plain; Pellana and Belbina on the upper exiguous, his attire was clerical. He is described as “from the Eurotas; Sellasia on the Oenus, Caryae on the Arcadian frontier; island of Jersey, under the king of England, aged 24.” He bore Prasiae, Zarax and Epidaurus Limera on the east coast; Geroncertain letters purporting to have been written by Charles II., thrae on the slopes of Parnon; Boeae, Asopus, Helos, Las and the most important being a letter of recommendation (Aug. 13, Teuthrone on the Laconian Guif; and Hippola, Messa and Oetylus 1667) to Oliva, general of the Jesuit order. The truth is that all on the Messenian Gulf. ; Charles’s letters are forgeries. This is certain because in all he The earliest inhabitants in tradition, were autochthonous writes frequently as if his mother, Henrietta Maria, were in Leleges (g.v.). Minyan immigrants settled on the coast and even London, and constantly in company with him. Now she had left founded Amyclae in tbe Eurotas valley; Phoenician traders England for France in 1665, and to England she never returned. visited the Laconian Gulf, and there are indications of very early As the letters—including that to “Prince Stuart”—are all forged, trade between Laconia and Crete, e.g., blocks of green Laconian it is clear that de la Cloche was an impostor. His aim had been porphyry have been found in the Minoan palace at Cnossus. In to get money from Oliva, and to pretend to travel to England, Homer, Laconia is the realm of an Achaean prince, Menelaus, meaning to enjoy himself. He did not quite succeed, for Oliva whose seat was perhaps Therapne, south-east of Sparta. This sent a socius with him into France. Achaean kingdom fell before the Dorians c. r100 B.c. and throughThe name of James de la Cloche appears no more in documents. out the classical period the history of Laconia is that of its He reached Rome in Dec. 1668, and in January a person calling capital Sparta (q.v.). himself “Prince James Stuart” appears in Naples, accompanied In 195 B.C. the coast towns were freed from Spartan rule by by a socius styling himself a French knight of Malta. Both are the Roman general T. Quinctius Flamininus, and became memon their way to England, but Prince James falls ill and stays in bers of the Achaean League. When this was dissolved in 146 B.c., Naples, while his companion departs. The knight of Malta may they remained independent under the title of the “Confederation be a Jesuit. In Naples, Prince James marries a girl of no posi- of the Lacedaemonians” or “of the Free-Laconians” (see Gytion, and is arrested on suspicion of being a coiner. To his con- THIum). Augustus seems to have reorganized the league, for fessors (he had two in succession) he says that he is a son of Pausanias (iii. 21, 6) speaks of him as its founder. Of the twentyCharles II. Our sources are the despatches of Kent, the English four cities which originally composed the league, only eighteen agent at Naples, and the Lettere, vol. iii., of Vincenzo Armanni remained by the reiga of Hadrian (see AcsztaraN Leacue). In (1674), who had his information from one of the confessors of A.D. 395 Goths under Alaric devastated Laconia, and later it the “Prince.” The viceroy of Naples communicated with Charles was overrun by large bands of Slavs. Throughout the middle ages Il, who disowned the impostor; Prince James, however, was it was the scene of struggles between Slavs, Byzantines, Franks, released, and died at Naples in August 1669, leaving a wild will, Turks and Venetians, the memorials of which are the fortresses in which he claims for his son, still unborn, the “apanage” of of Mistra near Sparta, Geraki (anc. Geronthrae) and MonemMonmouth or Wales, “which it is usual to bestow on natural vasia, “the Gibraltar of Greece,” on the east coast, and Passava sons of the king.” The son lived till about 1750, a penniless pre- near Gythium. In the War of Independence a prominent part tender, and writer of begging letters. was played by the Maniates or Mainotes, the inhabitants of the i Further conjectures may be found in Tke Man of the Mask (1908), rugged peninsula formed by the southern part of Taygetus who y Monsignor Barnes, who argued that James was the man in the iron had maintained virtual independence of the Turks and until quite

LACONIA—LACQUER

574

recently retained many mediaeval customs, living in fortified towers and practising blood-feud and marriage by capture. The district has been divided into two departments (nomes), Lacedaemon and Laconia, with their capitals at Sparta and Gythium respectively. Pop. of Laconia (1923 estimate) 139,014. Archaeology.—Besides

the excavations undertaken at Sparta,

Gythium and Vaphio (g.v.), the most important were those at the Apollo sanctuary of Amyclae before 1904 by C. Tsountas in 1890 ("Ednu. dpxatod. 1892, x ff.) and in 1904 by A. Furtwangler. At Kampos, on the western side of Taygetus, a small domed tomb of Mycenean age was excavated in 1890 and yielded two leaden statuettes of great interest; at Arkina a similar tomb had been explored in 1889. Important inscriptions were found

at. Geronthrae (Geraki), notably five long fragments of the Edictum Diocletiani. In 1904 the British Archaeological school at Athens undertook a systematic investigation of the ancient and mediaeval remains in Laconia. The results, of which the most important are summarized in the article Sparta, are published in the British School Annual, x. ff. The acropolis of Geronthrae, a hero-shrine at Angelona in the south-eastern highlands, and the sanctuary of Ino-Pasiphae at Thalamae have also been investigated. i See the works cited under Sparta and GREECE.

. LACONIA, a city in the lake region of central New Hampshire, U.S.A., on the Winnepesaukee river, in the foot-hills of the White mountains; the county seat of Belknap county. It is on Federal highway 3 (the Daniel Webster), and is served by the Boston and Maine railroad. The population was 10,897 in 1920 (81% native white) and was 12,471 in 1930 (Federal census), increasing to 20,000 in the summer months. The city has an area of 24-65 sq.m., bounded on the north-east by Lake Winnepesaukee, and on the south-west by Lake Winnisquam. Within its limits lie Lakes Paugus and Opechee; the summer resorts of Lakeport (between these two lakes) and The Weirs, on Lake Winnepesaukee; the State school for feeble-minded children; the county farm; and the State fish hatchery. It is a centre for winter sports. Hydro-electric power is available, and the city has important manufactures (notably pleasure boats, wool and silk-and-wool hosiery, knitting-machines and latch needles), with an output in

1927 valued at $9,441,547. Its trade area has a radius of 30 m.

and a population of 30,000. The assessed valuation of property in 1927 was $16,247,195. The Weirs marks the northern limit of the territory claimed by Massachusetts, and was visited in 1652 by a party of surveyors sent out by Governor Endicott, who chiselled their initials on a boulder (now enclosed in a granite memorial structure). A blockhouse was built in 1736 and permanent settlement began in 1761. A township was incorporated under the name of Laconia in 1855, which in 1893, after additions of territory, was chartered as a city.

LACONIC

the dry-sweating room of a Roman bath

(see BatHs). The laconicum was usually circular in plan, and covered by either a conical roof or a dome, in the centre of which was a circular opening, closed or opened by means of a bronze shield which could be adjusted so as to regulate the temperature and the ventilation (Vitruvius 5, 10). In the smaller baths the laconicum was merely an apse or recess opening out of the calidarium or hot room. In the baths of the forum at Pompeii it is an apse occupying the entire end of the calidarium. The laconicum was heated by a hypocaust, a hollow space below the floor, through which the smoke and heat from a furnace passed, and also by vertical heating flues in the side-walls.

LACORDAIRE,

JEAN

BAPTISTE

HENRI

(1802-

1861), French ecclesiastic and orator, was born at Recey-surOurce, Céte d’Or, on March 12, 1802. He was the second of a family of four, the eldest of whom, Jean Théodore (1801—70),

travelled a great deal in his youth, and was afterwards professor of comparative anatomy at Liége. For several years Lacordaire studied at Dijon, showing a marked talent for rhetoric. He thought of going on the stage, but was induced to finish his legal

training in Paris, and began to practise as an advocate (181 7—24). Meanwhile Lamennais had published his Essai sur PIndifférence,—

a passionate plea. for. Christianity as necessary

for the social

progress of mankind. to become

a priest.

Lacordaire read the book, and determined

In 1824 he entered the seminary of Saint

Sulpice; four years later he was ordained and became almoner

of the college Henri IV. He co-operated with Lamennai s in edit-

ing Avenir. Lacordaire strove to show that Catholicism was not bound up with the dynastic idea, and allied it with a well-defined

liberty, equality and fraternity.

But the new propagandism Was

denounced from Rome in an encyclical.

In the meantime Lacordaire and Montalembert, believing tha

under the charter of 1830, they were entitled to liberty ofinstruc.

tion, opened an independent free school. It was closed in two days, and the teachers fined before the court of peers, These

reverses Lacordaire accepted with quiet dignity; but they brought

his relationship with Lamennais to a close. He now began the

course of Christian conférences at the Collége Stanislas, which attracted the art and intellect of Paris; thence he went to Notre Dame, and for two years his eloquent sermons were the delight

of the city. He still preached the people’s sovereignty in ciyj life and the pope’s supremacy’in religion, but he brought to his doctrine the full resources of a mind familiar with philosophy, history and literature, and led the reaction against Voltairian scepticism. In 1838 he set out for Rome, revolving a great scheme for christianizing France by restoring the old order of St. Dominic, At Rome he donned the habit of the preaching friar and joined the monastery of Minerva. His Mémoire pour le rétablissement

en France de Pordre des frères prêcheurs was then prepared and dedicated to his country; at the same time he collected the materials for the life of St. Dominic. When he returned to France in 1841 he resumed his preaching at Notre Dame. Lacordaire’s funeral orations are the most notable in their kind of any delivered during his time, those on Marshal Drouet and Daniel O’Connell being models of classical eloquence. He was

elected to the National Assembly; but, being rebuked by his ecclesiastical superiors for declaring himself a republican, he resigned his seat ten days after his election. In 1850 he went back

to Rome and was made provincial of laboured to make the Dominicans a retired to Sorréze to become director there Nov. 22, 1861. He had been 1860. The best edition

(6 vols.,

of Lacordaire’s

1872-73),

published

the order, and for four years religious power. In 1854 he of a private lycée, and died

elected to the Academy in

works

is the Oeuvres completes

by C. Poussielgue,

which contains,

besides the Conférences, the exquisitely written, but uncritical, Vie de Saint Dominique and the beautiful Lettres à un jeune homme sur la vie chrétienne. For a complete list of his published correspondence see L. Petit de Julleville, Histoire de la langue et de la littérature française (1897—99) vii. 598. The authoritative biography is by Ch. Foisset (2 vols., 1870). The religious aspect of his character is best shown in Pére B. Chocarne’s Vie du Pére Lacordaire (2 vols., 1866—Eng. trans. by A. Th. Drane, 1868); see also Count C. F. R. de Montalembert’s Un Moine au XIXème siècle (1862—Eng. trans. by F. Aylward, 1867). There are lives by Comte O. d’Haussonville (Les Grands écrivains Francais series, 1897) ; and by the duc de Broglie (1889). See also the Correspondance inédite du Pére Lacordaire, edit. by H. Villard (1870) and Saint-Beuve in Causeries de Lundi. Several of Lacordaire’s Conférences have been translated into English, among these being, Jesus

Christ (1869); God (1870); God and Man (1872); Life (1873).

LACQUER or LACKER, a general term for coloured and frequently opaque varnishes applied to certain metallic objects

and to wood. The term is derived from the resin Jac, which substance is the basis of lacquers properly so-called. Technically, among Western nations, lacquering is restricted to the coating of polished metals or metallic surfaces, such as brass, pewter and

tin, with prepared varnishes which will give them a golden, bronze-like

or other lustre as

Indies lacquering of wooden

desired.

surfaces

Throughout

the East

is practised, articles of

household furniture, as well as boxes, trays and toys, being decorated with bright-coloured lacquer,

This process of applying the

lacquer to decorative articles of wood is also known as sean

CHINESE AND JAPANESE

The lacquer of the Far East, China, Japan and Korea must not be confused with other substances to which the term is generally applied; for instance, the lac of Burma, which is the gummy de

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FIG. 10.—VIEW OF THE SHELL OF THE PIDDOCK (PHOLAS) SHOWING ROWS OF SPINES USED FOR GRINDING ROCK a creeping surface. Usually, however, it is laterally compressed and its lower edge is keeled so that the whole foot is somewhat like the blade of an axe—hence the name Pelecypoda (axe-foot; Gr. wéXexus, axe), which is sometimes given to the class. radiating from the umbo (apex by and border) dorsal the of (HUTCH~ OF ALL, COUNTRIES” ee In the middle line of the surface of the foot is an orifice corFig, 8.—-MALLEUS, THE HAMMER. development of spines and scales. responding with the ventral pedal pore of the Gastropoda. This As in the Gastropoda the man- leads into a cavity in which is secreted a mass of a hard substance, OYSTER, A MEMBER OF THE SAME FAMILY AS THE PEARL OYSTERS tle may become reflected over the conchyolin (which constitutes the organic matrix in the shell) in the form of long bristles or hairs. This mass is gradually pushed surface of the shell (Galeommidae) and finally in Scioberetia and to the exterior where it hardens on contact with water and serves shell. the covers a few other genera it completely The mantle hangs down on each side of the visceral mass as two to attach the animal to rocks, stones and masses of sand. This structure, the byssus, is of considerable importance to forms which loose folds and in the most primitive Lamellibranchia the ventral live on open beaches (see section “‘Bionomics”’). It is imperfectly (Nucula, unattached and free entirely edges of their folds are Arca, etc.). In all other members of the class the two lobes of the developed in the Protobranchia and is large and highly efficient in Anomia (in which it is calcified and passes through a hole in the mantle are united with each other at one or more points below right valve), Arca, Mytilus, Pecten, etc. i mass. visceral the of the ventral surface In a large number of forms there is one junction only. This is ANTEENAL ORGANIZE TON : at the posterior end of the animal and it forms an aperture oppo-

of the mouth has already site to the anus. This is known as the exhalant orifice and serves | Alimentary System.—The situation oesophagus directly into short a through leads It described. been cavity mantle for the passage of faeces and stale water from the (Protobranchia) alone is there to the exterior. Among a second large group of families there is the stomach.

In the Nuculidae

nature.. In the embryo of a second junction close to the first. Three apertures are thus | any special expansion ‘of a pharyngeal e in the stomodaeal protuberanc small a observed Lovén Cardium aperture exhalant or formed in the mantle-edge: the posterior (already described), a median or inhalant aperture (by which wall which may be a vestige of a radular coecum. This observation

chia and in no. adult water is drawn into the mantle cavity) and a larger anterior orifice has never been recorded m other Lamellibran (the rasping tongue radula a there is class this of ve representati is orifice fourth A orifice). from which the foot projects (pedal is thin-

produced, e.g., in certain of the family Solenidae, by a third fusion of the mantle-edges. The exhalant and inhalant orifices are in many genera prolonged as tubes or “siphons.”

characteristic of the rest of the Mollusca). The stomach

walled and lined with hard cuticle. It has a well-marked pyloric Elongate | CQSCUM which in some forms communicates with the initial part of the intestine by a longitudinal slit as in certain Gastropoda,

This coecum secretes the crystalline style, a gelatinous rod which contains a digestive enzyme. The physiological action of the style has been recently studied by several workers. In Mya Yonge shows that its ferment reduces starch and glycogen. The liver is 7 INCURRENT SIPHON

EXCURRENT

FROM

“ANIMALS

OF ALL

COUNTRIES”

(HUTCHINSON)

FIG. 9.—BRECHITES JAVANA, THE WATERING-POT SHELL

SIPHON

EXPANDED FOOT )

These molluscs elther burrow In sand or adhere to solid bodies by means of

the tubular projections of the “rose,” the expanded end of the tube in which the valves of the true shell are embedded

siphons are characteristic of burrowing forms as they enable the mollusc, when burrowing below the surface, to maintain com-

munication with the water upon which it depends for food and

oxygen and also to get rid of its waste products. Forms like Cummingia, Pholas, Mactra have very long siphons, twice or three times as long as the shell. In Teredo the siphons form the larger part of the total bulk and secrete a calcareous tube. Similar large siphons which secrete a calcareous sheath are seen in Clavagella. The gills, which are an even more distinctive feature of Lamellibranch organization, are described under “Respiratory System.”

AFTER OWEN, FROM LANKESTER, “TREATISE ON ZOOLOGY” (A. & C. BLACK, LTD.) FIG. 11.—THE RIGHT SIDE OF A PSAMMOBIA FLORIDA:

bilobed and usually communicates with the stomach by several ori-

fices. It contains (¢.%., in Mya) amylolytic. proteolytic and lipo-

lytic enzymes and is the principal organ of digestion. It seems also to have an absorptive function. The intestine. is usually long and provided with a typhlosole. It traverses ‘the ventricle of the heart (as in the Rhipidoglossate Gastropoda) in most cases, but in Nucula and some Filibranchia it passes below the ventricle.

620

LAMELLIBRANCHIA

It should be mentioned here that the tracts of cilia on the gills and palps are an important adjunct to the alimentary system. By

their vibration the food particles which are drawn into the mantlecavity, when water is taken in, are sorted out into appropriate sizes and driven towards the palps from which they are passed to the mouth. Circulatory System.—The blood is usually colourless; but haemoglobin is found in it in sundry forms which live in sand and mud (Arcidae, Solen, etc.) and haemocyanin in some others (species of Venus and Cardium). The blood is contained in vessels which are usually capacious cavities

(sinuses). The heart is situated on the dorsal side of the body and consists of a medium ventricle and two lateral auricles. In most Lamellibranchia there are two aortae (anterior and posterior). In the ramifications of these the blood is carried to the tissues. It is ultimately collected into certain large sinuses and passes thence to the gills in afferent vessels. After oxygenation it is carried from the gills in efferent vessels to the auricles of the heart. The Gills.—There are two gills in all Lamellibranchia, except the Septibranchia, situated one on each side of the body as prolongations from the upper surface of the mantle-cavity. Each gill is in its primitive form comparable with those of other Pee molluscs, in that it is composed of a cen- Fig, a

T

i

expanded in another section of this article.

Coelom and Excretory Organs.—In the Protobranchia the primitive connection between the pericardium and the gonadial coelom is retained as the reproductive organs open into the reno.

pericardial canals. In the Filibranchia, such as Pecten, the genera-

AXIS

LEAFLETS OF tHe

\

|’

OUTER GILL-PLate LEAFLETS of THE

INNER GILL-PLATE

LEAFLETS OF THE OUTER GILL-PLATE

AXIS

EA

SOLENOMYA

LEAFLETS OF TH INNER GILL-PLATE

Ey

DIRECT OR DESCENDING LAMELLA OF THE INNER GILL-PLATE

XA

AXIS ee

DIRECT (USUALLY DESCENDING) LAMELLA OF THE OUTER GILL-PLATE

DIRECT OR DESCENDING LAMELLA OF THE INNER GILL-PLATE

DIRECT REFLECTED OR ASCENDING LAMELLA OF THE INNER GILL-PLATE

AXIS

MAJORITY OF

=

LAMELLIBRANCHS

(USUALLY DESCENDING} LAMELLA OF THE OUTER GILL-PLATE

REFLECTED (USUALLY ASCENDING) LAMELLA OF THE

OUTER GILL-PLATE

DIRECT (USUALLY.DESCENDING) LAMELLA OF T OUTER GILL-PLATE

ee ee DIAGRAMS: OF

tral vascular axis carrying on its opposite TIVELA, SHOWING EXTENT sides a series of filaments. This simple AND APPEARANCE OF THE feather-like structure is found in the Proto- Foor

branchia. From this structure are evolved a number of types of gill which exhibit progressive complexity and remarkable divergences from the primitive type, of which only a short account can be given. 1. The rows of filaments, instead of being opposed as they are in the Protobranchia, become parallel to each other and hang downwards in the mantle-cavity and the extremities of the individual filaments are bent upwards so that each row of filaments is doubled. The gill thus consists of four series of filaments (lamellae). Of these the two lamellae adjacent to the axis are called

the direct lamellae, those formed by the upturned portions of the

filaments being known as the reflected lamellae. 2. The next advance in complexity is the development of discs of ‘cilia which face each other on adjacent filaments. The masses of cilia of the opposed discs fit into each other rather like the bristles of two brushes, and the discs thus lock the adjacent filaments together. 3. The direct and reflected lamellae are joined by “interlamellar junctions.” This stage of development is found in the Filibranchia (e.g., Pecte). In the Eulamellibranchia there are vascular interlameliar and interfilamentary junctions. 4. The lamellae may be thrown into folds and the extremities of the filaments which are free in primitive forms may fuse with the mantle. The result is that the mantle-cavity becomes subdivided by the partition thus formed by the gills into FIG. 13.—CRYPTODON SP. CURIOUSLY an upper and a lower chamber and the SHOWING SHAPED FOOT respiratory and nutritive currents of water are canalized. ‘The water enters at the inhalant orifice, passes into the lower chamber, thence through the meshwork of filaments into the upper chamber, and is expelled by the exhalant siphon. 5. In the Septibranchia the gills are profoundly modified. Their respiratory function is suppressed by the development of muscular tissue in their substance and the gills are converted into a contractile partition. The réle of the gills in providing.an incubatory chamber is

REFLECTED (USUALLY ASCENDING) LAMELLA OF THE QUTER GILL-PLATE

REFLECTED OR ASCENDING LAMELLA OF THE INNER GILL-PLATE AXIS Tee REFLECTED

DIRECT OR DESCENDING

LAMELLA OF THE INNER GILL*PLATE

Donax FABA

(USUALLÝ“ASCENDING)

LAMELLA OF THE OUTER GILL-PLATF DIRECT OR DESCENDING LAMELLA OF THE INNER GILL-PLAT

DONAX VARIABILIS, TAPES, VENUS

DIRECT (USUALLY DESCENDING) LAMELLA OF THE OUTER GILL-PLATE REFLECTED OR ASCENDING LAMELLA OF THE INNER GILL-PLATE

AXIS DIRECT (USUALLY DESCENDING LAMELLA OF THF

OUTER GILL-PLATE

DIRECT OR DESCENDING LAMELLA OF THE INNER GILL-PLATE

REFLECTED (USUALLY ASCENDING) LAMELLA OF THE LASAEA

OUTER GILL-PLATE

‘

REFLECTED OR ASCENDING LAME.LA OF THE INNER GILL*PLATE

Axis

REFLECTED OR ASCENDING LAMELLA

OF

THE

INNER GILL-PLATE

TELLINA DIRECT (USUALLY DESCENDING) LAMELLA OF THE OUTER GILL-PLATE

DIRECT (USUALLY DESCENDING) LAMELLA OF THE OUTER GILL*PLATE

DIRECT OR DESCENDING LAMELLA OF THE INNER GILL-PLATE

AXIS

REFLECTED OR ASCENDING LAMELLA OF THE INNER GILL-PLATE

LYONSIA

AXIS DIRECT OR DESCENDING LAMELLA OF THE INNER GILL-PLATE

(AFTER RiDEWOOD}

oo

OR DESCENDING LAMELLA OF THE INNER GILL*PLATE

REFLECTED OR ASCENDING LAMELLA OF THE INNER GILL-PLATE

LUCINA MONTACUTA

FROM LANKESTER, “TREATISE ON ZOOLOGY” (A. & G. BLACK, LTD.) FIG. 14.—DIAGRAMMATIC TRANSVERSE SECTIONS THROUGH THE GILLS OF VARIOUS LAMELLIBRANCHS TO SHOW POSITION OF THE LAMELLAE

tive ducts open into the kidneys, and in the Eulamellibranchia they

have separate orifices. The kidneys are symmetrical and ramifie

and in certain specialized forms they communicate with each other.

poe oon glands.

of hippuric acid is carried out by the pericardial

Nervous System.—The nervous system consists of pairs of ganglia (connected by commissures), nerve cords and sense organs.

LAMELLIBRANCHIA With one exception the ganglia are separate from each other and the extreme condensation of the nervous system juxtaposition of the ganglia which is found in Cephalopoda is not found. In the Protobranchia bral, pedal and visceral ganglia are all distinct.

arising from the Gastropoda and the pleural, cereIn all other La-

mellibranchia the cerebral and pleural ganglia are fused together. The visceral commissure is always long. The pedal ganglia are j AXIS OF GILL OR CTENIDIUM REELECTED LAMELLA OF OUTER GILL-PLATE

CTENIDIUM

ADAXIAL LAMELLA OF OUTER GILL-PLATE

ADAXIAL LAMELLA OF

OUTER GILL-PLATE ADAXIAL LAMELLA OF INNER GILL-PLATE

ADAXIAL LAMELLA OF INNER GILL~PLATE

REELECTED LAMELLA OF INNER GILL-PLATE AXIS OF GILL OR CTENIDIUM

REFLECTED LAMELLA OF QUTER GILL-PLATE

ADAXIAL LAMELLA OF OUTER GILL-PLATE

ADAXIAL LAMELLA OF

INNER GILL-PLATE

INNER

GILL-PLATE,

AXIS OF GILL OR CTENIDIUM | REFLECTED LAMELLA OF OUTER GILL-PLATE

ADAXLAL LAMELLA OF OUTER GILL-PLATE LAMELLA

branches just below the optic cup and one branch passes round the latter to enter the retina. The extremities of the retinal cells (rods) are turned towards the interior of the optic globe (i.e., away from the direction in which the light-rays enter the latter).

Reproductive Organs.—The sexes are usually separate in the Lameltlibranchia; but all the members of the Anatinacea and of sundry other groups, e.g., Poromya, Kellya and the parasitic genera, as well as individual species of Ostraea, Cardium and the Cyrenidae are hermaphrodite. Sexual dimorphism is very little developed and is only evident as a slight difference of proportion. In Astarte the border of the male shell is smooth, that of the female shell is undulating. The reproductive organs ‘are simple and consist of the ovary in females, the testis in males and the ovotestis or hermaphrodite gland in bisexual forms, together with a generative duct. The latter, however, is not found in the Protobranchia and many Filibranchia, the ova and spermatozoa being liberated to the exterior through the kidney. In the Lucinidae, Ostrea and Cyclas, the gonad and kidney open into a common cloaca, When the gonad acquires its own aperture this is situated either together with the renal duct on a common papilla or in close proximity to it. In certain hermaphrodite forms the ovary and testis are completely separate from each other and open by separate ducts (Anatinacea, Poromya). There is no copulatory organ in the male and no accessory glands or organs, except in the male of Cuspidaria. Fertilization is usually external but it may take place in the cloacal chamber or (as in the common oyster, Ostraea

vulgaris) in the oviduct itself.

REPRODUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT

REFLECTED LAMELLA OF

REFLECTED

621

OF

INNER GILL-PLATE

ADAXIAL LAMELLA OF INNER

GILL-PLATE

VISCERAL MASS SUPRA-BRANCHIAL SPACE OF THE

RECTUM

Breeding

Habits:

Oviposition.—Marine

Lamellibranchia

usually discharge their eggs into the water, fertilization is external and the embryo develops as a free-swimming larva. In a few marine forms and in freshwater groups the eggs are retained within the maternal body or shell where they are fertilized and in-

cubated.

Incubation is a distinctive feature of freshwater La-

mellibranchs and attains a far greater development in this class than in any other molluscan group. In incubatory forms the eggs are retained as a rule after fertilization in the spaces between the gill-lamellae, which are often modified to serve as brood-chambers (Onia, Anodonta, Pisidium, Cyclas, etc.). It has been more tban once observed that the embryos eat the epithelial cells of the

SUB-PALLIAL CHAMBER

VISCERAL GANGLION

LINE OF CONCRESCENCE OF THE REFLECTED LAMELLAE OF THE TWO

AXIS OF GILL OR CTrENIDIUM REFLECTED LAMELLA OF OUTER GILL-PLATE

INNER GILL*PLATES

ADAXIAL LAMELLA OF OUTER GILL-PLATE

REFLECTED LAMELLA OF INNER

GILL-PLATE

PLEURAL GANGLION CEREBRAL GANGLION

CEREBRAL, NERVE OSPHRADIUM

ADAXIAL LAMELLA OF INNER GILL-PLATE

PLEURO-PEDAL

CONNECTIVE

PALLIAL NERVE FROM

LANKESTER,

“TREATISE

ON

ZOOLOGY”

(A.

& C.

BLACK,

LTD.)

FIG. 15.—DIAGRAM OF TRANSVERSE SECTIONS OF A LAMELLIBRANCH TO SHOW THE ADHESION OF THE GILL LAMELLAE TO THE MANTLE FLAPS, TO THE FOOT AND TO ONE ANOTHER A, two types of free gill axis. B, condition at foremost region in Anodonta. C, hind region of foot in Anodonta. D, region posterior to foot in Anodonta

closely approximated. The visceral ganglia ate usually placed on the surface of the posterior adductor muscle and in most Eulamellibranchia are more or less attached to each other. There is

no stomatogastric system such as is found in the Gastropoda, the

alimentary canal being innervated from the visceral commissure. Sense organs consist of eyes, otocysts, osphradia and tactile or-

CEREBRO-PEDAL CONNECTIVE VISCERAL COMMISSURE

TS= e > \ = DNT NS A Co

NS

nt

J

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S&F

RSS

OTOCYSTIC ORIFICE OTOCYST

OTOCYSTIC NERVE PEDAL GANGLION

FROM LANKESTER, “TREATISE ON ZOOLOGY” (A, & C. BLACK, LTD.) FIG. 16.—NERVOUS SYSTEM OF NUCULA NUCLEUS FROM

LEFT SIDE

the Mytilidae). It is to be inferred that, in general, eyes in such a position would be useless, as this region is completely covered over by the shell. Eyes are consequently found on parts which can be extended from the latter, viz, on the syphons and the edge of the mantle. In their most simple form these are

maternal gills during incubation. In certain species of Ostraea the embryos are incubated in the mantle-cavity outside the gills. There is not much doubt but that marine Lamellibranchs which live in cold seas are more prone to adopt some form of incubation than those inhabiting warm or temperate seas. One of the most curious devices for tending the young is found

simple pigment-spots. But in certain groups they are more complex and in Pecten and Spondylus they attain the maximum com-

in Thecalia concamerata, the shell-valves of which are modified to form a kind of inner chamber in which the eggs are lodged.

plexity, consisting of a, cornea, conjunctiva, lens, retina, deep pigment layer and tapetum. The optic nerve divides into two

Development.—The development of the Lamellibranchia is best known from Meisenheimer’s study of the freshwater mussel

gans. In a very few genera eyes are found on the head (e.g., in

LAMELLIBRANCHIA

622

One of the most notable modifications of this developmental Dreissensia polymorpha. With two important exceptions the course of development in such other forms as have been studied | history occurs in the Protobranchia in which the veliger has an enormous velum consisting of rows of large ciliated cells con. is more or less similar. In Dreissensia the first two cleavage divisions produce four ferring on the larva a barrel-shaped appearance. In the fresh. macromeres of which one is very much larger than the rest. Suc- water incubatory forms such as Cyclas and Unio there is no free. cessive divisions of the macromeres yield “quartettes” of micro- swimming stage and neither prototroch nor velum is developed, The development of the Unionidae is remarkable in that part of the embryonic life is parasitic. The embryo is ejected atte OPTIC PEDUNCLE Optic NERVE incubation as a larva of a special type known as the glochidiun,

The bivalved shell is furnished with hooks and if, on entering the

RETINAL NERVE COMPLEMENTARY

OPTIC NERVE

PIGMENTED

water, the glochidium comes into contact with a fish, it may succeed in fixing itself to the latter by means of these hooks. Once lodged on the fish a cyst is formed round the larva which then lives parasitically in the tissues of the fish. During this phase it develops into the adult and subsequently escapes from its host by the rupture of the cyst. DISTRIBUTION

LAYER

AND

NATURAL

HISTORY

Distribution.—The Lamellibranchia are essentially a group of

CRYSTALLINE

LENS

PIGMENTED EPITHELIUM

aquatic animals. No authentic record of a permanent terrestrial habitat is known. among them. A small South American freshwater mussel Eupera is occasionally found out of water. This appears, however, to be a fortuitous occurrence due to the dryingup of the ponds in which the mollusc lives, and may, in fact, occur to many small tropical bivalves. Nevertheless the author is informed by Mr. G. S. Carter, who has collected Eupera in Uruguay, that on one occasion the circumstances suggested that it lives out of water for a considerable time. ADDUCTOR

[AFTER RAWITZ)

Mr. J. R. Tomlin has collected

MUSCLE

SHELL DORSAL RETRACTOR MUSCLE

VELUM

FROM LANKESTER, “TREATISE ON ZOOLOGY” (A. & C. BLACK, LTD.) FiG. 17.—-SECTION THROUGH THE PALLIAL EYE OF PECTEN

LOBES OF LIVER ~

meres and these are also divided until the micromeres form a cap overlying the macromeres. This type of cleavage is spiral, ż.e., like that found in Gastropoda, but the radial symmetry resulting from cleavage is modifed very early in development. ' Of the mass of cells thus formed those which subsequently give rise to the mid-gut and the mesoderm are invaginated in tħe course of development. The larval stomach is developed and is joined by two invaginations, the stomodaeum and the proctodaeum, which form the mouth and anus respectively. At about this time the shell-gland appears and gives rise to a horny plate, the rudiment of the shell. A girdle of cells bearing long cilia is formed around the larva (the prototroch) and a tuft of long cilia appears at the apex of the larva. The embryo has now assumed the characteristic form of the molluscan larva known as the trochophore

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LARVAL KIDNEY VISCERAL GANGLION MOUTH RUDIMENT OF COELOM

PEDAL GANGLION

TELOTROCH

METATROCH

FROM

MACBRIDE,

S ANUS

“TEXT-BOOK

FIG. 19.-YOUNG FROM THE SIDE

OF ENBRYOLOGY?

VELIGER

LARVA

(MACMILLAN

& CO.,

OF DREISSENSIA

LTD.)

POLYMORPHA

AS SEEN

specimens of Pisidium living out of water upon damp moss. The majority of Lamellibranchia live in the sea and the orders Protobranchia, Filibranchia and the specialized Septibranchia are almost exclusively marine in distribution. Among the Filibranchia Scaphula lives in the rivers of India and of the Eulamellibranchia the Unionidae, Cyrenidae, Etheriidae, Cycladidae, Mutelidae and

ore

‘we Wd

. a

INTESTINE

PUSIO

a few isolated genera such as Erodona are inhabitants of fresh water. The Unionidae, which are most plentiful in America, are ore of the largest families of freshwater animals. There are in addition a certain number of forms which constitute a population intermediate between the truly marine and freshwater fauna. These are found in the estuaries of large rivers

FROM

“ANIMALS

OF

ALL

COUNTRIES”

(HUTCHINSON)

5

FIG. 18.—CHARACTERISTIC SHELLS OF THECALIA CONCAMERATA The cup-like fold is the chamber

In which the embryos are incubated

and starts its free-swimming life. The prototroch eventually enlarges to form the velum (veliger stage) and the original horny plate of the larval shell is converted into the two-valved shell. Before this stage the rudiments of the coelom and the kidneys are recognizable. During the veliger stage the nervous system, musculature, otocysts, gills and foot. of the adult are laid down. The larva metamorphoses into the adult with great rapidity. The cells of the velum are cast off, the larval musculature disintegrates and the area of the larval mouth shrinks to the proportion char-

acteristic of the adult.

and in tidal ditches and lagoons. The cockles (Cardium) seem to thrive in a salinity midway between that of the sea and of fresbwater and are usually found in estuaries. Other forms which are “euryhaline”

(7.e., tolerate a wide range of salinity) or require

intermediate conditions are fouhd among the Arcidae, Limnocardiidae, Mytilidae, Scrobiculariidae, Macoma, etc. The marine

Lamellibranchia

are widely distributed and are

found in all seas of which the faunas are known. As in all other groups of marine animals certain areas are characterized by the exclusive occurrence of certain genera or of the majority of the species of certain genera. Thus Mya, Yoldia and Astarte. arè

found very largely in Arctic seas. As regards the vertical distribùtion of Lamellibranchs it may be said that Solen, Cardium, Ostraea and Tellina, for example, live principally in shallow water. 'The

LAMELLIBRANCHIA Septibranchia as a whole inhabit deep water and with them are found species of Pecten, Abra and Callocardia. Species of the two last-named genera have been found at a depth of 2,900 fathoms, the greatest depth at which a lamellibranch has been recorded.

Freshwater Lamellibranchia have been found in all the great river systems of the world. The larger forms (Unio and Anodonta)

NA

W

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SiA Pee

Soe

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A

APICAL CILIA

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DEPRESSION WHERE

ANIE Hi

CELLS THAT FORM CEREBRAL GANGLIA

i

COME TO THE SURFACE

623

restricted circumstances. A few, indeed, are capable of quick darting movement through the water and all the more sedentary forms do not live actually below the surface of the bottom. Nevertheless a large proportion of them are burrowers and although their range may be limited and their rate of progression slow, we should not overlook how much effort is expended and what activity must be necessary in order to make way through sand and mud. Moreover, in those forms which live on the open coast where sand is continuously being washed away or bedded up, especially in rough weather, considerable exertion is necessary to keep the animal in the right position for feeding and to prevent it from being either buried or washed out and flung high up the beach. In several families this danger is averted by permanent fixation to some solid object (rocks or stones) by means of the byssus or, in more

specialized

AFTER DREW, IN LANKESTER, “TREATISE ON ZOOLOGY” (A. & C. BLACK, LTD.) FIG. 20.—SURFACE VIEW OF A 45-HOUR EMBRYO OF YOLDIA

LIMATULA

tend to keep to rivers, lakes and large ponds; but the smaller forms (Pisidium, Cyrena, etc.) occur in pools, ditches, streams and marshes. As examples of regional localization we may cite the Etheriidae and Spatka which are exclusively found in Africa, where Corbicula is also well represented; and Scaphula and Paral-

lepipedum which are peculiar to India. The dispersal of marine lamellibranchs

is mainly

effected

in the free-swimming

larval

stage during which they drift about in currents. Such freshwater forms as are parasitic in the larval stage (vide ante) no doubt owe their dispersal to the fish on which they live. Others may be carried from one river or lake to another by birds or are transported by water beetles; examples of Sphaerium and Pisidium have been found clinging by their valves to the legs of those animals. The habitats of the individual species of a genus tend either to be more or less distinct or to overlap to some extent. Thus in a survey of a certain part of the English Midlands Pisidium casertanum is reported as occupying a great variety of habitats and P. obtusale is only found in ditches and marshes. Johansen in his survey of Randers Fjord in Denmark found that Anodonta cyg-

ADDUCTOR MUSCLE

MANTLE-FLAP

ANTERIOR ADDUCTOR.

POSTERIOR ADDUCTOR

BRANCHIAL FILAMENTS FROM BALFOUR,

FIG.

“TREATISE

21.—TWo

ALIMENTARY CANAL OF COMPARATIVE

STAGES

IN

EMBRYOLOGY”

THE

(MACMILLAN

DEVELOPMENT

OF

& CO.,

LTD.)

ANODONTA

Both figures represent the glochidium stage. Above, the free-swimming larva, with the two dentigerous valves wide open. Below, a later stage, after

fixture to the fin of a fish

nea ranged into 2~3 promille salinity and A. complanata was restricted to -2—6 promille. Nevertheless we are far from knowing vith certainty to what extent the members of species diagnosed irom their structural characters occupy identical habitats over

the whole of their range. (See GASTROPODA and SPECIES.)

Habits, Food, etc.—The Lamellibranchia are for the most part

sedentary animals and their locomotor activities are in the main specialized for making way through the semi-solid medium constituted by sand and mud rather than for rapid progression in less

FROM “ANIMALS OF ALL TRIES" (HUTCHINSON)

COUN-

FIG. 22.—YOLDIA LIMATULA, A MOLLUSC THAT INHABITS COLD WATERS AND POSSESSES ELON. GATED SIPHONS

forms, of one

valve

of the

shell. Most burrowing forms keep within a few inches or less of the surface, the distance to which they burrow being largely determined by the lengths of the siphons, for, as a rule, the orifices of both the exhalant and inhalant siphons are kept more or less at the surface. Thus Mya arenaria, which has rather long siphons, lives about six or eight inches below the surface. Weymouth states

that the pismo clam (Tivela stultorum) of California usually lies with the hinge-line directed towards the oncoming surf and the open edge of the valves towards land. Forms which cannot readily orientate themselves in the unstable bottom of the open beach are found in situations where they can form a semi-permanent burrow and the substratum is more solid. Such conditions are realized in the quieter reaches of slow estuaries or in deep bays where the mud is less liable to disturbance. It is here that Mya, Scrobicularia, Cardium, Macoma are found in the northern hemisphere. There are a good many lamellibranchs which burrow into hard material and become adapted to this existence. Pholas, Lithodomus, Saxicava, Clavagella, etc., live in holes excavated either by ` acid secretions or the shell itself. In certain places on the south coast of England the flat slabs of chalk débris at the foot of cliffs are riddled by the holes made by Pholas. Teredo (q.v.) and X ylotrya burrow in submerged timber in which they excavate long passages and such wood may often be honeycombed with these holes. The name ‘“‘shipworm,” which is given to Teredo and its allies, indicates that in the past wooden ships were very prone to the attacks of this mollusc (see “Economic Importance”). The Lamellibranchia live almost exclusively upon plankton and particles of organic débris that float in the water. The mode FROM “ANIMALS OF ALL COUNTRIES” (HUTCHof feeding characteristic of this INSON) FIG. 23.—THE FRESHWATER MUSSEL group has already been described. (UNIO) It is probable that the larger proThe young, after leaving the parent portion of the food takenin is of a shell, are parasites on fish for two to ale woeks. Freshwater mussels often vegetable nature. But as minute yield pearls animals and the eggs and larvae of larger forms occur in the plankton we should not regard those molluscs exclusively as vegetable feeders. The stomach contents of Mya analysed by Yonge contained Diatoms, Foramenifera,

minute (probably larval) bivalves, Ostracods and other small Crustacea, spores and eggs of various kinds, sponge-spicules, etc., though “the largest mass of material consisted of. small sand grains.” There were also fragments of organic débris, e.g., strips of Algae. The Septibranchia are usually regarded as carnivores. Living at great depths from which plants are normally excluded

LAMELLIBRANCHIA

624

by the absence of sunlight they obviously cannot obtain living plant tissue for food. The very profound modification of the gills deprives them of the apparatus for fine sorting found in other classes. Lastly their intestine is very short and of a carnivorous type. As a matter of fact they must subsist very largely on animal plankton and coarse particles of animal carrion, though in all probability a good deal of vegetable débris finds its way at least into the less profound depths of the oceanic abyss. Among those lamellibranchs which bore into the solid material the shipworm has recently been shown to be practically independent of plankton for food and to live upon the wood into which it bores. The chief defences of the Lamellibranchia against enemies are the valves of the shell and the bur- FROM KEW, “DISPERSAL OF SHELLS” (KEGAN rowing habit. Without this pro- PAUL, TRENCH TRUBNER & CO , LTD.) FIG. 24.—SPHEERIUM CORNEUM tection such slow-moving animals UPON THE LEG OF A WATER-BEETLE deprived of weapons of active defence would be entirely at the mercy of more aggressive enemies. As it is they are preyed upon by a great variety of animals, some of which rely almost entirely on them for food and have developed special modes of attack. Various sorts of whelk (Buccinum, Purpura, Nassa) and Natica drill holes through the valves by means of an acid secretion of the alimentary canal and the radula and by the aid of the extensible proboscis feed on the animal contained therein. Scaphander and other Gastropoda, which have gizzards armed with masticatory plates, swallow small bivalves whole and crunch them up in the gizzard. Birds, fish and other aquatic animals deal with

them

in the

same

way.

` Walruses feed on clams of various kinds which they are said to dig up with their tusks. Fishery investigations have em- BY COURTESY OF S. C. JOHNSON, ESQ. phasized the importance of Lam- FIG. 25.——-THE COMMON MUSSEL (MYTILUS EDULIS), ATTACHED TO elibranchia as an element in PEBBLES BY MEANS OF ITS BYSSUS the food of edible fishes and the work of Davis on the bottom fauna:of the Dogger Bank, where the small clams Spisula subtruncata and Mactra stultorum predominate over all other large invertebrate animals of the sea bottom, shows how in a particular area the Lamellibranchia are the most important constituent of the food. Davis has shown that Spisula subtruncata occupies rather local patches on the south end

r

Arca with its foot and to drive one of its spines between the valves of the latter. Sycotypus is said to use the edge of its own shell for this purpose. The Lamellibranchia are regularly or periodically exposed to other dangers. The special risks which are run by forms living in sand on open coasts have already been described. Freshwater forms in most parts are regularly exposed to the dangers of low or

high temperature. The water in which they live may be frozen over, its temperature may be lowered or it may be dried up by excessive heat. These dangers are met in most cases by the habit of hibernation or of aestivation. The Lamellibranchia are probably as tenacious of life as Gas-

tropoda (g.v.) though less is known concerning them in this ye.

spect. An Australian pond mussel is recorded as having lived for

nearly 500 days out of water.

Commensalism, or the food-sharing association of one nop. parasitic animal with another, is of rather common occurrence

among Lamellibranchs. Lepton squamosum lives thus in the burrows of Crustacea and marine worms. Jousseaumia inhabits the

chamber of a Sipunculid and species of Montacuta and Scioberetia live on Echinoderms. Other bivalves are more closely associated with certain animals. Modiolaria marmorata lives embedded in the test of Ascidians and Vulsella in the tissues of sponges. Entovalyg is parasitic in Synapta. The age to which these animals live varies considerably. Mytilus and Cardium attain their full size in a year, the common oyster

FROM UNG”

KORSCHELT, ON “PERLEN” IN “FORTSCHITTE (URBAN & SCHWARZENBERG}

DER

NATURWISSENSCHAFTLICHEN

FORSCH-

FIG. 27.—GLOCHIDIA ON THE GILLS OF FRESHWATER MUSSELS A, gill leaflets with numerous glochidia. B, a single gill leaflet with three glochidia of Margaritana. The glochidium is the larva of the freshwater mussels; during the first part of their development they Inhabit the interlamellar spaces of the maternal gill chamber, after which they are extruded and complete their growth as a parasite of fishes

in five years.

The latter is said to live as long as ten years under

cultivated conditions.

The giant clam (Tridacna gigas) lives for

eight years (probably a very low estimate). The swan mussel (Anodonta) is recorded as attaining an age of 20-30 years and

Weymouth has calculated that the pismo clam (Tivela stultorum) lives as long as 26 years. ECONOMIC

IMPORTANCE

Like the Gastropoda among other Mollusca the Lamellibranchia have supplied man with food since a very early stage in his evolution. Oysters, cockles, mussels and clams have been found in large quantities in Palaeolithic and Neolithic middens in Europe

and elsewhere.

The oyster was cultivated under the Roman re-

public, the celebrated beds in the Lucrine lake being established about 100 B.c. During the empire British oysters, which were very much in favour, were brought from Rutupiae (Richborough) where there was apparently a fishery. At the present time oysters

are cultivated in the British Isles, France, the United States, Aus-

tralia and elsewhere. FROM KUKENTHAL, “HANDBUCH DER ZOOLOGIE” (WALTER DE GRUYTER & CO.) FIG. 26.——MYA ARENARIA, SHOWING ELONGATED SIPHON AND

FOOT

of the Dogger Bank. These are of vast extent and dense population, one such patch having an area of 7oosq.m. and probably carrying a population of 4,500,000,000,000 clams. ' It is stated that certain carnivorous Gastropoda use the spines of teeth situated on the shell-aperture for forcing open the shell

of Lamellibranchs,

Thus a-species of Murex is said to grasp an

The principal English beds are at Whit-

stable, Colchester, Burnham-on-Crouch and Conway (see Oyster).

The cockle, scallop and mussel are likewise caught for human consumption in European countries, and a variety of other forms (including those of freshwater) are eaten in most parts of the world. In the Gulf of Naples Psammobia, Solen, and Donas are fished for the market. The importance of Lamellibranchia as fo for edible fishes kas already been discussed. The shells of certain genera are regularly cultivated for the

625

LAMELLIBRANCHIA mother-of-pearl which is used for inlaying, various kinds of orna-

ments, knife-handles, buttons, etc. The Orient pearl oyster Meleagrina margaritifera is fished for this purpose and for the pearls of various kinds obtained from it. The most important pearl asheries are in Ceylon, Australia and Japan. In the latter country pearls are produced artificially in the oyster by a grafting opera-

tion (see PEARL). From Roman times onwards the pearis of the

European freshwater mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera) were sought especially in Scotland, though this industry no longer exists. The large river mussels (Unionidae) of the United States are largely cultivated in connection with button-making. Shell-money is made from clams in various parts of the world and the “wampum” of eastern North America consisted | largely of beads made from the shell of Venus mercenaria, In southern India and parts of China the “window-pane oyster”

Placuna placenta is still used for

FROM “ANIMALS INSON)

ALL

OF

(HUTCH-

COUNTRIES”

FIG. 28.—DATE SHELLS (LITHODOMUS) INHABITING CORAL The holes are bored by means of an acid secretion contained In the mantle

glazing the windows of houses. The byssus of the large species of Pinna was at one time used as a substitute for silk in southern Italy.

Lamellibranchia

have proved

themselves obnoxious to man in two ways. (1) In the past the cultivation of oysters and cockles in unsanitary situations near sewage-outfalls has led to serious epidemics of typhoid fever, though better cultivation has practically eliminated this danger

(2) The shipworm and its allies have been from time

in England.

immemorial a source of considerable loss through their destruction of the timber of ships, piers, jetties, etc. The damage to ships has, of course, been minimized by the introduction of iron-plated hulls; but Teredo is still a cause of trouble to marine engineers and does a considerable amount of damage to submarine wooden structures and much time and money have been devoted to combating this pest. EVOLUTION

AND PALAEONTOLOGY

The recognition of Lamellibranchia in the oldest fossiliferous rocks is somewhat difficult owing to their unsatisfactory preservation and the similarity between Lamellibranch shells of a certain kind and those of Ostracoda (Crustacea). Glyptarca

Jurassic times. Many Palaeozoic genera died out and were replaced by other genera which have persisted to the present time

(Anatina, Isocardia and Perna). The Pernidae and Astartidae were particularly well represented in the seas of this date. Reef-building forms such as Chama and the Rudistae and the large genus Inoceramus are characteristic of the Cretaceous fauna.

In the Tertiary we find a fauna very like that of modern times. EDGES OF THE VALVES OF TWO SPECIMENS OF VOLSELLA i

BY COURTESY OF BRITISH MUSEUM

THE

n

TRUSTEES

FIG. 30.—VOLSELLA SPONGE

SP.

OF

IN

THE

A

The Rudistae and other secondary families have disappeared and the Anisomyaria (Avicula, Pinna, etc.) shows retrogressive Specialized genera tendencies. such as Pholas, Clavagella and Gasirochaena make their appearance and both in the representative genera and in the distribution of the latter, the evolution of the present fauna is clearly foreshadowed. Tt will be seen that very little is to be learnt from fossil remains concerning the origin of the Lamellibranchia and their relation to

other Mollusca and the poverty of well authenticated and satisfactorily preserved lamellibranchs in Cambrian strata makes it equally difficult to glean any information from this source as to the relationships of the more primitive members of the class. A recent study of the Pliocene fauna of the lower Kakegawa beds in Japan has led Makiyama to point out that the late Tertiary Lamellibranchia evolved at a much slower rate than did the Gastropoda of the same horizon. If this observation is in accordance with other data it will constitute an interesting confirmation of the impression received after a study of living Lamellibranchia, viz., that owing either to their highly specialized mode of life or to some fundamental constitutional peculiarity, this class of FIG. 31-—AN OYSTER REEF, WITH molluscs seems deficient in orOYSTERS (OSTREAE) FORMING ganic energy when compared with ; BEDS the Gastropoda. Brsriocrapry.—(a)

General Works and Monographs: N. Odhner,

“Morphologische . . . Untersuchungen über die Nephridien der Lamellibranchien,” Zeits. Wiss. Zoologie, 100 (1912); W. T. Calman,

“Marine Boring Animals,” British Museum

(Natural History)

Eco-

which occurs in Upper Cambrian strata is certainly a Lamellibranch but the exact position of Fordilla and Modiolotdes (Lower Cambrian) which have been referred to this | class is very uncertain. In the Ordovician Ctenodonta and Modiolopsis are recogniz.

able

as

representatives

of

the

Proto-

Tene Burm OF branchia and Filibranchia; but the class is FIG, 29.—YOUNG TIVELA, Not well represented at this epoch. In the

SHOWING

LONG Byssus Silurian, however, there is a rich Lamelli-

ATTACHED TO SAND branch fauna containing representatives of the chief orders except in the Septibranchs, ne and the modern Aviculidae are recognizable. In the lake beds of Devonian age (Old Red Sandstone) are found shells which resemble those of modern freshwater mussels and are referred to the genus Archanodon. ‘These forms and apparently brackish water

bivalves are well developed in the Carboniferous and a good many

marine genera represented at the present time are recognizable at

this period, e.g., Trigonia, Astarte and Lucina. A marked alteration of the class took place in Triassic and \

FROM CALMAN, “GUIDE TO MARINE BORING ANIMALS” (TRUSTEES OF BRITISH MUSEUN)© FIG. 32.—ABOVE, SHELL-VALVES OF THREE COMMON BRITISH SPECIMENS OF TEREDO MEGOTARA. BELOW, A PIECE OF WOOD BORED TEREDO MEGOTARA, SHOWING CALCAREOUS LINING OF BURROW

BY

nomic Series 10, 1919 (Teredo); R. H. Burne, “Anatomy of Pelecypoda,” British Antarctic “Terra Nova’ Expedition, Natural Histor”, Zoology II. 10 (1920); P. Pelseneer, “Les Lamellibranches,” Siboge Expedition, Zoologie 53a, and “Les Variations et leur hérédité chez les Mollusques,” Mem. 8vo. Ac. Roy. Belg. (1921); C. T. Simpson, A Catalogue of the Naiades, pt. 1 (Detroit, 1914) ; J. Thiele, “Bivalvia”

626

LAMENNAIS

in Kükenthal and Krumbach’s Handbuch der Zoologie, Bd. 5 (1926) ; W. Kobelt, in Martini und Chemnitz, Conchylien Cabinet (in progress). . : (b) Special Works: E. S. Morse, “Observations on living Lamellibranchs of New England,” Proc. Boston Soc. N. Hist. 35; N. Odhner, “Morphology of Chamidae” Kungl. Sven. Vet. Akad. Handl., 59, 3; W. J. Dakin, “The Eye of Pecten,” Quart. Journ. Micro. Science, 55, p. 49 (1910); H. Schereschewsky, “Struktur und Bildung der Bruttaschen bei Cyclas cornea,’ Zeits. wiss. Zoologie, 98 (1911); M. Kupfer, Die Sehorgane der Pecten arten (Jena, 1916) ; T. C. Nelson, Journ. Morphology, xxxi, (1918) “Crystalline Style”; C. H. Edmondson, Journ. Exp’t’l. Zool., xxx. (1920) “Crystalline Style”; C. M. Yonge, Brit. Journ. Exp’t’l. Biology, 1, p. 15 (1923), Physiology of Digestion in Mya; F. Weymouth, “Life history . . . of the Pismo Clam,” State of California Fish and Game Commission, Fish Bulletin TE 7 ( oo

dreamt of the advent of a theocratic democracy. He now founded

L’ Avenir, the first number of which appeared on Oct. 16, 1839

with the motto “God and Liberty.”

The paper combined extreme

democratic views on civil questions with a demand for complete

liberty for the church from civil domination. Montalembert,

With the help of

he founded the Agence générale pour la défense

de la liberté religieuse, which noted any violations of religious

freedom and reported them to headquarters. the Conservative bishops checked

The opposition of

the success of LD’Avenir; and

Lamennais, Montalembert and Lacordaire resolved to suspend jt for a while.

They set out to Rome

in Nov.

1831 to obtain the

approval of Gregory XVI. The “pilgrims of liberty” were re ceived in audience by the pope on condition that the object of their visit was not mentioned. A few days after the audience

LAMENNAIS, HUGUES FELICITE ROBERT DE (1782~1854), French priest, and philosophical and political writer, Cardinal Pacca advised their departure from Rome and suggested was born at Saint Malo, in Brittany, on June 19, 1782. He was that the Holy See, whilst admitting the justice of their intentions, the son of a shipowner of Saint Malo ennobled by Louis XVI. for would like the matter left open. Lacordaire and Montalembert public services. Of a sickly and sensitive nature, and impressed obeyed; Lamennais remained in Rome, but after the issue of by the horrors of the French Revolution, his mind was early Gregory’s letter to the Polish bishops, in which the Polish patriots seized with a morbid view of life, and this temper characterized were reproved and the tsar was affirmed to be their lawful him throughout all his changes of opinion and circumstance. He sovereign, he “shook the dust of Rome from off his feet.” At was at first inclined towards rationalistic views, but his philo- Munich, in 1832, he received the encyclical Mirari vos, condemn. sophical and historical studies convinced him that belief was in- ing his policy; as a result L’Avenir ceased and the Agence was dispensable to action and religion the most powerful leaven of dissolved. Lamennais, with his two lieutenants, submitted, and deeply the community. His Réflexions sur Pétat de Véglise en France pendant le r8ième siècle et sur sa situation actuelle (1808) was wounded, retired to La Chénaie. The famous Paroles d’un croyant seized by Napoleon’s police as dangerously ideological, with its (1834) marks Lamennais’s severance from the church. “A book, eager recommendation of religious revival and active clerical or- small in size, but immense in its perversity,” was Gregory’s critganization. It awoke the ultramontane spirit which was to play icism in a new encyclical letter. The work had an extraordinary circulation and was translated into many European languages, so great a part in politics. Lamennais devoted most of 1809 to a translation, in exquisite Henceforth Lamennais was the apostle of the people alone. Le French, of the Speculum Monachorum of Ludovicus Blosius Livre du peuple (1837), De esclavage moderne (1839), Politique (Louis de Blois) which he entitled Le Guide spirituel (1809). In à usage du peuple (1839), three volumes of articles from the 181r he received the tonsure and became professor of mathe- journal of the extreme democracy, Le Monde, reveal him as a matics in an ecclesiastical college founded by his brother at Saint missionary of liberty, equality and fraternity. Le Pays et le Malo. After the conclusion of the Concordat he published, with gouvernement (1840) caused him a year’s imprisonment. He his brother, De la tradition de V’église sur V’institution des évéques struggled through difficulties of' lost friendships, limited means (1814). The book was occasioned by the emperor’s nomination of and personal illnesses, faithful to the last to his hardly won Cardinal Maury to the archbishopric of Paris. During the dogma of the sovereignty of the people, and, to judge by his Hundred Days he escaped to London, where he taught French in contribution to Louis Blanc’s Revue du progrés, was ready for a school founded by the abbé Jules Carron for French émigrés; something like communism. He was named president of the he also became tutor at the house of Lady Jerningham. In 1815 “Société de la solidarité républicaine,” which counted half a he returned to Paris, and in 1816 he was ordained priest by the million adherents in 15 days. The Revolution of 1848 had his sympathies, and he started the short-lived Peuple constituant and bishop of Rennes. The first volume of his great work, Essai sur l'indifférence en the equally short-lived Révolution démocratique et sociale. In matière de religion (1817;. Eng. trans. by Lord Stanley of Alderley, . the constituent assembly he sat on the left till the coup d'état of 1898), made him a power in Catholic Europe. Lamennais de- 1851 ended all hopes of popular freedom. While deputy he drew nounced toleration, and advocated a Catholic restoration to up a constitution, but it was rejected as too radical. A translation belief. The right of private judgment, introduced by Descartes of Dante chiefly occupied him till his death (Feb. 27, 1854), in and Leibnitz into philosophy and science, by Luther into religion Paris. He refused to be reconciled to the church, and was buried and by Rousseau and the Encyclopaedists into politics and society, according to his own directions at Pére La Chaise without funeral had, he contended, terminated in practical atheism and Spiritual rites, being mourned by a countless concourse of democratic and death. The sole hope of regenerating the European communities literary admirers. During the most difficult time of his republican period he found lay in the acceptance of ecclesiastical authority. Three more volumes (1818-24) followed, and met with a mixed reception solace for his intellect in the composition of Une voix de prison from the Gallican bishops and monarchists, but with the en- (1846) written during his imprisonment in a similar strain to Les thusiastic adhesion of the younger clergy. The work received the paroles dun croyant. He also wrote Esquisse de philosophie formal approval of Leo XII. Lamennais visited Rome at the (1840). Of the four volumes of this work the third, which is an pope’s request, and was offered a place in the Sacred College, which exposition of art as a development from the aspirations and he refused. On his return to France he took part in political work, necessities of the temple, remains the best evidence of his thinking power and brillant style. and in ultramontane journalism. There are two so-called Oeuvres complètes de Lamennais (1836; He retired to La Chénaie and gathered round him a group of 1844). The most noteworthy of his writings subsequently published brilliant disciples, including C. de Montalembert, Lacordaire and are: Amschaspands et Darvands (1843), Le Deuil de la Pologne (1846); Maurice de Guérin, his object being to form an organized body Mélanges philosophiques et politiques (1856), Les Evangiles (1846) of opinion to persuade the French clergy and laity to throw off and La Divine Comédie—translations of the Gospels and of Dante. Part of his voluminous correspondence has also appeared. The the yoke of the State connection. He denounced the liberties of most interesting volumes are the following: Correspondance de F . de the Gallican church.

His health broke down and he went to the: Lamennais, edit. by E. D. Forgues (2 vols., 1855-58), Oeuvres inédites

Pyrenees to recruit. After his recovery from a second dangerous illness, he believed that he had only been dragged back to life to be the instrument of Providence. Les Progrès de la révolution et de la guerre contre Véglise (1828) marked Lamennais’s complete renunciation of royalist principles, and henceforward he

de F. Lamennais, edit. by Ange Blaize (2 vols., 1866) ; Correspondance

inédite entre Lamennais et le baron de Vitrolles, edit. by E. D. Forgues

(1819-53) ; Confidences de Lamennais, lettres inédites de 1821 àù 1848, edit. by A. du Bois de la Villerabel (1886); Lamennais d'après des documents inédits, by Alfred Roussel (Rennes, 2 vols., 1892); Lamennais intime, après une correspondance inédite by A. Rousse

LAMENTATIONS—LAMETTRIE

627

(Rennes, 1897); Un Lamennais inconnu, edit. by A. Laveille (1898);

the first only as in the example quoted. Ch. iv., again, is peculiar, in that it has two lines to the “stanza” instead of three. Chs. ii., il. and iv. are also peculiar in their arrangement of the alphabet. In the normal Hebrew reckoning of the letters the sixteenth is Sainte-Beuve in the Portraits Contemporains, vol. i, and Nouveaux lundis, vol. xi.; F. Brunetière, Nouveaux essais sur la littérature con“Pe” and the seventeenth “Ayin,” and this is the order now found temporaine (1893); E. Faguet, Politiques et moralistes, ii. (1898) ; in Lam. i., but in the next three poems these two letters are P. Janet, La Philosophie de Lamennais (1890); P. Mercier, S.J., Lamennais d’aprés sa correspondance et les travaux les plus récents transposed. Finally Lam. v., though it contains twenty-two verses (1893) ; A. Mollien et F. Duine, Lamennais, sa vie et ses idées; Pages (the Hebrew alphabet has twenty-two letters), is written in 3:3 choisies (Lyons, 1898) ; The Hon. W. Gibson, The Abbé de Lamennais metre and has little trace of the acrostic.

Lettres de Lamennais à Montalembert, edit. by E. D. Forgues (1898);

and letters published in the Revue bleue, Revua britannique, etc. Among lives or studies the following may be mentioned: Notices by

and the Liberal Catholic Movement in France (1896); E. Renan, Essais de morale et de critique (1857) ; E. Schérer, Mélanges de critique religieuse (1859); G. E. Spuller, Lamennais étude d'histoire et de politique religieuse (1892); F. Duine, Lamennais (1922); P. Harische, Lamennais (1924). C. Boutard, Lamennais sa vie et ses doctrines.

LAMENTATIONS

(LAMENTATIONS OF JEREMIAH). A book

of the Old Testament, placed in the Hebrew Bible amongst the

five “Megilloth” or “Rolls” in the third canon (Hagiographa), and in the LXX, Vulgate and most modern Bibles, after the Book of

Jeremiah.

Structure and Form.—tThe book consists of five “dirges,” or poetical elegies. Such poems were properly composed on the death of individuals, but all these deal with the fall and desolation of Jerusalem. Hebrew metres are scanned by the number of strongly

accented syllables that the lines contain; and as the phonetic principles of the language require that each independent and significant word should carry one such accent, it is the thought as much as

the sound which gives to each form of metre its peculiar character.

Each line is divided into two (or, occasionally, three) parts, which frequently correspond to one another in general sense, the second half being a repetition or an echo of the first. The two commonest metres are (a) those in which a line contains six significant terms —six “word-accents,”’ each part having three, though sometimes, especially in prophetic poetry, we find 2:2:2; (b) the so-called

“Qinah,” in which each line has either five or four word-accents,

divided as 3:2, 2:2 or (somewhat rarely) 2:3. This last was commonly used for dirges, and is the metre of the first four poems in Lamentations; the fifth is written in 3:3. There is another striking difference between Lam. i-iv. and Lam. v. The former are “alphabetic acrostics,” that is to say they are divided into short “stanzas,” or equal groups of lines, and each group begins with a characteristic letter, the whole being arranged in twenty-two groups in the order of the Hebrew alphabet. The peculiarities may be illustrated by the following rough attempt at a translation of the first few verses of Lam. i.: / / / / / » I. Ah! Lonely she sitteth —the populous town; / / / / Mighty ’mid nations —a widow is she; / /. Eo ni Queen among cities —a subject is turned. / / / / 1, 2. By night doth she weep—weep! -—with her tears on her cheeks; / / / / None doth console her —of all that did love her; / / All her comrades have played / 7 / her false —foes have they turned. / / / / / 1. 3. Captive is Judah for sorrow —for weight of slave-toil; / / / / / Among heathen sitteth she ~~she findeth no rest; / / Z / All that hunt her have caught her —in midst of sore straits. 4.

/

/

/

Drear are the ways to Zion

/

/

J

All her gates are wasted s

/

/

/

1. 5. Exalted on high are her rivals /

|

/

/

/

—and bitter her lot.

Grief-stricken her virgins /

/

—her priests do moan;

/

/

/

—no pilgrims keep feast;

For Yahweh hath grieved her l, / / Exiles her babes are gone

/ / —her lovers are stilled; / / —for her many transgressions; / / —in front of her foes.

(In the above the order of the English alphabet is followed; the Hebrew is rather different.) Lam. ii. differs from i., ii. and iv., in that each of the three es of the “stanza” begins with the appropriate letter, instead of

Date and Authorship.—tThe

traditional ascription of these

poems to Jeremiah seems to rest on a misunderstanding of II Chron. xxxv. 25, which states that Jeremiah sang a dirge over Josiah, and that this was included with a number of others on the same king, all being preserved in a book of dirges. But none of these poems deals with Josiah, and while “dirges” over the kings of Judah from Jehoahaz onwards are preserved in Jer. xxii., none

of them in the least resembles any of the poems in Lamentations. It seems to be clear that all five were composed in the period during which the walls of Jerusalem lay in ruins, z.¢., between the time of Zedekiah and that of Nehemiah. The artificial form suggests that the first pangs of the agony inflicted by the fall of the city had given place to a steady grief, and the poems vary among themselves alike in the keenness of the sorrow which they express and in their poetic quality. There is no certainty that they were the work of the same author; on the contrary, they were more probably from different hands, though there is enough similarity between Lam. ii. and iv. to suggest to some students that both are to be attributed to the same poet. In any case these are probably the two earliest of the five; next in order, alike of merit and of time, stands Lam. i. Lam. iii. may come from the end of the exile or even from a time after the return, while Lam. v. is not strictly a dirge at all, but a prayer for deliverance from the government of a foreign oppressor, and would suit any period between the destruction of the city and the rebuilding of the walls in

(T. H. R.) 444 B.C. : LAMETH, ALEXANDRE THEODORE VICTOR, CoMTE DE (1760-1829), French soldier and politician, was born

in Paris on Oct. 20, 1760. He served in the American War of Independence, and in 1789 was elected to the States General. In the Constituent Assembly he formed with Barnave and Adrien Duport an association called the “Triumvirate,” which controlled a group of about forty deputies forming the advanced left of the Assembly. He presented a famous report in the Constituent Assembly on the organization of the army, but is better known by his speech on Feb. 28, 179x, at the Jacobin Club, against his personal enemy, Mirabeau, whose relations with the court were beginning to be suspected. After the flight of the king to Varennes, Lameth became reconciled with the court. He served in the army as maréchal-de-camp under Luckner and Lafayette, but was accused of treason on Aug. 15, 1792, fled the country, and was imprisoned by the Austrians. Returning to France under the Empire he was made prefect successively in several departments and created a baron (1810). In 1814 he attached himself to the Bourbons, and under the Restoration was appointed prefect of Somme, deputy for Seine-Inférieure and finally led the Liberal opposition as deputy for Seine-et-Oise. He died in Paris on March 18, 1829. He was the author of an important History of the Constituent Assembly (2 vols., 1828-1829). Of his two brothers, THÉODORE LAMETH (1756-1854) served in the American war, sat in the Legislative Assembly as deputy from the department of Jura, and became maréchal-de-camp; and CHARLES Mato Francois LAMETH (1757~1832), who also served in America, was deputy to the States General of 1780, but emigrated early in the Revolution, returned to France under the Consulate, and was appointed governor of Wiirzburg under the Empire. Like Alexandre, Charles joined the Bourbons, succeeding Alexandre as deputy in 1820. See F. A. Aulard, Les Orateurs de l Assemblée Constituante (1905) ; also M. Tourneux, Bibliog. de Phistoire de Paris (vol. iv., 1906, S.v. “Lameth’’).

LAMETTRIE,

JULIEN

OFFRAY

DE

(1709-1751),

French physician and philosopher, was born at St. Malo on Dec.

LAMIA—LAMONT

628 25, 1709.

After studying theology in the Jansenist schools for

some years, he went (1733) to Leyden to study under Boerhaave, and in 1742 returned to Paris, where he obtained the appointment of surgeon to the guards. During an attack of feyer he made observations on himself with reference to the action of quickened circulation upon thought, which led him to the conclusion that physical phenomena were to be accounted for as the effects of organic changes in the brain and nervous system. This conclusion he worked out in his earliest philosophical work, the Histoire naturelle de Pâme (c. 1745). The outcry caused by its publication drove Lamettrie back to Leyden, where he developed his doctrines still more boldly and completely, and with great originality, in L’Homme machine (Eng. trans., 1750; ed. with introd. and notes, J. Assézat, 1865), and L’Homme plante, treatises based upon principles of the most consistently materialistic character. The ethics of these principles were worked out in Discours sur le bonheur, La Volupté, and L’Art de jouir, in which the end of life is found in the pleasures of the senses, and virtue is reduced to self-love. Atheism is the only means of ensuring the happiness of the world, which has been rendered impossible by the wars brought about by theologians. The soul is only the thinking part of the body, and with the body it passes away. When death comes, the farce is over (Ja farce est jouée), therefore let us take our pleasure while we can. Lamettrie has been called “the Aristippus of modern materialism.” In 1748 he was compelled to leave Holland for Berlin, where Frederick the Great appointed him court reader. He died on Nov. 11, 1751. His collected Oeuvres philosophiques appeared after his death in several editions, published in London, Berlin and Amsterdam, respectively.

His works include: Ausleferungspficht und Asylrecht (18g). Grundriss des Strafrechts (1899, 5th ed., 1926). See M. Lammasch an}

H. Sperl, Heinrich Lammasch

LAMMAS

(Vienna, 1919).

LANDS. Arelic of the old “open-field” systen

of agriculture survives in the so-called “Lammas Lands,” These were lands enclosed and held in severalty during the growing of corn and grass and thrown open to pasturage during the rest of

the year for those who had common rights. The opening of the fields by throwing down the fences took place on Lammas Day (Aug. 12) for corn-lands and on Old Midsummer Day (July s) for grass. They remained open until the following Lady Day, See further F. Seebohm, Tke English Village Community: C,I Elton, Commons and Waste Lands; P. Vinogradoff, Villainage in England. (See also AGRICULTURE.)

LAMMERGEYER

or BEARDED VULTURE, a large bird of

prey inhabiting the mountain ranges of the Palaearctic region, though now restricted in Europe to the southern countries. In some respects this bird, Gypaetus barbatus, is intermediate be. tween eagles and vultures, though more nearly allied to the former. It reaches a length of 46in. with a wing-spread of toft. The top of the head is white, bounded by black; a tuft of black, bristly feathers projects from the base of the lower jaw. The

back and wings are blackish-grey, the rest of the bird pale tawny.

The irides are light orange and the sclerotics (“white of the eye”) scarlet.

This bird is an early breeder, building a large nest of

sticks on a ledge of rock. Here, in February, it lays a single egg,

more than 3in. in length, of a pale brownish-orange. The young are clad in dirty white down. The food of this bird consists of carrion, offal, bones, birds and small animals. LAMMERMUIR HILLS, a range of round backed hills The chief authority for his life is the Eloge written by Frederick the forming the western boundary of Berwickshire in Scotland with Great (printed in Assézat’s ed. of Homme machine). See F. A. Lange, an average height of about 1,000 ft.; the highest summit being Geschichte des Materialismus (Eng. trans. by E. C. Thomas, ii. 1880) ; Says Law, 1,749 ft. The name is also given to the upland district

Nérée Quépat (z.e., René Paquet), Lamettrie, sa vie et ses oeuvres (1873, with complete history of his works); J. E. Poritzky, J. O. de Lamettrie, sein Leben und seine Werke (1900) ; F. Picavet, “Lamettrie et la critique allemande,” in Compte rendu des séances de l’Acad. des Sciences morales et politiques, xxxii. (1889), a reply to German rehabilitations of Lamettrie.

in which the hills are situated. (See BERWICKSHIRE.) LAMOIGNON, a French family, which takes its name from Lamoignon, a place said to have been in its possession since the

13th century. One of its several branches is that of Lamoignon de Malesherbes. GUILLAUME DE LAMOIGNON (1617-1677), atLAMIA, a female demon who devoured children. According tained eminence as a lawyer and became president of the parleto late myths she was a queen of Libya, beloved by Zeus; when ment of Paris in 1658. He presided at the earlier sittings of the Hera robbed her of her children, out of jealousy, she killed every trial of Fouquet, whom he regarded as innocent. Lamoignon child she could get into her power (Diod. Sic. xx. 41; Schol, tried to simplify the laws of France. Guillaume’s second son, Aristophanes, Pax., 757); or a queen of the Laestrygonians of NICOLAS DE LAMOIGNON (1648-1724), took the surname of Basville. He was intendent of Montauban, of Pau, of Poitiers and of whom a similar story was told, Schol., Theo. xv. 40. She was also known as a sort of fiend who, in the form of a Languedoc before his retirement in 1718. In Languedoc he took beautiful woman, enticed young men to her embraces in order strong measures against the Camisards and other Protestants. that she might devour them. See Philostratus, Vita Apollonii, Following the example of Colbert, he encouraged agriculture and iv. 25. What the Lamia’s tower was (Tertullian, adv. Valent. 3) industry generally and did something towards improving the means of communication. CHRETIEN-FRANCOIS DE LAMOIGNON is unknown. See Stoll in Roscher’s Lexikon, s.v. (1735-1789) was one of the assistants of Loménie de Brienne, LAMMAS, the festival of the wheat harvest, originally cele- whose unpopularity and fall he shared. brated in England on Aug. 1, O.S. (O. Eng. hiafmaesse, from LAMONT, JOHANN VON (1805-1879), Scottish-German hlaf, loaf, and maesse, mass, “loaf-mass’’). It was one of the old astronomer and magnetician, was born at Braemar, Aberdeenquarter-days, being equivalent to midsummer, the others being shire, on Dec. 13, 1805. He was sent at the age of twelve to be Martinmas, equivalent to Michaelmas, Candlemas (Christmas) educated at the Scottish monastery in Regensburg. His strong and Whitsuntide (Easter). The name is derived from the custom bent for scientific studies was recognized by the head of the

Taenga

of each worshipper presenting in the church a loaf made of the new wheat, as an offering of the first-fruits.

LAMMASCH,

HEINRICH

(1853-1920), Austrian jurist,

was born at Seitenstetten, Lower Austria, May 21, 1853. He was appointed professor at the University of Vienna in 1889, became eminent as a teacher of criminal and international law and his publications on these subjects deeply influenced their practice. Four times a member of the International Court of Arbitration at the Hague, being president three times, he helped to settle, among other cases, the dispute between Great Britain and America on the fishery rights off the North Coast of America in 1910. As a

monastery,

P. Deasson,

on whose

recommendation

he was ad-

mitted in 1827 to the then new observatory of Bogenhausen (near Munich), where he worked under J. Soldner. After the death of his chief in 1835 he was appointed director of the observatory. In 1852 he became professor of astronomy at the university of

Munich, and held both these posts till his death on Aug. 6, 1879. Lamont was a member of many learned corporations. Among his contributions to astronomy may be noted his eleven zonecatalogues of 34,674 stars, his measurements, in 1836-1837, of

nebulae and clusters, and his determination of the mass of Uranus from observations of its satellites (Mem. Astron. Soc. Xl. 51;

pacifist during the World War he incurred bitter hostility in the Austrian Herrenhaus, to which he had belonged since 1899, but he inspired confidence elsewhere, and presided over the final ministry

1838). A magnetic observatory was equipped at Bogenhausen 10

(Oct. 26-Nov. 13, 1918). He died at Salzburg on Jan. 6, 1920.

des Erdmagnetismus (Berlin, 1849) is a standard work on the

which liquidated the central administration of the older Austria

1840 through his initiative; he executed comprehensive magnetic

surveys 1849-1858; announced the magnetic decennial period m 1850, and his discovery of earth-currents in 1862. His Handbuch

DRAWN

FOR

THE

ENCYCLOPADIA

BRITANNICA

BY

WARREN

E.

COX

SETTINGS l. T'ang

dynasty

2. Ming dynasty

(618-906)

mortuary

(1368-1644)

inverted mountain of batiked velvet

designs

vase of two and

DECORATIONS

AND

vase with shade of batiked

cylinders

embraced

with

decorated dragons.

silk

with Shade

OF

LAMPS

vas e mounted in Louis 3. Samson reproduction of famille rose Chinese 15th ormolu with shade of batiked crêpe hand coloured dry-point 4. Brass lamp of old English design with ion shade derived from L5th century English bible illuminat

LAMONT—LAMP subject.

See Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie

(S. Günther);

V. J. Schrift,

Astr. Gesellschaft, xv. 60; Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society, xl. 203; Nature, XX. 425; Quart. Journal Meteor. Society, vi. 72; Proceedings

Roy. Society of Edinburgh, x. 358; The Times (Aug. 12, 1879) ; Sir F. Ronalds’s Cat. of Books relating to Electricity and Magnetism, pp. 281-283; Royal Society’s Cat. of Scientific Papers, vols. iii. vii.

LAMONT, THOMAS WILLIAM

(1870-

), American

banker, was born at Claverack, N.Y., on Sept. 30, 1870. He was educated at Phillips academy, Exeter, N.H., and at Harvard where

he graduated in 1892. He was for two years with the New York

Tribune. Entering banking in 1903, he was with the Bankers’ Trust Company in New York, as secretary and treasurer, and after 1905, as vice president. In 1909 he was elected vice presi-

dent of the First National Bank of New York city, serving for two years. On and Company. British, French the World War.

Jan. 1, 1911 he entered the firm of J. P. Morgan He took part in the work of the firm in floating and other Allied loans in America during and after From 1918-22 he was proprietor of the New York

Evening Post. In 1919 he was one of the financial and economic advisors of the American delegation to the Peace Conference in Paris. As chairman of the American group of the International

Banking Consortium for the assistance of China, he visited the Far East in 1920 and again in 1927. In 1920 he acted as chairman of the American committee which remitted almost $8,000,000

to China for relief of the starving populace. He is chairman of the International Committee

of Bankers

on Mexico.

LAMORICIERE, CHRISTOPHE LEON LOUIS JUCHAULT DE (1806-1865), French general, born at Nantes on Sept. 11, 1806, was one of the most distinguished and efficient of Bugeaud’s generals in Algeria, rendered special service at Isly (August 14, 1844), acted temporarily as governor-general of Algeria, and finally effected the capture of Abd el-Kader in 1847. Lamoriciére was a member of the chamber of deputies in 1848.

Under the régime of General Cavaignac he was for a time minister of war. From 1848 to 185xz Lamoriciére was one of the most conspicuous opponents of the policy of Louis Napoleon, and at the coup a’état he was arrested and exiled. In 1860 he accepted the command of the papal army, which he led in the Italian campaign of 1860. On Sept. 18, 1860, he was defeated by the Italian army at Castelfidardo. He died at Prouzel (Somme) on Sept. 11, 186s. See E. Keller, Le Général de Lamoriciére

(Paris, 1873).

LA MOTHE LE VAYER, FRANCOIS DE (1588-1672), French writer, born in Paris of a noble family of Maine, was an avocat at the parlement of Paris. His Considérations sur Véloquence française (1638) procured him admission to the Academy, and his De V’instruction de Mgr. le Dauphin (1640) attracted the attention of Richelieu. In 1649 Anne of Austria entrusted him with the education of her second son and subsequently with the completion of Louis XIV.’s education. The king rewarded his tutor by appointing him historiographer of France and councillor of state. His other works include: Jugement sur les anciens et principaux historiens grecs et latins (1646); a treatise entitled Du peu de certitude qu’il y a en histoire (1668), which in a sense marks the beginning of historical criticism in France; and sceptical Dialogues, published ‘posthumously Orosius Tubero.

under

the pseudonym

of

See Bayle, Dictionnaire critique, s.v. “Vayer’; L. Etienne, Essai sur La Mothe Le Vayer (Paris, 1849).

LA MOTTE, ANTOINE HOUDAR DE (1672-1731), French author, was born in Paris. In 1693 his comedy Les Originaux proved a complete failure, which so depressed the author that

he contemplated joining the Trappists, but four years later he again began writing operas and ballets, e.g., L’Europe galante

(1697), and tragedies, one of which, Inés de Castro (1723), was

produced with immense success at the Théâtre Français. He was a

champion of the moderns in the revived controversy of the anCents and moderns.

Madame

Dacier had published

(1699) a

tanslation of the Ziad, and La Motte, who knew no Greek, made a translation (1714) in verse founded on her work. The nature of his work may be judged from his own expression: “TI have taken the liberty to change what I thought disagreeable in it.” He defended the moderns in the Discours sur Homère prefixed to his

629

translation, and in his Réflexions sur la critique (1716). The controversy was conducted on La Motte’s side with a wit and politeness which compared very favourably with his opponent’s methods. He was elected to the Academy in 1710, and soon after became blind. He corresponded with the duchesse du Maine, and was the friend of Fontenelle. He died in Paris on Dec. 26, 1731. His Oeuvres du théétre (2 vols.) appeared in 1730, and his Oeuvres (ro vols.) in 1754. See A. H. Rigault, Histoire de la querelle des anciens et des modernes (1859).

LAMOUREUX,

CHARLES

(1834-1899), French conduc-

tor and violinist, was born at Bordeaux on Sept. 28, 1834. He studied at the Pau Conservatoire, was engaged as violinist at the Opéra, and in 1864 organized a series of concerts devoted to chamber music. A visit to a Handel festival in England led him to found the “Société de Harmonie Sacrée,” and in 1873 he conducted the first performance in Paris of Handel’s Messiah. He also gave performances of Bach’s St. Matthew Passion, Handel’s Judas Maccabaeus, Gounod’s Gallia, and Massenet’s Eve. He became chef d’orchestre at the Opéra Comique in 1876. In 1881 he founded the Lamoureux concerts, at which he gave performances of Wagner’s music, then little known in Paris. He then took the Eden Theatre, and on May 3, 1887 conducted the first performance of Lohengrin in the French capital. Chauvinist opposition prevented the repetition of the performance, but the taboo was broken. Lamoureux was successively second chef d’orchestre at the Conservatoire, first chef d’orchestre at the Opéra Comique, and twice first chef d’orchestre at the Opéra. He conducted in London on several occasions. He died in Paris on Dec. 21, 1899.

LAMP, the general term for an apparatus in which some combustible substance, generally for illuminating purposes, is held.. Lamps are usually associated with lighting, though the term is also employed in connection with heating (e.g., spirit-lamp); and as now employed for oil, gas and electric light they are dealt with in the article on Licutinc. From the artistic point of view, in modern times, their variety precludes detailed reference here; but their archaeological history deserves a fuller account.

ANCIENT Though Athenaeus states (xv. 700) that the lamp was not an ancient invention in Greece, it had come into general use there for domestic purposes by the 4th century B.c., and no doubt had long before been employed for temples or other places where a permanent light was required in place of the torch of Homeric times. Herodotus (ii. 62) sees nothing strange in the “festival of lamps,” Luchnokaie, which was held at Sais in Egypt, except in the vast number of them. Each was filled with oil so as to burn the whole

night. Again he speaks of evening as the time of lamps (vii. 215). still, the scarcity of lamps in a style anything likethat of an early period, compared with the immense number of them from the late Greek and Roman age, seems to justify the remark of Athenaeus. The commonest sort of domestic lamp was of terra-cotta and of the shape seen in figs. rand 2, with a spout or nozzle in which the wick burned, a round hole on BY COURTESY OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM the top to pour oil in and a FIGS. 1 AND 2.—ROMAN TERRAhandle with which to carry it. COTTA LAMPS (LATE PERIOD) Some lamps had two or more spouts and there was a large class with numerous holes for wicks but without nozzles. Decoration was confined to the front of the handle, or more commonly to the circular space on the top of the lamp, and it consisted almost always of a design in relief, taken from mythology or legend, from objects of daily life or scenes such as displays of gladiators or chariot races, from animals and the chase. A lamp in the British Museum has a view of the interior of a Roman circus with spectators looking on at a chariot race. In other cases the lamp is made altogether of a fantastic shape, as in the form of an animal, a bull’s head, or a human

LAMP

630

foot. Naturally colour was excluded from the ornamentation except in the form of a red or black glaze, which would resist the heat. The typical form of hand lamp (figs. 1, 2) is a combination of the flatness necessary for carrying steady and remaining steady when set down, with the roundness evolved from the working in clay and characteristic of vessels in that material. In the bronze lamps this same type is retained, though the roundness was less in keeping with metal. Fanciful shapes are equally common in bronze. The standard form of handle consists of a ring for the forefinger and above it a kind of palmette for the thumb. Instead of the palmette is sometimes a crescent, no doubt in allusion to the moon. It was only with bronze lamps that the cover protecting the flame from the wind could be used, as was the case out of doors in Athens. Such a lamp, because of this protection, was in fact a lantern. . Apparently it was to the lantern that the Greek appellation lampas, a torch, was first transferred, probably from a custom of having guards to protect the torches also. Afterwards it came to be employed for the lamp itself. When Juvenal (Sat., iti. 277)

lit it burned continuously for a whole year. The wick was of a fine flax called Carpasian (now understood to have been 4 king of cotton), which proved to be the least combustible of all flax (Pausanias, i. 26. 7). Above the lamp a palm tree of bronze rose to the roof for the purpose of carrying off the fumes. But

how this was managed it is not easy to determine unless the

palm be supposed to have been inverted and to have hung above the lamp, spread out like a re. flector, for which purpose the polished bronze would have seryeq fairly well. The stem if left hol.

low would collect the fumes and carry them out through the roof. This lamp was refilled on ex.

actly the same day each year, so that there seems to have been

an idea of measuring time by it, such as may also have been the

case in regard to the lamp stand

BY COURTESY OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM FIG. 4.~-ROMAN

HANGING

LAMP

capable of holding as many lamps

as there were days of the year, which Dionysius the Sicilian tyrant placed in the Prytaneum of Tarentum. At Pharae in Achaia there was in the market-place an oracular statue of Hermes with a marble altar before it to which bronze lamps were attached by means of lead. Whoever desired to consult the statue went there in the evening and first filled the lamps and lit them, placing also a bronze coin on the altar. A similar custom prevailed at the oracle of Apis in Egypt (Pausanias, vii. 22. 2). At Argos he speaks of a chasm into which it was a cus-

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speaks of the aenea lampas he may mean a torch with a bronze handle, but more probably either a lamp or a lantern. Lamps used for suspension were mostly of bronze, and in such cases the decoration was on the under part, so as to be seen from below. Of this the best example is the lamp at Cortona, found there in 1840 (engraved, Monumenti d. inst. arch., iii. pls. 41, 42, and in Dennis,

Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, 2nd ẹd. ii. p. 403). It is set round with 16 nozzles ornamented alternately with a siren and a satyr playing on a double flute. Between each pair of nozzles isa head of a river god, and on the bottom of the lamp is a large mask of Medusa, surrounded by bands of animals. These designs are in relief, and the workmanship, which appears to belong to the beginning of the sth century B.C., justifies the esteem in which Etruscan lamps were held in antiquity (Athenaeus, xv. 700). Of a later but still excellent style is a bronze lamp in the British Museum found in the baths of Julian in Paris (fig. 3). The chain is attached by means of two dolphins very artistically combined. Under the nozzles are heads of Pan; and from the sides project the foreparts of lions. To what extent lamps may have been used in temples is unknown. Probably the Erechtheum on the Acropolis of Athens was an exception in having a gold one kept burning day and night, just as this lamp itself must have been an

exception in its artistic merits.

It was the work of the sculptor

Callimachus, and was made apparently for the newly rebuilt temple a little before 400 B.c. When once filled with oil and

tom continued to his time to let down burning lamps, with some reference to the goddess of the lower world, Persephone (ii. 22. 4). At Cnidus a large number of terra-cotta lamps were found crowded in one place a little distance below the surface, and it was conjectured that there must have been there some statue or altar at which it had been a custom to leave lamps burning at night (Newton, Discoveries at Halicarnassus, etc., ii. 394). These lamps are of terra-cotta, but with little ornamentation and so like each other in workmanship that they must all have come from one pottery, and may have been brought on one occasion to the spot where they were found, probably the funeral of a person with many friends, or the celebration of a festival in his honour, such as the parentalia among the Romans, to maintain which it was a common custom to bequeath property. For example, a marble slab in the British Museum has a Latin inscription describing the property which had been left to provide among other things that a lighted lamp with incense on: it should be placed at the tomb of the deceased on the kalends, nones and ides of each month (Mus. Marbles, v. pl. 8, fig. 2). For birthday presents terra-cotta lamps appear to have been frequently employed, the device generally being that of |. two figures of Victory holding between them a disc inscribed with

a good wish for the new year:

Annv Nov Favstv Fetr. This BY COURTESY

OF

THE

FIG. 5.—NEAR ROMAN BRONZE

BRITISH

VIEW LAMP

MUSEUM

OF LION ON IN FIG. 3

is the inscription on a lamp m the British Museum, which besides the Victories has among

other symbols a disc with the head of Janus. As the torch gave way to the lamp in fact, so also it gave way in mythology. In the earlier myths, as in that of Demeter, it is a torch with which she goes

forth to search for her daughter, but in the late myth of Cupid

and Psyche it is an oil lamp which Psyche carries, and from which, to her grief, a drop of hot oil falls on Cupid and awakes him. Terra-cotta lamps have very frequently the name of the maker stamped on the foot. Clay moulds from which the lamps were made have been discovered in considerable numbers.

(A. S. M.)

PLATE

EAT

ec

even

ES

prin

NE

=

A

Peet

DRAWN

FOR

THE

ENCYCLOPADIA

BRI

ANNICA

BY

WARREN

E.

COX

SKETCHES 1. Ming Dynasty

(1368-1644)

3. Sung

(960-1280)

Dynasty

with incense

lotus

design

burner

on

celadon tu ting

shade

lamp with lamp,

taken

showing

from

IN INDIA

batiked shade Greek

famous

influence,

three-colour

INK

OF

FOUR

LAMPS

2. 12th to 13th century Persian lustre lamp with batiked crêpe shade 4.

Sung

Dynasty

(960-1280)

lamp

with

painted

silk

famous fan painting, “Fish at play,” Metropolitan

shade

Museum

from

II

LAMP MODERN

A new element has been introduced within the last fifty years into the decoration of the interior. For centuries men beautified their homes by the use of rugs, furniture, tapestries and other wall

hangings, and during all this time the lamp consisted of a torch, a small cup of oil in which floated a wick, a candle in an ornamental

candlestick or a kerosene lamp.

Only since the discovery of

electric light which did away with the necessity of considering

ventilation and fire risk, and which at the same time made possible great candle-power in small space, has the art of the designing of lamps and shades come into being, if we except the beautiful mosque lamps and Chinese and Japanese lanterns. DESIGN

There is a distinct trend in modern decoration toward the elimination of unnecessary art objects, a reaction against the crowding

631

and construction of a new type of art object which is to be moulded into the interior and made harmonious with it, giving it a proper accent in the form of a high-light when the lamp is in use, and casting over it a tint or wash that will establish the mood of the interior at night. When the other furnishings of the room are antique the lamp should be antique. When they are modern it should be modern, but of whatever style or period, there are certain fundamental rules of design which will help to make the unit beautiful. There should not be a too abrupt change from the design and colouration of the vase to the design and colouration of the shade. The elements to be considered in knitting them are: (z) proportion, (2) the quality of the curve, (3) texture and (4) colour. Proportion.—In designing a lamp-shade the proportions must be so simple that the eye can measure them and take pleasure in

of the roth century. Yet lamps are necessarily art objects which demand prominent settings in order to fulfill properly their function of distributing light. Therefore, in order not to run counter to the tendencies of the day it is necessary in the designing of lamps to merge them into their backgrounds as much as possible.

A work of art should have unity of line, structure and colour, and the trend in modern lamp design is to make the texture of the shade harmonize

with

the texture

of the base.

Thus

velvets

may be employed in conjunction with bronze and pottery vases. Thin silks, satins and taffetas may be used with porcelain vases, the sheen of the material matching the glaze of the vase. It is interesting to note that because we have used oil lamps for centuries the eye, accustomed to an oil container, demands

something of the sort even when it is entirely unnecessary in the electric lamp. We may break away from tradition, but should not do so too abruptly and without reason, and therefore lamps which are constructed with the slender stems adequate to carry an electric wire are often less satisfactory to the eye than those con-

structed with a larger and more substantial base. Moreover, through the use of high candlepower demanded in the modern home, the lamp-shade must be large enough to eliminate glare (see LicHTING) and should therefore have a large and massive base to support it. In order that lamp bases may harmonize with the furnishings of the home, they must be chosen from potteries, porcelains and bronzes of appropriate periods, conforming in colour and design with the rugs, wall hangings, furniture and general architectural treatment. Reading-light areas should be laid out in planning the arrangement of the lamp units in a room. When the radius of one of these reading-light areas has been established and the base selected for the lamp, the shade can be designed

No. 3 FIG.

2.—-DIAGRAMS

ILLUSTRATING

PROPORTION

OF LINE

MEASUREMENTS

No. 1. Lamp built within a square, standing upon one corner so that dimensions A:B=C:D. No. 2. Lamp built within an equilateral triangle, ABC, above which Is another simple triangle, BCD. No. 3. Lamp with the same proportions as No. 1, except that the square, In accordance with the downward curves of the vase, has been lifted so that it does not touch the bottom

,

them. Often a lamp can be built within a square standing upon one corner (fig. 2, No. 1), which gives an interesting simple proportion between the ratios of the height of the vase and the height of the shade, and what may be termed the two wings of the shade divided by the centre line of the symmetrical form. Thus dimensions A:B=C:D. Other arrangements may be used. In‘ fig. 2, No. 3, the same proportions have been used, except that the square has been lifted so that the lower point does not touch the bottom of the vase. In fig. 2, No. 2, a different arrangement has been adopted. The focal point of the base in this case was felt by the artist to be a short distance below the actual base. By erecting from this point A two lines at an angle of 60° from the horizontal and connecting them with the line B-C, the height of which was established at a distance above the mouth of the vase equal to the distance between the top of the shoulder of the vase and its mouth, an equilateral triangle was formed, above which was erected another simple triangle with base angles of 30°. The distance from the apex of this triangle to the shoulder of the vase READING LIGHT LEVEL is equal to the radius of the shade. Thus there is no limitation 20 INCHES FROM FLOOR other than that of the use of simple proportions based upon simple geometric forms. FIG. 1.—DIAGRAM SHOWING TWO LAMPS OF DIFFERENT SHAPES AND SIZES THAT ARE PROPERLY MOUNTED IN RELATION TO THE READING Aside from the proportions of line, we should consider the proLIGHT AREA portions of area of front elevation which may be built upon any The larger lamp, with shade, is in solid lines; the smaller, in dotted lines simple ratio. Thus, most of the shades shown in the colour plates without regard to the light area and only when the mountings are twice the size of the vases, while the one in the lower rightare planned should the light area be brought into consideration. hand corner of Plate II. is three times the size. This ratio is obThe diagram in fig. 1 shows a table on which stands a large lamp vious in the square lines of the Ming lamp in the upper rightwith a shade of one shape in solid lines and a small lamp with a hand corner of Plate I. The shade appears in the same area as shade of another shape in dotted lines, and it will be seen that would two of the vases set side by side. Any of these simple When a line is drawn from the circumference of the reading-light proportions may be used, creating a feeling of satisfaction and atea this establishes the location of the electric bulbs on the architectural structure. (See DRAWING.) mountings. The problem of lighting (g.v.) is considered sepaAt times the point to be selected from which to work is not lately; this article is therefore concerned solely with the design at the exact bottom of the vase. The establishment of this starting

LAMP

632

point depends on the curves of the vase as they approach the bottom. It will be seen that these curves in fig. 2, No. 2 sweep in a downward direction more strongly than do those in fig. 2, No. 3. In the first vase the curves of the shoulders drop into straight lines which establish point A. The other vase with an

egg-shaped body establishes this point well above the bottom at the point of the egg or the convergence of the more rounded

its density of weave, and its treatment must all be considereq The traditions of old Spain and Italy have taught us the associa.

tion of vellum with iron, and the slender delicate though strong curves of wrought iron work lend themselves beautifully to the type of curve found in the illumination

of old missals, Man

other substances such as wool may be used, but as arule it js

curves. In fig. 3 will be seen two contrasting vases, one a bottle shape with a distinctly downward movement because the weight of the body is so low that it seems to sag, while the other seems to stand on tip-toe. In the first, the

wise to eliminate those harsh substances such as glass which are very difficult to make harmonious with any sort of base.

The colour of the vase is as a rule carried up into the shade

but at times the vase may be, as in the illustration colour Plate L too strong in blue to permit the shade to give the desired light if it were predominant in this colour. Therefore at times contrasted hues are more attractive, and permit a more pleasant colour of

position of the base is fixed by the rounded curves at a fraction of an inch below the bottom,

while in the second it is projected some distance below giving a thrust upward. In the first, the

weight and richness necessary in the shading of a fine hea pottery or bronze than does velvet, but the type of velvet chosen

light. A careful and conscientious study of the laws of colour is in fact necessary in order to handle successfully colour in the making of lamps. Errors in judgment will be doubly accentuated when the lamp is lit and not only must the artistic con-

=a

srageruoure bE AERIgNEA M Heavy TR sagging lines. In the second, it UPWARD should be like the wings of a bird. The study of the movement upward or is fascinating, and many of the best balanced that they have a dignity fitting

oe EE

T

DOWNWARD (LEFT) AND (RIGHT) LINES

ception be thought of, but the psychological effect of the colour used must also be constantly kept in mind. (See LIGHTING AND ARTIFICIAL ILLUMINATION; especially the sections on Lighting

Practice.)

downward of fine vases forms are so perfectly them for a temple or a

wood or bronze stems, sometimes a number of feet in length, and

Quality of the Curve.—Not only must the proportions be

handle other equipment for the grinding out of holes in the bottom of porcelain and pottery vases. This boring is required in even

palace. carefully thought out, but the curves themselves must be so established as to help the work of art upon which they are to be grafted. At times the designer may simply repeat in the shade, the curves of the vase, giving them a broader sweep, in harmony with the larger area. Subtleties of curve in the vase may be so accented that attention is called to them. An example of this is the treatment of the Celadon lamp, colour Plate II., where the subtle convex curve, finished at either end with a slight concavity, is accented in the broad border of the shade. In the study of these

curves the designer should have a knowledge of the architecture and other arts of the countries from which his lamp bases have been selected. There is a prim puritanical quality in Chinese art up to the Ming dynasty, which is never duplicated in the softer, rounder curves of the art of the Near East. These characteristics should be accented rather than contradicted. In the treatment of the necessarily strong horizontal line at the bottom of the shade the sensitive artist feels, if he has studied the curves of the vase and followed them up to its mouth, that there is a too abrupt stop before arriving at the curves of the shade. That many designers have felt this is shown by the tendency to attempt to soften this line with fringe or some other decorative treatment. Fringe is bad, as there are very few vases, even including those of the Italian Renaissance, which could be associated with textiles so finished. .The architectural severity of the base, be it pottery, bronze or wood, demands that the shade be treated more or less architecturally, but that this line may be softened by the design alone, will be seen in the two lamps at the bottom of colour Plate II. The softening is accomplished by curving the Wires which drop into the bottom circumference of the shade,

and sometimes by treating the line itself in various scalloped forms, as may be seen in flowers with rounded or pointed petals; and theugh the designer of a vase seldom uses petals, because they are too easily broken, the designer of the shade may use them, as they do not weaken the shade. Texture of Shade.—Texture, the third element to be considered must be very carefully thought out. At times the rough wheel marks on an early glazed pottery are best simulated by using a thin glossy fabric lined with heavily woven crude fabric so stretched that the heavy weave runs on the horizontal. Often soft mat glazes can be simulated by the use of dull crépes over which are stretched a thin chiffon or georgette crépe. These fabrics are useful in approaching the two-tone textures of some glazes such as powder blue, robin’s egg soufflé, etc. Nothing in a fabric comes closer, if properly treated, to give the feeling of

Mounting.—Modern

crafts.

lamp mounting

Experts with the modern

includes

a variety of

lathe must be able to bore

the most expensive pieces and must be done with a certainty that no breakage will occur. Many bases are spun on the machine lathe over a wooden chuck of the exact shape and size desired. Afterwards these spun bases may be treated by the processes of repoussé, chasing, inlaying, etc. The casting is usually carried on in large plants and the rough castings finished by hand in the lamp-mounter’s shop. These castings, due to the fact that they stand in a bright illumination just below the eye, must be very carefully “cleaned.” (For the various finishing processes see SCULPTURE TECHNIQUE; ORMOLU, etc.) It is necessary to have a cluster of sockets which hold the electric lamps and these sockets should be mounted on either short or long goose-neck arms depending upon the size of the shade. Great care must be taken to have the lamps at the proper distance above the top of the vase so that the reading light will be exactly what is required by the lamp designer (see Desicn). There should be an adjustable shade-rest made byatightly fitting post within a collar which is set with a thumbscrew at various heights, allowing a play of about two inches. This adjustment is not for the purpose of allowing more or less light but for the purpose of slightly raising the shade, if the lamp is placed on a low table, or slightly lowering it, if placed on a high table, in order that the proportions originally designed will be kept constant. The wiring must be carefully done and it is often an advantage to have a small switch-box in the base as well as the pull-chain sockets under the shade. This switch enables one to turn the current on or off with greater convenience. Shade-making.—After the design of the shade has been care-

fully worked out (usually to quarter scale) a drawing in full size is made and sent to the framemaker who specializes in the

bending and welding together of wires into the exact forms desired. These wires are usually bent over rollers of various diameter or made to conform to curves established by the arrangement of short iron pegs fitting into holes in a heavy iron plate,

and the craftsmen who do this work are experts in the art of

obtaining the exact curve indicated on the drawing. Not many years ago all frames were soldered together with soft solder but it was found that these frames had large joints which were easily broken and in the modern plants electric welding has taken the place of the soldering process. The shade-rest consists of a heavy

washer usually of brass about a quarter of an inch thick which 15 set within a small ring of wire to which the cover can be sewn and to which it is attached by three or four very short posts.

Pirate IIT

LAMP

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DECORATION FOR A LAMP SHADE DRY POINT EXECUTED BY WARREN E. COX This dry point is printed upon

translucent vellum

and

hand-coloured.

The design was

taken

bible. Six of these panels are mounted for the from the illumination of a 15th century English corner of Colour Plate | nd right-ha lower the in shown shade of the lamp

Pirate IV

SAT

mae

wren a

OE a me

a.

BY COURTESY

OF WARREN

E.

m

ANS

sgg

a

mae

.

cox

CONSTRUCTION 1. Wrapping

wire frame

tightly with silk

tape, to which linings are sewn 2. Proper

method

of sewing

linings

OF A LAMP

SHADE

3. Sewing finishing braid over seams

4. Painting

directly

with varnished

upon lining

shade

made

LAMP

sage

PROCESSES

IN LAMP

MANUFACTURE

1. Boring a vase for insertion of fixtures 2. Spinning a metal base

4. Finishing metal bases. Goose-neck arms at right 5. Assembling lamps, showlIng sockets, vases, bases, goose-neck arms

3. Chasing a metal base

6. Wiring a lamp.

At right, lamps in which wiring is complete

LAMP-BLACK—LAMPEDUSA Sometimes the shade-rest is sunk slightly below the level of the

top of the shade so that the mounting of the finial nent. The mountings of finials, however, have so recent years that they are no longer unsightly and resent custom is to leave the shade-rest flush with

is not promiimproved in therefore the the top.

When the shade frame is returned from the framemaker’s it is frst carefully checked with the drawing and then set upon the lamp in order to make sure that the desired result has been ob-

tained. Often, slight corrections at this point lead to a great enhancement of the beauty of the finished product. The frame is then wrapped carefully and tightly with a thin binding-tape to

which the lining and outside coverings are sewn. If this binding-

tape is not very securely in place the covers are likely to slip

and cause wrinkles in the shade. The sewing of the covers to the tape must be done with very fine stitches entirely hidden underneath by the wire and finally hidden on the outside by the narrow braid or ribbon used in finishing. Often the lining is given a coat of shellac or water-proof varnish and when this is dried so that it isno longer sticky but still soft enough for a needle to penetrate easily, the cover is sewn into place. When this process is followed and the cover properly sized it is possible to paint directly on the shade with oils, water-colours or inks.

If this outside cover is to be executed off the shade it should first be pinned into place and the design carefully drawn in soft

pencil, each panel being marked with a key number corresponding to a small number attached to the frame so that the panels can be

put in place after the work is accomplished in the correct order

and with a perfect matching of the design at the seams. In accomplishing this work certain allowance must be made for the slight shrinkage due to the repeated dyeings and it must be remembered that the shrinkage occurs on the long and crossways of the material, while the bias will permit sufficient stretching to overcome it. It may be said here that the linings and covers should always be put on with the centre axis of the panel running true with the length of the material and with the cross-threads running as nearly horizontal as possible. Finally, in the finish-

633

fully. Colour Plate III. shows a dry-point panel to which colour and gold leaf were also added. The gold leaf though opaque has been handled in such small areas that it seems a natural part of

the lacy design of the original print. When the lamp is lit, and in the daytime also, the glint from these gilded areas adds richness which could not otherwise be obtained. Care must be used, however, in the employment of this medium to have it well distributed in a delicate pattern or used in properly designed masses for silhouette effects so that the opacity helps rather than hinders the motive. Many lithographs or four-colour prints have been employed successfully but it is very difficult to obtain exactly the type of print which will be most suitable to the lamp and to the surroundings. However, at times, certain typical period designs can be so employed, and of course, when printed in quantity, they give a beautiful result at a considerably reduced cost for manufacture. It is also necessary to mention briefly the finial or crest mounted upon what is known as the shade-binder. This may consist of the cover or part of the cover of the original vase (see colour Plate I., upper left-hand corner), a small casting which recalls the design of the mounts or of a decorative piece of semi-precious stone (suitable for Chinese lamps) as seen in some of the other colour plates. This finial should, however, always be considered a part of the design and should carry out the feeling of the lines of the lamp. (W. E. Cx.)

LAMP-BLACK, a deep black pigment consisting of carbon in a very fine state of division, obtained by the imperfect combustion of highly carbonaceous substances. It is manufactured from scraps of resin, pitch refuse, inferior oils and fats, and other similar combustibles rich in carbon, the finest lamp-black being procured by the combustion of oils obtained in coal-tar distillation (see CoaL-TAar). Lamp-black is extensively used in the manufacture of printing ink, as a pigment for oil painting and also for “ebonizing” cabinet work, and in the waxing and lacquering of leather. It is the principal constituent of China ink.

LAMPEDUSA, a small island in the Mediterranean, province

ing, the narrowest possible braid or ribbon should as a rule be employed to hide the seams and often tiny folds of the material of which the shade was made are pressed into service, though

of Girgenti, 112 m. south-south-west from the town of Girgenti. Pop. (1921, including Linosa) 2,593. The two islands are now

these are seldom as satisfactory as the other edging materials, for often the design demands a slight deepening contrast.in the framing of the panels. The method of making parchment or vellum shades is very similar to that already described, except, that as a rule no lining is necessary unless the design involves incisions in the cover. Usually these shades are put together with the assistance of an adhesive and nearly every lampmaker has his favourite glues or cements for this purpose. However, it has been found that the use of an adhesive alone is not sufficient to make sure that the panels will not expand and contract from the heat of the bulbs

Porto Empedocle.

in the lamp, from moisture, and various other causes enough to

tear them loose from the frame. It is therefore necessary either to water-proof the joints and panels with shellac, or some similar substances, or to sew them as well as cement them into place. In the making of real vellum shades special attention must be paid to this work, and the frames must be far heavier than those employed in ordinary work, for real vellum being a split raw-

hide, expands and contracts to a tremendous degree, often buckling on the frame or contracting so that it is distorted out of shape. It is therefore wise to cement and sew this material into place and to treat it with oil so that moisture has a lessened effect. Glass, mica and capa shell should be avoided as well as uncovered varnished silk, for these substances are too harsh and too translucent to knit in well with the average interior and no matter how carefully treated permit a harsh glare of light which is unpleasant. If, however, the lamps happen to be made for distant effects such as ‘stage sets, these materials may help to procure admirable effects. Almost any graphic art can be employed in the decoration of

the various materials used.

Painting with translucent colours,

batik, etching, woodblock printing and all other methods have

their advantages and disadvantages which must be studied care-

known as the Isole Pelagie, and are reached by steamer

from

Its greatest length is about 7 m., its greatest

width about 2 m.; the highest point is 400 ft. above sea-level. It stands on the edge of the submarine platform of the east coast

of Tunisia, from which (at Mahadia) it is 90 m. distant eastwards. The soil is calcareous; it was covered with scrub (chiefly the wild olive) until comparatively recent times, but this has been cut, and the rock is now bare. The valleys are, however, fairly fertile. On the south, near the only village, is the harbour, dredged to a depth of 13 ft. and good for torpedo boats and small craft. There are prehistoric hut-foundations, also Punic tombs and Roman buildings near the harbour. The island is the Lopadusa of Strabo, and the Lipadosa of Ariosto’s Orlando Furioso, the scene of the landing of Roger of Sicily and of his conversion by the hermit.

In 1436 it was given by Alfonso of

Aragon to Don Giovanni de Caro, baron of Montechiaro. A thousand slaves were taken from its population in 1553. In 1661, Ferdinand ‘Tommasi, its then owner, received the title of prince from Charles IT. of Spain. In 1737 the earl of Sandwich found only one inhabitant upon it; in 1760 some French settlers

established themselves there. Catherine II. of Russia proposed to buy it as a Russian naval station, and the British government thought of doing the same if Napoleon had seized Malta. In 1843 onwards Ferdinand II. of Naples established a colony there. There is now an Italian penal colony, with some 4oo convicts. Eight miles west is the islet of Lampione. Linosa, some 30 m. to the north-north-east, measures about 2 by 2 m., and is entirely volcanic; its highest point is 610 ft. above sea-level. It has landing-places on the south and west and is more fertile than Lampedusa, but suffers from lack of springs. Fragments of Roman pottery and Roman coins have been found there, but cisterns and ruins of houses are probably later. See T. Ashby, “Lampedusa, Linosa and Lampione,” in Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology, iv., 11 sqq. (Liverpool, 1911).

634

LAMPERTHEIM—LAMPROPHYRES

LAMPERTHEIM, 2 town in Hesse, Germany, and 8 m. | went with it, for the Dutch had traded in Lampong Pepper from N. from Mannheim by the railway to Frankfort-on-Main via their earliest days in Malayan waters, and knew its great value, Biblis, and at the junction of lines to Worms and Weinheim. It E. E. L. has chemical and cigar factories. Pop. (1925) 11,580. LAMPOON, a virulent satire either in prose a verse: a

LAMPETER,

municipal borough, Cardiganshire, Wales, on

the Teifi, and at the convergence of roads from Aberayron, Tregaron, Llandilo, Carmarthen and Newcastle Emlyn and on the Carmarthen to Aberystwyth branch of the Great Western

railway.

Pop. (1931), 1,742.

As an outpost on the upper Teifi,

Lampeter possessed a castle which was demolished by Owen Gwynedd in the r2th century. The town was first incorporated under Edward II., but the earliest known charter dates from the reign of Henry VI. Further charters were granted in 1814 and 1884. In post-mediaeval times Lampeter was an important centre for cattle to be driven through the hill-passes to England. This activity ceased after the advent of the railway, but Lampeter still remained important for its fairs, especially Dalis Horse Fair. In 1822 St. David’s college, for the training of students for the Welsh church, was founded by Bishop Burgess of St. David’s. The college possesses by charter the privilege of conferring the bachelor degrees in arts and divinity. Lampeter’s position at a convergence of routes led to its becoming an assize town after 1886, and since 1918 an important bus centre. LAMPONGS (THE), a residency in south-east Sumatra, Dutch East Indies, bounded on the north and west by Palembang, on the south by Bencoolen, and on the east by the Straits of Sunda; area 28,268 sq.km.; pop. 239,985 (564 Europeans and Eurasians). The south-western part of the residency, right up to the Bencoolen border, is mountainous, with heights of nearly 7,000 ft., and from these highlands several rivers flow eastwards to the sea, the ground about the coast being very flat. In the extreme south the coast is deeply indented, forming two large bays— Semangko Bay and Lampong Bay—the latter providing a good harbour. At the head of the bay is Teluk Betong, the capital, and the chief port, pop. 14,980. Other towns are Kotoagung, and Kalianda, on the south coast, and Menggala, Gunungsugih, and Sukodano, riverine towns. The principal rivers are the Sekamrung, Seputi, Terusan, Tulangbawang, and the Mesuji, which divides the Lampongs from Palembang. Rice, tobacco, rubber, pepper and coconuts are the principal crops, and pepper (black) is the chief article of export. Pepper cultivation is in native hands, and proprietors of large gardens are men of wealth, and big employers of labour. Trade returns (1926): imports, 1,173,722 guilders; exports, 15,492,378 guilders. A road runs from Kalianda on the coast to Teluk Betong, and on to Gunungsugih, and Menggala, with branches to Koto Bumi and Sukodano, and there is a railway line from Teluk Betong to Blambangan (52 m.), in the interior, which is to be continued across the residency to Muaro Enim, in Palembang, thus ensuring rail communication between Palembang town and Teluk Betong. The Tulangbawang is navigable for ocean steamers to Menggala, to which there are regular services; there is frequent steamer communication between Teluk Betong and Merak in north Java. The Lampongs (people) form part of the indigenous population of Sumatra, and are probably of Malay-Polynesian origin: their proximity to northern Java has resulted in .some admixture of

Javanese and Sundanese blood. Their alphabet and stage of civili-

zation denote Hindu influence;

in religion they are wholly Moham-

medan, and their language has some affinity with Batak and Sun-

danese. They are an agricultural folk, marriage among them being a patriarchal institution, with wife purchase, often at a very high figure, the woman becoming the absolute property of the husband, but though this is general among the lower classes, the notables preserve the matriarchal institutions of the Menangkabau Malays. Dress consists of sarong and kabayak, or baju, both sexes file the teeth, and the women are very fond of ornaments. Titles and social distinctions are much sought after, and expensive feasts are ey: The country is thinly peopled and villages are small. To acquire control of. its valuable pepper trade, the Sultan of Bantam established his jurisdiction over the Lampongs, and when his rule succumbed to the Dutch, in 1809, the Lampongs

idea of injustice and unscrupulousness seems to be essential to its definition. The word is used by Evelyn in 1645, “Here they still paste up their drolling lampoons and scurrilous papers,” and

soon after it is a verb—‘‘suppose we lampooned all the Pretty women in Town.” Both of these forms, the noun and the ver}

have been preserved ever since in English, without modification,

for violent and reckless literary censure. Tom Brown (16631704) Was a past master in the art of lampooning. As a rule, the lampoon possessed no poetical graces, and in its very nature was usually anonymous. The notorious Essay on Woman (1764) of John Wilkes was a lampoon, and was successfully proceeded against as an obscene libel. The progress of civilization and the discipline of the law made it more and more impossible for private

malice to take the form of baseless and scurrilous attack, and the lampoon, in its open shape, died of public decency in the rth century.

LAMPREY, a fish belonging to the family Petromyzontidae which, with the hag-fishes or Myxinidae, forms a distinct class of Vertebrates, the Cyclostomata. The lamprey hasa single nostril on the top of its head, gill-slits on the side of the neck, and no jaws, but a circular sucker beset with horny projections simulating teeth. It feeds on fish, rasping away the flesh with its sucker and powerful tongue. About 15 species are known from the temperate rivers and coastal seas of both hemispheres. In Great Britain and Europe generally three species occur, viz., the large spotted sea-lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), the river-lamprey or lampern (Lampetra fluviatilis), and the small lampern or creeklamprey (L. branchialis). The first two are migratory, entering rivers in the spring to spawn; of the river-lamprey, however, specimens are met with in fresh water all the year round. In North America about ten species of lamprey occur, and in South America and Australasia others are found. Lampreys, especially the sea-lamprey, are esteemed as food, but their flesh is not easy of digestion. Henry I. of England is said to have fallen a victim to this, his favourite dish. They are used as bait for.cod and turbot, being caught in baited baskets or traps. The young of the lamprey, the Ammocoete larva, is ordinarily known as the pride or sand-piper. (See CyctostomatTa; Fis.)

LAMPROPHYRES,

a group of rocks containing pheno-

crysts, usually of biotite and hornblende (with bright cleavage surfaces), often also of olivine and augite, but not of felspar.

They are thus distinguished from the porphyries and porphyrites in which the felspar has crystallized in two generations. They are essentially “dike rocks,” occurring as dikes and thin sills, and are also found as marginal facies of plutonic intrusions. They are

named from Gr. Aapymrpés, bright, and the terminal part of the word porphyry (meaning rocks containing bright porphyritic crystals), and furnish a good example of the correlation which often exists between petrographical types and their mode of occurrence,

showing the importance of physical conditions in determining the mineralogical and structural characters of rocks. They are usually dark in colour, owing to the abundance of ferro-magnesian silicates, of relatively high specific gravity and liable to decomposition. For these reasons they have been defined as a melanocrate series (rich in the dark minerals); and they are often accompanied by a complementary leucocrate series (rich in the white minerals felspar and quartz) such as aplites, porphyries and felsites. Both have been produced by differentiation of a parent magma, and if the two complementary sets of rocks could be mixed in the right proportions a mass of similar chemical composition to the parent magma would be produced.

Although the porphyritic structure is almost universal, it is

sometimes not very marked. The large biotites and hornblendes are not sharply distinct from those of intermediate size, which in turn graduate into the small crystals of the same minerals in

the ground mass. Asa rule all the ingredients have rather perfect crystalline forms (except quartz), hence these rocks have been called “panidiomorphic.”

In many lamprophyres the pale quartz

LAMPS—LAMPSTAND

635

The camptonites (called after Campton, New Hampshire) are dark brown, nearly black, rocks, often with large hornblende phenocrysts. Their essential minerals are alkali hornblende and augite, olivine and plagioclase felspar. They have the porphyritic radiate Or brush-like felspars (with some mica and hornblende) and panidiomorphic structures described in the rocks of the or of quartz and felspar. There are two great groups of lamprophyres differing in com- previous group, and like them also have an ocellar character, often position while retaining the general features of the class. One very conspicuous under the microscope. The accessory minerals of these accompanies intrusions of granite and diorite and includes are biotite, apatite, iron oxides and analcite. They decompose the minettes, kersantites, vogesites and spessartites. The other is readily and are then filled with carbonates. Many of these rocks found in association with nepheline-syenites, essexites and tes- prove on analysis to be exceedingly rich in titanium; they may chenites, and is exemplified by camptonites, monchiquites and contain 4 or 5% of titanium dioxide. The monchiquites (called after the Serra de Monchique, PortuaIndites. The complementary facies of the first group is the aplites, porphyrites and felsites; that of the second group includes gal) are fine-grained and devoid of felspar. Their essential constituents are olivine and augite. Hornblende, like that of the camphostonites, tinguaites and other rocks. The granito-dioritic-lamprophyres (the first of these two tonites, occurs in many of them. Analcite is present in the base, groups) are found in many districts where granites and diorites either colourless or turbid through alteration. Some monchiquites occur, e.g., the Highlands and Southern Uplands of Scotland, the contain haiiyne; while in others small leucites are found. Ocellar Lake district, Ireland, the Vosges, Black Forest, Harz, etc. As a structure is occasionally present, though less marked than in the rule they do not proceed directly from the granite, but form camptonites. The alndites (called after the island of Alnö, Sweden) are rare separate dikes which may be later than, and consequently may cut, the granites and diorites. In other districts where granites rocks found in Sweden, Montreal and other parts of North Amerare abundant no rocks of this class are known. It is rare to find ica and in the north of Scotland. They contain olivine, augite, only one member of the group present, but minettes, vogesites, biotite, perofskite and melilite. They are free from felspar, and kersantites, etc., all appear and there are usually transitional contain very low percentages of silica. The rocks from the type | forms. For this reason these rock species must not be regarded as area and Montreal contain monticellite. The chemical composition of some of these rocks will be indisharply distinct from one another. The group as a whole is wellcharacterized and shows few transitions to porphyries, porphyrites | cated by the analyses of certain well-known examples: and other dike types; its subdivisions, however, tend to merge Fe.03| FeO | MgO} CaO | Na2O into one another and especially when they are weathered are hard to distinguish. The presence or absence of the four dominant 8°41 minerals, orthoclase, plagioclase, biotite and hornblende, determines the species. Minettes contain biotite and orthoclase; kersantites, biotite and plagioclase. Vogesites contain hornblende and orthoclase; spessartites, hornblende and plagioclase. Each variety of lamprophyre may and often does contain all four minerals, but is named according to the two which preponderate; they con*I. Minette (Weiler, Alsace). II. Kersantite (Neubrunn, Thuringia) . tain also iron oxides (usually titaniferous), apatite, sometimes III. Vogesite (Castle Mountain, Montana). IV. Spessartite (Waldsphene, augite and olivine, and as all lamprophyres are prone to michael, Spessart). V. Camptonite (Campton Falls). VI. Monchiquite alteration by weathering a great abundance of secondary minerals (Ria do Ouro, Serra de Tingua). VII. Alndite (Alné, Sweden). is usually found in them, the principal being calcite and other In addition to the oxides given these rocks contain small quanticarbonates, limonite, chlorite, quartz and kaolin. A feature of these rocks is the presence of large foreign crys- ties of water (combined and hygroscopic), COs,S, MnO, P.O,, etc. (J. S. F.) tals or xenocrysts of felspar and of quartz. Their forms are LAMPS, ELECTRIC: see ErectrRIc LamPs, MANUFACTU rounded, indicating partial resorption by the solvent action of the lamprophyric magma; and the quartz may be surrounded by OF; LIGHTING. LAMPSACUS, an ancient Greek colony in Mysia, Asia corrosion borders of minerals such as augite and hornblende, produced where the magma is attacking the crystal. These crys- Minor, known as Pityusa or Pityussa before its colonization by tals are of doubtful origin; they are often of considerable size and Ionian Greeks from Phocaea and Miletus, was situated on the may be cohspicuous in hand-specimens of the rocks. It is sup- Hellespont, opposite Callipolis (Gallipoli) in Thrace. It possessed posed that they did not crystallize in the lamprophyre dike but a good harbour; and the neighbourhood was famous for its wine, in some way were caught up by it. Other enclosures, more cer- so that, having fallen into the hands of the Persians during the tainly of foreign origin, are often seen, such as quartzite, schists, Ionian revolt, it was assigned by Artaxerxes I. to Themistocles to garnetiferous rocks, granite, etc. These may be baked and altered provide him with wine, as Percote did with meat and Magnesia or in other cases partly dissolved. Cordierite may be formed with bread. After the battle of Mycale (479 B.c.), Lampsacus either in the enclosure or in the lamprophyre, where it takes the joined the Athenians, but, having revolted from them in 411, was shape of hexagonal prisms which in polarized light break up into reduced by force. It was defended in 196 B.c. against Antiochus six sectors, triangular in shape, diverging from the centre of the Great of Syria, after which its inhabitants were received as allies of Rome. Lampsacus was the chief seat of the worship of the crystal. The second group of lamprophyric dike rocks (the camptonite- Priapus, a gross nature-god closely connected with the culture of monchiquite-alndite series) is much less common than those the vine. The ancient name is preserved in that of the modern above described. As a rule they occur together, and there are village of Lapsaki, but the Greek town possibly lay at Chardak transitions between the different sub-groups as in the granito- immediately opposite Gallipoli. and felspathic ingredients tend to occur in rounded spots, or ocelli, in which there has been progressive crystallization from the margins towards the centre. These spots may consist of

seeps

similar rocks rich in alkalis. This indicates a genetic affinity like that which exists between the granites and the minettes, etc., and further proof of this connection is’ furnished by the occasional

LAMP-SHELLS, a popular term applied to Brachiopod shells on account of the supposed resemblance of certain forms, such as Terebratula, to an ancient Etruscan lamp. When resting upon its dorsal valve the shell corresponds in form to the body of the Jamp, and the slender peduncle, protruding from a perforation in the beak of the ventral valve, bears a fancied likeness to a wick. The family Terebratulidae, which dates from the | Devonian, contains about 70 living species.

occurrence in those lamprophyres of leucite, hatiyne and other felspathoid minerals.

floor for supporting or holding a lamp.

dioritic lamprophyres. north of Scotland,

In Sweden, Brazil, Portugal, Norway, the

Bohemia,

Arkansas

and

other places this

assemblage of rock types has been met with, always presenting nearly identical features. In most cases, though not in all, they

have a close association with nepheline or leucite-syenites and

LAMPSTAND, apillar, tripod or figure extending to the The lampstand (lampa-

636

LANARK—LANARKSHIRE

dére) is probably of Frerich origin; it appears to have been in History.—At an early period Lanarkshire was inhabiteq by a use in Fraricé before the end of the 17th century. With the mod- Celtic tribe, the Damnonii, whose territory was divided by the etn methods of lighting by électricity, the lampstand has been wall of Antoninus between the Forth and Clyde (remains of supplanted by the floor-lamp. As a very useful and decorative which are found in the parish of Cadder), but who were never piece, the floor-lamp is the subject of various designs, the shade wholly subjugated by the Romans. Traces of their fortifications of which may be made of one of several materials and the colour mounds and circles exist, while bronze and stone objects belonging to their age are occasionally unearthed. Of the Romans there are Suited fo the surroundings. (See LicHTING.) LANARK, 4 royal burgh, parish and county town of Lanark- traces in the camp on Beattock summit near Elvanfoot, in the shire, Scotland, standing om high ground about half a mile from bridge over the Mouse near Lanark, in the road to the south of the right bank of the Clyde. 31 m. S.E. of Glasgow by the L.M.S. Strathaven, in the wall already mentioned and in coins and other railway. Pop. (1931) 6,178. It is the point from which the falls relics. After their departure the country which included Lanark. of the Clyde ate usually visited. The industries include cotton- shire formed part of the kingdom of Strathclyde, which, in the Spinning, hosiery manufacture and a tannery, and there are fre-

quent markets for cattle, horses and sheep. Kenneth II. held a parliament at Lanark in 978, and it was sometimes the residence of the Scottish kings, one of whom, William the Lion (d. 1214),

granted it a charter. William Wallace, who is said to have lived here in his early days, burned the town and slew the English sheriff.

Water

About

ı m. N.W.

are Cartland

Craigs, where Mouse

runs thtough a precipitous red sandstone ravine.

The

stream is crosséd by a bridge of single span, supposed to be of Roman origin, and by a three-arched bridge, designed by Thomas Telford. On the right bank, near this bridge, is the cave in which

Wallace cotcealed himself after killing Hezelrig and which still bears his name.

Lanark was the centre of much activity in the

days of the Covenanters.

William Lithgow

traveller,

(1697~1763),

William

Smellie

(1582-1645),

the

the obstetrician

and

Gavin Hamilton (1730-1797), the painter, were born at Lanark. New Lanark, x m. S., is famous in connection with the socialist

experiments of Robert Owen. The village was founded by David

“th century, was subdued by Northumbrian

was not effected till the 18th century. Independently of Glasgow, Lanarkshire has not borne any part continuously in the general

history of Scotland, but has been the scene of several exciting episodes. Many of Wallace’s daring deeds were performed in the county, Queen Mary met her fate at Langside (1568) and the Covenanters received constant support from the people, defeating Claverhouse at Drumclog (1679), but suffering defeat themselves at Bothwell Brig (1679). Agriculture and Industries.—Oats are the principal crop, and wheat, turnips and potatoes are grown. A large amount of market gardening is carried on in the Lower Ward. Fruit growing is an ancient industry and strawberries

Dale (Owen’s father-in-law) in 1785, with the support of Sir aré widely grown. Richard Arkwright, inventor of the spinning-frame. Braxfield, on the Clyde, gave the title of Lord Braxfield to

Robert Macquéeti (1722-1799), who was born in the mansion and acquired on the bench the character of the Scottish Jeffreys. Robert Baillie, the patriot who was executed for conscience’ sake (1684), belonged to Jerviswood, an éstate on the Mouse. Lee

house, the home of the Lockharts, is 3 m. N.W. The old castle

was largely rebuilt in the roth century. It contains some fine tapestry and portraits, and the Lee Penny, familiar to readers of Sir Walter Scott’s Talisman, It is a cornelian encased in a silver coin, which was brought from Palestine in the r4th centuty by a crusading knight.

Craignethan Castle, a picturesque ruin on the

Nethan, a tributary of the Clyde, is said to be the original of the “Tillietudlem” of Scott’s Old Mortality. LANARKSHIRE, south-western county of Scotland, bounded north by the shires of Dumbarton and Stirling, east by West Lothian, Mid-Lothian and Peeblesshire, south by Dumfriesshire and west by the counties of Ayr, Renfrew and Dumbarton.

braces

Area, excluding water, is 564,567

the valley

of the Clyde.

The

acres.

It em-

shire is divided

into

three wards, the Upper, comprising all the southern section, ot

more than half the whole area; the Middle, with Hamilton for its chief town; and the Lower, the smallest, in the north.

The highest hills are neatly all on or close to the bor-

ders of Peeblesshire and Dumfriesshire, and include Culter fell

and Lowther hill

The loftiest heights exclusively belonging

to Lariarkshire ate Green Lowther arid Tinto.

Here the county

includes a sriall patt of the Silurian southern uplands of Scotland, flanked on the north by an Ordovician belt of graptolites and grits, and of conglomerates in which are found the lead workings of Leadhills. Northward again the Old Red Sandstone occupies an irregular tract, with contemporary porphyries. The north of the county belongs to the Carboniferous area which includes the

important coal-tieasures extending eastward from Glasgow. Volcanic necks and intensive basalts appear in this area. The principal tivers aré the Clyde and its head waters and affluents. There are

no large lochs, the few sheets of water in the north mainly feeding the Monkland and the Forth and Clyde Canals. The most famous natural features are the falls of Clyde (g.v.) in the Old Red Sand-

stone area. Kames and deposits of gravel, sand and boulder cla give evidente of the glacial period.

Saxons, when great

numbers of the Celts migrated into Wales. The county once embraceđ a portion of Renfrewshire, but this was disjoined in the time of Robert III. The shire was then divided into two wards, the Over (with Lanark as its chief town) and the Nether (with Rutherglen as its capital). The present division into three wards

and other small fruit

The sheep walks in the upper and middle wards are heavily stocked and the herds of cattle are extensive. Dairy-farming and cheese-making are carried on. Clydesdale draught-horses are of high class. Most of the horses are kept for agricultural work but a considerable number of unbroken horses and mares are maintained for stock. Pigs are numerous, being extensively reared by the miners. Considerably more than half the holdings are over soo acres, the largest farms being in the Upper Ward, but the general holding runs from 5o to 100 acres. Nearly half the Upper Ward is mountain and heath. The leading industries are those in connection with the rich and extensive coal and iron field to the east and south-east of

Glasgow; the shipbuilding in Glasgow harbour; the textiles at Airdrie, Hamilton, Lanark, New Lanark and Glasgow; engineering at Cambuslang, Carluke, Coatbridge, Airdrie, Blantyre, Motherwell and Wishaw; brick and fireclay works in many places and the large and varied manufactures centred in Glasgow and neighbouring places, such as Rutherglen.

Communications.—In the north, where population is most dense, railway facilities are highly developed. The L.M.S. company’s main line to the south runs through the length of the shire, sending off branches at several points, especially at Carstairs junction. The L.N.E. company serves various towns in the lower and middle wards and its lines to Edinburgh cross the north-

western corner canal in the far and north-west Population

and the north of the county. The Monkland north and the Forth and Clyde canal in the north carry a considerable goods traffic. and Administration.—The population in 1931 was 1,585,968. Though only tenth in point of extent, Lanarkshire is much the most populous county in Scotland, containing within its bounds nearly one-third of the population of the country. The chief towns, with populations in 1931, apart from Glasgow,

are Airdrie (25,954), Cambuslang (27,128), Coatbridge (43,059),

Hamilton (37,863), Motherwell and Wishaw (64,708), Rutherglen (25,157). Among smaller towns are Bothwell, Blantyre, Larkhall, Bellshill, Carluke, Holytown, Lanark, Uddingston, Lesmahagow and East Kilbride. The county is divided into seven parliamentary divisions called Bothwell, Coatbridge, Hamilton, Lanark, Motherwell, Northern and Rutherglen, each returning one tnember. The royal burghs are Glasgow, Lanark and Rutherglen.

The county of the city of Glasgow returns 15 members to parliament.

Lanarkshire -is a sheriffdom.

For advanced education,

LANCASHIRE besides the university and many other institutions in Glasgow there are schools in Hamilton, Motherwell, Wishaw, Lanark, etc. CASHIRE, a north-western county of England, bounded on the north by Cumberland and Westmorland, east by Yorkshire, south by Cheshire and west by the Irish sea. The area is 1,8664 sqm. The coast is generally flat with low boulder-clay cliffs at places and broken by great inlets, with wide expanses of sandy foreshore at low tides. The chief inlets, from north to south are:-— the estuary of the river Duddon; Morecambe bay; and the estuaries of the Ribble and the Mersey. Morecambe bay receives the

rivers Crake and Leven in a common estuary, and the Kent from Westmorland; while the Lune and the Wyre discharge into Lan-

caster bay, which is only partially separated from Morecambe bay by the promontory of Red Nab. Morecambe bay also detaches

from the rest of the county the district of Furness (q.v.), having

off its coast the island of Walney, 8 m. long, and several small isles

within the strait between Walney and the mainland. The principal seaside resorts and watering-places from south to north are Southport, Lytham-St. Annes, Blackpool, Fleetwood and Morecambe;

while at the head of Morecambe bay are several villages frequented by visitors, such as Arnside and Grange. Of the rivers the Mersey (q.v.) separating the county from Cheshire is the principal, and receives from Lancashire the Irwell,

Sankey and other small streams.

The Ribble, which rises in the

mountains of the West Riding of Yorkshire, forms for a few miles the boundary with that county, and then flows south-west to Pres-

ton, receiving the Hodder from the north and the Calder and Darwen from the south. Furness, entirely hilly except for a narrow coastal tract, extends north to include the southern part of the Lake District (g.v.); it contains Coniston lake and borders Windermere, which lie upon Silurian rock, and which are drained

respectively by the Leven and Crake, with some smaller lakes and such mountains as the Old Man and Wetherlam. Another elevated district, forming part of the Pennine (g.v.) uplands, runs along the whole eastern boundary of the county, and to the south of the Ribble occupies more than half the area, stretching west nearly to Liverpool. The moorlands in the southern district are generally bleak and covered with heather. Towards the north the scenery is frequently beautiful, the green rounded elevated ridges being separated by pleasant cultivated valleys variegated by woods and watered by rivers. The more elevated parts of Lancashire are formed of Carboniferous rocks with Silurian and Ordovician in the Furness and Sedbergh districts. The coastal plain from the mouth of the Lune to Liverpool and stretching up the Mersey valley to beyond Manchester is formed of red Triassic sandstones. The finest scenery is found in the limestone area in the northern half of the county, whilst the moorlands of the southern district are formed of Millstone Grit and Coal-Measure shales and sandstone. None of the summits of the range within Lancashire attains an elevation of 2,000 ft., the highest being

Blackstone Edge (1,323 ft.), Pendle hill (1,831 ft.) and Boulsworth hill (1,700 ft.). Along the sea coast from the Mersey to Lancaster there is a continuous plain, formerly occupied by peat mosses, many of which have been reclaimed, the bad drainage being due to deposits ‘of boulder clay. The largest is Chat Moss between Liverpool and Manchester. A large district in the north belonging to the duchy Lancaster was at one time occupied by forests, but these have wholly disappeared, though their existence is recalled in nomenclature, as in the forest of Rossendale, near the Yorkshire boundary somewhat south of the centre. The shore near Formby, etc., shows traces of submerged forests. On the south Lancashire coal-basin are situated the most important towns of the district, whilst part of the Ingleton coal-

been proved at 4,238,500,000

also obtained from the brine, in the Furness district is very unimportant,

see

and Early

Settlement.—Many

small flint imple-

ments occur, especially on the moorlands around Rochdale. Flat bronze axes found near Warrington are perhaps a hint of an ancient port there. A hoard of bronze implements including socketed

axes has been collected near Winmarleigh;

a tanged

bronze dagger like those from Arreton Down (I. of Wight) was found near Colne. Winwick near Warrington has important early Bronze Age burials while Bleasdale has burial circles. Furness is richer than the rest of Lancashire. There are remains of two stone circles in Furness, of two others in the moors north of Bolton and of still two more south of Burnley. Warrington, Manchester, Wigan, Ribchester and Lancaster were Roman centres. In post-Roman times the northwestern section of the county was possibly little better than a waste. It was not until the victory of Aethelfrith, near Chester in 613 cut off the Britons of Wales from those of Lancashire and Cumberland that even Lancashire

south of the Ribble was conquered. The part north of the Ribble was not absorbed in the Northumbrian kingdom till the reign of Ecgfrith (670-685). During the oth century Lancashire was invaded by the Danes, and after the peace of Wedmore (878) was included in the Danish kingdom of Northumbria. There are various sculptured crosses, mostly of the 8th century or later, and a few traces of Celtic art. Scandinavian place names abound and indicate a wedge driven in between the Welsh of Wales and of Strathclyde. The A.S. Chronicle records the reconquest of the district between the Ribble and the Mersey in 923 by the English King, when it appears to have been united to Mercia, but the district north of the Ribble still belonged to Northumbria until its incorporation with the kingdom of England. William the Conqueror gave the lands between the Ribble and Mersey, and Amounderness to Roger-de-Poictou, but at the time of the Domesday Book these again belonged to the king. The name Lancashire does not appear in Domesday; the lands between the Ribble and Mersey were included in Cheshire and those north of the Ribble in Yorkshire. Roger-de-Poictou soon regained his lands, and Rufus added the rest of Lonsdale south of the sands, and, as he had the Furness fells, he owned all that is now known as Lancashire. In 1102 he finally forfeited all his lands, which Henry I. held till, in 1118, he created the honour of Lancaster, and bestowed it upon his nephew Stephen, afterwards King. During Stephen’s reign difficulties arose, for David of Scotland held lands north of the Ribble for a time, and in 1147 the earl of Chester held the district between the Ribble and the Mersey. Henry II. gave the whole honour to William, Stephen’s son, but in 1164 it came again into the king’s hands until 1189, when Richard I. granted it to his brother John. In 1194, it was confiscated and the honour remained with the crown till 1267. In

1229, however, all the crown demesne between the Ribble and Mersey was granted to Ranulf, earl of Chester, and on his death in 1232 came to William Ferrers, earl of Derby. The Ferrers held it till 1266, when it was confiscated. In 1267 Henry III. granted it to his son Edmund, who was created earl of Lancaster. His son, earl Thomas, married the heiress of Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, and thus obtained the great estates belonging to the. De Lacys in Lancashire. On the death of Henry, first duke off Lancaster, in 1361, the estates, title and honour fell to John of Gaunt, and by the accession of Henry IV., John of Gaunt’s only son, to the throne, the duchy became merged in the crown. The county of Lancaster is mentioned in 1169, as first contributing to the Royal Exchequer. The creation of the honour decided the boundaries. Ecclesiastically the whole of the county originally belonged to the diocese of York, but in 923 the district between the Ribble and the Mersey was placed under the Bishop of Lich-

field. Up to 1542 the district north of the Ribble belonged to the diocese of York. In 1541 the diocese of Chester was created and Lancashire was divided into two archdeaconries. In modern times bishoprics have been established at Manchester, Liverpool tons. In addition to coal and fire- and Blackburn and they divide the county between them, save sandstone, slate and salt, which is that Furness and Cartmel were transferred to the diocese of are raised. The haematite obtained Carlisle soon after that of Manchester was created. No shire court was ever held for the county, but as a duchy and valuable. Metals, excepting iron are county palatine it has its own special courts. It may have

field also lies in the county. Large pockets of iron-ore (haematite), occur in the Carboniferous limestones of the Furness district. The available coal supply of the Lancashire coal-field has

Clay, quantities of limestone,

History

637

638

LANCASHIRE

enjoyed palatine jurisdiction under earl Morcar before the Con- duke Langdale marched through Lancaster to Preston, hoping to quest, but the first record of such privileges being exercised was in reach Manchester; but near Preston were defeated by Cromwell 1351, under Henry, duke of Lancaster. In 1377 the county was in person. The remnant retreated through Wigan towards War. erected into a palatinate for John of Gaunt’s life, and in 1396 rington. where they surrendered. In 1651 Charles II. advanced these rights of jurisdiction were extended and settled in perpe- through Lancaster, Preston and Chorley on his southward march,

tuity on the dukes of Lancaster. The county palatine courts consist of a chancery which dates back at least to 1376, a court of common pleas, the jurisdiction of which was transferred in 1873 by the Judicature act to the high court of justice, and a court of criminal jurisdiction which in no way differs from the king’s ordinary court. In 1407 the duchy court of Lancaster was created, in which all questions of revenue and dignities affecting the duchy possessions are settled. The chancery of the duchy has been for years practically obsolete. The duchy and the county palatine have each its own seal. The office of chancellor of the duchy and county palatine, a crown office, dates back to 1351. At the close of the 12th and during the 13th century there was a considerable advance in the importance of the towns; in 1199 Lancaster became a borough, in 1207 Liverpool, in 1230 Salford, in 1246 Wigan, and in 1301 Manchester. The Scottish wars drained the county of some of its best blood. In 1349 the county was visited by the Black Death and in ten parishes between September 1349 and January 1350, 13,180 persons perished. From the effects of this plague Lancashire was apparently slow to recover; its boroughs ceased to return members early in the 14th’ century and trade had not yet made any great advance. The drain of the Wars of the Roses on the county must also have been heavy. Its poverty is shown by the fact that out of £40,000 granted in 1504 by parliament to the king, Lancashire’s share was only £318. Under the Tudors the county prospered. Stuart Period.—In the assessment of ship money in 1636 the county was put down for £1,000, towards which Wigan was to raise £50, Preston £40, Lancaster £30 and Liverpool £25 (cf. Hull

£140 and Leeds £200), On the eve of the Great Rebellion in 1641, parliament resolved to take command of the militia, and Lord Strange, Lord Derby’s eldest son, was removed from the lord lieutenancy. On the whole, the county was royalist, and the moving spirit among the Royalists was Lord Strange, who became Lord Derby in 1642. Manchester was the headquarters of the Parliamentarians, and was besieged by Lord Derby in September 1642 for seven days, but not taken. Lord Derby took up his headquarters at Warrington and garrisoned Wigan. At the opening of

1643 Sir Thomas Fairfax made Manchester his headquarters.

Early in this year the parliamentarians from Manchester successfully assaulted Preston, and then captured Hoghton Tower and Lancaster. Lord Derby made an unsuccessful attack on Bolton from Wigan. In March Lord Derby captured the town of Lancaster but not the castle, and marching to Preston regained it for the king, but was repulsed in an attack on Bolton. In April, Wigan, one of the chief Royalist strongholds in the county, was taken by the parliament forces, who also again captured Lancaster, and Warrington fell after a week’s siege. Lord Derby also failed in an attempt on Liverpool, and the tide of war had clearly turned against the Royalists in Lancashire. In June Lord Derby went to the Isle of Man, which was threatened by the king’s enemies. Soon after, the parliamentarians captured Hornby castle and later Thurland castle. In February 1644 the parliamentarians besieged Lathom house, the one refuge left to the Royalists, which was bravely defended by Lord Derby’s wife, Charlotte de la Trémoille. The siege lasted nearly four months and was taised on the approach of Prince Rupert, who marched to Bolton and was joined outside the town by Lord Derby. Bolton was carried by storm; Rupert ordered that no quarter should be given. He advanced without delay to Liverpool and took it after a siege of three weeks. After Marston Moor, Prince Rupert again appeared in-Lancashire and small engagements took place at Ormskirk, Upholland and Preston; in November Liverpool surrendered to the parliamentarians. Lathom house, again the only strong place in Lancashire left to the Royalists, in December 1645 surrendere d after a five months’ siege, and was almost entirely destroyed. For

the moment the war in Lancashire was over. In 1648, however, the Royalist forces under the duke of Hamilton and Sir Marma-

During the Rebellion of 1715 Manchester was the chief centre

of Roman Catholic and High Church Toryism. On Noy. 7 the

Scottish army entered Lancaster, where the Pretender was proclaimed king, and advanced to Preston, at which place a con-

siderable body of Roman Catholics joined it. The rebels remained at Preston a few days, apparently unaware of the advance of the government troops, until Gen. Wills from Manchester and Gen. Carpenter from Lancaster surrounded the town, and on Noy. 13 the town surrendered.

In 1745 Prince Charles Edward passed

through the county and was joined by about 200 adherents called the Manchester regiment and placed under the command of Col, Townley, who was afterwards executed. Growth of Industries.—The first industry established in Lancashire was that of wool, and with the founding of Furness abbey in 1127 wool farming on a large scale began here, but the bulk of the wool was exported not worked up in England. In 1282, however, there was a mill for fulling or bleaching wool in Manchester, and by the middle of the 16th century there was quite a flourishing trade in worsted goods. In an act of 1 552, Manchester “rugs and frizes” are specially mentioned, and in 1 566 another act regulated the fees of the aulnager who was to have his deputies at Manchester, Rochdale, Bolton, Blackburn and Bury; the duty of the aulnagers was to prevent “cottons, frizes and rugs” from being sold unsealed, and it must be noted that by cottons is meant woollen-goods. The 17th century saw the birth of the class of clothiers, who purchased the wool in large quantities or kept their own sheep, and delivered it to weavers who worked it up into cloth in their houses and returned it to the employers. The earliest mention of the manufacture of real cotton goods is in 1641, but the industry did not develop to any extent until after the invention of the fly shuttle by John Kay in 1733, of the spinning jenny by James Hargreaves of Blackburn in 1765, of the water frame throstle by Richard Arkwright of Bolton in 1769 and of the mule by Samuel Crompton of Hall-in-the-Wood, near Bolton, in 1779. So rapid was the development of the cotton manufacture that in 1787 there were over 40 cotton mills in Lancashire, all worked by water power. In 1789 steam power was applied tọ the industry. The increase of the import of raw cotton from 3,870,000 Ib. in 1769 to 1,083,600,000 in 1860 shows the growth

of the industry. The rapid growth was accompanied with intermittent periods of depression, which in 1819 in particular led to the formation of various political societies and to the Blanketeer’s meeting and the Peterloo massacre. During the American Civil War the five years’ cotton famine caused untold misery. During the 18th century the only town where maritime trade increased was Liverpool, where in the last decade about 4,500

ships arrived annually of a tonnage about one-fifth that of the London shipping. The prosperity of Liverpool was closely bound up with the slave trade.

With the increase of trade, means of

communication also improved. The latter half of the 18th century saw the period of canal construction and in. 1830 the first’ Passenger railway in England was opened between Manchester and Liverpool, and other railways rapidly followed. ` The first recorded instance of parliamentary representation in Lancashire was in 1295, when two knights were returned for the county, and two burgesses each for the boroughs of Lancaster, Preston, Wigan and Liverpool. Lancaster ceased to send members in 1331, but renewed its privileges in 1529; from 1529 to 1547 there are no parliamentary returns, but from 1547 to 1867 Lancaster continued to.return two members. Preston similarly was excused after 1331, but in 1529 and from 1547 onwards re-

turned two members. Liverpool and Wigan sent two members in 1295 and 1307, but not again until 1547. In rss9 Clitheroe and

Newton-le-Willows first sent two members.

Thus in all Lancashire

returned 14 members, By the Reform act of 1832 Lancashire was

assigned four members, two for the northern and two for the southern division. Lancaster, Preston. Wigan and Liverpool con-

LANCASHIRE tinued to send two members, Clitheroe returned one and Newton

was disfranchised

The following new

boroughs were

created:

Manchester, Bolton, Blackburn, Oldham, returning two members each; Ashton-under-Lyne, Bury, Rochdale, Salford and Warring-

ton, one each. In 1861 a third member was given to South Lan-

cashire and in 1867 the county was divided into four constituencies, to each of which four members were assigned, from 1885 to 1918 the county returned 23 members and since 1918, 18 mem-

pers. The boroughs returned from 1867 to 1885, 25 members, from 1885 to 1918, 34 members and from 1918, 48 members. FEATURES

OF THE

COUNTY

Ecclesiastical Antiquities.—The Cistercians had abbeys at Furness (g.v.) and, for a short time, at Wyresdale, and also one at Whalley which had been founded at Stanlawe, in Cheshire, in 1178 and removed thither in 1296. There are well-known remains at Whalley and those at Furness are very impressive. Priories of Black Canons were founded at Conishead in the time of Henry II., at Burscough in that of Richard I. and at Cartmel.

There are remains of these houses at Burscough and Cartmel. There were friaries of Dominicans at Lancaster, of Franciscans at Preston and of Augustinians at Warrington. An Austin priory existed at Cockerham; and at Cockersand, a hospital founded in the reign of Henry IT. was changed to a Praemonstratensian abbey

in 1190 and still shows its chapter house. Hornby had a Prae-

monstratensian priory. Remains exist of Upholland (changed from a college of secular priests 1318), Benedictine priory, and the

order had a priory at Lancaster (1094), a cell at Lytham (temp. Richard I.) and a priory at Penwortham. There was a Cluniac cell at Kensal. Besides the churches discussed under the several towns the more interesting include Aldingham; Aughton; Cartmel priory church mentioned above (and see also Furness); Garstang; Halsall; Hawkshead; Heysham (which has a pre-Conquest chapel dedicated to St. Patrick and an ancient cross); Hornby; Huyton; Kirkby, which has a very ancient font; Kirkby Ireleth, late Perpendicular, with Norman doorway; Leyland; Melling (in Lonsdale) Perpendicular; Middleton, rebuilt in 1524, but containing part of the Norman church and several monuments; Ormskirk; Overton, with Norman doorway; Radcliffe; Ribchester; Sefton, Perpendicular, with fine brass and recumbent figures of the Molyneux family, also a screen exquisitely carved; Stidd, near Ribchester, much Norman work; Tunstall, late Perpendicular; Upholland priory church, Urswick; Walton-le-Dale; Warton, with old font; Whalley parish church with fine stalls from the abbey. Castles.—The principal old castles are those of Lancaster; Dalton, a small rude tower; two towers of Gleaston castle, built by the lords of Aldingham in the 14th century; Clitheroe (Nor-

man keep); Hornby

and Thurland;

639

Manchester. The worsted, woollen, artificial silk and silk manufactures, flax, hemp and jute industries, are also important. The manufacture of machines, appliances, conveyances, locomotives, motor vehicles, etc., is very important, especially in supplying the needs of the immense weaving and spinning industries. For the same purpose there is a large branch industry in the manufacture of wooden bobbins. The manufacture of iron and steel is carried on at Barrow-in-Furness, there are great glass works at St. Helens, watch-making works at Prescot and leather and soap works at Warrington. Printing, bleaching, dyeing works, paper and chemical works, rubber and tobacco manufactures are also important activities of this great industrial region. Besides the port of Liverpool, of world-wide importance, the principal ports are Manchester, brought into communication with

the sea by the Manchester

south and west it is mild and genial. There is a high rainfall in the hilly districts, the average figures for 30 years ending 1924, were 55 in. in the Rossendale forest and 30 in. in the south and west. The soil after reclamation and drainage is fertile; but, is for the most part a strong clayey loam. In some, especially the upland districts, it is more of a peaty nature and in the Trias districts of the Mersey it forms light sandy loam, well adapted for wheat and potatoes. In many districts the ground has been rendered unfit for agriculture by the rubbish from coal-pits. A

low proportion, about two-thirds of the total area, is under culti-

vation and of this nearly three-fourths is in permanent pasture, cows being largely kept for the supply of milk to the towns,

while in the uplands many sheep are reared. In addition to the

cultivated area, 126,000 ac. are under hill pasturage. The acreage under oats occupies about three-quarters of the area under grain crops. Of green crops the potato is the chief.

Industries and Trade.—South Lancashire is the principal seat of the cotton manufacture in the world, the trade centring upon

(opened 1894),

chester

(to Huddersfield)

canal, Lancaster

canal

(connecting

Preston and Kendal) and the Ulverston canal A network of railways principally of the L.M.S. system connects the industrial centres, The L.M.S. railway is the most important company and their main line passes through Warrington, Preston and Carnforth. The L.N.E. railway also connects with Manchester. The G.W. railway has running powers with the other companies in the south Lancashire district, which also is supplied by the Cheshire Lines committee, Many subutban lines have been electrified. Population and Administration.—The area of the ancient county is 1,203,365 ac. and of administrative county 1,200,122 with associated county boroughs. Pop.(1801) 673,486; (1931) 5,039,097. The ancient county was divided into four divisions which were as follows:—the northern division, which embraces all the country north of the Ribble, including Furness and a small area south of the Ribble estuary, is the largest of the divisions; the northeastern division which lies east of Preston, is the smallest division; the south-western division, which represents roughly the quadrant with a radius of 20 m. drawn from Liverpool and the south-eastern division, which has about the same area as the south-western and is the heart of the industrial region. The following table shows the distribution of the various administrative bodies in the four divisions of the county.

the ruins of Greenhalgh

castle, built by the first earl of Derby; the ruins of Fouldrey in Piel island near the entrance to Barrow harbour, erected in the reign of Edward III., now almost dilapidated. Climate and Agriculture.—The climate in the hilly districts is frequently cold, but in the more sheltered parts to the

Ship canal (g.v.)

Barrow-in-Furness, Fleetwood, Heysham, Preston and Lancaster. The sea fisheries, for which Fleetwood and Liverpool are the chief ports, are of considerable value. Communications.—Apart from the Manchester Ship canal, canal traffic is still important in the industrial area In 1760 the Sankey canal, 10 m. long, the first canal opened in Britain (apart from early works), was constructed from St. Helens to Liverpool. Other similar enterprises followed; the Bridgwater canal from Manchester to Worsley (1761), the Leeds and Liverpool canal (130 m. long, begun 1770), the Rochdale canal, the Man-

ParliaManoa mentary | Parlia- returne divisions,| meneach re- | tary

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County nicipal boroughs

Urban dis-

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North . é North-eastern South-western. South-eastern.

Totals

for

county.

The county returns in all 66 members to parliament. — There are three cities in the county, Liverpool, Manchester and Salford and three cathedral towns, Manchester, Liverpool and Blackburn. Lancashire is one of the counties palatine, comprises six hundreds, is in the northern circuit, and assizes are held at Lancaster, Liverpool and Manchester. There is one court of quarter sessions and the county is divided into 61 petty sessional divisions. The boroughs of Blackburn, Bolton, Burnley, Liverpool, Manchester, Oldham, Salford and Wigan have separate commissions

640

LANCASTER

of the peace and courts of quarter sessions; and those of Accring‘ton, Ashton-under-Lyne, Bacup, Barrow-in-Furness, Blackpool, Bootle, Clitheroe, Lancaster, Preston, Rochdale, St. Helens, Southport and Warrington have separate commissions of the peace only. ‘Lancashire is mainly in the diocese of Manchester, but parts are in those of Liverpool, Blackburn, Carlisle, Ripon, Chester and Wakefield. Manchester and Liverpool are both seats of universities and of other important educational institutions. Within the county there are many denominational colleges, and near Clitheroe is the famous Roman Catholic college of Stoneyhurst. There are training departments for teachers in connection with the Manchester and Liverpool universities, and also at Edgehill, near Liverpool (school-mistresses), Liverpool (school-masters, Roman Catholic), Warrington (school-mistresses, Church of England) and Manchester (municipal, day). BIBLIOGRAPHY.—E,. Evans, Lancashire (1913); E. G. W. Hewlett, Lancashire (1915); A. J. Berry, Story of Lancashire (1915); F. Ormerod, Lancashire, Life and Character (1915); E. A. Bruton, LancaShire (1921); E. Ekwall, Place-names of Lancashire (1922); A. J. Hawkes, Lancashire Printed Books (1925). See also The Lancashire Year Book of Industry and Commerce and the Victoria County History of Lancashire.

LANCASTER, HOUSE OF. The name House of Lancaster is commonly used to designate the line of English kings immediately descended from John of Gaunt, the fourth son of Edward III. But the history of the family and of the title goes back to the reign of Henry III., who created his second son, Edmund, earl of Lancaster in 1267. This Edmund received in his own day the surname of Crouchback, from having worn a cross upon his back in token of a crusading vow. His son Thomas, who inherited the title, took the lead among the nobles of Edward IT.’s time in opposition to Piers Gaveston and the Despensers, and was

beheaded for treason at Pontefract. At the beginning of the next

was to assist in arranging the details of the treaty of Brétigny in 1360. In 1337 be was made earl of Derby; in 1345 he SUC-

ceeded to his father’s earldoms of Lancaster and Leicester: iņ

1349 he was created earl of Lincoln, and in 1351 he was made duke of Lancaster. He was steward of England and one of the original knights of the order of the garter. He died at Leicester

on the 13th of March 1361. He left no sons; one of his daughters Maud (d. 1362), married William V., count of Holland, a son of the emperor Louis the Bavarian, and the other, Blanche (d. 1369) married Edward III.’s son, John of Gaunt, who obtained his

father-in-law’s titles and estates and formed the royal house of

Lancaster.

LANCASTER, JOHN OF GAUNT, 1399), fourth son of Edward III. and Queen in March 1340 at Ghent, whence his name. he was made earl of Richmond; as a child he

Dur: or (1340 Philippa, was born On Sept. 2ọ, 1342, was present at the

sea fight with the Spaniards in August 1350, and his military service was in 1355, when he was knighted. On May 1ọ, 1350, he married his cousin Blanche, daughter and ultimately sole heiress of Henry, duke of Lancaster. In her right he became earl of Lancaster in 1361, and next year was created duke. His marriage made him the greatest lord in England, but for some time he took no prominent part in public affairs. In 1366 he joined his eldest brother, Edward the Black Prince, in Aquitaine, and in the year

after led a strong contingent to share in the campaign in support of Pedro the Cruel of Castile. With this began his long connection

with Spain. John fought in the van at Najera on April 13, 1367, when the English victory restored Pedro to his throne. He re-

turned home at the end of the year. Pedro was finally overthrown and killed by his rival, Henry of Trastamara, in 1369. The disastrous Spanish enterprise led directly to renewed war between France and England, In August 1369 John had command of an army which invaded northern France without success. In the following year he went again to Aquitaine, and was present with the Black Prince at the sack of Limoges. Edward’s health was broken down, and he

reign his brother Henry was appointed guardian to the young king Edward ITI. and assisted him to throw off the yoke of Mortimer. Meantime the attainder had been reversed and the ‘earldom restored. On this Henry’s death in 1345 he was succeeded by a soon after went home, leaving John as his lieutenant. For a year son, sometimes known as Henry Tort-Col or Wryneck, a very John maintained the war at his own cost. His wife died in the valiant commander in the French wars, whom the king advanced autumn of 1369 and John married Constance (d. 1394), the to the dignity of a duke. Only one duke had been created in elder daughter of Pedro the Cruel, and in her right assumed the England before—the king’s son Edward, the Black Prince, duke title of king of Castile and Leon. For sixteen years the pursuit of of Cornwall. Henry Wryneck died in 1361 without male heir. his kingdom was the chief object of John’s ambition, No doubt His second daughter, Blanche, became the wife of John of Gaunt, he hoped to achieve his end, when he commanded the great army who thus succeeded to the duke’s inheritance in her right: and on which invaded France in 1373. But the French would not give Nov. 13, 1362, when King Edward attained the age of 50, John battle, and though John marched from Calais right through was created duke of Lancaster, his elder brother, Lionel, being at Champagne, Burgundy and Auvergne, it was with disastrous the same time created duke of Clarence. It was from these two results; only a shattered remnant of the host reached Bordeaux. dukes that the rival houses of Lancaster and York derived their When John got back to England he was soon absorbed in domesrespective claims to the crown. As Clarence was King. Edward’s tic politics. The king was prematurely old, the Black Prince’s third son, while John of Gaunt was his fourth, in ordinary course health was broken. John, as head of the court party, had to bear on the failure of the elder line the issue of Clarence should have the brunt of the attack on the administration made by the Good taken precedence of that of Lancaster in the succession. But the Parliament in 1376. As soon as the parliament was dissolved he rights of Clarence were conveyed in the first instance to an only had its proceedings reversed, and next year secured a more subdaughter, and the ambition and policy of the house of Lancaster, servient assembly. There came, however, a new development. profiting by advantageous circumstances, enabled them not only The duke’s politics were opposed by the chief ecclesiastics, and to gain possession of the throne but to maintain themselves in it in resisting them he had made use of Wycliffe. With Wycliffe’s for three generations before they were dispossessed by the repre- religious opinions he had no sympathy. Nevertheless when the sentatives of the elder brother. (See LANCASTER, JOHN OF GAUNT, bishops arraigned the reformer for heresy John would not abanDUKE OF.) don him. The conflict over the trial led to a violent quarrel with LANCASTER, HENRY, ist Duxe oF (c. 1300-1361), the Londoners, and a riot in the city during which John was in the son of Henry, earl of Lancaster (g.v.), was a soldier of danger of his life from the angry citizens. The situation was unusual distinction. Probably from his birthplace in Monmouth- entirely altered by the death of Edward III. Though his enemies shire he was called Henry of Grosmont. He fought in the naval had accused him of aiming at the throne, John was without any fight off Sluys and in the one off Winchelsea in 1350; he led armies taint of disloyalty. Though he took his proper place in the cereinto Scotland, Gascony and Normandy; he served frequently monies at Richard’s coronation, he withdrew for a time from any under Edward IIT. himself; and he may be fairly described as share in the government. In 1378, he commanded in an unsuccessone of the most brilliant and capable of the English warriors dur- ful attack on St. Malo. During his absence some of his supporters ing the earlier part of the Hundred Years’ War. During a brief violated the sanctuary at Westminster. He vindicated himself respite from the king’s service he led a force into Prussia and he somewhat bitterly in a parliament at Gloucester, and accepted was often employed on diplomatic business. In 1354 he was at the command on the Scottish border. He was there engaged when Avignon negotiating with Pope Innocent VI., who wished to his palace of the Savoy in London was burnt during the peasants make peace between England and France, and one of his last acts revolt in June 1381. Against his will he was forced into an unfor-

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reservations and national or State parks through naturalistic or formal urban parks, large and small, to the provision for active

sports in playgrounds, athletic fields, “sport parks” and grounds for the special sports, such as flying, racing, polo, bowling, tennis or winter sports; and also to recreational waterfronts on sea, lake or river; in addition, land subdivision and larger problems of city, regional and even State and national planning, including systems

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(1927) in the Institut supérieur des Arts décoratifs de Etat. In Germany instruction in Gartenkunst is offered largely in schools of horticulture as at Pillnitz and Dahlem, but men trained

primarily as architects are frequently concerned with the formal design of home grounds and parks. In America public interest in landscape improvement—both of public areas and of home grounds—and in landscape preservation

of parks and parkways, of motor highways for pleasure and commercial traffic, and “zoning” of land for appropriate use. In many of these larger problems the landscape architect collaborates with other professional practitioners,—engineers, architects, economists, sociologists or lawyers. In domestic problems the collaboration of architect and landscape architect is common in America, although in some of the best formal work Charles A. Platt has combined these functions; but in England and France architect, contractor and nurseryman frequently complete the estate without benefit of landscape architect.

Taking a general retrospective view, the problems which have most influenced the growth of the art and profession of landscape

architecture are: the garden, because it offers the cldest and most numerous examples;

the park, because in it developed the con-

scious adaptation of landscape for public enjoyment; the exposition, because from the Chicago World’s Fair came a revival of the collaboration of artists; and in the past two decades, the land subdivision, because it has revealed fruitful opportunities in city building. A PLAN FOR A COUNTRY SEAT BY A. J. DOWNING, 1852 Nowhere is the profession of landscape architecture developed has been promoted by “Extension Services” maintained by State so highly as in the United States. Although in Germany two universities, by national organizations such as the American Park societies have been formed in this field, the Deutsche Gesellschaft and Outdoor Art Association, now merged into the American Civic fiir Gartenkunst and the Verband deutscher Gartenarchitekten, Association, the American Scenic and Historic Preservation Soand in Japan a professional landscape architectural society pub- ciety, the Garden Club of America, the State federations of garden lished a magazine from 1925 to 1927 edited by Prof. Uyehara of clubs, and above all by the Government’s National Park Service Tokyo, nevertheless in England and France there have been no and the National Conference on State Parks. In England there similar national organizations, while the American Society of are the National Trust, Scapa, the Commons and Footpaths PresLandscape Architects founded in 1899 contains 215 members ervation Society and the recent Council for the Preservation of (1928). Admission to this society is controlled by an examining Rural England; on the Continent, such organizations as the board, guided by fixed standards as to professional qualifications. Rheinische Verein fiir Denkmalpflege und Heimatschutz and the The society has published a code of ethics governing professional Dutch Vereenigung tot Behoud van Natuur en Stedenschoon. practice, and also a circular on methods of charges, which requires In France and Belgium the movement, prior to the World War, the fees of members to come from professional advice only and for national preservation of landscape as distinct from historic not from profits on construction. In several important regions, monuments which were already cared for by their national Govchapters of the American Society of Landscape Architects have ernments, has since merged into general planning programmes been constituted. The co-operation of architect, landscape archi- fostered by the Union Internationale des Villes. ‘Too much em-: tect and sculptor on the National Commission of Fine Arts phasis cannot be laid on the importance of preserving and restoring appointed by the President of the United States has been an typical natural landscape all over the world for the public benefit important factor in raising the national standards in the fine arts. and for the true development of landscape architecture as an art. Training for professional practice of landscape architecture is HISTORY now well organized in the United States. The leading graduate Of ancient gardens, Egypt supplies records of the earliest school (course established in 1900) is at Harvard university. In addition, Cornell university, University of Illinois, University of examples: in the fertile Nile valley even in the 4th dynasty Michigan, Massachusetts Agricultural college, Iowa State college, horticulture and design of decorative enclosed gardens flourished. Ohio State university, University of California and University of Ancient Persia and Assyria later developed in great hunting Pennsylvania maintain schools; graduates are eligible (1928) to grounds an artistic treatment of nature from which sprang the compete for the prize fellowships in the American academy at conception of the park. Enclosed gardens too were cherished; Rome. Harvard offers annually a travelling fellowship in land- and at Babylon trees and flowers crowning a lofty palace site are scape architecture and the Lake Forest institute, a collaborative supposed to have formed the famous “Hanging Gardens.” Altravelling fellowship. The professional schools of landscape archi- though we know the Greeks had palace gardens in the Mycenaean tecture exclusively for women are the Cambridge school and age, few records remain except such as Homer’s famous descripLowthorpe-Simmons. National competition among both men and tion of the gardens of Alcinous. Sacred groves were numerous. women students is promoted by the “Landscape Exchange” prob- In the great age philosophers frequented quiet, shaded public lems. Many colleges give courses in appreciation of landscape gardens, as the Lyceum in Athens. Influenced by Greece and architecture or elementary problems, some of which join with Asia Minor, Roman gardens blossomed with Lucullus into lavish the professional schools in the National Conference on Instruction magnificence, then flourished, with classical restraint, as villa n Landscape Architecture (founded 1920) which meets annually urbana and villa rustica, pictured in Cicero and in Pliny’s descripand works with the American Society of Landscape Architects in tion of his splendid Laurentine and Tuscan establishments. The improving standards of instruction. The subject is not recognized remains of Hadrian’s villa at Tivoli and murals at Pompeii reveal by the profession as capable of being adequately taught by corre- to-day the importance of gardens in Roman life. Mediaeval gardens on the Continent paralleled the development spondence. Study tours in landscape architecture are conducted annually by officers of recognized American professional schools. of those in England described in the following section. The monks In France, where the number of professional practitioners is in kortus and herbularis fostered horticulture—as we see from small, students are taught in atéliers. In Belgium a course of plans of the abbey of St. Gall of the 9th century—and in cloister Professional instruction in landscape architecture was established garths made pleasant arrangements for outdoor meditation.

par

662

LANDSCAPE

ARCHITECTURE

In Spain the flowering of garden art came with the Moors, who scale were filled with gay beds and specimens of topiary work through Africa from Persia had brought the conception of shel- overlooked by tiny garden houses. In the 18th century the French tered arcaded pleasure grounds, sweetened by rare plants and grand style spread to Holland, where the expanse of fertile flat cooled by deep shade and water in many forms. Between the 8th country lent itself to allées and parterres, usually richer ip hortiand 15th centuries great works of art were created in Cordova, cultural than in sculptural embellishment. Views of these, such as Toledo and Granada, where the Alhambra and Generalife remain Loo, are fortunately preserved in contemporary albums since to suggest their original beauty. In Seville, the Moorish Alcazar many succumbed to the succeeding landscape craze. i Germany, where popular garden art is now consciously propasuffered from the French grand style, which, however, found sucgated, produced little indigenous cessful expression in La Granja and Aranjuez. In Spain to-day design, but followed Dutch fashSpanish-Moorish tradition is being sympathetically revived, withions in the 16th and 17th centy. in the Maria-Luisa park at Seville and the new Spanish-American “5 ries and French grandeur in the Exposition. asa so In Italy, with its tradition of classical villas, the Renaissance 18th—as at Herrenhausen, Salzbrought renewed desire for princely residence in town and counburg, Nymphenburg and Sans try. Beginning with early Florentine villas, as Palmieri (described Souci—guided by actual pupils in Boccaccio) and Castello, characterized by simple terraces, excelof Le Nôtre, until the novelty of lent sculpture and water display, not motived by any general axial landscape or “English” gardens arrangement, we see in Villa Madama (Rome) transition to a genswept all before it. In Prince von erally unified scheme. The 16th century villas—best represented Pückler-Müskau, an admirer of to-day by Lante (Bagnaia), d’Este (Tivoli), Medici (Rome) and Repton, the landscape style was the upper terrace of Farnese (Caprarola)—are evidently the con- BY COURTESY OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL rationalized, and it continued in scious application of architectural design to outdoor settings, im- OF LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE LIBRARY general favour until challenged portant points being recognized by statues or fountains, with fan- TEMPLE OF LOVE IN THE BORGHESE by the modern formal vogue GARDENS, ROME ciful elaboration of water in many forms. In the late 16th and which subjects private and public 17th century villas, the Baroque style (see BAROQUE ARCHITEC- areas alike to the supreme dominance of man. In Austria, of older TURE), often carried to extremes, produced striking and pictur- gardens in the French style, Schönbrunn is most important. In America gardens of the English colonists naturally followed esque contrasts in scheme and detail, as exemplified by Aldobrandini (Frascati), Garzoni (Collodi), Giovio (Como) and Isola the simple formal traditions of their earlier cottage and manor Bella. Through these three centuries of Italian garden develop- homes. About the time of the Revolution, notably through the ment, the great artists were architects, sculptors, painters or land- influence of Thomas Jefferson at Monticello, the Romantic landscape designers, as occasion demanded: the villa was one design. scape style was consciously introduced, and later in uninspired France, where from the rsth century, as security and wealth form continued to prevail until it was revivified by Andrew Jackincreased, chateau gardens in walled units had been gradually son Downing in the ’40s. The real genesis of the modern American spreading out, succeeded Italy in the late 17th century as the landscape style, however, was in Central park, New York, decentral influence over European Tom signed by Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr., and Calvert Vaux in 1858, garden design. Le Nôtre seized the first great public work of landscape architecture in the United and created elements to express States, at once a bold municipal enterprise and a successful work in new terms the magnificence of of art. Its influence spread rapidly so that by 1870 most large Louis XIV. When he undertook cities of the country had undertaken public parks, and the developVersailles, after successes at ment of public and private grounds received increasing attention. ` t prl f Vaux and Chantilly, he secured Largely through the extensive practice of the Olmsteds, Vaux and “Py A grandeur by effects of almost unH. W. S. Cleveland, the profession was built up in the ’80s, so that wikin Bra a. limited extent. From great open ‘a= the Chicago World’s Fair of 1893 offered to Olmsted an equal >= parterres, the view extended opportunity with Burnham and his collaborators for a monumennh along allées cut through woodtal triumph. Simultaneously Charles Eliot through his work in ` lands on vaster scale than ever Boston gave to the country the conception of metropolitan landbefore, intersecting allées offering scape reservations. a succession of vistas marked by Gardens in Sweden and Russia followed styles imported largely one splendid axially-placed founfrom France, the influence of Le Nôtre manifesting itself in such _ tain after another. This simplicity magnificent palaces as Drottningsholm (near Stockholm) and and spaciousness, combined with Tsarskoye Selo (near Petrograd), where the landscape style immultitudinous subordinate deported from England was also employed. tails, characterized the French Garden design, through the spread of Persian culture, reached grand style, which, in the hands high development in India under the Moguls, as in Spain under of a great designer like Le Nôtre the Moors. The gardens of the Taj Mahal at Agra and Nishat during his 50 years of practice, Bagh in Kashmir remain as supreme examples of symbolic comaided by many sculptors, gave us bination of water, shade, flowers and fruit. In the Far East landalso St. Germain, Fontainebleau scape art found consummate expression in China centuries before and St. Cloud. Although the the Western landscape school—on which Chinese gardens exerted FROM GROMORT, “JARDINS D'ESPAGNE” (VINe grand style found numerous imi- CENT TREAL ET CIE) profound influence—and similarly in Japan and Korea, where tators, in less skilful hands it FouNTAIN AND POOL IN THE DAR- symbolism crystallized nature into conventions employed by sucoften degenerated into stiffness, AXA PATIO, IN THE ALHAMBRA cessive generations of artists in landscape gardens of exquisite barren decoration or inappropriate treatment of topography. The intrinsic form. impatience with artificiality developing in the 18th century gave The influence of landscape architecture on culture through the rise in France, following the English “landscape school,” to a gar- centuries has manifested itself most strikingly in the impetus to den style in which nature and romantic detail were employed to outdoor recreation and in the greater appreciation of amenity as arouse the emotions, as at Ermenonville. Under Napoleon III. the a necessary quality of human environment. Material wealth, prigreat public parks of Paris designed by M. Alphand exerted inter- vate and public, has given the opportunity and furnished the national influence. means for great works of the past, be it in the era of princely bad

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In landscape planting, the designer must think in terms of typical plant forms, among which trees have the greatest individuality. He should have in mind the shape, colour and texture needed for a certain position in his design, and from his “orders of horticulture” —the conical, the spherical, the aspiring, etc.—he chooses one with the right shade of green, with thick or open texture, to harmonize with the other units of his composition. Evergreens are constant through the seasons, and thus can form permanent points of strength in the plant picture

i

LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE development for human use and thus to penetrate more completely into the fabric of civilization. BrsLIOGRAPHY —In

historical

order,

the

most

important

general

works are: T. Whately, Observations on Modern Gardening (1770) ; C.

C. L. Hirschfeld, Tkeorie der Gartenkunst (1775-80); H. Repton, Skeiches and Hints on Landscape Gardening (1790) and Observations on the Theory and Practice (1803 ; selections in Nolen ed., 1907) ; J. C.

Loudon, Encyclopaedia of Gardening (1822) ; Fürst von Pückler-Müskau, Andeutungen über Landschaftsgärtnerei (1834; trans. in Parsons ed. 1917); A. J. Downing, Treatise on the Theory and Practice of

Landscape Gardening (1841); E. André, L’Art des Jardins (1879); F. S. Meyer and F. Ries, Dig Gartenkunst in Wort und Bild (1914) ; H. V. Hubbard and T. Kimball, An Introduction to the Study of Landscape Design

(1917); K. Uyehara, Introduction to Landscape Archi-

tecture (in Japanese, 1924).

Discussions on theory and appreciation may be found especially in Hubbard and Kimball just mentioned, and in the following works significant from various points of view: Marquis de Girardin, De la Composition du Paysage (1771); W. Gilpin, Remarks on Forest Scenery (1791) ; Sir U. Price, An Essay on the Picturesque (1794—98) ; L. Abel, Aesthetik der Garten-Kunst (1877); P. G. Hamerton, Landscape (1885) ; R. Bloomfield and F. I. Thomas, The Formal Garden in England (1892); C. K. Schneider, Landschaftliche Gartengestaltung (1907); Sir G. Sitwell, An Essay on the Making of Gardens (1909); H. Marcus, Die Ornamentale Schönheit der Landschaft und der Natur (1912); S. Parsons, The Art of Landscape Architecture (1915); M. G. Van Rensselaer, Art Out-of-Doors (1925); E. W. Manwaring, Italian Landscape in 18th Century England (1928). For planting see W. Robinson, The English Flower Garden (1883) ; Gertrude Jekyll, Colour in the Flower Garden (1908); A. D. Taylor, The Complete Garden (1921); S. F. Hamblin, List of Plant Types jor Landscape Planting (1923); J. Weathers, My Garden Book (1925). Numerous articles on planting design occur in Bailey’s Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. For architectural details in landscape, see especially T. H. Mawson, Art and Craft of Garden Making (1926); G. Jekyll and C. Hussey, Garden Ornament (1927). Many details on landscape construction have been covered by Taylor’s “Landscape Construction Notes,” published quarterly in Landscape Architecture. For special types of problems see S. Child, Landscape Architecture (1927); E. Rehmann, The Small Place (1918); V. N. Solly, Gardens for Town and Suburb (1926) ; Cemetery Hand-book (1921) ; Olmsted and Kimball, ed., Central Park as a Work of Art (1928); L. H. Weir, ed., Parks—a Nation-Wide Study of Municipal and County Parks by the Playground and Recreation Association of America (1928); R. H. Torrey, State Parks and Recreational Uses of State Forests in the United States (1926). J. Vacherot, Parcs et Jardins (1925) and J. C. N. Forestier, Jardins (1920), also trans., represent modern French work; W. Lange and O. Stahn, Gartengestaliung der Neuzeit (1907) ; L. Migge, Gartenkuliur des 20 Jahrhunderts (1913), and the Bucher der Gartenschonheit modern German. Of works on history of landscape architecture and gardens, the most authoritative is M. L. Gothein, Geschichte der Gartenkunst (1926). Other works are: A. F. Sieveking, ed., Gardens Ancient and Modern (1885); H. I. Triggs, Garden Craft in Europe (1913); A. E. Brinckmann, Schöne Gärten, Villen und Schlosser aus Fünf Jahrhunderts (1926) ; G. Gromort, Choix de Plans de Grandes Compositions Executées (1926); H. H. Tanzer, The Villas of Pliny The Younger (1924); sir F. Crisp, Mediaeval Gardens (1924); and M. Fouquier, De VArt des Jardins du XVe au XXe siècle (1911). Of the extensive historical and descriptive literature on gardens of special countries, the following are representative: G. W. Johnson, History of English Gardening (1829); Hon. A. Amherst, History of Gardening in England (1895); R. S. Nichols, English Pleasure Gardens (1902); M. Macartney, English Houses and Gardens in the ryth and 18th Centuries (1908); H. I. Triggs, Formal Gardens in England and Scotland (1902); H. A. Tipping, English Gardens (1925) ; H. I. Triggs, Art of Garden Design in Italy (1906); E. M. Phillipps, Gardens of

663

scape Architect (1927) is T. H. Mawson’s autobiography. Of current journals, Landscape Architecture, official quarterly of the American Sociely of Landscape Architects, is the chief publication in English devoted entirely to this field. The Transactions of this society have also been published covering 1899—1926. Parks and Recreation (from 1917, journal of American Institute of Park Executives) and Gartenkunst (from 1899, journal of Deutsche Gesellschaft fiir Gartenkunst) represent current professional interest, supplemented by sumptuously illustrated popular periodicals such as Country Life, English and American, and Gartenschénheit. The files of Garden and Forest

(1888-97) contain articles of historical value.

The chief historical bibliography in English is the catalogue of the Codman Collection of Books on Landscape Gardening of the Boston Public library. The New York Public library published a list on gardens in 1927. Working selected bibliographies will be found in Hubbard and Kimball, Landscape Design (1917) and in a reprint from Landscape Architecture (1927) compiled by the National Conference on Instruction in Landscape Architecture for the nucleus of a school library. For an indexed topical outline of the field, see Hubbard and Kimball, Landscape Architecture: a Comprehensive Classification (1920). (T. K. H.)

ENGLAND

It would be impossible to say when the art of landscape and garden design began in England, but it is not so difficult to trace A its successive stages, because it follows the history of the English j people. As soon as there was any reasonable assurance of security from invaders, people were free to give their attention to ornamental and ‘fruitful planting, and further to adorn their own secluded portion of ground surBY COURTESY OF “LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE” rounding their residences. The A FORMALLY SET SUNDIAL IN AN ancient Britons have left no trace ENGLISH GARDEN that they cultivated the ground, nor is there any direct evidence that their conquerors, the Romans, laid out gardens, although it may be inferred that they did so, since remains of their villas and numerous artistic. adjuncts of luxurious houses have been unearthed. During the period of invasion and counter-invasion by the Danes and Norsemen, which followed the withdrawal of the Roman legions, and the factionary wars amongst the Saxon kings themselves, there could not be sufficient tranquillity for serious husbandry or even for farming, seeing that the country was given up largely to war and to the chase. There is no evidence of gardening to be gleaned up to the Norman Conquest at least, and then we have a suggestive account of the salient features of the country in general, but no gardens.

Monastery Gardens.—When

the possessions of others were

plundered, the sacred property of the Church was respected, and to the monks, with their culinary and medical plants, is ascribed the first mention of gardens and orchards in England, in or about the r2th century. The evidences which have come down to us go to prove that for a century or two these monastic gardens existed in order to supply the monastery with food and fruit, and that it was purely a matter of profit or loss for the gardeners entrusted with them. With men of refined and scholarly ideas, as many of the monks were, there must have been design in these early garItaly (1920) ; J. C. Shepherd and G. A. Jellicoe, Italian Gardens of the dens, but we have no direct evidence of it. ! Renaissance (1925); L. Dami, The Italian Garden (1925); G. GroAlthough in the first mention of monastery gardens they, appear mort, Jardins d'Italie (1922); J. A. du Cerceau, French Chateaux and Gardens in the XVIth Century (1909) ; H. Stein, Les Jardins de France to have existed solely for vegetable and fruit, as time progressed des Origines à la Fin du XVIIIe Siècle (x913); P. Péan, Jardins de we find, after a lapse of two centuries from the 12th to the r4th, France (1925); H. Koch, Sächsische Gartenkunst (19x10); Dendrolothat the one circumscribed domain increased to include ornamengischen Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Gehölzkunde und Gartenkunst tal gardens all within the monastery walls, and flowers, such as in Österreich-Ungarn, Die Gartenanlagen Osterreich-Ungarns (1909roses, appear in their inventories, to crown the priests on certain 14); C. H. C. A. van Sypesteyn, Oud-Nederlandsche Tuinkunst (1910) ; G. Gromort, Jardins d’Espagne (1926); M. S. and A. Byne, high days. These ornamental spaces surrounding the ecclesiastical Spanish Gardens and Patios (1924); J. Gallotti, Moorish Houses and edifices gradually assumed the character of design, until we hear of Gardens of Morocco (1925); C.M. Villiers Stuart, Gardens of the Great royal gardens being made for the Plantagenet kings at their seats Mughals (1913) ; M. L. Gothein, Indische Garten (1926); J. Conder, Landscape Gardening in Japan (1893); J. Harada, Gardens of Japan of Westminster, the Tower, Charing and Windsor. We read of (1928); G. Tabor, Old-fashioned Gardening, relating to the American Henry III. commanding.his bailiff to make at Woodstock a garden Colonial period (1913); P. H. Elwood, Jr., ed., American Landscape enclosed by walls, wherein was an herbarium and a fish-pond, Architecture (1924). ‘“whereat the queen may be able to amuse herself.” Thus with the For biographies of the two most distinguished American landscape architects see: Forty Years of Landscape Architecture, Prédfessional monastic fish-ponds and the runnels of water, the sequestered Papers of Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr. (1922-28) and Charles Eliot, cloister gardens laid down to quiet expanses of grass for meditaLandscape Architect (1924). The Life and Work of an English Land- tion, and the bowers and arbours, the flowers grown for priestly ete.

LANDSCAPE

664

ARCHITECTURE

purposes and for decorating the churches on high days, we have all the elements accumulating which go to the making of a garden. Out of the none too plentiful evidence to be gleaned from writers of this period of English history, notably from Chaucer and Langland, we can put together a fairly comprehensive list of features and flowers which of themselves opened up scope for the play of fancy, and formed a basis of design in their artistic arrangement. Practically all the features of the mediaeval gardens have been demolished, but the one that has survived destruction is the fishpond which supplied the needs of the monks on fast days.

Stately houses have been built with gardens on the delectable sites of many of these old monasteries, and the fish-stews have been incorporated (in many cases with amplification) into the design, as for example at Woburn, Welbeck, Burghley, Sion, Beaulieu, Audley End, etc. Undoubtedly, in the latter part

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to any large ex-

dle and a similar broad walk all round within the enclosing wall

the two large equal spaces being subdivided by narrow paths into

a number of smaller rectangular plots, with the maze, the laby-

rinth or any of the various knots occupying each or all of them as fancy dictated.

Owing, no doubt, to their being enamoured of the Italian manciated William Lawson, we begin to break away from Italian pedantry and find men who wrote from the sense of pleasure derived from gardens rather than from the standpoint of garden theorists. Furthermore, they wrote in quaint Elizabethan prose,

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were designed and pleasingly contrived for effect, and were SIR FRANK CRISP, “MEDIAEVAL GARDENS” always more or less protected by FROM (JOHN LANE, THE BODLEY HEAD) a high wall in a style which A CONVENT GARDEN OF 1490 was distinctly English, and were Raised banks run round the walls, and

not trammelled

wherever found. The most valuable part of Hill’s book is the light

it throws upon the refined Englishman’s garden in the 16th century and the woodcut illustrations. These depict the gardens as a circumscribed rectangular space with a broad walk down the mid-

ner, neither Borde, Hill nor Mountaine’s books are inspiring in their style, but in Gervase Markham, and with him may be asso-

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of this mediaeval period, gar- FARSA dens of royalty and the nobility |"

alleys. The latter were a decided acquisition, since they gave oc. casion for level green spaces which count for so much in the modern tennis and croquet lawns, and are always a restfyl note

flowers grow in the beds and in pots

tent by foreign influences. It is to be remembered that during the reign of King John, the barons and nobility secured their independence by the terms of Magna Carta and henceforward, since the kings had given them the lead, they began to frame for themselves secluded gardens at first within the protecting walls of their castles and moats. Then in the comparative peace which followed the English conquests on the Continent and the Wars of the Roses, the nobles and barons essayed to make gardens in the open country; then the rich merchants of the city of London followed suit. The material was there, and with the country’s progress towards the attainment of freedom and opulence the arts kept pace, and gardens likewise. The Renaissance.—The mediaeval period now blossoms forth into what is known as the Renaissance in England’s advancing history. It is usually called the Tudor period, and the characteristic English style in architecture during this period is distinguished by the same term. For a time at least, during the early part of the

Renaissance period, gardens had to suffer the domination of the

Italian phase of design, but eventually the definite national convictions of garden design which had been previously followed came into their own. At first the sumptuousness of the Italian style gave it popularity and promised to make it all pervading but as time went on its grandiose stiffness, its extravagant array of fountains and masonry, its statues in white marble palled upon the English taste, and the result was a compromise. The quaintness of the mediaeval work and its homeliness of manner were allowed to modify the sumptuousness of Italian ideas in the 17th century. It was during this century that Henry VIII. employed Italians to lay out the grounds of his palace at Nonsuch in Surrey, commenced in 1539. -He also in 1530 brought many Ttalian features into the gardens at Hampton Court, which had been treated by Cardinal Wolsey in the mediaeval English manner. That landscape gardening was a subject of serious study can be gathered from the number of books written at this period. There were books by Dr. Andrew Borde, Thomas Hill, Didymus Mountaine and Bacon. In all these writers there is evidence that they were swayed by the Italian fashion, although at the same time they pronounce the true English delight in trees and flowers

for their own sake. The open acceptance of their works proves

that the subject was one that appealed to many readers. The Renaissance added little to the garden designer’s materials save knots, mazes, labyrinths and dovecotes, also bowling greens and

with its old-world charm imbued with a sense of what is beautiful in nature. Markham’s works were deservedly popular and undoubtedly did much to mould the English taste and preferences

in garden design. One of his books went through 15 editions. He

deals with the farm as well as the garden, directing where the

stables, cow-houses, swine-cotes, barns and poultry-houses were to be placed, also the lodges. As yet there is no suggestion of the landscape treatment as we know it. Even though Borde and

Markham go beyond the bounds of the gardener’s realm, and

branch out into the park and the farm-buildings and the lodges, everything they deal with is angular and formal. The garden, the kitchen garden as well as the orchard, was to be confined within high walls or a hedge and ditch. These pioneers adventured out into the domain claimed by the modern landscapist, who is often called in to advise upon a scheme of residence including mansion, dower-house, gardens and park shelters, plantations, lodges, farmbuildings, stables and garage, water-supply, electricity, sewage scheme, etc. When wisely directed a proprietor will settle the site and disposition of each and all of these policies before a sod is cut or a stone is laid. Contemporary with the foregoing writers there appeared a group of ten or a dozen writers of herbals, the most notable being John Gerard and John Parkinson. Gerard’s book is a great folio of over 600 pages, published in 1597. The value of these writers is that they fostered the innate love of the country and the open

face of nature in general, stimulating the imagination by their method of expressing their pleasures in the teeming life around them. Moreover, they were the foster-parents of modern botanical gardens, such as Kew and Oxford and the Apothecaries garden at

Chelsea, and indirectly to such ventures as the Royal Horticultural Society’s gardens at Wisley, for several of these writers, including Gerard, ran physic or botanical gardens. Undoubtedly, there was during the ryth century a generally accepted principle of design in the garden, everything therein being square and geometrically set out, as may be gathered from all or most of the writers mentioned, so that the country gentleman could lay out his garden himself on traditional lines with very few variations. Thus matters continued up to the Civil War, which marked a period of garden destruction by the Puritans, until the Restoration, when once more foreign fashion came to dominate the simple English taste. The lavish extravagance of Louis XIV. of France could not but have its effects upon Charles II. who was in intimate relations with that monarch and his splendid court, and it is recorded that he or his nobility invited Le Nôtre, the genius of the gardens of Versailles, to England. These imported ideas might

induce the rank and file of stolid English country gentlemen to

adopt a more comprehensive style of design and enlarge their

ideas, but such pretentiousness, including sumptuous fountains and white marble sculpture, was not in the tradition of Markham and Lawson, with their established national taste, nor of Jobn Worlidge, who succeeded them. In the sequence of events the next phase was the Dutch style introduced from Holland by William and Mary. The Dutch love

PLATE IX

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AMERICAN l. Garden of Mrs. Samuel

D. Bell, Stamford, Conn.

PHOTOGRAPH,

LANDSCAPE

Ruth Dean, landscape

architect. 2. Portion of the naturalistic garden of F. E. Drury. Ferruccio Vitale, landscape architect (See Plate VIII.). 3. Garden of Jay Carlisle,

Islip, N.Y.

Ferruccio Vitale, landscape architect.

the estate of Arthur W. Lawrence, Bronxville, N.Y.

(1) AMEMYA

4. Garden terminus on A.F.Brinckerhoff,

land-

ARCHITECTURE

scape architect. 5. In the garden of Myron C. Taylor, Locust Valley, N.Y. Ferruccio Vitale, landscape architect (See Plates Vil. and IX.). 6. Plan of the grounds of Duke University, Durham, N.C. Olmsted Brothers, landscape architects. 7. Plan of the grounds of Thomas Frothingham, Morristown, N.J. Ferruccio Vitale, landscape architect

Prate XII

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1. Maplemoor Golf Course, Westchester County Park System. Gilmore D. Clarke, landscape architect 2. Bridge over the Bronx River, Crestwood, N. Y. Gilmore D. Clarke, landscape architect 3. Plan of development of Mansuring Island Park, Westchester County,

P. A.

NYHOLM

IN PUBLIC

PARKS

N. Y. Gilmore D. Clarke, landscape architect

4. Swimming Pool, Tibbetts Brook Park, Westchester County, N. Y. Gilmore D. Clarke, landscape architect 5. Music Pavilion, Tibbetts Brook Park. architect

Gilmore

D. Clarke,

landscape

LANDSCAPE

ARCHITECTURE

of quaintness was responsible for an exaggeration in topiary work, thus reducing to ridicule a practice which had served well for centuries when kept within legitimate bounds. The apostles of this departure were London and Wise, who ran a large nursery at Brompton. Wise, influenced by the Le Nôtre school, was in practice before the Restoration, and planned the chestnut avenue in Bushey Park, ım. long and 6oft. wide, with four additional rows of limes on either side terminated by the great “Diana” basin at Hampton Court, 4ooft. in diameter. Formalism was now reduced

to a series of rules and a few variations upon stock recipes which foreshadowed its break-up. It was during this period that the gardens at Levens, Westmorland, were laid out, which are to-day the essence of quaintness, and have a certain richness of their

own when the -box-edged borders are full of bloom; nevertheless,

it is easy to understand how soon such picture gardens would pall if there were many of them. Tt must not be supposed that all who adhered to the then popu-

lar formal method of design were committed to its vagaries. Men such as Bridgman, who succeeded London and Wise in the favour of royal patronage (being gardeners to George I.), had the soul and sense of real design. He banished the clipped animals and monstrosities in yew, box and holly, and refused to be bound by the square precision or rules of the foregoing age. He refused to conform to the set symmetrical balance of one-half answering exactly to the other, and although he still adhered to straight walks and clipped hedges, they were only his determining axial lines and he diversified the free open parts with groves of oak and native trees, and incorporated in his schemes pieces of the natural,

if such were worthy to be included.

In this way Bridgman antici-

pated the present day, when gardens are modelled upon long de-

termining axial lines, allowing the subsidiary walks to wander forth in easy routes as they fit in with the contours. We may lay the blame for the change of the public taste upon the vagaries of topiary work, but change was inevitable. Whenever men fall to imitating one another in art and hold solely by academic rules, their system is bound to run to seed. In garden

design we must ever be refreshing ourselves by communion with

nature in her broadest aspects on the mountain side, in the woods and fields, andany rules which we formulate must thereby be proved and attested. It was by this line of argument that Addison began the attack upon the formalists in the Spectator, and whether right —

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ORIGINALLY LAID OUT, FROM A DRAWING MADE BY L. ROME GUTHRIE TO SIR WILLIAM TEMPLE’S DESCRIPTION or wrong this was his statement: “We may assume that works of nature rise in value according to their degree of resemblance to works of art. Therefore, works of art rise in value according to the degree of their resemblance to nature. Gardens, being works of art, therefore rise in value according to the degree of their re-

semblance to nature.” Time has modified the crudeness of this argument, for we do not in general prize works of art or gardens according to the degree of their resemblance to nature; rather we deduce certain principles and conventions from nature, and pro-

duce a rhythmic pattern based upon them, modified to suit the

665

scale of the district, the nature of the garden and the residence, Pattern and rhythm are the soul of design. Pope and Horace Walpole, who wrote in the reign of Queen Anne, followed up the attack begun by Addison. Walpole’s complaint against the lack of ideas and imagination in the prevalent formalism may be judged from the following quotation: “At Lady Orford’s in Dorsetshire, there was when my brother married, a aS zzry double enclosure of 13 gardens, each I suppose not more than tooyd. square, with an enfilade of corresponding gates, and before you arrived at these you passed a narrow gut between the two stone terraces that rose above your head and which were crowned by a line of pyramidal yews.” The Naturalists——By this means the natural manner gained the day and became the rage, and for a time lost its head, perpetrating as many extravagances as the school it had replaced. Revolutionaries are always extremists and we may smile at Pope turning his five acres at Twickenham into a compendium of nature, condensing every kind of scenery iow a into his villa garden. Into this ferment of rebellion against the OJ old garden usages entered Wilis ia liam Kent, architect and painter, fresh from a period of study in CE Rome, his mind steeped with the heroic landscape compositions of FROM GOTHEIN, “GESCHICHTE DER GARTENKUNST” (DIEDERICHS VERLAG) Claude and Poussin, which it was PLAN OF THE VILLA LANTE, AFTER his intention to visualize materi-

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ally, using the country as his can-

vas, and the trees, the water and the rocks as his paints. Such a propaganda was foredoomed to failure; nature will not be rushed out of her country and clime. Yet Kent, under the patronage of Lord Burlington and with the eulogies of Walpole and others behind him, was deemed a genius. In spite of his rich patrons and advocates, Kent was not the man to lead the movement; he had no feeling for pure landscape for its own sake. He was a creditable architect and furniture designer and in his gardens he always harked back to his bent by inserting Greek and classic temples. After Kent came Launcelot, or as he was nicknamed, ‘“‘Capability” Brown, a man who has been much derided; yet, judging from the work he did at Blenheim and from the survivals of his vast planting schemes, composed mostly of oak or one kind of tree he had a true eye for landscape composition. He ran the contours of the landscape right up to the mansion, with no apparent break. In order to keep the deer and cattle from approaching the mansion he made use of the ha-ha fence which made the grass appear to be of one uninterrupted sweep. His was the erroneous motto, “Nature abhors a straight line,” therefore even when the ground was flat and the logical thing to do was to lay it down to a level lawn, he undulated it. Again, when a level plain invited a straight drive through an avenue, he made it wind about, and girded it with clumps of trees. Although he was somewhat hemmed in with his own maxims and mannerisms, his work marked a distinct advance, as did the work of his successor, Humphrey Repton, who is justly celebrated as a champion of the landscape style. In his way Repton was an idealist, a fact which is proved by his “Red Books.” For each place of importance he prepared a report, bound in a red cover, and a series of sketches showing the result when the trees had attained a certain maturity, so that although his effects were not as demonstrable as geometrical gardens, which can be projected in planes by perspective drawing, there was a degree of probability in his proposals. Although Repton professed to be a follower of Brown, he was far ahead of his master in in-

666

LANDSCAPE

ARCHITECTURE

telligent grasp of what constitutes design. In many instances he refused to destroy worthy old gardens and in others he readjusted the vagaries of his predecessors. He knew what was consistent with the various styles of architecture and recommended mostly a broad expansive formal scheme near the house, merging into the natural, attaching the house by imperceptible gradations to the landscape. He never lost sight of the house as the dominating 2

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the champion

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school,

maintaining a long argument in print with Sir Uvedale Price on its behalf. Other writers such as Burke, in his Essay on Taste, dealt with the philosophic aspect of beauty. Then there were long effusions

by William

(T. H. Ma) MODERN TENDENCIES IN AMERICA This article is confined almost entirely to domest ic landsca architecture, institutional landscape architecture and park design Although its scope is intended to cover the United States, Canada and continental Europe, it will apply particularly to the United States and Canada, as very little of note has been accomplished on the Continent since the World War, owing primarily to the In the French Riviera dis.

through the work of instruction in several of the American schools

factor, and in his domestic schemes everything worked from it and ministered to its elegance and comfort. He was a fairly pro-

poetic

(1899); E. Kemp, Landscape Gardening: How to Lay Out¢ (1911); and G. Jekyll and L. Weaver, Gardens for Small

Country Houses (1914).

—in some cases very successfully. In France and Italy where rehabilitation has been applied, the work has been almost exclusively utilitarian, with little opportunity afforded for beauty of aspect. Landscape architecture has made distinct and extraordinary progress during the past r5 or 20 years, particularly in North America. It has met with public favour and patronage, and

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FROM H. L. GOTHEIN, “GESCHICHTE DER GARTENKUNST” (DIEDERICHS VERLAG) PLAN FOR VAUX-LE-VICOMTE, AFTER SILVESTRE

lic writer, and became

Garden Garden

architecture to the design and embellishment of the hotel grounds

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BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Besides

landscape architecty, mentioned in the bibliography for the main section, see also R, Blom. field and I. Thomas, The Formal Garden of England (x8 Sedding, Garden Craft Old and New (1892); G. Jekyll, Hod

Mason

and Richard

Knight.

and universities, qualified professional practitioners have increased ` . in numbers. Like architecture, it is a fine and applied art, dependent for

its success upon so planning as not only to afford the utmost beauty of aspect, but to facilitate practical use in its many requirements. The elements of composition include not only stone,

The

former published between 1772 and 1782 four consecutive books of poetry which were often reprinted. All this discussion has been profitable to modern garden design. Repton and his sons, who continued his practice, verged upon the Victorian period; thenceforward garden design has been largely divided between architects and landscape gardeners. The outstanding works done by the architects are the gardens at Trentham, Staffordshire, by Sir Charles Barry, and at Penhurst, Kent, by George Devey. A noted man of the landscape school who practised successfully during the roth century was J. C. Loudon. Then arose Sir Joseph Paxton, whose fame as a garden designer is a doubtful one, although after constructing the Crystal Palace for the Great Exhibition of 1851 his practice was extensive. Later followed Edward Milner, Robert Marnock, Nasmyth, the artist, Edward Thomas and Edward Kemp, men who could be relied upon to make an effective and beautiful garden, conveniently

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planned, free from the raw errors of the early landscape men and

not devoid of imagination. There are a few architects of the present day who design the whole garden to the houses they build and many more who limit their planning to the terrace and architectural portion immediately surrounding the house. Among the former, mention may be made of Sir Edwin Lutyens, who is usually assisted in the horticultural branches by Miss Jekyll. He has a versatile and original fancy in garden accessories. Inigo Triggs was an architect by training who specialized in gardens, having written and largely

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illustrated two indispensable text-books Formal Gardens in Eng-

land and Scotland and The Art of Garden Design in I taly.’ The

most informative

and authoritative book on the formal branch

of garden design is Reginald Blomfield’s Formal Garden in England. The landscape school is not so well represented professionally in England as it might be if there were a national school for the proper training and equipment of would-be garden and park designers, like those at many of the universities in the

United States. In a liberal profession which includes and impinges

upon so many

sciences,’ it is of the first. Importance

that its

students should grasp the principlés of their art ‘and ‘its imagina-

tiye' range before they are imrnersed in office detai”

.

BY COURTESY OF WERNER HEGEMANN PLAN OF SUBDIVISION

OF PABST

FARM,

WAUWATOSA,

WIS.

brick, cement and other customary building materials, but organic things—trees and plants—which are subject to constant change in growth and decay. It is necessary to compose these contrasting

elements into an expression of beauty, and marked improvement

may be noted in contemporary examples of landscape design by evidence of mass composition’ as the dominant feature and the

use Of colour, pattern and-detail as contributory to the expression

of form. More pleasure is afforded from the contemplation of a garden or other feature thus designed than from the inspection

LANDSCAPE

ARCHITECTURE

of any single element of that garden. This has been made possible through improved technique and wider knowledge in the moving of trees and shrubs of larger size than had heretofore been practicable, thus enabling the use of organic elements which are in immediate scale with the buildings or environment of which

they are made a part.

667

regional design. It varies, of course, in scope. A mere group of two or three homes planned in relation one to the other may come under this designation, and it may extend to include a considerable geographical area, providing for more than one

nucleus or civic centre. Many benefits may be derived from thus planning home sites in groups.

Domestic Landscape Architecture.—This phase of the sub-

ject is closely allied to domestic architecture. It responds to the

Institutional Landscape Architecture—So far as the application of landscape architecture is concerned with the design of

same tendencies and requirements; it has to do with the design and development of all of the area outside of the building destined to be used as part of the home. It is, therefore, influenced in its development by the same factors which affect the house design.

a

A change in the economic and social conditions as a result of the World War has had a very marked influence upon the physical

aspects of the home.

The difficulty and expense of employing

labour to maintain the home grounds, scarcity of domestic seryants, increased taxes and the more general use of the motor car have affected the design of the modern home surroundings. This

STEPS BESIDE BUILDING

SIDE-WALL Low CURB PARALLEL FOR STEPS TO NOSINGS ON BANK OF STEPS STEPS CONTINUING PATH AXIS ABOVE AND BELOW TERRACE

On — TT

applies to the homes of rich and poor, and to those living in the open country, in the suburbs and in the town.

been a concentration of area and of use.

STEPPED WALL FOR FREESTANDING STEPS

Ll

ang

The result has

The person formerly

requiring an estate of too or more acres carefully maintained for outdoor pleasure, is now

content with half that area.

The

suburban dweller who formerly enjoyed ample ground space about his residence now has a confined area intensively used. The small householder is giving up his individual home unit and is moving to the multiple dwelling, or to an apartment or flat where, among other features used in common with his neighbour, may be a roof garden, a court garden or a play area. This tendency has been intensified, of course, particularly in America, by an increased concentration of people in and about the larger towns and cities. Successful design is dependent upon rhythmic spacing terminating in focal or emphasis points. These may be defined by such features as garden benches, sculptural ornaments or figures, groups of figures or architectural structures, trees or plant forms. It matters not whether the design be formal or informal in spirit, the necessity for such points of emphasis prevails. This principle of spacing applies to all design as well as to music. In landscape design, sculpture thus used is occupying an increasingly important place. The sculptural forms need not be executed with the same degree of refinement as might properly be employed in museum pieces. The silhouette in proper scale and contrast with its surroundings is of more importance than its other perfections of modelling. Bronze is a popular medium for such features on account of its permanence, but it is not otherwise successful as it does not show in strong enough contrast

against a foliage background. Marble, on the other hand, is too marked a contrast. Lead, as popularly used in England for this purpose, does not withstand the severe weather conditions prevailing in more rigorous climates. There is, therefore, an opportunity for metallurgists to devise a metal which will lend itself to easy casting, withstand seyere weather and afford a medium FROM HUBBARD AND KIMBALL, “LANDSCAPE colour tone and texture between DESIGN” (MACMILLAN) bronze and lead. The matter of WATERFALL IN THE “WILD GARcontrast and of texture of the DEN,’’ ESTATE AT NEWPORT, R.I. sculptural features in relation to the foliage mass is so important that they should be studied together and made to harmonize in one organic whole. i Sennen: ee ee (perros a Orn eee

T STEPS! JENFRAMING, FOUNTAIN j CONNECTING YA Two DIFFERENT OJ PATH-AXES

MADE TO APPEAR SHORTER AND BROADER

RECOGNITION OF DISPERSAL OF TRAFFIC BELOW TERRACE

FROM HUBBARD AND KIMBALL, “LANDSCAPE DESIGN" (MACMILLAN) PLAN SHOWING SOME TYPICAL FORMS OF STEPS

areas intended for institutional use, it follows the same motives and principles as domestic landscape architecture. Its purpose always is to provide for use of the area in the most appropriate manner and afford the utmost pleasure through the creation and conservation of beauty.

A marked increase has occurred in recent years in activity and interest in organized exercise and athletics. The schools, both public and private, as well as colleges and universities, have given more and more consideration and: space to outdoor exercise. Some universities have required large stadiums with seating capacity for from 20,000 to 100,000 spectators. This requirement must necessarily be recognized and provided for in planning these institutions. Some of the sports, such as football, baseball, racing and the like, are exacting in their requirements as to specific areas; but all may be so organized with the introduction of trees and other foliage masses as to afford a park-like aspect and influence the students toward an appreciation of natural beauty

as a result of their daily and intimate contact with that environMultiple Homes.—This term is intended to include all struc- ment. a oe O

tures designed to provide for more than one family unit. The present tendency is toward an increased use of dwellings that

provide for many

conveniences

to be shared in common,

so

arranging these dwellings as to afford a garden area, frequently an enclosed or partially enclosed court, to be enjoyed co-operatively by all of the dwellers in that unit. Marked progress has been made in the sphere of community or

Another sign of changing social conditions has been the adoption

of the golf or country club as the centre of interest in each community. Yet-for those who cannot afford membership in such clubs, municipalities and counties have provided golf courses on public park areas. The primary purpose, of course; has béen to afford facilities for playing golf, but as the game requires large open areas on fertile soil and must of necessity be kept in an

668

LANDSCAPE

ARCHITECTURE

orderly condition, the opportunity for creating and maintaining pictorial effects is very favourable. While the golfer may be primarily interested in the game of golf, the indirect and subtle pleasure resulting from a beautiful environment must necessarily make its appeal and afford a lasting benefit. It is particularly necessary in developing the outdoor environment for hospitals and asylums that a quiet, restful atmosphere “be created. The doctors and experts in the care and treatment of defectives fully appreciate the necessity for affording scope to the designer in his efforts to create such an atmosphere, and fortunately, public opinion favours a liberal policy in providing the necessary funds. Improved transit facilities have distinctly favoured the removal of institutions of the above character from congested districts to the open country, where the opportunity is so much greater for a pleasant and beautiful environment. Patk Design.—Public parks as they exist in the United States have been created for the recreation and pleasure of the public. In Europe the parks were originally created for a favoured few and were later turned over to the use of the public with comparatively slight change in their design so far as the aesthetic elements ` were concerned. The demand for play area, however, and the effort to meet that demand have been almost as evident in Europe as in the United States. The pleasure parks in the United States, such as Central Park in New York city, are an integral part of the city, designed to afford quiet pastoral beauty in the midst of an urban environment. Drives for horse-drawn vehicles and walks for pedestrians made the various landscape pictures available. The present tendency is toward a practice which recognizes the demand for play by providing areas designed primarily for exercise and ath-

property the most convenient scale is that of one quarter of an

inch to the foot, but if drawing to scale seems too difficult a sketch plan that maintains the proper proportions between house

lot and adjoining objects is better than none.

of primary importance. The point of entrance having been established, the walks, the open grass and the beds, whether for flowers or vegetables, will fall into place naturally. A tree should no more

be set in the middle of a garden entrance than a chair in the middle of a doorway. Just as one arranges furniture so as not to

hinder movement in a room, so must paths in a garden be ar. ranged to permit easy circulation. To carry the parallel a little further, in placing furniture inside a house its appearance from the adjoining rooms is always considered; so in a garden, the appearance of the garden through the windows of the room mos used is important. Any garden, and especially a town garden should be considered as an open air extension of the house and the principal axes and openings of the house must be continued or indicated in its arrangement, The plan can then be developed through consideration of its ori. entation; z.e., how it lies with re. spect to the sun. Trees and high shrubs should not be so placed as ie 7

to shade flowers or vegetables, Still sunlight is not the only fac. tor that determines the placing

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letics, with the element of beauty incidental to that purpose. The “pleasure park” is being superseded by parkways or motorways no longer limited to the geographic limitation of the municipality, extending for many miles through territory selected for its possi- bilities of development aesthetically, but less desirable for homebuilding or commercial development. With all the improvement in the application of landscape architecture for the past decade, it has not yet received the general recognition and use which are its due. It should be of general benefit to all the people, and its significance as a cultural influence recognized. No one of the applied arts can progress beyond a certain point without the corresponding progress of the others, so

i

The plan of a garden is devised with the entrance as the feature

aot 4

—

.

DINING ROOM

Se ` —_

PLAN

FOR A SMALL TOWN

GARDEN

a dual function,—that of being part of the garden and that of screening unsightly surroundings. The final element entering into the plan is that of placing archi-

tectural features,—such as a sundial, a bench, a summer house, a pool, or especially important trees, shrubs or plants,—to attract attention to certain spots, to mark entrances to paths or to strengthen corners of flower beds. Such things have a function like that of ornaments or pictures in a house, and whether the that it is very necessary that a collaborative and sympathetic garden be formal or naturalistic it will have some kind of vista interest should prevail among the designers. There is distinct or focal point. In winter when there is no foliage nothing enevidence to-day of this mutual interest, and with the introduction hances the appearance of a small garden so much as well-designed of artistic training in the common schools and the availability of and well-ex architectural ornaments, but they must be carevast wealth for the patronage of the arts, the United States is fully placedecuted not to appear to have been dropped in the garden undoubtedly on the verge of a great artistic renaissance in which with the intention of putting them somewhere when there was the art of landscape architecture will take a prominent part. (See time to consider where. We are all familiar with the old-fashioned Bon-Kert; Bon-Sat; Haxo-Nrwa; Bon-Sexr; Botanical GarVictoria method of placing cast iron dogs, china gnomes and DEN PLANNING; ARCHITECTURAL EDUCATION; SOCIAL ARCHT- fountainn in almost any promine nt place regardless of the relas TECTURE.) (A. F. Br.) tion of such objects to their surroundings, and of an exactly similar nature is the method of placing specimen trees and shrubs TOWN GARDENS AND ROOF GARDENS wherever they will grow best regardless of their function as part The plainest yard can be made a lovely garden by planning its of the general design. arrangement, instead of putting in flower beds, vegetable patches Usually the geometrically planned garden is most satisfactory and chicken runs without thought for their.relations to each other. in a town. It is difficult to make 4o by soft. into a miniature yet The householder should so arrange his plot that the flowers are a complete piece of wilderness, and it becomes impossible if a coherent part of the general scheme, not a mere interruption in garage, a clothes-line or intensive cultivation of vegetables has a the lawn, the trees and shrubs form a pleasing composition and the place in the scheme. The necessity of developing the plan logically vegetables contribute to the beauty of the whole. In planting a cannot be stressed too strongly. A common and usually incorrect garden, three things need to be considered almost simultaneously: way to lay out a garden is to divide the available space by placing its orientation, its relation to the house, and its relation to the paths at right angles to each other; through the windows of the surroundings. It must be so arranged that its flowers and vege- house such paths generally seem to begin and lead nowhere; the tables are not shaded, its paths, lawns and beds have some pleas- beds left by such arrangement are of sizes unsuited both to easy ing and logical relation to the house, and suitable objects outside cultivation and to treatment in a pleasing manner. What matters its limits, such as a beautiful tree or a neighbouring wall, may be least in the layout of a garden is its being symmetrical about a utilized to frame it or make it appear larger, while unsightly ob- centre line, what is most important is to have the openings of the jects on adjoining property may be shut out by screen planting, house opposite the axes of the garden regardless of whether they or have attention distracted from them. are on the physical centre of the garden space or not. While a plan The simplest way to examine all elements of the design at once on paper may appear lop-sided, in the garden itself, with varying as to draw a plan of the garden on paper. For a small piece of heights and masses of planting to produce effects, it can appear

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BY COURTESY

OF

(1,

fis id

5)

THE

KRAUSHAAR

ART

GALLERIES,

(2)

THE

HIRSCHSPRUNG

MODERN l. “Twilight and Sunglow,” Impressionist school

by Henri

Le Sidaner

(1862-

2. “View from the artist’s home on the island of Naxos, Niels Skovgaard (1858— ), Danish 3. “Silver Clouds, Arizona,” by Albert Lorey Groll (1866-

MUSEUM,

COPENHAGEN,

LANDSCAPE

), Belgian,

Greece,”

by

), American

(3, 4,

6)

THE

METROPOLITAN

MUSEUM

OF ART,

NEW

YORK

PAINTING

4. “Sunrise,” by Sir David Young and etcher

Cameron,

(1865~-

5. “Flight at Dawn, Montauk Point,” by Gifford American 6. “Opalescent River,” by Gardner Symons (1865—

), English painter

Beal

(1879-

), American

),

LANDSCAPE

PAINTING

—_

atte fo, arte

g,

stint

aitaan rer

BY

COURTESY

OF

(1) THE

KRAUSHAAR

ART

GALLERIES,

LANDSCAPE 1. “Incoming Tide,” by George Luks “Cape Ann artist

3. “The River,”

Granite,”

by

(2,

4,

5, 6)

PAINTING

(1867—

Edward

Hopper,

by Maurice Vlaminck

(1876-

THE

REHN

BY

GALLERY,

MODERN

), American a contemporary

), French

(3)

THE

REINHARDT

FRENCH

GALLERIES

AND

4. “Brigham’s American

Yard,

COPR.

BONNAIRE

AMERICAN Kingston,

ARTISTS

N.Y.,’? by Eugene

Speicher

(1883—

),

American

5. “Landscape, with painter's house, Woodstock, New York, ” by Henry Lee McFee (1886— ), American 6. “Central Park,” by Leon Kroll (1884~ ), American

LANDSEER BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-Lewis

Hind,

Landscape

Painting;

E. Fromentin,

Old Masters of Holland and Belgium; E. V. Lucas, Life of Constable; John Van Dyke, Rembrandt; P. H. Collins, Crome; W. Dewhurst, Impressionistic Painting. (D. Ga.)

MODERN Landscape painting of the present century has been the subject of a great number of conflicting influences. Of these the first and

greatest was undoubtedly Impressionism (g.v.). Few are the outdoor painters of to-day who have not been profoundly influenced

by the discoveries of the group of Frenchmen who devoted them-

selves to the study and interpretation of the phenomena of light.

But, while Monet, Manet, Sisley and their compatriots sacri: fied form in their search for vibration, the outdoor painter of

to-day has increasingly concerned himself with it. Indeed, form,

or the allied problem of mass—three-dimensional form—is the particular concern of the followers of Cézanne and form in the sense of design is the greatest interest of many of the other so-

called ““Modernists,” many of whom, be it said in passing, seem

to believe that it originated with them.

A painter who is devoting himself to the exploiting of a certain

quality in art, be it form or colour or design or some esoteric and not easily defined subtlety, almost inevitably disregards in his work the other qualities in which, for the moment, he is not in-

terested. This was markedly true in the case of the Impressionists. It is evidenced to-day by a multitude of painters who are attempting to introduce new qualities into their art or to employ

it for the expression of hitherto unexpressed emotions and who, in the attempt,

are

quite regardless

of the ordinary technical

qualities. It is for this reason that much of this experimental

work is crude. Unfortunately for its creator the crudities are frequently more obvious than are the subtle qualities for which he is striving and which, in some measure, he may have realized. The experimental in art was never more in evidence than in the era of reconstruction through which we are passing to-day.

The landscape painter is no longer interested in producing a transcript of nature; he is not moved by the once important technical problems but only by the desire to produce balanced design of form and colour. Even the jargon has changed. Instead of “values” he talks of “rhythms” and his critical compatriots question not the factual truth of his colour but his reasons for employing it in certain arbitrary forms and relations. Modern painting, then, is little concerned with craftsmanship, in the sense of beauty of surface. Moreover, the modern landscapist is, unlike the Impressionist, not particularly interested in the registration of the ephemeral, passing phases of nature, concerning himself rather with what he believes to be the organwed statement of her fundamental, structural qualities. This rather general statement would seem to be applicable, with few exceptions, to the landscape painting of the world in this 2oth century. From the severe naturalism of the Scandinavian product to the frankly experimental and daring work of the Germans, from the austere landscape of the Spaniards to the brittle virtuosity of the modern Italians, the prevailing note is the search for the essential, the fundamental. But landscape is not the preferred field of endeavour of the painters of Germany, of Spain or of Italy, notwithstanding the brilliant work of certain artists in each country. It is more in evidence in the profoundly racial work of the Russians as exemplified by Rorich, Anisfeld, Gorbatoff and Grigoriv. In Czechoslovakia and in Poland groups of young painters are producing original and sometimes daring landscape, and, in possibly a less degree, this is true of Holland and Belgium. In France, notwithstanding the landscape tradition of the Barbizon men and the Impressionists, one sees to-day less important work in this field than in that of figure painting or even of still life. But landscape is by no means neglected and the artistic

catholicity of the French is demonstrated by the interest that

is shown in work that differs so radically in its intention as does the daring product of Vlaminck, Utrillo and Othon Friez, to cite names almost at random, from the poetic realism of Bonnard and

Besnard or from the pure impressionism of Le Sidaner. But it is in the Anglo-Saxon countries that the art of land-

673

scape is most followed. In England, while there is little, in this field, of acute modernism, excellent work is being done by a number of artists. Definitely English are the landscapes of Alfred East, James Pryde, D. Y. Cameron and of many others.

There is little of the experimental in this handsome work. Its dominant quality is an intense, poetic appreciation of the beauties of nature. Distinguished landscape, much in the English tradition, is also being produced in Canada. If the United States may be said to have produced a definitely national art, it is in the field of the out-of-doors. Far less modern

in its character than is most of the continéntal painting now in evidence, its dominant note would seem to be an organized realism, a realism which makes use of the facts of nature but so employs them as to increase their artistic potency. This was the message of Winslow Homer and it is that of a multitude of distinguished painters of to-day. While between the slightly controlled naturalism of Redfield or Davis or Metcalf, for example, and the formalized patterns of Kroll, Dasburg, McFee or Rock-

well Kent there is an enormous

difference in emphasis, there

is not so much divergence in intention as appears at first sight. All are more or less successfully shaping landscape to their ends as are also Gardner Symonds, Garber, Gifford Beal, Lawson, Hibbard and Emil Carlsen, none of whom find it necessary to distort but merely to organize truth. There are many others, notably the important group of painters of the West: Blumenschein, Reiffel, Groll, Hennings, to name only a few, the art of all of whom goes far beyond mere imitation of facts. Landscape is, perhaps, in transition, as are probably all the arts. It is futile for one to attempt to enter the field of prophecy, but it would seem to be reasonably probable that the landscape of the future will make full use of the technical knowledge of the past and, while not in the least concerning itself with photographic statement, will also avoid grotesque distortion and will continue to make the fullest use of the facts of nature as material to be

organized

toward

the production

of truth.

IMPRESSIONISM, PoST-IMPRESSIONISM.)

LANDSEER,

SIR EDWIN

HENRY

(See PAINTING, CY. A.)

(1802-1873), Eng-

lish painter, third son of John Landseer, A.R.A.1, a well-known engraver and writer on art, was born in London, on March 7, 1802. Edwin Henry Landseer began his artistic education under his father. At five he could draw fairly well, and at eight excellently, as is seen from the drawings at South Kensington, dated by his father. At ten he was an admirable draughtsman and his work shows considerable sense of humour, At thirteen he drew a majestic St. Bernard dog so finely that his brother Thomas engraved and published the work. In this year (1815) he sent two pictures to the Royal Academy, and was described in the catalogue as “Master E. Landseer, 33 Foley Street.” Owing to his youth he was named as the “Honorary Exhibitor” of “No. 443, Portrait of a Mule,” and “No. 584, Portraits of a Pointer Bitch and Puppy.” Adopting the advice of B. R. Haydon, he studied the Elgin Mar-

bles, the animals in the Tower of London and Exeter *Change, and dissected every animal whose carcass he could obtain. In 1816 Landseer was admitted a student of the Royal Academy schools. In 1817 he sent to the Academy a portrait of “Old Brutus,” a much-favoured dog, which, as well as its son, another Brutus, often appeared in his later pictures. In 1818 Landseer sent to the Society of Painters in Oil and Water Colours, then in Spring Gardens, his “Fighting Dogs getting Wind.” This picture, bought by Sir George Beaumont, illustrates the prime strength of Landseer’s earlier style. Another product of this period was “The Cat’s Paw,” which was sent to the British Institution in 1824, and made an enormous sensation. With the £100 obtained for this picture Landseer moved into the house at No. 1 St. John’s Wood Road, where he lived nearly 50 1John Landseer died on Feb. 29, 1852, aged ox (or 83, according to Cosmo Monkhouse). Sir Edwin’s eldest brother Thomas, an A.R.A. and a famous engraver, whose interpretations of his junior’s pictures have made them known throughout the world, was born in 1795, and

died on Jan. 20, 1880. Charles Landseer, R.A., and Keeper of the Royal Academy, the second brother, was born in 1799, and died on July 22, 1879. John Landseer’s brother Henry was a painter of some reputation, who emigrated to Australia.

674.

LAND’S

END—LANDSKRONA

years and in which he died. During this period Landseer’s principal pictures were “The Cat Disturbed”; “Alpine Mastiffs reanimating a Distressed Traveller,” a famous work engraved by his father; “The Ratcatchers”; “Pointers to be”; “The Larder Invaded”; and “Neptune,” the head of a Newfoundland dog. In 1826 Landseer was elected an A.R.A. In 1827 appeared “The Monkey who has seen the World,” a successor to the humorous “Cat’s Paw.” “Taking a Buck” (1825) was the painter’s first Scottish picture, inspired by his journey to the Highlands in 1824. Its execution marked a change in his style which, in increase of largeness, was a great improvement. In other respects, however, there was a decrease of solid qualities; indeed, finish, searching modelling, and elaborate draughtsmanship rarely appeared in Landseer’s work after 1823. The subject, as such, soon after this time became a very distinct element in his pictures; ultimately it dominated, and in effect the artist enjoyed a greater degree of popularity than technical judgment justified, so that later criticism has put Landseer’s position in art much lower than the place he once occupied. Sentiment gave new charm to his works, which had previously depended on the expression of animal passion and character, and the exhibition of noble qualities of draughtsmanship. Sentimentality ruled in not a few pictures of later dates, and guasi-human humour, or pathos, superseded that masculine animalism which rioted in its energy, and enabled the artist to rival Snyders, if not Velazquez, as a painter of beasts. His later pictures were not less true to nature than their forerunners, but the models were chosen from different grades of animal society. As Landseer prospered he kept finer company, and his new patrons did not care about rat-catching and dog-fighting, however vigorously and learnedly those subjects might be depicted. After “High Life” and “Low Life,” now in the Tate Gallery, London, Landseer’s dogs, and even his lions and birds, were sometimes more than half civilized. It cannot be said that the world lost much when, in exchange for the “Cat Disturbed” and “Fighting Dogs getting Wind,” came “Jack in Office,”

“The Old Shepherd’s Chief Mourner” and “The Swannery invaded by Eagles,” three noble and distinctive types of Landseer’s art. Landseer was elected a Royal Academician:in 1831. Chase” (1826), which is at Woburn, “The Highland

“Chevy Whisky

Still” (1829), “High Life” (1829) and “Low Life” (1829), be-

sides other important works, had appeared in the interval. Landseer had by this time attained such amazing mastery that he painted “Spaniel and Rabbit” in two hours and a half, “Rabbits” in three-quarters of an hour and the fine dog-picture “Odin” (1836) at one sitting, i.¢., within 12 hours. But perhaps the most

wonderful instance of his rapid but sure and dexterous brushhandling was “The Cavalier’s Pets’ (1845), the picture of two King Charles’s spaniels in the National Gallery, which was executed in two days. “Harvest in the Highlands,” and that masterpiece of humour, “Jack in Office,” were exhibited in 1833. In 1834 he painted “Suspense,” now at South Kensington, which shows a dog watching at the closed door of his wounded master; other well-known pictures are “A Distinguished Member of the Humane Society,” a dog reclining on a quay wall (1839);

“Dignity and Impudence” (1839); and “Eos,” a portrait of Prince Albert’s greyhound; and the “Monarch of the Glen,” one of three subjects connected with the chase which in 1850 Landseer was commissioned to paint in the Houses of Parliament, but the matter was dropped because the House of Commons refused to grant more than £1,500 for the pictures. Landseer was knighted in 1850, and in the next few years produced several pictures, including “Titania and Boltom” (1851). Signs of failing health were remarked in ““Man proposes, God disposes” (1864), -a picture of bears clambering over the relics of Sir John Franklin’s party. In

1864 “A Piper and a Pair of Nutcrackers” revealed his old power. Landseer sold “Peace” and “War” for £1,500 and for the copyrights alone obtained £6,000. In 188r “Man Proposes, God Disposes” (1864) was resold for 6,300 guineas and a cartoon of “The Chase” (1866) fetched 5,000 guineas. He declined the presidency of the Royal Academy in 1865. In 1867 his four lions for the base of the Nelson Monument in London were unveiled. He died

on Oct. 1, 1873, and was buried in St. Paul’s Cathedral. A collec. tion of his sketches is in the Victoria and Albert Museum.

Those

who would see the full strength of Landseer’s brush should exam-

ine this collection, for in these he shows himself endowed with the strength of Paul Potter.

See Algernon Graves’s Catalogue of the Works of the late Si Edwin, Landseer, R.A. (London, n.d.); Frederic G. Stephens’s Sir Edwin Landseer (1880); W. Cosmo Monkhouse’s The Studies of Siy Edwin

Landseer, R.A., with a History of his Art-Life (n.d.); W. P., Frith’s My Autobiography and Reminiscences (1887); Vernon Heath’s Reco). lections (1892); and James A. Manson’s “Sir Edwin Landseer RA,” i The Makers of British Art (1902).

- LAND’S END, a promontory of Cornwall, forming the west. ernmost point of England.

It is a fine headland of granite, pierced

by a natural arch. Dangerous reefs lie off the point, and one group a mile from the mainland is marked by the Longships lighthouse in 50° 4’ N. 5° 43’ W. The Land’s End is the westernmost of the

granite masses which rise at intervals through Cornwall from Dartmoor. Changes in sea level are indicated bya raised beach as . well as by a submerged forest. LANDSHUT, a town in the republic of Bavaria, on the Tsar, 40m. N.E. of Munich. Pop. (1925) 26,105. It was founded about 1204, and from 1255 to 1503 it was the principal residence of the dukes of Lower Bavaria. During the Thirty Years’ War it was captured several times by the Swedes. From 1800 to 1826 the university, formerly at Ingolstadt and now at Munich, was located at Landshut. Owing to the three helmets which form its arms the town is sometimes called “Dreihelm Stadt.” Landshut consists of an old and a new town and of suburbs. Among its churches the most noteworthy are those of St. Martin, of St. Jodocus, and of the Holy Ghost, or the Hospital church, all three begun before 1410. The former royal palace contains some fine Renaissance work; and the town-hall, built in 1446 and restored in 1860, are also noteworthy. Overlooking Landshut is the castle of Trausnitz, erected early in the 13th century, but the chapel, the oldest part existing, dates from the 14th century. The industries of Landshut include brewing, tanning and iron founding, and the manufacture of tobacco, chemicals, soap and cloth. Market gardening and an extensive trade in grain are also carried on.

LANDSKNECHT,

a German mercenary foot-soldier of the

16th century. The name (German for “man of the plains”) was given to mark the contrast between the force composed of these soldiers, formed by the emperor Maximilian I. about the end of the 15th century, and the Swiss, the “men of the mountains,” at that time the typical mercenary infantry of Europe. After the battles of Marignano and Pavia, where the military reputation of the Swiss had been broken, the Swabian landsknechte came to be considered the best fighting troops in Europe. Though primarily a German force and always the mainstay of imperial armies, they

served in organized bodies as mercenaries elsewhere in Europe; in France they fought for the League and for the Protestants indiscriminately. In fact landsknecht, and more particularly its French corruption lamsquenet, became in western Europe a general term

for mercenary foot-soldiers. It is owing to the lange Spiesse (long pike or lance), the typical weapon with which they were armed, that the corrupted French form, as well as a German form, lanzknecht, and an English “lance-knight” came into use. The landsknechts were raised by colonels (Oberst), to whom the emperor issued recruiting commissions corresponding to the English “indents”; they were organized in regiments made up of a colonel, lieutenant-colonel and regimental staff, with a varying number of companies, “colours” (Fdahnlein), comanded by captains (Hauptmann); subaltern officers were lieutenants and ensigns (Fahnrich). In thus defining the titles and duties of each rank, and in almost every detail of regimental customs and organization, discipline and interior economy, the landsknechts may be considered as the founders of the modern military system on â regimental basis. (See further Army and INFANTRY.)

LANDSKRONA, a seaport of Sweden, on the Sound, 15 m.

N.E. of Copenhagen. Pop.'(1928) 18,492. Landskrona, originally called Landora or Landér, owed its first importance to King Erik XIII., who introduced a body of Carmelite monks from Germany

in 1410, and bestowed on the place the privileges of a town. It

LANDSLIP—LAND suffered heavily during the wars of the 16th and 17th centuries.

In 1677 a great naval battle was fought in which the Swedes de-

feated the Danes. The harbour is excellent, giving a depth of 35 ft., with 26 ft. beside the quays. The principal industries are tanning, floor milling and the manufacture of sugar and artificial manwes. On the little island of Hven, immediately opposite, Tycho Brahe built his famous subterranean observatory of Uranienborg.

LANDSLIP, the fall of a mass of earth or rocks to a lower

level. On sea-coasts landslips or large falls of rocks occur due to the undermining action of the sea, and in mountainous regions where strata dipping towards the valley rest on soft layers; hard

rocks slip into the valley after heavy rains or melting snow, damming back the drainage which thus forms a barrier-basin. Many small lakes in the Alps and Pyrenees are formed in this

way. Landslides are also the result of earthquakes and erosions.

LANDSTURM, originally a general levy in time of war. The name was later given to certain militia forces of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Switzerland, consisting of all those men of military age not serving in the navy, the first-line army or the Landwehr. The German Landsturm before the World War comprised men of two categories.

The rst Ban was formed of men

from 17 to 20 years of age, and of all those men not called up for service in the active army or the Landwehr; most of these men

TAXES

675

became converted into a redeemable rent-charge on landed property, and in its essentials, it remains to the present day as Pitt left it. Each parish has its quota to be raised annually and this is levied by a rate not exceeding 1/— in the £ on the annual value of the land and buildings thereon in the parish. An owner of the land can redeem the charge by payment of a capital sum equal to 25 times the annual tax and where redemption is effected the land is exonerated from the tax and the quota of the parish is correspondingly reduced. As the annual value of any buildings erected on the land comes into the annual value for charge to Land Tax, redemption generally takes place as a preliminary to building operations. The average annual receipt is about £650,000. New Land Taxes.—In modern taxation theory the land tax finds its place in systems of taxation not as part of a general tax applying to all property but as a tax that singles out land as the subject of special taxation, and it is in this sense that the term is now generally used. This development is founded on the theory that land has an additional and special taxable capacity peculiar to itself by reason of the fact that the increase in its value in many places is due not so much to the activities of the owner as to the growth in prosperity of the community. It involves the task of ascertaining the values of the land at different points of time and making allowance for the then value of any improve-

were unfit for active service and received no training. The 2nd

ments (e.g., buildings, timber, crops, etc.) due to the action of

Ban consisted of men over 30 years of age who remained fit for service after completion of their period in the landwehr or the rst

the owners, in order to find the unimproved or site value. The determination of values of this kind which differ radically from market price values of the land in its actual condition presents

Ban of the Landsturm; they continued liable for service up to 45 years of age, but received no further training. During the World War a large number of units of all arms were formed from the Landsturm and some saw service on quiet sectors of the western and eastern fronts; the bulk of them were employed on fortress, garrison or line of communication duties or on labour work. The Landsturm of Austria-Hungary before the World War was

organized on similar lines to the German, men being liable for service between 19 and 20 years of age, and after 10 years’ service. Men up to 38 years old formed the 1st Ban, and those from 38 to 42 the 2nd Ban; except for the Tirolese units, no peace-time training took place. During the World War some 72 Landsturm units were raised, several of which took part in operations on the eastern front against the Russians; in 1918 there were nine so-called Landsturm divisions in existence. The Swiss Landsturm at present comprises all men liable for military service between the ages of 41 and 48, and numbers some 70,000 of all arms and ranks. No training is carried out in peace time. It is intended to use the force in war as frontier guards and for line of communication duties.

LAND TAXES.

The taxation of land is one of the oldest

forms of direct taxation. As the past and as a definite and a natural subject for taxation with taxes levied by reference While land continues to be

the main source of production in visible sign of wealth, land offered and the history of taxation teems

serious difficulties, particularly where the tax is levied on the unearned increment only. These difficulties do not favour clear and unambiguous legislation and afford ground for disputes of all kinds. They are at the root of the failure of the British Land Value Duties, which became practically unworkable after a few years’ operation. The following notes refer very briefly to the modern taxes introduced in the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and Germany. United Kingdom.—The new land taxes were introduced by Mr. Lloyd George in his 1909 Budget, and were the main cause of the hostility encountered by that Budget in its passage into law by the Finance (1909-10) Act, 1910. There were four duties, viz.:—-(i.) Increment Value Duty, which was levied on every “occasion” of sale or transfer of land at the rate of 20% on the increase in the site value of the land accruing after 30 April, 1909. Provision was made for periodical assessments every 15th year in the case of land held by corporate bodies: (ii.) Reversion Duty, which was levied at the rate of 10% on the value of the benefit accruing to the lessor on the termination of long leases, the benefit being in general the difference between the value at the beginning and at the end of the lease: (iii.) Undeveloped Land

Duty, an annual duty of $d. in the £ on the site value of un-

under which Parliament specified for each county the total sum

developed land, i.e., land not being used for agriculture, business or building purposes, etc., and was intended to fall on land ripe for building. Gardens, public parks, recreation grounds and woodlands were exempt: Civ.) Mineral Rights Duty, an annual duty of 1/— in the £ on mineral royalties, wayleaves, etc. As a preliminary measure it was necessary to ascertain the capital value of all lands, buildings, etc., in the Kingdom as at 30 April, 1909— a colossal task involving the valuation of 11,000,000 units of land—and in particular to determine the “site value” which represented, broadly speaking, the market value of the land when divested of buildings, trees, or other improvements upon it. The work of valuation proceeded for 5 years and was practically completed by the outbreak of the World War. The total of the valuations for Great Britain was about £5,250,000,000. ae

required and each county raised its contribution by a rate upon the yearly value of all property, real and personal, and on the

in the early years.

to its area, value, or produce. a fruitful source of tax revenue, it

Is usually as part of a general scheme for taxation of all property

or all income and not as the subject of peculiar taxation levied specially in respect of the land. Thus the value of land comes under charge to British Death Duties in common with the value of all other property, and the income from land comes under charge to British Income Tax in common with all other income;

but this taxation is general and is not properly to be considered as falling within the scope of specific Land Taxes, Land Tax, Great Britain ——The Land Tax is the only form of land taxation in Great Britain. It is an old tax, dating from 1692, having developed from the so-called Monthly Assessments

The first three duties yielded a small though increasing revenue Serious difficulties however soon arose in con-

Income from certain offices. In intention, the Land Tax was a

nection with the assessment of the values required by the statute;

kind of general property and income tax, but personalty gradually escaped from assessment, and in 1798 Pitt made the quota then due from each area a perpetual charge on the landed property of that area, with provision enabling the owner of the property

which tiltimately led to the practical suspension of the Undevel-

to redeem the liability by a capital payment. The Land Tax thus

oped Land Duty and Reversion Duty and the crippling of’ the Increment Value Duty. Proposals for remedial legislation were put forward in the Revenue Bill of 1914 but owing to the outbreak of war were not proceeded with. The .position , was- Fe-

LAND

676

TENURE

viewed at the end of the war and it was decided to repeal the three duties. This was done by the Finance Act, 1920, and provision was made to repay all the duty collected since their imposition. The Mineral Rights Duty alone remained in force. Australia.—In Australia the new land taxes have taken the form of taxes on the “unimproved” value of land, the value of buildings and other improvements being excluded from assessment. The taxes were partly designed to break up large holdings and to this end the rates of tax are usually graduated so as to bear heavily on large landowners. Victoria introduced a tax on

imposed in America but they were not merged into general ro erty taxes until many years after the formation of the Republic With the adoption of the Federal Constitution, restric tions Were placed upon levy of direct taxes so that land taxes have been preserved for use of State and local governments.

land values in 1877 and was followed in course of time by the

or 22-7% of their revenues, from this source.

With development of general property taxes, land along with improvements and personal property came to be taxed at a uniform rate in jurisdictions levying this tax. This system became the prevailing method of taxation employed by State and local

governments.

In 1926 the various States received $375,674,160

The relative im.

other States. The most important development, however, occurred

portance of the tax for State purposes has been declining due to

(graduated from 1d. to 6d. in the £) throughout Australia, in addition to the existing State taxes. For 1926 the Commonwealth scale ranged from id. to od. in the £, and there were graduated taxes in Queensland (1d. to 8d.), South Australia ($d. to z4d,) ahd Tasmania (3d. to 3$d.). The tax was levied at a flat rate in Victoria (4d. plus 5%), Western Australia (1d. or 2d.) and New South Wales (1d.). The land tax revenue raised by the Commonwealth and the separate States for 1925~26 contrasted with their total taxation revenue was :—

rely upon the tax for 63-8% of revenues. In 1926, cities of over 30,000 inhabitants collected $1,747,163,136 from this tax. The importance to counties and minor divisions of government is even greater. In 1922 they received 92-1% of revenues from this tay

in 1910, when the Commonwealth instituted a federal land tax

Land tax | Total taxarevenue tion revenue

£

Commonwealth

New South Wales Victoria | Queensland E

South Australia Western Australia

=. n

The cities, however

The general property tax is primarily a tax upon real estate. Th

1926 the total assessment subject to State general property taxes was $142,091,873,725; 316,473,975 or 76-2%

the assessment of real estate was $108,of the total; the assessment of personal

property was $28,548,989,811 or 20-1% of the total. It is impos-

sible to separate the assessment of land from the assessment of

improvements except in a few instances. In New Vork city in 1927 the land valuations amounted to $6,982,333,754; improvements were assessed at $6,729,074,461. This relative equality between land and improvement values will scarcely be found elsewhere in

2,522,000

| 54,373,000

American cities. In 1926 New York city collected $328,165,996,

244,000 145,000

2,660,000 1,418,000

citing the fact that the major portion of public expenditures inure to the benefit of real property; (2) by advancing the doctrine

2,700 457,000 468,000

A ie

Tasmania

126,000

8,851,000 3,179,000 4,104,000 1,240,000

New Zealand.—As early as 1878 New Zealand instituted a tax of 4d. in the £ on the unimproved value of real estate.

Although abolished in 1879 and replaced by a general property

tax, the land tax was re-instituted in 1891, and after 1893 was again restricted to the unimproved value. For 1925—26 the tax was graduated from about rd. to 74d. in the £. The tax produced £1,266,000 towards the total taxation revenue of £17,254,000. Germany—vVarious towns adopted an increment (Werizuwachs) tax on land beginning with Frankfort in rgqo4, followed by Berlin, Cologne, Hanover and many others. In rg1z nearly all the local taxes were superseded by a general Imperial tax levied on the inctease in the value of land on sale, allowance being made for expenditure on permanent improvements. The rate was graduated from 10%, to 30% of the increase in value, according to the proportion which the latter bore to the cost price plus expenditure on permanent improvements. In 1913, however, in view of the mtroduction of the Defence Contribution and Property Tax, the Imperial Government ceased to levy the increment tax, leaving it to any of the States and communes to

continue it locally if they desired.

the development of other sources of revenue.

The fact that in Germany

the tax was imposed (except for two years) as a local tax and not as a national tax is of some interest mm the theory of land values taxation. The increase in value will vary considerably over the whole country according to local conditions, and local land values taxes give the fiscal advantage to the particular area

whose local conditions affect the ‘value.

or 70:5% of its revenues from real estate taxes.

The heavy burden upon real estate has been justified (r) by

that land taxes are capitalized so that future purchasers buy land

tax free; (3) by advancing the argument that land values are social values the greater share of which belong to the State, Objections to the heavy burden on real estate are made by landowners, especially farmers, who cite the fact that these taxes take too large a proportion of income. Other economic groups appear to be taxed less heavily on an income basis than land-owning classes. Moreover, the general property taxes have been condemned from theoretical and operative standpoints by all American scholars of public finance. A few special land taxes are found in the United States. Minnesota, Montana and Utah, for example, tax mines at rates different from other property. Minnesota taxes farm and urban land at different effective rates. Forests are specially treated in 26 States. The State of Oklahoma has a progressive tax on land based on acreage which has not been enforced.

Except

for forest, taxes,

special taxes on land have been opposed in the United States. Breriocrarny—Seligman, Essays in Taxation, roth ed.; Lutz, State Lax Commission; Leland, Classified Property Tax in United States; Haig, Exemption of Improvements from Taxation in Canada and United States; Scheftel, Taxation of Land Value; Reports of State Tax Commissions and Boards of Equalization; Wealth, Debt and Taxation (U.S. Census); Proceedings, National Tax Association

(annual).

LAND

(S. E. L.

TENURE:

ECONOMIC

AND

AGRARIAN

ASPECTS. The word “tenure” (Latin, tenere, to hold) derives, probably, from the feudal system, the basis of which was that all land was “held” by one individual from another and none

was absolutely owned. The system was established in its strictest

'BIBLIOGRAPHY:—Annual Reports of the Commissioners of Inland form by William the Conqueror and in its gradual modification Revenue (in particular rst, 13th, 28th, 43rd, 48th and s4th); Dowell’s History of Taxes and Taxation in England (2nd edn. 1888) ; Bourdin’s throughout nearly a thousand years may be traced the developLand Tax (4th edn. 1894); W. Kennedy, English Taxation, 1640-1799 ment of modern land tenure in England. Feudalism.—At the Norman conquest all land was vested m the (1913); Blue Books on Taxation of Land, etc. (Cd. 4750 and 4845) ;

Seligman’s Essays in Toxation

(oth edn. ro2t, bibl., Macmillan);

Report of Sebect Committee on Land Values, 1920 (Cmd. 556); J. D. White, Laxd Vialue Policy (1924, United Committee for ‘Taxation of Land Values); Commonwealth of Australia, Official Year Books,

Annual Reports of Commissioners of Taxation, 4th Report of (Com-

monwealth) Royal Commission on Taxation (1920); New Zealand, Official ‘Year Books, ‘and Report of Royal Commission on Land & Income Tanation (1924). A. L. BE.)

United

States—Land

taxes were one

of the earliest taxes

king who made grants to his barons, knights and others, to

be “held” by them subject to the payment of dues or the render-

ing of services. So long as the conditions were fulfilled the grantees

enjoyed all the rights of ownership but in default the land reverted to the Crown. The unit of a grant was the manor of which the grantee was termed the lord (who might, and frequently did,

hold several manors) and he in his turn granted the use of the land to tenants, all of whom held it from him. -+

LAND TENURE The terms of tenure were various and the classes of tenants of

the manor numerous. There has been much controversy among

economic historians as to the precise status of the individuals

forming the manorial community and there appear to have been differences between one district and another and, indeed, between

one manor and another. For the present purpose it is sufficient to

note the existence from the outset of three classes—“‘free” tenants, villeins and cottars. Towards the end of the 14th century another class termed “copyholders” appeared.

“Free tenants” held their land on condition of liability to

military service, and, in many cases, as time went on, commuted

their liability for a quit-rent. They formed the class of “yeomen”

which played so large a part in English history. Sometimes their land was in a separate holding exclusively occupied but fre-

quently it was a part of the great manorial farm. “Copyholders” although less independent, frequently had, like them, a status akin to ownership as they held their land subject to the payment

of certain “fines” and “heriots” on specified occasions and had

usually the right of demising the holding. “Cottars’” were occupiers of a cottage and garden and perhaps from 2 to 5 acres of arable land in the common-field, but they had to depend for their livelihood mainly on labour for the lord— in addition to their obligatory service—or for the tenants.

Much the most numerous class were the villeins. By them practically the whole of the agricultural land was occupied except

the lord’s demesne, which was a separate and self-contained ‘home farm.” The status of the villeins was at the outset one of modi-

fed servitude. They were “unfree,” in that they were tied to the manor and were subject to the will of the lord. But each held

an allotment in the common-field with rights over the common

pasture and on the waste or woodland surrounding the manor. He paid rent to the lord, mainly in the form of labour, being under obligation to give so many days’ service on the lord’s demesne during the year. The arable land of the manor was divided into strips of an acre, or in some cases, half an acre, separated by “balks” of turf, but otherwise unfenced and open in one large field. Every villein held a number of these “strips” distributed in various parts of the field, and not adjoining. The extent of the

holding differed but the “hide” of 120 ac. appears to have been the normal economic unit, although many had no more than 30 or 60 acres. Each villein had a number of working oxen proportionate to his holding, eight being regarded as forming a plough team for a “hide” of land. The manorial organisation had no sooner been constructed on these apparently rigid lines than it began to be modified. The villeins struggled continually to secure greater freedom. The “‘custom of the manor” became established and eventually became binding on the lord as well as the tenants. Individuals more enterprising than their fellows not only acquired larger holdings but in many cases secured a commutation of their services for payment in cash or kind.

Leases.—The long story of the slow dissolution of the manorial system and the development of the villein into the tenant cannot be told here. It must suffice to note that by the end of the isth century a large part of the agricultural land was let to tenants on lease either for-a term of years, or for lives, at fixed rents. What was termed a “stock and land” lease was common, the ten-

ant renting not only the land and buildings but also a certain

head of live stock. In a well-known instance the land, buildings

and a flock of 360 wether sheep were let, in 1528, to a man for the lives of himself, his wife and his son whichever was the last survivor. The rent was fixed partly in produce and partly in cash. It is estimated that by the middle of the 16th century more than half the land in many parts of the country was let on lease. The letting of farms was gerierally established on the basis

677

jealous to protect in every possible way the interests of the owner. The main object of these conditions was to maintain the fertility of the land and to bind the tenant to farm in accordance with what were then considered the principles of good husbandry. The average farmer would not regard them as unreasonable. It was not until the latter part of the 18th century that the “new farming” brought improved practice, more enlightened landowners and more intelligent and responsible farmers. Leases for 7, 14 or 2x1 years were offered by the new race of “improving” landlords and eagerly taken by the new race of capitalist farmers. The lease for 21 years was popular in the eastern counties and it was also adopted in Scotland. Leases fell into some disfavour during the disturbed period of the Napoleonic wars but when conditions became more stable they again prevailed generally until the depression of the ’80s. Many who then held their farms on lease were only saved from ruin by the consideration of landlords, and tenants have ever since been very

chary of binding themselves for long periods. Leases

are still

common in Scotland but throughout England and Wales yearly tenancies are almost universal. English Tenant Right.—The equitable claim of a tenant to be recouped for his improvements arose as soon as the letting of farms became general. In many districts custom in some degree mitigated the legal position of tenants. By law everything that was put into the soil, or attached to the land became the property of the landlord. Bills to deal with this injustice were intro-

duced by Lord Portman in 1843 and Philip Pusey in 1847. Both were unsuccessful but the latter was referred to a select committee beforé which evidence was given showing the small amount of protection afforded to tenarits by custom. In most districts no allowance could be claimed even for durable improvements such as draining or liming and still less for the use of artificial manures or purchased feeding stuffs. . Still parliament refused redress, and it was not until the political influence of farmers was increased by the Reform Act of 1867 and they began to organise in chambers of agriculture that at

length, in 1875, the justice of their claim was conceded by the

first Agricultural Holdings Act. Unexhausted Improvements.—The act of 1875 did little more than give statutory recognition to the principle that a tenant was entitled to compensation, on quitting the holding, for the unexhausted value of improvements which he had made at his own expense. As it was not compulsory landlords generally stipulated in leases and agreements that it should hot apply and

consequently it had little practical effect. In 1883 another act framed on broader lines was passed which provided that no lease or agreement should be valid unless it either embodied the conditions of the act or gave terms not less favourable to thé tenant. By successive enactments the list of improvemerits for which

compensation may be claimed has been much extended and under the act of 1923 the rights of tenants are thus set out :—~ “Where the tenant of a holding has madé thereon any iniprove< ment comprised in the first schedule to this act he shall, subject as in this act mentioned, and, in a case where the contract of tenancy was made on or after the first day of January 1921, then whether the improvement was or was not an improvement which he was required to make by the terms of his tenancy, be entitled, at. the termination of the tenancy, on quitting his holding to ob- ` tain from the landlord as compensation for the improvement such sum as fairly represents the value of the improvement to an incoming tenant. “Tn the ascertainment of the amount of the compensation payable to a tenant ufider this section there shall be taken into account:

“(a) any benefit which the landlord has given or allowed to the tenant in consideration of the tenant executing the improves the tenant supplying the live stock and working capital. The ment, whether expressly stated in the contract to be ṣo given or terms on which the farm was let were minutely set out in the allowed or not; and “(b) as respects manuring as defined by this act, the value lease, the landlord, with the object of preventing deterioration of his property, binding the tenant by strict and detailed conditions. of the manure required by the contract of tenancy or by custom hese coriditions or covenants varied on different estates and they to be returned to the holding in respect of any crops grown on were gradually elaborated by the ingenuity of agents and lawyers, and sold off or removed from the holding within the last two years

that the owner provided the land, house and necessary buildings,

678

LAND

TENURE

of the tenancy or other less time for which the tenancy has endured, not exceeding the value of the manure which would have been produced by the consumption on the holding of the crops so sold off or removed. “Nothing in this section shall prejudice the right of a tenant to claim any compensation to which he may be entitled under custom, agreement or otherwise, in lieu of any compensation provided by this section.” The first schedule of the act, referred to in this section, contains the list of the improvements for which compensation is payable, as follows: |

(x) (2) (3) (4)

Erection, alteration or enlargement of buildings. Formation of silos. Laying down of permanent pasture. Making and planting of osier beds. _ (5) Making of water meadows or works of irrigation. (6) Making of gardens. (7) Making or improvement of roads or bridges. (8) Making or improvement of watercourses, ponds, wells, reservoirs or works for the application of water power or for supply of water for agricultural or domestic purposes. (9) Making and renewal of permanent fences. Planting of hops. Planting of orchards or fruit bushes. Protecting young fruit trees. Reclaiming of waste land. Warping or weiring of land. Embankments and sluices against floods. Erection of wirework in hop gardens. Provision of permanent sheep-dipping accommodation. In the case of arable land the removal of bracken, gorse, tree roots, boulders or other like obstruction to cultivation.

i

Part III. Improvements in respect of which consent of or notice to landlord is not required. (20) Chalking of land. (21) Clay burning. (22) Claying of land or spreading blaes upon land. (23) Liming of land. (24) Marling of land.

(25) Application to land of purchased artificial or other purchased manure. (26) Consumption on the holding by cattle, sheep or pigs, or by horses other than those regularly employed on the holding of corn, cake or other feeding stuff not produced on the holding. (27) Consumption on the holding by cattle, sheep or pigs or by horses, other than those regularly employed on the holding, of corn proved by satisfactory evidence to have been produced and consumed on the holding.

(28) Laying down temporary pasture with clover, grass, lucerne, sain-foin or other seeds, sown more than two years prior to the termination of the tenancy in so far as the value of the temporary pasture on the holding at the time of quitting exceeds the value of the temporary pasture on the holding at the commencement of the tenancy for which the tenant did not pay compensation. (29) Repairs to buildings, being buildings necessary for the proper cultivation or working of the holding, other than repairs which the tenant is himself under an obligation to execute: Provided that the tenant before beginning to execute any such - repairs shall give to the landlord notice in writing of his intention, together with particulars of such repairs, and shall not execute the repairs unless the landlord fails to execute them within a reasonable time after receiving such notice.

The consent of the landlord to improvements in Part I. must be given in writing and may be unconditional or on such terms as regards compensation as he may agree with the tenant. Compensation for drainage (Part IT.) is not payable unless the tenant gives notice, in writing, to the landlord not more than three nor less than two months before beginning to execute the improvement of his intention to do so, and of the manner in which he proposes to do it. The landlord may then agree with the tenant as to the terms of compensation or failing such agreement may execute the improvement “in any reasonable and proper manner which he thinks fit” and increase the annual rent of the farm by a’sum’ sufficient to repay the cost in a period of 25 years with

agreement, or in default of agreement by the minister of agriculture. A tenant is not entitled to claim compensation, except in re.

spect of manuring, for any improvement begun by him within one year of his quitting the holding.

Part I. Improvements to which consent of landlord is required.

Part IT. Improvement in respect of which notice to landlord is required. (19) Drainage.

interest at the rate of 3%. The minister of agriculture m regulation substitute such percentage or period as he thj ay by nks fit having regard to the current rates of interest. If the landlo rd fails to execute this improvement within a reasonable time t he tenant may do it himself and he is entitled to compensation, All claims by the tenant for compensation whether Under cys. tom or agreement are settled, unless the landlord and tenant agree, by arbitration. The arbitrator is appointed by mutual

The long list of improvements for which compensation may be

claimed would appear to afford reasonable security that a tenant

will recover on quitting his holding any capital expenditure of which he has not reaped the full benefit during his tenancy, In

the Agriculture Act 1920, however, a new principle was introduced

which established the right of the tenant to claim compensation

not only for specific improvements but also for adoption of a special standard or system of farming. The terms in which this right is given are as follows:— (1) of this faction of the

“Where a tenant who quits a holding after the commencement act” (z.e., after Jan. 1, 1921) “‘on so quitting proves to the satisof an arbitrator appointed under the act of 1908 that the value

holding to an incoming tenant has been increased during the tenancy by the continuous adoption of a standard of farming or a system of farming which has been more beneficial to the holding than the standard or system (if any) required by the contract of tenancy,

the arbitrator shall award to the tenant such compensation as in his opinion represents the value to an incoming tenant of the adoption of that standard or system: “Provided that: “(a) This section shall not apply in any case unless a record of the condition of the holding has been made under the act of 1908 or in Epee of any matter arising before the date of the record so made;

an

“(b) Compensation shall not be payable under this section unless the tenant has, before the termination of the tenancy, given notice in wane to the landlord of his intention to claim such compensation;

an

“(c) The arbitrator in assessing the value to an incoming tenant shall make due allowance for any compensation agreed or awarded to be paid to the tenant for any improvement specified in the first eae to the act of 1908 which has caused or contributed to the

enefit.

“(2) Nothing in this section shall entitle a tenant to recover in respect of an improvement specified in the first schedule or the third schedule to the act of 1908 any compensation which he would not have been entitled to recover if this section had not been passed. “(3) The continuous adoption of such a beneficial standard or system of farming as aforesaid shall be treated as an improvement for the purposes of the provisions of this act relating to the determination of the rent properly payable in respect of a holding.”

Rules of Good Husbandry.—The phrase “cultivating in accordance with the rules of good husbandry” is of ancient origin. Stipulations as to conforming with the rules of good husbandry were common in old leases and agreements. Indeed, apart from explicit conditions, conformity with the rules of good husbandry was obligatory, under the common law, on any tenant.

There was no definition of the term, and in cases of dispute the rules of good husbandry

applicable in a particular case were

proved by the evidence of experienced persons familiar with the farming practice of the district in which the farm was situated. In the Agriculture Act 1920, a legal definition was given to the term as folows— “The expression ‘rules of good husbandry’ means (due regard being had to the character of the holding) so far as is practicable having regard to its character and position— “(a) the maintenance of the land (whether arable, meadow or pasture), clean and in a good state of cultivation and fertility, and in good condition; and ’ “(b) the maintenance and clearing of drains, embankments and ditches; and “(c) the maintenance and proper repair of fences, stone walls, gates

and hedges; and

,

“(d) the execution of repairs to buildings, being repairs which are necessary for the proper cultivation and working of the land on which

they are to be executed; and

“(e) such rules of good husbandry

,

as are generally recognised as

LAND TENURE applying to holdings of the same character and in the same neighbourhood as the holding in respect of which the expression is to be applied;

Provided that the foregoing definition shall not imply an obligation on the part of any person to maintain or clear drains, embankments or

ditches, if and so far as the execution of the works required is rendered impossible (except at prohibitive or unreasonable expense) by reason of subsidence of any land or the blocking of outfalls which are not under the control of that person, or in its application to land in the occupation of a tenant imply an obligation on the part of the tenant— ; :

679

prietorship is the predominant system and where there is a dual interest in the occupation of land the most common system is that of metayage in one form or another (see METAYAGE SYSTEM). But in some countries the tenancy system as developed in England—that is the letting of farms by free contract on money

rents—prevails somewhat extensively. In Belgium, for example, about three-fourths of the farms are let on lease or annual tenancy. Leases for nine years, with option aG) to maintain or clear drains, embankments, or ditches, or to for either party to break the lease at three or six years, are usual and leases for 15 or 18 years are sometimes granted. In the 18th maintain or properly repair fences, stone walls, gates or hedges where such work is not required to be done by him under his contract of century emphyteutic tenures—.e., leases of a length varying from tenancy; Or , feria , “(ii.) to execute repairs to buildings which are not required to be 27 to 99 years, giving the tenant the right to erect buildings at his own cost—existed widely but these have greatly diminished. executed by him under his contract of tenancy.” It is said that examples of leases existed in Flanders as early as Security of Tenure.—Although, as has been said, the prac- the 13th century, but the very earliest form of tenure generally tice of letting farms on lease died out in England generally at the adopted was metayage which was gradually replaced by a system end of the last century, the system of yearly tenancies which known as “cheptal” which was in fact practically the stock and became almost universal did not, in fact, make any great change land lease system then common in England. By the end of the in the length of time for which farms were generally occupied. 18th century “‘cheptal” had disappeared and although metayage On many estates instances were common of farming families who still survives the landlord and tenant system is now predominant. had occupied the same farm for generations although subject Flanders led the way in modern methods of husbandry and in legally to a year’s notice. On the other hand instances sometimes the 16th and 17th centuries was held up, not unjustly, as a model occurred of the eviction of old tenants for reasons unconnected for English farming. with their competence or solvency as farmers. It was felt as a In Denmark over 90% of the agricultural holdings are owned grievance that a man should be turned out of a farm because, by the occupiers and tenancies are rare. But a new form of tenfor some reason or other, he had become personally objectionable ancy has been created, under an act passed in 1919, which placed to his landlord, and a demand arose either for “fixity of tenure” in the possession of the State 120,000 acres of land suitable for or “compensation for disturbance.” This demand was strongly small holdings. The applicants for these holdings are offered the opposed as an unreasonable interference with the rights of land- choice of purchase or tenancy. If they choose tenancy they pay owners but the interests of the tenants prevailed and the Agricul- rent to the State equal to 44 per cent of the value of the land. ture Act of 1920 contained provisions for compensating the ten- They have absolute security of tenure subject to the condition ant if his tenancy is terminated except for certain specific causes. that they cultivate the holding satisfactorily. Indeed provided These provisions do not, in terms, give fixity of tenure, but they they comply with this condition and pay the fixed rent they have are designed to penalize the landlord if he unreasonably evicts all the rights of ownership including the right of passing on the a competent and solvent tenant. tenancy of the holding to their heirs. The reasons for which a tenant may be evicted without payThis novel system of tenancy is avowedly an experiment and is

ment of compensation are:

(1) That he is not cultivating the holding in accordance with the rules of good husbandry. (2) That he has failed to pay the rent due, or to remedy any breach of a condition of the tenancy consistent with good husbandry. (3) That he has materially prejudiced the interests of the landlord by committing a breach which was not capable of being remedied of any condition of the tenancy consistent with good husbandry. (4) That he has become bankrupt. (3) That he has refused or failed to agree to a demand by the landlord as to the rent to be paid for the holding.

(6) That he has refused or failed to comply with a demand by the landlord to execute an agreement setting out the terms of the tenancy.

If the tenant is given notice to quit the holding compensation is payable to him by the landlord unless he states that the notice is given for one or more of these reasons. The landlord may at any time apply to the agricultural com-

mittee for the area in which the holding is situated for a certificate thet the tenant is not cultivating the holding according to the rules of good husbandry. The committee has to give both landlord and tenant the opportunity of being heard and must grant

or refuse the application within one month. Either the landlord

or tenant, if he does not accept the decision of the agricultural committee, may require that the question as to whether the holding is being cultivated in accordance with the rules of good hus-

bandry be referred to an arbitrator whose decision is final. The tenant has a right to demand that the question of the amount of rent to be paid in future shall be referred to arbitration, and if the landlord refuses, the tenant, if he quits the holding for that reason, is entitled to compensation. The English landlord and tenant system, as developed from feudalism into its present form, is unique. Under no other system has the occupier of land ṣo much control and the owner so little.

devised with the object of securing to farmers all the advantages of ownership while at the same time ensuring that, in the public interest, full use is made of the land. The Economic Effect of Tenure—The conditions under which agricultural land is held—in other words the precise form of tenure—are diverse. A complete description of them as they are found in different countries would be very voluminous and would reveal a wide variety in the terms on which men occupy land. The large majority of those who occupy and cultivate agricultural land possess the right of ownership. France is typically a country of peasant proprietors who have complete control of their property and are in no way restricted by law or otherwise in dealing with it. Similar conditions exist also in other countries but in some cases the proprietorship of the peasant is modified by communal rules and traditions. It would appear at first sight that the line of demarcation between ownership and tenancy is well-defined, but in fact owner-ship may give no more than limited control of the land, and on the other hand the terms of tenancy may be such—as in the case of the new class of State tenants in Denmark above-mentioned— that they confer practically all the rights of ownership. From the economic, as distinct from the legal, point of view, the tenure of agricultural land falls into two main classes. In the one class the occupier has full possession of, and security in, the holding and control of its use, and in the other class his occupation is dependent on the will of another and his use of the land is subject to limitations. It is commonly assumed that the ownership of agricultural land by the occupier will ensure its most effective economic use. The dictum of Arthur Young that “the magic of property turns sand into gold” is quoted as expressing an unchallengeable truth of universal application. No such generalisation can be fairly

The liabilities of the landlord for the equipment and upkeep of the farm remain unaffected but the effect of recent legislation is made if facts and not theories are considered. No doubt the as-

to make him otherwise little more than a rent-receiver.

World Aspects.—Over the greater part of the world the oc-

cupiers of agricultural land are the owners of it. Peasant pro-

surance that all the fruits of a man’s toil and enterprise will accrue to himself and will not be shared with another is a strong incentive

to energy, but other factors, psychological, political, racial, or

LAND

680

TENURE

other, may tend to counteract this influence. In any case, although it is easy to cite instances where the most intensive cultivation of the soil is practised under conditions of ownership, it is equally easy to refer to cases where under the same conditions the land is ill-cultivated and neglected. On the other hand a system of tenancy may, as was the case in England in the last century, before farmers possessed any statutory rights in their holdings, result, as it did, in the highest development of the art of husbandry.

Flanders also presents an example of the same fact. The

conclusion is that while conditions

of tenure may have

a considerable influence on the economic use of land they cannot be regarded as decisive. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Systems of Land Tenure in various countries (Cassells, 1881); Lord Ernle, English farming, past and present (1927); G. Shaw Lefevre, Agrarian tenures (1893); J. E. Thorold Rogers, Six centuries of work and labour (1909) ; B. Seebohn Rowntree, Land and Labour, lessons from Belgium (1910); Henry Rew, “Agricultural Tenancies in England,” International Review of Agricultural Economics (1926) ; and The Land and the Nation (1925); J. A. Venn, Founda-

tions of Agricultural Economics (1923).

THE UNITED

(R. H. R.)

STATES

Tenure means the holding of land and the rights that go with such holding. It includes everything from fee simple title, embracing all possible rights within the general limitations imposed by government, down to the most restricted forms of tenancy.

Tenancy means holding land under the ownership of another. As so often has been said, property is a bundle of rights, and a study of tenure means partial analysis of these rights. Indian Land Tenute.—In the United States the earliest tenure is that of the North American Indian. Indian tenure very considerably depended upon whether the Indians were nomadic or whether they had a fixed place of abode. In general we say that their tenure was that of possession rather than of property.

Property means that one’s rights are developed and safeguarded by a higher authority of a public nature; in modern times briefly, the state. The Indians held title to the land largely by force against outsiders and the tenure was that of the tribe rather than that of the individual. However, in the case of some tribes cer-

tain rights of individuals or families in regard to land were recog-

nized and protected. This situation was more likely to be true of some of the sedentary Indians, especially in the southwestern part

of the country, where more highly developed agriculture was pursued. Here often particular pieces of land were owned and cultivated by individuals or families and at death these rights went to a member of the clan. The Indians did not develop the right of alienating land by sale until they came into contact with the white race. In treaties with the whites the Indians thought they were giving to the whites the same privileges that they had, rather than giving exclusive rights to the land. In 1783 the government prohibited individuals from bargaining with the Indians for land, reserving this power to Congress alone. In the case of the public domain the government insisted that the Indian rights to the land must be extinguished by treaties before the land could be surveyed or opened for sale. According to the latest public reports available in 1929, there were in the United States 35,000,000 ac. in Indian reservations. These were established either by treaty or by order of the president. Until 1887 the Indian land was generally held by the tribe rather than by the individual. By an act passed at that time individuals were to be allotted land and after a certain length of time given a title in fee simple. Land Tenure in Colonial Times.—Except for these Indian beginnings, land tenure is for the most part traced back to England. In Florida and in the southwestern part of the United States the Spanish influence prevailed, but when this land became a part of the United States the English common law was taken over with few exceptions. In Texas the Spanish law in regard to minerals held until 1866. This meant that mineral rights were reserved to the state. In Louisiana the French civil code is still in use. In the colonial period the highest property was that of the Crown and that obtained in America. The form of settlement was somewhat different in New England from that in the rest of the country. Large grants of land in New England were given

to the trading companies by the Crown and these companies in turn granted land to groups of settlers but only Occasionally to individuals. In this way the land was settled compactly in Village

communities.

Land was set aside for the church, the school anq

other community purposes before home lots were transferred to

each settler. The remainder of the grant was divided into farm areas. Originally each settler had several different strips. When

this was found to be inconvenient, there was a tendency to consolidate each man’s holdings into one piece. Primogeniture was modified to the extent that the eldest son inherited only two-thirds of the father’s estate. As long as this method of settlement was used there was substantially no speculation in land in New England. In the remainder of the country the proprietary system of settle. ment was more general. Pennsylvania derives its name from Wil-

liam Penn to whom a vast territory was awarded, and Baltimore

traces back to Lord Baltimore who also had a large grant from the Crown.

In the selling of land to settlers, the grantees transferred

larger holdings than was the case in New England. Especially was

this true in the South where it was profitable to farm larger areas. This scattering of settlers in the South postponed the formation of communities, comparable with the compact settlements of New England. Moreover, the title was not so clearly established under the Southern method of colonization. New York was the only colony in which a manor system was built up. Outside of Rhode Island, Massachusetts and Connecticut a quit-rent was demanded of all settlers but was collected often with difficulty, if at all. When British sovereignty was terminated by the treaty of 1783, lands hitherto belonging to the crown went to the separate states in which, rather than in the federal government, the highest right

of eminent domain was vested. Coincidently with the breaking of

colonial ties, began the modification of some features of the mother country's system of land tenure. In conformity with public sentiment, allodial tenure was in many instances substituted for the English idea of an overlord, although some traces of the earlier concept lingered long, especially in New York State. The form of freehold tenure was extended by the ordinance of 1787 to all the lands held by the nation. The

Importance

THE of

PUBLIC DOMAIN the Public Domain.—The

various

plans of disposing of the vast public domain form the dominating influence in the development of land tenure in the United States. The fact that the land was disposed of by the national government instead of the states is important since it has meant one land

policy instead of 48 possibly different policies. Early in the republic’s history the suggestion was made that the land should always remain in the public domain and the rentals therefrom should be paid into the public treasury. Thus it was contended

vast sums could be used for public purposes. This policy could not well be sustained scientifically although it is superficially plausible. Since land taxation in the United States is based upon selling value, a substantial proportion of land value is virtually public property. As a matter of fact real estate taxes have grown to such enormous proportions as to indicate that the tax revenues have exceeded what might have accrued from rents of public land. But we cannot enter into the theoretical consideration of the two methods of public versus private ownership of land now and here. Suffice it to say that the American ideal has been that of private property and development has been along that line. Building Up the Public Domain.—At the close of the Revolution the confederated colonies held no land themselves although

they had offered to the soldiers military bounties in the form of land. Because of the conflicting claims of the new states some states suggested that all claims be ceded to the confederacy. This marked the beginning of the public domain and was an important

factor in holding the states together in the early life of the nation. Tennessee was ceded by North Carolina but never became a part of the public domain because it was already almost entirely covered by private claims. Virginia reserved from its ceded claims the region later made the separate state of Kentucky so that none of the unoccupied lands of Kentucky became part of the public domain. With these two exceptions the land west of the original

LAND

TENURE

states became the nucleus of the public domain although the states

681

country the land was taken up very rapidly. Settlers then needed

very little capital, However, speculation was encouraged, for only a small payment down was required; no further payment was required for the first two years and the land was not forfeited it reached an aggregate total of about 2,186,862 square miles or until five years after settlement. Thus there was the constant 1,309,591,080 acres which at one time or another was part of the temptation to take up as much land as possible, with the hope public domain. The last major addition to the public domain was that land values would rise or that the government would extend made in 1867 when 378,000,000 acres were added by the purchase the time for payment. Under the credit system 19,399,158 acres were sold. of Alaska. From 1800 to 1820 little change was made in the method of When land-was acquired from other countries by the United States, every effort was made to respect the grants given under settling the public domain. Some further reduction was made in the previous governments. Some of these grants were extensive, the minimum size of lots but most interest centered around the especially in the southwest, and many of them were very indefinite. problems of credit. The government, always inclined to be lenSome of the effects of these early grants are seen today. In 1917 ient towards the settlers, passed a number of acts extending the in the eight counties of southern California approximately 50% time allowed for payment, but in spite of these relief acts an of the land not owned by the railroads or the public was owned in enormous amount of money was due to the United States. In holdings of 2,000 acres or more; seven holdings exceeded 50,000 1820 the credit system was finally abolished. (3) 1820~1841.—The act of 1820 permitted land to be bought acres each. These large holdings are for the most part a result of Mexican and Spanish grants. The foreign grants in the Ohio sec- in tracts as small as 80 acres and the minimum price was reduced Hon were not so large. But in all these sections the foreign claims to $1.25 an acre but no credit was allowed. During this period made for confusion and obstructed land settlement since the of cash sales the feeling grew that the land should be disposed Government attempted to determine these claims before opening of to the best advantage of the settler and not mainly for the up the land for surveying and sale. Because of this delay a good purpose of deriving revenue. This feeling culminated in the premany people settled on the land before it was surveyed and this emption law of 1841. (4) 1841-1891.—~The pre-emption law legalized the vested inmade the situation still more difficult and confusing. Alienation of the Public Domain.—tThe alienation of the terests of the squatters on the public domain. Hitherto special public domain may conveniently be discussed by periods: (1) pre-emption laws had been passed to meet certain situations. Gen1785-1800, sales in large tracts; (2) 1800~1820, credit sales; (3) eral pre-emption gave the squatter the first opportunity to buy his 1820-1841, cash sales; (4) 1841-1871, pre-emption law; (5) claim up to a quarter-section, which meant private sales instead of 1841-1871, large land grants; (6) 1862 to the present time, public auctions, and sales at minimum prices or the double minimum if the land lay beside a railroad. The pre-emption law was homestead law; (7) 1880 to the present, reform and conservation. These periods overlap and some of the characteristics of not repealed until 189r. In 1854, after 20 years’ discussion, another act, known as the one period are found in most of the others but certain outstanding features in each period make it possible to mark them off in this graduation law, was passed, in the interest of the settlers who supported it. To hasten the disposal of public land which reway: (1) 1785-1800.—The public land policy in the earliest period mained unsold after being put on the market because settlers prewas dominated by the Federal government’s urgent need for ferred squatting on land farther west, the act authorized gradual money after the Revolution. Since the chief asset was land, the reduction of the price of such land to 124 cents an acre after government decided to obtain the needed revenue by selling the being in the market for 30 years. This was in line with the policy public domain, a motive that persisted well into the rgth century. of transferring the public domain to individual owners as rapidly

reserved some land for their own use, as the Connecticut reserve in Ohio. By purchase, cession and annexation this original public domain was enlarged until, after subtracting prior private claims,

as possible. Moreover, it was hoped that the new settlers attracted by these more liberal provisions would make more valuable the land already taken up. During the eight years this law Attempts were made to alter this in later acts, but fortunately it was in effect 25,696,000 acres of land were sold at $r per acre was never changed. The great importance of the rectangular sur- or less. However, much of this land passed into the hands of vey is its cheapness, quickness and definiteness, with the result speculators instead of settlers as had been hoped. (5) 1841-1871.—From 1841 to 1871 is often called the landthat the possibilities of error as to title are reduced to a minimum. Under the ordinance of 1785 land was first to be bought from the grants period in connection with the disposal of the public domain. Indians, then to be surveyed and sold by townships or by sec- Grants were made both before and after this period but not on so

The ordinance of 1785 was the first act passed dealing with the disposal of the public domain. One of the most important features of this act was the establishment of the rectangular survey.

tions of 640 acres for a minimum of $r an acre. This was a compromise between the New England and southern method of settle-

ment. The land did not sell rapidly and insufficient revenue was obtained. Several companies were ready to buy large tracts and the government sold about 1,500,000 acres to the Ohio Company and to Symmes.

Most of the settlers during this period went on land owned by

private companies or reserved by the original state. These tracts could be obtained in smaller units and in more settled parts of the country where there was less fear of attack by the Indians. Some states at this time offered the land at a price even less than that of the national government, and also allowed a longer time in which to pay.

(2) z800-1820.—The credit system was introduced when it be-

came clear that actual settlers could not buy land in such large tracts as 640 acres, especially if they had to pay for the land within a year. Either the size of tracts offered or the price of the land had to be reduced or the amount of time allowed for pay-

extensive a scale. Educational and religious grants were made in colonial times and the early grants of the Federal government for education followed the policy of the colonies. In 1827 canal

and wagon road grants were first made. During the land-grants period large grants were made to the states both for internal improvements and for education. In all approximately 99,000,000 ac. were given to the states for education. The early grants were for common schools but later grants were given for higher education also. Especially large grants were given by the government for agricultural and mechanic arts colleges. Sixty-four million acres of swamp land also were given to the states for drainage, some of it being a subsidy to education. The states made some attempts to lease the school lands at first but found it impracticable, the cost of collecting the rent often exceeding the proceeds. The states then turned to selling the land

for the most part although there is still some school land which is leased. The city of Chicago, for example, has very valuable property belonging to the school fund. The states generally have

ment had to be lengthened. The minimum price had been raised to $2 an acre in 1796 and was not changed, but in 1800 the amount of time allowed for payment was extended to five years and the

disposed of their land in much the same way as the national

With this extended credit and the more prosperous condition of the

129,000,000 ac.) from the federal government during this period.

minimum area that might be bought was reduced to a half-section.

government, often competing with the Federal government for settlers and underselling it.

The railroads were other important recipients of land (about

682

LAND

TENURE

Not only did these gifts include the right of way but also every other section along the right of way, the government retaining intervening sections. Mineral rights except for coal and iron were retained by the government, the railroad being given the right to select land elsewhere if minerals were found. The railroads were interested in selling their land as rapidly as possible; in fact, in some instances selling to settlers was stipulated in the grant. However, there are still large amounts of land in the hands of some of the railroads. In general the railroads sold land in small tracts although it is true that there are some large holdings which probably would not be in existence had the land not passed through the hands of the railroads. (6) 2862-r880.—After years of agitation the Homestead law giving free land to settlers was passed in 1862. Previously the free land movement had encountered insuperable obstacles in the widely supported policy of deriving revenue from the public domain and in the opposition of the southern states, although in Florida and Oregon free grants of as much as 640 acres had been made to attract frontiersmen. However, by 1862 the movement for free land had gathered such momentum that, after the opposing southern states had seceded, the law was passed even though the country was in special need of revenue for war purposes. The law provided that settlers were entitled to 160 acres of land free if they lived on their land and cultivated it for five years. The residence requirement was afterwards reduced to three years. No land acquired under the Homestead law could be taken in satisfaction of a debt made before the patent was issued. For those who did not wish to fulfill the residence requirements the commutation privilege provided that after fulfilling certain other requirements a person might buy the land at $1.25 or $2.50 an acre and immediately obtain patents thereto. At first this privilege was rarely used but later when the west was settling more rapidly and the value of land was rising rapidly commutation became very common.. It was possible for the speculator to obtain land in this way and sell to farmers. This process was facilitated by the fact that a portion of the west was being opened in which 160 ac. was too small an agricultural unit. In North Dakota, for example, grain farming could be done more profitably on a large farm. Indeed, the average size of the North Dakota farm increased from 382 acres In 1910 to 466 acres in 1920. The problem of adjusting the land system to the arid region of the west was dificult. When the Homestead law was passed, Congress had the humid section of the country east of the rooth meridian in mind, but it was soon seen that 160-ac. tracts were not the proper units for farming on the plains. Accordingly in 1904 an act applying to Nebraska allowed 640 ac. tc be taken up under the Homestead law and later 320 ac. was the amount allowed in some other states. Previously, in 1877, a new law had provided that a settler could buy 640 ac. of desert land for $1.25 an acre if he would irrigate it within three years. But the terms

of this act were vague and the legislators overlooked the fact that on irrigated land intensive farming was required for which 640 ac. was entirely too much. There was a good deal of fraud in connection with this law. Some of the land was never irrigated but was taken up for grazing. The problem of irrigated land in the arid region was more effectively dealt with in the Carey Act of 1894 under which the states in that region acquired about 4,000,000 ac. for irrigation and settlement. In 1902 the federal government itself undertook some reclamation projects which, in the course of time, included approximately two million acres. However, the expense of irrigation proved greater than was anticipated and many settlers have not been able to meet their payments. In the desire to further farm ownership the government overlooked the fact that high-cost irrigated land is not needed at present.

A proper solution of the disposition of grazing land in the west has not yet been worked out. Many stockmen have simply used

the public domain. This worked satisfactorily until farmers wished to settle some of this land which was also suitable for farming. In 1916 an act was passed providing that land for stockraising could be taken up in 640-acre tracts. This amount is wholly inadequate in most parts of the grazing country. Much

larger areas are needed where land is suitable only for grazin and enough cannot be taken up under present laws. In many in-& stances stockmen got control of the land immediately adjacent to a water supply and then used the surrounding country. Some of the states have developed the policy of leasing grazing priy-

ileges on state-owned land, a policy which the Federal government

also follows with respect to the national forests. Considering these last-discussed classes of land in the aggregate, by 1923 under the homestead, timber culture, desert land and reclamation acts, 256,000,000 ac. had passed into the hands of private owners.

(7) 1880-1929.—Until the decade of the seventies little dis.

tinction among classes of land was made by the government. The gold, silver, lead and copper mines were specifically mentioned in the ordinance of 1785 and the saline lands were reserved in the act of 1796, but no general law applying to minerals was passed until 1866, and this law was nothing more than a confirmation

of local customs in regard to mining. Because land was so abundant, little attention was given to the importance of natural re. sources and classification was not considered necessary. Even in the Civil War decade timber land was so plentiful that forests

were regarded more as a liability than an asset. However, when

settlement on the plains of the west began in earnest an interest

in the forests and their preservation began to grow. In 1873 under

the timber culture act a farmer was allowed 160 ac. additional in return for devoting one-fourth of his farm to the growth of trees. This law remained in force until 1891, though it did not bring the expected results. Tree growing of this kind was not suited to the section of the country then being developed and in addition one-fourth of the farm was a good deal to devote to timber culture. However, the law made it possible for men who had already taken up land under the homestead and pre-emption laws to acquire another 160 acres. As a result, about 10,000,000 ac. were alienated. In 1878 the Timber and Stone act was passed to take care of forested land, not suitable for agriculture. Such land was to be sold at not less than $2.50 an acre and in lots of not more than 160 ac. per person. Large areas of this land came into the hands of lumber companies who announced that they would in turn buy forest land from any one who would buy it from the government. By 1923 over 12 million acres of timber land had become private property under the Timber and Stone act, mainly in large holdings of lumber companies. Mineral Lands.—Little was done to work out a satisfactory solution regarding mineral lands until the 2oth century. In the early disposition of the public domain there are indications that Congress felt mineral lands should be treated differently from agricultural lands. Some attempts were made to lease mineral lands in the first half of the roth century. This policy was not notably successful as the administration of the leases in some cases cost more than the leases brought in. After 1841 mineral lands were not supposed to be sold to settlers on the same basis as agricultural land; yet most of the valuable mineral land east of the Mississippi passed into the hands of individuals under the general land laws because so little information was available regarding the location of minerals. Coal lands were not included in the general mineral laws. The first law in regard to coal lands was passed in 1864, and amended in 1873. As people began more fully to realize the value of these lands new laws were passed and in 1905 large amounts of land thought to contain coal were withdrawn from entry until they could be properly classified. Five years later, however, a settler wishing agricultural land might take up coal land, the government reserving the right to the coal. In 1917 a law was passed providing for the leasing of coal lands in Alaska and in 1920 this leasing policy was extended to the United States and to other minerals. During this period when land classification was making headway, the Homestead law was liberalized in some respects and

made more restrictive in others. In 1891 a law which embodied some of the recommendations contained in the 1880 report of the public land commission, reduced the residence requirements

under the Homestead law from five to three years and extended the residence

requirements

for commuted

homesteads

to 14

LAND TENURE

683

months, in order to induce settlers to remain the full three years.

However, as in England and in other older countries generally we find here and there those who prefer tenancy to ownership land suitable for forestry. Up to this time it was possible for one because the capital put into equipment yields a larger return than person to obtain 1,120 acres from the public domain under the that put into the land. American public opinion, however, looks various laws, but after 1891 the total amount one person might somewhat askance upon tenancy of this sort even if it does yield the farmer a larger income. Generally speaking, when tenants acquire was reduced to 320 acres. Most of the desirable land in the public domain had been have acquired a sufficient amount of property, they prefer to alienated by 1900. Coincidently the feeling that more care and buy farms rather than to hire them from the owner even though thought should be given to the disposal of the remainder had hiring might yield a larger income. Until recently the importance grown to a considerable extent. This marks the beginning of the of rising land values in the United States made it desirable and conservation movement in the United States. There are at present profitable to own the land. It is beginning to be seen then that a certain amount of tenancy about 161,000,000 acres in the national forests and about 48,000,ooo acres have been set aside either as mineral or power reserva- in the United States is a necessary good rather than a necessary evil although this must be qualified somewhat. Since the agricultions. The freehold system has always been and is an American ideal. tural depression a new problem in connection with agricultural So also is it that one who uses the land should own the land. land has arisen. A large number of farms—no authentic figures A dread of tenancy was brought to the United States from Europe. are available to indicate how many—have fallen into the hands of To Americans the European peasant suggests a renter and it is a trust companies, banks and insurance companies and others bepopular slogan that the United States must not be allowed to drift cause many farmers could not meet: the payments on their into peasantry. This means that the American farmer cultivating mortgages. Just what to do with these farms is a problem. The an economic unit sufficient to maintain his family in comfort with banks and trust companies do not want to sell in a period of deno overlord is the ideal. This ideal of the free and independent pression. It means that some sort of farm management and tenfarmer which has governed most of the legislation under which ancy must be developed until it is possible to sell more profitably. we have parted with the public domain and-which culminated in There is no evidence, however, that tenancy of this sort will disthe Homestead Act of 1862, passed when Abraham Lincoln was place the American ideal of family-sized, freehold farms. Urban Land.—Urban land is becoming an increasingly imporpresident, epitomized the ideal of free and equal opportunity in a democracy. Other acts have been animated by this same tant factor in the United States. In 1890 35-4 per cent of the thought. In many states are laws called “Homestead Acts” which population lived in cities; by 1920 this had increased to 51-4 per cent. In 1890 there were only 58 cities over 50,000; in 1920 there exempt the homesteads up to a certain value and a certain number of acres from seizure for debt. Here the importance attached were 144. With a continually greater proportion of the populato home and farm ownership is again stressed. Moreover, the tion of the country living in cities and in larger cities, the probpurpose of the Federal Farm Loan Act passed in 1916 is to give lems of urban land tenure and adequate housing have become comlong term credit to farmers and thus make it easier for them to plicated. Throughout the development of America home ownership has buy farms. | Tenancy.—Nevertheless as time has gone on, tenancy has de- been and still is the ideal, though there has been a very limited veloped. In 1880, the first year for which tenancy figures are and now passing use of the ground rent system as in the city of available, 25-69% of the farms of the country were operated by Baltimore. But in rapidly growing cities with very mobile populatenants; in 1925 this figure had risen to 38-8%. This is an in- tions tenancy must inevitably occupy a large place. It tends to evitable outcome of economic evolution, and of the process which increase as cities grow in size and the character of the population in the United States is described by the phrase “climbing the agri- changes. In 1920 the percentage of rented homes in cities of cultural ladder.” When we climb the agricultural ladder from 25,000 to 50,000 was 57-3; this increased with the size of the city the position of labourers, our purpose ordinarily is that of full until in cities of one million or more 78-8% were rented. For the ownership. There are various rungs on this ladder. One is tenant country as a whole 36.9% of the homes, not on farms, were owned partnership—the owner of the land furnishing part of the equip- in 1890; in 1920, 40-9% were owned. Of those owned 27-7% ment and the tenant part. This partnership arrangement in one were mortgaged in 1890 and 39-7% in 1920. Thus an increase form or another is typical. Frequently the owner of the land both in home ownership and in the indebtedness on homes has will advance all or part of the capital necessary to enable the occurred. For the developments arising out of the problems of urban land tenant to enter into the partnership. The age groups of farmers are evidence of this agricultural ladder. Tenants are usually tenure and the necessity of providing adequate housing accommoyounger than the owners. Another form of tenancy, rarely leading dation see Housine, section Housing in the United States. Recent Tendencies.—Probably in no other country of the to ownership, is the cropper-tenancy of the South. Under this arrangement the owner supplies all the capital, the tenant furnish- world has the development of natural resources proceeded as rapidly as in the United States. Unquestionably this development ing the labour only. The 1923 Yearbook of the Department of Agriculture sum- has been facilitated by the public policies of unrestricted private marizes the situation in regard to farm ownership and tenancy: enterprise and freehold tenure of land, aided by the deliberate “All but a small proportion of the landlords have grown up from alienation of a vast public domain. With the occupation of the the soil and possess direct experience with farming. More than best. frontier Jands accomplished three or more decades ago and a third are engaged in agricultural occupations, nearly another with the accelerated growth of cities since then, the problems of third are retired farmers, and the remaining third are in non- land tenure have changed. The option of free land no longer inagricultural occupations, mostly country bankers, merchants and fluences the labour movement in an important way. Tenancy, both professional men in the country towns and villages who have in country and in city, has taken on new significance. Where either come into farm ownership through inheritance or marriage, formerly tenancy, was regarded as an evil, now a certain amount or have purchased farms for purposes of investment or specula- of tenancy is more and more considered a necessary good. As we tion, Fifteen per cent of the owners of rented farms are women, have rungs on the agricultural ladder as one mounts to farm for the most part widows or daughters of deceased farmers. ownership, so we may have rungs on the ladder toward home Corporations do not comprise an important class of landlords. ownership in the city. In the case of the City Housing CorporaProbably not more than 10% of the rented farms are owned by tion, a rented apartment is now such a rung. One comes into the

This law also authorized the president to withdraw from entry

absentee landlords, and apparently there has been little change in

this regard since 1900. There is but little concentration of ownership, except in the plantation region of the South, and apparently for the country as a whole there has been no increase in concen-

tration.”

community of Sunnyside, hires an apartment and then, following the surrounding home-owners, eventually buys a home. These developments would hardly have been possible had they not been accompanied by an increasing fluidity of \landed property. The American population is mobile.

When a family’s residence

~

LAND

684

TENURE

in a community is of uncertain duration, the natural inclination is to lease rather than buy a dwelling unless real estate is easily and quickly transferable. Various developments, of which the Torrens system of registering title is an important one in some localities, have made possible the transfer of landed property with almost as much ease as any other commodity. Perhaps the most striking tendency in recent decades is the narrowing of the rights that go with land ownership. This is in accordance with economic evolution. As the use of land is intensified, problems of social control become more important. Zoning and subdivision control are representative of many instances of this tendency. The increasingly urban character of the country undoubtedly will accelerate this movement. Withal the ideal of private owner-occupation of land will probably continue to dominate. Measures of social control are designed to enable the great class of freeholders to realize more fully the benefits of this system of land tenure. Bisri0cRArHy.—Shosuke

Sato, History of the Land Question in the

United States (Johns Hopkins University Studies, vol. iv., 1886) ; P, J.

Treat, The National Land System 1785-1820 (1910), “Public Lands and Public Land Policy,” in Cyclopedia of American Government (1914) ; G, M. Stephenson, The Political History of the Public Lands from 1840-1862 (1917); R. McKitrick, “The Public Land System of Texas,”? Bulletin of the University of Wisconsin (No. 905, 1918); L. Magnusson, “Disposition of the Public Lands of the United States (with particular reference to wage-earning labour),” Bulletin of the Department of Labour (1919) ; B. W. Bond, The Quit-Rent System in the American Colonies (1919); F. J. Turner, The Frontier in American History

(1920);

F. J. Paxson,

History

of the

American

Frontier

(1924) ; B. H. Hibbard, A History of the Public Land Policies (1924) ; P, W. Bidwell and J. I. Falconer, History of Agriculture in the Northern United States 1620-1860 (Carnegie Inst. of Washington, 1925); H. F, Clark and F. A. Chase, Building and Loan Associations (1925); H. B. Dorau and A. G. Hinman, Urban Land Economies (1928); T. Donaldson, Public Damain, Report of Public Land Commission (1879) ; Large Land Holdings in Southern California, Report of Com-

mission of Immigration and Housing (1919); New York: Preliminary Report of the State Board of Housing (Dec. 15, 1926) ; Handbook of American Indians’ Land Tenure, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 30, Pt. I. (1907) ; Agricultural Year Book, United States Depart-

ment of Agriculture (1923); “The Amalgamated Co-operative Apartments,” in The Advance (Dec. 1927). (R. T. E.)

LAND

TENURE,

PRIMITIVE.

For primitive as for

modern societies the use of a certain area of the earth’s surface “is a primary condition of anything that man can do; it gives him room for his own actions, for the enjoyment of the heat and the light, the air and the rain which nature assigns to that area, and it determines his distance from and, in a great measure, his relations to other things and other persons.” (Marshall, Economics of Industry, 1898.) Land tenure is affected by the relative density of population. Thus, among the Andamanese, Professor Radcliffe Brown found that “an average local group consisted of from 4o to 50 persons of all ages, the average number of local groups to a tribe being about ten. This would give the average extent of country occupied by each local group as about 16 sq.m., but some groups certainly had a larger territory than this, and some had smaller.” (Andaman Islanders, 1922.) The areas required by other groups of the food-gatherer type are large. Thus, in Arctic America from 70 to 200 sq.m. are required for the support of the hunters. Pastoral nomads require from 2 to 5 sq.m., and agriculture, in its most intensive form, with rice as the staple of cultivation, will support a population of over 1,000 per square mile. (Census of India, vol. i, 1921.) A factor which affects the density of an agricultural population and the tenure of land is the method of cultivation employed. Communities in Assam, such as the Lusheis, practice extensive cultivation by the jhum, or fire and axe method, which speedily exhausts the resources of an area, and compels migration. There are in that area villages with permanent fields with temporary or jhum cultivation subsidiary thereto. There are also permanent Villages with permanent fields, and jhkum cultivation in set rotation. (Hodson, Naga Tribes of Namipur, 1911.) Tenure conditions deal with temporary dwellers with permanent cultivation. In communities in Africa and India both pastoralism and agriculture are followed, The relations between the groups prac-

tising these methods engender problems of land tenure, as do the relations between sections of the community subsisting by hun. ing, and those practising fixed agriculture. A feature of Pastoral life is the periodical movement of communities with their flocks

and herds, generally over well defined routes to definite areas which by custom they are entitled to exploit.

Simple Forms.—The study, therefore, of land tenure exhibits

simple forms only in communities where a single method of eco.

nomic exploitation secures the food supply, such as the Anda. manese and Australian tribes. Among the former, the hunting grounds of a local group belong to the whole group and all the members have an equal right to hunt over it, and the boundaries are generally recognized. In Australia, “from time immemorial] that is, as far back as their native traditions go—the boundaries

of the tribes have been where they are now fixed. Within then their ancestors roamed about hunting and performing their cere. monies, just as their living descendants do at the present day, There has never apparently been the least attempt made by one tribe to encroach upon the territory of another. Now and again they may have intertribal quarrels and fights, but there is no such

thing as the acquisition of fresh territory.”

(Spencer and Gillen,

Northern Tribes of Australia, 1904.) Similarly, among the American Indians such as the Creeks, “every individual inhabitant has an equal right to the soil and to hunt and range over its region, except within the jurisdiction of each town or village, which, I believe, seldom extends beyond its habitations and sporting ground. Perhaps the Uches are to be

excepted. They claim an exclusive territory by right of contract,

and though they have sometimes put the Creeks in mind of this

privilege, when their hunters make too free with their hunting grounds, yet the dispute seldom goes further, as the Confederacy

are cautious of offending the Uches and yield, to their common interest and safety.” (Report, Bureau of American Ethnology for

1924-25, 1928.),

Agriculture, Hunting and Pastoralism.—In East Africa the dominance of the Hamitic pastoralists over the earlier agricultural negroid population brought two sets of interests into relationship. Thus, among the Bunyoro, cultivation is avoided by the pastoral people; “it is said to be harmful for the wife of a man belonging to the pastoral clan to till the land, as by doing so, she may injure the cattle.” (J. Roscoe, Northern Bantu, 1915.) The king was the sole possessor and disposer of land, which was valued for its pastoral rather than for its agricultural qualities. Nevertheless, care was taken to provide some measure of security of tenure for the agriculturalists. Common Holding and Redistribution.—Within a community land is often held in common; even, as among the Creeks,

cultivated in common. Thus, “in the town plantation every family

or citizen had his parcel or share according to desire or convenience, or the largeness of his family. These fields were planted and cultivated by the town, working together and attending to the several plots in turn. They harvested at the same time, but each family harvested from its own plot.” (Bureau of American

Ethnology Report 1924-25, p. 336.) Communities are known which practise the periodical redistri-

bution of land. Thus, among the Marris in Baluchistan, land was divided every ten years.

“The tribe welcomed, indeed depended

upon, the admission of strangers for the maintenance of its strength, and it was not until after a man or group had been given a share of tribal land that women were given to him or them in marriage. At the time of the decennial division of land, the number of males of whatever age, in every sub-section of each section, is counted. In some cases the division takes place

among the married men of the section. . . . Lots are drawn.” ‘(Census of India, vol. v., 1901.) Among the Brahuis “Following the distribution of armed men among the clans and sections, came the division of the land

which had been acquired under Kacchi. The share of land of

each clan was proportionate to the number of armed men it had to produce, and the same system was followed in the case of each Dhagana or section until the individual was reached. Previous to this, however, a portion of land was specially set aside

RSE =o 9SERA Hee ne tte Se

LAND

‘TITLES

685

for the chief, in addition to that to which he was entitled on

it is the place to which at death their spirits return, thence to

account of his responsibility for 20 armed men. No individual is allowed to part with his land, and if a section happens to be

be reincarnated.

reduced to such small numbers as to be unable to undertake the burden of supplying the armed men assessed on it, a redistribu-

tion of tbe armed men is made among the remaining sections of the clan. A similar process is followed if a clan becomes ex-

tinct.” Mention is made of redistribution of clan land among

the Lhota Nagas. In Central Africa, the land held by a community is invested

in the chief as its head and representative. He is the murni-inshi (“master of the land”). He may not alienate it except by the permission of his people. He receives it with all the taboos attached to it—the sacred groves, the trees, ant-hills, pools, streams, the matongo, all of them with taboos attached—and it

is his to see that none is violated, and to hand them all to his

So, too, the Birhors of Chota Nagpur regard

with reverence the hills from which the ancestor of their clans emerged. Thus the sentiment of sacredness attaches to selected spots which are distinguished from other adjoining or similar spots by the traditional sentiment whose maintenance adds to the solidarity of the society. Religion colours the attitude of primitive man towards the land area he occupies. The Ila chief manages the land of the community as its head representative. “He receives it with all

taboos attached to it—the sacred groves, the trees, the ant-hills, pools, streams, the matongo—all of them with taboos attached——

and it is his to see that none is violated and to hand them on to his successor intact.” Thus the easements attached to land even in primitive communities are of very diverse origin, others related to military service, while corporate tenure is maintained

successor intact. Should a stranger wish to live on the land, a lubeta is called and the matter discussed. Many things have to

side by side with individual property.

be taken into consideration, including the character of the appli-

ownership of the source and scene of all property and all life, must necessarily be of a complex and in some aspects purely notional character. Its value, its immobility, its permanence, its variety of uses and relationships, give it a totally distinctive character and render it peculiarly liable to complication, doubt and dispute. In the case of goods, for instance, possession may ordinarily be relied on as proof of full ownership; in the case of land, the person in possession is seldom the owner, he is usually only a tenant, paying rent to someone else. Even the person to whom the rent is paid is in many cases—probably, in England, in most cases—not the full owner, but only a life owner, or a trustee, whose powers of disposing of the property are of a strictly limited nature. Again, goods are very seldom the subject of a

cant. ‘There is need for some circumspection in this respect for sometimes an undesirable person gets his head in and ends by turning the rightful owner out, or at least, making himself the

master. But unless patently undesirable the chief and his people are not likely to refuse him, because he adds to their number and dignity. The chief points out a place where he may live and cultivate, and informs him of taboos which he needs to know. If

he oversteps the borders allotted to him he will get into trouble. (Smith and Dale, Jla Speaking Peoples, 1920.) Where a community or society comprises minor sub-divisions or has certain typical institutions; these often occupy land as distinct units. Thus, among the Lhota Nagas “land can be held either by the village, a morung, a clan or an individual. The land close to a village is generally waste land, and common property, as are the rights of “poisoning” in certain pools, Every morung owns land, which is the property of the morung as a whole, and not of individuals. It is worked by the boys of the morung and the produce used to buy meat for ceremonies such as the rebuilding of the morung. . . . A very large proportion of the land in the Lhota country is clan land, which is held in common by all members of that particular clan or village. A man who leaves a village loses all right to clan land in the village. . . . Every year the members of the clan in a Lhota village meet and portion out land which each is to get that year, the senior men getting the bigger share. Strangely enough, this delicate operation never seems to result in a quarrel. ., . When direct heirs fail the land becomes clan land. If this were to go on indefinitely the whole of the land in a village would in time become clan land and no one would then be able to buy or sell land. To prevent this, from time to time when the amount of common

land be-

comes unwieldy, the clan meets and divides it up among the members who thus each become private owners of a portion of it. The process then begins again.” Recognition of the morung or Man’s House as a land holding unit indicates the rudiments of corporate tenure.

Among the Ila the boundaries are well recognised.

“No pas-

ser-by would know these boundaries. They are purely natural— a tree, an ant heap, a certain direction; all very vague, apparently, but known to all concerned as well as if fenced in with a stone wall. All boundaries are taboo. The chief apportions

the land to his people for their fields, but does it in the presence of a company so that there may be no doubt of it. When a person has his field apportioned, he puts in a few stakes, and afterwards clears a line round it, Woe to anyone who moves

his neighbour’s marks!” (Jla Speaking People, vol. i., 1920), the sentiment of the Commination service, where “Cursed is he who moves his neighbour’s land mark.” The sacred boundary stone, the natural landmark, the hill, the ravine, the river, acquire sanctity. Religious Sanctity.—In Australia totem groups are associ-

ated with definite spots which are therefore sacred, and men

LAND

TITLES.

The

ownership

of

land,

being

the

mortgage, whereas land has from time immemorial been the frequent subject of this class of transaction, which, if left undiscovered, might afterwards deprive the purchaser of a large part or even the whole of the value of his purchase. Apart from very early and primitive social conditions, there appear to be only two ways in which the required certainty as to title to land can be obtained. Either (t) the purchaser must satisfy himself, by an exhaustive scrutiny and review of all the deeds, wills, marriages, heirships and other documents and events by which the property has been conveyed, mortgaged, leased, devised or transmitted during a considerable period of time, that no loophole exists whereby an adverse claim can enter or be made good—this is called the system of Private Investigation of Title—or (2) the Government must keep an authoritative list or register of the properties within its jurisdiction, together with the names of the owners and particulars of the encumbrances in each case, and must protect purchasers and others dealing with land, on the faith of this register, from all adverse claims. This second system is called Registration of Title. It would seem fairly obvious that the latter system, if efficiently and economically administered, would be safer, cheaper and more expeditious than > the former, and so in fact it has proved in all cases where it has been established on an adequate scale to afford a proper comparison. The Private Investigation system may or may not be

assisted by the Government setting up a Register of Deeds. This is done in nearly all civilized countries except England, where it is confined to two counties—Yorkshire and Middlesex. It ‘consists in

the establishment of public offices in which all documents affecting

land are to be recorded—partly to preserve them in a readily accessible place, partly to prevent the possibility of any material deed or document being dishonestly concealed by a vendor. Where registration is effected by depositing a full copy of the deed, it also renders the subsequent falsification of the original document dangerous. In some countries registration is essential to the legal validity of a deed; in others régistration only confers priority over an unregistered one. Another expedient for getting over some of the worst draw-

backs of the Private Investigation system has been adopted on a

large scale in the United States, namely Insurance of Title (q.v.). belong to a spot because they originated there. The spot is An insurance company investigates in the ordinary way, charging sacred to the men because it is the place of their origin, because a premium for the trouble and risk of error.

686

LAND

One other matter of principle—recognized in some form or other by all systems—is that title can be acquired (or lost) by the mere fact of possession (or the want of it) continued for a

considerable time. This is called Prescription (g.v.). In English law it takes mostly a negative rather than a positive form, and

TITLES the states of the American Union, to a certain extent in Ireland, and is in course of establishment in England and Wales. On a sale

the purchaser can see in a few minutes from the register (or from an authorized copy of it called a land certificate) who is

the owner, what are the burdens (if any) and who owns then

is called Limitations of Actions. This consists in the deprivation and can at once prepare a transfer, usually in a short clear. one after another of the rights of possible adverse individual printed form. The vendor executes this in exchange for the purclaimants rather than the acquisition by the possessor of an chase money, the purchaser presents it at the registry, the neces. independent right, good against all the world, to which alone the sary alterations are made in the books, a new certificate is issued term prescription exactly applies. Where there are dormant to him and all is over. England and Wales.—Private investigation, assisted in Midrights (e.g., the remainder on an estate tail or on a long term of years) it may be a very long time before all such claims are dlesex and Yorkshire by Registration of Deeds, is still the preveffectively barred. Scotland, South Africa and most European alent system. The purchaser‘has a right to demand a perfect title countries recognize prescription in the more exact sense. beginning with a good root, at least 30 years old, but this Practical Developments.—tIn very early times, and in small right is frequently much modified by special contract. On an and simple communities, the difficulty afterwards found in estab- average, an investigation of title takes about a month. The lishing title to land does not arise, owing to the primitive habit of cost is ad valorem, on a sliding rate, the rate diminishing as the attaching ceremony and publicity to all dealings. The parties meet value increases. At typical values—-say £500, £2,000 and £20,000, on the land, with witnesses; symbolical acts (such as handing it is £10, £33 6s. 8d. and £126 13s. 4d. respectively. Both parties over a piece of earth, or the bough of a tree) are performed; pay these costs, so the total cost is double these amounts. In and a set form of words is spoken, expressive of the intention to Middlesex and Yorkshire a few shillings more for registration and convey. By this means the ownership of each estate in the comsearches are paid by the purchaser. Owing to the absence of a munity becomes to a certain extent a matter of common knowl- register, fraud by suppression of deeds, though rare, is not edge, rendering fraud and mistake difficult. But witnesses die, and unknown—especially in regard to mortgages. memory is short; and one of the earliest improvements conAbout 1855 the superior merits of Registration of Title began sists in the establishment of a sort of public record kept by the to be ventilated: in 1857 a Royal Commission reported in favour magistrate, lord or other local authority, containing a series of of it; in 1859 a government was introduced and in 1862 the lord contemporary notes of the effect of the various transactions that chancellor (Westburn) carried an act establishing it, but on a take place. This book becomes the general title-deed of the whole voluntary basis only. The act of 1862 was replaced by another in community, and as long as transactions remain simple, and not 1875 (passed by Lord Cairns with the support of Lord Selborne) too numerous, the results are quite satisfactory. Of this character still on voluntary lines. The House of Lords passed strong comare the Manorial Court Rolls, which were in the middle ages the pulsory bills in three successive years. The opposition came great authorities on title, both in England and on the Continent. in the Commons, where the professional interest was sufficient In the land registry at Vienna there is (or till lately was) a to secure a “block,” which was only finally removed in 1897, continuous series of registers of this kind going back to 1368, at the price of very heavy concessions. Under the Land Transfer in Prague to 1377, in Munich to 1440. No doubt there are Act of that year, coupled with orders in council made under it, extant manorial records in England of equal or greater antiquity; registration of the title has been compulsory on every sale and long since the abolition of the manorial courts in 1925--26, these are lease in the county of London ever since 1899. By the end of 1927 passing gradually into the keeping of local authorities under the upwards of 352,000 titles had been registered under it, representsuperintendence of the master of the rolls. Where dealings become ing a value of over 350 millions sterling. Compulsory orders more numerous and complicated, written instruments are required have also been made as to Eastbourne (1925) and Hastings to express the intentions of the parties, and afterwards to supply (1928). Particulars can be obtained from the circulars issued evidence of the landowner’s title. It appears, too, that as a general gratis by the Land Registry (Lincolns’ Inn Fields, London, W.C. rule the public books already described continue to be used, not- 2) or (for a few pence) from the chief Registrars’ Annual Reports. withstanding this change; only (as would be expected) the enIn 1922, Lord Birkenhead carried a Land Registration Act tries in them, once plain and simple, either grow into full copies founded on the report of a royal commission under Lord St. of the long and intricate deeds, or consist of mere notes stating Aldwyn (1909-11) and a committee of enquiry (1919) under that such and such deeds have been executed, leaving the persons Sir Leslie Scott. There is thus every probability that the interested to enquire for the originals, in whose custody soever system will, in due course be gradually applied by orders in they may be found. Here we have, in effect, the system of Pri- council under the new scheme of 1922 (which took permanent vate Investigation of Title, assisted by Registration of Deeds. shape, in Lord Cave’s Land Registration Act of 1925) to the It prevails in France, Belgium, parts of Switzerland, in Italy, whole of England and Wales. To give a few typical figures— Spain, India, in almost all the British dominions and colonies the cost of a sale (both parties’ solicitors’ and registry fees) under (except where superseded by a formal Registration of Title), registration of title at £500, £2,000 and £20,000 value is £11 in most of the States of the American Union, in the South Ameri- tos. od:, £29 6s. 8d. and £39 6s. 8d. respectively, with state guarcan republics, in Scotland and Ireland, and in the English coun- antee of title thrown in. The registry produces an annual surplus, ties of Yorkshire and Middlesex. Where it exists, there is gen- out of which £160,000 of capital expenditure on site and building erally a law to the effect that in case of dispute a registered deed has been defrayed and an insurance fund valued at £133,000 has shall prevail over an unregistered one. The practical effect is been built up and is increasing. that a purchaser can, by searching the register, find out exactly Pari passu with these developments of registration of title, conwhat deeds he ought to enquire for, and receives an assurance siderable improvements of detail have, during the last half centhat if, after completion, he registers his own conveyance, no tury, been made in the private investigation system itself—notably other deeds—even if they exist—will prevail against him. the shortening (in 1874) of the period of investigation on sales The more perfect system of Registration of Title consists from 60 to 40 years and (in 1922) to 30—and the establishment in collecting the transactions affecting each separate estate under (in 1882) of an ad valorem fee scale for solicitors’ remuneration a separate head, keeping an accurate account, generally by means instead of the old system of item costs. Also,:in 1926, a new of a map, of the parcels of which each such estate is composed, scheme of a far-reaching, but highly technical, character called and summarizing authoritatively, as each fresh transaction occurs, the “curtain” scheme came into operation, by which the titles the subsisting rights of all parties in relation to the land itself. to settled estates will ultimately be much simplified. This system prevails in Germany, Austria, and in most other parts Scotland and Ireland.—The Scottish system is private 1of the former Austro-Hungarian empire, in parts of Switzerland, vestigation, assisted by a very complete and efficient registry of Australia, New Zealand, nearly the whole of Canada, some of deeds, called the Register of Sasines. After 20 years on the

LAND TITLES register a good title is conferred, by prescription, on the grantee

and accordingly the investigation made on sales is for that period only. But it is not the practice, as in England, to curtail this by contract: the full legal title for 20 years is invariably shown.

The register for the whole of Scotland

(except certain royal

burghs which are gradually being brought into line) is at Edinburgh and was established

in 1617.

The Register of Sasines is

among the most complete and efficient deed registries in existence. Its distinctive features are the “minute” and the “search sheet.”

The former is a précis or abstract of each deed, officially made

and filed: the latter is a mode of arranging these minutes, according to the property affected, so that the register contains a readymade abstract of title for each estate, enabling a full investigation of Title was mooted

greater validity was attached to the Court Rolls than was the case in England. The present system was established by a law of 1790 after the abolition of seignorial institutions in 1789. This was modified by the Code Napoleon, and further perfected by a law of 1855 which is still in force. With regard to cost, the outstanding feature is the government duty, which is now permanently fixed at rates ranging from 15% in low values to 184% in high values. Besides this there is a temporary tax of 7% on the first sale after 1926. Before the War it was about 64%. There are also small charges for registration. The combined cost of duty and professional help works out on a general average at about 25 to 30% on the value and is paid by the purchaser. The vendor as a rule has no costs.

In

Germany and Austria.—By far the most important examples

and a

of registration of title at present existing—because they show how the system works when applied to large European communities, with all the intricacies and complications of modern civilized life—are to be found in Germany, Austria, Hungary and the other states formerly parts of the Austrian empire. In some parts of these countries registration of title has been established for several

to be made without difficulty or delay, in the office itself. 1906 the question of Registration

royal commission under Lord Dunedin produced a report showing much difference of opinion on the main issue, but containing

sundry suggestions which have been carried out under an act of 1924. The minimum purchaser’s costs are £5: at £100,000 they are £532 ros. od.

687

The vendor’s scale is two-thirds of the pur-

chaser’s—the latter also pays the registry fee (ranging from 5s. to £6). Fraud by suppression of deeds is unknown. Till 1891 the system in Ireland was private investigation, assisted (since 1708) by a deed registry in Dublin. There are now about 300,000 titles on the register and 10,000 first regis-

centuries—notably in Bohemia; in most parts it has existed for the greater part of the roth century;.in some districts, again, notably Tirol and the Rhine Provinces, it is of comparatively recent introduction. In all cases it appears to have been preceded

by a system of deed registration, which materially facilitated its establishment. In some cases, Prussia, for instance, the former is a department of the High Court. The fees are ad valorem, registers were kept in such a way as to amount in themselves to and average 18S. or 19s. in the Free State and ros. in Northern little short of a registry of title. Very low scales of fees suffice Ireland. Unlike the deed registry, Registration of Title ts admin- to pay all official expenses. In case of error, the officials are personally liable; failing these, the state. Other states are very istered to some extent locally: in Northern Ireland there are five similar. Owing to the ease and simplicity of the registers, it is local offices. British Dominions and Colonies.—Registration, either of not always necessary to employ professional help. When such help is required, the fees are low. In Vienna (prior to the War) deeds or of title, is universal. Registration of Title, generally £1 was a very usual fee for the purchaser’s lawyer, £10 being known outside the British Isles as the “Torrens system” after seldom reached. In Germany the register is private. In Austria Sir Robert Torrens, who first successfully introduced it into South it is open to public inspection. The systems are usually adminand states Australian the in universal Australia in 1857, is almost istered in districts, about 20 to 30m. across, attached to the local in New Zealand and has been partially adopted in Canada and law courts. In Baden and Wiirttemberg every parish (commune) elsewhere. In South Africa a mixed system prevails, conferring has its own registry. All ordinary dealings are transacted with the title. of most of the benefits of registration is absolute. Very full information The Australian states, with New Zealand, now furnish the most greatest expedition. Security as to the German and Austrian systems is given in the parliaconspicuous examples in the British empire of the success of mentary report (C. 8,139) of 1896. There has been no change registration of title. But prior to the year 1857 they had only of importance since that date. (C. F.-Br.) registration of deeds, and the expense, delay and confusion reUnited States.—“The characteristics of the American recordcrying a been have to appear dealings frequent the from sulting these: evil. Sir Robert Torrens, then registrar of deeds in South Aus- ing system which distinguish it from other systems are a deed, not a memorandum of a transfer tralia, drew up and carried an act establishing a register of title The document recorded is deed is operative without similar to the shipping register. The act rapidly became popular, or an agreement for a transfer; the record, the title passing before the deed is recorded; the record Australian other the and was adopted (with variations) in all evidence, but gives a legal states in the years 1861, 1862 1870 and 1874. Consolidating and is not a mere device for preserving In the first paramending acts have since been passed in most of these states. priority to the grantee of the recorded deed. system; in the registry mediaeval the from differs it ticular Only absolute title is registered. and the American As regards Canada, registration of title was introduced in Van- second from the continental registry systems from the recording couver island in 1861, was extended to the rest of British Colum- Torrens system of registration; in the third of Middlesex those like customs, local under England in system and bia in 1870, and was in 1885 adopted by Ontario, Manitoba System of the North-West Territories, and in 1903 (partially) by Nova and Yorkshire,” Joseph H. Beale, “The Origin of the Land (1907). 335 Bag, Green 19 America,” in Deeds Recording island Edward Prince and Brunswick Scotia. Only Quebec, New established system English the antedates America in registration The retain the old English system, plus registration of deeds. Colony in provinces which have adopted registration of title have adopted by the statute of 7 Anne c. 20. It began in Plymouth legislafirst The 1639. in Connecticut and Virginia in and 1626 similar is it Columbia British In forms. it in somewhat different to Lord Westbury’s act of 1862. The North-West Territories tion, however, that established the principle of preferring a refollow closely the Torrens acts. The Ontario act is almost a tran- corded deed to a prior unrecorded one was the Massachusetts statute of 1841. Since that time recording has been inaugurated in script of Lord Caitns’s act of 1875. France.—In France registration of deeds is universal. Sales, every State as its aid in facilitating commerce in land became mortgages, gifts and successions; easements, leases of over 18 apparent. The basic principles of the American recording system of every years and transactions affecting the land to the extent of three are two: registration gives absolute notice of the contents with years’ rent may lose priority if not registered. Wills need not be deed properly recorded to every person subsequently dealing and, secondly, registered. Mortgages must be re-registered every ten years. the property, whose duty it is to examine the record, Purchase deeds are registered by filing full copies. Registries gives all persons the right to rely upon the records as containing could affect are established in all the considerable towns. The title can usually a complete catalogue of every outstanding estate that though be fully investigated from the documents in the registry. Official their rights as purchasers of the land. Consequently, subsequent gives register to failure a mandatory, not is searches for mortgages are: commonly resorted to. Under the registration trations and 30,000

dealings

registered

annually.

The registry

monarchy the land system was practically copyhold tenure, but

parties dealing with the property in good faith superior rights.

LANDUMAN—LANE

688

The basic principle is easily illustrated by the following case: A, the owner of Blackacre, conveys in fee simple to B who fails to record. A thereafter conveys to C, who has no actual notice of the prior conveyance to B. C’s title is superior to the earlier title of B, though in some States this is true only if C records his deed before B records his prior deed. It should be noticed that recording is not necessary for the acquisition of title. Upon the conveyance to B, he immediately acquires title, but this is subject to be divested by a subsequent conveyance to another purchaser having no notice of the earlier deed. An unregistered deed may also be ineffective as against creditors of the grantor who had no notice of the conveyance. The registration of deeds, stretching back in the Eastern States to the early colonial period, makes necessary a voluminous system of records. Each county of a State has its central registry system, but the extensive indexes make an examination of title a lengthy and expensive process. Complaints are continually made as to the accuracy of the indexes. The dangers inherent in the recording system have led to the use of title guarantee companies, the activities of which have increased enormously in the past two decades. Also wide efforts for reform in land registration have been directed toward the establishment of the Torrens system to function side by side with the older recording system. Ohio passed legislation establishing the Torrens system in 1896, and Illinois and California followed in 1897. (The Ohio act was later declared to be unconstitutional in State v. Guilbert, 55 Ohio St. 575, and was superseded in 1913 by an act free from the invalidating defects.) By 1915 similar legislation had been enacted by r2 States and by Hawaii and the Philippine Islands. The constitutionality of such legislation had been established by the leading case of Tyler v. Judges, 175 Mass. 68, 179 U.S. gos. In 1912 the matter was taken up by the National Conference of Com-

missioners on Uniform State Laws and, as a result of their efforts, a uniform statute to establish the Torrens system of registration was recommended to the various States in rg15. The adoption

heritance is matrilineal, and both family and personal : owners hi

of goods exist.

The dead are exposed, then buried in cr

groves, and sacrifices take place on the grave. They are animists

and have secret societies (Sebe and Basondji), See Arcin, La Guinée Frangaise (1907).

LANDWEHR,

that part of the organized forces of which

continuous service is required only in time of war.

The Prussian

Landwehr was first formed during the War of Liberation agains

Napoleon and after the unification of Germany became the recog.

nized second-line army. On termination of their service in the active army, all reservists passed into the Landwehr, with which

they served for eleven years, up to the age of 39, then passing

to the Landsturm. At the opening of the World War the bulk of the Landwehr were absorbed into the active army, and from the residue there were formed a number of independent Landwehr brigades, which later in the war were combined to form divisions.

These were at first utilized for line of communication duties, but later took part in operations on the eastern front and held quiet

sectors of the line in the west. A total of 34 Landwehr divisions

were organized at various periods during the war.

In Austria-Hungary the pre-war Landwehr was atotally different organization, being in reality a cadre force existing alongside the regular army. Into it were passed not only those men who had completed their term of service in the active army, but also those who for want of vacancies could not be placed in the latter,

Peace-time training was limited to a few weeks every two years,

At the opening of the World War Austria mobilized eight Land-

wehr (Schutzen) divisions and Hungary eight Honved divisions, and three additional Schutzen and nine Honved divisions had been raised before its termination in 1978.

The Swiss Landwehr

consists of men who serve for eight

years between the ages of 33 and 4o; the force includes units of all arms and numbers some 70,000 men. Training at present con-

sists only of a few repetition courses and arms inspections.

LANE,

EDWARD

WILLIAM

(1801-1876),

English

of this statute by three States and the adoption of similar statutes by other States indicates the extent to which the Torrens system has fastened itself upon the legal systems of the various American States. (J. M. La.)

Arabic scholar, son of Dr. Theophilus Lane, prebendary of Here-

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—A very complete list of some 114 English publications from 1653-1895 will be found in R. Burnett Morris, Land Registration (1895). For parliamentary publications see Second Report of the Real Property Commissioners (1831); Report of the Registration and Conveyancing Commission (1850) ; Report of the Registration of Title Commission (1857) ; Report of the Land Transfer Commission (1870); Reports on Registration of Title in Germany and Austria-

the Nile, proceeding as far as the second cataract, and composed a complete description of Egypt, with a portfolio of ror drawings. He again visited Egypt in 1833-35, residing mainly in Cairo, but retiring to Luxor during the plague of 1835. Lane took up his residence in the Mohammedan quarter, and under the name of Mansur Effendi lived the life of an Egyptian scholar. His Account

Hungary

(1896);

Report

of the Registration

af Title

(Scotland)

Commission (1908); Report of Commission on Land Transfer Acts (1911); Fourth Report of the Acquisition and Valuation of Land Committee, on the Transfer of Land in England and Wales (1919). For general reviews of land registration in the British Isles, the colonies,

and in foreign countries; R. Burnett Morris, as above, and C. F. Brickdale, ‘Methods of Land Transfer (1913). For books on practice: C, F, Brickdate, Registration in Middlesex (1892); R. Smith, The Yorkshire Registration Acts (1895); C. F. Brickdale and J. StewartWallace, The Land Registration Act, ro2g (1927); J. J. Wontner, Guide to Land Registry Practice (1928). See also for British empire: W. Burge, Burge’s Colonial and Foreign Law, vol. iv., pt. 2 (1837, new ed. by A. W. Renton and W. A, Bewes, 1928); J. E. Hogg,

Australian Torrens System (1905), and Registration of Title to Land

throughout the Empire (1920); The Victorian Year Book (1925-26) ; The Australian Encyclopaedia, art. “Torrens System” (1926). United States: Land Title by Registration Certificate, Bulletin No. x publ. by the Federal Farm Loan Bureau, Treasury dept, (1918). France: L. H. Guilhot, Manuel de droit fiscal (1928), pp. 27 etc. Germany: H. Bartsch, Das oesterreichische allgemeine Grundbuchsgesetz in seiner praktischen Anwendung (1882, new ed. 1914), and Die Grundbicherlichen Einträge Dargestellt für den praktischer Gebrauch (2 vol. 1911); H. Oberneck, Das Reichsgrundbuchrecht und die preussischen Ausjührungs- und Ergänzungsbestimmunger (1900); G. Güthe, Die Grundbuchordnung fiir das Deutsche Reick und die preussischen Ausfihrungsbestimmungen (2 vols., 1905; 2nd ed. 1913). (C. F.-Br.)

LANDUMAN,

a small tribe of light-skinned folk, about

tm.6scm. in height, who file their teeth into points and tattoo their arms. They live between the upper Nunez and Pongo rivers

ford, was born on Sept. 17, 1801.

He was educated at Bath and

Hereford grammar schools. In 1825 he started for Egypt in search of health. There he spent three years, twice ascended

of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians appeared in 1836, and became a classic. The translation of the Arabian Nights, with notes and illustrations, designed to make the book a sort of encyclopaedia of Eastern manners, appeared between 1838 and 1840. In 1840 Lane married a Greek lady. A useful volume of Selections from the Kur-dn was published in 1843, but before it passed through the press Lane was again in Egypt, where he spent seven years (1842-49) collecting materials for a great

Arabic lexicon, which the munificence of Lord Prudhoe (afterwards duke of Northumberland) enabled him to undertake. The most important of the materials amassed during this sojourn was a copy in 24 thick quarto volumes of Sheikh Murtada’s great lexicon, the Tj el ‘Aris, which, though itself a compilation, is so extensive and exact that it formed the main basis of Lane’s subsequent work. Returning to England in 1849, Lane devoted the remaining 27 years of his life to digesting and translating his Arabic material in the form of a great. thesaurus of the lexicographical knowledge of the Arabs. He worked at this Arabic-English Lexicon with unflagging diligence till a few days before his death at Worthing on Aug. 10, 1876. Five parts appeared during his lifetime (1863-74); and three posthumous parts were afterwards edited from his papers by S. Lane-Poole. Lane’s scholarship was recognized by

many learned European societies. He was a member of the Gerin French Guinea, and are organized as a monarchy. Marriage is man Oriental Society, a correspondent of the French Institute, etc. polygamous, the first wife being the senior. The eldest daughter In 1863 he was awarded a small civil list pension, which was after

of the first wife marries the brother of the second wife. In-

his death continued to his widow.

LANE—LANFRANC A Memoir, by his grand-nephew, S. Lane-Poole, was prefixed to part vi of the Lexicon. It was published separately in 1877.

LANE,

FRANKLIN KNIGHT (1864-1921), American born near Charlottetown, P.E.I., Canada,

public official, was

July 15, 1864. He graduated at the University of California in 1886. Beginning his career as a newspaper reporter, he later studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1889, and practised in

San Francisco. In 1897 he was elected city attorney, to which office he was twice re-elected. In 1905 he was appointed by President Roosevelt a member of the Interstate Commerce Commission and was retained by President Taft, serving for eight

years. In 1913 he entered the cabinet of President Wilson as secretary of the interior.

During his term of office the wealth

of Alaska was made more accessible by the construction of a government railway. To the Indians he gave special attention,

maintaining that perpetual tutelage was wrong.

He advocated

development of national resources without waste as being reasonable conservation, and earnestly urged the reclamation of land. In

1920 he resigned his post. He died at Rochester, Minn., May 18, 1921. PT was the author of The American Spirit addresses delivered in war time (1918). See also A. W. Lane and L. H. Wall, The Letters of Franklin K. Lane, Personal and Political (1923).

LANE, SIR HUGH

PERCY

(1875-1915), Irish art col-

lector, was born in Co. Cork on Nov. 9, 1875, the son of the Rev.

J. W. Lane. He entered the firm of Colnaghi and Company in 1893 and rapidly made a name as a connoisseur of extraordinary perception. In 1898 he began dealing on his own account. He took a prominent part in the revival of an interest in art in Ireland, especially in establishing a gallery of modern art in Dublin. A fine collection was ultimately made, and housed in Harcourt street, Dublin, where it was opened in 1906. He was

knighted in 1909. He acted as adviser on the formation of the Johannesburg Municipal Gallery of Modern Art (1909), and

brought together the Cape Town National Gallery collection of 17th century Dutch pictures (1912). He was in 1914 appointed director of the National Gallery of Ireland. He was drowned in

the sinking of the “Lusitania,” May 7, 1915. After his death a controversy arose about a collection of pictures, mostly of the French Impressionist school, which he had lent to Dublin in 1906 and had offered to give if a permanent gallery were provided. As this condition was not complied with he withdrew the loan

and lent these pictures to the National Gallery in London, to

which he bequeathed them in 1913. However, before sailing to America in 1915, he made a codicil to his will restoring the pictures to Dublin; but this codicil was unwitnessed, and on Lane’s death the National Gallery became possessed of the pictures. On Dublin protesting, a committee was set up in 1924 to consider the question, and its report (1926) affirmed that Lane thought he was making a legal disposition in his codicil, but that an act of parliament was necessary to put it into force, and that it would not be proper to modify his will by act of parliament. The pictures are now in the Tate Gallery. See Lady Gregory, Hugh Lane’s Life and Achievements: with some account of the Dublin Galleries (1920).

LANE, JAMES

HENRY

(1814-1866), American soldier

and politician, was born at Lawrenceburg, Ind., on June 22, 1824.

The son of an Indiana politician, he was admitted to the bar,

689

Accused of being implicated in Indian contracts of a fraudulent character, in a fit of depression he took his own life, dying near Ft. Leavenworth, Kan., on July 11, 1866. Ambitious, unscrupulous, rash and impulsive, and generally regarded by his contemporaries as an unsafe leader, Lane was a man of great energy and personal magnetism, and possessed oratorical powers of a high order. See L. W. Spring, “The Career of a Kansas Politician,” in the Amer. Hist. Rev. (vol. iv., Oct. 1898) and the too laudatory biography

by John Speer (Garden City, Kan., 1898).

LANE-POOLE, STANLEY

(1854-

__), British historian

and archaeologist, was born in London on Dec. 18, 1854, and was educated at Corpus Christi college, Oxford, and Dublin university. His first post was in the coin department of the British Museum (1874-92), where he compiled a catalogue in 14 volumes of the oriental and Indian coins. During this period he went on archaeological missions organized by the Government

to Egypt (1883) and Russia (1886). He also visited Australia. From 1895 to 1897 he was engaged on archaeological research at Cairo, under the direction of the Egyptian Government, and on his return to England was appointed protessor of Arabic at Trinity college, Dublin, a post which he held until 1904. His numerous publications include: Histories of the Moors in Spain (1887, 9th ed., 1915); Turkey (1888, 6th ed., enlarged, 1908); The Barbary Corsairs (1890, 3rd ed., 1915); Egypt in the Middle Ages (1901); Mediaeval India (1902, 9th ed., 1915); Essays in Oriental Numismatics (3 vols., 1874, 1877 and 1892); The Thou-

sand and One Nights (3 vols., 1906); Mediaeval India from Contemporary Sources (1916); A Short History of India in the Middle Ages (1917); and biographies of Lord Stratford de Redcliffe

(1888), Sir G. F. Bowen (1889), Sir Harry Parkes (1894), Sir R. Church (1890), E. W. Lane (1877), Aurangzib (18092), Saladin (1898), Babur (1899), and Watson Pasha (1919). LANESSAN, JEAN MARIE ANTOINE DE (18431919), French statesman and naturalist, was born at SainteAndré de Cubzac (Gironde) on July 13, 1843. Elected to the Municipal Council of Paris in 1879, he declared in favour of communal autonomy, and joined with Henri Rochefort in demanding the erection of a monument to the Communards; but after his election to the Chamber of Deputies for the 5th arrondissement of Paris in 1881 he gradually veered from the extreme Radical party to the Republican Union, and identifed himself with the cause of colonial expansion. A government mission to the French colonies in 1886—1887, in connection with the approaching Paris exhibition, gave him the opportunity of studying colonial questions, on which, after his return, he published three works: La Tunisie (Paris, 1887); L’Expansion coioniale de la France (2b., 1888); L’Indo-Chine francaise (ib., 1889). In 1891 he was made civil and military governor of French Indo-China; he consolidated French influence in Annam and Cambodia, and secured a large accession of territory on the Mekong river from the kingdom of Siam. He was recalled in 1894, and published a defence of his much-criticised administration (La Colonisation francaise en Indo-Chine) in the following year. In the Waldeck-Rousseau cabinet of 1899 to 1902 he was minister of marine, and in Igor he secured the passage of a large naval programme. At the general election of 1906 he was not re-elected; he retired from poli-

tics in r914 and died at Ecouen (Seine-et-Oise) on Nov. 8, 1919. LANETT, a city of Chambers county, Ala., U.S.A., on the

served in the Mexican War, was lieutenant-governor of Indiana, a Democratic representative in Congress, and in 1855 emigrated to Kansas. There he soon became prominent in the Free State forces, both in a political and military way, being second-in-command in Lawrence during the “Wakarusa War,” senator-elect under the Topeka constitution, one of the Free State leaders in-

Chattahoochee river (eastern boundary of the State), 30m. above Columbus, Georgia. It is on Federal highway 29 and is served by the Chattahoochee Valley and the Western of Alabama railways. The population was 4,976 in 1920; 5,204 in 1930. It has cotton mills, dye works, and a bleachery.

dicted for treason, and a participant in the domestic feuds of 1856-57. After Kansas became a State, Lane was elected in 186r to the U.S. Senaté as a Republican. As a result of the president’s favour he exercised vague military ‘powers in Kansas during the Civil War, in spite of the protests of the governor and the regular departmental commanders. In the autumn of 1861

early in the r1th century at Pavia, where his father, Hanbald, was

he conducted a devastating campaign on the Missouri border, and in July 1862, he was appointed commissioner of recruiting.

LANFRANC

(d. 1089), archbishop of Canterbury, was born

a magistrate. Lanfranc studied law, and tradition links him with Irnerius of Bologna as a pioneer in the renaissance of Roman law.

After his father’s death he crossed the Alps to found a school in France. About 1039 he became the master of the cathedral school at Avranches, where he taught for three years. But in ro42 he

entered the newly founded house of Bec. Until 1045 he lived at Bec in absolute seclusion

He was

then persuaded by Abbot

LANFREY—LANG

690

Herluin to open a school in the monastery. His pupils were drawn not only from France and Normandy, but also from Gascony, Flanders, Germany and Italy. Many of them afterwards attained

high positions in the Church.

Among them, Gilbert Crispin be-

came famous as Abbot of Westminster, Ives as Bishop of Char-

tres, Anselm of Aosta as Archbishop of Canterbury and Primate of all England, and Anselm of Baggio as Pope. Lanfranc lectured on logic and dogmatic theology. He was therefore naturally invited to defend the doctrine of transubstantiation against the attacks of Berengar of Tours. He took up the task with the greatest zeal, although Berengar had been his personal friend; he was the protagonist of orthodoxy at the councils of Vercelli (1050), Tours (1054) and Rome (1059). To his influence we may attribute the desertion of Berengar’s cause by Hildebrand and the more broad-

minded of the cardinals. Knowledge of Lanfranc’s polemics is chiefly taken from his tract De corpore et sanguine Domini (written after 1079) when Berengar had been finally condemned. In the midst of his scholastic and controversial activities Lan-

franc became a political force. While merely a prior of Bec he led the opposition to the uncanonical marriage of Duke William with Matilda of Flanders (1053), and incurred a sentence of exile. But the quarrel was settled, and he undertook to obtain the pope’s approval of the marriage. This he accomplished at the same council which witnessed his third victory over Berengar (1059), and he thus acquired a lasting claim on William’s gratitude. In 1066 he became the first abbot of St. Stephen’s at Caen, founded by the duke as a penance for his disobedience to the Holy See. William adopted the Cluniac programme of ecclesiastical reform, and obtained the support of Rome for his English expedition in the character of a crusader against schism and corruption. Alexander II., the former pupil of Lanfranc, gave the

Norman Conquest the papal benediction. When the see of Rouen next fell vacant (1067), Lanfranc declined the honour, and he was nominated to the English primacy as soon as Stigand had been canonically deposed (1070). The new archbishop at once began a policy of reorganization and reform. Thomas of Bayeux, archbishop-elect of York, asserted that his see was independent of Canterbury and claimed jurisdiction over the greater part of midland England. Lanfranc, during a visit to Rome to receive the pallium, obtained an order from Alexander that the disputed points should be settled by a council of the English Church. This was held at Winchester in 1072. Thanks to a skilful use of forged documents, the primate carried the council’s verdict upon every point. Although the school of Bec was firmly attached to the doctrine of papal sovereignty, he still assisted William in maintaining the independence of the English Church; and appears at one time to have favoured a neutral attitude in the quarrels between papacy and empire. In the domestic affairs of England Lanfranc sought to extricate the Church from the fetters of the state and of secular interests. He was a generous patron of monasticism. He endeavoured to enforce celibacy upon the secular clergy. He obtained the king’s permission to

deal with the affairs of the Church in synods which met apart from the Great Council, and were exclusively composed of ecclesiastics. His influence shaped the famous ordinance which separated the ecclesiastical from the secular courts (¢. 1076). But he acknowledged the royal right to veto the legislation of national synods. In the cases of Odo of Bayeux (1082) and of William of St. Calais, bishop of Durham (1088), he used his legal ingenuity to justify the trial of bishops before a lay tribunal. He accelerated the process of substituting Normans for Englishmen in all preferments of importance. Lanfranc’s greatest political service was rendered in 1075, when he detected and foiled the conspiracy which had been formed by the earls of Norfolk and Hereford. He interceded for Waltheof’s life and to the last spoke of the earl as an innocent sufferer for the crimes of others; he lived on terms of friendship with Bishop Wulfstan. On the death of the Conqueror (1087) he secured the succession for William Rufus, in spite of the discontent of the Anglo-Norman baronage; and in 1088 his exhortations induced the English militia to fight on the side of the new sovereign against

Odo of Bayeux and the other partisans of Duke Robert.

He

exacted promises of just government from Rufus, and was not afraid to remonstrate when the promises were disregarded, Tn

t089 he was stricken with fever and he died on May 24 amidg

universal lamentations.

As a statesman Lanfranc did somethin

to uphold the traditional ideal of his office; as a primate he ele. vated the standards of clerical discipline and education. Of all the Hildebrandine statesmen who applied their teacher's ideas within the sphere of a national church he was the most successful, The chief authority is the Vita Lanfrancit by Milo Crispin, who was precentor at Bec and died in 1149. Milo drew largely upon the Vitg Herluini, composed by Gilbert Crispin, abbot of Westminster. The Chronicon Beccensis abbatiae, a 14th-century compilation, should also be consulted. The first edition of these two sources, and of Lanfranc’s P, Jaffé, Berlin, 1865). Of modern works A. Charma’s Lanfranc (Paris 1648). Another edition, slightly enlarged, is that of J. A. Giles, Lan. franct opera (2 vols., Oxford, 1844). The correspondence between Lanfranc and Gregory VII. is given in the Monumenta Gregoriana (ed P. Jaffé, Berlin, 1865). Of modern works A. Charma’s Lanfranc (Paris,

1849), H. Boehmer’s Die Fälschungen Erzbsichof Lanfranks von Can. terbury (Leipzig, 1902), and the same author’s Kirche und Staat in

England und in der Normandie (Leipzig, 1899) are useful. See also A. S. Macdonald, Lanfranc (1926), and the authorities cited in the

articles on Warra{m I. and Wittiam IT.

LANFREY,

PIERRE

politician, was born at Chambéry (Savoie).

one

of Napoleon’s

officers.

(H. W. C. D.; X.)

(1828-1877), French historian and The

His father had been

son studied philosophy and

history in Paris and wrote historical works of an anti-clerical and rationalizing tendency. These included L’Eglise et les philosophes du XVIIIe siècle (1855; new edition, with a notice of the

author by E. de Pressensé, 1879); Essai sur la révolution française

(1858); Histoire politique des papes (1860); Lettres d’Evérard (1860), a novel in the form of letters; Le Rétablissement de la Pologne (1863). His magnum opus was his Histoire de Napo-

léon Ier (s vols., 1867—75 and 1886), in which he unduly minimized Napoleon’s military and administrative genius.. A staunch

republican, he was elected to the National Assembly in 1871, became ambassador at Berne (1871-73), and life senator in 1875. He died at Pau on Nov. 15, 1877. His Oeuvres complètes were published in 12 vols. (1879 seq.), and his Correspondance in 2 vols. (1885).

LANG, ANDREW

(1844-1912), Scottish scholar and man

of letters, was born at Selkirk on March 31, 1844. He was educated at Selkirk Grammar school, Edinburgh academy, the University of St. Andrews and Balliol college, Oxford. He held a fellowship of Merton until he married in 1875, when he removed to London. Lang was one of the greatest journalists of his-time, always fresh and original, and writing from a mind overflowing with all kinds of out-of-the-way knowledge. He wrote leaders for the Daily News, literary and critical articles forthe Morning Post and other papers; he also wrote articles on ballads, crystal gazing, poltergeist, totemism and many other questions for the oth edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica. He was keenly interested in Scottish history, especially in the history of the Stuarts; it would be almost fair to call him the last of the Jacobites. He had a passion for unravelling mysterious intrigues and Scottish history gave him plenty of opportunities. Among his works in this field were The Mystery of Mary Stuart (1901; rev. ed. 1904); The Portraits and Jewels of Mary Stuart

(1906); John Knox and the Reformation (1905); Pickle the

Spy (1897); a History of Scotland from the Roman Occupation to the Suppression of the last Jacobite Rising (4 vols., 1900-07), a work containing many entertaining digressions; and other monographs on Scottish questions. He also took a keen interest in French history; he wrote a book on the “Man in the Iron

Mask,” which he called The Valet’s Tragedy (1903), and a

counterblast to Anatole France’s work on Joan of Arc in The Maid of France (1908). Lang was an incurable romantic, and this is one of the reasons for his great success in writing for children. Generations of them were delighted with the long series of fairy books, beginning with

the Blue Fairy Tale Book (1889), and going on with the Red, the Green and the Yellow, and then with true stories equally enchanting. Lang’s first ambition had been towards poetry. He published many pleasant volumes of verse, beginning with the

Ballads and Lyrics of Old France (1872), in which he exper

`

691

LANG—LANGENSALZA mented in various metres. He was disappointed by the reception of his narrative poem on Helen of Troy (1882). His serious

Homeric studies bore fruit in his collaboration with S. H. Butcher jn a prose translation (1879) of the Odyssey, and with E. Myers and Walter Leaf in a prose version of the Iliad (1883). Of his separate books on classical subjects the best is The World of

Homer (1910).

Lang’s other main preoccupation was with myth and folklore.

He made solid contributions to the subject in his Custom and Myth (1884); Myth, Literature and Religion (2 vols., 1887; rev. ed., 1899); The Making of Religion (1898). Many academic honours were conferred on him. His biographer (G, S. Gordon) in the Dictionary of National Biography calls him the “greatest

bookman of his age.” He died at Banchory, Aberdeenshire, on July 20, 1912.

LANG, COSMO

GORDON

(1864-

), Anglican divine,

was born in Aberdeen on Oct. 31, 1864, the son of John Marshall

Lang, sometime moderator of the Church of Scotland. Educated at Glasgow university and Balliol college, Oxford, he graduated in 1886 and two years later was elected a fellow of All Souls. In 1890 he was ordained and was appointed curate of the parish

Cases in Equity Pleading diction (1908).

(1883); and Brief Survey of Equity Juris-

LANGDON, JOHN (1741-1819), American statesman, was born in Portsmouth, N.H., on June 25, 1741. After an apprenticeship in a counting-house, he led a sea-faring life for several years, and became a shipowner and merchant. In Dec. 1774 as a militia captain he assisted in the capture of Ft. William and Mary at New Castle, N.H., one of the first overt acts of the American colonists against the property of the Crown. He was elected to the last royal assembly of New Hampshire and then to the second Continental Congress in 1775, but he resigned and in June, 1776, became Congress’s agent of prizes in New Hampshire, and in 1778 continental (naval) agent of Congress in this State, where he supervised the building of John Paul Jones’s “Ranger,” and other vessels. He was a judge of the New Hampshire court of common pleas in 1776-77, a member (and speaker) of the New Hampshire house of representatives from 1776 until 1782, a member of the State Constitutional Convention of 1778 and of the State senate in 1784-85, and in 1783-84 was again a member of Congress. He contributed largely to raise troops in 1777 to meet Burgoyne; and he served as a captain at Bennington and at Saratoga. He was president of New Hampshire in 1785-86 and in 1788-89; a

divinity of Magdalen college, Oxford, and from 1894-96 vicar of the university church of St. Mary’s. In 1896 he became vicar of Portsea, and in rgor suffragan bishop of Stepney, London, and canon of St. Paul’s cathedral. In 1908 he was appointed arch-

church of Leeds.

From 1893 to 1896 he was fellow and dean of

member of the Federal Constitutional Convention in 1787; a member of the State convention which ratified the Federal Constitution for New Hampshire; a member of the U.S. Senate in 17891801, and its president pro-tem. during the first Congress and the

bishop of York.

His eloquence

second session of the second Congress; a member of the New Hampshire house of representatives in 1801-05 and its speaker

and clear common

sense made

him an influential member of the House of Lords, and in 1909 he was appointed a member of the royal commission on divorce. He took a leading part in the support of the Prayer Book measure in Parliament in 1928. On Nov. 12, 1928, he succeeded Dr. Davidson as’ archbishop of Canterbury, at a critical point in the Church’s history, the revised Prayer Book having been twice

rejected by Parliament. The great feature of his career has been his social work in industrial centres, Portsea, the East End, and the manufacturing towns of the north. His published works include The Miracles of Jesus as Marks of the

Way of Life (1901); Thoughts on some of the Parables of Jesus (1906); The Opportunity of the Church of England (1908); Prayer Book Revision (Speeches by the archbishops of Canterbury and of York, 1927).

LANG,

KARL

HEINRICH,

Ritter von

(1764-1835),

German historian, was born on June 7, 1764, at Balgheim, near Nordlingen. At intervals from 1793 to 1801 Lang was closely connected with the Prussian statesman Hardenberg, who employed him as his private secretary and archivist, and in 1797 he was present with Hardenberg at the congress of Rastadt as secretary to the legation. He was occupied chiefly with affairs of the principalities of Anspach and Bayreuth, newly acquired by Prussia, and especially in the settlement of disputes with Bavaria as to their boundaries. He was archivist at Munich from 1810 to 1817, and devoted himself to the study of Bavarian history. He died on March 26, 1835. Lang is best known through his Memoiren (Brunswick, 2 vols. 1842) which must, however, be read with caution on account of their satirical tone. LANGDELL, CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS (:8261906), American jurist, was born in New Boston, N.H., May 22, 1826. He studied at Phillips Exeter academy in 1845-48, at Harvard college in 1848—50 and in the Harvard law school in 1851-54.

He practised law in 1854-70 in New York city, but he was almost unknown when, in Jan. 1870, he was appointed Dane professor of, law, and soon afterwards dean of the law faculty of Harvard university. He resigned the deanship in 1895, in 1900 became

Dane professor emeritus, and on July 6, 1906, died in Cambridge. He received the degree of LL.D. in 1875; in 1903 a chair in the law school was named in his honour; and after his death one of the school buildings was named Langdell Hall. He remodelled the administration of the Harvard law school and introduced the case” system of instruction. Langdell wrote Selection of Cases om the Law of Contracts (1870, the first book used in the “case” system; enlarged, 1877); Cases on Sales (1872); Summary of Equity Pleading (1877, 2nd ed., 1883) ;

in 1803-05; and governor of the State in 1805-09 and in 1810-12. He refused the naval portfolio in Jefferson’s cabinet, and received

nine electoral votes for the vice-presidency in 1808. He died in Portsmouth on Sept. 18, 1819. : Alfred Langdon Elwyn has edited Letters by Washington, Adams, Jefferson and Others, Written During and After the

Revolution, to John Langdon of New Hampshire (Philadelphia, 1880).

LANGE,

FRIEDRICH

ALBERT

(1828-1875), German

philosopher and sociologist, was born on Sept. 28, 1828, at Wald, near Solingen, the son of the theologian, J. P. Lange. He was educated at Duisburg, Zürich and Bonn, where he distinguished himself by gymnastics as much as by study. He taught in various places for some time, but gave up teaching when schoolmasters were forbidden political activity. He wrote: Die Leibesübungen (1863), Die Arbeiterfrage (1865, 5th ed. 1894), Geschichte des Materialismus und Kritik seiner Bedeutung in der

Gegenwart (1866; 7th ed. with biographical sketch by H. Cohen, 1902; Eng. trans., E. C. Thomas, 1877), and J. S. Mill's Ansichten uber die sociale Frage (1866). In 1866, discouraged by affairs in Germany, he moved to Winterthur, near Ziirich, to write for the democratic newspaper, Wznterthurer Landbote. In 1869 he was Privatdozent at Zürich, and next year professor. The strong French sympathies of the Swiss in the Franco-German War led to his resignation. In 1872 he became professor at Marburg, where he died on Nov. 23, 1875. His Logische Studien was published by H. Cohen in 1877 (2nd ed., 1894). See O. A, Ellissen, F. A. Lange (Leipzig, 1891) ; and in Monatsch. d. Comeniusgesell. iii., 1894, 210 ff.; H. Cohen in Preuss. Jahrb, xxvii, 1876, 353 ff.; Vaihinger, Hartmann, Dithring und Lange (Iserlohn, 1876); J. M. Bosch, F. A. Lange und sein Standpunkt d. Ideals aaa 1890) ; H. Braun, F. A. Lange, als Soctalékonom (Halle, 1881).

LANGEAIS, a town of west-central France in the department

of Indre-et-Loire, on the right bank of the Loire, 16 m. W:S.W. of Tours by rail. Pop. (1926) 1,847. Langeais has a church of the trth, 12th and rsth centuries but is chiefly interesting for the possession of a large chateau: built soon after the middle of the tsth century by Jean Bourré, minister of Louis XI. In the park are the ruins of a keep of late roth century architecture, built by Fulk Nerra, count of Anjou. It has a small trade in bricks poe and tiles and potted meat. '

LANGENSALZA,

a town in the Prussian ‘province of

Saxony, on the Salza, about 20 m. N.W. from. Erfurt, Pop. ,(z 925)

11,969. Langensalza became a town in 1211 and was afterwards

LANGENTHAL—LANGLAND

692

part of the electorate of Saxony. In 1815 it came into the possession of Prussia. Near it are the remains of the old Benedictine

monastery of Homburg or Hohenburg, where the emperor Henry IV. defeated the Saxons in 1075. The manufacture of cloth is the chief industry; lace, machines, cigars and leather are also produced, while spinning, dyeing, brewing and printing are carried on. There is a sulphur bath in the neighbourhood.

LANGENTHAL

(1,558 ft.), 2 town in the canton of Berne,

Switzerland. The place has a population of 6,280, mainly German-speaking Protestants, who engage in agriculture and a few industries such as weaving, dyeing and machine making. It is on the railway Berne-Ziirich, with branches to Huttwil, Oensingen and Melchnau.

SIMON

LANGHAM,

(d. 1376), archbishop of Canterbury

and cardinal, was born at Langham in Rutland, becoming a monk

in the abbey of St. Peter at Westminster, and later prior and then abbot of this house. He was treasurer of England (1360), bishop

of Ely (1361), chancellor of England (1363) and archbishop of Canterbury (1366). He drove the secular clergy from their college of Canterbury Hall, Oxford, and filled their places with monks. The expelled head of the seculars was a certain John de Wiclif, who has been identified with the reformer Wycliffe. Langham was made a cardinal by Pope Urban V. in 1368. Two months later he was compelled to resign his archbishopric and went to Avignon. He was made cardinal-bishop of Praeneste in 1373. In 1374 he was elected archbishop of Canterbury for the second time; but he withdrew his claim and died at Avignon on July 22, 1376, Langham’s tomb is the oldest monument to an ecclesiastic in Westrninster Abbey; he left the residue of his estate—a large sum of money-—to the abbey, and has been called its second founder.

LANGHOLM,

burgh and parish, Dumfriesshire, Scotland,

on the Esk, 16 m. N.E. of Annan, and is the terminus of a branch line connecting with the L.N.E.R. system at Riddings Junction.

Pop. (1931) 2,448. Its prosperity depends on the numerous woollen mills. Distilling, dyeing and tanning are also carried on, and sales of cattle and sheep held. The Esk and Liddell are favourite fishing streams.

century poem Piers the Plowman. Its full title is—The Visioy of William concerning Piers the Plowman, together with Vita ds Do-wel, Do-bet, et Do-best, secundum Wit et Resoun; 3 usual y . : e s e ° . given in Latin as Visio Willelmi

de Petro Plowman, etc.» the

whole work being sometimes briefly described as Liber de Petro Plowman. We know nothing of William Langland except from the supposed evidence of the mss. of the poem and the text itself The Vision of Piers Plowman.—tThe

poem exists in, ies

forms. If we denote these by the names of A-text (or Vernon) B-text (or Crowley), and C-text (or Whitaker), we find, of the first, ten mss., of the second, fourteen, and of the third, seventeen besides seven others of a mixed type. A complete edition of ali three texts was printed for the Early English Text Society ag

edited by W. W. Skeat, with the addition of Richard the Redeless and containing full notes to all three texts, with a glossary and indexes, in 1867-85. The Clarendon Press edition, by the same editor, appeared in 1886. The A-text dating from about 1362 contains a prologue and 12 passus or cantos (i~iv., the vision of the Lady Meed; v.-viii., the vision of Piers the Plowman; ix—xii., the vision of Do-wel, Do-bet and Do-best), with 2,567 lines. The B-text (¢. 1377) is much longer, containing 7,242 lines, with additional passus following after xi. of A, the earlier passus being altered in various respects.

The C-text (c. 1395-98) with 7,357 lines, is a revision of B. The general contents

of the poem

may be gathered from 4

brief description of the C-text. This is divided into twenty-three passus, nominally comprising four parts, called respectively Visio de Petro Plowman, Visio de Do-wel, Visio de Do-bet and Visio de

Do-best. Here Do-bet signifies “do better” in modern English; the explanation of the names being that he who does a kind action

does well, he who teaches others to act kindly does better, whilst

he who combines both practice and theory, both doing good himself and teaching others to do the same, does best. But the visions by no means closely correspond to these descriptions; and Skeat divides the whole into a set of eleven visions, which may be thus

enumerated: (1) Vision of the Field Full of Folk, of Holy Church, and of the Lady Meed (passus i—v.); (2) Vision of the Seven Deadly Sins, and of Piers the Plowman (pass. vi~x.); (3) Wit, LANGHORNE, JOHN (1735-1779), English poet and Study, Clergy and Scripture (pass. xi., xii.); (4) Fortune, Nature, translator of Plutarch, was born at Kirkby Stephen, Westmorland. Recklessness and Reason (pass. xiii., xiv.); (5) Vision of ImagHe was appointed (1766) to the rectory of Blagdon, Somerset, inative (pass. xv.); (6) Conscience, Patience and Activa-Vita where he died on April 1, 1779. His poems (original and transla- (pass. xvi., xvii.); (7) Free-will and the Tree of Charity (pass. tions), and sentimental tales are now forgotten, but his trans- xvii., xix.); (8) Faith, Hope and Charity (pass. xx.); (9) The lation of Plutarch’s Lives (1770), in which he had the co-operation Triumph of Piers the Plowman, 7.e., the Crucifixion, Burial and of his elder brother William (1721-1772), is not yet superseded. Resurrection of Jesus Christ (pass. xxi.); (10) The Vision of His poems were published in 1804 by his son, J. T. Langhorne, with Grace (pass. xxii.); (11) The Vision of Antichrist (pass. xxiii.). a memoir of the author, : The vision is formless and full of digressions. It shows no LANGIEWICZ, MARYAN (1827-1887), Polish patriot, French influence in its verse which is based on alliterative stresses was born at Krotoszyn, in the province of Posen, on Aug. 5, 1827, and is unrhymed, on the other hand the use of allegory as a his father being the local doctor. Langiewicz was educated at vehicle of satire reminds one of the Roman de la Rose. The book Posen, Breslau and Prague, and was compelled to earn his daily is a document of primary importance for the social history of the bread by giving lectures. He subsequently entered the Prussian time. The author describes the hard condition of the poor, inLandwehr and served for a year in the royal guard. In 1860 he veighs against clerical abuses and the rapacity of the friars; tells migrated to Paris and was for a time professor in the high school of the miseries caused by the great pestilences then prevalent and founded there by Mieroslawski. The same year he took part in by the hasty and ill-advised marriages consequent thereupon; and Garibaldi’s Neapolitan campaign, and was then a professor in the denounces lazy workmen and sham beggars, the corruption and military school at Cuneo till the establishment was closed. In bribery in the law courts, and the numerous forms of falsehood 1862 he entered into communication with the central Polish comwhich are at all times the fit subjects for satire and indignant mittee at Warsaw, and on the outbreak of the insurrection of In describing the seven deadly sins, Glutton and Sloth Jan. 22, 1863, took the command of the armed bands and inflicted exposure. are portraits rather than abstractions and great power of descripseveral defeats on the Russians, which encouraged him to protions is shown throughout the work. The numerous allegorical claim himself dictator (March 10). On March 18, however, his introduced, such as Scripture, Clergy, Conscience, personages army was almost annihilated at Zagosc, whereupon he took and the like, are generally mouthpieces of the author refuge in Austrian territory and was interned at Tarnow, and Patience himself though they sometimes speak purely “in character.” afterwards at the fortress of Josephstadt, from which he was reSkeat’s View of Langland.—The traditional view, accepted leased in t865. He then lived at Solothurn as a citizen of the

Swiss Republic, and subsequently entered the Turkish service as Langie Bey. He died at Constantinople on May 11, 1887. See Boleslaw

Limanowski,

The National Insurrection of 1863-64

(Pol.) (Lemberg, 1900) ; Paolo Mazzoleni, J Bergamaschi in Polonia nel 1863 (Bergamo, 1893).

LANGLAND, WILLIAM (c. 1332-c. 1400), the supposed English poet, generally regarded as the single author of the 14th-

by Skeat and Jusserand, that a single author—and that author Langland—was responsible for the whole poem, in all its versions, has been disputed. Skeat’s statement may be summarized as fol-

lows. The author’s name was William (and probably Langland),

and he was born about 1332, perhaps at Cleobury Mortimer 1m Shropshire. His father, who was doubtless a franklin or farmer, and his other friends put him to school, made a “clerk” or scholar

LANGLEY

|

693

to the A-text, and particularly pass. i-viii. In this A-text the two first visions are regarded as by a single author of genius, but the yern hills, and fell asleep beside a stream, and saw in a vision a third is assigned to a continuator who tried to imitate him, the ñeld full of folk, ż.e., this present world, and many other remark- whole conclusion of the rath passus being, moreover, by a third able sights which he duly records. From this supposed circum- author, whose name, John But, is in fact given towards the end, stance he named his poem The Vision of William, though it is but in a way leading Skeat only to credit him with a few lines. really a succession of visions, since he mentions several occasions The same process of analysis leads to crediting the B-text and the on which he awoke, and afterwards again fell asleep; and he even C-text to separate and different authors, B working over the tells us of some adventures which befell him in his waking three visions of the A-text and making additions of his own, while moments. In some of these visions there is no mention of Piers C again worked over the B-text. The supposed references to the the Plowman, but in others he describes him as being the coming original author A, introduced by B and C, are then to be taken reformer who was to remedy all abuses, and restore the world to as part of the fiction. Who were the five authors? That question a right condition. His conception of this reformer changes from is left unsolved. John But, according to Professor Manly, was time to time, and becomes more exalted as the poem advances. “doubtless a scribe” or “a minstrel,” B, C and the continuator of At first he is a ploughman, one of the true and honest labourers A “seem to have been clerics, and, from their criticisms of monks who are the salt of the earth; but at last he is identified with the and friars, to have been of the secular clergy,” C being “a better great reformer who has come already, the regenerator of the scholar than either the continuator of A or B.” A, who “exempts - world in the person of Jesus Christ; in the author’s own phrase— from his satire no order of society except monks,” may have been “Petrus est Christus.” If this be borne in mind, it will not be himself a monk, but “as he exhibits no special technical knowlpossible to make the mistake into which so many have fallen, of edge or interests” he “may have been a layman.” As regards speaking of Piers the Plowman as being the author, not the sub- Richard the Redeless, Professor Manly attributes this to another imitator; he regards identity of authorship as out of the question, ject, of the poem. The author once alludes to the nickname of Long Will bestowed in consequence of differences in style and thought, apart from the upon him from his tallness of stature——just as the poet Gascoigne conclusion as to the authorship of Piers the Plowman. See the editions already referred to: The Deposition of Richard II, was familiarly called Long George. Though there is mention of ed, T. Wright (Camden Society), which is the same poem as Richard poem, the of beginning the near once than more hills the Malvern the Redeless; Warton, Hist. of Eng. Poetry; Rev. H. H. Milman, the poet lived for “many years in Cornhill (London), with his Hist. of Latin Christianity; G. P, Marsh, Lectures on English; wife Kitte and his daughter Calote.” He seems to have come to H. Morley, English Writers; B. ten Brink, Early English Literature; London soon after the date of the first commencement of his J. J. Jusserand, Observations sur la vision de P. P. (Paris, 1870);

of him, and taught him what Holy Writ meant. In 1362, at the

age of about thirty, he found himself wandering upon the Mal-

work, and to have long continued there, He describes himself as being a tall man, one wha was loath to reverence lords or ladies or persons in gay apparel, and not deigning to say “Gad save you”

to the sergeants whom he met in the street, insomuch that many people took him to be a fool. He was very poor, wore long robes, and had a shaven crown, having received the clerical tonsure. But he seems only to have taken minor orders, and earned a precarious living by singing the placebo, dirige and seven psalms for the good of men’s souls. The fact that he was married may explain why he never rose in the church. But he had another source of livelihood in his ability to write out legal documents, and he was extremely familiar with the law courts at Westminster.

Les Anglais au moyen age: L’Epopée mystique de William Langland. (1893, Eng. trans. Piers Plowman, 1894); J, M. Manly in Cambridge bibliography, A long and careful given in Morley’s English Writers, of English Religion, ch. ii.

revised and enlarged by another Hist. of English Lit., vol. ii. and summary of the whole poem is and is repeated in his Illustrations

LANGLEY, SAMUEL PIERPONT (1834-1906), Ameri-

can physicist and astronomer who first demonstrated the practicability of mechanical flight (May 6, 1896), was born at Roxbury, Mass., Aug. 22, 1834. He was educated in the Boston Latin School and in Europe. After a few years of practising architecture and civil engineering and holding assistant professorships in Harvard College Observatory and the U.S. Naval Academy, he became director of the Allegheny Observatory and professor of physics and astronomy in what was then known as the Western

His leisure time must have been entirely occupied with his poem, which was the work of a lifetime. He was not satisfied with rewriting it once, but he actually re-wrote it twice, and from the university of Pennsylvania (1867). He held this position until his abundance of the MSS. which still exist we-can see its develop- election in 1887 as secretary of the Smithsonian Institution at . ment from the earliest draught (A-text), written about 1362, to Washington. . its latest form (C-text), written about 1393". Langley’s name became especially associated with two main In 1399, just before the deposition of Richard IL, appeared branches of investigation—aeronautics and the exploration of the a poem addressed to the king, who is designated as “Richard the infra-red portions of the solar spectrum. When he took up the Redeless,”’ z.¢., devoid of counsel, This poem, occurring in only study of the distribution of energy in the solar spectrum he found one MS. [of the B-text] in which it is incomplete, breaking off the most delicate existing instrument, the thermopile, far too abruptly in the middle of’ a page, may safely be attributed to sluggish for his needs and invented the bolometer, which depends Langland, who was then in Bristol. As he was at that time about on the fact that the electrical conductivity of a metallic conductor sixty-seven years of age, we may be sure that he did not long is decreased by heat. This instrument has no superior to-day. In survive the accession of Henry IV. It may here be observed that its most refined form it is believed to be capable of detecting a the well-known poem entitled Pierce Ploughman’s Crede, though change of temperature amounting to less than one-hundredexcellently written, is certainly an imitation by another hand; millionth of a degree. By its aid Prof. Langley pushed his investifor the Pierce Ploughman of the Crede is very different in con- gations of the solar spectrum into previously unexplored regions ception from the subject of ‘“William’s Vision.” in the infra-red radiations, discovering unsuspected extensions of Professor Manly’s View.—On the other hand, the view taken the invisible infra-red rays which he called the “new spectrum.” by Professor J. M. Manly, which has obtained increasing accepHe began his work in aeronautics by a preliminary inquiry into tance among scholars, is that the early popularity of the Piers the principles upon which flight depends, as he doubted the soundPlowman poems has resulted in “the confusion of what is really ness of the prevailing theories as to how birds fly. After he had the work of five different men,” and that Langland himself is “a satisfied himself, by experiment with a huge “whirling table,” that mythical author.” The argument for the distinction in authorship “it was possible to construct machines that would give such rests on internal evidence, and on analysis of the style, diction

velocity to inclined surfaces that bodies definitely heavier than air

Skeat, regarding the three texts as due to the same author, gives

velocity,” and after studying the irregularities of the winds, he began the construction of several model flying-machines. He succeeded (May 6, 1896) in launching his “aerodrome,”

and “visualizing” quality within the different texts.

Whereas

most attention to the later versions, and considers B the intermediate form, as on the whole the best, Manly recognizes in A the real poet, and lays special stress on the importance of attention lAccording to Jusserand, 1398.

could be sustained upon it and moved through it with great

weighing 26 lb. and about 16 ft. in length, with wings measuring

between 12 and 73 ft. from tip to tip. It twice sustained itself in

LANGLOIS—LANGO

694 the air for about 14 minutes

(the full time for which it was

supplied with fuel and water) and traversed on each occasion a distance of over half a mile, falling gently into the water of the Potomac over which it had been launched, when the engines stopped. Later in the same year (Nov. 28) a similar aerodrome flew about three-quarters of a mile, attaining a speed of 30 m. an hour. Never in the history ‘of the world, previous to these at-

vacua; his researches in the field of electric discharges are largely

responsible for the modern vacuum tube used in radio, In IQI

he discovered the atomic form of elementary hydrogen, and sub.

sequently developed a process for welding metals by flames of atomic hydrogen. In recognition of his achievements in chemist

and physics he has been awarded many scientific distinctions among them the Hughes, Nichols, Faraday, Rumford and Perkin medals and the Cannizaro prize. See B. Harrow, The Romance of the Atom

LANGNAU

(1927).

(2,244 ft.), a town in the canton of Berme

Switzerland, in the middle of the Emmenthal and at the junction of the railways Berne-Luzern (Lucerne) and Burgdorf-Langnau, The place has 8,667 inhabitants, mostly German-speaking Protest. ants, and engaged chiefly in cattle breeding and cheese making.

LANGO.

Bakedi)

The Lango (sometimes incorrectly called Miro and

are a Nilotic tribe of Uganda,

with animal husbandry.

combining agriculture

A well-built, tall, upstanding race, they

live in the marshy and lowland country north and east of Lakes

BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

SMITHSONIAN

LANGLEY’S STEAM-DRIVEN MILE ABOVE THE POTOMAC

INSTITUTION

‘‘AERODROME,’’ WHICH IN 1896 FLEW HALF A RIVER, THE LONGEST FLIGHT THEN RECORDED

tempts, had any such mechanism, however actuated, sustained itself in the air for more than a few seconds. He thus paved the way for others who have achieved success with man-carrying machines. Although Langley announced soon after these experiments that he had brought to a'close the portion of the work which seemed to be especially his, “the demonstration of the practicability of mechanical flight,” he experimented, in 1903, with the aerodrome capable of carrying a man. This attempt was accompanied by repeated failures and a chorus of ridicule and attack from an unsympathetic press, so that the further Government financial support which was necessary was not given. This was a severe blow to Langley, then 70 years old, but he never wavered in his confidence that ultimately success would be certain to result

from his work, and it is true that the principles which he discovered have gained steadily in importance. Years later a test of his man-carrying machine made at the Curtiss shops demonstrated its inherent stability and remarkable ease of control. Langley died on Feb. 27, 1906. His published works, covering a wide range of topics, include nearly 200 titles.

~

Kwanya and Kioga, arriving there after a series of migrations from the north-east dating from the 17th century. They remove the lower middle incisors and in their primitive conditions are unclothed, the women only wearing small aprons of metalwork or fibre suspended from a belt. Both sexes, however, are inordinately fond of bead and wire ornaments, and cicatrise their bodies with fantastic and often charming designs. They live in compact villages varying from ten to 150 huts, the village representing an aggregate of families which have united for mutual support. Their dome-like huts exhibit the flounced thatching typical of the Nilotics, and the diminutive bachelors’ huts raised from the ground on piles are a distinctive feature of

the culture. In each village there is a communal girls’ hut supervised by an aged duenna.

They cultivate a large variety of millets both for food and for

making the beer, which is their staple drink, and numerous vegetables are also grown in the vicinity of the village. Men and women share the agricultural duties, but men have the sole custody and management of the cattle, while women concern themselves with the domestic duties of the village. Men manufacture pots, but women make baskets and mats. Their weapons are

spears and light hide shields of a rectangular pattern. The tribe is divided into a number of exogamous clans with totemic or pseudo-totemic characteristics, inheritance and descent being through the male. Polygyny is practised. Society is also A complete bibliography of his work may be found in the Biog. classified by a system of age-grades, which has been borrowed Memoirs of the Nat. Acad. of Sciences, vol. vii. See this source for from their Nilo-Hamitic neighbours, probably before their final complete biography. Also Aircraft, vol. vii., pp. 5-6 (New York, 1916) ; Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 26, pp. 546—549 migrations. These grades have their special functions which are (x907); C. P. Adler in Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Wash- chiefly religious and are concerned with the magical processes of ington, vol. 15, pp. 1—26; Henry Feffman “A Tribute to Samuel P. rainmaking. They are governed by hereditary clan leaders, who Langley,” Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution, 1917-18, have gradually acquired a territorial status and might be called pp. 157—167. petty chiefs, with powers and duties in regard to all who dwell in LANGLOIS, HIPPOLYTE (1839-1912), French general, their vicinity irrespective of clan allegiance. Above these are was born at Besançon in 1839, and, after passing through the the.chiefs, who control from three to six clan chiefs, winning their Ecole Polytechnique, was appointed to the artillery as sub-lieu- position by personal merit, generosity and ability. Their title tenant in 1858, attaining the rank of captain in 1866. He served (rwot), however, is not hereditary, and their tenure of office is in the army of Metz in the war of 1870. In 1888 he became pro- precarious and depends largely on their success in war and on fessor of artillery at the Ecole de Guerre, and he there worked the conduct of their civil responsibilities. out the tactical principles of the employment of field artillery The Lango are skilful hunters, and though all land is held under the new conditions of armament. His great. treatise communally by the tribe, or in a few cases by the clan, the whole L’Ariillerte de campagne (1891-1892) is an artillery. classic. country is divided inte a number of hunting areas, in which the In 1907 Langlois began the publication of a monthly journal rights of hunting are vested in an individual and pass to his heir of military art and history, the Revue militaire générale. The most on his death. important of his other works are Enseignements de deux guerres They believe that every human being (and a few animals) has récentes and Conséquences tactiques du progrès de Parmement. a guardian spirit called winyo or “bird”? which attends him during He died in Feb. 1912, in Paris. life and has to'be liberated from the corpse by certain rites. There . LANGMOUTR, IRVING (1881), American chemist, is also the shadow-self or immaterial soul called zipo, which after was born in Brooklyn, N.Y., on. Jan. 31, 1881. He studied at death may be renamed chyen and is eventually merged into a the Columbia school of mines, (M.E., 1903) and at the University vague entity named jok, found in one form or another in all the of Goettingen (Ph.D., 1906). He taught chemistry at Stevens Nilotics. Jok and the ancestors, of whom jok is thus the universal Institute, Hoboken, N.J. (1906-09). From that date he was sublimation, are worshipped at shrines and sacred trees by prayer engaged in, physico-chemical research for the General Electric and sacrifice, and jok manifests himself in a diversity of forms, Cempany, Schenectady, New York. He invented the gas-filled to each of which a specific name is given as to a divinity, some of tungsten)Jamp and the condensation. pump.for producing high them being anthropomorphic in conception, and all having special

LANGPORT— LANGTON fictions and individual spheres of activity appropriate to the different needs of humanity.

See J. H. Driberg, The Lango (1923). (J. H. D.) LANGPORT, a market town in Somersetshire, England, 134 m. E. of Taunton by the G.W. railway. Pop. (r921) 781. Langport owed its origin to its defensible position on a hill, and

its growth to its facilities for trade on the chief river of Somerset. It occupies the site of the British town of Llongborth, and was

jmportant during the Roman occupation.

It was a royal borough

in Saxon times, and in 1086 had 34 resident burgesses. The first charter (1562) recognized that Langport was a borough of great

antiquity, which had enjoyed considerable erned by a portreve. It was incorporated but the corporation was abolished in 1883. sented in parliament in 1304 and 1306.

privileges, being govby James I. in 1617, Langport was repreThe charter of 1562

granted three annual fairs to Langport, on June 28, Nov. rz and

the second Monday in Lent.

One fair only is now held, on Sept.

3, which is a horse and cattle fair. A Saturday market was held

under the grant of 1562, but in the 19th century the market day was changed to Tuesday. It lies on the bank of the river Parret, where it enters the plain through which it flows to the Bristol channel. The church of All Saints is Perpendicular. Close to this an archway crosses the road, bearing a Perpendicular build-

ing known as the hanging chapel. After serving this purpose it

housed first the grammar-school (founded 1675), then the Quekett

museum, named after John Thomas

Quekett (1815~1861) the

histologist, a native of the town, whose father was master of the school.

The hanging chapel afterwards became a masonic hall.

Not far distant is the church of Huish Episcopi, with one of the finest of the Somersetshire Perpendicular towers. Langport has a considerable general and agricultural trade.

LANGREO,

a town of northern Spain, in the province of

Oviedo, in very hilly country, on the left bank of the river Nalon, and on a branch railway from Oviedo to Laviana. Pop. (1920) 34,033. In the neighbourhood large quantities of wheat, hemp, fruit and cider are produced; and there are important coal and iron mines, foundries and factories for the manufacture of cloth.

LANGRES, a town of eastern France, capital of an arron-

dissement in the department of Haute-Marne, 22 m. S.S.E. of Chaumont on the eastern railway to Belfort. Pop. (1926) 5,860. Langres stands at a height of some 1,550 ft. on a promontory of the plateau de Langres, overlooking the valleys of the Marne and its tributary the Bonnelle, with fine views from its cathedral tower and ramparts. The cathedral of St. Mammés, for the most part 12th century Transitional, has a Graeco-Roman west front (18th cent.) and a fine Renaissance chapel. The church of St. Martin (13th, 16th and 18th centuries) possesses a figure of Christ of the 16th century, one of the finest wood carvings known. The ramparts are protected by several towers, mostly 16th cen-

tury. The Gallo-Roman gate, one of four entrances in the Roman period, is preserved, but is walled up. The town possesses a museum of Gallo-Roman antiquities, and an important library. Langres is the seat of a bishop under the archbishop of Lyons and a sub-prefect, and has tribunals of first instance and of commerce. It manufactures well-known cutlery and grind-stones. Langres, the ancient Andematunum, was capital of the Lingones. Under Roman rule it was at first to some extent autonomous, but was reduced to the rank of colony after the revolt of the chief Sabinus in A.D. 71.

695

Brunne’s Übersetzung von Pierre de Langtojfts Chronicle und ihr Verhältniss zum Originale (Breslau, 1891) .

LANGTON,

JOHN

(d. 1337), chancellor of England and

bishop of Chichester, was a clerk in the royal chancery, and became chancellor in 1292. Owing to the resistance of Pope Boniface VIII.

he failed to secure

the bishopric

of Ely in 1298,

although he was supported by Edward I. and visited Rome to attain his end. Resigning his office as chancellor in 1302, he was chosen bishop of Chichester in 1305, and again became chancellor shortly after the accession of Edward II. in 1307. Langton was one of the “ordainers” elected in 1310, and lost the office of chancellor about this time. He mediated between the king and Earl Thomas of Lancaster in 1318, and attempted to do so between Edward and his rebellious barons in 1321. He died in June or July 1337. Langton built the chapterhouse at Chichester, and was a benefactor of the University of Oxford.

LANGTON,

STEPHEN

(d. 1228), English cardinal and

archbishop of Canterbury, the first great Englishman in the primacy since Dunstan, was the son of Henry, lord of the manor of Langton-by-Wragby, Lincolnshire, but the date of his birth is unknown. He became early in his career a prebendary of York, and his brother Simon (d. 1248) was elected to that see in 1215. Stephen, however, migrated to Paris, and having graduated in that university became one of its most celebrated theologians. He spent some 25 years in Paris. This was probably the time when he composed his voluminous commentaries (many of which still exist in manuscript). He divided the Old Testament books of the Vulgate into chapters, and was probably responsible for the grouping of the historical apocryphal books. To this period belong his Questiones, dealing with subjects of current debate, such as the limits of obedience to episcopal authority and the papal power of dispensation. At Paris also he contracted the friendship with Lothar of Segni, the future Innocent III., which played so important a part in shaping his career. Upon becoming pope, Innocent summoned Langton to Rome, and in 1206 designated him as cardinal-priest of S. Chrysogonus. Immediately afterwards Langton was drawn into the vortex of English politics. Pope Innocent II. and King John.—Archbishop Hubert Walter had died in 1205. The suffragans of Canterbury claimed a share in choosing the new primate, although that right had been exclusively reserved to the monks of Canterbury by a papal privilege; and John supported the bishops since they were prepared to give their votes for his candidate, John de Gray, bishop of Norwich. A party of the younger monks, to evade the double pressure of the king and bishops, secretly elected their sub-prior Reginald and sent him to Rome for confirmation. The rest of the monks were induced to elect John de Gray, and he too was despatched to Rome. After hearing the case Innocent declared both elections void; and with John’s consent ordered that a new election should be made in his presence by the representatives of the monks.

The latter, having confessed that they had given

Jobn a secret pledge to elect none but the bishop of Norwich, were released from the promise by Innocent; and at his suggestion elected Stephen Langton, who was consecrated by. the pope June. 17, 1207. On hearing the news the king banished the monks of Canterbury and lodged a protest with the pope, in which he threatened to prevent any English appeals from being brought to Rome. Innocent replied by laying England under an interdict (March LANGTOFT, PETER (d. c. 1307), English chronicler, took 1208), and excommunicating the king (November 1209). As his name from the village of Langtoft in Yorkshire, and was a John still remained obstinate, the pope at length invited the canon of the Augustinian priory in Bridlington. His name is French king Philip Augustus to enter England and depose him. also given as Langetoft and Langetost. He wrote in French verse It was this threat which forced John to sue for a reconciliation; a Chronicle dealing with the history of England from the earliest and the first condition exacted was that he should acknowledge times to the death of Edward I. in 1307. The earlier part of the Langton as archbishop. During these years Langton’ had*been Chronicle is taken from Geoffrey of Monmouth and other writers; residing at Pontigny, formerly the refuge of Becket. He had for the period dealing with the reign of Edward I. Langtoft is a addressed to the English people a dignified protest against the valuable authority. The latter part of the Chronicle was trans- king’s conduct, but he had consistently adopted towards John lated into English by Robert Mannyng, sometimes called Robert as conciliatory an attitude as his duty to the church would of Brunne, about 1330. It has been edited for the Rolls Series allow, and had more than once entered upon negotiations for ‘a peaceful compromise. Immediately after, entering England (July by T. Wright (1866-68). See Wright’s preface, and also O. Preussner, Robert Mannyng of 1213) he showed his desire for peace by absolving the king. |

LANGTON—LANGUAGE

696

The Archbishop.—Langton was associated with the baronial opposition. He encouraged the barons to formulate their demands, and is said to have suggested that they should take their stand upon the charter of Henry I. It is uncertain what further share he took in drafting Magna Carta. At Runnymede he appeared as a commissioner on the king’s side, and his influence must therefore be sought in those clauses of the Charter which differ from the original petitions of the barons. Of these the most striking is that which confirms the ‘‘liberties” of the church; and this is chiefly remarkable for its moderation. Soon after the issue of the charter the archbishop left England to attend the Fourth Lateran Council. At the moment of his departure he was suspended by the representatives of Innocent for not enforcing the papal censures against the barons. Innocent confirmed the sentence, which remained in force for two years. During this time the archbishop resided at Rome. He was allowed to return in 1218, after the deaths of Innocent and John. From that date till his death he was a tower of strength to the royal party. Through his influence Pandulf was recalled to Rome (1221) and Honorius III. promised that no legate should be sent to reside in England during the archbishop’s lifetime. In 1222, in a synod held at Oseney, he promulgated a set of Constitutions still recognized as forming a part of the law of the English Church. He may be said to have accomplished the transition from the feudal church of Lanfranc to the national church of later days. He died on July 9, 1228, and was buried in Canterbury Cathedral, where his tomb, unless tradition errs, may still be seen. Dr. Gore, speaking at Canterbury at the seventh centenary celebrations in 1928 justly defined Langton’s position as “‘mediate between excessive nationalism and excessive papalism, leaving both

parties unsatisfied, but always the just moderator and harmonizer.” , The authorities are mainly those for the reign of John. No contemporary biography has come down to us. Some letters, by Langton and others, relating to the quarrel over his election are preserved in a Canterbury Chronicle (ed. W. Stubbs in the “Rolls” edition of Gervase of Canterbury, vol. ii.). There are many references to him in the correspondence of Innocent III. (Migne’s Patrologia Latina, vols. ccxiv.ccxvii.).

Of modern works see F. Hurter, Geschichte Papst Innocenz

III. (Hamburg, 1841-44); W. F. Hook, Lives of the Archbishops of Canterbury (London, 1860-76); W. Stubbs’s preface to the second volume of Walter of Coventry (“Rolls” ed.), which devotes special attention to Langton; and F. M. Powicke, Stephen Langton (1928). The mss. of Langton’s writings are noticed in J. Bale’s Index Britanniae scriptorum (ed. R. L. Poole, 1902) ; his Constitutions are printed in D. Wilkin’s Concilia, vol. ii. (London, 1737). .W.C Another English prelate who bore the name of Langton was THOMAS

LANGTON, bishop of Winchester, chaplain to Edward IV. In 1483 he

was chosen bishop of St. Davids; in 1485 he was made bishop of Salisbury and provost of Queen’s College, Oxford, and he became bishop of Winchester in 1493. In rsor he was elected archbishop of Canterbury, but he died on Jan. 27, 1501, before his election had been confirmed.

LANGTON, WALTER

(d. 1321), bishop of Lichfield and

treasurer of England, was probably a native of Langton West in Leicestershire. He became treasurer in 1295, and in 1297 bishop of Lichfield. Later he became chief adviser of Edward I., and principal executor of his will. His position, however, was changed by the king’s death in July 1307. The accession of Ed-

ward II. and the return of Langton’s enemy, Piers Gaveston, were followed by the arrest of the bishop and his removal from office. His lands and movable wealth were seized. Langton, accused again by the barons in 1308, remained in prison till Jan. 1312, when he again became treasurer. Excommunicated by Winchelsea, he appealed to the pope, visited him at Avignon, and returned to England after the archbishop’s death in May 1313. He died in November 1321, and was buried in Lichfield cathedral. LANGTRY, LILY (2852-1929), English actress, was the

daughter of the Rev. W. C. le Breton, dean of Jersey, and married in 1874 Edward Langtry (d. 1897). For many years she was famous as one of the most beautiful women in England, being known as “the Jersey Lily.” In 1881 she definitely went on the stage, appearing from that time under her own management both

in London and in America.

In 1899 she married Sir Hugo de

Bathe, Bart. She died at Monte Carlo, Feb. 12, 1929.

LANGUAGE. is meant

By language in the widest sense of the word

any means

of communication

between living beings

The question whether “lower animals” have something that can be rightly compared with human language must still be let open, though there can be no doubt that many animals have various means of communicating thoughts and feelings, which at any rate approach human speech. But in its developed form lap. guage is decidedly a human characteristic, and may even be cop. sidered the chief distinctive mark of humanity. No human race not even the most primitive and backward tribe, lacks language

and the language of each nation or tribe must have behind it a history of a great many thousand years. An attempt has been made to prove from the anatomical structure of the skulls of the earliest prehistoric men that they could not yet have possessed the

faculty of speech; but this conclusion is certainly drawn from

insufficient premises and has no foundation in fact. Ear

Language

and Eye Language.—We

may distinguish

two kinds of language according to the sense affected, ear-language and eye-language, of which the former is by far the more important. Among the various species of eye-language we must first mention gestures, made by means of the hands and the muscles of the face. Some of these are perfectly natural and spontaneous, being generally performed by the individual unconsciously, while others are much more conventional and have to be learned consciously. A specially developed variety of the latter kind is the gesture-language

of some

American Indians:

others are found among criminals of different countries. More or less conventional eye-languages are the “language” of flowers, pictures, flag-signalling, optical telegraphy and finally—the most important of all—written and printed language. But as soon as writing has disengaged itself from ideographic picturewriting, it becomes dependent on the spoken language and de-

velops into a more or less faithful representation of the sounds of speech; the written languages with which we are most familiar, are thus secondary languages in relation to the ear-languages underlying them. The same is true of the artificial alphabetic finger-language sometimes taught to deaf-mutes, whose natural sign-language is a species of picture-writing in the air, totally independent of spoken language. When, however, deaf-mutes are taught lip-reading, the spoken language is perceived visually and ear-language thus becomes eye-language. The paramount importance of an ear-language as compared with any kind of eye-language is, of course, due to the facts that the speech-organs (lungs, vecal chords, soft palate, tongue and lips) are capable of producing an immense variety of easily distinguished sounds, which can be pronounced without preventing arms and hands and the rest of the body from being simultaneously active in various ways, and that speech-sounds can be perceived at a reasonable distance without any regard to light or darkness or to the position of the hearer or hearers in relation to the speaker. The development of speech has not, however, been completely independent of the eye-language, and even now among civilized, and still more among uncivilized people, gestures and mimic play are a great assistance to the right understanding of spoken words; it is often asserted that there are some races who cannot dispense with this aid to comprehension and who therefore cannot carry on a conversation in the dark. This, however, may be an exaggeration. In the rest of this article, language 1s always understood to mean ear-language.

Social Importance.—Language is purposive activity on the

part of one human being in order to come in mental contact with a

fellow-man or fellow-men.

But we should not one-sidedly think

of the purpose of language as being predominantly, or even exclusively, the intellectual

one

of communicating

thoughts; not

even if we include volition (commands, wishes, prayers, imprecations, etc.) is that definition sufficiently comprehensive. Language often serves as an outlet for intense feeling, but very often also people spéak for the mere pleasure of speaking without having anything really to communicate, and there is no doubt that this enjoyable exercise of the vocal organs has played a very

great rôle in the development of speech. Language is likewise important in social intercourse; when two friends meeting in the

LANGUAGE street ejaculate their “Good-morning!” their intention is not to communicate ideas to one another, but merely by means of language to give vent to their feeling of good will. This point of

view is emphasized by B. Malinowski as important, if we would understand the attitude towards language of primitive people. Language is one of the most potent forces in social life; it welds together smaller or greater communities and makes them some-

thing more than a number of isolated individuals.

ways presupposes two, or generally a much

Language al-

greater number

of

individuals, who agree in connecting approximately the same ideas with approximately the same sounds. It is necessary to add

“approximately,” for complete agreement between even two in-

dividuals does not exist, and language can fulfil its function in practical life without it. The number of individuals thus connected by means of the same language varies considerably, from small tribes of savages often counting only a few hundred people so that villages a few miles apart can hardly understand one an-

other, to the great civilized speech communities.

English is

spoken by at least 150 millions distributed over five continents.

As the possession of a common language is an extremely potent

factor in all spiritual life and fosters feelings of fellowship and solidarity, and as linguistic boundaries do not always coincide with political frontiers, it is quite natural that linguistic questions should play a great part in national rivalries. But the terms “nation” and “language” are not co-extensive, for the feeling of national coherence has as its main source community of outlook occasioned by historical events, which may be independent of language; thus the Swiss, though speaking four distinct languages, consider themselves one nation, and on the other hand the inhabitants of Great Britain and the United States of America are two nations, though speaking essentially the same language. THE LANGUAGE

OF THE INDIVIDUAL

The Child.—The screaming and babbling of the first period of a child’s life may be considered preliminary exercises of the organs of speech; gradually the baby learns how to control the movements of his lips, tongye, etc., and produce what sounds he

likes, and little by little he acquires the power to imitate the sounds he hears from his parents and others. The tongue is for a long time his dearest plaything, but at first nothing but a play-

thing; he does not as yet associate any ideas with the sounds he utters. The order in which speech sounds are acquired is not the same with all children, though among consonants lip sounds are probably always the first to appear, no doubt because the labial

muscles used to produce them are the same that the baby has exercised in sucking the breast or the bottle. Some of the sounds produced by means of the tongue do not appear till the muscles of the tongue have been exercised by eating more solid things than milk, but ¢ and d are almost universally substituted for k

and g in one period, Otherwise no rules can be given for the first very inexact imitations of speech sounds, which vary from in-

dividual to individual, even among children of the same family. Even after most sounds have been learnt, some combinations of sounds will present difficulties; transpositions (like efelant for elephant) and assimilations and partial reduplications are frequent, ¢.g., capm for captain, goggi for doggie, bikykle, etc. But gradually the agreement between the child’s and the community’s pronunciation becomes practically perfect, As with the sounds, so with the meanings of words, the child is often very wide of the mark. It hears a word and ascribes to it a meaning that seems to fit the situation and combination in which it is heard. One girl said soldier of any man, and everybody who was not a man was a baby. Bobbie said abuz for apples, but called cherries tiny abuz and oranges big abuz, Some children use the words, dinner, breakfast and tea interchangeably—each word to them means “meal.” The ideas connected with numerals and such expressions as yesterday, last week, or on Tuesday are necessarily very vague in the beginning. Such words as old present difficulty; a boy knew he was three years, but could not be in-

duced to say “three years old”; no, he was three years new. Even

more difficult are pronouns like “I,” whose application shifts from

person to person.

The

child has to pick up in an unsystematic

697 way not only

sounds and isolated words, but also the way in which words are inflected and put together to form sentences, and here too it takes some time before he acquires full familiarity with all the intricacles of language. After he has discovered that the plural is generally indicated by the addition of s, he will feel tempted to use

the same mode everywhere and say gooses and tooths instead of geese and teeth. In the same way he will use analogy-formations in adjectives (gooder, baddest for better, worst), and verbs (buyed, frowed for bought, threw and thrown), or mix up regular and irregular formations (drunked, boughted for drank, bought), etc. Some of these formations may be used invariably for quite a long time, while others are only momentary slips made even after the correct forms have been long known and used. It is not only forms that have to be learnt in this way, but also all those intricate syntactical rules for the use of cases, tenses, moods, etc., which, when set forth by learned grammarians, may fill whole volumes, and which the foreigner seldom learns to perfection; after comparatively few years the native child handles all these things with nearly unfailing accuracy. The whole process of the child’s acquisition of its mothertongue may be described as a progressive socialization; it starts with sounds and meanings that are so individualistic that they are often comprehensible only to the narrowest family circle, and gradually, chiefly under the influence of other children, especially playmates a little older than the child itself, everything comes into greater and greater harmony with common usage-—~ and only through this general agreement is the individual’s language capable of fulfilling its purpose. Individual and Society.—It is a simple consequence of the intrinsic nature of all language and the way in which each individual gradually learns his own language that no one’s linguistic education is ever finished. The form of correct speech is not given in the form of a set of fixed rules, but has to be worked out in the subconscious mind of the individual from what he hears every day from other individuals who have acquired it in‘ the same way. One never hears the “average,” but always individual utterances adapted to the needs of each moment. A sharp distinction is made by some linguists (de Saussure, Palmer) between “speech” (parole), i.e., the individual’s linguistic activity, of which he is sole master, and “language”? (langue), which

belongs ta the community and is independent of the individual, to whom it gives the norm from without, but this sharp distinction cannot be maintained in the face of a realistic linguistic psychology, which sees the social side of speech-activity in the constant action and reaction of individuals on one another. Every adult person retains some traces of the imperfection of his early acquisition of his native language, however imperceptible they may

be to a superficial observer, and everyone is apt to be influenced by the speech of those who surround him, though the strength of influence varies very considerably, some people being easily affected and quickly adopting new turns of expression, nay even catching the infection of anotber dialect after a short stay in a new district, while others are in such respects very conservative. Size of Vocabulary.—How many words does the vocabulary of an individual compriser On this question erroneous beliefs are curiously current, even among psychologists. Careful enumerations have been made of the words used by children at various ages; but it is evident that the difficulties of counting increase as the child grows older, and an exact calculation of a grown-up person’s yocabulary is practically impossible. Still we have some data to go on. One six-year-old boy used more than 2,600 words. A Swedish peasant, according to the minute investigation of Smedberg, possesses at least 26,000 words. Much, however, depends on what is counted as a word. Are I, me, we, us one word or four? Is teacup a new word for those who already know fea and cup? And so for all compounds. Is box

(a place at a theatre) the same word as box (workbox) or as

a box on the ear? Investigators dọ not always distinguish between words that are understood and words that are actually

used by the individual examined—two entirely different things. So all such statistics should be used with some diffidence.

608

LANGUAGE

Prof. E. H. Babbitt found that most of his (American) college students reported a little below 60,000, and thinks that people with an ordinary school education would possess. from 25,000 to 35,000 words. The vocabulary of savage tribes is also

surprisingly rich; a missionary in Tierra del Fuego was able to compile a dictionary of 30,000 words in the Yaagan language. Such indications are easily reconciled with the fact that the concordances to Shakespeare’s and Milton’s dramas and poetical works give only 20,000 and 8,000 words respectively; a vast number of words of daily life are seldom or never required by a poet, especially by a poet with such a comparatively narrow range of subjects as Milton; as a matter of fact, every page of his prose works show words not found in his poetry (Jespersen, Growth and Sir. of the Eng. Language, c. ix.). VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE Dialects.—Whenever a language is spoken by a great number of people, it is inevitable that there should be within its boundaries greater or lesser differences, partly of a local and partly of a nonlocal character. The former constitute what is generally understood by the word dialects. The existence of sharp dialect boundaries has been denied by some philologists (Schuchardt, Gaston, Paris and others), who maintain that there are boundaries for each separate linguistic phenomenon (each sound law or morphological peculiarity, etc.), but that each of these boundaries (‘‘isoglosses,” as they are called) is independent of the boundaries for other phenomena; a village will thus always in some respects go with its neighbour to the North, in others with that to the East, etc. There is some truth in this, but only where one and the same population has been living for a long time in the same district in a flat country, where there have been no natural hindrances to continued intercourse, and where no great migrations have ever taken place. But as a matter of fact conditions have very seldom been so simple, and consequently we do find sharp dialect boundaries here and there. This is one of the in‘disputable facts that have been brought to light especially by so-called linguistic geography, which has of late years flourished more particularly in France, where a great Atlas linguistique de la France consisting of 2,000 maps has provided scholars with incomparable material for these studies. Dialect boundaries are very often due to natural obstacles to free intercourse; not infrequently these consist in great forests which in olden times were impenetrable, though they may have disappeared later; or again marshy districts, etc., whereas rivers form boundaries only where the stream is so rapid that it is not navigable; in mountainous countries the boundaries do not always follow the highest ranges of mountains, as there is often much traffic through defiles which connect places on either side of the watershed. On the whole we see that it is not physical, but human geography that is decisive. An instructive case has been studied by Gauchat in Switzerland. The two villages La Ferriére and Les Bois are situated on about the same level and only an hour’s walk distant; yet their dialects are mutually unintelligible, one agreeing with Franco-Provençal, the other with North French. The inhabitants of one village are Protestants and live by industry; those of the other are Catholics and chiefly pastoral. They

therefore look askance at one another, and no, marriages take

place between them. Now the difference of dialect dates further back than the religious difference, and it is possible to show that Les Bois was founded in the 14th century through immigration from Franche Comté, while La Ferrière was founded a couple of centuries later, when some villagers from Chaux-de-Fonds cleared the forest here to obtain pasturage for their cattle. Only recently the two neighbouring villages have been joined administratively, and they are now beginning to have a little intercourse. The chief law of linguistic biology is this, that intercourse breeds similarity, and want of intercourse dissimilarity. In former times a great many splittings took place, because means of communication were inferior to those of our own day; it was not long after the colonization of Iceland, that Icelandic began to show traces of differentiation from Norwegian. Nowadays linguistic agreement can be much better preserved, accordingly the English spoken

in Australia and New Zealand is not widely different fy Om that of the mother country, and the difference in speech betw een Bos.

ton and San Francisco is much less than what may be observed between two villages in Great Britain that are only a few miles apart. There is no definite point at which we may say that ta dialect” has developed such great differences as to have become a

“language”; some will use the former, others the latter term of

“Afrikaans,” the Dutch “Taal” of South Africa. When we say that one language is “related” to another, or that

two languages belong to the same

“family” of languages, what

we mean is that they are uninterrupted continuations of wha

was once one and the same language, but which in course of time

has been differentiated, z.¢., has developed in one way here and in another way there. On the basis of the greater or less Similarity of languages, especially in their oldest shapes, philologists are able

to group them together in a way that resembles, but is no exact parallel to the “pedigrees” of living beings. English is more close. ly related to Frisian than to German and Dutch—all these, to. gether with the Scandinavian langu.ges and the extinct Gothic

form the Germanic (or Gothonic) branch or sub-family of the great Indo-European family of languages (see Prorocy).

Non-local Varieties.—Besides these local provincialisms other

varieties of speech are independent of locality, and are therefore as it were perpendicular varieties as distinct from the horizontal local dialects. People moving in the same set will always tend to develop forms of speech not known to others, not only technical terms such as those peculiar to each kind of artisans or to each branch of science, but also words and expressions of a more

general character.

Some of these varieties are designated by the

names argot and jargon, but while the latter term may be loosely used as a contemptuous word for any variety of language that is hard to understand or unnecessarily technical, argot should be restricted to the language used by criminals with the express purpose of not being understood by outsiders. The elements of such a thieves’ language may be taken from the most heterogeneous sources (gypsy and others) or made up quite artificially by distorting ordinary words (back-slang, etc.). The English name for argot in this sense was cant, which some philologists still use with that meaning. Slang also to some extent belongs here, though that word should be reserved for the playful production of new expressions, where, properly speaking, nothing new is required, but where the normal expression has grown trite, so that speakers, especially young people, eagerly seize anything fresh that is offered to them, until that again has become trite. It is evident that the varieties with which we are dealing here, are of slighter character than dialects proper, because they chiefly affect parts of the vocabulary and not the whole phonetic and morphological structure of the language. Where the social stratification is strongly marked, it will leave its stamp on language, so that we may speak of an upper-class language and a lower-class language, even if the distinction is not always so pronounced as in the old Indian drama, where gods, kings, brahmans, etc., spoke Sanskrit, while the lower orders, to which most female characters belonged, spoke a simpler and less refined form called Prakrit.

In his daily life every single individual to some extent modifies

his language according to the position of the person he is addressing. In many languages there are two or three forms of the pro-

noun of the second person to indicate different degrees of fa-

miliarity (thou, you in earlier English, tu, vous in French, tu, v0,

let in Italian), but this is nothing to the complicated linguistic

ceremonial of some oriental languages, where several degrees of politeness and humility or condescension have found expression in the whole style of address. , In contradistinction to the easy-going speech of everyday life it is natural to use a more solemn style on grave occasions, M poetry, etc., and for such purposes expressions are often chosen which were formerly in current use, but have now grown more or less unfamiliar. This is still more marked in the language of

religious ritual, and very often we find a sacred language use

exclusively in this connection and partially or wholly unintelli-

LANGUAGE

699

gible to the laity. Latin, as used in the Roman Catholic Church, and Church Slavonic in the Russian Church, are two examples;

the capital of the country, immigrants from different parts get their dialect rubbed down in intercourse with one another. This,

several similar ones are found among savages. The angakoks (heathen priests) of Greenland in their incantations of the

however,

does not mean

the same

thing as adopting

the local

dialect of that particular town. The common French language, mighty spirits use a great many strange words not found in though largely developed in Paris, is not in the strict sense ordinary Eskimo. Similar things are reported from many places Parisian. Similar phenomena are to be observed in other counwith regard to the ceremonies by which the young men are tries; standard English has to a great extent come into existence solemnly admitted among the adults. The Isneg-negritos of in London, but has not been created by born Londoners. The upshot of all this is that the rise of great standard lannorthern Luzon, who ordinarily speak a corrupt Ibanag (FilippinoIndonesian), have in their secret nightly ceremonies a totally guages is due to a great many forces at play at the same time. different language, which they do not understand, but say that And it is important to notice that several of these have never been they have learnt from their ancestors (Vanovergh and W. so strong as they are nowadays—and we are now witnessing the rise of one new factor which may prove one of the most potent Schmidt). It is common for savages and primitive people to ascribe of them all, wireless broadcasting. We may therefore look formagical or mystical powers to words, or to some words. Survivals ward to a great process of unification in the future. The common language has two forms, one spoken and one of this superstition are found in our own days even in civilized countries. J. Jakobsen discovered that the Shetlanders on their written. At first people everywhere wrote their own local dialect, fishing expeditions used a number of words for fish and imple- but the tendency towards unity quickly acts upon the way in ments which were different from their everyday Scottish words, which people write, and through the influence of schools the and which he was able to identify with old Norse words; if they common language often makes greater progress in writing than did not use these they believed that their fishing would be unsuc- in speaking. In languages with alphabetic systems of writing no cessful. Jutland peasants at Christmas time are not allowed to one at first could think of anything else but trying to represent use the ordinary words for mice, lice, etc., for then these animals spoken words as phonetically as possible; but soon tradition will multiply. It is more and more recognized that similar reasons tended to fix accustomed spellings and to keep them in use even for the tabu of certain words have operated in making old words where the sound had changed; thus the gap between the spoken disappear, as when the old word for “bear” corresponding to and the written form of words grew wider and wider from generation to generation. In some languages the discord is further Greek &pxros has given way to words originally meaning “brown” (as English bear) or “honey-eater” (as Russian medvet). Names increased through the fact that numerous foreign words are of gods and goddesses are often interdicted in a similar way, e.g., taken over with their native spelling unchanged, as has been the Jahveh among the Jews; it is a kindred half-religious fear that case in English with French words. Time after time spelling remakes people shy of the proper word for “die,” “death,” “be formers endeavour to bridge over the gulf, but some nations are killed” and leads to such euphemisms as “‘pass away,” “go West,” extremely conservative in this respect, while in some other countries (Spain, Germany, Scandinavia) more or less thorough-going etc. Tabu customs also underlie a phenomenon which is found in reforms have been successfully carried through. numerous

countries,

namely

that women

have

a great many

separate words and expressions not used by men; in some places this is carried to such an extent that we may speak of a distinct

THE HISTORY

OF LANGUAGES

While in the case of the vast majority of languages we know only their present stage or quite recent stages, as these languages women’s language. Standard Languages.—One of the most important events in have only been noted down in recent periods by missionaries and the linguistic evolution of historical times is the springing up of philologists, there are fortunately other languages whose history the great national common-languages, standard languages, which we can trace back for centuries, some even for a few thousand are driving out the local dialects; those who speak them do not years. But we must remember that even with regard to those betray by their speech where they come from. Several factors languages in which writing goes furthest back, the period thus have operated to bring about that sociable intercourse between known to us is extremely short in comparison with those thoupeople hailing from different districts which makes them drop sands of years which have left no record. Besides, writing is at specific local peculiarities, not only such traits as are easily best a very imperfect medium for language-study, and its denoticed and therefore often ridiculed by people from other parts, ficiencies are especially glaring in the oldest systems of writing. but also those indescribable and hardly perceptive variations The Egyptian hieroglyphs and the early Semitic alphabets leave us almost entirely in the dark as to the vowels of these languages. which go together to constitute a local idiom. Religious festivals and likewise athletic gatherings—some of Chinese writing is even worse, and the nature of the sounds of these, like the Olympic games in Greece, had also a religious early Chinese is only now slowly revealing itself to the patient significance—have been very important agencies for rubbing off researches of B. Karlgren and other scholars. We are of course local peculiarities; and so have the wandering minstrels who, much better informed with regard to such old languages as long before written literature began, visited successively the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Old Turkish, etc., where not only concourts of petty kings and naturally wanted their songs or sonants, but also vowels are indicated. But even the best of these | recitals to be understood everywhere. The language of Homer alphabets are incapable of denoting a great many nuances—in does not represent the speech of one district, but is highly the qualities of the sounds, in quantity, stress, tone, etc-—which composite, and the same is true with regard to common poetical are of importance in the spoken language and which may exercise languages among savage tribes. In recent times theatrical com- a far-reaching influence on the development of speech. Speaking panies touring from one place to another have had a unifying and writing are really incompatibles because they address theminfluence on language in some countries, notably in Germany, selves to two distinct senses, and even the neatest phonetic script where “Bithnendeutsch” (German of the stage) is largely con- is nothing but a makeshift contrivance for the study of the real, sidered the best German. Political unity is, of course, a factor of i.e., the spoken language. Our descendants will be better off in the utmost importance; among its unifying consequences must that respect as they will have gramophone records, for the study a N be mentioned common military service and the moving of officials of our speech. A great difficulty is created for the historian by. the conservafrom one part of the realm to another. The common language is often in a marked degree an upper-class language, because the tism of people who persist in writing words in a customary spellupper classes travel a good deal and mix with their equals from ing, even where the sounds have changed greatly from what they other districts; at school and in the universities their children were (see above “Standard Languages”). Sometimes this disadhave much intercourse with young people from all over the vantage is remedied by the express statements of early phonetic country. As a final factor of very great umportance must be observers who describe the pronunciation of their, own times mentioned the creation of big cities; in these, and especially in and call attention to the discrepancies ‚between spelling and pro-

LANGUAGE

700

nunciation: in other cases we must draw our conclusions as to

earlier pronunciation in a more indirect way, through loan-

words to and from the language concerned, through rhymes and rhythms in poetical works, and through mistakes in spelling. When we find, for instance in the Shakespeare folio, spellings like solembe, we are justified in inferring, both that n in solemn and that 6 in words like comb, had at that time disappeared from actual pronunciation. Mistakes made by illiterate spellers have proved a very fruitful source in the hands of recent investigators (H. C. Wyld and others). In writing people will tend to be more conservative than in speaking, not only in their spelling, but also in their grammar and in their choice of words. The verbal forms in -tk (goeth, hath) were kept in writing long after the forms in s (goes, has) had become universal in speech; thus also forms like mine own, etc. The subjunctive in “If he come” is much more frequent in writing than in actual speech. Some literary words have practically disappeared from the spoken language, e.g., abode, wax (=grow), anent, belike. Such things are found in all languages that have a long literary tradition, though their extent and character may vary considerably between one language and another. In Swedish and Dutch the old word-genders survive only in the written language, In Modern Greek the tendency to preserve as much as possible of the old glorious language has led to an extreme artificiality in the written language, which creates infinite difficulties for all its users, and the same is the case in some of the Southern Indian languages, such as Telugu. The first requirement of a linguistic historian must therefore be that he is constantly on his guard against false impressions due to the way in which languages are written. In the course of time we see languages changing, though the rate of change varies a good deal. But why do languages change? The ultimate cause must be the same as that of the mutability of all human customs and institutions, namely human nature. In the case of languages we are able to specify some causes of change, chief among which are the nature of the speech-material itself (sounds and the ideas to be expressed) and the way in which language is transmitted from generation to generation or rather from older contemporaries to each new individual; a further cause of change is the influence of persons speaking or writing other languages. Some deviations from the norm are of such a momentary and fleeting character that they have no influence whatever; but others show by the frequency of their occurrence in the mouths of different speakers that they are deeply motived by human nature or by the structure of the particular language in which they occur; these will therefore tend to persist and finally become so universal that they can no longer be considered lapses, but form part and parcel of the language in its new stage. These changes then are the chief objects of study for the linguistic historian. Changes of Sounds.—-Speech sounds are not invariable quan-

` tities. Each “phoneme,” z¢., distinctive sound in the language, has a certain latitude of correctness, within which it may be pronounced, now with the mouth a little more open, now a little more , closed, now with the tip of the tongue a little more advanced, etc., without being unrecognisable or causing any confusion with neighbouring sounds. The speaker in some moods will be tempted to pronounce in a more careless way, and may thereby here and there overshoot the mark or omit a sound which in other moods he will produce correctly. Human laziness plays its part in the phonetic changes of languages, which very often follow the line of least resistance; but there will always be a curbing influence in the mere fact that one speaks to be understood by others who will ask one to repeat one’s words if they are not clearly recognized. Here the whole structure of a language comes into consideration, for some in-

distinct pronunciations

are more

apt to cause

confusion

and

misunderstanding than others; in English a great many words are kept apart by distinction of the final voiced and unvojéed stop (b, p; d, t; g, k); consequently these sounds are pronounced carefully, while in German, where the same sounds serve only in a few cases to distinguish words, there has not been the same

check on the natural tendency to unvoice final consonants the result being that -b, -d, and -g are pronounced as 4, #, & (orch) in Grob, Geld, Tag, etc. Whenever a sound is significative in 4 language it resists change much more effectively than correspond. ing sounds which are not used to distinguish words. A correlated

principle is seen in “stump-words,” those clippings of words which

abound especially in school and college slang, e.g., gym for gymnastics, lab(aratory), undergrad (uate), but which in some cases have penetrated into normal language, e.g., brig for brigantine cab for cabriolet, photo (cf. also numerous Christian names like Fred). In all such cases the beginning of the word has sufficed to convey the sense, and speakers have therefore accustomed themselves to drop the rest.

In these last mentioned cases the phonetic change affects only

one word at a time; but linguistic history abounds in cases in which a sound is changed, not in one word only, but in all the words, or a majority of the words, in which it occurs, or at any rate in which it occurs in the same position or under similar con.

ditions. Here we speak of “sound-laws” or “phonetic laws,” and some of these are of the utmost importance in linguistic science

in determining the relationship between various languages and the

etymology of particular words. In dealing with these sound-laws we should never lose sight of the fact that a speech-sound always exists as a part of the whole

sound-system or sound-pattern of that language; all the important sound-changes

therefore

affect more

than one

sound; and not

infrequently we see that a sound-change is conditioned by the whole structure of a language; similar changes will therefore take place independently in languages of similar structure. This is the case with mutation (“umlaut”), of which there is no trace in Gothic, but which took place in subsequent periods in all the other Germanic languages, though not exactly in the same way everywhere. When initial k was dropped in the beginning of knight, all words with thẹ same group of sounds were affected in the same way; know, knowledge, knock, knit, etc., but k was retained after a vowel, acknowledge. Very often two or more sounds possessing some articulatory elements in common are affected at the same time in the same way; thus g in gn was dropped simultaneously with k in kn; gnaw, gnat. The English vowel-shift which probably began about 1400, modified all long vowels (which had formerly had their “continental” values), e.g., in bite, beet, beat, abate, foul, fool, foal; the vowels were diphthongised or raised, but generally speaking they kept the same distance, so that no confusion was produced and no clashings occurred, until finally the vowel in the beat-group was raised and so fused with that of the beet-group. In the great prehistoric Germanic consonantshift, which affected all the stopped consonants of primitive Aryan, the various sub-classes were similarly kept distinct, though the distinctions were made in a different way from that of the old Aryan system. Sometimes one and the same phonetic change is gradually extended to a greater and greater number of combinations. Such is the case with the dropping of the first element of the English “long u,” phonetically written (ju), after consonants. This happened first after r, as in true; then after Z when preceded by another consonant (blue)—in these cases the sound-law is carried through consistently. Next came Z with no consonant before it,

as in Lucy, and s as in Susan, suit, where there is a good deal of vacillation; after ¢, d, m, as in tune, due, new, the tendency has prevailed only among vulgar British speakers and some Americans. As regards these speakers the “law” must be said to affect all consonants produced by the point of the tongue, while it will have to be formulated in various less comprehensive terms for other speakers. It is probable that many of the comprehensive prehistoric sound changes, of which we see only the final results, may have similarly spread from more modest beginnings. While some phonetic changes bring about a convergence of two or more forms of the same word, which were previously distinct, as when the different Old English (Anglo-Saxon) case-forms s#nu and suna became Middle English sune and modern son, other sound changes lead to divergences between forms of the same

JOI

LANGUAGE word, as when keep and kept, which had formerly the same vowel, now have distinct vowels; a still greater divergence is seen in Seek, sought, which in prehistoric times had the same

vowel (0).

When philologists speak, as they usually do, of sound-laws or

phonetic laws, it must never be forgotten that the word “law” is not used exactly as in the physical sciences, but always refers to historical occurrences restricted to one particular language or dialect and to one definite period of its existence. But from all these particular “laws” we may hope some day to be able to find out some more general laws determining linguistic development everywhere and at all times, though the result may be only com-

paratively vague statements of universal “tendencies.” Among these we must mention the tendency toward assimilation of neighbouring sounds so as to save some particular articu-

lation. Thus, the s is voiced, że., has acquired the sound of z,

before a voiced stop in kusband

(a compound

of hus, house),

gooseberry, etc. The place of articulation is shifted, when 7 becomes m before a labial, as in Stamford

from Stanford, vamp

(upper leather) from French avant-pied, and when » is pronounced with the back of the tongue before a back consonant, e.g., in handkerchief; inversely m has become n before a £, be-

cause that is pronounced with the tip of the tongue, in ant from emette, count from Latin, comit-; similar examples abound in many languages, though the extent to which such assimilatory

forms are tolerated varies a good deal between one language and another. i Analogy.—Irregularities in forms, whether due to such phonetic changes as have just been mentioned, or to other causes, will always tend to disappear. This is brought about by the

springing up of analogy-formations, which have played and still play an enormous rôle in the development of all languages. They have led to the English genitive being now always formed by means of s, while Old English had a variety of formations; feder father’s, manna men’s, cwene queen’s, haran hare’s, etc. The s-ending of the plural has been also extended by analogy to nearly all words; many verbs which in earlier times had a preterite of the “strong” or irregular form now form their preterite with

the regular “weak” ending -ed. The same thing happens in all departments of grammar. Irregular forms may indeed hold their own against all levelling influences, but this can only be if they are in very frequent use, so that a child hears them and has occasion to utter them constantly from a very early age, e.g., the plural men, the case forms J, me, she, her, the comparative better, verb forms like see, saw, stand, stood, etc. In these various ways form-systems constantly tend towards simplification; we see how the languages belonging to the IndoEuropean family have reduced the number of cases, etc., independently of one another, though with varying rapidity, and in some languages, e.g., Celtic, the process has been countered by the development of new complications. Meanings.—The meanings of words are just as subject to change as are their sounds. Changes of meaning are often termed semantic changes, and the science of such changes is called semantics or semasiology (from Greek séma “sign”), but though a very great many semantic changes have been collected and

classified from various points of view, it must be confessed that this “science” has not acquired the same fixity or high standing as that which deals with sound-changes. This is a natural consequence

of the essential

vagueness

of meanings

and the

ex-

tremely- complicated nature of the phenomena and ideas that have to be denoted by words. In some cases we must ascribe the change in meaning to the ordinary man’s want of precise thinking or punctuality, as when soon, which at first meant “at once” has come to mean “‘in a short time,” in others to the desire

mean human being without regard to sex or age, in another it may be used in contrast to “woman,”

this is a regular phenomenon, comparing other with German ander, sooth with Norse sann; before s and f the same thing happened, cf. goose, German gans; soft, German sanft. Finally th corresponds to original ¢ as in three, Lat. tres; thin, Lat.

to express a new notion or to vary the expression of an old one

tenuis.

phors or metonymy, as when we speak of the eye of a needle, a fountain pen, or say the Crown or the crowned head for the king.

ingly distant forms may be connected fect certainty. Where etymologies are not obvious, out all the available historical facts as of the words. These may sometimes

by means of existing speech material; i.e., by means of meta-

Nearly all everyday words have more than one meaning, and

it is only the context or whole situation that shows the hearer how a particular word is to be taken.

Man in one sentence may

in a third in contrast to

“boy,” and in a fourth with the meaning “husband” (man and wife). Tea may according to circumstances mean the plant, the dried leaves of the plant, the drink made from them, or the meal taken with that drink (“She had a substantial tea of bread and butter”). We see then that changes of meaning are often caused by the syntactical combinations into which words enter. “Go to chapel” at first had reference to the place, but chapel in that connection came to mean the service (“There is no chapel on the day on which they hang a man”). Board from meaning a thin slab of wood came to mean table, and then what is put on the table (hence “board and lodging”), and then again a committee sitting round the table (“Board of Trade”), etc. These necessarily cursory remarks rnay serve to show the infinite variety of possibilities attending the development of meanings in a language. In this field philologists must crave the assistance of psychologists and philosophers. How difficult it is to realize and define what exactly is in our minds when we say that such and such a word “means” this or that, is shown in “The Meaning of Meaning” by C. K. Ogden and I. A. Richards (1923), and K. O. Erdmann, “Die Bedeutung des Wortes” (1910, much more easily understandable than the English book). It is very important to notice how different words have their own emotional colouring, so that though intellectually they may mean the same thing, they nevertheless produce quite different impressions on the hearer or reader—a fact which naturally affects their applicability in poetry and higher prose. Such differences may depend on various things which cannot be comprised in one formula; but among the most potent factors one must mention the impression produced by the sound as such. Some vowels and consonants, and some combinations of sounds, are more apt to produce agreeable associations than others; while the sound of short 7 (or @) is often suggestive of small or graceful things, as in little, pretty, twig, kid, slip, chick (cf. French petit, Italian piccino, German winzig, Danish bitte and a great many other words meaning “little” in various languages), the opposite idea is expressed in such sounds as clumsy, blunder, bungle, muddle, siubber, sloven, etc. Sound symbolism must not be overlooked if we would understand the development of languages; in many cases, however, it is not the ultimate source of a word, but rather something that determines the fate of an already existing word in its competition with others. Etymology.—By etymology is understood both the process of tracing words back to their origin and the ultimate source of a word found by that process. In contradistinction to the etymologising of earlier times, which was mere guesswork, philologists nowadays claim—and with good reason—that in making their etymologies they are much more scientific, since they take into account all the sounds of the words, and moreover give proper attention to the way in which the meanings may have developed in all those cases in which these things are not obvious. One example may illustrate the method pursued in etymological investigations. English tooth means the same thing as Latin dens, accusative dentem, and Greek ddots, accusative dd6yrTa: all three' words go back to one and the same form in the parent language (apart from the difference between Lat. e and Gr. o, and the initial o in Gr.). The discrepancies in the consonants are accounted for, when we notice that Eng. ¢ here corresponds to original d in the same way as in tear (Gothic tagr); Gr. ddxpu, ten (Gothic taihun, aie); déxa; teach, delx(vupe); tame, Lat. domo, Gr. daydw, etc. Before th an n has disappeared in English:

In this way philologists have been able to build up a

complete set of correspondences, by means of which even seemetymologically with per-

the chief thing is to find to the use and occurrence reveal curious circuitous

702

LANGUAGE

ways in which words have come to be used. Thus the word chapel, of which we have just seen one change of meaning, owes its origin to Latin cappella, “a little cloak or cape.” The cloak of St. Martin was preserved by the Frankish kings as a sacred relic under the care of its cappellani or “chaplains”; hence cappella was used for the sanctuary in which the cloak was kept, and afterwards transferred to similar places of worship. Another interesting case in point is check, in some of its uses spelt cheque, which is now used in a variety of meanings having seemingly no connection with the name of the Persian king, skak, from which it is nevertheless derived (through the game of chess, which is ultimately nothing but the plural of the same word). Though a great many words have thus been explained in a most satisfactory way, many others even in the best known languages have resisted

all the attempts of linguistic historians, among them such comparatively recent words as put, pull, pun, job, rococo, zinc. Speech-mixture.—No nation lives entirely isolated from others, and contact between nations has always some linguistic consequences. No language is therefore free from foreign elements, though the degree of speech-mixture varies very considerably. The simplest case is the adoption of a foreign name of an animal or product hitherto unknown; thus kangaroo is from some Australian tongue, zebra from an African, tea from Chinese, coffee from Arabic, chocolate from Mexican, and punch from Hindustani. A certain type of carriage was introduced from Hungary and is known in most European languages by its Magyar name, English coach, German kutsche, etc. While such loan-words are isolated, there are others which come in larger quantities and bear witness to the cultural superiority of some nation in some one specified sphere of activity or branch of knowledge; such are the Arabic words relating to mathematics and astronomy, algebra, zero, cipher, zenith; the Italian words relating to music, piano, allegro, soprano, etc., and to commerce, bank, balance, ducat, florin. It is possible to read whole chapters of the cultural history of the English nation out of the successive strata of important loan-words. Before the migration from the continent came commercial and domestic words from Latin, mint, monger (fishmonger, etc.), pound, inch, wine, dish, cook, kitchen, pear, plum. Next came words connected with the Christian religion, pope, bishop, nun, shrive. Then we have Scandinavian words connected with law and with peaceful settlement, law, bylaw, thrall, crave, wapentake, egg, Skirt, numerous place names in -by, -thorp, etc. The Norman French words show the conquerors as the ruling and refined upper class, crown, reign, sovereign, duke, court, judge, jury, summon, grace, beauty, flower, dinner, supper, etc. And finally we have the learned words from the classical tongues after the revival of learning, intellect, abstract, educate, preternatural, biology, heterodox, metamorphosis, encyclopaedia and innumerable others. In the same way we are able to draw

inferences from loan-words with regard to the nature of prehistoric contacts between various races, e.g., Scandinavian and Baltic words in Finnic. ; The study of loan-words is important in other respects as well. As phonetic development does not follow the same lines in all languages, loans often retain traces of a pronunciation which is lost in the country from which they came. English w in wine shows the old Latin pronunciation, which has been given up in all the Romanic languages; vine from French vigne shows the later French devélopment into v. English words often preserve consonants which have been dropped in French, beast, feast from old French, beste, feste, now béte, féte; ch in chief, chair,

charm, etc., shows the Old French

sound, which in Modern

French has. been simplified through dropping of the first element; chef, champagne are later loans after the change in French pronunciation. In this way Finnic loans from their western neigh-

bours show us forms that are older than the oldest runic inscriptions and than the Gothic translation of the Bible, e.g., kuningas for “king.” Indirect loans are found when a compound term is translated from one language to another; this is the case with some words

of ethical or religious import; Greek

ovveldnots and ovurddea

were translated into Latin conscientia and compassio and those again into German Gewissen (ge=con), and Mitleid, Danish samvittighed and medlidenhed. Again phraseological and syntactical combinations are in this way transferred from one language

to another.

Very intricate borrowings of this kind in the Balkans

Rumanian

and Albanian, despite their different origins, present

have been studied by Sandfeld; thanks to them, Greek, Bulgarian

a certain homogeneity in syntactical structure. It is highly probable that certain peculiarities in the flection of Armenian and

Tokharian Turkish.

must be similarly ascribed to the neighbourhood of

nouncedly

childish

Contact between races with mutually unintelligible languages has given rise to makeshift languages of a curiously similar type in various parts of the globe, however different the underlying language may be. Such are Pidgin English and Béche-de-Mer ip the East, various Creole languages such as Creole French of Mauritius, Negro-Portuguese, Negro-Dutch, “El Papiamento” in Curacao and the Chinook trade language in North America. In all these is an extreme simplicity of grammatical structure which together with a minimum of vocabulary gives them a procharacter.

Such

languages

are

not mixed

languages, properly speaking, but arise from the first bungling attempts

at learning a difficult language, the Europeans having

very often met the natives half-way by using broken English,

etc., themselves.

Generally these minimum

languages are in a

very fluctuating state, but under favourable circumstances they

may become more fixed and even be used for expressing all the ideas of a cultured mind.

SUBSTRATUM

.

In recent discussions about the origin of dialects and linguistic differences the so-called substratum theory has played a great role. The starting point is the undoubtedly correct observation that when an adult learns a new language he will nearly always transfer sounds and such general phonetic qualities as tones, stress, etc., from his first to his second language. The differences between the development of Latin in Gaul, in Spain, etc., are then explained as chiefly due to the influence of the original language of each country; the old Germanic sound shift is said to be due to phonetic habits of an aboriginal population, etc. In most cases, however, we know nothing at all about the pronunciation of the languages thus conjectured to be substrata of European languages (Iberian, Rhaetian, pre-Germanic), and though there may be some truth in the theory in a general way, it cannot explain everything that it has been supposed to explain by writers like Meillet, Hirt and Feist. Before resorting to the hypothesis of a prehistoric substratum one should always try to explain linguistic changes in the same way as those which happen before our eyes in historic times in countries where the same population has been living for centuries. THE ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE

On the ultimate origin of language speculation has been rife, more, however, among philosophers than among philologists, who have very often been too matter-of-fact to take an interest in this problem. Some scholars (among them quite recently W. Schmidt) see the insufficiency of the usual theories, and giving up all attempts at explaining it in a natural way fall back on the religious belief that the first language was directly given to the first men by God through a miracle. ` Greek philosophers were divided into two groups,on this

question, some thinking that there is from the beginning a natural connection

between

sound

and

meaning

and

that

therefore

language originated from nature (dtcev), while others denied that connection and held that everything: in language was conventional (@éce.). The same two opposite views are represented among the linguistic thinkers of the roth century, the former in

the nativism of W. v. Humboldt, Max Müller, Steinthal and others, the latter in the empiricism of Madvig, Whitney, Marty,

etc.

Some of the chief theories are best known under the nicknames invented by Max Miiller, the bow-wow, pooh-pooh, and the yo-he-

LANGUEDOC ho theories. According to the first, language began with the imitation of the characteristic sounds of animals; according to the second, with interjections, instinctive utterances

called forth by

ain or other intense sensations or feelings, and according to the third, with the natural phonetic accompaniments of acts performed in common; these sounds would thus come to stand as verbs denoting the acts themselves; e.g., heave, khaul. Each of the theories thus succinctly sketched explains part of our human language, and there is nothing to hinder us from combining them, but even when combined they do not explain everything, and especially fail to explain the central parts of language and its whole complex structure. Moreover, they all tacitly assume that up to the creation of language man had remained mute

and silent, but it is much more probable that he had already exercised his organs through something that was not yet speech,

but might lead to speech. The latest attempt at solving the mystery is that of Jespersen, who thinks that the problem may be approached in a quite new way by starting from languages as we find them nowadays and ‘tracing their history back as far as our material allows, in order

from a comparison of present English with Old English (and

similarly in the case of as many languages as possible) to find out the great laws governing linguistic development; by lengthening this system of lines on a larger scale backwards beyond the reach

of history we may be able to arrive at uttered sounds of such a

description that they can no longer be called a real language. As regards the phonetic structure of the most primitive language, we shall in that way arrive at long conglomerates of sounds forming a striking contrast to those monosyllables with which philologists of the roth century imagined that language must necessarily have begun. These long strings of syllables were

probably characterised by marked tone movements with great

intervals, and thus more like singing than is our comparatively monotonous civilised speech. The further back we go in the history of languages the greater is the number of irregularities that we find, not only in morphology, and syntax, but also in vocabulary; the same thing is not always denoted in the same way, and instead of general terms as in our languages we find words with highly specialised and concrete meanings. The bigger and longer the words, the thinner the thoughts. The first framers of speech were not taciturn beings, but lively men and women babbling or singing merrily on for the mere pleasure of producing sounds with or without meaning; as an instrument for expressing thoughts

their utterances were clumsy, unwieldly and ineffectual, but they served to give vent to their emotions, and that was all they cared

for. One string of syllables sung to some kind of melody may have been so characteristic of a certain individual, that it came to be repeated by others to signalise his approach, thus denoting

him and becoming a proper name for him—the most concrete of all words. Another song might serve to remind the tribe of some occasion when it was first intoned and might thus become an undifferentiated expression for what happened then. When a multitude of utterances of this kind had developed, each with some sort of special meaning, they might be combined in various clumsy ways and thus give rise to something that was more like the long intricate sentence-conglomerates which we find, for instance, in Eskimo. But even the most primitive language heard to-day has an evolution of many thousand years behind it, and a modern mind cannot hope to be able to enter into the workings of a mind that was only beginning to be human.

Brsrrocrapuy.—H. Sweet, The History of Language (1900); H. Oertel, Lectures on the Study of Language (1901); J. van Ginneken, Principes de Linguistique Psychologique (1907); B. Delbriick, Einleitung in das Studium der indogermanischen Sprachen (sth ed. 1908) ; H. Paul, Prinzipien der Sprachgeschichte (4th ed. 1909) ; F. de Saussure, Cours de Linguistique Générale (1916); A. Meillet, Lin; E. Sapir, Languistique Historique et Linguistique Générale E

des

guage (1921); A. Meillet, Introduction 4 PEtude comparative Langues

Indoeuropéenes

(sth

ed.

1922);

H.

Schuchardt-Brevier

(1922) ; O. Jespersen, Language, its Nature, Development and Origin (1922); H. Delacroix, Le Langage et la Pensée (1924); O. Jesper-

sen, Mankind, Nation and Individual (1925) ; J. Vendryes, Language, a Linguistic Introduction to History (1925); A. Meillet, La Méthode Comparative en Linguistique Historique (1925). See also oa

LOGY.

.

LANGUEDOC,

793 one of the old provinces of France, the

name of which dates from the end of the 13th century. In 1290 it was used to refer to the country in whose tongue (langue) the word for “yes” was oc, as opposed to the centre and north of France, the longue d’oil (the oui of to-day). Territorially Lan-

guedoc varied considerably in extent, but in general from 1360 until the French Revolution it included the territory of the following departments of modern France; part of Tarn et Garonne, Tarn, most of Haute-Garonne, Ariége, Aude, Pyrénées-Orientales, Hérault, Gard, Lozère, part of Ardèche and Haute-Loire. The

country had no natural geographical unity. Stretching over the Cevennes into the valleys of the upper Loire on the north and into that of the upper Garonne on the west, it reached the Pyrénées on the south and the rolling hills along the Rhône on the east. Its unity was entirely a political creation, but none the less real, as it was the great state of the Midi, the representative of íts culture and, to some degree, the defence of its peculiar civilization. While it corresponded exactly to no administrative division of the Roman empire, Languedoc was approximately the territory included in Gallia Narbonensis, one of the 17 provinces into which the empire was divided at the death of Augustus. It was rich and flourishing, with great and densely populated towns, Nîmes, Narbonne, Béziers, Toulouse; with schools of rhetoric and poetry still vigorous in the 5th century. In the 5th century this high culture was an open prize for the barbarians; and after the passing of the Vandals, Suebi and Visigoths into Spain, the Visigoths returned under Wallia, who made his capital at Toulouse in 419. This was the foundation of the Visigothic kingdom which Clovis dismembered in 507, leaving the Visigoths only Septimania —the country of seven cities, Narbonne, Carcassonne, Elne, Béziers, Maguelonne, Lodéve and Agde—that is, very nearly the area occupied later by the province of Languedoc. At the council of Narbonne in 589 five races are mentioned as living in the province, Visigoths, Romans, Jews—of whom there were a great many—Syrians and Greeks. The repulse of the Arabs by Charles Martel in 732 opened up the country for the Frankish conquest, which was completed by 768. Under the Carolingians, Septimania became part of the kingdom of Aquitaine, but it became a separate duchy in 817. Until the opening of the 13th century there is no unity in the history of Languedoc. The feudal régime did not become at all universal in the district, as in the north of France. By the end of the r1th century the house of the counts of Toulouse began to play the predominant réle; but their court had been famous almost a century before for its love of art and literature and its extravagance in dress and fashions, all of which denoted its wealth. Under Raymond of Saint Gilles, at the end of the rith century, the county of Toulouse began its great career, but Raymond’s ambition to become an Oriental prince, which led him away on the first crusade left a troubled heritage to his sons Bertrand and Alphonse Jourdain (1109-48). The latter successfully beat off William IX., duke of Aquitaine, and won from the count of Barcelona the part of Provence between the Drôme and the Durance. By the opening of the 13th century the sovereignty of the counts of Toulouse was recognized through about half of Provence, and they held the rich cities of the most cultured and wealthiest portion of France. The prosperity of this region was ruined by the great crusade directed against the popular heresy which had developed there by the early 13th century. The whole county of Toulouse, with its fiefs of Narbonne, Béziers, Foix, Montpellier and Quercy, was in open and scornful secession from the Catholic Church, and the suppression of this Manichaean or Cathar religion was the end of the brilliant culture of Languedoc. (See ALBIGENSES, CarHars, Inquisition.) The crusade against the Albigenses, as the Cathars were locally termed, in 1209, resulted in the union

to the crown of France in 1229 of all the country from Carcassonne to the Rhône, thus dividing Languedoc: into two. Thè western part, left to Raymond VIL., by the treaty’of 1229, included the Agenais, Quercy, Rouergue, the Toulotsain and ‘southern Albigeois. He had as well the Venaissin across ‘the’ Rhéne..: From 1229 to his death in 1249 Raymond VII.; worked tirelessly’ to

LANGUET—LANGUR

704

bring back prosperity to his ruined country, encouraging the foundation of new cities, and attempting to gain reconciliation with the Church. He left only a daughter, Jeanne, who was married to Alphonse of Poitiers. Alphonse, a sincere Catholic, upheld the Inquisition, but, although ruling the country from Paris, maintained peace. Jeanne died without heirs four days after her hus-

band, in 1271, and her lands were promptly seized by King Philip III. Thus the county of Toulouse passed to the crown, though Philip III. turned over the Agenais to Edward I. of England in 1279. In 1274 he ceded the county of Venaissin to Pope Gregory X., the papacy having claimed it, without legal grounds, since the Albigensian crusade (see AVIGNON). Such was the fate of the reduced county of Toulouse. At the division of Languedoc in 1229 Louis IX. was given all the country from Carcassonne to the Rhône. This royal Languedoc was at first subject to much trickery on the part of northern speculators and government officials. In 1248 Louis IX. sent royal enquéteurs, much like Charlemagne’s missi dominici, to correct all abuses, especially to enquire concerning peculation by royal agents. On the basis of their investigations the king issued royal edicts in 1254 and 1259 which organized the administration of the province. Two sénéchaussées were created—one at Nimes, the other at Carcassonne—each with its lesser divisions of vigueries and bailliages. During the reign of Philip IIT. the enguêteurs were busily employed securing justice for the conquered, preventing the seizure of lands, and in 1279 a supreme court of justice was established at Toulouse. In 1302 Philip IV. convoked the estates of Languedoc, but in the century which followed they were less an instrument for self-government than one for securing money, thus aiding the enquéteurs, who during the Hundred Years’ War became mere

revenue hunters for the king.

Under

Charles V.,

Louis of Anjou, the king’s brother, was governor of Languedoc, and while an active opponent of the English, he drained the country of money. But his extortions were surpassed by those of another brother, the duc de Berry, after the death of Charles V. In 1382 and 1383 the infuriated peasantry, abetted by some nobles, rose in a rebellion—known as the Tuchins—which was put down with frightful butchery, while still greater sums were demanded from the impoverished country. In the anarchy which followed brigandage increased. Redress did not come till 1420, when the dauphin, afterwards Charles VII., came to Languedoc and re-formed the administration. Then the country he saved furnished him with the means for driving out the English in the north. For the first time, in the climax of its miseries, Languedoc was genuinely united to France. But Charles VII. was not able to drive out the brigands, and it was not until after the English were expelled in 1453 that Languedoc had even comparative peace. Charles VII. united Comminges to the crown; Louis XI. Roussillon and Cerdagne, both of which were ceded to Aragon by Charles

VIII. as the price of its neutrality during his expedition into Italy. From the reign of Louis XI. until 1523 the governorship of Languedoc was held by the house of Bourbon. After the treason of the constable Bourbon it was held by the Montmorency family with but slight interruption until 1632. The Reformation found Languedoc orthodox: persecution had succeeded. The Inquisition had had no victims since 1340, and the cities which had been centres of heresy were now strongly orthodox. But Calvinism gained ground rapidly in the other parts of Languedoc, and by 1560 the majority of the population was Protestant. This was, however, partly a political protest against the misrule of the Guises. The open conflict came in 1561, and there was intermittent civil war thenceforward until the Edict of Nantes (1598). By this, the Protestants were given ten places of safety in Languedoc; but civil strife did not come to an end, even under Henry IV. In 1620 the Protestants in Languedoc rose under Henri, duc de Rohan (1579-1638), who for-two years defied

the power of Louis XIII. When Louis took Montpellier in 1622, he attempted to reconcile the Calvinists by bribes of money and office, and left Montauban as a city of refuge. By 1629 Protestantism was crushed in the Midi as a political force. After the rebellion of Henri II., duc de Montmorency, Languedoc lost’ its old provincial privilege of self-assessment until 1649. During Louis

XIV.’s reign Languedoc prospered until the revocation of the Edict of Nantes.

Industries

and agriculture

encouraged, roads

were

and bridges were built, and the great canal giving a water route from the Atlantic to the Mediterranean increased the trade of its cities.

The religious persecutions which accompanied the revoca-

tion of the Edict of Nantes resulted in a guerrilla warfare known as the rebellion of the Camisards (q.v.). BisrioGRaPHY.—The one monumental history of Languedoc is that

of the Benedictines, Dom Claude Devic and Dom J. J, Vaissete Histoire générale de la province de Languedoc (1730~45). This ine been re-edited, and continued and increased by the addition of important monographs (Toulouse, 1872-92). The fine article “Languedoc” in La Grande Encyclopédie is by A. Molinier, perhaps the greatest modern authority on Languedoc.

LANGUET,

HUBERT

(1518-1581),

French Huguenot

writer and diplomat, was born at Vitteaux in Burgundy, of which town his father was governor.

He received his early education

from a distinguished Hellenist, Jean Perelle, and studied law, theology and science at the University of Poitiers (1 536-39): then, after some travel, attended the universities of Bologna and

Padua, receiving the doctorate from the latter in 1548. At

Bologna he read Melanchthon’s Loct communes theologiae and was so impressed by it that in 1549 he went to Wittenberg to see the author, and shortly afterwards became a Protestant. He made his headquarters at Wittenberg until the death of Melanch-

thon in 1560.

In 1557 he declined the invitation of Gustavus I.

to enter the service of Sweden, but two years later accepted a similar invitation of Augustus I., elector of Saxony.

great ability in organizing the Protestants.

He showed

He represented the

elector at the French court from’ 156r to 1572 except when troubles in France occasionally compelled him to withdraw. In

1567 he accompanied the elector to the siege of Gotha. He delivered a harangue before Charles IX. of France in 1570 on behalf of the Protestant princes, and escaped death on St. Bartholomew’s Day (1572) only through the intervention of Jean de Morvilliers, bishop of Orleans. He represented the elector of Saxony at the imperial court from 1573 to 1577. Financial embarassment and disgust at the Protestant controversies in which he was forced to participate caused him to seek recall from the imperial court. His request being granted, Languet spent the last years of his life mainly in the Low Countries, and though nominally still in the service of the elector, he undertook a mission to England for John Casimir of Bavaria, and was a valuable adviser to William the Silent, prince of Orange. Languet died at Antwerp on Sept. 30, 1581. For his relations with Sidney, see SIDNEY, Sir PHILIP. Collections. of Languet’s letters, which are important for the history of his time, are: Arcana seculi decimi sexti, ed. Ludovicus (Halle, 1669); Langueti epistolae ad Joach. Camerarium, patrem et filium (Groningen, 1646); and the correspondence with Sir

Philip Sidney (Eng. trans. by S. A. Pears, 1845). His acknowledged work includes Historica descriptio (Gotha, 1568), dealing

with the siege of Gotha. His fame rests on the attribution to him of the Vindiciae contra tyrannos (Basle, 1579; Eng. trans.,

1689), which purported to be published at Edinburgh and written by Stephanus Junius Brutus, a Celt. The work upholds the doctrine of resistance, but maintains that resistance itself must originate in properly constituted authority; that is to say, it was directed against tyranny on the one hand and the excesses of anabaptism on the other. See Ph. de la Mare, Vie d’Hubert Languet (Halle, 1700); H. Chevreul, Hubert Languet (1852) ; J. Blasel, Hubert Languet (Breslau, 1872); O. Scholz, Hubert Languet als kursdichsischer Berichterstatter

u. Gesandter in Frankreich

während

1560-1572

(Halle, 1873); G.

Touchard, De politica Huberti Langueti (1898). There is a good

article on Languet by P. Tschackert in Hauck’s Realencyklopidie, 3rd ed., xl. 274~280.

LANGUR

or Hanuman, the sacred Indian monkey scien-

tifically known as Semnopithecus entellus. An extremely long tail, beetling black eyebrows, black ears, face, feet and hands, and a

general greyish-brown colour of the fur are its distinctive characteristics. These monkeys roam at will in the bazaars of Hindu cities, where they help themselves freely from the stores of the grain-dealers. They are also kept at various temples. The

LANG

VON

WELLENBURG—LANNES

795

These monkeys are character-

clergy. In the Convention (1792) his views became more moderate, and while adhering to his republican principles, he made repeated attacks on the Mountain, which resulted (April 15, 5793) in a demand for his exclusion from the Assembly. Arrested with

ized by their lank bodies, long slender limbs and tail, well-de-

the Girondins, he escaped to Rennes where he drew up a pamphlet,

term is often extended to embrace all the genus Semnopithecus, which includes a large number of species, ranging from Ceylon,

India and Kashmir to southern China and the Malay countries as far east as Borneo and Sumatra.

veloped thumbs, absence of cheek-pouches, and complex stomachs.

LANG VON WELLENBURG,

1340), German

statesman

purgher of Augsburg.

MATTHAUS

(1469-

and ecclesiastic, was the son of a

After studying at Ingolstadt, Vienna and

Tübingen he entered the service of the emperor Frederick III. He was a trusted adviser of Maximilian I., and was made provost of the cathedral at Augsburg and bishop of Gurk. In 151r he was made a cardinal by Pope Julius II., and in 1514 he became co-

Le Dernier Crime de Lanjuinais, denouncing the constitution of 1793. He was re-admitted to the Convention on March 8, 1795. He maintained his liberal and independent attitude in the Conseil des Anciens, the senate and the chamber of peers, being president of the upper house during the Hundred Days. Following the Restoration most of his time was given to religious and political subjects. He died in Paris on Jan. 13, 1827. His writings in-

clude: Constitutions de la nation frangatse (1819); Appréciation adjutor to the archbishop of Salzburg, whom he succeeded in and Etudes biegraphiques et littéraires sur Antoine Arnauld, P. 1519. He also received the bishopric of Cartagena in Murcia in rot, and that of Albano in 1535, Lang’s arrogance made him very unpopular in his diocese of Salzburg; in 1523 he was in-

volved in a serious struggle with his subjects, and in 1525, during the Peasants’ War, he had again to fight hard to hold his own.

He

was one of the chief ministers of Charles V.; he played an important part in the tangled international negotiations of his time; and he was always loyal to his imperial masters. He has been compared with Cardinal Wolsey. He died on March 30, 1540.

LANIER, SIDNEY

(1842-1881), American poet, was born

at Macon, Ga., on Feb. 3, 1842. He was of Huguenot descent on his father’s side, and of Scottish and American on his mother’s. From childhood he was passionately fond of music. When 14

years old he entered Oglethorpe college, where, after graduating with distinction, he held a tutorship. He served from 1861—65 in the Civil War, returning home in broken health. In 1867 he visited New York in connection with his novel Tiger Lilies—an immature work, dealing in part with his war experiences. The next year he began to study and practise law with his father. In 1872 he went to Texas for his health, but was forced to return, and he secured an engagement as first flute in the Peabody concerts at Baltimore (Dec. 1873). He wrote a guide-book to Florida (1876), and tales for boys from Froissart, Malory, the Mabinogion

and Percy’s Reliques (1878-82). His reputation gradually increased, and he was enabled to study music and literature, especially Anglo-Saxon poetry. In 1876 he wrote his ambitious cantata for the Centennial Exhibition, and returned north. A small volume of verse appeared in the next year. In 1879 he was made lecturer on English literature at Johns Hopkins-university. His lectures became the basis of his Science of English Verse (1880)—his most important prose work, and an admirable discussion of the relations of music and poetry—and also of his English Novel (1883). Work had to be abandoned on account of growing feebleness, and in the spring of 1881 he was carried to Lynn, N.C., to try camp life, and died there on Sept. 7. An enlarged and final

edition (1884) of his poems was prepared by his wife, his Letters, 1866-188r (1899) and several volumes of miscellaneous prose assisted in keeping his name before the public. A posthumous work on Shakspere and his Forerunners (London, 2 vols., 1902) was edited by H. W. Lanier. Among his more noteworthy poems are “Corn,” “The Revenge of Hamish,” ‘Song of the Chattahoochee” and “The Marshes of Glynn.” By some his genius is regarded as musical rather than poetic, and his style is considered hectic; by others he is held to be one of the most original and most talented of modern American poets.

Nicole et Jacques Necker For the life of the Cougny, Dictionnaire Aulard, Les Orateurs For a bibliography of vol. iii. (1829).

(1823).

comte de Lanjuinais see also A. Robert and G. des parlementaires, vol, ii, (1890); and F. A. de la Législative et de la Convention (1885-86). his work see J. M. Quérard, La France littéraire,

LANKESTER, SIR EDWIN RAY (1847-1929), British biologist, was born in London on May 15, 1847, and was educated ° at St. Paul’s School, Downing College, Cambridge, and Christ Church, Oxford. In 1872 he was elected to a fellowship at Exeter College, Oxford. During 1874-90 he was professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at University College, London, and from 1890-8 Linacre professor of comparative anatomy at Oxford. From 1898 to 1907 he was director of the natural history department of the British Museum, and from 1898~1900 he held the Fullerian professorship of physiology and comparative anatomy at the Royal Institution, London. He did valuable research work on the comparative structure of animals, both living and extinct. To the general public he became known owing to his successful presentation of scientific subjects in a popular form. He was elected F-R.S. in 1875, and was awarded the Royal Medal in 1885 and the Copley Medal in 1913. In 1884 he founded the

Marine Biological Association, becoming its president in 1892. His numerous publications include Comparative Longevity (1871); Degeneration (1880); and the several editions of Sczence from an Easy Chair (1908, 15th ed,, 1922); Diversions of a Naturalist (1915, 3rd ed. 1919); Science and Education (1919); Secrets of Earth and Sea (1920, 2nd ed., 1923); and Great and Small Things (1923). He died in London on Aug. 15, 1929.

LANMAN, CHARLES ROCKWELL (1850), American Sanskrit scholar, was born in Norwich, Conn., on July 8, 1850.

He graduated at Yale in 1871, was a graduate student

there (1871-73)

and in Germany

(1873-76), was teacher of

Sanskrit at Johns Hopkins university in 1876-80 and subsequently professor of Sanskrit at Harvard. In 1889 he travelled in India and bought for Harvard university Sanskrit and Prakrit books and manuscripts, which, with those subsequently bequeathed to the university by Fitzedward Hall, make the most

valuable collection of its kind in America.

In 1879-84 he was

secretary and editor of the Transactions, and in 1889-90 presi-

dent of the American Philological Association; he was successively corresponding secretary, vice president and president of the American Oriental Society, in addition to being joint editor of its journal and proceedings for many years.

In the Harvard

oriental series, which he edited, he translated (vol. iv.) into English Rajacekhara’s Karpiira-Mafijari (1900), a Prakrit drama, and (vols. vii. and viii.) revised and edited Whitney’s translation See a “Memorial,” by W. H. Ward, prefixed to the Poems (1884) ; of, and notes on, the Atharva-Veda (1905); he published A

Letters of Sidney Lanier 1866-1881 (1899), edited by H. W. Lanier and Mrs. Sidney Lanier; E. Mims, Sidney Lanier (1905). There is a bibliography of Lanier’s scattered writings in Select Poems (New York, 1896; Toronto, 1900) edited by M. Callaway. (W. P. T.)

LANIIDAE: see SHRIKE. LANJUINAIS, JEAN DENIS, Comte (1753-1827), French politician, was born at Rennes (Ille-et-Vilaine) on March 12,1753. He studied law and became in 1775 professor of eccleslastical law at Rennes. His two important works of this period, Institutiones iuris ecclesiastici and Praelectiones iuris ecclesiastici, remained unpublished owing ta the chaotic state of public affairs.

Elected to the States‘General in 1789 he demanded the abolition of nobility and helped to establish the civil constitution of the

Sanskrit Reader: with Vocabulary and Notes (1884-88); and he wrote on noun-inflection in the Veda and on early Hindu pantheism and contributed the section on Brahmanism to Messages of the Worlds Religions.

LANNES, JEAN (1769-1809), duke of Montebello, marshal

of France, was born at Lectoure (Gers) on April 11, 1769. He was apprenticed to a dyer and had little education. He joined the army and rose to the rank of chef de brigade during the war with Spain (1793-4). In 1795, on the reform of the army by the Thermidorians, he was dismissed from his rank. He re-enlisted as a volunteer in the army of Italy, and in the campaign of 1796 he again fought his way up to the rank of general of brigade. He

706

LANNION—LANSBURY

accompanied Napoleon to Egypt as commander of one of Kléber’s brigades. Returning to France he assisted at the 18th Brumaire and was appointed general of division, and commandant of the consular guard. He commanded the advanced guard in the crossing of the Alps in 1800, winning the battle of Montebello, from which he afterwards took his title. In 1801 Napoleon sent him as ambassador to Portugal. On the establishment of the empire he was created a marshal of France, and commanded the left of the grand army in the campaign of Austerlitz. He fought with distinction through the campaign of 1806~7 and in 1808 Napoleon made him commander-in-chief of a detached wing of the army in Spain. On Feb. 21, 1809, he captured Saragossa, after one of the most stubborn defences in history. Napoleon then created him duc de Montebello, and in 1809, for.the last time, gave him command of the advanced guard. He took part in the engagements around Eckmühl and the advance on Vienna. With his corps he led the French army across the Danube, and bore the brunt, with Mas-

séna, of the terrible battle of Aspern-Essling (qg.v.). During the retreat on May 22 Lannes was wounded and died at Vienna on May 3r. Lannes ranks with Davout and Masséna as the ablest of all Napoleon’s marshals, and consciously or unconsciously was the best exponent of the emperor’s method of making war. Hence his constant employment in tasks requiring the utmost resolution and daring, and more especially when the emperor’s combinations depended upon the vigour and self-sacrifice of a detachment or fraction of the army. See R. Périn, Vie militaire de Jean Lannes (1809).

LANNION,

a town of north-western France, capital of an

arrondissement in the department of Cétes-du-Nord, on the right bank of the Léguer, 45 m. N.W. of St. Brieuc by rail. Pop. (1926) 5,540. Lannion is 5 m. in direct line from the mouth of the Léguer; its port does a small trade (exports of agricultural produce, flax and hemp, imports of wine, salt, coal, timber, etc.), and there is an active fishing industry. It has much commerce in horses, grain, cattle, butter, flax and wool. The town contains many houses of the 15th and 16th centuries and the church of St. Jean-du-Baly (16th and 17th centuries). On an eminence close to Lannion is the church of Brélevenez of the r2th century, restored in the r5th century; it has an interesting 16thcentury Holy Sepulchre. Some 6 m. S.E. of the town are the imposing ruins of the Château of Tonquédec (c. 1400) styled the “Pierrefonds of Brittany.”

LANOLIN,

the commercial name of the preparation styled

adeps lanae hydrosus in the British Pharmacopoeia, which con-

sists of 70z. of neutral wool-fat (adeps lanae) mixed with 3 fluid oz. of water. The wool-fat is obtained by purification of the “brown grease,” “recovered grease,” or dégras extracted from raw sheep’s wool in the process of preparing it for the spinner. It is a translucent unctuous substance which has the property of taking up large quantities of water, and forming emulsions which are very slow to separate into their constituents. Owing to the ease with which it penetrates the skin, wool-fat both in the anhydrous form and as lanolin, sometimes mixed with such substances as vaseline or fatty oils, is largely employed as a basis for ointments. It is slightly antiseptic and does not become rancid. (See Orzs AND Farts.)

LA NOUE, FRANCOIS DE (1531-1591), called Bras-deFer, Huguenot captain, was born near Nantes in 1531, of an ancient Breton family. His first great exploit was the capture of Orleans at the head of only 15 cavaliers in 1567, during the second Huguenot war. At the battle of Jarnac in March 1569 he commanded the rearguard, and at Moncontour in the following October he was taken prisoner; but he was exchanged in time to resume the governorship of Poitou, and to defeat the royalist troops before Rochefort. At the siege of Fontenay (1570) his

left arm was shattered by a bullet; but a mechanic of Rochelle made him an iron arm (hence his sobriquet) with a hook for holding his reins. When peace was made in France in the same year, La Noue carried his sword against the Spaniards in the Netherlands, but was taken at the recapture of Mons by the Spanish in 157 2. He was commissioned by Charles IX., after the massacre

of St. Bartholomew, to reconcile the inhabitants of La Rochelle

the great stronghold of the Huguenots, to the king. But La Noue gave up his royal commission, and from 1574 till 1578 acted as general of La Rochelle. When peace was again concluded La Noue once more went to aid the Protestants of the Low Countries. He took several towns and captured Count Egmont in 1580; but a few weeks afterwards he fell into the hands of the Spaniards, who kept him in close imprisonment at Limburg for five years. In prison he wrote his Discours politiques et militaires (Basel, 1587, and many other editions). La Noue wrote of war as a human drama, before it bad been elaborated and codified. In June 1585, La Noue was exchanged. In 1589, he joined Henry of Navarre against the Leaguers. He was present at both sieges of Paris, at Ivry and other battles. He died at Moncontour on Aug. 4, 1591.

He wrote, besides the Discourses, Déclaration pour prise d'armes et la défense de Sedan et Jamets (1588); Observations sur l'histoire de Guicciardini (2 vols., 1592); and notes on Plutarch’s Lives. His Correspondance was published in 1854. See La Vie de Frangois, seigneuy de la Noue, by Moyse Amirault (Leiden, 1661) ; Brantdéme’s Vies des Capitaines francais; C. Vincen’s Les Héros de la Réforme, Fr. de la Noue (1875) ; and Hauser, François de La Noue (Paris, 1892).

LANREZAC, CHARLES LOUIS (1852-1925), French soldier, was born at Pointe-à-Pitre, Guadeloupe on July 31, 1882.

While at the École de Guerre, the new French doctrine of strategy

and tactics was being established under the influence of Maillard. Langlois and Bonnal. To this doctrine Lanrezac himself contributed in his study La manoeuvre de Lützen. He became colonel in 1902, general of brigade in 1906, and general of division in

III. In r912 he commanded the XI. Corps, and on April 10, 1914 succeeded Galliéni as a member of the Conseil Supérieur de

la Guerre and commander-designate of the V. Army. His theories as summarized in the article Stratégie of the Dictionnaire militaire were not in accordance with the modern theory of an incessant and universal offensive, of which plan 17 was an example. This plan assumed that the V. Army would attack east of the

Meuse towards Neufchâteau. Lanrezac pointed out in his report of July 31, 1914, that if the extreme German right crossed the

Meuse north of Givet the V. Army at Neufchâteau would be turned. Neither he nor Joffre anticipated the magnitude of the German attack, though he feared an enemy attack between Namur and Givet aimed at Chimay and the sources of the Oise and the direct road to Paris. He therefore sought and obtained permission on Aug. 12 to place the I. Corps (left) in the Dinant region, and to make preliminary arrangements for moving the rest of his army towards the northwest. On Aug. 15 the Germans having endeavoured to cross the Meuse at Dinant, General Joffre ordered the transfer of the army on the left bank. ` On Aug. 2r Lanrezac asked Joffre whether he should attack the following day, but was then violently attacked by Von Bülow’s army, and the battle of Charleroi began. The arrival of the ITI. German Army forced the I. French Corps to fall back on the Meuse, while the III. Corps had to yield. On the evening of the 23rd Lanrezac was obliged to order a retreat, which lasted from Aug. 24 to Sept. 5. On Aug. 27 orders were given to renew the offensive at Saint-Quentin in order to assist the British. This order provoked a violent disagreement between Joffre and Lanrezac. Nevertheless Lanrezac renewed his offensive on the 29th and at the battle of Guise, won a brilliant tactical success. But the retreat continued, and on Sept. 3, Gen. Lanrezac was relieved of his command. In 1917 he was offered the post of Major General of the armies by M. Painlevé, but he refused and suggested Gen. Pétain. “He is one of my own children,” he said, “and I can answer for him.” On July 3, 1917 he was made grand officer of the Legion of Honour and on Aug. 29, 1924 was given the grand cross of the same order. He died on Jan. 18, 1925. See Lanrezac, Le plan de campagne francais et le premier mois de la guerre

(1920); Jules Isaac, Joffre et Lanrezac

Lanrezac (1926).

(1922); F. Engerand,

(H. Br.)

LANSBURY, GEORGE (1859__), British labour leader, was born on Feb. 21, 1859, in Suffolk. He worked as a checker

on the Great Eastern railway, emigrated to Queensland in 1884, returned in 1885, and eventually went into the timber business in

LANSDALE—LANSFORD London. Until 1892 he was an ardent Liberal, assisting greatly in the return of J. Murray MacDonald as M.P. for Bow in that

year, but he then joined the Social Democratic Party of which he was one of the earliest propagandists. As a member of the royal commission on the poor law he signed the minority report

in 1909. He was elected M.P. for Bow in 1910, and was a strong supporter of women’s suffrage. He resigned his seat in 1912 to test opinions on this subject and failed to carry it again. He became editor of the Daily Herald in 1912 which he carried

on as a weekly during the war and again as a daily until 1922, when it was taken over by the whole labour movement. In 1920 he visited Soviet Russia, being the first newspaper editor to get

direct wireless messages through from that country (see his book What I saw in Russia, 1920).

In 1922 he was elected M.P. for

Bow, a seat which he has since held continuously. He refused a seat in the Labour Government of 1924, criticizing its “right wing” policy and in 1925-27 edited an independent journal, Lansbury’s Labour Weekly. He is, however, best known for his direction of the municipal affairs of the Poplar borough council of which he was mayor 1919~20 and on which he since has had a dominating influence. His policy of generous relief to the unemployed received the name of Poplarism and, in 1921, together with

the majority of the council he served a short term of imprisonment rather than modify it. He was chairman of the national

Labour Party in 1927-28. See his book My Life (1928).

LANSDALE, a borough of Montgomery county, Pa., U.S.A., asm. N. of Philadelphia, on the Reading railroad. The population

was 4,728 in 1920 (95% native white) and was 8,379 in 1930 by Federal census. It is in a fertile agricultural district, and has a large number of varied manufactures, of which the most important are pottery,

stoves,

glue, hosiery and radiators.

The

borough was incorporated in 1872. LANSDOWNE, WILLIAM PETTY FITZMAURICE, rst MARQUESS oF (1737-1805), British statesman, better known under his earlier title of earl of Shelburne, was born at Dublin, on May 20, 1737.

He was a descendant of the lords of

Kerry (dating from 1181), and his grandfather Thomas Fitzmaurice, who was created earl of Kerry (1723), married the daughter of Sir William Petty (¢.v.). On the death without issue of Sir William Petty’s sons, the first earls of Shelburne, the estates passed to his nephew John Fitzmaurice (advanced in 1753 to the earldom of Shelburne), who in 1751 took the additional name of Petty. His son William spent his childhood “in the remotest parts of the south of Ireland,” and, according to his own account, when he entered Christ Church, Oxford, in 1755, he had both “everything to learn and everything to unlearn.” He served in Wolfe’s regiment during the Seven Years’ War, and was raised to the rank of colonel and appointed aide-de-camp to

the king (1760). In 176z he succeeded his father as earl of Shelburne. Though he declined to take office under Bute he tried to induce C. J. Fox to gain the consent of the Commons to the peace of 1763. Fox affirmed that he had been duped. Shelburne joined the Grenville ministry in 1763 as president of the Board of Trade, but resigned office in a few months, and retired for a time to his estate. After Pitt’s return to power in 1766 he became secretary of State, but during Pitt’s illness his conciliatory policy towards America was completely thwarted by his colleagues and the king, and in 1768 he was dismissed from office. In 1782 he took office under the marquess of Rockingham on condition that the king would recognize the United States. On Lord Rockingham’s death he became premier; but the secession of Fox and his supporters led to the famous coalition of Fox with North, which caused his resignation, Feb. 1783, his fall being perhaps hastened by his'plans for the reform of the public service. He had also in contemplation a bill to promote free commercial intercourse between England and the United States. When Pitt acceded to office in 1784, Shelburne was created marquess of Lansdowne. Though giving a general support to the policy of Pitt, he from this time ceased to take an active part in public affairs. .He died on May 7, 1805. John

Henry Petty Fitzmaurice (1765-1809), his son by his first mar-

797

riage with Lady Sophia Carteret, succeeded as 2nd marquess. Henry Perry FITZMAURICE, 3rd marquess of Lansdowne (1780-1863), son of the rst marquess by his second marriage, was home secretary under Canning (1827—28); he was lord president of the council under Earl Grey and then under Lord Melbourne (1830-41) and under Lord John Russell (1846-52); and, having declined to become prime minister, sat in the cabinets of Lord Aberdeen and of Lord Palmerston, but without office. In 1857 he refused the offer of a dukedom, and he died on Jan. 31, 1863. Lansdowne married Louisa (1785-1851), daughter of the 2nd earl of Ilchester, and was succeeded by his son Henry, the 4th marquess (1816-66). The latter, who was member of parliament for Calne for 20 years and chairman of the Great Western railway, married for his second wife Emily (1819-95), daughter of the comte de Flahaut de la Billarderie, a lady who became Baroness Nairne in her own right in 1867. By her he had two sons, the 5th marquess and Lord Edmond Fitzmaurice (Baron Fitzmaurice ‘of Leigh). HENRY CHARLES KEITH PErTY FITZMAURICE, 5th marquess of Lansdowne (1845-1927), was educated at Balliol, Oxford, where he became one of Jowett’s favourite pupils. In 1869 he married the daughter of the rst duke of Abercorn. He joined the Liberal Party, and was a lord of the Treasury (1869-72), under-secretary of war (1872-74), and under-secretary of India (1880). He resigned from the India Office within a few months, because he disapproved of the Irish Compensation for Disturbance bill. From 1883 to 1888 he was governor-general of Canada, where he suppressed the Indian rising under Riel. From 1888 to 1893 he was viceroy of India. He had joined the Liberal Unionist Party when Gladstone proposed Home Rule for Ireland, and on returning to England from India became one of its most influential leaders. He was secretary of State for war from 1895 to 1900, and foreign secretary from 1900 to 1906. Lord Lansdowne’s tenure of the Foreign Office covered an extremely important period in the history of British foreign relations, for it covered the conclusion of the Anglo-Japanese alliance (1902), and the beginning of the entente cordiale with France. (See EUROPE:

History.) When the duke of Devonshire resigned from Balfour’s Government in 1903 Lord Lansdowne became leader of the Unionist Party in the House of Lords, and when the question of the powers of the House of Lords became urgent after 1906 he put forward a reform scheme of his own. In 1915 he joined the Asquith coalition Government without portfolio; at the close of that ministry he retired. In Nov. 1917, he published the famous letter in the Daily Telegraph, asking for a precise statement of the Allied peace terms with a view to the early termination of the

World War. The letter aroused a storm of protest, though even

those who deprecated it were compelled to admire Lansdowne’s courage and sincerity. Lansdowne died on June 13, 1927. See Lord Newton, Lord Lansdowne (1929). Lord .Lansdowne was succeeded as 6th marquess by his son Henry Wrirram Epmunp (b. 1872). The 6th marquess had commanded the 3rd (reserve) Irish Guards (1914-16), and sat in the House of Commons for West Derbyshire from 1908 to 1918; and was a senator of the Irish Free State from 1922. He was the author of various works, among them being The First Napoleon (1925), based on unpublished papers at Bowood. LANSDOWNE, 2 hill cantonment in India, in Garhwal district of the United Provinces, about 6,000 ft. above the sea, 19 m.

by cart road from the station of Kotdwara on the Oudh and

Rohilkhand railway. The cantonment, founded in 1887, extends for more than 3 m. through pine and oak forests, and accommodates three Garhwali battalions.

: LANSDOWNE, a borough of Delaware county, Pa., U.S.A., on the Pennsylvania railroad, 5m. S.W. of Philadelphia. It is.a residential suburb, with a population in 1930 of 9,542.

LANSFORD,

an

anthracite-mining

of Carbon

borough

county, Pa., U.S.A., som: S. of Wilkes-Barre. The population was 9,625 in 1925 (28% foreign-born white’) and was 9,632 in 1930 by the Federal census. The borough was. incorporated in 1876. Tt is served by the Central of New. Jersey.and: the Lehigh and New England railways.

2

Baye

Boe

'

Se

?

LANSING—LANTERN

708 LANSING,

ROBERT

(1864-1928), American diplomatist,

was born at Watertown, N.Y., on Oct. 17, 1864. He graduated at Amherst in 1886, was admitted to the bar in 1889, and for the next 18 years practised at Watertown. In 1892 he was associate counsel for the United States on the Bering Sea Commission, and later was American counsel before several important arbitral tribunals, including the Alaskan Boundary Tribunal (1903), and the Hague Tribunal for the arbitration of the North Atlantic fisheries (1910). In 1914 he was appointed counsellor of the Department of State. When W. J. Bryan resigned (June 8, 1915), Mr. Lansing was appointed secretary of State. In his attempts to uphold American rights he was called upon to direct notes to all the countries at war. In reply to a note addressed by Britain to neutrals, asking that all belligerent submarines be excluded from neutral waters, he said that the nature of each submarine must govern the decision. He thus drew an important distinction between the “Deutschland,” which had peacefully brought a cargo to America, and the Us3, which had raided several ships off the New England coast, Oct. 7, 1916. In r917 he notified President Carranza, of Mexico, that the United States would not adopt his proposed Pan-American plan of stopping the shipment of food and munitions to all the European belligerents. In Nov. 1917 he signed an agreement with Japan (The Lansing-Ishii agreement) which, while recognizing Japan’s special interests in China, provided for a continuance of the “open door” policy for commerce. Lansing was a member of the American commission to negotiate peace at Paris, 1918-19. On Feb. 13, 1920, he resigned as secretary of State and soon after opened a law office in Washington. He was the author of The Peace Negotiations (1921); and

The Big Four and Others (1921). He died at Washington on Oct. 30, 1928.

LANSING, capital city of Michigan, U.S.A., Ingham county, on the Grand river at the mouth of the Cedar, 85 m. W.N.W. of Detroit. It is on Federal highways 16, 27 and 127; has a municipal airport; and is served by the Grand Trunk, the Michigan Central, the New York Central, and the Pere Marquette railways, and by electric interurban railways and motor coach and motor truck lines in every direction. The population was 57,327 in 1920 (88% native white) and was 78,397 in 1930 by the Federal census. The centre of the city is a small plateau, surrounded on three sides by a bend of the Grand river. Here, in a ro-acre park, stands the State capitol, erected in 1873-8. Near by is the fine state office and library building, completed in 1927 at a cost of $3,000,000. The State industrial school for boys and the state school for the blind occupy spacious grounds within the city limits. At East

Lansing, a beautiful residential suburb, is the State college of agriculture and applied science, the oldest agricultural college in the United States, provided for by the State constitution in 1850 and opened in 1857. Water power from the Grand river has been an important factor in the development of Lansing, throughout its history, and is still used to some extent. There are about 200 manufacturing establishments, employing 22,000 men and women, of whom 17,000 work in 18 plants, including those of the Reo Motor company, the Durant Motor company, the Olds Motor works, now a subsidiary of the General Motors corporation, and the Motor Wheel corporation. Among other important manufactures are automobile bodies, wheelbarrows and factory trucks, gasoline engines, Diesel engines, hoists, pumps, air compressors and screw machine products. The aggregate output in 1927 was valued at $154,928,757. The city’s assessed valuation of property

in 1927 was $149,780,599.

Lansing was settled in 1837, and in 1847, when still isolated and covered with forests, was chosen as the site of the state capital, on the decision of the legislature to move the seat of government from Detroit to a more central spot. A plank road to Detroit was finished in 1852; the city was chartered in 1859; and in 1860 it

had a population of 3,074. Between 1863 and 1873 five railroads entered the city, and soon the areas along the river marked on the first plats of the city as designed for “hydraulic manufacturing” were fully occupied. Between 1900 and ro10 the population of the city nearly doubled, and between r9r0 and 1920 the increase was almost as great (84%).

LANSING MAN, the term applied by American ethnologist, to certain human remains discovered in 1902 during the diggin

of a cellar near Lansing, Kan., and by some authorities believes

to represent a prehistoric type of man.

They include a sky}

and several large adult bones and a child’s jaw. They were found beneath 20 ft. of undisturbed silt, in a position indicat. ing intentional burial. The skull is preserved in the USS. Nationa] Museum at Washington. It is similar in shape to those of historic

Indians of the region.

Its ethnological value as indicating the

existence of man on the Missouri in the glacial period is doubt, ful, it being impossible accurately to determine the age of the deposits.

See Handbook of American Indians (Washington, 1907); and A, Hrdlic ka, “Skeleton Remains in North America,” Bur. Amer. Ethno]

Bulletin 33 (1907).

LANSQUENET,

the French corrupted form of the German

Landsknecht (qg.v.), a mercenary foot-soldier of the 16th century,

It is also the name of a card game said to have been introduced into France by the Landsknechte, The pack of 52 cards is cut by the player at the dealer’s right. The dealer lays the two first

cards face upwards on the table to his left; the third he places in

front of him, and the fourth, or réjouissance card, in the middle of the table. The players, usually called (except in the case of the dealer) punters, stake any sum within the agreed limit upon this réjouissance card; the dealer, who is also the banker, covers the bets, and then turns up the next card. If this fails to match

any of the cards already exposed, it is laid beside the réjouissance

card and then punters may stake upon it. Other cards not match-

ing are treated in the same manner, When a card is turned which matches the réjouissance card, the banker wins everything

staked on it, and in like manner he wins what is staked on any card (save his own) that is matched by the card turned. The

banker pays all stakes and the deal is over as soon as a card

appears that matches his own; excepting that should the two cards originally placed at his left both be matched before his own, he is then entitled to a second deal. In France matching means winning, not losing, as in Great Britain. There are other variations of play on the continent of Europe.

LANTERN,

«a metal case filled in with some transparent

material, and used for holding a light and protecting it from

rain or wind. (An adaptation of the Fr. lanterne from Lat. lanterna or laterna, supposed to be from Gr. Aaurrnp, a torch or lamp, Ad urew, to shine, cf. “lamp”; the 16th- and 17th-century form “lanthorn” is due to a mistaken derivation from “horn,” as a material frequently used in the making of lanterns.) The appliance is of two kinds—the hanging lantern and the hand lantern—both of which are ancient. At Pompeii and Herculaneum have been discovered two cylindrical bronze lanterns, with ornamented pillars, to which chains are attached for carrying or hanging the lantern. Plates of horn surrounded the bronze lamp within, and the cover at the top can be removed for lighting and for the escape of smoke. The hanging lantern for lighting rooms was composed of ornamental metal work, of which iron and brass

were perhaps most frequently used. Silver, and even gold, were,

however, sometimes employed, and the artificers in metal of the r7th and 18th centuries produced much exceedingly artistic work of this kind. Oriental lanterns in open-work bronze were often very beautiful. The early lantern had sides of horn, talc, bladder or oiled paper, and the primitive shape remains in the common

square stable lantern with straight glass sides, to carry a candle.

The hand lantern was usually a much more modest appliance than the hanging lantern, although in great houses it was some-

times richly worked and decorated.

As glass grew cheaper it

gradually ousted all other materials, but the horn lantern which

was already’ ancient in the 13th century was still being used in the early part of the 19th. By the end of the 18th century Janterns in rooms had been superseded by the candlestick. The

collapsible paper Janterns of China and Japan, usually known

as Chinese lanterns, are globular or cylindrical in shape, and the paper is pleated and when not in use folds flat. For illuminative and decorative purposes they are coloured with patterns of

flowers, etc. The lanterns carried by the ordinary foot passenger

LANTERN are made of oiled paper. In China the “Feast of Lanterns” takes place early in the New Year and lasts for four days. In

Japan the festival of Bon is sometimes known as the “feast of lanterns.” It is then that the spirits of the dead ancestors return to the household altar. The festival takes place in July. The bull’s-eye” lantern has a convex lens which concentrates the

light and allows it to be thrown in the shape of a diverging cone.

799

for projecting on a white wall or screen largely magnified representations of transparent pictures painted or photographed on glass, or of objects both opaque and transparent. If the light traverses the object, the projection is said to be diascopic, if by

reflected light, episcopic. By its means, diagrams, physical and chemical experiments, movements of living organisms, and so on, can be shown, greatly magnified to large audiences. The invention of the magic lantern is usually attributed to Athanasius Kircher, who described it in the first edition (1646) of his Ars magna lucis et umbrae, but it is very probably of earlier discovery. Another application of the optical lantern is found

in the cinematograph (qg.v.). The optical lantern, in its simpler forms, consists of the following parts: (1) the lantern body, (2) a source of light, (3) an optical system for projecting the images. The lantern body is usually made of iron, provided with the openings necessary to the insertion of the source of light, windows for viewing the same, a chimney for conveying away the products of combustion, fittings to carry the slides and the optical system. Petroleum oil lamps, gas, light from a cylinder of lime rendered incandescent by an impinging oxy-hydrogen or oxy-gas flame (the lime-light) and incandescent thorium mantles served as sources of light in the earlier optical lanterns, but these have been superseded— except in remote districts—by electrical illuminants. Various

at ITALIAN ey RENAISSANCE LANTERN STROZZI PALACE, FLORENCE

types of the electric arc—more especially the carbon arc—are undoubtedly among the best illuminants for use in the projecting lantern, and of recent years wire filament lamps have been introduced for this purpose.

(BY iL CAPARRA? 15TH CENTURY