Encyclopaedia Britannica [12, 14 ed.]

Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Initials of Contributors
HYD
HYN
ICE
IDA
IKI
ILL
IMP
INC
IND
IND
IND
IND
IND
IND
IND
IND
INF
INF
INK
INQ
INS
INS
INS
INT
INT
INT
INT
INT
INV
IOW
IRE
IRE
IRI
IRO
IRO
ISA
ISO
ITA
ITA
ITA
ITA
ITA
IVO
JAC
JAM
JAP
JAP
JAP
JAP
JAV
JEN

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THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

FOURTEENTH EDITION

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA FIRST

EDITION

SECOND THIRD

EDITION EDITION

FOURTH

EDITION

1768 1777 1788 1801

FIFTH

EDITION

1815

SIXTH

EDITION

1823

SEVENTH EIGHTH NINTH

EDITION EDITION

EDITION

TENTH

EDITION

ELEVENTH TWELFTH

EDITION EDITION

THIRTEENTH

FOURTEENTH

EDITION

EDITION

1830 1853 1875 1902 1910 1922 1926

192901932

QI a

ENCYCLOPADIA BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH EDITION A NEW SURVEY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE

VOLUME I2 HYDROZOA TO JEREMY, EPISTLE OF

THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD LONDON

ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, INC. NEW YORK

|

ye yz,

SIUE

COPYRIGHT IN ALL COUNTRIES TO

THE

BERNE

SUBSCRIBING CONVENTION

BY, THE

ENCYCLOPÆDIA

BRITANNICA

COMPANY,

LTD.

COPYRIGHT IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

1929, 1930, 1932

BY THE ENCYCLOPEDIA

BRITANNICA,

INC.

Note: Pages 860-861 were missing from the original digital version of this volume. Replacements were inserted from the 1929 edition.

INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS IN VOLUME WITH THE ARTICLES WRITTEN BY THEM. A. A. M.

A. A. Micnetson, Pu.D., Sc.D., LL.D. Ceo

Service

ysics), 1907.

A. Ba.

Professor of Physics, University of Chicago. Nobel Prizeman

}Interferometer (an part).

ADOLFO BARTOLI.

Formerly Professor of Literature at Instituto di studi superiori at Florence.

of Storia. della letteratura. Italiana; etc.

A. Del R.

ARUNDEL

on

RE

LS M.A.

T

E

I

Author

University of London.

MER i E ntomologist,

iod

Editor of The Oxford Magazine.

e

dE

1s

Hiarpend

.

Italian Literature (in part),

rTolessor of English Literature, Imperial University, Tokyo. Former y Taylorian Lecturer in Italian, University of Oxford, and Lecturer in Italian, King's College,

A. D. I.

XII

o ; Italian Literature (in part).

fardsh

Rothamsted Experimental Station, arpenden, Hertfordshire, x England. Formerly Forest ee to the Government of India and Professor of aoe tera; Biology, University of Allahabad. Author of A General Textbook of Entomology; : etc.

Ad. M.

ADULT a ae i ops . i : bi roiessor of Psychiatry, Johns Hopkins University, and Director o Henry Phipps e . Psychiatric Clinic, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore. Formerly Director of Insanity (én part). Pathological Institute, New York State Hospitals,

A. D. M.

A. D. MrrcgELL, D.Sc., F I.C.

A. E. Da.

A. Exot Davies. Chairman of Several Investment Trusts, and Alderman, London County Council.

x Ice: Assistant Editor to the Journal of the Chemical Society. Assistant Examiner in In di t Chemistry, University of London and Institute of Chemistry. icatot.

Fellow, Royal Economic Society. Markets; Foreign Investments.

À. E. G.

Author of The M. oney and the Stock and Share

Rev. A. E. Garvie, M.A., D.D.

, Principal of Hackney and New College, Hampstead, London.

A. F. K.

the Inner Life of Jesus. ALBERT shagaptea DUCK Keeper in the

Victoria an

Sonny ert

Ceramics, 1899-1902, and Woodwork,

Oriental Carpets; etc.

A. G.C.

i

Museum, in charge of

1904-8.

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL A. G. Coppr. '

Penes

. Investment Trusts (in part).

Immortality;

Author of Studies in Inspirati

Spirauon.

Textiles, 1897-1924, 0

,

:

Author of English Émbroidery;

:

;

Interior Decoration (én part).

|

Knight of SS. Maurizio e Lazzaro. Knight of the Italian Crown, Officer of the Italian General Staff. Formerly Chief of Staff of thé Italian Military Mission in Italy (în part). Siberia; Secretary of the Interallied Military Commission in Hungary. Military

Attaché to the Italian Embassy in London.

A. G. M. B.

A. G. M. BATTEN.

,

eSBs

The Alliance Assurance Company, London. Fellow of the Chartered Insurance Institute. Sometime Stanley Brown Prizewinner of the Chartered Insurance Insti-

Insurance, Miscellaneous

(in part).

tute.

ARTHUR GEORGE PERKIN, D.Sc., F.I.C. F.R.S.

A. Hf. A. H. F. S.

À, K. C.

—.——

Emeritus Professor formerly of Colour Chemistry and Dyeing, and Dean of the Faculty of Technology, University of Leeds. Davy Medallist of the Royal Society, 1925. Joint-author of The Natural Organic Colouring Matters.

ARTHUR HASELOFF.

Rector and Professor of Art at the Christian Albrechts University, Kiel. Illuminated Manuscripts. A. H. Fox SrRANGWAYS. Music Critic of The Observer, London. Editor of Music and Letters. Author of Music of Hindostan. Joint-author of Schubert's Songs Translated. Late Tutor and Indian Music. Assistant Master at Wellington College. eS ——

ANANDA K. CoowARASWAMY, F.L.S., F.G.S., M.R.A.S.

|

Indian and Sinhalese Art

and Archaeology, Keeper of Indian, Persian and Mohammedan Art, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. |Indian Architecture;

Author of The Indian Craftsman; Art and Swadeshi; History of Indian and Indonesian Art,

A. L. B.

Indigo. SV

| ARTHUR Lyon Bowrey, Sc.D., F.B.A.

Iron in Art (in part). |

Professor of Statistics at the London School of Economics. Mathematics and Economics, University College, Reading.

Statistics; An Elementary Manual of Statistics; etc.

(Indonesian and Further Indian Art;

F ormerly Professor of Author of Elements of Index Numbers. ~~

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

ALBERT L. HOFFMAN.

.

Assistant Vice-President, The International Telephone and Telegraph Corporation, New York.

nternational Telephone and Telegraph Corporation, The.

A. L. KRoEBER, PH.D.

Professor of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. Zunt Kin and Clan; Anthropology; etc.

.

Author of Iroquois.

A. M. ARNETT, A.M., Pu.D. Professor of History, North Carolina College for Women, Greensboro, North Carolina. Author of The Populist Movemeni.

Sik ANDREW McFapyean, M.A.

Commissioner of Controlled Revenues, Berlin.

Commission, 1922~4 and to Dawes Committee, Paris, 1919—20.

A. Mr.

A. MACGREGOR.

A. Ni.

ABBE Nites, B.A., LL.B.

General Secretary to Reparation |Inter-Ally Council of War 1925.

Treasury Representative,

Purchases and Finance.

|Indian Law (in part).

Indian Civil Service (retired). Author of many articles and reviews on American popular music. Blues, an Anthology.

A. N. J.W.

Jay, John.

Co-author of

Jazz.

A. NEVILLE J. Wuvvaur, Pz.D., Lrrr.D.

Professor of Chinese and Oriental Philosophy in Hosei University, Tokyo. Member of Council of Asiatic Society of Japan. Sometime Davis Chinese Scholar, University

of Oxford.

Ishii, Kikuiiro: J d t ’ —

Member of the Editorial Staff, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica, | Japanese

Literature.

Author of The Oceanic Theory of the Origin of the Japanese Language and People.

A. R. B.

A. R. Bovrz, O.B.E., M.C.

Italy (in part); Japan (in part). |

Formerly Squadron-Leader, Royal Air Force. A. Sab.

A. SABONADIERE, I.C.S.(retired).

Professor of Indian Law, School of Oriental Studies, London University.

A. Smi. À.

S.

W.

Indian Law (in part).

ALEXANDER SMIRNOFF. Formerly Military Correspondent to Rossiya.

|Italian Wars.

Sir ARTHUR SmitH Woopwarp, LL.D., F.R.S.

Keeper of Geology in the British Museum, 1901-24. Past President of the Linnean and Geological Societies of London. Royal Medallist of the Royal Society. Cuvier Prizeman of the French Academy. Author of Catalogue of Fossil Fishes in the British Museum; Outlines of Vertebrate Palaeontology; etc.

A. Th.

ALBERT THOMAS. Director of the International Labour Office, Geneva.

A. Ti.

Avray Trppine, M.A., F.S.A. Author of English Homes; Grinling Gibbons and the Woodwork of His Age; The Cabriole Pertod of English Furniture.

A. Vo.

A. V. W. A. Wo.

| Ichthyosauria; Iguanodon.

lInternational Labour Organisation, The. ‘Interior Decoration (in part).

AUGUST VOLLMER.

Chief of Police, Berkeley, Calif. Author of miscellaneous articles in Journal of Bia tovesdpation: Criminal.

Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology; The Police Journal.

A. V. WILLIAMSON, M.A.

.

Lecturer in Geography, University of Leeds. ABRAHAM Worr, M.A., D.Lirr.

}Indian Desert, The. Induction;

Professor of Logic and Scientific Method, University of London; sometime Fellow | Infinite; Fellow of University College, Author Innate Ideas; of The Oldest Biography of Spinoza; Textbook of Logic. Editor of theLondon. Philosophy and Intelligence; Psychology section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica, Intuition.

of St. John's College, Cambridge.

A. W. P.

MEE

Lu

C.B., F.B.A., M.A., D.Lirz.

rotessor of English Bibliography, King’s College, University of London. Keeper of the Printed Books in the British Museum, ipo Author of Shakespeare's PRight Incunabula. with the Pirates; Fine Books; The Foundati

ons of Shakespeare's Text; etc.

A. Wr.

SIR ALMROTH EDWARD WRIGHT, K.B.E., M.D., F.R.S. Principal

A. W. R.

SiR te

j of the Institute of Pathology and Research, St. Mary's Hospital, London. Professor of Experimental Pathology, University of London. Originat or of the sysImmuni tem of Anti-typhoid Innoculation, the system of Therapeu unity. terial infection (Vaccinotherapy) and of methods for tic Innoculation for bacmeasuring the protective substances in human blood. uisne

A. W. W.

B. F. C. A. B. G.

B. H. L. H.

enWoop RENTON, G.C.M.G., M.A., LL.B. Justice Supreme

Court, Procureur and Advocate Mauritius, 1901-5; Ceylon, 1905-15. Chief Justice, 1914. Author of Law and General, P tice of L . itor of Encyclopaedia of English

Law; ate

HIM

Ge neg

SE

SIR ALFRED WILLIAM Watson, K.C.B. Government Actuary, 1917. Chief Actuary to the National Health Insurance Committee, I912-9. President of the Institute of Actuaries, 1920-2,

B. F. C, Arxrnson, Pu.D. Under Librarian, University Library, Cambridge. Bartow Grirriss, A.B., Px.D.

| Head of Department of Economics, Carnegie Pa. Author l of Neu Vow : oon ears = Institute nstitute of of Technology, Pittsburgh,

:

:

[Anebriety (jm part). pInsurance, Introduction to.

I; Ionians. : . Sart). -Instalment Selling (in

Captain B. H. Lippert Hart, F.R.HistS. : Military Historian and Critic. Military Correspondent, to the Daily Telegraph. Jipa, Battle of; Editor of the Military History section, 14th Edition, Encyclo pædia Britannica. antry (im part).

INITIALS B. Mar.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

BENJAMIN MARCH. Curator of Asiatic Art, The Detroit Institute of Arts, Detroit, Mich. History of Chinese Painting in Outline.

vil

Author of Tie ronin Art (in pari).

B. M. B.

BERNARD Manners Baruc, LL.D.

B. W. Ba.

of The Making of Economic and Reparation Sections of Peace Treaty. BENJAMIN WISNER Bacon, A.M., D.D., Lrtt.D., LL.D. Professor of New Testament Criticism and Exegesis in Yale University, 1896-1928. >James, Epistle of. Author of The Fourth Gospel in Research and Debate; The Founding of the Church.

Formerly Member of the Supreme Economic Council ‘and Chairman of its Raw Materials Division. Economic Adviser to the American

Peace Commission.

Industry, War Control of

Author

(in port).

RoNarp JogN McNEriLL, isT BARon CusHENDUN, P.C.

Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster 1927—29. Parliamentary under-Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, 1922-4 and 1924-5. Financial Secretary to the Treasury, 1925-7. Assistant Editor of the 11th Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica,

C. Ch.

Ceci, CatsHorm, M.A. Chairman of Business Publications, Ltd. Weekly.

C. Chr.

C.

E.

Editor of System.

Editorial Director of The Advertising

Author of Marketing and Merchandising.

CHARLES CHEREE, M.A., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S. Superintendent, Kew Observatory, 1893-1925.

Awarded James Watt Medal, Insti-

tution of Civil Engineers, 1905, and Hughes Medal, Royal Society, 1919. .C. E. C. FISCHER.

C. F.

Jeffreys, George Jeffreys.

pInstalment Selling (in part). }Inclinometer.

Assistant Botanist on Indian Botany, Kew Herbarium, and formerly Conservator of -India (iw pari). Forests, Madras Presidency.

C. Ed.

MEAM resident, URN or Univ niversity Speed Spee Sk ating Club. Club. Record (hour), 1898, 1899-1906. 1891, 1895 and 1904.

C. El.

Holder Holder

o of

World orld’s

Skating

Represented Oxford v. Cambridge (speed skating),

Sir Cartes Norton Epccumpe Exrot, G.C.M.G., P.C., C.B., M.A. British Ambassador to Japan, 1919-26. Principal of the University of Hong Kong, 1912,

H.M.’s High Commissioner, Siberia, 1918-9.

C. E. T.

Ceci Encar Trey, B.Sc., PH.D., F.G.S.

C. F.

CzsARE ForrcNo,

C: H.

Cartes Hoss, F.R.G.S., F.R.C.I., F.R.S.A,

.

Ice Hockey (in part).

-Japan (în part).

by lit

Lecturer in Petrology, University of Cambridge.

joie.

M.A.

;

.

Serena Professor of Italian at Oxford University since 1919. Fellow of MagdalenHananLanguage,Modera; College, Oxford, 1926. Author of Epochs of Ftalian Literaiure; etc.

Hon. Fellaw, Jesus College, Cambridge. Formerly in Service of Rajah of Sarawak. Member of the Supreme Council and Judge of the Supreme Court of Sarawak, 1904.

Member of the Sarawak State Advisory

Council at Westminster, 1919. Director of Java (in part).

Agricultural and Industrial Exhibits, Sarawak Pavilion, British Empire Exhibition, Wembley, 1924. Author of many books and articles.

C. H. Tut.

CHARLES H. FurrtLe, A.B., LL.B. ; United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York. Member of the Bord Hnsenit in Law (in part). of Higher Education of the City of New York. C. P. Curran, M.A. ; i Irish Correspondent of The Nation and The Athenaeum, 1916-21; of The Nation and Irish yir uS Athenaeum, 1921-3. (im port). CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lrrr., F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S.

C. P. Cu.

C. R. B.

Professor of History, University of Birmingham.

Late Fellow of Merton and Uni-

versity Lecturer in History and Geography, Oxford. Formerly on Council of Royal Geographical Society, and of Hakluyt and African Societies, and a Member of the House of Laymen.

C. S. R.

C. STANFORD READ, M.D., (Lond.)

Hypnotism;

_

Lecturer in Psychological Medicine, Royal Bethlem Hospital, and Clinical Psychologist to the West End Hospital for Nervous Diseases, London. Author of Military Psychiatry in Peace; The Struggles of Male Adolescence.

C. V. Dryspaz, O.B.E., D.Sc., M.LE.E., F.Inst.P., F.R.S.E. Superintendent, Admiralty Research Laboratory, Teddington. Editor of the Journal of Scientific Instruments. n E eee M drum ne — Professor of

Semitic

Languages,

Hartfor

eological

Author of Development of Muslim Theology; etc. D. C.

Si& DAviD CmapwicE,

Seminary,

Hartfor

onn.

C:S.I., C.I.E.

secretary to the Imperial Economic Committee since 1927.

D. F. T.

.

-Idrisi.

DoNnaLD Francis Tovey, M.A,

Reid Professor of Music in Edinburgh University. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical. Concerto, The Goldberg Variations and analyses of many other classical works. Editorial Adviser, Music section, I4th Edition of the

Hocochondciasis:

Hysteria; 1 : : : Insanity (in part);

Insomnia.

I Instruments, Electrical.

sin :

Te

Islamic Institutions. ay eee Economic Committee.

: "Instrumentation.

Encyclopedia Britannica.

D. G. D. H.

7

f

„DENISAuthor GWYNN. of The Davip HANNAY.

Formerly British Vice Consul at Barcelona.

f

/

|Irish Free State (in part).

Irish Free State, 1922-7.

1217-1688; Life of Don Emilio Castelar.

Author of Short History af Royal Navy,

-Impressment.

INITIALS

Vill D. Hy.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Dovcras Hype, LL.D., D.Lrrr.

ae

Professor of Modern Irish Language and Literature, University College, Dublin. | . ; , Founder of the Gaelic League and President thereof, 1893—1915. President of the >+Irish Literature (in pari). Irish Texts Society. Author of A Literary History of Ireland; The Love Songs of Connacht; The Religious Songs of Connacht; etc.

DIAMOND JENNESS. Chief, n of Anthropology, National Museum of Canada, Ottawa.

"Euryresident, E of the

! ; : Ivory Carving (in part).

ee LED Illinois, Urbana, Urbana, Ill Illinois. Author Author of o The e Independent Independent T

University of United States.

Treas-

Illinois;TWE

F

,

Illinois, The University of. : : .

D. T. Warrrs, A.R.LB.A., M.LA.(SouTE AFRICA). Partner in Messrs. Wallis, Gilbert and Partners, Chartered Architects and Engineers, industrialArchitecture (in London.

:

CAPTAIN EDWARD ALTHAM, C.B., R.N.

m

s

Italy (in part); Secretary and Chief Executive Officer, Royal United Service institution, since 1927. Senior Naval Officer, Archangel River Expeditions, 1918-0. Editor of the Journal Japan (in pari);

Jellicoe, John Rushworth Jellicoe (in part).

of the Royal United Service Institution. Encyclopedia Britannica.

Editor of the Naval section, 14th Edition, : ERNEST BARKER, M.A., Litt.D., LL.D. o Formerly Principal of King’s College, University of London. Professor of Political Science, Cambridge, and Fellow of Peterhouse. Author of Greek Political Theory;

E. B.

E. C. B. E. Cl. E. C. Q.

Imperial Chamber.

The Crusades; etc.

Rr. Rev. EDWARD CUTEBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., D.Liırr.

eee

Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath, 1906-22. ' E. Crouzor.

of Christ, The (in

part). s

Head of Secretarial Department, International Red Cross, Geneva.

EDMUND CROSBY QUIGGIN, M.A. Fellow of, and Lecturer in Modern Languages, end Monro Lecturer in Celtic, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.

\ International Bureaux.

I . -Irish Literature (in part).

E. Cu.

EDMUND Curtis, M.A.

E. E. L.

EDWARD ELWAY FREE, A.B., Pu.D. Consulting Chemist and Physicist. Lecturer on Outlines of Science, New York }Inventions. University. Author of Pocket Guide to Science. Epwarp E. Lone, C.B.E. Officer in Charge, Eastern Section, News Department, Foreign Office, London, i: 1918-21. The Times (London) Correspondent in Northern India. Late Editor of 2 q i)

|Ireland (én part).

Erasmus Smith’s Professor of Modern History, University of Dublin.

The Indian Daily Telegraph, of The Rangoon Times; etc.; also on the staff of The

E. E. T.

Singapore Free Press, E. E. TRUM, E.M.

E. G. C.

E. GLADYS CLARKE.

E. Gr.

(in pari).

Iron and Steel. |

Associate Editor, The Iron Age, New York. Author of Elementary Metallurgy.

Principal of the National Training Schoolof Cookery, London. ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER, LrTT.D.

Java

Ice-Cream.

Hon. Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Hon. Fellow, University College, London, and formerly Vice-Chancellor of the University. Formerly Yates Professor of Archaeology and Dean of the Faculty of Arts, University of London.

Inscriptions. Author of Chapter on Inscriptions, in Naukratis I.; etc. E. HaAckroRTE. | Deputy Controller of Health Insurance, Ministry of Health, London. Invalidity Pensions. EDOUARD HERRIOT. Prime Minister of the French Republic, 1924-6. Senator, 1912-9. Minister Works, 1916-7. Formerly Professor of Rhetoric in the Lycée at Lyons. of Public |Jaurès, Auguste Mariè Author of Joseph Jean. . Madame Récamier et ses Amis; etc.

j

E. Ha.

E. He.

E. J. E.

E. J. ELLIOT. Principal, Board of Trade, London.

E. J. T.

Epwarp J. THomas, Pu.D.

Translator, Vedic Hymns.

International Trade Associa| tions and Congresses.

Authori of The Life of Buddha as Legend and History.

E. L. C.

Epcan Lzrcz Corus, M.D., M.R.C.P., M.R.C.S.

E. Le.

‘Eur LEDERER, Pu.D. Professor the Facultyxd ofSos Philoso hy, Uni it of Heidelberg. ei far Sondi in sensieh niversity

E. L. T. E. MacN. E. Men. 4

E. M. H.L.

| e

j Jataka.

Talbot Professor of Preventive Medicine, Welsh National School of Medicine, Cardiff. |Industrial Welfare and Late Director of Health, Ministry of Munitions. H.M. i : ry Medicine. Inspector of Fac t unitions tories, 1908-17. M. Medical

EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE, PH.D., Sc.D., LL.D Professor of Psychology, Teachers College, Columbia Universit of Educational

: Editor of Archiv.

Ne

i

Psychology; Mental and Social Measurements; Animal usu

tr

EorN MACNEILL, B.A., D.Lrrr. Professor of Early History; University College, Dublin University. Erica MENDELSON.

„German Architect, Charlottenburg. Author of America, Pict Russia, Europe, America: A Transverse A rchitectonic.

E. M. H. Lrovp.

AOAR

] . part). UIPIERUDORE The (in

Hitelligence fetu

|Ireland (in part). ;

A rehatichire,

. Indust Architecture (in part).

En

Of the War Empire at the OfficeMarketing (nd ME i Board, London. af Foo : on. Author ot Experiments tn; State Control Industry, da 2)’ War Control i of ((én +

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Ix

E. N. da C. A. EDWARD NEVILLE DA Costa ANDRADE, D.Sc., Pu.D., F.Inst.P. Quain Professor of Physics in the University of London. Author of The Structure of tne Atom; The Mechanism of Nature; etc. Editor of the Pnysics section, 14th Edition, Interferometer (in part). Encyclopedia Britannica.

E. R. J.

Emory RICHARD JOHNSON, PxH.D., Sc.D. Dean, Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. Formerly member of United States Isthmian Canal Commission, Public Service Commission of Pennsylvania. Special United States Commissioner Inter-State Commerce. on Panama Canal Traffic and Tolls. Author of Inland Waterways, Their Relation to Transportation; American Railway Transportation.

E. Ro.

EDWARD ROBERTSON, M.A.

|Jamnia;

Professor of Semitic Languages, University College, North Wales.

E. S.

Jebeil.

EDWARD SALMON, O.B.E. Editor of United Empire, journal of the Royal Empire Society.

E. T. J.

staff of The Saturday Review. Author of Life of General Wolfe; etc. E. TAYLOR Jones, D.Sc., F.Lyst.P., F.R.S.E. Professor of Natural Philosophy, University of Glasgow.

E. Va.

EMILE VANDERVELDE.

Formerly on the

pJava (in part).

|Induction Coil.

Minister for Foreign Affairs in the Belgian Government. Formerly Minister of Justice. Represented Belgium at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919. Author of Le Parti International, The (im part). ouvrier belge; etc. U—-,-—_ Li

E. W. MacB.

EnNEsT WirriAM MacBmipe, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

F. A. M. W.

F. A. M. WEBSTER.

Professor of Zoology at the Imperial College of Science, London. Formerly StrathPis Professor of Zoology at McGill University, Montreal. Author of A Textbook of Invertebrate Embryology.

Zoology.

Javelin Throwing.

Joint Editor of the Blue Magazine, London, and writer on athletics.

F. B. M.

Mayjor-GENERAL SiR FREDERICK (BARTON) Maurice, K.C.M.G.

—.—— —— —

Director of Military Operations, Imperial General Staff, 1915-8. Author of Robert E. Lee, the Soldier; The Russo-Turkish War, 1877-8; Forty Days in ror4; etc. Con- Jackson, Thomas Jonathan. tributor to The Cambridge Modern Htstory. Yo

F. By.

CAPTAIN FRANK BRINKLEY, R.N. Late Foreign Adviser to Nippon Yusen Kaisha, Tokyo, and Correspondent of The Times, London, in Japan.

Editor of the Japan Mail, 1881-1905.

Author of Japan;

etc.

F. Cr.

Japan (in part). -

FRANK CALDER.

Ice Hockey (in part). President of the National Hockey League, New York. 2» F. E. MATTEEWS, Pu.D., F.I.C. Former Professor of Chemistry at the ros India Engineering College, Cooper's Lidium ‘ Hill. Consultant to Messrs. Johnson and Matthey, Research Chemists, Hatton "E ed a

Garden, London.

F. H. Br.

FRANK HERBERT BROWN, C.LE.

F. Hed.

FRANK HEDLEY.

F. H. Ha.

FREDERICK HENRY Harca, O.B.E., Pu.D., M.Inst.C.E.

|

:

Member of the Staff of The Times, London. London Correspondent of The Times of'nis Picks Frederick

India. Formerly Editor of The Indian Daily Telegraph.

indley Wood, ist Baron.

President and General Manager, Interborough Rapid Transit Company, New York.

Past President, Institution of Mining and Metallurgy.

pene oroue? Rapid Transit | Company.

Adviser on Metalliferous Min-

ing to the Mines Department. Author of The Mineral Resources of Natal (Report to aos Government); The Iron and Steel Industry of the United Kingdom under War

-Ilmenite or Titanic Iron Ore.

ondttions; etc.

F. I. M.

LIEUT.-GENERAL Sir F. Ivor Maxss, K.C.B., C.V.O., D.S.O.

General Officer, Commanding 18th Division, 1914-7, and XVIII. Corps, 1917-8. Inspector-General of Training to the British Armies in France, 1918-9. Commanderin-Chief, Northern Command, England, 1919-23. Author of Seymour Vandeleur. FISKE KIMBALL, A.B., PH.D. Director, Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art. Author of Jefferson and the First Monument of Classical Revival. Editor of Foundations of Classic Archi-

Infantry (in part).

Interior Decoration (in part).

lecture.

F. L. D.

Fren L. DENDY, A.B.

|

Editorial Staff, New York, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Formerly Pro-

fessor of Public Speaking and Director of Dramatics at Davidson College, Davidson, North Carolina.

F. R.

F. R. C.

F. R. G.

PRA Member ember of of the the Philddelohia Philadelphia B Bar. Head Head ofof Rawle Rawle LawLaw Offices. Offices. Formerly Formerly O Overseer

T i of Harvard University. Editor of Revisions of Bouvier’s Law Dictionary, 1883, 1898, Inheritance (in part). 1913; etc,

FRANK RICHARDSON Cana, F.R.G.S.

Editorial Staff, Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903-11 and 1914-5. Staff of The Times, London, since 1916. Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union; The Great War in Europe; The Peace Settlement. FREDERICK R. GRUGER. Artist and Illustrator.

F. S. P.

Inlaying

FRANcIS S. PHILBRICK, B.Sc., LL.D., Pu.D. Professor of Law, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. History of Germanic Private Law.

Ibadan; Illorin. Illustration.

| Translator of ITübner's » Jefferson, Thomas.

INITIALS F. T. G.

F. W. A. F. W. L.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

FRANCIS TEMPLE Grey, M.A. Lincoln’s Inn, Barrister-at-Law. Assistant Honorary Secretary of the International Law Association and of the Grotius Society. Member of the Representative Body of the British Medical Association. Assistant Deputy Coroner, County of London. Late Surgeon, Royal Navy. FRANCIS WiLLIAM ASTON, Sc.D., F.R.S. . Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Nobel Prizeman for Chemistry, 1922. Author of Isoiopes.

F. W. LEGGETT.

E pInsanity in Law

>Isotopes.

}

Assistant Secretary, Ministry of Labour, London.

F. Wt.

Francis Watt, M.A. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Author of Law’s Lumber Room.

F. W. Th.

FREDERICK WILLIAM Tuomas, M.A., C.I.E., Pu.D.

(in part).

;

;

:

Industrial Relations (in part).

ae: and Innkeepers part).

Boden Professor of Sanskrit in the University of Oxford since 1927. F ellow of Balliol College. Formerly Librarian to the India Office, London. Lecturer in Com- Indian Literature. parative Philology and Reader in Tibetan, University College, University of London. : Hon. Secretary of Royal Asiatic Society and Director, 1921—2. Formerly Editor of Epigraphia India.

F. Y. P. G. A. Bu.

G. A. J. C.

See biographical article: PowELL, FREDERICK YORK.

$

G. A. Bunzs, M.Iwsr.C.E.

Director of the Geological Survey of Ireland and Professor of Geology,

etc.

Author of Aids in Practical Geology;

GEORGE A. RANNEY.

eee

Late Oriental Secretary to the British High Commissioner of ‘Iraq.

G. B. He.

G. E. G. F. K.

G. B. HECKEL. Secretary, American Paint and Varnish Manufacturers’ Drugs, Oils and. Paints.

Association.

Author of ‘Iraq (in part).

| Editor of

Rev. GEORGE Epmunpson, M.A., D.Lirt., F.R.Hist.S.

: : , s Decoration (in :

l

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford.

;

Jacoba or Jacqueline.

GEORGE FREDERICK Kunz, A.M., Pu.D., Sc.D.

.

Vice-President and Gem Expert, Tiffany and Co., New York, since 1879. Author of J Gems and Precious Stones of North America; The Curious Lore of Prectous Stones.

MaAJoR-GENERAL Sr& GEoRGE G. AsroN, K.C.B.

Lecturer on Naval History, University College, London.

Fortification at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich.

Harvester

Company, The.

GERTRUDE BELL, C.B.E.

Renew of the Civil Administration of Mesopotamia.

en

Ireland (in part).

Vice-President and Treasurer, International Harvester Company, Chicago.

G. Be.

Y

Bes.

GRENVILLE ARTHUR JAMES COLE.

Royal College of Science for Ireland, Dublin.

; (in

:

Author and Joint Editor with Sir Dugald Clerk of works on internal combustion engines. Formerly

G. A. R.

-

FREDERICK YORK PowELL, D.C.L., LL.D. See English Historian and "Scholar. Part Author of Icelandic Prose Reader; OriginesHeelan Literature tslandicae.

(in

oe

‘Iraq (in part);

Formerly Professor of Ireland,

Author of Sea, Land and Air

Strategy; Memories of a Marine; The Navy of To-day. Editor of The Study of War.

ee Hard Stone ES;

Irish F ?

ree

Northern C S

1

GEORGE GAYLorD Srupson, Px.D.

Assistant Curator of Vertebrate Palaeontology, the American Museum of Natural id History, New York. Author of A Catalogue of the Mesozoic Mammalia in the Geo- H ( y racoidea. logical Department of the British Museum. Rev. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A., Hon.D.D. Rector of Sutton, Beds. Hon. Canon of St. Albans. Davidson Professor of Old MIsaiah. Testament Studies in the University of London.

LIEUT.-GENERAL SiR GEORGE MAcMunny, K.C.B., K.C.S.I., D.S.O. Commander-in

G. M. P. G. O'B.

-Chief, Mesopo

tamia, April 1919 to Januar 1920; Q.M.G. in India, Author of The Armies of India; A Free Lance in yKashmir; ete.

ir Mutiny, The;

India (in part) Rev. Grorce Mituican, D.D., D.C.L. Regius Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism in the Universit of Glasgow. | Autor of The Theology of the Epistle to the Hebrews; Selections from theyGreek Papyri; James. etc. GIUSEPPE Marta PALLICCIA. ; Italian Advocate, Inner Temple, London. |Italian Codes. GEORGE O’Brien, D.Lrrz., F.R.Hrsr.S. Professor of National Economics of Ireland, Universit Coll Dublin. Irish Fr t 1920-4.

3

3

;

G. P. M.

Economic History of Ireland (1800-47). d, University College, Dublin. Author of ee State (in part). GEORGE PERCIVAL MUDGE, A.R.C.S., F.Z.S. Hcc ud Head of the Department of Zoology, East London College, University -Incubators (im part).

G. R. D.

G. R. DRIVER.

G. W. Co.

GRAHAM W. Corer, B.S. Director of Safety Service, Policy Holders Service Bureau, ance Company, New York. Member of American Enginee Metropolitan Life Insur- | Industrial Accidents, Prevention of (im part}. Preparing report on standardization of street signs, signals ring Council Committee and markings., GEORGE WASHINGTON Krecawey, LL.D.

G. W. Ki.

Lecturer in Comparative Semitic Philology, University of Oxford.

Head of Department of Criminology, New York School of Warden of Sing Sing Prison. Author of Readings in the Law Social of RealWork. PEDIF. merlyly

byehovah.

>Impriso prisonment.

t);

(n part);

State (in part).

INITIALS G. W. T.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Rev. GRIFFITHS WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D.

Ibn Faradi;

Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.

H. A. R. H. B. B.

Member of the Council of the British Medical Association.

ance Acts Committee, London.

H. C. P.

-Ibn Farid; Jahiz.

HORACE ARTHUR Rose, I.C.S.

India

Superintendent of Ethnography, District and Sessions Judge, Punjab, 1906-17. HENRY BRITTEN BRACKENBURY, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P.

xi

(;

;

a (in part).

J

]

Chairman of the Insur-(Insect Bites and Stings.

Tue Rt. Hon. Sir Horace Curzon PLUNKETT, K.C.V.O., D.C.L., F.R.S.

Senator, Irish Free State, 1922-3. Vice-President of the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction for Ireland, 1899-1907. Founder of the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society, 1894. Commissioner, Congested Districts Board, Ireland, 9 er Chairman of the Irish Convention, 1917-8. Author of Ireland in the New

Ireland (i (*!©442 (tn part).

eniury; etc.

H. C. S.

H. C. STUART.

Importing: In Practice

Assistant Collector, United States Custom Service, New York.

(in

part).

H. E. A.

Hucu E. AcNEW, A.B., M.Pp.

H. E. C.

H. E. Cox, M.Sc., Px.D., F.I.C. i ; Public Analyst for the Metropolitan Borough of Hampstead, London. byams and Jellies (im part). HARRISON E. Howe, M.S., Sc.D Chemist and Editor, I ndustrial and Engineering Chemistry, Washington. Author of Industrial Chemistry.

H. H. L. B.

Hoczu Hare Lzrcg BError, M.A., D.C.L. Late Associé de l'Institut de Droit International; Honorary Secretary, International

;

-

Chairman of the Department of Marketing, New York University School of Con. International Advertising

merce, Accounts and Finance. Author of Co-operative Advertising by Competitors.

Association, The.

The New Stone Age; Chemistry in the Home; etc.

Law Association and Grotius Society. Formerly Acting Professor of Constitutional! Law, University of London, and Secretary, Breaches of the Law of War Committee. Author of Commerce in War; The Pharmacy Act; Permanent Court of International Justice.

Hi. Br.

Inns of Court and Chancery (in part).

HENRI BRENIER. Director-General of the Chamber of Commerce, Marseilles. General Secretary to the National Colonial Exhibition at Marseilles, 1922, and to the Colonial Organisation Congress, 1922.

H. L. He.

Harriet L. Hennessy, L.R.C.S.1., L.R.C.P.I., M.D.

H. M. D.

H. M. Dawson,

H.M.K

Horace MEYER KALLEN, A.B., PH.D.

H. M. P.

Professor of Philosophy and Psychology, The New School of Social Research, New York. Author of William James and Henri Bergson; The Philosophy of William James. Hucu McDoweEtt Pottock, P.C., J.P., D.L.

H. M. V.

HERBERT M. VaAvUGBAN, M.A., F.S.A

H. O.

Hun

Indo-China, French.

| Intestinal Obstruction.

Pz.D., D.Sc.

2

Professor of Physical Chemistry, University of Leeds.

:

|Ions, Catalytic Action of.

First Minister of Finance for Ulster. Member of Parliament for South Belfast.

James, William.

:

|Ireland, Northern (in part).

Ke College, Oxford. Author of The Last of the Royal Stuarts; The Lasi Stuart -James (The Pretender). ueen, etc.

ate

Taylorian

l

T Professor of the

ue

E Romance

S Languages in

University of Oxford.

:

:

.

Member of Council of the Philological Society. Author of Frederic Mistral; A History (Malian Literature (in part). of Provengal Literature; etc.

H. Pa.

SIR un

res

E :

Toky

apanese Councillor of H.M. Embassy in Tokyo since 1919. Formerly Assistant Japanese Secretary at H.M. Legation in Tokyo and Consul at Dairen. Joint-Compiler of An English-Japanese Dictionary of the Spoken Language.

H. St. J. B. P. Harry ST. Jonn Bripcer Prey, C.LE., F.R.G.S., B.A., I.C.S.(retired).

H. W. C.

Explorer in Arabia. Author of The Heart of Arabia; Arabian Mandates; The Truth about Arabia. ee ME Pd) D s i ecturer in Architecture, Columbia University, New York. Past President Archi-

tectural League of New York. Member, Fine Arts Commission, State of New York.

H. W. P.

Member of the firm of Helmle and Corbett, New York. Office Building (N. Y.); Bush House (London); etc.

History Museum,

J. A. Si.

South Ken-

sington, London. IsRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. Formerly Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge and President, Jewish Historical Society of England.

J.A. D. LAS

-Ibn Sa'ud. :

TW

;

Industrial Architecture (in part).

H, W. PARKER, B.A. Assistant in the Department of Zoology, Natural

L A.

Architect of Bush Terminal

Japanese Language.

Author of A- Shori

History of Jewish Literature; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; etc.

James A. DuNNAGE, F.S.S., A.M.IwsT.T.

Author of How to Import Goods; The Importer's Handbook; The Manual of Exporting.

»Iguana.

Jellinek, Adolf eines,

ee part).

AGoH.

In Practice (in

Joun Appincton Symonps, LL.D.’ Author of Renaissance in Italy; etc. See the biographical article: SYMONDS, Joss Haly (Zn part) ADDINGTON. JUDITH ANN SILBURN. Diplomée of Domestic Science, M.L.H. Labour.

Formerly Trade Investigator, Ministry of -Invalid Cookery.

Journalist and Domestic Science Consultant.

INITIALS

xi J. A. St.

1

J. C. van D.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

AMES ANDREW STRAHAN, LL.D. Barrister-at-Law.

Emeritus Professor of Jurisprudence,

Reader of Equity, Inns of Court, London.

Sh

I

University of Belfast.

Intestacy (in part).

Author of The Bench and Bar of England,

Joun CHARLES VAN DYKE.

Professor of The History of Art, Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J. Formerly Editor of the Studio and Art Review. Author of Art for Art's Sake; History of Painting; Old English Masters.

J. C. We.

Inness, George. :

James CLAUDE WEBSTER.

oe of Court and Chancery

Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple.

(im part).

Aues Davip Bourcater, M.A., F.R.G.S.

J. D. B.

J

onian idands

Late Correspondent of "The Times in South Eastern Europe.

J. Dr.

James Drever, M.A., B.Sc., D.P., F.R.S.E.

|

J. F. C. F.

COLONEL JOHN FREDERICK CHARLES FULLER, C.B.E., D.S.O.

,

l

Reader and Combe Lecturer in Psychology, University of Edinburgh. Assistant Editor, British Journal of Psychology. Associate Editor, Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. Author of Instinct in Man; Psychology of Everyday Life; etc.

(7

(im part).

Instinct in Man. :

Ilerda, Campaign of;

Military Assistant to the Chief of the Imperial General Staff. General Staff Officer, |Issus, Battle of;

Tank Corps, 1917-8. Formerly Chief Instructor, Camberley. Author of Tanks in | Ivry, Battle of; the Great War; The Reformation of War; Str John Moore’s System of Training; etc. Jemappes.

J. Fi.

ACK FILMAN. : J Hockey Department, Madison Square Garden, New York City. Author of MadisonHoeHockey (in part). Square Garden Official Hockey Program and Guide. CAPTAIN J. G. DOLLMAN. Assistant Keeper, Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington.

J.G. D. J.H.

Joux HLTON

J. Har.

Jimo HARADA.

-Insectivora. me

: Secs a of Labour, London. Ministry of: Statistics, Director

Interior Decoration

Of the Imperial Household Museums, Japan. Formerly Professor in the Nagoya College of ‘Technology, and in the 8th Higher School. Imperial Japanese Government

Commissioner to the Panama-Pacific International Exposition at San Francisco, 1915. Author of The Gardens of Japan.

J. H. Ba. 7

Councils;

Industrial Court; mpi T" nds

oaB H. BANTON. District Attorney, State of New York for County of New York.

a p

Gardena:

(in part):

ri tae E , ’

Japanese Gar EET Japanese Music; Japanese Sculpture. } ; i Indictment (in part).

J. H. Be.

Joser Henry BEALE, LL.B., LL.D. : . Professor of Law, Harvard Law School. Author of Cases on Criminal Law; Foreign }nternational Law, Private

J. H. Br.

James HENRY BREASTED, A.M., Pa.D., LL.D., D.Litt.

J. H. Mu.

Jous Henry Mumma, M.A., LL.D. Emeritus Professor of Philosophy in the University of Birmingham.

Corporations; Cases on Taxation; Conflict of Laws.

(in part).

Professor of Egyptology and Oriental History and Chairman of the Department of }Ikhnaton. Oriental Languages, University of Chicago.

Author of -Idealism. Elements of Ethics; Philosophy and Life; etc. Editor of Library of Philosophy.

Joser HOFFMANN.

J. Ho.

.

Professor at the School of Industrial Arts, Vienna. Art Director of the Wiener Werkstátte. Architect of many public and private buildings.

:

:

Interior Decoration (in

J. J.R.MacL. J. J. R. MacLeop, M.B „ CE.B., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

| Regius Professor of Physiology, University of Aberdeen. Formerly Professor of Insulin Physiology, University of Toronto. Author of Physiology and Biochemistry in SESS Modern Medicine; Carbohydrate Metabolism and Insulin.

J. L.

JULIEN LUCHAIRE. Director of the International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, Paris. Professor

of the University of Grenoble.

Formerly Director

of Education,

istry of the Colonies and Inspector General of Public Instruction. ToN Lave m iue HAMMOND.

J.L. H.

Hon. | Intellectual Co-operation,

Min-

International Institute of.

ormerly Scholar of St.. John’s College, Oxford. Joint Author of The Village Labourer, e ; 1760-1832; The Town Labourer, 1760-1832; The Skilled Labourer, 1760-1893: Lord Industrial Revolution, The.

Shaftesbury; The Rise of Modern Industry.

JM.F.R.

J. M. F, ROMEN.

|

>

s

|

|

Member of Transit Section, League of Nations, Geneva.

J. M. La.

eruitegislation, al: Harvard

rofessor

Court of the United SIR mnsM CONDE ttorney-General, RR M dno

J. (C. J. P. Ea.

J.S.

"E

E

a

Staies. x PE zs K.C. dIreland, 1916-8. o

Law

:

SdSchool. Mahendra Autho

M

hogs

a

;

e

h

i

Lord| JJustice of | Appeal, ppeal, 1918-24. 19 -24

|Inland Water Transport.

OPROER

Injunction2 (in part);? Intestacy (in part).

A uthor of -Ireland (2n j part) :

Jeux i PARTIT ee LL.M. rotessor he Anes of Law, eeGeorge Washington University, gt ity, Washington, Washington | Member | of the Inebriety, i Law of (in } pari).

Sir Josian Cures Stamp, G.B.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.B.A.

Chairman and President of the Executive, London Midland and Scottish

Railway. Income: Economic Director of the Bank of England. Member of the British Royal Commission on Definition; Income Tax, 1919; of the Committee on Taxation and National Debt, 1924. British | Income Tax: Economic

PUE

on Dc

anc rinance, 1924; and chief

dod p One

Committee dn German Currency

representative on the Reparations Committee, Paris, 1929. Author of Wealth British and Income of the Chief Powers; Wealth and Taxable | acity. Jo

Aspect;

i

en

'

Senor

ic

|

AND

INITIALS J.S H.

T. S. Ha.

OF

NAMES

Xili

CONTRIBUTORS

JULIAN SoRELL HUXLEY, M.A.

Individuality

Hon. Lecturer, King’s College, London. Fullerian Professor of Physiology in the Royal Institution. Author of Essays of a Biologist; etc. Editor of the Biology and Zoology section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

COLONEL Jonn S. HAMMOND. President of the New York Rangers Professional Hockey Club, New York and Vice-

Ice Hockey

°

(in pari).

President of the Madison Square Garden Corporation.

J.S. S.

Joun Stuart ScRIMGEOUR, O.B.E.

J. V.

Jores VIARD.

J. Wa.

JAMES WALKER.

K. N. L.

KARL N. LLEWELLYN.

\ Increment Value Duty.

Of the Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law.

Jacquerie, The.

Late Archivist of the National Archives, Paris. Advocate of the Scottish Bar.

Intestacy (in part).

Author of Intestate Succession in Scotland.

Instalment Purchase part).

Associate Professor of Law, Columbia University, New York.

SIR CHARLES STEWART HENRY VANE-TEMPEST-STEWART, 7th MARQUESS oF LonDONDERRY, K.G., P.C., M.V.O., LL.D. |

L.

Pe

of Education, Northern Ireland, 1921-6.

(in

mul orem

Chancellor of Queen's University,

Ireland, Northern (iz part).

eliast.

L. A. D. L. Bi. L. C. M.

LAWRENCE A. Downs, B.C.E.

Illinois Central System.

President, Illinois Central System, Chicago.

meh Arr

LAURENCE Binyvon, Hon.LL.D. Author and Deputy Keeper of Sub-department of Oriental Prints and Drawings, British Museum. Co-author of Japanese Colour Prints. Sr& Leo CutozzA Money, F.R.Stat.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.

Author and Journalist. Member of the War Trade Advisory Committee, 1915-8. Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Shipping, 1916-8. Chairman of the Tonnage Priority Committee, 1917-8. Editor of the Economic, Engineering and Industry section of the 14th Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

L. D. S.

LAURENCE Duptey Stamp, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., M.I.P.T. Reader in Economic Geography in the University of London. ductton to Stratigraphy.

L. E. B.

Rev. L. Exzrott Bryvs, D.D.

L. Ga.

L. O. H.

V.

Imperial Chemical Industries Limited; Imperial Tobacco Company

. Limited.

Irrawaddy.

!

i

Jashar, Book of. Vicar of Gedney, Lincolnshire. : : c LEON GASTER. \Tiluminating Engineering. Hon. Secretary of the Illuminating Engineering Society, London. LELAND Ossian Howarp, Pu.D., M.D., LL.D., Sc.D. Principal Entomologist, Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agri- Japanese Beetle. culture since 1878.

L.

Author of An Intro-

Japanese Painting and Prints.

Author of The Insect Book; Mosquitoes, How They Live.

:

:

Luicr VILLARI.

tm nsWorld Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Philadelphia, 1907, and Acting-Consul at ice ; I9 a 919; Boston, 1907-10. On the Secretariat of the League of Nations, 1920-3. Author of Ital

Italian Life in Town and Country; The Awakening of Italy; The Fascist Experiment, etc.

y (in part).

Loos

Max Cary, D.Litt.

Reader in Ancient History in the University of London.

Secretary to the Classical

pIrene (in part).

Association, I911—4.

Captain M. D. KENNEDY.

|Japan (2n part).

Tokyo Correspondent, Reuters Limited.

James ScorcIe Meston, 187 BARoN MzsroN, K.C.S.L., LL.D.

Chancellor of Aberdeen University, 1928. Secretary to Finance Department, Government of India, 1906-12. Lieut.-Governor, United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, 1912-7. Representative of India, Imperial War Cabinet and Conference, 1917.

MaARLEN EDWIN PEW. Editor, The Editor and Publisher, New York.

Moses H. GROSSMAN.

India (in pari)

°

|International News Service. ,

ts Relations (in

|

Judge and Honorary President, American Arbitration Association, New York.

part). |

. Miss M. H. LoncHourst. Assistant in the Department of Architecture and Sculpture, Victoria and Albert

Ivory Carving (in part).

= 3 Srr Murpoce Macponatp, K.C.M.G., M.Inst.C.E. Consulting Civil Engineer. Late Adviser and Under-Secretary of State for Public

Irrigation (in part).

Museum, South Kensington.

Works, Egypt. Civil Engineer, Assuan tions and Isna Barrage Construction.

Dam

Protective

and Heightening Operaz

`

MARGARET M. GREEN, M.A. Assistant Editor of the International Section of the Coniemporary Review, 1921; The pInfant Schools. New Leader, 1923-6; Foreign Affairs, 1926-8.

/

is and Steel: World's M. S. BrsxzrT, O.B.E. ' Státistics. Secretary of the National Federation of Iron and Steel Manufacturers. May SMITH. Senior Investigator to the Industrial Fatigue Research Board, Medical RestarchIndustria Psychology. Council, London. +

:

xiv M. S. R.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

MERRYLE S. RUKEYSER, B.Litt., M.A.

Member, Teaching Staff, School of Journalism, Columbia University, New York. |Investment (in pari);

Formerly

Financial

Editor, New

York

Tribune and New

York Evening Journal.

Author of The Common Sense of Money and Investments; etc.

[Investment Trusts (in part).

Miutiicent Topp Bincuam, M.A., Pu.D. Corresponding Member, Sociedad Geografica de Lima. Contrasis; Geographical Controls in Peru.

Norman E. Crump. Statistical Correspondent to the Financial Times, London. of the Royal Statistical Society. Exchanges.

Author of Peru, Land of rica.

Member of the Council |International Payments;

Joint Author of Clare's A.B.C. of the Foreign | Investment (in part).

NATHAN GREENE, A.B., LL.B., S.J.D. Practising Lawyer in Association with the firm of Cook, Nathan and Lehman, New

N. J.K. N. V. McC.

O.

York. Co-author of The Labour Injunction. N. J. Krom.

Author of numerous legal articles.

: : : Injunction (in part). I

Professor of History and Archaeology of the Dutch East Indies, University of Leyden. Nancy V. MCCLELLAND, A.B. Author, Decorator and Lecturer on Interior Decoration. Author of Historic WallPapers; etc. ;

:

Java (in part).

Interior Decoration (in part).

SYDNEY OLIVIER, 1ST BARON OLIvieR OF RAMSDEN, P.C., K.C.M.G., C.B., LL.D.) Secretary for India, 1924. Governor of Jamaica, 1907-13. Author of White Capital o Jamaica Coloured Labour; The Anatomy of African Misery; The Empire Builder. ical article: OLIVIER, S.

O. J. R. H.

OSBERT Joun RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, M.A. Secretary of the British Association for the Advancement of Science.

O. R. A.

OLIVIA ROSSETTI AGRESTI.

See biograph-

f pIreland (in part).

Geographical

Scholar, Oxford, 1901. Geographical Assistant, 11th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

P. Al.

Writer, Lecturer and Interpreter to the Assemblies of the League of Nations and the International Institute of International Economic Conference. Connected with the founding of the InterAgriculture; national Institute of Agriculture in Rome. Lectured in the U. S. on Italian Economic Conditions, 1919, 1920, 1923. Author of Giovanni Costa, His Life and Times; on Italy (in part). the editing staff of the General Fascist Confederation in Indusiries, Rome. Pavni DANIEL ALPHANDERY. Director of Studies, History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, Sorbonne, Inquisition, The (in part). ca Author of Les Idées morales chez les hétérodoxes latines au début du XIIT® 2ecle.

P. A.

S. F.

Purr A. S. FRANKLIN.

International Mercantile Marine Company.

President, International Mercantile Marine Company,

P. G. B.

PETER Gorpon Brown, M.A.

Industrial Insurance (in

Fellow of the Institute of Actuaries. Fellow of the Royal Statistical Society. tant Actuary, Government Actuary’s Department, London. a

P. G. H. B. P. Gi.

P, Z. C.

Assis-

P. G. H. BosweExt, O.B.E., D.Sc. George Herdman Professor of Geology in the University of Liverpool. PETER Gites, M.A., LL.D., Lirt.D., F.B.A.

3 {Itacolumite.

Master of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University Reader in Comparative Philology. Vice-Chancellor of the University, 1919-21. Author of The Aryans Indo-Europeans. (Cambridge History of India). Pau G. Konopy. Art Critic of The Observer and The Daily Mail, London. Author of Velasquez, His -Impressionism. Life and Work; The Brothers Van Eyck; Raphael; Fra Filippo Lippi; etc. Purre Laxe, M.A., F.G.S. | Lecturer in Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. F ormerly India (in part); of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Mi onograph in British Cambrian TriloJapan (in part). bites. Translator and Editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. à

Major GENERAL Sir Percy Z. Cox, G.C.M.G., G.C.LE., K.C.S.I.

Acting British Minister to Persia, 1918—20. High Commissioner in Mesopotamia, 1920-3. Secretary, Foreign Department, Government of India, I914. Consul and Political Agent, Muscat, Arabia, 1899-1904; etc.

R. A. S. M.

|

‘Iraq (in part).

ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., Litt.D., LL.D., F.S.A. Professor of Celtic TR Excavations for the Palestine

University College, Dublin. Formerly Director of Exploration Fund. President of the Royal Irish Acad- Idumaea (in part);

emy; President of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, 1925-8.

R.C. J.

pari); Insurance, Post Office Facilities.

Ireland in Pre-Celtic Times; The Archaeology ofIreland; etc. SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, O.M., LL.D., D.C.L.

Te

Ireland (in part).

Auth

onor ot

Public Orator, Cambridge University, 1869-75, and Professor of Greek, 1889-1905. Author of Translations into Greek and Latin; The Growth and Influence of Classical Greek Poetry. See the biographical article: JEBB, Sır RicHARD C.

R. D. Ca.

R. D. CARMICHAEL.

|

Professor of Mathematics at University of Illinois, Urbana, IIL.

R.

Ed.

R. E. R.

Isocrates (in part).

!Infinity.

Rape EDWARDS, B.A. Member of Staff of Country Life. Assistant, Department of Woodwork. Victori Albert Museum. Joint-author of The Dictionary of English Furniture. NORD

Interior D : ^n PET eee)

R. Evtis Roperts, B.A. -

Author of A Roman Pilgrimage; Henrik Ibsen; The Other End; Reading for Pleasure, Ibsen, Henrik Johan. t

INITIALS R. G.

AND

RICHARD GARNETT, C.B., LL.D. Librarian and Author.

Late Superintendent of the Reading Room, British Museum,

and Keeper of the Printed Books.

R. H. G. R. J. S. R. K. D. R. N. B.

Irving, Washington.

Co-editor with Edmund Gosse of English Liter-

Author of Essays in Librarianship and Bibliophily; Emerson; Milton, etc. See

ature.

R. H. Ch.

XV

OF CONTRIBUTORS

NAMES

the biographical article: GARNETT, RICHARD. RoserT Henry CHARLES, M.A., D.D., D.Lırr.

Archdeacon of Westminster. Formerly Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Jeremy, Epistle of. Studies, Oxford. Fellow of the British Academy. Professor of Biblical Greek at y Trinity College, Dublin, 1898-1906.

ROBERT, FREIHERR VON HEINE-GELDERN. Visiting Professor in Anthropology and Archaeology, University of Vienna. R. J. STOPFORD. Intelligence Department of the British Overseas Bank, London.

Indonesia (in part).

SIR ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS.

Jenghiz Khan.

Inter-Allied Debts.

Author of The Language and Literature of China; The Life of Jenghiz Khan; etc. ROBERT NISBET BAIN. Author of Scandinavia: The Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909.

Ivan IV. (in part).

Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs,

1613 2 1725; Slavonic Europe: The Political History of Poland and Russia from 1409

to 1706; etc. R. P. Co.

ee” leew een yO

RicmaRD P. Cowr, M.A.

Editor of Henry the Fourth, Parts I and II, in Arderne Shakespeare.

R. Re.

R. S. Co.

Icelandic Literature (in part).

Late Professor of English at Bristol University. Author of Poetic Theory in England.

;

;

1

RAYMOND REGAMEY.

f Iron in Art (in pari).

Artist and Designer. Author of Gertcault. ROBERT SEYMOUR Conway, M.A., Litt.D.

Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin, University College, Cardiff, and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.

RAYMOND V. CARPENTER, M.Sc.

Actuary, Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, New York. Society of America. Co-author of An Epoch in Life Insurance.

\yoviae

:

;

Industrial Insurance (ix part).

Fellow, Actuarial

STANLEY ARTHUR Cook, LirT.D.

Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge; University Lecturer in Hebrew and Aramaic. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University, 1901-8. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund

E Co-editor of the Cambridge Ancient History.

Jacob (in part)

alestine.

S. Bl. S. de J.

Formerly Librarian in the University of Copenhagen. S. DE JASTRZEBSKI, F.S.S. Member, American Academy of Social and Political Science. Registrar-General, Great Britain.

S. Fo.

SAMUEL FORTIER, M.E., D.Sc.

S. G.

p

United States Department of Agriculture, Berkeley, California. Water in Irrigation.

e.

1917-8.

S. J. B.

aa

Correspondent of

T€ The Observer,

Bae

MOS

London.

ember

:

mus

d

SIGFUS BLONDAL.

Irish

i

Author of Religion of Ancient Icelandic Literature (in part). S illegitimacy.

Formerly Assistant

ae

g

Author of Use of Irrigation (in part).

neas

of the

Iris

onvention, |

.

r,;

Author of Irish Books and Irish People; The Irish Situation; The History of Irish Free State (in part).

Ireland; etc.

S. JOSEPHINE BAKER, M.D. Lecturer on Child Hygiene, Columbia and New York Universities.

Author of Infancy.

Healthy Mothers; Healthy Babies; Child Hygiene.

S. L. B.

S. L. Baker, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., D.P.H.

S. L. C.

STEVENSON LYLE Cummincs, C.M.G., M.D., LL.D.

S. Le. S. Ln.

Reader in Pathology and Anatomy, Middlesex Hospital Medical School.

}Influenza. Colonel, Army Medical Service (retired). Formerly David Davies Professor of Tuberculosis, University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire, Cardiff. iur Stuart Lewis, A.M., Pu.D., D.C.L., M.F.S. Initiative. Professor of Law, New Jersey Law School. Author of Party Principles and Practical Politics; An Outline of American Federal Government.

Sam LEwIsoHn, A.B., LL.B. Director, Bank of America. Member of Adolph Lewisohn and Sons, New York. President, American Association for Labor .Legislation. Writer and speaker

on Industrial Relations and wage problems. Author of The New Leadership in Industry. Co-author of Can Business Prevent Unemployment?

S. Ra.

St. C. S. T. H. W. S. Y.

}Incubators (in part).

S. RADHAKRISHNAN, M.A.

I . I Industrial Relations (in part).

.

:

rIndian Philosophy. George V. Professor of Philosophy, Calcutta University. Author of The Reign of ` etc. Life; of View Hindu The Philosophy; y Contemporar in Religion STAFFORD HENRY NORTHCOTE, VISCOUNT ST.CYRES. Jansenism (in pare). | British Statesman. Lord Rector of Edinburgh University, 1883. Author of Lectures . NORTHCOTE HENRY STAFFORD . IDDESLEIGH l article: biographica See Essays. and

Caprain S. T. H. Witton, R.N. (retired). Late Assistant Director of Naval Ordnance, Admiralty, London. SAMUEL YELLIN. Formerly Teacher in the Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial Art, Philadelphia,

Master Craftsman and an authority on art metal work.

^ India (in part).

-Iron in Art (in part).

XV1 S. Ya.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

SEIRYO YAMANOUCHI.

S

H apanese Industrial Bank,

Professor of Commercial and Colonial Policy, Tokyo University of Commerce.

T. A.

T. A. J. T. A. S. T.B.

Tuomas Asupy, D.Litt., F.B.A., F.S.A., Hon.A.R.I.B.A.

Formerly Director of the British School at Rome. Author of Turner’s Visions of Ischia: Rome; The Roman Campagna $n. Classical Times; Roman Architecture. Revised and Italy Gn part) completed for press a Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (by the late Prof. ] J. B. Plattner). Author of numerous archaeological articles.

T. A. Joyce, M.A., O.B.E. E Deputy Keeper, Department of Ethnography, British Museum. T. A. STEPHENSON, D.Sc. Senior Assistant in the Department of Zoology, University College, London. SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, LL.B., Pz.D. Vice-President, Practice; etc.

T. E. G..

he.

um"

International Law Association.

THEODOR E. GREGORY,

?Ica:

| Hydrozoa.

Author of I nternational Law and

D.Sc.

|

Sir Ernest Cassel Professor of Banking in the University of London.

T. F.

TENNEY FRANK, Pu.D. Professor of "Latin, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Imperialism; A History of Rome; etc.

T. F. C.

THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D.

| Innocent (in part).

ae

Instructor in the History of Architecture, Columbia University, New York. Chairman, City Plan Committee, Merchants’ Association, New York. Author of The Enjoyment of Architecture; The American Spirit in Architecture.

T. G. G. H. T. H. R.

LIEUTENANT-COLONEL T. G. G. Heywoop.

T. S. A.

T. W.A. V. F. M. V. W. B. W. A.

i

3

ii

Intelligence, Military.

THEODORE H. RosrNsoN, M.A., D.D.

Jacob AS part);

shire. T. M. Lowry, C.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Jeremiah.

Professor of Physical Chemistry, Cambridge University. Formerly Lecturer on Chemistry, Westminster Training College. Author of Historical Introduction to Isomerism. Chemistry, etc. THOMAS SEWALL ADAMS, A.B., Pu.D. ] ; s Professor of Political Economy, Yale University. Author of Taxation in Maryland; m Tax: In Practice (în

Outlines of Economics.

T. V.

Hypaethrus

i

General Staff Officer, British Territorial Army Air Defence Formations.

Professor of Semitic Languages, University College of South Wales and Monmouth-

T. M. L.

;

Author of Ronan Haly (in part).

ae

Tarsor F. Hami, B.Arca., B.A.

:

Inflation and Deflation.

Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass., U. S. A.

T. F. H.

pInternational Law, Public.

part).

TAPIO VOIONMAA.

Economic and Financial Section of the League of Nations. the Research Division of the International Labour Office.

F ormerly attached to

Industrial Accidents (in part).

SIR TROMAS WALKER ARNOLD, C.LE., M.A., Lrrz.D., F.B.A. Late Professor of Arabic, University of London. Government College, Lahore.

Formerly Professor of Philosophy , Islam.

V. F. MInorsky.

Professor of Persian Philology, Ecole Nationale des Langues Orientales Vivantes,Hranian Languages and Paris.

Persian. . Van Wyck Brooks, A.B. Author of America's Coming of Age; The World of H. G. Wells; The Pilgrimage of »James, Henry. Henry James; The Ordeal of Mark Twain; etc.

SIR WILLIAM James Asnmrrv, Pu.D., M.A., M.Com. Formerly Vice-Principal and Professor of Commerce of the University Birmingham. Member of numerous British Committees on Economic Questions. of Author of "Imperial Preference. Introduction to English Economic History and Theory; The Rise in Prices; The Eco` nomic Organisation of England; etc.

WYNDHAM A. BEWES.

Inheritance (is part);

-Of Lincoln's Inn, Barrister-at-Law. Honorary Member of the Academia Real Jurisprudencia, Madrid. Honorary Secretary óf the International Law Associatiode | Instalment Purchase (i; n part);

W. A. B. C. W. A. J.

and of the Grotius Society. Editor and Part-author of Burges Colonial and. Foreign | International Law, Private Taw. (in part). Rev. WrLLIAm Aucusrtus Brevoort Coormce, M.A., F.R.G.S., Hon.Pu.D. Jenatsch, j Georg : Fellow of ‘Magdalen College,

Oxford. Editor of The Alpine Journal, 1880-9; etc. WALTER ALBERT Jessup, A.B., M.A., Pu.D., LL.D. | President, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. Affecting Supervision of Special Subjects. " 1

W. A. P.

W. ArrsoN Puirrrs, M.A. Lecky Professor of Modern History, Dublin University. _ bridge Modern History; etc.

W. A. W.

W. A. Wooster, Pu.D.

W. B. P.

WILLIAM BELMONT PARKER, A.B.

Author of Social

Contributor to the Cam-

Demonstrator in Mineralogy in the University of Cambridge.

Editor and Author.

Editor of South Americans of To-day.

W. B. Wr.

W. B. Wricat.

W. de B. H.

W. DE Bracy HERBERT.

Factor i

Iowa; ; l Iowa, State University of.

Jacobins, The.

}Jade;

Jasper.

:

:

|Iturbide, Augustin de.

F rostapher, Geological Survey of Great Britain and Museum of Practical Geology, reland (in part). ondon. ` Barrister-at-Law.

Recorder of Newcastle-under-Lyme.

Incest;

eidg ent.

(in part);

INITIALS AND

NAMES

W. E. B.

WILLIAM E. BORAH.

W. F. S.

WriLLiAM FLEETWOOD SHEPPARD, M.A., D.Sc. Senior Examiner in the Board of Education.

OF CONTRIBUTORS

xvii

d

United States Senator, Washington.

Practising Lawyer, Boise, Idaho.

H aho.

Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, interpolation.

Cambridge.

W. H. C. W. K. McC.

W. L. W.

part). Secretary of Nobel Industries, Ltd., London. : j ee : TT s E ME TE, MM Rel . i Correspondent o cer; formerly Press Rome, as mbassy, Britis ttached, The Times, London, in Rome. War Correspondent of The Times on the Italian Italo-Turkish War. Front, 1915-7. Author of Italy's Part in the War; Italy in North Africa; etc. Rev. W. L. Warptez, M.A., D.D. Lecturer in Biblical Criticism and Exegesis of the Old Testament, Manchester >Japheth. University. Principal of Hartley College, Manchester.

Wurm

W. M.

MILLER, M.A., F.R.Hrsrt.S.

Hon. LL.D. in the National University of Greece.

Archaeological School of Athens. Athens and Rome. Successors; etc.

W. Mar.

W. R.

D.

.

.

Hon. Student of the British

Correspondent of the Morning Post, London, in Ionian Islands (in part).

Author of the Latins in the Levant; The Ottoman Empire and Its

; , I Srp Wittram Marxsy, K.C.I.E., D.C.L. Late Judge of the High Court of Calcutta and Reader in Indian Law, University of Indian Law (in part). Oxford.

W. O. E. O.

Tax: In Practice (in

p

W. H. Coares, LL.B

Author of Lectures on Indian Law.

London U University. College, London E Exegesis, King'sKing's College, x deestament an Author ee Books of the Apocrypha, Their Origin, Contents and Teaching and many other works.

Hebrew E: E ich rofessor, SS D

Warren R. Dawson, F.R.S.E., F.S.A. Author of numerous articles on Egyptology and the history of medicine.

. : Isaiah, Ascension of.

| Imhotep.

l

W. R. Ho.

WirLrAM R. HopoxiNsoN, C.B.E., Pu.D., F.R.S.E.

W. S. L.-B.

WALTER SvpNEY LAZARUS-BARLOW, B.A., M.D., F.R.C.P. Member of the Cancer Committee, Ministry of Health. Formerly Professor of Experi-

Formerly Professor of Chemistry and Metallurgy, Artillery College, Woolwich. Part-author of Valentine-Hodgkinson’s Practical Chemistry; etc.

:

.

Incendiary Mixtures.

Hypertrophy; mental Pathology, Middlesex Hospital Medical School, London University. Author of infammadon and Its 1 S A Manual of General Pathology; Elements of Pathological Anatomy and Histology for

ss

Editor of the Medicine section of the 14th Edition of the Encyclopaedia

equeis.

ritannica. WILLIAM T. INNES. Founder and Director, Typothetae Printing Trade School, Philadelphia. President, Innes and Sons, Publishers. Author of Contributions on Photo-Engraving; The Modern Aquarium; Goldfish Varieties; Tropical Aquarium Fishes.

Ives, Frederic Eugene.

W. V. Br.

W. V. BRADFORD.

Inland Revenue, Board of.

W. W. Je.

W. W. Jervis, M.Sc.

W. W. P. W. Wr.

W. Wyatt PAINE, J.P., F.S.A. Author and Editor of numerous legal textbooks. Wave Wricut, B.Sc., M.D.

W. W. W.

W. W. WATTS.

W. T.I

Assistant Secretary, Secretary’s Office, Board of Inland Revenue, London.

.

Reader in Geography in the University of Bristol.

. Assistant Medical Director in Charge of Industrial Hygiene, Insurance Company, New York.

|Iceland (in part).

Metropolitan

Life pi ER

Formerly Keeper of the Department of Metalwork, Victoria and Albert Museum, London. Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London. Author of Old English Silver; Catalogue of Chalices and Pastoral Staves (Victoria and Albert Museum).

Initial used for anonymous contributors.

aes and Innkeepers (in part). i

: . Tron in Art (im part). Y

THE

ENCYCLOPA DIA BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH VOLUME HYDROZOA

TO

EDITION 12

JEREMY,

YDROZOA. The Hydrozoa (sometimes called Hydromedusae) are a class of ani-

EPISTLE

OF

isms) or sedentary, according to their nature, and many of either kind exist. The brackish and freshwater forms exhibit the same mals, the vast majority of which are diversity, though few in number. One of the most interesting is marine, and which belong to the still a minute creature, Protohydra, the length of which is about 3mm. greater assemblage known as the Coel- This organism inhabits the surface-layer of mud, rich in diatoms, enterata (g.v.). which is to be found in the bottom of pools in certain tidal The Hydrozoa include not only polyps, marshes; it also occurs in oyster-beds and similar places. It is but also medusae or jellyfish (these terms carnivorous, and reproduces freely by transverse fission, but its Y are defined in the article COELENTERATA). sexual mode of reproduction is unknown. It possesses no tenThey are, in fact, that group of Coelenterata in which neither the tacles, and is as simple in structure as any known Coelenterate. one nor the other of these two forms of body predominates, and The best known of the non-marine Hydrozoa, however, are in this respect they contrast strongly with the other main classes the genera Limnocodium, Limnocnida, Cordylophora and Hydra. (Scyphozoa and Anthozoa). Moreover, both polyp and medusa Of Hydra more details are given below, and the chief interest of have a simpler plan of structure than in the other classes. The Cordylophora lies in the fact that it may flourish in water of polyp itself is frequently (though not always) small. Its mouth different degrees of salinity as well as in fresh water; it is otherleads directly into the internal cavity of its body (coelenteron), wise ordinary. Limnocodium ryderi possesses a feebly developed without the intermediary of a definite throat or gullet of any kind, polyp-generation (up to about 2mm. long) which produces small and the ectoderm and endoderm (see COELENTERATA) meet at colonies containing about 2-7 individual polyps without tentacles. the lips. The coelenteron is a simple cavity lined by endoderm; These colonies can produce buds of two kinds; some become it is not subdivided by partitions into lesser cavities, nor does it separated from the parent, form polyps and produce new colonies, contain definite organs of any kind. With these limitations the others develop into medusae, and these are liberated and swim actual form of the polyp varies very greatly. The medusa pre- away. The species of Limnocodium (with which is now included sents infinite variety of form, but it too lacks a throat, and al- Microhydra) are not very clearly recognized; but representatives though its coelenteron sends out radiating canals which run from of the genus occur in lakes, mill-streams and similar places in the central cavity through the solid tissues of the bell, it is other- the United States, Germany, China and Japan, and have appeared wise simple in that it contains no definite organs. The medusae in water-lily tanks at various botanic gardens, and in other tanks of Hydrozoa are generally speaking smaller and more slightly- and aquaria. The genus Limnocnida contains medusae which have built creatures than the medusae belonging to the related class been found in several river-systems in Africa and in some of the Scyphozoa, although in certain cases they attain a larger size great lakes, as well as in India. than the average, which is a matter of millimetres. The Hydrozoa The Hydrozoa comprise three large orders which from this are also characterized by the fact that the sex-cells, when they point onward will be treated separately. ripen in the clusters known as gonads, typically lie in or under ORDER I. HYDROIDA the ectoderm, although the site of their original formation may be in either ectoderm or endoderm. The Hydroida are, roughly speaking, those Hydrozoa which It is among the Hydrozoa above all other Coelenterata that the possess a definite alternation of the polyp and the medusa in phenomenon, briefly characterized elsewhere (article COELEN- their life-history, and in which one generation (the polyp) is TERATA), and known as polymorphism, attains its height, The sedentary and usually constructs a fixed colony, the other being details of this condition are described in parts of the present free-swimming when fully developed. There are various exceparticle and a summary of the question is given after the section tions to this general statement, but they are not characteristic of on Siphonophora. the group as a whole. The variety of form and life-history exThe infrequency of brackish or freshwater forms among the hibited, however, is so great, that it will need detailed treatment. Coelenterata makes their occurrence of interest. The ordinary It is convenient to begin with the consideration of the common marine Hydrozoa are either pelagic (swimming or floating organ- and well-known but quite untypical freshwater genus Hydra (fig.

2

HYDROZOA

1), which is the only thoroughly successful freshwater Coelen- | known as a gonotheca, but this is at first imperforate.

In due

terate. Hydra, of one species or another, occurs in ponds and | course it becomes open at the end, and the medusae separate off ditches and similar situations in many parts of the world. It from the blastostyle and swim away into the sea, where, after a consists of small isolated polyps, each with a pillar-like body and period of free life, they become hydroid polyps. a limited number of tentacles. The length of the body is a matter of millimetres, and the tentacles in some species may be longer when stretched out than the body, although both they and the body can contract into rounded knobs. The Hydra attaches itself to stems and water-weeds, or A N E

N

floats beneath the surface film. It catches prey, often of a large size compared with its own bulk, in the manner characteristic of the Coelenterata (this is described in the article COELENTERATA) by stinging and then swallowing it. From the body of the Hydra there grow out buds, each of which acquires tentacles of its own and ultimately becomes separated from the parent; but no medusae whatever are produced, this being quite exceptional among the Hydroida. There are usually developed separately, on different parts of the body, ovaries and testes which give rise to the sex-cells. Whether this represents a degenerate condition, and there was once a medusa-stage in the life-cycle, or whether it is a primitively simple condition, cannot be determined. The few other simple genera

Es He 2 d

YS F

A

A

LJ

H cH

E

» Á 5) BiH 5

RDE

A P

H

D "1.

a,

oo

d

T

»

cua » oh

e

n

A tu

U x S: SSS an= AQ [XS ReK^da

RSI = SA FROM

DELAGE

CONCRETE”

FIG.

AND

HEROUARD,

(REINWALD)

(COPR,

1.—FRESH-WATER

(HYDRA),

*ZOOLOGIE BONNAIRE)

POLYP

ENLARGED

The specimen is shown attached to a plant-stem. Its tentacles are well extended and it bears two buds on its

side, one of which

has acquired ten-

which are known, such as Proto- tacles of Its own hydra, may be related to Hydra, or may be primitive or degener-

FROM (LARGE FIGURE) DELAGE AND HEROUARD “ZOOL. CONCRETE” (REINWALD) (COPR. BONNAIRE); (SMALL FIGURE) PARKER AND HASWELL, “TEXT BOOK OF ZOOLOGY” (MACMILLAN & CO.)

FIG. 2.—OBELIA (ENLARGED) SHOWING PART OF A COLONY OF THE POLYP GENERATION AND ALSO A MEDUSA. THE COLONY BEARS BOTH ORDINARY POLYPS AND BLASTOSTYLES, THE LATTER PRODUCING MEDUSOID BUDS

The structure of one of these fully developed medusae must ate forms of separate origin. With the above preliminary, the characteristics of the group as a whole, without reference to these now be considered in more detail (fig. 3). The body has the form of an umbrella, with a manubrium similar to that of a polyp special forms, may be considered. Structure.—The following is a description of the structure of hanging down inside it and bearing the mouth at its end. The a typical Hydroid, provided by the genus Obelia (fig. 2). Obelia manubrium is lined by endoderm, and contains a cavity, the main part of the coelenteron. The subbegins its life, after the embryonic stages which succeed fertilstance of the umbrella consists of ization of the egg have transpired, as a single polyp, possessing mesogloea with ectoderm on both a number of simple tentacles in a circlet around the base of its external surfaces; but the layer conical peristome or manubrium. The polyp sends out roots which of mesogloea is penetrated by attach it to the surface of a stone, the frond of a sea-weed, or four narrow tubes or canals, lined other suitable support, and grows a stalk which raises it someby endoderm, which run out from what in the water. From this stem a bud arises from which, the base of the manubrium like although it is at first a mere knob, a new polyp is gradually dethe four arms of a cross. Conveloped. This process of growth proceeds in a definite and necting these radial canals with regular manner, until a small tree-like colony, from less than an each other is a flat sheet of endoinch to several inches in height, is formed; the branches

are definitely arranged, and all bear polyps. If one of the colonies, be examined in detail, it will be found that each of the polyps

derm like a web (endoderm lam|: ella) and also a circular canal

possesses, outside its body, a little transparent cup of relatively stiff, horny material, into which it can withdraw when alarmed;

FROM KUKENTHAL, «HANDBUCH DER zootogie»

by a horny layer, outside the soft stem, which stiffens and supports the latter. The cups are known as hydrothecae, the soft stem as coenosarc, and the horny layer (including stem and cups) as the perisarc. The new polyps develop only from the tips of a, branch of coenosarc, and not from one another; and in a well

gonad; ME, mesogloea; MO, mouth;

and that not only are the polyps connected with each other by a stem composed of soft tissues, but the cups also are connected

developed colony it will be seen that some additional branches

Ei ae os

nam. VE

EG.edem EN P rq a

oe ;a

Which runs round the edge of the

umbrella close to the bases of the L tentacles. The latter are solid,

; e, bothin medusa and polyp. At the

e a

T, tentacle; V, Solum, EL, Endoder.

edge of the bell, on the inner side

of the ring of tentacles, isa little circular shelf

(the velum) which mal Lamela — — i. projects inwards and slightly narrows the opening of the bell. Round the margin of the bell, at the bases of certain of the tentacles, lie the sense organs, minute sacs, formed by the ectoderm, and each containing a calcareous par-

have grown out, mostly in the lower part of the colony, each of ticle (the statolith). They are known as statocysts them similar in structure to a developing polyp, and (fig. 5), and usuall y re- are eight in number, two being definitely placed garded as representing one. These branches (known in each of the as blasto- quadrants between the radial canals; they styles). do net, develop a mouth and tentacles; instead probably and each control the swimming-contractions of the bell. The initiate produces a umber of buds Which gradually devel sex-cells of evelor op into small’| the medusa ripen in the ectoderm, of four gonads which occur on medusae, and which are known as medusoid ‘buds. The blastostyle, the course of the four canals, and which, when ripe, shed their like an. ordinary polyp or hydranth, has a covering of perisarc products into.the sea. The fertilized eggs develop into new polyps

HYDROZOA which initiate fresh colonies. The story of Obelza is typical of the Hydroida, with modifica-

1

sometimes straggling, sometimes compact, and may form a con-

tinuous sheet. The tree-like forms are mostly delicate feathery tions of one kind and another. In some cases the polyp-generation structures, resembling rather the fronds of a finely divided seaincludes a single nutritive individual only, but usually it forms a weed than any animal. The general aspect of some of them is colony. The form of the individual polyps and medusae, as also shown in the accompanying Plate. The size of the whole colony, that of the colony, undergoes great modification however. the exact way in which it branches, and the way in which one The polyps sometimes possess cups of perisarc as does Obelia; polyp after another is added upon a branch, affect the general but often they are without these. appearance of the ultimate result. Sometimes the branches themTheir tentacles are sometimes selves are thick and are composed of a dense network of branching simple, sometimes knobbed at the rootlets (Clathrozoon, fig. 6), the polyps projecting at the surface. tip or branched; sometimes arThis condition, which is achieved in a manner different from that ranged in one circlet, sometimes which produces the average tree-like colony, leads on to the state in two (one round the lip, one at of affairs found in the massive, limy colonies. the base of a conical manuThese massive forms deserve special mention. They have been brium), in other cases arranged considered in time past as a separate group of Hydrozoa, the irregularly over part or most of Hydrocorallina; but it has become evident that they are simply the surface of the polyp. Hydroids with a more than usually solid skeleton, and that some The medusae vary even more of them are probably related to one series of Hydroid ancestors, than the polyps, both in shape others to a different series. A good example of these creatures and structure, and some idea of is found in Millepora (see Plate). This animal constructs a "GYMNOBLASTIC HYDROIDS” ALLMAN, the diversity which occurs among FROM colony containing innumerable minute individual polyps, which (COUNCIL OF THE RAY SOCIETY) them may be gained by reference FIG. 4.—MEDUSA OF CLADONEMA are connected with each other by a continuous surface-sheet of to figs. 2-4 and 7-8. The shape (ENLARGED) ectoderm and by a network of ramifying tubular rootlets. The of the bell may be shallow or This is an example of a jellyfish with colony secretes a massive, limy skeleton which may become a foot branched tentacles. The gonads here almost flat, or on the other hand form or more in height, and whichis branched somewhat like the antlers swellings on the manubrium; and

may be a high dome, and naturally varies with the movements

of a stag, but in more compact fashion. The polyps inhabit little pits in the surface of the skeleton, and can retire into these comof the animal. The number, ar- tentacles pletely when alarmed. The network of rootlets is lodged in a rangement and structure of the tentacles is widely various. 'The network of canals in the surface layers of the skeleton, the deeper living medusae are some of the most beautiful of marine creatures. parts consisting of coral only and containing no soft parts; this Their transparency, which is often touched with definite colour in internal portion was secreted by the soft parts originally, but as given parts, and the regularity of their structure are responsible for growth proceeded and further skeleton was formed, these retired this, and in some cases their movements also are extremely grace- to the surface-layers. One can imagine that a similar state of ful. The sense organs vary from one kind of medusa to another. affairs would be produced if a colony such as that of Clathrozoon Statocysts are present in a number of cases, and these exhibit vary- were to secrete limy material into the meshes between its neting degrees of complexity of structure, with this in common to all work of rootlets. Millepora is extraordinarily interesting in one of them—that the epithelium of the statolithic sac or pit (for the respect. When the time comes simplest of statocysts consist of an open pit) is derived from the for sexual medusae to be proectoderm, and no endoderm takes part in its formation. Many duced by the colony, these are not medusae possess sense-organs of another nature, known as ocelli, formed from buds as in Obelia and these are sensitive to light. In their simplest condition they and other Hydroids. Instead the consist of a clump of sensory sex-cells, which are migratory, cells mingled with pigment cells; move from the rootlets into one but the more complicated ones or other of the polyps. Each possess a definite lens. These polyp so affected loses under ocelli may be situated close to their influence its characteristic statocysts, but many medusae structure, and becomes transpossess ocelli only, and others formed by degrees into a medusa. statocysts only. Another imporThe pit surrounding it enlarges tant variation in structure is, that and becomes closed in, so that it in some medusae, as in Obelia, forms a cavity cut off from the the gonads are situated on the A outer world, and until the medusa radial canals; but in many others ‘is ready to escape it remains so; the sex-cells ripen instead on the finally the cavity opens again and FROM KUKENTHAL, “HANDBUCH DER ZOOLOGIE” manubrium. the medusa comes out. It is a (DE GRUYTER) à (DE GRUYTER) Colonies.—The next ` consid- FIG. 6.—PART OF A COLONY OF weak swimmer and cannot feed; FIG. 5.—SECTION THROUGH A eration must be that of the kinds CLATHROZOON STATOCYST, MUCH ENLARGED it swims a very little distance AC, sensory cell with sensory hair; of colonies which Hydroids con- before shedding its ripe eggs or spermatozoa, the union of which C, statolithic sac; CC, circular canal; struct. These colonies are fre- gives rise to a polyp so that the life-cycle begins once more. EX, ex-umbrella; M, mesogloea; NR!, quently small and relatively soft, Diversities Exhibited by the Polyps and Medusae.—We outer nerve ring; NR?, inner nerve rings SC, statolithic cell; ST, statothe horny perisarc giving a con- may now pass on to some of the interesting diversities which the lith; SU, sub-umbrella siderable amount of support, but polyps and medusae exhibit. To begin with, in certain colonies, not constituting a really rigid skeleton. Many such colonies are such as those of Millepora and Hydractinia (fg. 7), the hyan inch or less in height, although colonies several inches long are dranths are not all alike. Some of them (gastrozooids) possess common. Only rarely does the colony become actually large, but mouths as well as tentacles, and inside these polyps digestion of in a few cases it achieves a size and solidity which give it rank food takes place. Other polyps on the contrary possess no with the reef-forming corals; in these cases the skeleton is massive mouths, but may have tentacles and are well provided with the medusa adheres to surfaces through knobs on the basal branches of its

and calcareous, and is in fact “coral.”

|

. Hydroid colonies are rougbly speaking of two kinds—mat-like

stinging capsules such as are described in the article CoELENTERATA. These polyps themselves cannot feed, but they play a

and tree-like structures. The mat-like forms consist of a network defensive part, in the colony and assist the others in the capture of rootlets, attached to a stone. sea-weed or other support, from and paralysing of food; they are known as dactylozooids. This is the upper surface of which arise the polyps. The network is a simple example of the phenomenon of polymorphism, which

4

HYDROZOA

has been previously mentioned and which will be further dis-

medusae; the gain being increased fertility. The Coelenterata are singularly free from parasitic members. Of the few that are known, one is particularly interesting. This Hydrichihys boycet, a species referred to the Hydroida but which may be an unusual siphonophore. The colony is one of the matlike kind, and the mat, instead of being affixed to a stone or weed, is attached to the fins or body of a fish. The underside of it sends

cussed later. It is carried to greater lengths in Hydractinia than in Millepora, since in this case the colony produces also blastostyles similar in principle to those of Obelia. These may be regarded as modifed polyps with a body but without mouth or

tentacles, which produce sexual buds. Therefore a Hydractinia colony possesses four kinds of individuals—gastrozooids, dactylozooids, blastostyles and sexual buds. To turn to the medusae, we find here a most curious state of affairs. To begin with, medusae may arise from blastostyles or direct from ordinary polyps; and the blastostyles may arise from the root or stem of a colony or from a polyp itself. Moreover, a medusa may itself bud off others from its manubrium, or from its tentacle-bases or other parts. The most remarkable fact connected with the medusae, however, is that despite the fact that a medusa is obviously an advantageous development, in that it can swim away and spread the eggs and spermatozoa over an aréa vastly wider than they could otherwise reach, there is yet a strong tendency among the Hydroida towards a condition in which the medusa not only remains permanently attached to the colony whence it sprang, but also becomes much reduced and simplified in structure. A series of medusae can be traced, in which at one end there is found the fully formed free-swimming jellyfish, at the other end a degenerate sac-like structure, devoid of any medusa-like features, and resembling the gonad of an active medusa, such as that of Obelia. This degenerate formation, which remains attached to the colony, is known as a sporosac, and consists of a layer of ectoderm containing or covering the sex-cells, and surrounding an endodermal core. Between these two extremes all intermediate stages may be found. It has been considered by some authors that the sporosacs represent, not a reduced but a primitive condition, and that the other stages are to be regarded as developments leading up to

FROM

KUKENTHAL,

“HANDBUCH

FIG. 8.—STAGES LARGED)

DER ZOOLOGIE”

IN THE

(DE GRUYTER)

DEVELOPMENT

OF

A TRACHYLINE

(MUCH

EN.

The figures show the direct transformation of a polyp-like larva, with a long proboscis, into a medusa

roots into the integuments of the fish, and under its growing edge are cells which are able to destroy the surface of the fish’s skin

and expose the vascular layer beneath. The polyps, which have

no tentacles, bend down over the edge of the mat, apply their mouths to the wound made by the latter, and obtain blood from the vessels of the fish. Another parasite, better known than Hydrichthys, is Polypodium; this is parasitic at one stage of its life in the eggs of a sturgeon, which it destroys. Classification.—The classification of the Hydroida is instructive, though as yet imperfect. The connection between medusa e and polyps was at first not understood by naturalists, since it could not be deduced from observation of one of these types only, without a study of the whole life-history. Even now there are polyps and medusae which have not yet been linked on to their corresponding alternative form. Consequently a double classification has grown up, dealing with the two sets independently, and

the two systems can be correlated with each other so far as the

inter-connections are known, The polyps are divided into:— I.

FROM

KUKENTHAL,

“HANDBUCH

DER ZOOLOGIE"

(DE GRUYTER)

FIG. 7.—PART OF A COLONY OF HYDRACTINIA (ENLARGED), SHOWING . GASTROZOOIDS, DACTYLOZOOIDS, BLASTOSTYLES AND MEDUSOID BUDS, AS WELL AS FREE MEDUSAE

the fully formed medusa.

2.

point of view that the roving medusa is an obvious gain of medusae, and from the fact that in the

gonothecae.

Calyptoblastea,

Here the polyps possess

blastostyles gonothecae.

I.

This would seem reasonable from the

to a fixed colony; but the facts of the case do not seem to support it. From the structure and mode of occurrence of the various grades

Gymnoblastea. Here the polyps are not enclosed in cups perisarc (hydrothecae), nor are the blastostyles enclosed

2,

hydrothecae

and

of in

the

The medusae are classified as follows:—

Anthomedusae. Medusae in which there are no statocysts (though there are usually ocelli) and in which the gonads develop on the manubrium. These are the medusae belonging to the Gymnoblastic polyp-generation. Leptomedusae, Medusae in which there are typically statocysts and sometimes ocelli, and in which the are arranged on the radial canals. These medusae belonggonads to the Calyptoblastic polyp-generation.

of certain of the reduced forms, medusoid featuresdevelopment a time and are subsequently lost, it is judged that appear for ,In the above scheme Hydra and its relatives would be centhey are not sidered Gymnoblasts by some authors primitive but degenerate. "The precocious develo pment of the placed in an indepéndent group, the , by others they would be sex-cells may be the factor which leads to Hydrida. The affinities of the reduction of the Limnocodium and Limno cnida are somewhat uncertain.

HYDROZOA

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protective leg pads prevent injury from the puck, which is driven toward the goal with great force by players of the opposing team. Pneumatic or padded chest protector is used to protect the body 4.

Player illustrating left-handed pose, in position for shot at goal. The puck is shown at blade of stick. Leg and knee pads are worn, as well as padded

gloves and trunks, and chest and shoulder padding

5. Player in left-handed position to block or check opponent 6. Player in right-handed position to play the stick and puck from right side of the body Player in position to pass puck to teammate on combination

play

ICE HOCKEY Olympic matches at Chamonix in 1924, being required to play only the winners of the three groups. The Canadians who played magnificently, beat Sweden 11-0, Switzerland 13-0 and Great Britain 14-0. They subsequently on tour beat Davos 6-1, Paris 6—o and England 11-4, BreriocraPHy.—See A. Tebbutt, Bandy or Hockey on the Ice (1896), containing history and practical hints; C. G. Tebbutt, Bandy in “Badminton Library” (1892); S. K. Farlow, Bandy or Ice H ockey “Isthmian Library” (1901); “Bandy Sticks,” The Book of Winter Sports (edit. E. and M. Syers, 1908); T. K. Fisher, Ice Hockey, a manual for player and coach (1926). (C. Ep.)

THE UNITED

STATES AND CANADA

Every tiny hamlet throughout the Dominion of Canada has its hockey rink laid out in the open air during the winter months, but the larger cities are equipped with substantial buildings in which the game may be played before large gatherings of spectators. Despite the fact that frost is almost continuous in the winter months in most parts of Canada, east of the Rocky mountains, many of the city rinks are equipped with artificial ice plants which guarantee an ice surface before the winter really sets in and after the spring has begun. There are six players to a team, the positions being goal, left defence, right defence, centre, left wing and right wing (forwards). The centre of the rink is marked and the teams take positions on either side of this centre point, nearest the goal they are defending. The goal-keeper takes a position directly between the posts of the goal net. The defence men take positions to the right and left of the goal net about 25 ft. towards the centre of the ice from the net. The forwards take positions on a line close to the centre of the ice. The game is started by a referee dropping the puck between the opposing centres in centre ice. This puts the puck in play, and the opposing teams must keep “onside,” or behind the puck, when pushing or passing it from one player to another in combination play. The passing between members of the same teams may be intercepted at any time by an opponent. There is some difference between the professional and amateur rules, but the usual play is for three 20 min. periods with ro min. intermissions between periods. Substitutes may enter the play at any time, but no substitution may be made unless the player being replaced leaves the ice. A goal is scored by the puck being driven fairly into the net or across the goal line by a stick. The team scoring the most goals in the three periods of play is declared the winner. In the event of a tie when the regulation number of periods is completed, overtime sessions are played. The present professional rules call for two “sudden death” periods of 5 min. each. If either team scores in these overtime sessions, the game is immediately over, but if neither team is able to score, the contest is declared a draw. Penalties are imposed by the referee for tripping a player, slashing with the stick, checking a player bodily with undue roughness, or by unfair use of the stick. The player penalized is sent to the sidelines, and takes no part in the game for such time as the referee sees fit to penalize him. A minor penalty is 2 min. a'major penalty is 5 minutes. The penalized player’s team continues to play short of his services until the expiration of the time of his penalty. The National Hockey League is the major professional league. The teams comprising this circuit represent the following cities: two from New York, two from Montreal and one each from Toronto, Ottawa, Boston, Chicago, Detroit and Pittsburgh. The amount paid for admissions for the season 1927-28 at National Hockey League games was $1,304,683. Players are purchased by the teams, prices ranging from $5,000 to over $30,000. The average salary of a major league player is approximately $4,500 per season. There are five minor professional leagues, each circuit having five or more teams which represent smaller cities in the United States and Canada. All of the Canadian universities and colleges, and the more important of these institutions in the United States have organized hockey teams, and in many of them hockey is ranked as a major sport. In Canada there are over 1,200 organized amateur teams. During the past few years hockey has spread rapidly into the

4I

northern sections of the United States. This has become possible through the more extensive use of ice in rinks prepared by aruficial means in the larger arenas and auditoriums. The game being played at night in the winter, it is not dependent upon weather conditions. Furthermore, it is played at a season of the year when the great outdoor sports are not engaging the attention of sport (J. S. Ha.; F. Cr.) lovers. TECHNIQUE

OF THE GAME

Ordinary pleasure-skating, figure-skating and speed-skating count for little in ice hockey. The recruit must practise hours, days and months to master the “stop-turn-and-start.” Ice-hockey is played in a series of short dashes,—dodging, shifting, side-stepping and even hurdling being parts of the puck-chaser's routine. The game of tag on the ice is good practice, and intensive training may be obtained in skating rounds of 1o or 20 yd. dashes, swinging the body into sharp left or right turns or even making a complete about-face at the end of the dash. The next point is to confine the skating-stride to as narrow a path of ice as possible. The professional player rushes a puck in a path as narrow as 3 ft., using a foot-over-foot stride and offering his opponents little in the way of legs, feet, stick and body to reach for. The close, choppy stride is the proper skating form to carry a player and his puck safely through an opposing team. Many mediocre skaters have held positions in good teams through their knowledge of handling a hockey stick,—pushing the rubber puck along the ice with the 4 ft. hickory war-club, forward, sideways left to right; holding it steady with a sudden stopping or “‘feinting” motion and varying the whole routine with such tricky manipulations of the feet and body as completely to baffle opponents who attempt to steal the puck and thereby check the play. Years of constant practise are necessary to crown the efforts of the expert stick-handler. Professional players in the big leagues “‘stick-handle” the 3 in. rubber puck in a manner that is uncanny,—pushing and tossing the small rubber pellet about the ice between a maze of sticks and skates with a speed and accuracy too bewildering for the human eye to follow. Methods of rushing, or “carrying,” a puck along the ice vary. Some push the disc ahead at stick's length when the play is open; others play the puck from side to side and close to their feet at all times. Some flip the rubber against the sideboards, depending on the rebound for recovery of the disc, while others attempt to poke the puck between the opponents’ feet and skate their man to regain possession of the disc while the opponents are off balance or too befuddled to hamper the play effectively. Stick-checking calls for quick thinking and clever action on the part of the checker. The poke, sweep and hook checks are effective means of stopping opposing forwards in their rush toward the goal. The body-check in hockey is the same exhibition of brute strength, superior weight and sheer roughness that is used in football and other sports. With skating and stick-handling perfected to a point where they are combined into one mechanical operation, the player can direct his whole attention to playing the game. A good hockey player never looks at his feet, stick or puck during the progress of the play. His eyes must be focused on his opponents at all times. Once he comes into possession of the puck he has three forwards, two defence-men and a goal-tender to beat before he can register a score by shooting the rubber disc into the 4 by 6 ft. goal-net guarded by the opposing team. Left. wing, centre and right wing, commonly known as “the forward line,” should practise passing the puck from one to the other across the ice, while skating at top speed, until their combination-play is perfected to a point which enables them to beat the opposing forwards, swoop in on the opposing defence, and leave the odd man in position for a shot at the net. Individual rushes by self-styled stars seldom result in tallies being marked on the scoreboard. Left and right wing players should at all times play their positions in their respective alleys and leave the centre alley or mid-ice section to the centre player. Members of the forward-line are supposed to score goals when the opportunity is presented and never at the cost of allowing the opposing forwards to break away for a two- or three-man combination

42

ICELAND

attack on the home team's net.

Defence-men, working within a 20-yd. radius of the goal-net, should never leave their goal-tender unguarded. The good defence player must hold, at all times, a position between his goal-tender and the opposing forwards who attempt to carry the puck close enough to the net for a shot that may mean a score. Defence players adopt various forms of checking the forward line attack. Some use a stick or body check or a combination of the two; others crowd the incoming forwards to the sideboards or sandWich their man between their bodies for what is known as a “hoist”—anything to spoil the forwards’ shots, keep them out of shooting range of the goal-net or force them to shoot from impossible angles. A goal-tender has 4 by 6 ft. of open net to protect and must study the shots from all angles and positions on the ice. He must cover as much of his net as possible with his body and shift his position between the posts continuously to hamper the vision of the opposing sharp-shooters. If an opposing left-winger or rightwinger gets through the defence for a shot the net-guardian crowds the corner of the goal nearest to the winger, who is delivering the shot from the left-wing or right-wing "alley." When a forward skates through the defence and looms up directly in front of the net for a shot, there is little the goal-tender can do but attempt to anticipate the direction of his opponent's shot, as good for-

wards always shoot for the top or lower corners of T

ICELAND,

.

Fr.

an island in the North Atlantic ocean (Dan.

Island). lts extreme northerly point is touched by the Arctic Circle; it lies between 13? 22' and 24° 35’ W., and between 63°

12’ and 66° 33’ N., and has an area of 40,437 sq. miles. Its length

is 298 m. and its breadth x94 m., the shape being a rough oval, broken at the north-west, where a peninsula, diversified by a great number of fjords, projects from the main portion of the island. The total length of the coast-line is about 3,730 m., of which approximately one-third belongs to the north-western peninsula. Iceland is a plateau or tableland, built up of volcanic rocks of older and younger formation, and pierced on all sides by fjords and valleys. Compared with the tableland, the lowlands have a relatively small area, namely, one-fourteenth of the whole; but these lowlands are almost the only parts of the island which are inhabited. In consequence of the rigour of its climate, the central tableland is absolutely uninhabitable. At the outside, not more than one-fourth of the area of Iceland is inhabited; the rest con-

sists of elevated deserts, lava streams and glaciers. The north-

Hofsjókull and the next snow-capped mountain, Langjökull, lies

Kjölur (2,000 ft.); and between Langjökull and Eiriksjókull, Flosaskard (2,630 ft.). To the north of the jöklar last mentioned there are a number of lakes, all well stocked with fish. Numerous valleys or glens penetrate into the tableland, especially on the north and east, and between them long mountain spurs,

sections of the tableland which have resisted the action of erosion,

thrust themselves towards the sea. Of these the most considerable is the mass crowned by Mýrdalsjökull, which stretches towards the south. The interior of the tableland consists for the most part of barren, grassless deserts, the surface being covered by gravel, loose fragments of rock, lava, driftsand, volcanic ashes and glacial detritus. Save the lower parts of the larger glens, there are no lowlands

on the north and east. The south coast is flat next the sea; but immediately underneath Vatnajökull there is a strip of gravel and sand, brought down and deposited by the glacial streams. The largest low-lying plain of Iceland, lying between Mýrdalsjökull and Reykjanes, has an area of about 1,550 sq. miles. In its lowest parts this plain barely keeps above sea-level, but it rises gradually towards the interior, terminating in a ramification of valleys. Its maximum altitude is attained at 381 ft. near Geysir. On the west of Mount Hekla this plain connects by a regular slope directly with the tableland, to the great injury of its inhabited districts, which are thus exposed to the clouds of pumice dust and driftsand that cover large areas of the interior. Nevertheless the greater part of this lowland plain produces good grass, and is relatively well inhabited. The plain is drained by three rivers—Markarfijot, Thjórsá and: Oelfusá—all of large volume, and numerous smaller streams. "Towards the west there exist a number of warm springs. There is another lowland plain around the head of Faxafidi, nearly 400 sq.m. in extent. As a rule the surface of this second plain is very marshy. Several dales or glens penetrat e the central tableland; the eastern part of this lowland is called . Borgarfjordr, the western part Myrar. The great bays on the west of the island (Faxaflói and Brei¥ifjordr), as well as the many bays on the north, which are separat ed from one another by rocky promontories, appear to owe their Origin to subsidences of the surface; whereas the fjords of the north-west peninsula, which make excellent harbours, and those of the east coast seem to be the result chiefly of erosion. Glaciers.—An area of 5,170 Sq.m. or a little more than 13% of the total area is covered with snowfields and glacier s. This extraordinary development of ice and snow is due to the raw, moist climate, the large rainfall and the low summer temperature. The snow-line varies greatly in different parts of the island, its range being from 1,300 to 4,250 feet. It is highest on the tableland, on the north side of Vatnajökull, and lowest on the northwest peninsula, to the south of North Cape. Without except ion the great névés of Iceland belong to the interior tablela nd. They consist of slightly rounded domes or billowy snowfie lds of vast thickness. In external appearance they bear a closer resemblance to the glaciers of the Polar regions than to those of The largest snowfields are Vatnajokull (3,280 sq.m.), the Alps. Hofsjokull (520), Langjókull (500) and Mýrdalsjökull (390). The glaciers which stream off from these snowfields are often of vast extent, €.g., the largest glacier of Vatnajókull has an area of 1 50 to 200 sq.m., but the greater number are small. Altogether, more than 120 glaciers are known in Iceland. It is on the south side of Vatnajökull that they descend lowest; the lower end merkurjökull was in the year 1894 only 30 ft. above of Breidasea-level. The glaciers of the north-west peninsula also descend nearly to sea-level. The great number of streams of large to the moist climate and the abundance of glaciers, volume is due and the milky white or yellowish-brown colour of their waters (whence the common name Hvítá, white) is due to the glacial clays. The majority of them change their courses very often, and vary greatly in volume; frequently they are impetuous torrents, forming numerous waterfalls.

west peninsula is separated from the main mass of the island the bays Hunafldi and Breidifjordr, so that there are really by two tablelands, a larger and a smaller. The isthmus which connects the two is only 44 m. across, but has an altitude of 748 feet. The mean elevation of the north-west peninsula is 2,000 feet. The fjords and glens which cut into it are shut in by precipitous walls of basalt, which plainly shows that they have been formed by erosion through the mass of the plateau. The surface of this tableland is bare and desolate, being covered with fragments of rock. Here and there are large straggling gravel and snowfields, the largest being Glámu and Drangajókull, on the culminating points of the plateau. The only inhabited districts are of the fjords, where grass grows capable of supporting the shores sheep; but most of the population gain their livelihood by fishing. The other and larger tableland, which constitutes the substantial part of Iceland, reaches its culminating point in the south-east, in the gigantic snowfield of Vatnajókull, which miles. The axis of highest elevation of Iceland covers 3,300 Sq. stretc north-west to south-east, from the head of Hvamm hes from sfjórür to Hornafjórór, and from this water-parting the both sides. The crest of the water-partin rivers descend on g is crowned by a chain of snow-capped mountains, separa ted by broad patches of lower ground. They are really a chain of minor plateaux, which TIS€ 4,500 to 6,250 ft. above sea-level and 2,000 to 3,000 ft. above the tableland itself. In the extreme east is Vatnajókull, which is separated from Tungnafellsjókull by Vonar skard (3,300 ft.). BeIceland also possesses a great number of lakes, tween Tungnafellsjékull and Hofsjökull the largest being lies the broad depression Thingvallavatn and Thorisvatn, each about 27 sq.m. in area. of Sprengisandr (2,130 ft.). Continuing north-west, between Mývatn, in the north, is well known from the natura

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A. K.

COOMARASWAMY,

(2, 4, 6)

THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL

CARVINGS 1. Yaksa; sandstone.

SURVEY

AND

br ar

w

aad

oy?

——— OF

INDIA;

PHOTOGRAPHS,

aa

(1, 10, 11)

ARCHITEOTURAL

JOHNSTON

AND

HOFFMANN

DETAIL

Maurya-Sunga, 3rd—2nd century B.C., from Parkham,

7. Part of the Vessantara Jataka; architrave detail north torana, Safci,

Besnager. Height 8’ 8". In the Mathura Museum 2. Yaksa; sandstone, Sunga, 2nd century B.C. from Patna. Height c. 5’. Patna Museum 3. Kubera Yaksa; railing pillar, Sunga, Bharhut, c. 175 B.C. Calcutta

c. 50 B.C. 8. The Great Renunciation; architrave detail, east torana, Safici, c. 100 B.C. T 9. Yaksi bracket (Sàalabhafijlka) east torana, Sátici, c. 100 B.C.

Museum 4. Siva lihgam, Gudimallam, polished sandstone, Ist century B. C. Height 5” 5. Yaksa; from base of a torana pillar Safici, Sunga, c. 100 B.C. 6. Indra as the Brahman Santi; and above, the abhiseka of Sri (Laksmf), railing pillar, Bodhgayaà, c. 100 B.C.

10. Frieze

(subject unknown)

in the upper

gallery of Ràni Gumphà

Khandagiri, Orissá c. 100 B.C. (see Indian Architecture, Pl. Il. fig. 4) 11. Effigies of donors (Andhra king and queen) verandah of caitya hall at Karli, late Ist century B.C.

INDIAN

AND

SINHALESE

ART

Palaeolithic date. Those from the Mirzapur District in the Vindhya hills, include a representation of a rhinoceros hunt. This

AND

ARCHAEOLOGY

a symbol of various deities, particularly the Buddha)

2II with a

horned dragon projecting from the trunk (cf. Ward, Seal Cylinhave survived as late as the sixders of Western Asia, fig. 710); another a row of men bearing may but animal is now extinct, totem standards like those of predynastic Egypt. One earlier seal The hunters are shown with barbed spears, sugry. centu h teent from Harappa represents a tiger hunt. weapons. copper Indian ancient the of gesting certain Amongst personal ornaments are finely wrought gold, silver, Cave paintings from the Hoshangabad District are said to incopper gilt jewellery, chank and carnelian beads, faience and range Kaimir the from Those giraffe. a of clude representations bangles. Other metals known in(fig. 2) show stag hunts. Those cluded tin and lead, but not iron; from Singanpur include an anisome utensils and ornaments are mal rather like a kangaroo; and made of bronze. India bas no also some representations of a bronze age properly so-called horse and of deer which present but the alloy is found already at an extraordinary resemblance this early date and has remained even in details to the Palaeolithic in use to a limited extent ever paintings of Cogul in Spain. since, though most of the soThe literature of the subject called Indian bronzes are really is cited by Herbert Kiihn (see S50ROYAL ASIATIC FROM “JOURNAL OF THE of cast copper. A copper model Bibliography), who discusses the CIETY” of a hooded two-wheeled cart obFIG. 2.—CAVE DRAWING, KAIMUR Singanpur examples and their reRANGE tained from the lower strata at semblance to Spanish drawings. Harappa is evidence of the very Those from Hoshangabad are referred to in the Annual Report early use of wheeled vehicles. of the Archaeological Survey of India, 1917-18, Pt. 1, p. 25. Few weapons have been found. may culture Neolithic thé India Southern India.—In Southern The pottery is wheel-made, have lasted until the middle of the first millennium s.c. The and includes painted types; the north the from isolated effectively fairly been AFTER “ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA” A : south until then had 4.—PREHISTORIC PAINTED shapes are varied, but types : with by the natural barrier of the Vindhyas and the jungles of central FIG. TERRACOTTAS AND handles are rare. The painted India. We find no copper age, but iron directly replaces stone— POTTERY, a presumably as the result of intercourse with the then mixed SCRIPT OF THE INDUS VALLEY designs are usually in black on CULTURE dark red slip and consist of culture of the north, perhaps about 500 B.c. The southern prefighistoric antiquities include very numerous slab-built dolmens, and advanced geometrical patterns, foliar motifs, and occasional abundant pottery; amongst the last are oblong, short-legged sar- ures of animals. The dark red and black ware has been found cophagi very similar to those found near Baghdad. The use of abundantly at Nal in Baluchistan, associated with copper implestyle coracles is another feature characteristic equally of Southern ments, also on the Waziristan frontier and in Sistan. The India and the Euphrates valley. No remains of such a highly bears some relation to that of Anau and of Susa II. When the Indus culture was flourishing the valley was better developed culture as that of the Indus valley have been found; but it is beyond doubt that the South was already highly civilised watered and more wooded than now. The same culture, perhaps in more provincial forms, may have extended to other parts centuries before the beginning of the Christian era. Harat of northern India, over an area reaching from Baluchistan to avations Culture.—Exc Chalcolithic: Indus Valley as inappa in the Pafijab and Mohenjo-Daro in Sind have revealed the Kathiawar and through Ràjputana to the Ganges valley, culture, chalcolithic a to belonging sites existence of ancient city ie., one in which both stone and copper implements were in use. Of three superimposed cities at Mohenjo-Daro the youngest may be dated about 2700 B.C., the earliest about 3300 B.c. The Harappa

site has. remains of the same period, and below these are still older strata.

The buildings are of -well-bur nt brick. Sculptures in alabaster and marble include a painted figure of a man, and a much finer bearded head wearing what looks like a wrought metal skull cap decorated in imitation of hair (fig. 3); in terracotta, figurines of a nude goddess with an elaborate AAN headdress, girdle, and the body ornament (channavira) characteristic of later Indian art; in terracotta and in faience, admirable “A \ figures of animals, including the bull, rhinoceros, dog and cock. AFTER “ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA” All these are sculptures in the FIG, 3.—PREHISTORIC SCULPTURE, round. But the most abundant

y

INDUS VALLEY CULTURE

. and

not

the

least

remarkable

works of ,art are the square seals of faience or ivory, which bear In relief figures of animals, usually a bull, elephant or rhinoceros, with a cult object, apparently a wicker crib or manger, and

Pictographic ‘signs, partly related. to early: Sumerian forms and even more similar to pre-Sumerian forms found at Kish, but so far undecipherable; Some scholats: believe ‘that. the later -Indian Brahmi, (Sanskrit) script has been. developed from this early

Pictographic type. One seal bears a seated. cross-legged figure at-

tended by snake-hooded Nagas, as in much later, Buddhist, art;

another a, sacred tree (the fippala, Ficus religiosa, later known as

AFTER "ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA" FIG. 5.—SIXTEEN PREHISTQRIC SEALS

OF THE

INDUS VALLEY

CULTURE

dicated by the Gungeria hoard and other finds of copper and

neolithic implements. The Indus valley civilisation and culture show close resemblances on the one hand with those of early Sumer and Babylonia (especially with the proto- or pre-Sumerian of Kish), and on the other with that of historic India. Apart from these archaeological evidences, there has gradually accumulated a mass of evidence tending to show that the early Indian and Mesopotamian cultures represent cognate developments. This applies especially to considerations derived from a study of the history of design (particularly in connection with the animal style and architecture), and to the analogies between Babylonian mythology and cult and

212

INDIAN

SINHALESE

AND

those of the Dravidian (Agamic) tradition in India, such as the use of the same formulae in representing mountains, clouds and water; the motif of animals with long necks interlaced, and of heraldic and fabulous animals generally; the representation on Babylonian seals of dragons with serpentine bodies and human busts, like Indian Nagas; the cult of the waters connected with the symbol of the flowing vase in Babylonia and the brimming

ART

AND

ARCHAEOLOGY

gold and silver, iron needles, bedsteads, thrones, turbans, jewel lery, earthenware, round and square huts, and storied buildings and wheeled vehicles.

Some or all of these arts may have bee

known to them before they entered India; but probably the use of bricks, and certainly everything connected with maritime qr

purely Indian products (chank, ivory, cotton, pearls, indigenous dye-stuffs, etc.) they must have found in India for the first time, The Sulva Sütras show a knowledge of principles now known a; those of dynamic symmetry. Vedic culture shows little or no eyi. dence of Babylonian or Semitic connections. LATER PRE-MAURYA

Few sites likely to yield remains of this period have been ade.

quately excavated. The later strata of Mohenjo-Daro probably

AFTER “ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA” FIG. 6.—TYPES OF PREHISTORIC CHISTAN

PAINTED

POTTERY

FROM

NAL,

BALU-

vessel or vase of plenty (purga kalaía) of India, the former significantly spoken of by Heuzy as the "merveilleux symbole qui était comme le Sainte-Graal de l'épopée chaldéenne," and both of importance in connection with the origins of the Grail cult. 'To these may be added similarities of technical procedure, as in the process of decorating carnelian by calcining and in tbe similar composition of Indian and Assyrian glass. Neither the archaeological nor the mythological evidence suggests that either the Mesopotamian or early Indian cultures have been derived from the other, or has borrowed extensively from the other at any one period, but rather that both have developed in situ, though not without intercourse and contact, on the common basis of the early chalcolithic culture which in the fifth and fourth millennia B.C. extended over an area extending from the Adriatic to Japan, and can be associated with the dolichocephalic “Mediterranean” races of southern Asia and Europe and attained its fullest development in the great river valleys of the Nile, Euphrates and Tigris, Karun, Helmund, Indus and perhaps the Ganges. According to one not unreasonable conjecture, the original focus of this culture may have been in Armenia, a country rich in metals and possibly the starting point of early race movements across the highlands of Persia in one direction towards Elam and southern Mesopotamia, in the other towards central Asia and India. Many years of work in this comparatively novel field of research will be required before more definite conclusions can be advanced.

Vedic and Pre-Maurya.—lIt will be assumed that the Ar-

yans entered India from the North-West, about 1500 B.c., and occupying the Pafijab, had gradually passed on to the Ganges valley. They probably brought [| with them a knowledge of iron, and a superior breed of horse, and it may have been these advantages that enabled them to subjugate the existing peoples who already possessed cities and forts, and a more developed ma- AFTER “ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA” terial civilisation. After the first Fic. 7.—PREHISTORIC COPPER

period of conflict, the Aryans (as IMAGE

(?) AND WEAPONS FROM with the later invaders, Scyth- CUNGERIA

come down to 400 B.c. The greatest number of pre-Mauryan antiquities has been obtained at the Bhir mound, Taxila; most notable are the finely wrought polished sandstone discs, with Æ bands of concentric ornament, in which are found cable, cross & i and bead, and palmette motifs, & | the taurine symbol, elephants, fan palms, and the nude goddess. It is also certain that the cutting and polishing of hard stones, and the technique of glassmaking had attained already in the "ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA," fourth and fifth centuries B.C. a AFTER BY PERMISSION OF THE HIGH COMMISSIONER perfection never afterwards sur- OF INDIA passed; and when in the Maurya FIG. 8.—PRE-MAURYA STONE DISC period we first meet with stone FROM BHIR MOUND, TAXILA sculptures, we find the surface of the hard stone highly. polished. One other important type of early art is represented by the punchmarked coin symbols; these coins were in use from about 600 B.. to A.D. 100. The marks include some hundreds of types; amongst the commonest are the mountain (usually with three or more peaks—the so-called caitya of older numismatists), river or tank with fish, sacred tree, elephant, horse, bull, sun, moon, “caduceus,” “taurine”; the lion, rhinoceros, makara, and human figure are rarer. No lingam, thunderbolt, foot-marks or stiipa is represented. These signs (r4pa), forming an extensive symbolic repertory, appear to have been those of issuing and ratifying authorities. Many of the symbols are those of particular deities; for example, the three-peaked mountain with moon crescent is otherwise known to have been a symbol of Siva, and so also the bull. Few or none of the marks are exclusively Buddhist. Some are connected with particular cities, and in their day identified the issuing mints. As regards design the same forms which are found in the re-

liefs of the Maurya, Sunga, and Andhra periods were already current during many centuries before the fourth s.c. Thes forms include meanders, palmettes, vases with flowers, sacred trees, diapers, spirals, frets, twists and the like, animals addorsed

or affronted, and fantastic animals of all kinds. Many or all of these characteristic forms are clearly related to, but not identical with, Mesopotamian types, Assyrian or older. They constitute a common ground of early Asiatic, and in India are cognates of the Mesopotamian forms, not late borrowings. The fact that we find them extant only in the stone sculpture when it first appears in the Maurya period is of course no proof of their late origin; some of the most ancient survive most characteristically in quite

modern folk-art, and may well have been current during three ot four millennia. Thus, the motif of animals with interlacing necks, known in Ceylon as füiíuva, where it is one of the com-

ians, Huns and Mughals) ceased to be foreigners, and became Indians: long before 500 s5.c., northern India had become the monest motifs of the folk art, was already current. in Sumerian seat of a mixed culture in which, and especially in the art, both art of the fourth millennium B.c., and very many other instances as regards its motifs, and its technical achievement, the non- of the same kind could. be cited. . As regards sculpture, late Vedic literature, in which a large nonAryan element predominated. The conquerors had been conAryan element has been absorbed, affords evidence for the mak quered by the conquered. Vedic literature, mainly in the relatively later texts, reveals ing of images of popular deities in impermanent materials; and a knowledge of tin, lead, silver, gold and iron, of cotton, silk, it is certain that the earliest known stone figures (after the Indus linen, and woollen garments, sometimes embroidered, vessels of valley types), viz., the Yaksas of the Maurya and Sunga periods,

INDIAN AND SINHALESE ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY Pum m

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INDIAN AND SINHALESE ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY

BY COURTESY OF (1, 10, SURVEY OF INDIA

11) A. K. COOMARASWAMY,

(7) THE FIELD

GRAECO-BUDDHIST

AND

MUSEUM

OF

OTHER

NATURAL

ART

1. The Bimaran reliquary; Afghanistan, perhaps early 1st century A.D. Gold 234 in. 2. The Kaniska reliquary made by Agigala (Agesilaos).

734 in., c. A.D. 120—130.

Museum.

Gandhara.

3. Buddha

preaching, Yakubai.

Peshawar

4. Paficika (Kubera) and Haritr; from Sahribahlol. 5. Buddha. 6. Bodhisattva.

From Sahribahlol.

7. Yaksi.

Gandhàra.

8.

HISTORY,

CHICAGO;

OF THE

2ND

PHOTOGRAPHS,

AND

(2,

3RD

3, 4, 5, 6,

12,

13)

THE

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

CENTURIES

Visit of Buddha to a Brahmanical hermit. Gandhara. 9. Buddha’s bath in the Nairafijana, by Gandhara. 10. Buddha, Ruwanweli Dagaba,

Anurüdhapura, Ceylon; marble, c. A.D. 200.

or a Bodhisattva; as (10).

A.D. 200

11. King Duttha-Gàmani,

12, 13. Buddhas. Amaravati; marble, c.

INDIAN

AND

SINHALESE

despite their retention of primitive qualities (frontality, etc.), are

not first efforts in any sense; they represent an already advanced stage in stylistic and technical development. We have also the

evidence of pre-Maurya terracottas representing the nude god-

dess and some other types. The latter are of very great importance for the history of art, for though they belong toastylistic cycle older than that of the stone sculpture, and are still too little known, they provide connecting links between the oldest

Indo-Sumerian art and that of the historical period, in style, technique, and costume. In their sense of the inseparable connection of beauty and fruitfulness, and in details of ornament

(the body ornament later known as the channavira, and the broad auspicious girdle, mekhala) as well as in some facial types, they connect with the earliest sculptures in stone.

MAURYA, SUNGA AND EARLY ANDHRA PERIODS Maurya: Asoka.—With the Maurya period, and especially the reign of Asoka, we meet for the first time with sculptural and architectural monuments in stone. These fall more or less

definitely into two groups, (1) the court art of Asoka, and (2) the popular and perhaps more purely native art. The chief monu-

ments of the court art are the remains of the great palace at Patali-

putra (Patna), and the monolithic pillars on which Asoka's well-

known edicts are inscribed. The edict pillars, six in number, distributed over an area including Meerut, Allahabad, Benares, and

the Nepal terai, have round polished monolithic shafts and are provided with elaborate capitals consisting of a lotus “bell,” an abacus decorated with geese, palmettos or Buddhist symbols, and a crowning sculpture in the round consisting of one or more animals; they average from forty to fifty feet in height. The finest has been excavated at Sarnath, the old ‘““Deer park” at Benares, where first “Turning of the Wheel of the Law” (the Buddha’s first sermon) took place. Here there are four addorsed lions support-

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FIG. 9.—-SYMBOLS FROM PUNCH-MARKED COINS 500 B.C. TO A.D. 100

1, 2. Mountain; 5. Railed trees 6. “Taurine”; 8. Combined chakra and trisula; 9. Ujjain symbol; 10. Srivatsa; 16, 17, 20. Solar; 21, 22. Rivers; 24. Steelyard; 25. Tank

ing a Wheel (the Dharmacakra, Wheel of the Law and of Dominion); the abacus is decorated with four smaller wheels, and a bull,.lion, elephant and horse. Other pillars bear a single lion,

a bull or an elephant. The naturalistic treatment of these animals, the technical accomplishment of the work and the fact that this is evidently a stylistically late art all distinguish these sculptures from the contemporary religious sculptures to be referred to below, and it has been argued that the court art of ASoka

owes much to western sources, and even that it was produced by mported craftsmen: it is certain that close and friendly relations

ART

AND

ARCHAEOLOGY

were maintained between the Maurya and Seleucid houses.

213 The

problem, however, is far from simple. AU that is beyond doubt novel at this period is the use of stone to a limited extent for ar-

chitectural purposes, and probably the use of stone for large sculpture. Nor can the Maurya period, with its invaluable but very imperfect record be considered alone; early Indian art as a whole and the folk art up to the present day bear an intimate relation to Western Asiatic art. This relation is more obviously Babylonian-Assyrian than Persepolitan. Indian bell capitals, for example, are very different from those of Persia. Indian shafts are smooth or octagonal, and monolithic; Persian fluted and segmented. The use of animal standards as symbols of deities is at once Indian, Chaldaean and Assyrian, but not Achaemenid or Seleucid. The so-called Persepolitan capital with addorsed bulls (often horses, elephants or lions) again is so widely distributed and so much an integral part of the whole architectural style in the 2nd century, that it could hardly have been introduced only a century earlier. So too with the civil architecture represented on the reliefs, showing walled cities with towers, and battlements like those of Assyria, with the mythical monsters, and with the elements of the decoration; in all the relationship to Western Asia is conspicuous, but the individual character is equally unmistakable. Nor is it possible to suppose that no art of any kind existed in India before ASoka; or that there existed some different sort of art just before Asoka, of which no trace can be found in the

abundant reliefs just after him. Thus Maurya and Sunga art directly continue the traditions of pre-Maurya art; Indian and early Persian art are both late phases of a tradition common to

all Western Asia.

i

The early Indian stone sculpture in the round of Maurya and Sunga date is represented by a number of colossal figures in royal costume, apparently statues of independent or attendant Yaksas and Yaksis, two of these having been found at Parkham, near Baroda (Plate II) and at Besnagar, one at Deoriya near Allahabad, one in Mathura, and three at Patna; all are in sandstone, and some are polished. The figures are distinguished by great mass and volume. There is no conscious effort for grace, but a statement of an ideal concept in a technique that is still primitive; for the form is frontally conceived, and the transitions from one plane to another are somewhat abrupt. The style achieves its perfection some centuries later in a Buddha figure set up at Sarnath. To the same school of art belong the reliefs of the early vihara (monastery) at Bhàjà,—this is apparent in their volume, and in details of the costume, particularly the enormous turbans, and the pearl-fringed bracelets, which last are found also on some early Sunga terracottas. One of the most remarkable of these reliefs seems to represent Indra, seated on his cloud-elephant Airavata. Sacred trees (caitya-urksas) guarded by railings and adorned with garlands and umbrellas, are to be seen, and on one side a horseheaded Yaksi and a man, perhaps with reference to the Padakusalamdnava Jataka. On the opposite side of the doorway, which divides what are evidently two parts of a single grandiose conception of earth and sky, is represented the Sun in a four-horsed chariot. From this time onwards the history of Indian sculpture is richly documented. The great stiipa of Bharhut (175—150 B.c.), of which the extant remains are now all in Calcutta, had an elaborately decorated railing (vedik@) and gateways (torana). The rail coping bears a continuous floral meander, the flowers and leaves being partly vegetative, partly consisting of jewellery; in the interspaces of the meander are represented many of the Buddhist Jatakas, and other edifying legends. The railing medallions are developed as expanded lotus flowers, or occupied by Jataka subjects or scenes from the life of Buddha. On the upright pillars of the gateways and some of the railing pillars are found representations of various devatüs, Yaksas and Yaksis, many of which are provided with inscriptions recording their names, as for example, Kubera; thus Buddhism made use of the popular divinities, as guardians and worshippers. The reliefs are all more or less compressed between the surface plane and that of the background, lacking equally the plastic volume of the Bhaja types and the

214.

INDIAN

AND

SINHALESE

ART

AND

ARCHAEOLOGY

technically more advanced relief of Safici; but the costumes, and symbolism. At the base of the upright pillars are very beauit. though modified, are closely related to those of Bhaja. The various ful figures of guardian Yaksas; and the architrave brackets are decorative motifs, floral and geometrical, are indicative of a highly Yaksis represented as dryads clinging to their trees and leani evolved art. Of the same date are some of the railing pillars of outwards. Several of the smaller panels illustrate the Lustratigg Stupa II. at Safici, and the remains of early sculptured walls of Sri, an old and popular goddess of fortune, standing or seats on a lotus, which rises from a jar of plenty (punna-ghata), ang (pakara) at Jagayyapeta and Amaravati. Nearly contemporary with the Bharhut stupa, are the exca- laved by two cloud-elephants holding in their trunks inverted jay vated monasteries of Udayagiri and Khandagiri in Orissa. The from which proceed streams of water; other panels in corr. best sculptures are reliefs forming a frieze in the upper storey of sponding positions represent the jar of plenty with its lotuses, ba the Rani Gumphi; the subject, which includes the hunting of a without a figure, are probably symbols of the same divinity. On winged deer as a part, has not been identified. The monas- the tops of the uppermost architraves are Buddhist symbok teries here are, so far as can be determined, all Jaina; but many guarded by cauri-bearing Yaksas. Just as at Bharhut, and in early Indian art generally, in the of the motifs familiar to Buddhist art, e.g., the Lustration of Sri-haksmi, and the Sun drawn in a four-horsed chariot, are scenes from the Buddha’s life, though they tell their story with found. Above the arches of the cell doors are found three- perfect clarity, the Buddha himself is never represented in human headed serpents (Nagas), and below the frieze a series of small form, but only by symbols, footprints (pdduka), and umbrelly Garuda brackets, both features that are later on extensively (chatra), or wheel (cakra), or tree. These symbols indicate the presence of the Buddha wherever required in the representation, developed in Khmer art. Prior to the Sunga period the major Indian deities seem to have and some refer to specific episodes in the life, including most of been represented mainly or exclusively by symbols. As Asoka those which are afterwards grouped together in panels illustrating speaks of engraving edicts on already existing columns it is pos- the Four (or Eight) Great Events. Thus, the Wheel designates sible that the Mauryan bull and elephant capitals were originally the First Preaching of the Law; the sacred tree (Bodhi-druma) erected in honour of Siva and Indra. Garuda and makara stand- with its altar or railing, the Great Enlightenment. Where the tree ards of Sunga date at Besnagar refer to Visnu and Kamadeva, the is represented with guardian Yaksas on either hand, we recogniz fan palm capitals perhaps to Baladeva. Siva is represented on the prototype of the later Buddha triads, where the Buddha is early coins by a bull, or a mountain of three peaks surmounted by seated between a pair of attendant Bodhisattvas; for there is no a crescent; later, in the Kusána period he appears in person to- doubt that the principal Bodhisattvas, especially Padmapani gether with the bull and other symbols; Indra and Agni appear (Avalokite$vara) and Vajrapani were originally guardian Yaksas, Further, the art of Safici, though Buddhist in theme, is scarcely on the coins of the Paficalas in'the 2nd century B.c.; the ab/sekha of Sri on those of Azilises in the first (as well as on the Buddhistic in content; the legends illustrated are always edifying,

earlier Bharhut reliefs and on terracottas), other forms of Sri on coins of Amoghabhiiti. Indra and Brahma are freely represented in Buddhist art at Bharhut and Safici wherever the narrative

requires: the former with his vajra (thunderbolt), and a vessel containing the “Water of Life,” usually, too, with a cylindrical metal headdress (g.v.), the first appearance of any kind of crown in Indian art (the original royal headdress is a turban). Patafijali, commenting on Panini, c. 200 B.C., refers to the public exhibition of images or Siva, Skanda and Vi$ákha; and there is evidence enough in the later Brabmanas, Law Books, Epics, and Buddhist and Jaina literature to show that the use of. images and temples (gq.v.) had come into general prominence from about 400 &.C. onwards,

but the manner of treating them and the feeling for the human

form are far from ascetic or introspective. And this becomes especially evident.in connection with the accessory figures, such as the dryads, filled as they are with the abundance and joy of life. A very important school flourished at Mathura from the second century B.C. to the sixth A.D. The early fragments are in a manner closely related to that of Bharhut. More important are those which cover the period of transition from the old aniconic to the later anthropomorphic representation of the Buddha figure: these are of Kusàna, and perhaps somewhat earlier (Indo-Parthian or Ksatrapa) date and will be discussed below.

KUSANA

Probably the oldest surviving anthropomorphic

representation of a deity, forming a cult image, is that of Siva on the ParasurameSsvara limgam, from Gudimallam in Eastern India a little above Madras; here the deity stands on a dwarf Yaksa vehicle, and in this respect and stylistically, though more developed, recalls the Kubera of Bharhut., This early figure of Siva is a great and powerful work, fortunately preserved from a period when a majority of Hindu images were still made of wood or clay. There is an interesting, though later, reference to such images in the Divydvadina, where Upagupta, worshipping an appearance of the Buddha created by Mara explains that he is bowing, not to the object before him, but to the Master himself, “just as people venerating images of Gods do not revere the clay, but the immortal ones represented: by them.” | 'The most perfectly preserved Buddhist monument in India is the great stupa at Saficl in Bhopal State. Enclosed and hidden within it is an earlier brick stiipa dating, from the time of Asoka, but the stüpa itself as enlarged and cased with masonry dates from the second century B.c., the plain railing from the same time, and the gateways from the first half of the first century s.c. Two

other stüpas with their railings in whole or part are to be dated

Assuming the date of A.D. 120 for the accession of Kaniska, we can safely say that the first century and a half of the Chris

tian era represents the most critical period in the history of art in India, the second to the fourth century that of highest achievement. For the earlier period, and only to a somewhat lesser extent the later, the prolific school of Mathura is of primary importance, for here were evolved types that can be traced in all the later development. While confining ourselves in the main.to a study of the Buddhist art at this time, we must recollect that at all times “Buddhist India” was equally and at the same time a Hindu

India; the so-called Hindu renaissance of the Gupta period does not represent a reaction, but rather the flowering and culmination of a previous development.

So far as cult and’ literature are con-

cerned, this is self-evident; as regards the art, while Buddhist monuments are at first much more abundant and magnificent, this

probably means, that Hindu cults adhered longer ‘to the use of

impermanent materials such as wood and clay for buildings and

images; as in southern India up to the beginning of the seventh

century. Thus all the coins of Kadphises II. (t. A:D. go—110) béir

thé:effigy of Siva, and amongst the many deities represented 01

in the second century s.c.

Moe 3x the coins of Kaniska and‘Huviska the figure of the Buddha's The reliefs of the great gateways (toranas) of the main stiipa, exceptional, while'that of Siva is abundant. Thete is certainly n0 occurring on the upright pillars and on the horizontal. architraves sound basis for. the: view that: Hindu architecture and’ art art illustrate Buddhist legends, including Jatakas and scenes from the modelled ‘on. those of the Buddhists; the style. and technical Buddha's ultimate incarnation. They are executed with a delicaey achievement of Indian art can riever at any stage be describedsm and wealth of detail suggestive of ivory carvings, and indeed. a sectarian terms, but only im terms of, chronology and: geography: votive inscription. records that some were carried out “by the Indian, Buddha Type.—Within. ‘the’ first’ century ‘and’@ Ivory workers of Bhils&" Apart from their original intention they half. of the Christian era the. Buddha figure for the first time

alford a veritable, encyclopedia of manners, weapors;;decoration

replaces: the old symbols, which nevertheless remain in üseboth

INDIAN AND SINHALESE ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY

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MARBLE SCULPTURES

OF THE LATE ANDHRA PERIOD (ABOUT A.D. 200) FROM AMARAVATI AND DISTRICT

l. The assault and defeat of Mara, and temptation

Mara.

From Ghantasala.

by the daughters of

relics railing medallion. At Amaravati. Madras Museum. 3. The nativity of Buddha. From right to left: above, the Dream of Maya and its Interpretation: halaw

tation before the Yaksa Sakyavardhana.

From Amarávati.

Musée Guimet, Paris. 2. Elevation of the Bowl- —— 4. Circle: visit of the gods to the Bodhisattva.

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EXAMPLES 1. Varaha Avatar, Udayagiri, Gwalior.

A.D. 400.

2. Nagaraja

10)

THE

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

OF GUPTA

Sandstone, colossal.

Gupta. c.

and queen, of Cave XIX., at Ajantá.

Late

Gupta, 6th century. 3. Scene from the Ramayana, from the Gupta temple at Deogarh, 5th century. 4. Detail of a pair of flying figures (Gandharva and Apsaras). Sandstone. Gupta, 5th century. 5. Yaksa,

Ataria

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Sandstone.

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ART

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(A.D. 320—c 600)

6. Parasurama, Gwalior. Sandstone. Gupta, c. A.D. 400. 7. Brahma from near Mirpur Khas, Punjab. Bronze. Gupta, 6th century. 8.

Buddha.

Sandstone.

Mathura.

Height,

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2’’.

9. Verandah

Rameévara Saiva temple, Elüra. 7th century. 10. Siva-lihgam ha-lingam), Bhurmara. Sandstone. Gupta, 5th century

of

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INDIAN

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SINHALESE

ART

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ARCHAEOLOGY

215

in Gandhara and at Amaravati considerably later. Images of other

in the canonical image, and this was done by making the usnisa a cranial protuberance, and this took place (in the second century A.D.) at the same time that many curls were substituted for one.

Palaeographic evidence

B.c.), has the hair represented in schematic curls, with the appearance of a cranial protuberance, and many representations of Yaksas as having curly hair; the existence of such prototypes may have contributed to the formation of the Buddha image as ultimately accepted.

deities had long existed, and the influence of current devotional tendencies acting on Buddhism and Jainism must have led to a similar development. The fixing of a date for the earliest images of Buddhas or Jinas is more

difficult.

would seem to place those of Jinas from the Kankali Tila,

Mathura, as early as the middle of the first century. The only certain date for an early image of Buddha is that of the colossal

image set up by Friar Bala at Sarnath in the third ‘year of Kaniska’s reign, thus A.D. 123. This Buddha type is distinguished

by certain peculiarities not found after the Kusana period (with one exception of fifth century date), and rarely met with even

after the middle of the second century. The seated figure is always on a lion throne, never on a lotus. Many other images, both

standing and seated, in the same vigorous style derived from that of the early Yaksa types, have been found at Mathura, or are of Mathura manufacture, exported and set up at sacred sites widely distributed in the Pafijab and Ganges valley. The earliest Buddha (and Jina) type shows the ends of the shorn hair forming a single conical spiral on the top of the head, bearing no resemblance to the wswisa in the sense of a

cranial protuberance such as characterises the Buddha figure at Amarávati, in the Gupta period, and subsequently, both within and beyond the boundaries of India proper. When this cranial protuberance appears, it together with the rest of the head, is covered with innumerable short and tight curls, curling to the

right. According to the Buddha legend, the Bodhisattva when first adopting the homeless life of an ascetic, cut off with one

stroke of his sword both his long hair and the turban which covered it, when they were received by the gods and worshipped by them as the Great Crest relic (c#dé maha), the remaining hair, two inches in length, curled tightly to the right, and so remained “throughout the Buddhas life, never again needing to be shorn. This could have been understood to mean either a single curl or many curls; this ambiguity seems to be reflected in the two varieties of the Buddha type above referred to, the interpretation in the sense of many curls very soon supplanting the other. The question of the cranial protuberance is more involved, As in the case of other images of deities (the Buddha even in his own lifetime is more than man, he is recognized as “God of gods” when, at the Presentation, the Tutelary Yaksa of the Sakyas bows before him, and as the object of a cult he must be called a deity) the Buddha image represents a dogmatic conception; the essential element in this conception is that of the idea of the Mahapurusa (Great Male, also a designation of Visnu) and Cakravartin (Universal Emperor, or alternatively, World-teacher).

The figure of Indra as Santi, of the Bodhgayā railing (c. 100

Next in abundance to the Buddhist remains are those of the Jainas. The site of the Vodva stüpa, founded in the second century B.c., has yielded figures of Jinas, similar to those of the Buddha, except that in the case of Par$vanátha the Jina's head is sheltered by the hoods of a Naga rising above it. Highly characteristic for Jaina art are the dydgapatas or votive slabs bearing reliefs representing stüpas, or elaborate designs, with a central seated Jina, quadruple trzfula symbol, and the Eight Auspicious Symbols. Figures of Hindu deities are found chiefly on the coins of Gondophares, Kadphises I. and II., Kaniska, Huviska, Vasudeva. The variety of types of Siva is especially noticeable. Many-armed and many-headed types appear for the first time in the second

century; Siva is then four-armed, and sometimes three-headed (Maheéga), the latter type being evidently very popular, as it spread quite early to Gandhara and Central Asia, where it occurs in sculpture and painting. Many of the Yaudheya coins bear a six-headed Skanda. On coins of Kaniska a very great variety of deities appears, Greek, Zoroastrian, and Indian. The fgure of the running Wind god is original and remarkable; it corresponds to that of his son Hanuman, the monkey god, the servant and worshipper of Rama, in later sculpture and painting. The Buddha appears first on a coin from Ujjain, then in three types on coins of Kaniska. Jaina and Brahmanical Types.—Many detached railing pillars, pediments, door jambs, architraves, lintels, and brackets excavated at Mathura and dateable for the most part in the first or second century A.D. are proved by the subject matter of their reliefs to be derived from Buddhist or Jaina stüpas, temples, or monasteries. The Brahmanical temple site at Mat has yielded the famous inscribed statue of Kaniska, and other royal effigies. We learn of a devakula (temple) of the Naga Dadhikarnna.

GANDHARA

Graeco-Buddhist Sculpture.—The prolific Graeco-Buddhist school of the North-West Frontier (Afghanistan and part of the Pafijab, including Peshawar and the site of Taxila) has always Buddhist texts take over from Brahmanical sources the lists of attracted the attention of archaeologists. Its subjects, as in Indian physical peculiarities which characterize such a being; for ex- Buddhist art, are drawn from the Buddha legend, and we meet ample, the soles of his feet and palms of his hands bear stigmata with countless images of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, and of other of the wheel, and there is a tuft of hair (aruda) between his eye- deities such as the Tutelary Pair, Kubera and Hariti. The influbrows, and all these peculiarities are commonly found in Buddha ence of the school is widely extended in Central Asia, affecting images. Most of the other marks are relatively inconspicuous China, Korea, and Japan to a less degree. Very few Gandhara images bear dates, and no one of these or not externally visible. One is of particular importance for the present enquiry; the infant Bodhisattva is said to be umhiso- dates is in a known era. According to some interpretations these siso, usnisa-headed. In interpreting this and other of the marks dates indicate a beginning of the art in the first century s.c. But (in all thirty-two major Jaksanas and eighty minor signs) it should at Taxila, where excavations have been, scientifically conducted, be borne in mind that they must originally have been conceived Graeco-Buddhist art is entirely absent from the Scytho-Parthian as characterising an adult. Now usyisa in early Indian literature and very early Kusana levels of the city of Sirkap, and only apis the regular word used for the turban, which headdress is a mark pears a little before the time of Kaniska. In any case the period of rank, worn by kings or by others on special occasions. Usnzsa- of greatest production coincides with the reigns of Kaniska (acc. headed can only mean (r) having a head like a turban or (2) A.D. 120) and Huviska, in the second century ap. Grinwedel having a turban on his head. Inasmuch as the thirty-two marks dates Kaniska a.p. 78 and makes the Gandhara school begin in really characterise a Cakravartin as an adult being, and as the the second century, thus later than the establishment of the turban is actually a mark of rank, the latter interpretation is Mathura type. But, the Buddha image may have come into use, to be preferred, in the sense “destined to wear the turban,” as as the result of a common religious necessity, simultaneously in we have to.do with a child. But as the Bodhisattva became, not both areas; though the priority for Gandhara, even if established, a Universal Emperor, but a Buddha, and abandoned his turban would not affect the fact that the Indian Buddha image of the and long hair, he had to be, as always, represented (with the ex- Gupta period is derived directly from the early Mathura type, ception of certain crowned types which may be Dhyani Buddhas) as this in turn is derived from that of the Vaksa types of the as bareheaded. In the early Mathura figures the problem. seems earliest Indian school..It may be safely said that the influence tobe ignored. It would appear that.after these had been for some of the Graeco-Buddhist school in India has been much exagtime in voguea necessity was felt to embody the uphiso-siso idea gerated.

INDIAN

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The Gandháran type differs from Indian types in more than one way; iconographically by a different treatment of the hair, and in the seat, which is in Gandhára nearly always a lotus, in India is at first always a lion throne, despite the fact that the lotus seat as a divine symbol had long been known. Stylistically, the differences are more profound. Gandháran is “late,” and belongs to an age of aesthetic decadence in its own cycle; it is naturalistic by intention, although its appearance of realism is no longer based on any structural reality; its graces are deliberate and languid; the solid folds of the drapery are carefully represented. The Indian type has still all the energy and volume of primitive art; it makes no pretensions to grace, is without naturalistic intention, and the drapery is schematic and clinging. It would hardly be possible to juxtapose two contemporary styles more distinct in kind. 'The Gandhàran art in its own environment is gradually Indianised, and its productivity ends with the Hüna invasions of tbe fifth century.

:

AND

ART

ARCHAEOLOGY

lotus or lion pedestal, usually with figures of donors. The finest examples have been found at Sarnath and Mathura, in relief a Ajanta.

One colossal copper figure, weighing over a ton, found

at Sultangafij is now in the Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery. Brahmanical sculpture is represented by mukha-lingams (Siva) of admirable workmanship from Bhumara, Khoh and other site in Bundelkhand; reliefs of Visnu, Narasimha, and Durga, and the magnificent Varaha

Avatar

at Udayagiri,

Gwalior;

Raméyan,

scenes from the basement of the late Gupta temple at Deogarh;

sculptures of the Ramesvara cave, Elürà; and the stucco reliefs of the Maniyar Matha at Rajagrha. The famous paintings of Ajanta and Bagh, all on the walls of excavated Buddhist temples and monasteries, the so-called “Caves,” belong for the most part, to the Gupta period, though none appear to be immediate products of Gupta patronage. Those of Caves IX. and X. date about the beginning of the Christian

era or even earlier, those of Caves XVI. and XVII. about A. 500, those of Cave XIX. about the middle of the sixth century; those

LATER ANDHRA School of Amaravati.—The reliefs of Amarávati, dating from the close of the second century A.D., once adorned a great stupa, with the largest and most richly decorated stone railing ever constructed surrounding it. This sttipa was one of numerous Buddhist monuments erected or enlarged by the later Andhra kings in the Kistna-Godaveri delta, their seat of government.

of Caves I. and II. date from the seventh century, and thus, Early Mediaeval. The subjects are all Buddhist, representing Jaiakay and scenes from the Life of Buddha, with the popular mythology of Vaksas and Nagas as incorporated in Buddhism.

any in India. Just as in literature, epic form is passing into “poetry” (küvya), so here for the first time sculpture is becom-

of the great monastery at Nalanda, and for the transition fron Gupta to mediaeval art in Magadha generally. He also took possession of the Valabhi kingdoms of Kathiawar and Gujarit: but was defeated by the Calukyan king Pulakesin II. A more detailed account can be given of early mediaeval art in the Dek-

EARLY

HarSa:

MEDIAEVAL

Nailanda.—HarSavardhana

in the first half of the

seventh century revived the glories of the diminished Gupta This later Andhra art is the most intimate and most enchanting of empire. He may be regarded as responsible for the restoration

ing

[14art."

'The subject matter of the reliefs has not changed; the principal compositions represent Jātakas and scenes from the life of Buddha (in accordance with traditions earlier than that of the Lalita Vistara). Vital moments of the Buddha epic are now more dramatically and emotionally conceived; the gestures, especially those of women, possess a peculiar poignancy, reminding us of such contemporary Buddhist literature as the Bodhicarydvatara and the work of Santi Deva. This poignancy, survives indeed at Ajanta, and Gupta art is very closely related to that of the Andhras in the third century; but very soon, in so far as it belongs to life, it passes into the formalities of chivalry, and in so far as it belongs to art, into deliberate emphasis and even exaggeration. The same is true of the decorative motifs; a sense of organisation already long perfected is here applied to traditional motifs, with an inimitable delicacy and firmness. The ornament, in fact, is of precisely the same quality, and has the same value as the reliefs with figures. An art which had been entirely corporeal now acquires a spiritual content, becoming Buddhist in a more than formal sense. As regards the Buddha figure at Amaravati, and the similar early types found in Ceylon, the use of a cult image is still new, and the figure therefore retains more of the austerity and massive individuality of primitive art than in the reliefs and ornament.

khan and the far south. Pallavas.—The Pallavas originated in the Kistna-Godaveri

area, inheriting the artistic tradition of the eastern Andhras. Forced to move southward about 600, the sudden appearance of architecture and sculpture in stone is due to the accomplished Mahendravarman I. (600—625); we know from one of his inscrip-

tions that up to this time structural temples had been built of brick, timber, copper and mortar, and the implied absence of stone construction corresponds to and explains the appearance of Pallava art already fully, evolved in the 7th century. All the sculpture at Mamallapuram, including that of the excavated and monolithic temples (the "Seven Pagodas"), and also the great rock-cut relief representing Bhagiratha’s penance and the Descent of the Ganges belong to the first half of the 7th century. The sculpture here, Pauranik in theme, for the Pallavas were Hindu kings, is of a very high order. In the early 8th century the sculpture develops in more strictly architectural application, in connec-

tion with the great structural temples at the Pallava capital, Kaficipuram, passing in the th into that of the Cola period. Painting which has been assigned to the time of Mahendravarman I. has been found in a Jaina excavation at Pudokottai.

Early Calukyan.—Some temples with sculptures at Badami

GUPTA antedate Pulakesin I. (550—566), founder of the dynasty. Later A.D. 320-c. 600.—In early Gupta art the spirit is still at the artistic history shows a mixture of northern and southern eleheight of its vitality, but maturer, more intellectually conscious, ments, but is mainly a development of Pallava forms. The Brahmore introspective; at the same time the expression is less re- manical caves at Badami and Aihole (especially Cave III., date served. Gupta art is characteristically logical, sophisticated, A.D. 578) contain a series of large and important reliefs illustrating gracious and sensuous. Early Gupta art is important in the his- Pauranik mythology and legend. Worthy of special mention also tory of Indian art, as representing a completely unified national are the sculptured roofing slabs from Aihole, dating from the early style within the limits of India proper, and at the same time 7th century, and now in the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. embodying the types of which the influence predominates in The Virüpáksa, most important of the structural temples at the south-eastern and far-eastern developments of Indian iconog- Pattadkal was built about 740, probably by architects and masons

raphy and architecture. The Gupta style is unmistakably recognizable in the sculpture and architecture of fifth to seventh century date in Burma, Siam and Cambodia. (See FURTHER INDIA and INDONESIA.)

brought from Kaficipuram, and shows a corresponding Pallava character in the sculptured reliefs. The Buddhist caves at Auran-

gābād, dating from the late 6th and early 7th century contain many

important figures.

At Elūrā, the Das Avatāra, Rāvaņa

The Buddha figure of the Gupta period is characterised by its ka Khai, Dhumar Leņā and Rämeśvara caves appear to range definition and refinement; the diaphanous robe, covering one or from 650 to 750. both shoulders clings closely to the body, almost without folds Rastraktita.—The Rastrakiitas succeeded the Calukyas in the (“wet drapery”); the hair is invariably arranged in short curls, Western Dekkhan in 753. Their most important monuments are the usuisa is indicated as a cranial protuberance, and there is a at Elürà and Elephanta; the latter are easily accessible in a

INDIAN AND SINHALESE ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY P= ‘tI

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SCULPTURE OF THE PALLAVAS AND RASTRAKÜTAS 1. Visnu reclining upon ananta, a relief In the Mahisa-mandapam, Mamalla-

puram. Pallava, 7th century 2. Detail from the Descent of the Ganges, a rock-cut relief at Màmalla-

century

Pallava, on7thMt. Kaildsa, with 3. Sivapuram. and Parvati the rock-cut temple

Ravana

Kallásanátha at Elüraà.

imprisoned below. Ràstraküta,

In

8th century

4. Siva dancing, in Ravana ka@ Khai at Elür&. 5, Durga, ten-armed, tury

standing

on the head

Rastrakuta, Sth century

of Mahisa.

Pallava, 7th cen-

face of tne rock cut triple bust of MaheSa (Siva), at Elephanta. 6. Right Rastrakita, Sth century,

PursIX INDIAN AND SINHALESE ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY

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(1) THE MUSEUM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, PHOTOGRAPHS, (4, 5) JOHNSTON AND HOFFMANN

(2,

SCULPTURES l. Visnu. Stone.

7,

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Height 834 in. Kashmir, 9th century

2. Avalokitesvara, Bodhisattva. Copper, gilt and jewelled. Height, 1234 in. c. 11th century 3. Visnu. Copper. Height 251 in. Bengal

4. Bodhisattva. Brick and stucco. Northern temple, Polonnaruva, Ceylon, 12th century 5. Devatà, detail from the Rájráni temple, Orissa, c. 1150 A.D.

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A. K.

DETAIL

6. Deity on horse, detail from the Sirya Deul, Konarak, Orissa, 13th

century

7. The Eight Great Events

(in the Life of Buddha);

century. Bihar or Bengal

Slate.

:

Pala, 10th

— S. “Rukmint.”” Sandstone. Height 5 ft. 41/2 In. Nokhas, Etah District, c. LOth century 9. Mahavira (founder of Jainism). Soft schist. Later Caluyka. c. 12th century.

Aminbhavi,

10. Visnu. Sandstone.

Mysore

Height 4 ft, Etah District, c. 1000 A.D.

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n These pa int ings, executed in the late 16th and early 17th centur 6s, are done in brilliant tempera colours on a paper surface and show no trace of Persian or Mughal in fluence. The one on the upper left illustrates an ep iso de of the Krishna a cycles showing Radha, supported by two companions, keeping an appointment with Krishna, who is seated at the tryst ing illustrate Ragas and Raginis, or musical modes, depicting emotional The three other paintings place in a walled orchard. et tiuatinne anrrecnandina ta tha enntent of tha mus ic in accordance with established conventions

INDIAN

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217

- a kind of black slate, and are represented in all large collections; afternoon from Bombay. At Elura the famous rock cut Kailàsain and in recent years very numerous and exquisitely made copper ed excavat shrine hic monolit e complet and huge a temple, natha images have been excavated here or found elsewhere in Bengal the side of the hill, is in a purely Dravidian style, immediately

derived from that of the Viripaksa at Badami; of the very numerous sculptures illustrating Saiva sub jects, the finest represents

iva and Parvati seated on Mt. Kailasa, with Ravana imprisoned within the mountain below, endeavouring to cast it down, and succeeding in causing a tremor; this, and the Varaha Avatar of Udayagiri, above alluded to, are the finest examples of reliefs which deal with what may be described as cosmic or geotectonic themes. Remains of painting on the ceiling of the porch of the upper storey are of two periods, in part no doubt century and nearly contemporary with the actual are the oldest surviving Brahmanical frescoes, but ences show that painting had been practised both

of the eighth shrine; these literary referasareligious

and secular art from time immemorial.

At Elephanta, the most famous, and perfectly preserved sculpture is a colossal relief in the main excavation, a three-headed

bust, which has often, though incorrectly been called a Trimürti; it is actually an icon of Siva in the form known as Mahesa, and

many other examples exist, of which one of the best is a later

relief in the Pennsylvania University Museum.

Kashmit.—The old town of Vijrabror has yielded early sculp-

tures in which the influence of the Graeco-Buddhist art of Gandhàra is still apparent; the most interesting of these are representations of the goddess of Fortune, Laksmi, seated with a cornucopia,

and these types can be followed well into the mediaeval time, grad-

(Rangpur and Chittagong). The themes are at first Buddhist, but the Buddhism is greatly mixed with Hindu elements, and acquires as time passes a more and more Tantrik character. The names of two painters and sculptors, Dhiman and Bitpalo, are mentioned by the historian Taranadtha as having been masters in the Eastern School in the oth century. The Bihar school exercised a powerful iconographic and stylistic influence on Nepal, Tibet, Burma and Java and Sumatra. Not only sculpture, but also painting was practised; a number of Buddhist palmleat manuscripts from Bengal and Nepal, with painted wooden covers, and illustrations in the text have been preserved from the 11th and r2th centuries. The style is most closely related on the one hand to the slightly later painting of the Gujarati school, and on the other to the contemporary frescoes of Burma (Pagan). The Pala school of painting in the r2th century was known even to the Chinese. Sculpture in Orissa is typically Brahmanical, and occurs in connection with the series of great temples at Bhuvane$vara, Konarak, Puri, etc., ranging in date from the 8th to the 13th century. The monumental horses and elephants, and the erotic architectural sculptures of the Sun Temple at Konarak are especially noteworthy. Bundelkhand

and

Rajputana.—The

magnificent

temples

of Khajuraho are literally covered with Brahmanical sculpture in ually becoming completely Indianised. The remains of a tiled a hard creamy sandstone; and isolated fine examples have been cock-pit of about the sth century at Harvan are unique; the found at Mahoba, another Candela capital. Jaina sculptures too devices on the moulded tiles represent men seated, and in bal- occur in abundance, but Buddhist works are relatively rare. To conies; equestrian archers in chain armour, deer, fighting cocks, enumerate the sculpture in Rajputana would be impossible; there lotuses, and a fleur-de-lys motif; in technique they recall the so- is much of excellent quality. South Central and Westetn.—An enormous revival of called Han but probably later grave-tiles of China. The Vàntipor temple sites of early oth century date have yielded building and sculpture took place in the Dekkhan under the later small and admirably executed stone figures of Visnu in a style Cálukyas after 973, the HoySalas of Mysore in the 12th and peculiar to Kashmir and the neighbouring States of Cambà and 13th centuries, and in Gujarat under the related Solanki dynasty Kuli, and with these there appear also Siva types, including a (roth to rsth century). The sculpture of the Dekkhan and three-headed Mahega, and an Ardhanari$vara. Similar Vaisnava Mysore is executed in a fine-grained dark chloritic schist, which images of brass inlaid with silver and copper have been found in is comparatively soft when first quarried, and lends itself to an Kuli, together with a Buddha image in the same technique, but unlimited elaboration of detail more appropriate to metal-work of earlier (late Gupta) date. Buddhist “bronzes” found in Kash- than stone. Almost all the work is of architectural application, mir, and ranging from the 6th to the 11th century, show that and unbelievably rich in quantity and detail. Especially characBuddhism survived to a late date, although it had already declined teristic are the elevated temple basements, with tier upon tier of by the end of the 8th century, all the foundations of Avantivar- sculptured friezes, and the huge turned cylindrical pillars of the man in the oth being Brahmanical. The stone sculpture architec- porches, with luxuriously developed bracket figures of dancers. turally associated with the great temples in Kashmir is unfortu- In Mysore, Belir, Halebid, Dodda Gadavalli, Somnathpur and nately almost all in a ruined state. Sravana Belgola are amongst the most famous sites. At the latter place there is a remarkable monolithic image of Gommatesvara MEDIAEVAL (FROM ABOUT 850 ONWARDS) The Mediaeval art again falls into three main divisions, corre- (son of the first of the 24 Jinas of the Jaina mythology); one sponding to the geographical classification of the architecture as of the largest freestanding figures in the world, 57 feet in height, Nagara (Northern and Eastern), Vesara (South Central and West- this was carved im situ for Camunda Raja in A.p. 98r. Another em) and Drdvida (Southern). The character of Indian art has figure at Ilivala is over 20 feet in height. In Gujarat, Kathiawar and parts of Rajputana there exists now definitely changed and hardened; the sculpture is no longer distinguished by plastic volume, but has acquired a linear char- another extensive development in a related style. In Gujarat acter; that is, the form appears to be conceived from the stand- proper, most of the temples are in ruins. At Girnar, Palitana and point of outline, and all the features are sharply defined; its Taranga, Jaina temple cities and places of pilgrimage, there is application is primarily architectural, and one might say decora- much sculpture still in situ. The most famous and remarkable tive, were it not for the fact that it retains a precise significance examples of the style, however, are to be seen at Mt. Abi in all its details; its forms are more complicated, partly because (Dilvara, in southern Rajputana), in the temples of Vimala Shah the theological development has brought in a greater variety of (c. 1032) and Tejahpala (c. 1232); these are domed shrines with . many-armed forms (these appeared first in the second century, pillared halls. Gujarati (Jaina) Painting.—A Gujarati school of manuand are already common in Early Mediaeval work), and partly because of the tendency, innate in all late art, towards great script illustration flourished from the 13th to the 17th century, intricacy and elaboration of detail, and an overvaluation of merely after which it is more or less modified by Mughal and Rajput influences. One manuscript dated 1237 is on palm-leaf, all others technical skill, displayed as an end in itself. Northern and Eastern.—The main schools are those of Bihar are on paper, with earliest date 1427. The majority of the manuand Bengal (Pala Dynasty); Orissá; and Bundelkhand and Raj- scripts are Jaina scriptures, but there is one secular example, a putana. Under the Palas (750-1200) the main centre of produc- Vasanta Vilésa, dated 1451. Although the colouring is brilliant, the tion was at the important monastery and university of Nalanda style is really one of pure draughtsmanship; the outline establishes in Bihar. The characteristic Buddhist images, together with all the facts, and this outline, though very facile and almost care-

Buddhist and: Brahmanical examples from other sites in Bihar

and Bengal are executed with the utmost technical proficiency in

less, is extremely accomplished. Rajput Painting.—The tradition of mural painting, exterior

218

INDIAN

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ARCHAEOLOGY

and interior, even at the present day survives sporadically all over India; a good deal may still be seen in Rajputana, for example in the Old Palace at Bikaner. Paintings on canvas and illustrated manuscripts are very rare. But as paper gradually came into use, the older methods of painting on walls and panels or cotton cloth were employed on the new material; the technique of Hindu

tation; while at each side stand reliefs representing Nagas, holding

The themes of Rajputa painting are religious (dealing especially

are the seated and reclining Buddha figures of the Gal Vihin where there is also a colossal standing figure of the disciple

lyrical and

Ananda. Some of the brick and stucco figures of the Northen temple are extremely elegant.

painting on paper is in fact identical with that of the older mural art as seen at Ajanta and described in the technical treatises. with the Krsna cycle, but also with Saiva and Vaisnava mythology in general), Epic (Mahabharata

and Rémdayana),

rhetoric (Rag-malés), and, less typically, secular (portraiture).

The Krsna cycle and themes illustrating treatises on rhetoric (classification of heroines, and emotional analysis), given a contemporary environment in court and village life, permit an exquisite delineation of every phase of love. The Epic subjects, especially in early Jammü works, are treated on a large and almost mural scale. Especially characteristic are the sets of illustrations of the Rag-mdlds, vernacular poems describing the situations which are appropriate to each of the Ragas or musical modes; these are usually 36 in number, and each has its particular hour

and specific sentiment (see Inp1AN Music). Stylistically Rajput paintings can be classified both geographically and in historical sequence. Very few of them show any approximation to the Gujarati style. The early examples from Rajputana and (or) Bundelkhand are most distinctive; here we find a robust analytical method of drawing, an indication rather than a representation of forms, and an intensely brilliant colouring, like that of enamel or stained glass, by which the planes are established. A modified tonality gradually appears, partly due to Mughal influences; but even in the 18th century, when the outline has become more meticulous, the work of Jaipur artists can be recognized by its brilliancy, and by its marvellous decorative. treatment, especially of flowers and trees. The earlier Jammü productions too are strongly coloured, while the drawing is more provincial throughout. In some respects the most exquisite, and certainly the most refined, if not the most powerful, phase of Rajput painting is that of the Kangra school, developed in the latter half of the 18th century under Raja Sarnsara Cand; connected ‘with this school are its offshoot in Tehri-Garhwal, and its early roth century secular development in Sikh portraiture. The Kangra school declined during the 19th century and is now to all intents and purposes extinct. Related schools existed in Bengal and Orissa. By far the finest collection in the world is to be seen in Boston; other examples are in the Lahore and British Museums, and in private collections.

Ceylon.—The artistic culture of Ceylon is at all times very

closely related to that of Southern India, but can be more conveniently treated as a consecutive development. One of the oldest documents is a carnelian seal representing a seated king, probably of the second century B.c., from the Yatthala Dagaba in the south, now in Manchester. It is difficult to say whether any or how much of the sculpture surviving at Anuradhapura dates before the beginning of the Christian era; the greater part in any

case belongs to the period ranging from the 1st to the oth cen-

“lucky vases” and cornucopiae. The rock-cut reliefs of elephant, and a seated sage (“Kapila”)

at the Isurumuniya

Vihára, the

elephant reliefs by the Tissawewa lake are in Pallava style ang evidently of 7th century date. At Polonnàruwa, the rock-cut statue traditionally regarded ag a representation of Parikrama Bahu I. (1153-1186) is a magnificent work; not so fine, though impressive in scale and design

There exist colossal Buddha figures of the Polonnàruwa period also at Seséruwa, Awkana and Kon Wewa. A limited number of small bronzes or rather copper images of

very high quality have been found in Ceylon. One of the largest is a fine seated Buddha from Badulla, of about 6th century date, but the finest of all are a well-known

seated Avalokiteévara

with figures of Vajrapani and Jambhala, of 8th and oth cen tury date, now in Boston; there is a fair collection of similar figures in the British Museum. Brahmanical bronzes apparently of Cola date have been excavated at Polonnaruwa and are now in the Colombo Museum. Remains of painting have been preserved at a number of sites, There are a few traces of decoration at Anuradhapura, including some figures of dwarf Yaksas. More remarkable are the Apsarases of the painted rock pockets at Sigiriya, dating from the sth century, and still in excellent preservation; these are voluptuous female figures, cut off by clouds at the waist in accordance with a

characteristic convention, and casting down a rain of flowers upon the mortal world below them. At Hindagala near Kandy there is a fragment of fresco regarded by some as of rather early date, but probably mediaeval. By far the most extensive remains, though now almost destroyed by neglect since their first discovery,- are those of the inner walls of the Northern Temple at Polonnaruwa; these illustrate Jātakas, but can only be inadequately studied in the bad copies exhibited in the Colombs Museum. The Sinhalese chronicles (MaAavarmsd) cóntain im numerable references to painting, but nothing more survives until we come to the r8th century, when Kirti Sri Raja Simha, oné of the last Kandyan kings, restored many shrines in the Kandyaa provinces. Mention must also be made of the admirable decorated ceilings of Kelaniya, Kandy, and some other places; these are * often masterpieces of design. During the roth century little of note in sculpture was pro duced in Northern India. In Southern India the indigenous trad tion has been preserved in greater purity; copper images, somes times of large size, and little inferior in quality to those of the 17th and 18th centuries are still made, and hereditary craftsmen still work. in stone. In the present century a reaction against Western mannerisms has taken place, and especially in Calcutta, where a considerable (Bengal) school of painters is at work, a very large number of pictures, mostly water-colours, has been produced. The pictures are delicate and often very charming, but hardly powerful; the movement is comparable in some respects to

tury. Among the finest sculptures in Ceylon, previous to their restoration and virtual destruction by pious Buddhists, wére the Buddha figures, and one traditionally known. as Duttha Gamani’

that of the Pre-Raphaelites in Europe. Amongst the chief artists

(r. 1st century B.c.), at the Ruanweli Dagaba site; the Buddha figures show a close relation with those of Amaravati and must

flirted with Cubism; Nanda Lal Bose; Asit Kumar Haldar, now

date from about A.D. 200. Relief sculpture may date back to the

Gupta, now Assistant Curator, Pafijab Museum, Lahore; and many

medallions with friezes of animals (horses, lions, elephants and

same reports (1921 seq.) ; in Cambridge History of India, vol. i, (wi bibl.) ; articles in I7]. London News (Sep. 20, Oct. 4, 1924, Feb. 27; Mates 6, 1926, and Jan. 7, 14, 1928) ; J. Kennedy, "The Early ‘Commeree ot Babylon with India,” J.R.A.S. (1898) ; J. Cockburn, and V. A. Sitt

who have been or are still at work may: be mentioned Gogonen: dronath Tagore, who works mainly in monochrome,

Principal of the School of Art in Lucknow;

and

|

Samarandranath

first century B.c. or but little later; this applies especially to the younger men, and some women. fe crete (See.also INDIAN ARCHITECTURE, including FurTHER INDUN Naga reliefs and formal trees rising from “lucky vases,” represented on stelae at the Eastern (so-called Abhayagiriya) and and INDONESIAN; INDONESIAN and FurTHER INDIAN ART.) BrsLi0ocRAPHY.—Indus valley culture, and other prehistoric remas; Ruanweli Dagabas, for these are still in flattened relief, and distinctly related in style to the Safici and early Sarnath reliefs of the R. B. Foote, The Foote Collection of Prehistoric and Protohistont Antiquities (Madras, 1914) and Notes on Their Age and Distribution rst century B.C. The “moonstones” or stone doorsteps of monas- (Madras, 1916) ;.Sir J. H. Marshall, “A New Type of Pottery from teries or palaces are of various dates, and consist of half lotus Baluchistan,” Arch. Surv. India, Ann. Report. (1904-05); articles 7# bulls, or geese carrying fioral sprays; the steps above them are

flanked by solid balusters (lamba bhu, kasti-hasta) . consisting of heads and trunks of elephants, or mekara heads spouting vege-

“Cave Drawings in the Kaimur Range,” J.R.A.S. (1899); A Blooms

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INDIANAPOLIS ; geld, “Silver and Copper Objects . . . Gungeria," Proc. A.S.B. (1890) Indian ` Č. Brown, Catalogue of Prehistoric Antiquities in the (1828) ; of Assyria Museum, Calcutta (1917) ; S. Smith, Early History W. Wüst, “Ueber die neuesten Ausgrabungen in nordwestlichen Indien,” TerraZDM.G., xxci. (1927); A. K. Coomaraswamy, *Early Indian H. Kuhn, cottas" Bull. Mus. Fine Aris, No. 152 (Boston, 1927); Silberrad, “Paleolithische Kunst in Indien,” Ipek, ii. (1926); C. A. , Drawings in the Banda District,” J.A.S.B. (1907); V. Christian

“Rock «Die Beziehungen der altmesopotamischen Kunst zum Osten,” Wiener For the Beiträge zur Kunst- und Kulturgeschickte Asiens, i. (1926). Stone age in Ceylon see articles in Spolia Zeylanica. Gupta Historical period: J. Allan, Catalogue of tke Coins of the

Dynasties (1918); J. Burgess, Ancient Monuments,

Temples, and

New Sculptures of India (1897); Archaeological Survey, Reports, of Amaravati

logue of Coins in the Punjab Museum, vol. i, 1914; L. A. Waddell, Report on the Excavations at Pétaliputs (1903); G. Yazdami and

L. Binyon, Ajanta, which has been announced for 1929 with new photographic reproductions; N. Hiirliman, India (Berlin, 1928). Journals, etc.; Jour. of the Royal Asiatic Society (London); Jour.

of the Royal Asiatic Society, Ceylon Branch (Colombo) ; Jour. of the

Bengal Asiatic Soc. (Calcutta) ; Journal Asiatique (Paris); Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlündischen Gesellschaft (Berlin) ; Rüpam (Cal-

cutta); Jour. of Indian Art and Industry (London; discontinued) ; Indian Antiquary (Bombay); Asia Major (Leipzig); Artibus Asiae Orientalia Acta (Berlin); Ostasiatische Zeitschrift (Dresden); (Leiden); Bulletin of the Museum of Fine Arts (Boston); Jahrbuch der Asiatischen Kunst (Berlin); Ars Asiatica (Paris); Revue des Aris

Imperial Series, vol. i-vi, (1874-83) ; Buddhist Stüpas Arch. Survey and Jaggayyapeta (1887) ; D. R. Bhandarkar, articles in India, Ann. Reports; K. de B. Codrington, Ancient India from the

date; A. K. Earliest Times to the Guptas (1926) good and up to Craftsman Coomaraswamy, Mediaeval Sinhalese Art (x9o8); Indian Visvakar ma (1909) ; Arts and Crafts of India and Ceylon (1913); (1914) with 108 plates on sculpture; Rajput Painting (1916), standard Indian and work, good plates; Dance of Siva (1918-24), History of full bibliography, Indonesian Art, standard work, well illustrated, (1927); Catalogues “Origin of the Buddha Image,” Art Bulletin, ix.

Asiatiques (Paris) ; Indian Art and. Letters, India Society (London); Jour. of the Bihar and Orissa Research Soc. (Patna); Eastern Art (Philadelphia) ; Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Reporis (1904 seq.), Memoirs, etc. Arch. Surv. Ceylon, Reports; Hyderabad, Archaeological Service, Annual Reports; Mysore Archaeological Series;

Memoirs of the Colombo Museum;

Kern Institute, Annual Biblzog-

raphy of Indian Archaeology, vol. 1. (1926).

(A. K. C

INDIANAPOLIS, the capital and largest city of Indiana,

U.S.A., on the White river, at about the exact geograpbical centre of the State; a port of entry and the county seat of Marion Arts, Boston, vol. i., county. It is on Federal highways 31, 36, 40 and 52; has a of the Indian Collections in the Museum of FineAntiquiti es of Western iiv, V. (1923-27) 5 H. Cousens, Architectural municipal airport; and is served by the Baltimore and Ohio, the India (1926) ; articles in Arch. Survey India, Ann. Reports; A. Cunof Big Four, the Chicago, Indianapolis and Louisville, the Erie, the ningham, Stupa of Bharhut (1879), Mahàbodh: (1892), Coins Coins and ) (1888-94 thian Indo-Scy Central, the Indianapolis Union, the Nickel Plate and the the of Illinois Coins (1891), India Ancient Worship Serpent and Tree n, Fergusso J. and by inter-urban trolley and motor-bus (1894); India l Mediaeva of and Pennsylvania railways, (1873), classic, but to be read with caution, History of Indian direction. In 1920, when Indianapolis every g in radiatin lines whole the Eastern Architecture (2nd ed., 1910), only work covering of the United States, the population cities the among 21st The ranked Burgess, ground, but far from up to date; J. Fergusson and J. du Cave Temples of India (1880) ; A. Foucher, L’Art gréco-bouddhique conGandhara (1900-23), indispensable, but the main theory is highly troversial, The Beginnings of Buddhist Art (1918), excellent material, invaluoften controversial, “Lettre d’Ajanta,” Journ. Asiatique (1921), ; able for the frescoes; O. C. Gangoly, South Indian Bronzes (1914) Her Masterpieces of Rajput Painting (1927) ; M. Ganguly, Orissa and Remains (1912) ; A. Godard, V. Godard and J. Hackin, Les antiquités bouddhiques de Bamiyan (1927), best account of remains in Afghanla istan; V. Goloubew, Documents . .. d'Ajanta, Les peintures inde the première grotte (1926), excellent; J. Griffiths, The Paintings Buddhist Cave Temples of Ajanta (1896-97), very valuable, but rare; A. Grünwedel, Buddhist Art in India (x901), Altbuddhistische Kultstatten in Turkistan (1912), Alt-Kutscha (1920); P. Gardner, Catalogue of the Coins of the Greek and Scythian Kings of Bactria and India (1886) ; H. V. Glasenapp, Heilige Statten Indiens (1928) ; S. N. Gupta, Catalogue of Paintings in the Central Museum. (Lahore, 1922); E. B. Havell, Indian Sculpture and Painting (1928), Indian Architecture; Its Psychology, Structure and History (1913), Ancient and Mediaeval Architecture of India (1915), Handbook of Indian Art (1920) and The Ideals of Indian Art (1911); India Society, Ajanta Frescoes (19315); Jouveau-Dubreuil, Archéologie du sud de PIndie (1914), invaluable, Pallava Antiquities (1916-18); R. C. Kak, Handbook,... Sri Partap Singh Museum (1923), “Cock-fighting in Ancient India,” in Ill. Lond. News (Dec. 12, 1925); S. S. Jacob, Jeypore Portfolio of

Architectural Details (1890-98) ; S. Kramrisch, Grundzuge der indischen

Kunst (1924), The Vishnudharmottaram, pt. I1I., a Treatise on Indian Painting (2nd ed., 1928) ; E. La Roche, Indische Baukunst (1921—22) ; A. von Le Coq, Die buddhistische Spütantike von Mittelasien (1922— 28), Bilderatlas zur Kunst .. . Mittelasiens (1925); F. C. Maisey, Sanchi and Its Remains (1892); S. Lévi, Le Nepab (1905-08); Sir J. H. Marshall, Guide to T axila (x918), Guide to Sanchi (1918), articles in Arch. Surv. India, Ann. Reports, in the Cambridge History of I ndia, vol. i, etc., and in Zil. London News, March 24 and 31, Ap. 7 (1928) ; N. C. Mehta, Studies in Indian Painting (1926); R. Narasimachar,

Inscriptions at Sravana Belgola (and, ed., 1923) ; K. Okakura, Ideals of the East (2nd ed., 1904) ; H. Parker, Ancient Ceylon (1909) ; Ram Raz,

Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus (1834); E. J. Rapson, Cata-

logue of the Coins of the Andhra Dynasties, 1908; T. A. G. Rao, Elements of Hindu Iconography (1914, 1915), best work on the subA. Rodin, A. K. Coomaraswamy and V. Golovbew, Sculptures ject; Civaites (1921) ; D. R. Sahni, Guide to the Buddhist Ruins of Sarnath (2nd ed. 1926) ; O. Reuther, Indische Paläste und Wohnhäuser (1924); H. K. Sastri, South Indian Gods and Goddesses (1916); V. A. Smith, The Jain Stupa of Mathura (1901) ; History of Fine Art in India and

was 314,194, of whom 34,678 were negroes and 16,958 were foreign-born white (over half from Germany, Treland and Eng-

land). The population in 1930 was 364,161. Indianapolis is one of the most populous cities in the world not situated on navigable water. Transportation facilities by rail and highway are exceptionally good. The first union railway station in America was built here, and the present Union Depot (vastly enlarged since 1917, when work was begun on the elevation of all the tracks) is one of the most commodious and well-

arranged stations in the country. Some 160 mail trains enter and

the several railways The traction terminal in the country. plain surrounded by of wide, well-planned streets, winding streams, trees, lawns, gardens and shrubbery. In the exact centre of the original tract of four “sections,” surrounded by a circular park, is the Soldiers’ and Sailors’ monument. Tt rises to a height of 284-5ft. above the street level and is surmounted by a figure called Miss Indiana. An elevator runs to a balcony at the top, which commands a panoramic view of the city and many miles of surrounding country. At the base of the monument are fountains with a capacity of 20,000gal. per minute. From this central circle four avenues radiate to tbe four corners of the city. The other streets run at right angles to one another. The main street (Washington) is 120ft. wide; most of the others, go feet. There are 18 public parks, with a total area of 2,544aC.; 46 playgrounds; and 53m. of boulevard, including a 6oft. driveway on the top of the concrete levee (4oft. high) which was con-

depart daily, and the belt line connecting carries over 2,000,000 freight cars annually. and the motor-bus terminal are the largest The city occupies 49-5 sq.m. on a level low, gently sloping hills. It has the beauty

structed (1914-16) along the west bank of the White river. North of the Circle is the World War memorial plaza (constructed at a cost of $10,000,000), covering five blocks given by

city, county and state, and containing, among other public buildings, the national headquarters of the American Legion. The State house, in a square of 8ac., has a ground area of 2ac. and a central tower and dome 24oft. high. Many of the public and ted of the famous Indiana limeCalMuseum, Indian the in Coins the of e business buildings are construc | CalCeylon (1911); Catalogu Sq : . cutia

hein O90)

ms (rgo) Sir ME A.dui, dude

district in the southern pas o Cue irum. thest Bedíord stone, North-we othe, |State. of the city is the motor speedway, where races

No. 225 (1919) ; J. Ph. Vogel, Indian Serpent Lore (1926), Catalogue

attracting 150,000 Mathura (1910) and many articles in | are held annually on Decoration Day (May 30),

of the Archaeological Museum, us Surv. India, Ann. Reports; D. R. Sahni and J. Ph. Vogel, Cata- | visitors from all parts of the country. The home of James Whit-

chee ae JE

AEn

4

d (9r) us = comb Riley, 528 Lockerbie street, is a literary shrine.

the first cities = America to adopt

Me of Indianapolis on (1919), and :a commissi ghting. A city-plan street-li ; : 1 I Report on the Kegalla District (Ceylon) (1904); A. H. Longhurst, electric a scheme for. resioutlined 1922, in adopted ordinance, zoning articles in Arch. Surv. India, Ann. Reports: R. B. Whitehead, Cata- |

Kunstform und Yoga im indischen Kunstbild Ga6); H. C.P.Bell,

t

220

INDIAN

dential, commercial and industrial districts.

ARCHITECTURE

The assessed valua-

tion of property for 1927 was $666,461,290. 'The public school system of the city comprises 83 grade and 4 high schools, and employs over 1,500 teachers. The public library, a beautiful example of Greek architecture, on a site presented by J. W. Riley, contains over 400,000 volumes. The private charitable agencies (about 40) are financed by a joint community fund. There are three daily newspapers: the News, estab-

lished in 1869; the Star (1883); and the Times (1888). Indianapolis is the seat of the School of Medicine and the

School of Dentistry of Indiana university; of Butler university (chartered 1849), Indiana Central college (1904), the Benjamin Harrison Law school, Indiana Law school, the Indianapolis college of pharmacy, the Teachers college of Indianapolis (a private institution), the John Herron Art institute and school, a private school for stammerers, the School of Printing of the Typothetae of America; of the Central Indiana hospital for the insane, the State schools for the blind and deaf, the State prison for women (the first in the United States, opened in 1873), and (at Clermont, tom. out) the State reformatory school for girls, which was a department of the prison until 1899. Ten miles north-east of the centre of the city is Ft. Benjamin Harrison, an important United States army post, named after President Harrison, whose home was in Indianapolis. The State fair grounds and the State fish hatcheries are within the city limits. Around the Indiana university school of medicine has developed one of the important medical centres of the country. The school itself was formed in 1908 by the union of the Indiana Medical college of Purdue university and the earlier medical department of the State university, which together incorporated six institutions founded between 1869 and 1906 at several different points in the State. Its new building (completed 1927?) is on the spacious grounds of the Robert W. Long hospital (completed 1914) which is a part of the school’s equipment. Near by is the James Whitcomb Riley Memorial hospital for children, built by private subscription and conveyed to

In 1850 the population was only 8,091. By 1860 it had grows te 18,611, and in the following decade it increased to 48,244. In th next 20 years (1870-90), and again between 1890 and 1919

the increase was considerably more than 100%, and in the singi decade 1910—20 it amounted to 3496.

In the years following the World War, Indianapolis suffers severely from the domination of State and city politics by th

Ku Klux Klan, until exposure of the methods of the Klan (largely through the initiative of the Indianapolis Times) led to a weak. ening of its power. BrBLiocRAPHY.—B. R. Sulgrove, History of Indianapolis and Mari,

County

(1884); M. R. Hyman, Handbook

of Indianapolis (1993).

Nathaniel Bolton, “Early History of Indianapolis and Central Indian

(Indiana Historical Society’s Publications, No. 5, 1897); W. R. Holly. way, Indianapolis, a Historical and Statistical Sketch (1840): th Indianapolis board of trade's Report on the Industries of Indianapolis (1889) ; Civic Studies of Indianapolis (1907 seq.), edited by Arthur W.

Dunne; and P. S. Heath's sketch of Indianapolis in L. P. Powel;

Historic Towns of the Western States (1901).

INDIAN

ARCHITECTURE,

like Indian sculpture, i

essentially of native origin, belonging to the Dravidian rather

than the Aryan race. The Vedic ritual required neither images nor temples, but the non-Vedic cults, such as those of the dragons (Nagas), the tree-spirits (Yaksas) and the goddesses, may have had permanent shrines with images and wooden temples. Refer. ences to images and temples begin to appear in the literature from about the 4th century 5.c. onwards, and numerous types are

represented in the reliefs from the 2nd century s.c. In Hindi worship (puja, the service of a personal deity with offerings of food, lights, incense, etc., as distinguished from yaj£a, the Vedi sacrificial ritual) the first essential is an altar, with or without a symbol or image, serving to receive offerings of flowers. Such an altar beneath a sacred tree, for example, constitutes a Faks caitya. The term caityæ denotes a shrine of any kind, but has often been used (erroneously) to designate exclusively the stipe. The next step is a god’s house (devdlaya, devadgara, dyatana, etc.), the university on the day it was dedicated (1924); and the Wil- a simple roofed enclosure containing the altar and symbol or liam H. Coleman hospital for women (opened 1927), also under image. the university’s management. Origins.—The fundamental elements of temple architecture The transportation facilities of Indianapolis and its position are indigenous and of great antiquity. Early Indian architecture in the midst of the corn belt, near large coal-fields, and with was almost entirely of wooden construction, and the forms thu populous markets in every direction, have combined to make it established were later closely imitated in brick and stone. The an important commercial and industrial centre. It has a large various forms of domed and barrel-vaulted roofs, gabled windows trade in grain ($75,000,000 annually) and its elevators have a capacity of over 1,000,000 bushels. First place is held by automobiles, valued at $75,000,000 annually. Other important manufactures are automobile accessories, malleable iron, foundry and machine shop products, agricultural implements, sewing machines, railroad cars, upholstery and furniture, cotton and woollen goods, glass, flour, canned vegetables, organs and pianos. The printing and publishing business has an annual output valued at $r6,000,000. In 1925 the aggregate factory output was valued at $344,924,907. Bank debits in 1926 amounted to $2,207,379,000. The crops produced within room. of the city are valued at $500,-

000,000 a year. History.—When Indiana was admitted to the Union (1816) Congress gave it four sections of public land for its capital The commissioners appointed to select the site placed it (1820) almost exactly in the geographical centre of the State, at the cabin of

John McCormick, on the White river, in the midst of dense forests and without any means of communication with the rest of the State. A town was laid out in 1821 (the “original mile square,” bounded by north, east, south and west streets) and some activity in land speculation followed; but when the seat of government

was moved here from Corydon in 1824 there was but a single street and 600 inhabitants. The legislature met in Indianapolis

for the first time in 1825. It was incorporated as a town in 1832, with a population of 1,000. The first State capitol was completed in 1836. Some impetus was given to the city’s growth by the completion of the National Road, and later, beginning in 1847, by the coming of the railways, but the development was

slow until after the Civil War.

The city was chartered in 1847,

and in the same year a free public school system was Inaugurated.

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TODA HUT, RESEMBLING A BARREL-VAULTED TEMPLE and roof ends, pillars and cornices are developed from wooden prototypes; the Toda hut, for example, even at the present day presents a striking likeness to a barrel-vaulted gable-ended temple. A part of Indian architecture, especially at an early period whet

the use of impermanent building material was otherwise stil

general, may be described as monolithic; that is to say, the shrme is excavated in solid rock, either by hollowing out the necessary

chambers (so that only the internal architecture is brought into

being), or by cutting away the exterior rock so as to leave a entire temple of solid rock. Very remarkable works of both

INDIAN

ARCHITECTURE

221

early architecture, and as ornament in the later, have been commonly designated "horseshoe arch," from the form, and “caitya window,” from the large and conspicuous examples that conwooden of temple apsidal an of interior the etc.), in which the facades of the early excavated churches. In many cases pierce great such by and detail, struction is reproduced in stone in every ends of the arch spring from a pair of makaras (crocotwo the Hindu excavations as those of Elephanta, near Bombay; the latter immediately over the capitals of the supporting situated diles), the ad, Aurangab near Elura, at àtha Eailàsan by the famous a makara torana. The summit of the constituting and pilasters, Mamallaat ” Pagodas Masrür temple in Kangra, the “Seven ogee arch. This dormer arch is not puram south of Madras and the Vettuvankoyil at Kalugamalai in arch is pointed, making it an in the earlier architecture of reappears but India, to confined the far south. are early developed and surforms Cusped Java. and Cambodia known Arches and Domes.—As both the arch and dome were n Muhammada in usage. vive is there B.C. millennium fourth the to the Sumerian builder in Columns.—Indian columns are of two kinds according to use, nothing surprising in the fact that both appear in India long before symbol appropriate the Mohammedan period, and in fact from the Maurya period either single pillars (stambha or lat) bearing a placed, or strucare they which beside temple the of deity the to or square a of that is types onwards. One of the earliest temple buildings. Both secular or temples of (kkambha) pillars tural dome. circular domed structure, with a roll cornice below the regards the shaft, chamas but form, of variety great a in occur least at back traced be can kind this of Structural stone buildings fering and an octagonal section are highly characteristic. All types to the second century. early Special Forms.—Some special forms characteristic of Budd- are monolithic. Capitals, too, are very varied. The typical the in bell; lotus inverted an below, members: three has form most The described. briefly hist and Jaina usage should be and lions); or bulls (generally animals addorsed four middle, of familiar of these is the stipa (tope, dagaba), an elaboration with small corner volutes (Assyrian the old Indian funeral mound, later carried out in solid masonry, above, a trapezoidal cushion Typical of later northern character). in Greek than rather with decorated provided with enclosing walls or railings, and a ribbed cushion capital like an amalaka: this is types mediaeval or (anda dome the are sttipa the of parts essential The sculptures. be connected with that of Visnu’s mace. garbha), solid but for a small relic-chamber near the ground level form is perhaps to would be rectangular, but that the lower form common Another in the centre, and inaccessible after completion; one or more sometimes ribbed. A very usual form and rounded, is angle outer for stairways with provided dome, the platforms, supporting “brimming vase,” or jar with overthe of that is art mediaeval in pavilion small a access, and serving for circumambulation; foliage, often developed into arabesque. Brackets, lotus falling (yasti) mast a this from rising and summit, the on (harmikà) figures of Vaksis, are characteristic at all bedring one or more symbolic umbrellas (chatrüvali); one or more often decorated with times. railings (vedikd) surrounding the dome or the*whole structure. Walis.—A sacred structure is usually surrounded by a wall In the earliest types of the Buddhist Stüpa the dome is hemior railing (vedikd). Such a wall consisting of plain slabs (prakara) until spherical; but a more aspiring type is gradually developed, pilasters has been found in connection with a Vaisinto mortised Burmese beautiful the of that as forms pointed tall such we reach Sunga date at Besnagar; and others, similar, but of shrine nava developed is basement Shwe Dagon. In some Burmese forms the of the same period are represented by fragments and sculptured, to a great height, and is provided with chapels within its mass, and Jagayyapeta. The railings of the early BuddAmaravati from in Khas Mirpur at cited be can prototype for which an Indian are remarkable; these consist of plinth, monuments Jaina and hist in seven Sind. At Borobudur in Java the basement platforms are bars, and coping, evidently based on wooden cross pillars, upright somewhat a in plan this pyramid; massive a forming number, are those of the topes at Safici and that simpler form occurs earlier in the Punjab, Kashmir, and Turkis- forms; the best preserved roo B.c.; the most elaborate is that of about both Bodhgayà, at tan. The stüpa is almost exclusively of Buddhist or Jaina signifAmarávati represented by remains now mostly in the British and the of release final or death the represents cance, and as a symbol Madras Museums. great teacher, the Buddha of Mahavira, as the case may be. Influences of Indian Architecture.—The architecture of Highly characteristic, also, are the aisled apsidal churches best India and Indonesia is largely of Indian origin, and this Farther also but known from the early Buddhist rock-cut “caitya halls,” earlier phases (pre-Khmer, etc.) ; but represented by structural examples in brick or stone of Gupta and is particularly evident in the later date (Ter, Chezarla, Aihole; and in Pallava and later Dravida the forms appear:to be developed from older Indian types, rather architecture, where the number of storeys is increased, as the than directly imitated from those of the Gupta and Pallava styles. Some Indian architectural forms are recognizable also in Gandcrowning member of a tower). Central Asia, China and Japan. Some others are traceable hara, hypaethral Another special form peculiar to India is that of the early in tree temple, usually a pillared hall, square or circular, with a gallery in European architecture, having passed via Alexandria possibly the include these Spain; and Rome to era Christian the and vaulted roof, but open in the centre, and surrounding a sacred tree; nearly a dozen examples are represented in Buddhist reliefs, loggia, galleries, horseshoe and mixtilinear arches, ogee arch and where the tree is the Bodhi-tree, the symbol of the Buddha's Great cyma reversa, decorated tympanums and jambs, all of which are plans Enlightenment, but there is every reason to suppose that the to be seen in India, and perhaps also the circular and apsidal type was a very ancient one, developed in connection with the of domed buildings. For a discussion of these interesting problems see Rivoira, Moslem architecture, 1918; Beylié, L’Architecworship of Yaksas (q.v.), or tree-spirits. ture hindoue en Extréme-orient, 1907; Strzygowski, passim, and Dootways of early buildings are provided with decorated 53, 152 tympanums, reproducing wooden forms, and with a gable or ogee other sources cited in HIJA, pp. 20, 149; for China 2b. p. Wei, North of building temple the in type Indian The Taki, and arch above. Entrances to sacred areas were provided with ¢oranas (resembling Japanese torii, where there may be a genetic connec- the Kokka, Nos. 356, 357; for Cambodia, Parmentier, L’Art tion); these consist of upright pillars bearing one or more archi- khmer primitif. Technical Literature.—Before proceeding to a description traves, of which the elaborate examples at Safici afford the best Instances, though many others are represented in reliefs. Applied, of the architecture of successive periods and styles, it should be as it were, to a wall surface, the same form may be used in rock- mentioned that there exists in India a vast technical literature cut or structural shrines (¢.g., Nasik, Cave 1ii.), the pillars becom- (known as Slpa-Sdstra) on the subject. The most important of ing jambs, the lower architrave the lintel, brackets being still repre- such treatises has only recently been made accessible by Professor sented, though no longer functional. In later southern architecture P. K. Acharya (see Bibliography). Such technical works date the gateway of the enclosing walls becomes an immense structural back in part to the Gupta period, perhaps much earlier; the Fiir called a gopuram, often completely dwarfing the main mediaeval compilations are still in use by Indian architects, the sthapatis of modern buildings using either the Sanskrit originals or shrine. The gable or dormer windows (Gavaksa, Kudu) which are vernacular versions. No more valuable contribution to the study found to be most characteristic as constructional elements in the of architecture as a practical art could be made than a detailed

kinds exist. The former, the cave temple type, is best illustrated by the early Buddhist caitya halls (Karli, Nasik, Ajanta, Bagh,

222

INDIAN

ARCHITECTURE

description of building methods still in use in India. It has been shown that the Indian Silpa-Sdstras must have been used by Indian architects in Java and Cambodia. INDUS VALLEY CULTURE TO THE GUPTA PERIOD

Pre-Maurya.—The oldest architectural remains in India are

the remains of cities at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa, dating from the fourth millennium B.c. onwards. Here the buildings are of well-burnt brick, laid in mud or gypsum mortar. They include temples; a sacred tank lined with bitumen, and provided with a drain over six feet high, with a corbel-vaulted roof; and substantially built and well-drained dwelling houses and shops. The only surviving monuments that have been attributed to the Vedic period and culture are the burial mounds at Lauriya-Nandangarh, the source of the gold plaque of the nude goddess; and certain very ancient rock-cut tombs in Malabar. The Cyclopean walls of old Rajagrha are certainly pre-Maurya, but there is no reason to connect them with the Vedas or the Aryans; their character is rather Polynesian than typically Indian. As with design, so in the case of architecture, there is every reason to suppose that the same forms which are represented so admirably in the reliefs of Bharhut, Safici, and Amaravati were already current during many centuries before the Maurya period. The special forms, indeed, are nearer to those of western Asia of the sixth or seventh century B.c., than they are to those of contemporary Persia, and it can hardly be doubted that they represent the Indian development of a widespread early Asiatic tradition. The forms include storied buildings supported on pillars with volute capitals resting on addorsed animals (bulls or lions), often with pot-shaped bases, and having barrel-vaulted roofs with gabled or arched ends and windows; battlemented brick walls; circular shrines with double-domed roofs; pillared barred-vaulted apsidal temples; hypaethral tree-temples; monasteries, of cells opening onto a central court; burial or memorial mounds (stüpas) on platforms; monolithic pillars; and walls and railings. Maurya.—The most ancient excavated cave shrines, those of the Barabar Hills, which are finely polished, date from the time of Agoka. The entrance facade of the Lomas Rsi [Rishi] cave is the earliest example of a decorated tympanum, with ogee arch, finial, curved beams, and resting on sloping jambs, all in imitation

evidence of a seal discovered at Patna, with a Kharosthi ip

scription of not later than the second century A.D.; this s represents a very tall straight-edged

Sikhara

shrine, doubtleg

of brick construction; a true arch above the entrance doorway« clearly shown, and the cella contains a seated image of Buddha The representation closely resembles the well-known Buddhi temple at Bodhgayà, and may be it. In any case it provides, strong corroboratory argument for a dating of the Bodhgay temple,

substantially in its present

form,

from

the reign a

Huviska in the second century AD., as originally suggested by Alexander Cunningham.

A famous structure often referred to at a later date by th

Chinese pilgrims was the “stiipa” of Kaniska near Peshawar, From the foundations of this great building has been recovereda inscribed silver reliquary made for Kaniska himself, and contan.

ing relics purporting to be those of the Buddha. According to the Chinese account the basement rose in five stages to a height of a hundred and fifty feet, the wooden superstructure to four hwn-

dred more, and the iron mast with twenty-five copper umbrellzs eighty-eight feet more. Gupta About A.D. 320-600.—Of

this period both Buddhist

and Hindu buildings in stone or brick and excavated shrines ag characteristic. The most distinctive temple type is that consisting of a square cella, with plain walls and flat roof, and either su rounded by a pillared hall, as at Bhumara, or preceded by a small and graceful pillared porch as at Safici. Tigowa, Pithaora and Nachna-Kuthara. The little temple at Safici well illustrates the fine proportions and appropriate use of ornament characteristic of the early Gupta period. The most important related groups of excavated shrines are those of Udayagiri in Gwalior State (Hindu), and Elara (Visvakarma caitya hall) and Bagh and Ajanta (Caves XVI., XVII., XIX., especially the last, with its

well-known magnificent façade). Farther south, at Bādāmiī, Aihole and Pattadkal three of the earliest Cālukyan buildings are of Gupta

date or a little later. The Lad Khan, c. a.p. 450, is constructed of slabs and pilasters in archaic style; the Durga temple, about a hundred years later, is apsidal like a caitya-hall, combined with a northern Nàgara Skhara. Very interesting apsidal brick temples survive at Ter in the Sholapur District, and Chezarla in the Kistna District. The northern fkhara shrines, usually brick towers with stone of purely wooden forms. The remains of ASoka’s capital at Pataliputra (Patna) have a doorways, are beginning to appear. For the most part the earliest rather special character, and perhaps reflect contemporary Per- examples are straight-edged, or nearly so, and with angle dmalakas sian influences. There have been excavated here parts of a very at every course, or every second or third course. The example at massive wooden city wall; a timbered flooring extending for three Deogarh is entirely of stone; not less important is the brick tower hundred and fifty feet; a series’ of wooden platforms apparently at Bhitargaon, with a recessed frieze of carved brick, and tera intended to support a stupendous superstructure; evidences of a cotta panels of Brahmanical subjects. A little later than the Gupta pillared hall with eighty polished stone columns; a magnificent period, but suitably mentioned here, is the brick tower at Sirpur; stone capital, a stone voussoir from an arch, a stone griffin probably the most exquisite example of a richly decorated brick bracket, and other fragments. It is thought that the plan of thè structure to be found in all India. The monastic university palace was identical with that of the Achaemenid palaces at Per- of Nalanda was found by Baladitya at the close of the fifth sepolis; Arrian speaks of Aéoka's palace as no less magnificent century. Hsitian Tsang saw there a great brick temple over three hundred feet in height; and at Bodhgayà, the temple above than those of Susa and Ecbatana. Suhga, Kusana and Andhra.—Numerous reliefs from Bhar- referred to as of Kusana date. The great Hindu temple at Kench, hut, Mathura and Amaravati, foundations of ruined buildings, very near Bodhgaya and similar in many details, though the spite

and excavated churches (caitya-halls) and monasteries (vihdras)

prove the existence of an architecture now advanced in scale and magnificence. The most remarkable examples illustrated in reliefs are the Sudhamma Sabha and Vaijayanta palace from .Bharhut (Plate I., figs. 4 and 5), the exquisite early shrine from Jagayyapeta, the tree temples from Bharhut, Safici, Mathura and Amaravati, and a little structural domed shrine from Amaravati. Of the “caves,” the cadtya-hall and vihkdra at Bhaja, the great caitya halls at. Karli and Nasik and the Jaina monasteries of Udayagiri and Khandagiri in Orissa, are most noted. Of stiipas, those of Bharhut,

is curvilinear, may well be of Gupta date. ;

MEDIAEVAL ;

Se 4

E

. From the Gupta period onwards it is convenient to describejthé architecture in terms of the three great styles, Nagara (northem

or “Indo-Aryan”), Vesara (later Calukya, Hoyéala and Solanki of the Dekkhan, Mysore and Gujarat), and Dravida (southem Dravidian) with separate mention of Kaémir, and of the ci

architecture of Rajputāna.

^y

Nagara.—Here the most conspicuous feature is the cu red Saficl, and Amaravati; while in Gandhara, both at Taxila and in outline of the £khara, which is composed as in the south of many Afghanistan and extending thence to Turkistan a little later, there storeys representing reduplicated .cornices and roofs; but owing are countless remains of stiipas richly decorated with Graeco- to the great compression of each storey, the vertical lines of the Buddhist sculpture, and many ruined monasteries. Connected whole form are far more conspicuous, at least in the later types with the stüpas are their railings and gateways, of which those at than are the horizontal lines of the successive cornices. The towa, Safici are perfectly preserved, and those of Amaravati are well- usually square, rarely circular in plan, is corbelled inwards unti known from the British Museum series. Most surprising is the the sides nearly, meet; the whole is crowned by a huge ribbed leat

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(1, 5, 10) THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, (3) JOHNSTON AND HOFFMANN

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Architrave detail, Sáfici, south torana, c. 100

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4 Fati p shrine (caityaghara). Railing pillar detail, Bodhgaya, c. 100 B.C. Sabha: e the Buddha’s Crest-relic (cudá-maha); above left, the Sudhammáà railing Bi , is Vaijayanta Palace of Indra; below, apsarases dancing. Detail of atiba or ff rom Bharhut, c. 175 B.C. 5. Jaina votive slab (ayagapata) with h ppers, and angels. Mathura, late Ist cent. B.C. 6. A Buddhist shrine (cait Ja-ghara). Architrave detail, Bharhut, c. 175 B.C. 7. Doorway of rock-cut

CENTURY

B.C. TO

THE

1ST CENTURY

A.D,

Ast Buddhist caitya-ghara, Beds, c. 175 B.C. 8. The Great Stupa, Sàfici, 2nd and B.C. cent. B.C. 9. The Lomas Rishi, Ajivika shrine, Barabar Hills, late 3rd cent. Structural 11. B.C. 10. Railing pillar, with Buddhist shrines, Bodhgayà, c. 100 pillared three-storeyed Buddhist shrine. Jaggayyapeta, 2nd cent. B.C. 12. Domed three-storeyed Buddhist shrine. Detail from a pillar (cetiya-khabha) Amaravati. to capital lion with pillar stupa, a of Probably 1st cent. B.C. 13. Representation left, in a sacred grove. Railing pillar detail, Bharhut, c. 175 B.C.

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1. Rock-cut Buddhist shrine 2. Buddhist shrine at Nasik.

AND

HOFFMANN,

AND

(7)

THE

ARCHAEOLOGICAL

MONASTERIES

(caitya-ghara) at Bhaja. Early 1st century B.C.

2nd

OF

century

3 & 8. Interiors in the Buddhist shrine at Bedsa. 1st century B.C. 4. Jaina monastery, Rani Gumpha Khandagiri, Orissa. c. 100 B.C.

SURVEY

THE B.C.

OF

INDIA

1ST CENTURY

B.C. TO

THE

1ST

CENTURY

A.D.

5. Interior in the Buddhist monastery at Bedsa. lst century B.C. 6. Buddhist shrine at Karli. Late Ist century B.C. or early Ist century A.D. It is 126 ft. long and has a ribbed teak roof

J- Cave Ill. at Nasik, a Buddhist shrine of the 1st century A.D.

INDIAN

ARCHITECTURE

223

culer stone, the Gmalaka which supports the usual vase finial; at these, in the Chitor Fort, was built in 1440-48, to commemorate

the erection of the Kumbhasvami temple. More famous are the Jaina temples at Mt. Abu in Rajputana, widely separated later. These angle dmalakas are clear evidence particularly those of Vimala Shhah and Tejahpala respectively, of the roof-like character of each stage; and indeed, nothing is A.D. 1032 and 1232. These are domed shrines with pillared halls, more characteristic of Indian architecture, nor more valuable for built entirely of white marble, carried up the mountain with the elucidation of its history, than that the ornamentation consists infinite labour from the plains below. The most remarkable

successive stages along the edges of the tower will be found quarter- OF angle-dmalakas, one at each stage in early types, more

essentially of reduced, simplified, or archaic forms closely related

to those of the whole building. The porch or mandapa is usually open and pillared, sometimes roofed with a dome, more often with

a pyramidal roof composed of repeated cornices. In the Nagara

style, a barrel-vaulted roof is very rare, but examples are to be seen at Gwalior (Teli-ka~-Mandir), and in Orissa (Vaital Deul at Puri). The early capital with addorsed animals disappears after the Gupta period, to be replaced by square cushion capitals of various kinds or by a development of the pot-shaped capital into a brimming vase (piirna kalasa) with lotus flowers, and foliage falling from the mouth onto the four corners; in cave temples, e.g. the great Saiva shrines at Elephanta, near Bombay, a globular ümalaka capital is highly characteristic; there may be a derivative connection between this form and that of Visnu’s mace. The most southerly extension of the style is found at Badami, where the apsidal Durga temple, perhaps of Gupta date, has already a northern Sikhara. Here, and in several other places, the

two styles can be seen side by side. It is however in Orissa, Bundelkhand and Rajputana that the finest and most continuous series is to be found. In Orissa the series shows a continuous development from the 8th to the 13th century; the Paraguramesvara and Lingaraja temples at Bhuvanesvara, the Sun temple at Konarak, and the Jagannatha at Puri are most remarkable, and the beauty and grandeur of most of these it would be difficult to exaggerate. At Khajuraho in Bundelkhand there is another magnificent series, dating between 950 and 1050, e.g., the Kandarya Mahadeva temple is the finest; the effect of height, actually 116 feet over all, is increased by the great depth of the basement, and by the vertical lines of the reduplications of the main form upon itself. Here, as well as in Orissa, and elsewhere, the temples are covered with figure sculpture. l From Bengal and Bundelkhand the style extends through Rajputana (where the Siddhesvara at Nemawar, Indore State, is of prime importance and one of the best preserved mediaeval monuments extant) to the Pafijáb (Amb and Kafir Kot), Kangra and Kulü (Baijnàth, Masrür, and Bajaurà). Modern temples in the Nagara style include the Visvegvara at Benares, the funeral chapels at Gwalior, the Jugal Kisor and Madan Mohan at Brinda-

ban, and amongst the many alms-halls, ghais, wells and temples i by Queen Ahalyà Bài (1765—95), the Grstane$vara temple at ira. Vesara, Hoy$ala and Solanki, 10th-13th Century.—After the recovery of the old Calukyan territory by a later branch of Calukyas or Solankis in 973, a new style of architecture came into

being in the Dekkhan and flourished during the 11th and r2th centuries. Another branch of the Solanki family held Gujarat from the 11th to the end of the 13th century. During the 12th

and 13th centuries the Hoyéala dynasty ruled Mysore.

The

Vesara style of architecture is found throughout the area referred to. Conspicuous features are low elevations (contrasting with those of the high Nagara and Dravida sikharas) and wide extension, the star-shaped plan of the cella, the grouping of three shrines about a central hall, low pyramidal towers, elaborated pierced windows, elevated basements with very richly decorated

courses, and in general an excess of ornament. In the Dharwar district, the Dodda Vasavanna is perhaps the most elaborate buildIng in western India. In Mysore the most celebrated shrines are

those of Dodda Gadavalli, Somnathpur,

Belir, Balagami, and

Halebid, and the Jaina bastis at Sravana Belgola.

In Gujarat the most famous temple was that of Somnath

(Kathiawar), wrecked by Mahmid of Ghazni in 1024. At Anahilpattana the greatest royal builder was Siddha-ràj (1093-

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BY COURTESY OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL DEPT., SOUTHERN CIRCLE, MADRAS, INDIA TWO DOLMEN SIVA TEMPLES AT KAMBADUNI, ANANTAPUR

DISTRICT

features are the domed ceilings, with deeply undercut, fretted marble which has been compared to “frozen lace,” with a central pendant. Deservedly famous too are the Jaina temple cities of Girnar

and Satrufijaya, with buildings ranging from the 13th to the roth century. These cities of temples built on hill-tops were exclusively places of pilgrimage, never otherwise inhabited. Of ordinary cities there are well preserved remains at Dabhoi and Jhifijuvad. At the somewhat later capital of Ahmadabad the architecture is almost entirely Mohammedan; but it was executed in the same style and by the local craftsmen, adapted only to Muslim necessities by omission of figure work from the niches. Dràvida.—In southern India, as the Mandagapattu inscription of the great Pallava king Mahendravarman I. (600—625) informs us, temples had been built of brick or timber, reinforced by metal and mortar; only from the seventh century onwards do we meet

with excavated monolithic and structural temples in stone.

It

is difficult to characterise the style in detail, on account of the continuous development, of which the best account has been given by Jouveau-Dubreuil (see Bibliography). Markedly contrasting with the Nagara style of the north, are the conspicuous horizontal lines of the towers or spires, produced by a repetition of heavy roll cornices, dividing one storey from the next; each storey is decorated with little pavilions (pafcaram) or dormer windows (kudu). The walls are often plain, with narrow pilasters, gradually elaborated as the style develops. The pillars are at first supported by lions, and polygonal in section, with a thin flat abacus and roll brackets, later a pendent lotus. The summit of the roof is always a square, circular or polygonal dome (stipz), or barrel vaulted and apsidal, in the latter case appropriately

designated as gajaprsthà ("elephants back"). The temple is always enclosed by a high wall or walls (frákàra), pierced by four gateways (gopura); in some cases, as at Madura, the enclosure becomes a veritable sacred temple city wherein all the activities of life are carried on. The early ‘Dravidian style (Pallava and early Calukya) is admirably illustrated in the Pallava temples of Mamallapuram (the “Seven Pagodas”) and Conjeevaram in the east and early Calukya shrines at Badaémi, Aihole and Pattadkal in the west. The visitor should make every effort to visit the “Seven Pagodas” at Mamallapuram, which are easily accessible from Madras. The earliest monuments are cave temples at Undavalli; then come the Seven Pagodas and cave temples in the seventh century, and in the eighth, the structural temples of Conjeevaram, and the “Shore temple” at Mamallapuram, after which the style passes gradually

into that of the Cola period. In the west, at Badàmi and Aihole,

1143). Hére as at Vàdnagar and Mudhera are the ruins of impor- there are six cave temples, two Jainà and four Brahmanical, one tant shrines. A special characteristic of the local style is the dated 578. The structural: Málegitti Sivalaya, c. 625, magnifierection of kirttistambhas; or “Towers of Glory"; the finest of cently situated on the summit of a hill, is perhaps the purest and

224

INDIAN

ARCHITECTURE

best example of the style; it is small and massive, but finely pro- | portioned. Much larger, and magnificent both in design and execution are the two great temples due to the queens of Vikramaditya IL, datable about 740. Of these the Virüpàksa, still very massive, was probably built by workmen brought from Conjeevaram, where the Rájasimheávara (or Kailasanatha) temple had been built not long before the city fell to the Calukyan invaders; we know from an inscription that Vikramaditya was so much impressed by that great shrine (which still stands, unused, but in almost perfect preservation) that he not only refrained from destruction, but himself made offerings and overlaid the images with gold. In ap. 753 the Rastrakutas invaded and occupied the Calukya territory. No doubt as a result of this invasion workmen were carried off, and this probably explains the form of the great Kailasanatha rock-cut shrine at Elürà which is evidently modelled closely on that of the Virüpáksa at Badami. This wonderful temple, cut out of the side of a hill, is a com-

Rajput’ Civil Architecture.—T wenty or thirty royal reg. dences, a number of cities, and ghàts, preserve from the rsth ce. tury to the present day a civil architecture of extraordinary

grandeur and beauty; the architecture of Fathpur Sikri, too, i

almost purely Hindu in character, and essentially Rajput adapted to Mohammedan requirements (see MOHAMMEDAN ART). The

Rajput style is less intricately ornamented, but of more mony. mental dignity than the better known Mohammedan palaces of the 17th century.

plete model of a structural building, and together with the somewhat later and very similar Jaina Indrasabhā also at Elürà, marks the farthest limit of the northward extension of the Dravida style. The Bhoganandisvara temple at Nandi, c. A.D. 800,

The earliest well preserved palaces are those of Chitor and

Gwalior, the latter magnificently situated on the edge of a grea flat-topped hill, with several great gateways guarding the approach and a small palace, the Gujari Mahall at the foot of the hill. Begun under Man Singh in the 1 sth century it was completed during the Mughal occupation in the 17th. Bir Singh Deva’s

7th century palaces at Datia and Orcha are almost equally splen-

did. The palace at Amber, 17th century, is more nearly like Mughal work, and so too the lovely marble pavilions by the laké at Ajmere. The whole city, palaces and island palaces of

Udaipur (c. 1600-1740) are of romantic beauty. The Jodhpur

palace, 17th century, is situated on the top of a rock dominating the city below, and guarded by bastions of tremendous size. The modern city of Jaipur, the Benares ghats (with buildings mainly of the 18th century), the ghats at Mahe$var and Ujjain, the mod. ern work at Bulandshahr, Mathura, etc. (see Growse, and Sanderson, in Bibliography) and the cenotaphs of Rajput princes in many capitals, are all evidences of an architecture by no means lost, but still practised. The little modern railway station at

affords another important example of a Rastrakuta building in Dravida style. Cola and Pandya.—In the Cola period the tower of the central shrine is typically developed to a great height, by a reduplication of the corniced storeys, as in the great vimanas at Tanjore, the centre of Cola power, and at Gangaikondapuram, both of early eleventh century date. The former is 190 feet in how this tradition can be adapted to present day height. There are also good examples of the style at Polonnaruva Alwar shows the new city at Delhi is a monument of the neglect requirements; period Pandya The n. dominatio Cola the during built in Ceylon, (See DELHI; NEw DELHI.) resources. indigenous of with gateways, great the of is characterised by the development CEYLON a lower storey of stone and super-structure of brick, covered with brick and stucco images plastered and painted. They have the The earliest buildings in Ceylon are dagabas or stupas, those aspect of veritable sky-scrapers, and completely dwarf the main Tissamaharama dating from the 3d or 2d century B.C., the of shrines. Dagaba being the most important of the series. At Yatthila the of phases later hese Vijayanagar and Madura.—T , the capital from the middle of the 3d century Anuradhapura great southern style are characterized by the development of the of the 8th a.v., the Thüpàráma was the first dàgaba end the to B.C. into cut are pillars monolithic The ). pillared halls (mandapam and like the Maha Seya at Mihintale it was built erected, be to brackets, groups of slender columns, or are provided with elaborate atissa, the contemporary of Asoka, and Devanampiy great the by nearly the full size of the pillar itself, and representing leogriffs the branch of the Bodhi-tree which was of him from recipient conor leopards, attacking horses (yülis), or horsemen on rearing at Anuradhapura, and may now be ceremony great with planted sisting of dancers, deities or effigies of founders. Of the earlier tree in the world. To Duttha historical living oldest the called and Kéoyil Avadaiyar , Vijayanagar at series, the great shrines B.C. are due the Ruanweli and century 1st the in early Gamani, buildgreat the Tadpatri are the most remarkable; of the later, Gamani in the same century Watta to and Dagabas, ings of the Nayyaks of Madura, dating from the seventeenth cen- Miriswetiya with the Jetavana built confused later Dagaba, Abhayagiri the rather perhaps is It India. in tury are well-known to all travellers century A.D. All these third the of end the at Mahasena by unfortunate that the Dravida style is best known by one of the the present day, but they have suffered at seen be can dàgabas comwhole the Madura; at shrine Minaksi the latest examples, The famous Lohapasada, plex is indeed impressive, but it gives little idea of the earlier both from ruin and from restoration. built by Duttha Gamani as a monastery js purity of Dravida design. Temple building and restoration con- the Brazen Mansion, now represented only by the monolithic pillars of the basement, in southern India, and in Ceylon, today. tinue twelve feet high and covering an area 250 feet square; the pyre the Kasmir—In Kasmir, which had been a dependericy of midal superstructure was of wood with a brazen roof; originally prolific the kingdom, independent an later and Kusana empire, of nine storeys, it was later burnt and rebuilt with only five. The century. 13th building period extended from the 8th to the The natural fortress of Sigiriya was occupied in the 5th century style has local peculiarities; the double pointed pyramidal roof, a parricide king who built a palace on the summit, and à by fluted ceilings, lantern niche, pediments enclosing a trefoil walled gallery, still usable, as a means of access. remarkable columns with Doric or Ionian capitals, and large peristyles are of the ‘Tamil invasions the capital was removed to result a As certain a preserves here architecture The characteristic. very became the capital from 781 to 1290, which which a Polonnaruv in seen not and quasi-classical character derived from Gandhara, most

interlude of Cola occupation. The the rest of India, though often recognizable in Central Asia. At period includes a short buildings are due to Parakrama Bahu important and remarkable and platform, double a with stüpa Buddhist Parihásapura a large The Thiiparama is a rectangular (1153-86). century r2th the in stairways on each side is contemporary with the Javanese Borobut with vaulted arches and budur; and there are temples of extraordinarily massive con- brick temple in Dravidian style, towers in northern India. early the like windows triangular narrow block single a of struction, one flooring stone consisting Maha Seya) contained Demala (so-called Temple I4XI2X6 feet. Two great temples at Avantipur are due to The Northern at the othet Avantivarman. The court of the Martànda Sun temple is about frescoes (Jataka subjects). In the Jetavana group Buddhist temple in largest the is Lankatilaka the city, the of end 220X 142 feet; that of the Pandu-kund in Jammü about x91 X121 in which Pari: feet. Related architectural forms are found at Malot in the Ceylon. The Potgul Vihàra is a circular building

Punjab, and at Gop and some other places in Kathiawar. But the trefoil arch, derived from the section of a caztya-hall, while confined to Ká$mir as an important architectural form, occurs also at Sarnath, Sirpur and elsewhere.

krama Bahu used to, sit and listen to the reading of the J ätakos

by his chaplain. The Sat Mahal Pāsāda is a solid pyramidal sever:

storeyed brick structure like the traditional representations ° Mt. Meru; on each storey are niches with brick and stucco

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ARCHITECTURE

1. Lad Khan’s temple, Aihole. Early Cálukya. c. 450 B.C.

6. Temple of Kankali Devi, Tigowa. Early Gupta. c. 5th century A.D.

Candel. A.D. 950-1050 3. Kandérya Mahadeva temple, Khajuraho. 4. Lingaraja temple, Bhuvanesvara, Orissa. c. 1000 A.D. 5. Buddhist temple (gandhakuti pasáda) at Bodhgaya, before modern res-

&. The verandah of Cave |. (vihara) at Ajanta, one of a group of about 30 caves cut in the bank of a ravine and used as a kind of college monastery. They were excavated between 200 B.C. and the 7th century

2. Jambulinga temple, Pattadkal. Rastrakita period. 9th century

toration. In essentials it probably dates from the 2d century A.D.

J. Kapoteivara temple, Chezürl. c. 4th oentury AD.

A.D., Cave |. dating from c. 600-650

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INDIAN

(3, 6) THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL

ARCHITECTURE

1. Dharma Sabha, Jain rock-cut temple, Eltra; Rastrakita, Sth century A.D. 2. Verandah of rock-cut temple, the Varaha Mandapa, Mamallapuram; Pallava, early 7th century A.D. 3. Kailasanatha temple, Kaficlpuram (Conjeevaram); Pallava, early 8th century. 4. "Shore temple," Màmallapuram; Pallava, early 8th century. 5. Malegitti Sivalaya, Badami; early Calukya (Pallava style), c. 625 A.D. 6. Great temple at Tanjore; Cola, c. 1000 A.D.

SURVEY

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OF VARIOUS

PERIODS

7. Dharmaraja and Bhima Rathas, Màmallapuram; Pallava, early 7th century. &. Draupadi Ratha, Mamallapuram; Pallava, early 7th century. 9. Vadamalligvara temple, Orakkadam; Cola, 10th century. 10. Gopuram (gateway) of the Minakst temple, Madura; 17th century. ll. Subrahmaniya

temple, Tanjore; 18th century. 12. Architect (sthapati) drawing design for new construction on an existing wall, at Auvadaiyar Kovil, A.D. 1907

INDIAN

ARCHITECTURE

2985

of local ethnic character is everywhere apparent. (See INDONESIAN AND FARTHER INDIAN ART.) BURMA ported a roof, forming a pavilion; and the Wata-da-gé, a terraced of a Gupta type have been sculptures Ruined buildings and circular shrine which is perhaps the most beautiful example of found at Tagaung, Prome, Thaton, and elsewhere. Further north. Buddhist stone architecture in Ceylon. The Hindu temples remains of the old city and a gateway dating from the gth cen(devales) were built in the time of Cola occupation, and so too tury can be seen at Old Pagan. Amongst other structures dating the Gedigé at Nalanda, c. 1040, in gajaprsthà style, and of mixed from the roth century at Pagan are the Nat Hlaung Gyaung VaisHindu-Buddhist dedication. nava temple (A.D. 931), and the cylindrical Ngakywe Nadaung, a Later, the capital had to be moved again, and finally to the last stüpa recalling the Dhamekh at Sàrnáth. site, Kandy. where an independent Sinhalese kingdom survived But it is only with the unification of Burma, accomplished by till 1815. The beautiful buildings there still in use are due to the Anawrata (1040-1077) that a great building era was initiated. last kings, especially Kirtti Sri Raja Simha. The style is mainly Remains of no less than 5,000 “pagodas,” mainly stüpas, but also 4 wooden one, but some use is made of stone. The Dalada Buddhist temples, can be traced in the Pagan area. Two types Mialigawa, the Temple of the Tooth Relic, is familiar to all visi- are especially characteristic. In one the basement terraces of the tors. Near Kandy there are fine temples at Lankatilaka (stone chapel or stupa are developed to a great height, giving a cubical foundations, brick structure and a very handsome roof), and effect, and provided with chapels and galleries in their mass, for Gadaladeniya (a porch with old stone pillars, and a stupa with a which an early Indian parallel is afforded by the stupa at Mirpur

images. To the next king, Nissanka Malla (1198-1 207) are attributed the Nissanka Malla Mandapaya, a railed enclosure containing eight graceful curvilinear lotus pillars which originally sup-

roof supported by four pillars, making a veritable cetiya-ghara). (See CEYLON.) (See also ARCHITECTURE; INDIAN AND SINHALESE ÁRT AND

ARCHAEOLOGY.) BrLrocRAPHY.—P. K. Acharya, Indian architecture according to ihe Manasara (1927); A Dictionary of Hindu architecture (1927); Architecture of Manasara (1928) ; (these are the most valuable books

yet published on Indian architectural science, but they are not illustrated, and embody some errors, see review in L.A.O.S., vol. xlviii).

J. Burgess, The Archaeological Survey of India, New Imperial Series

(1874-1883), 9 vols. (1874—1905) ; The Buddhist stupas of Amaravati and Jagayyapeta (1887); The Ancient monuments, temples and sculptures of India (1897); A. K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art, with a good bibliography (1927); H. Cousens, Architectural Antiquities of Western India (1926); A. Cunningham, Stupa of Bharhut (1879), Mahabodhi (1892), “Archaeological Survey of India, Reports 1862-85" (1871-86); B. B. Dutt, Town Planning in Ancient India (1925); J. Fergusson, History of Indian and Eastern Architecture (2nd ed., 1910), the only book covering the whole ground, but quite out of date, and the sectarian classification is unsatisfactory; J. Burgess, Cave Temples of India (1880) ; A. Foucher, L'Art grécobouddhique du Gandhdra (1900-23); H. V. Glasenapp, Heilige Stütten Indiens (1925); F. S. Growse, Indian Architecture of To-day (1883, 1886); E. B. Havell, Indian Architecture, Its Psychology, Structure and History; Ancient and Mediaeval Architecture of India (1913); India Society, The Bagh Caves (1927); JouveauDubreuil, Archéologie du Sud de l'Inde (1914), Pallava antiquités (1916-18); Dravidian Architecture (1917); S. S. Jacob, Jeypore Portfolio of Architectural Details (London, 1890-98); R. C. Kak, “Ancient and Mediaeval Architecture of Kashmir,” Rupam No. 24 (Oct. 1925); O. Reuther, Indische Paläste und Wohnhäuser (1924);

Khas in Sind; the Ananda, Thatbinnyu, and Shwegugyi pagodas are examples. The other is that of a stupa supported by a high pyramidal terraced basement provided with four median stairways as a means of access, and often with smaller stupas at the angles, thus repeating a type already established at Borobudur, which in turn derives from the terraced stiipas of the Punjab, Kashmir, and Turkistàn. Other structures exhibit special peculiarities, for Anawarata and his successors were in touch with all parts of the then Buddhist world, and built in various manners. Connections with northern India, Bengal and Nepal were especially close. The Mahabodhi stupa is clearly a direct imitation of the ancient Indian shrine of the same type at Bodhgaya, described above, and which was itself in turn restored by pious Burmese Buddhists in the rath century. Active construction at Pagan continued well into the 13th century, after which the unity of the country was for a time destroyed by Shan invasion. The unfinished Mingun pagoda, begun in the 18th century, was to have been the largest in Burma, and what remains is still over 140 feet in height, though this represents only a third of the proposed elevation. It is highly characteristic that ancient stupas of small size were again and again enclosed within larger structures, and thus lost to view, so that huge pagodas like those at Prome and Pegu, while really representing ancient foundations, are in their present aspect comparatively modern. Mandalay was founded only in 1857, and occupied by Mindén, the last great Burmese royal patron of Buddhism. The palace, a

A. H. Longhurst, “Pallava Architecture,” Mem. ASI., No. 24 (1914), Hampi Ruins (1917); E. La Roche, Indische Baukunst (1921-22); F. C. Maisey, Sanchi and its Remains (1892); Sir J. H. Marshall, Guide to Sanchi (1918), Guide to Taxila (1918) and many articles in the Annual Reports of the Archaeological Survey; R. Mitra, Buddha Gaya (1878); Pullé, “Riflessi Indiani

wooden structure in which material from an older palace at Amarapura (the previous capital, near Pagan) is employed, like most wooden palaces consists of connected halls, pavilions and galleries within a walled enclosure. The main features of the style are the use of immense teak columns, lacquered and gilt multiple roofs nel'arte Romaica," Congr. Int. Scienze Storiche; A, Rea, Chalukyan and spires with flamboyant crockets, and an interior decoration Architecture (1896); R. Rivoira, Musulman Architecture (1918); Ram Raz, Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus (1834); D. R. in which glass mosaic plays an important part. Other fine examSahni,” Guide to the Buddhist Ruins of Sarnath (2nd ed., 1926); ples of late Burmese wooden architecture are afforded by monasG. Sanderson and T. Begg, Types of Modern Indian- Building (1913) ; A. Sewell, A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar) (1900); J. G. Smither, Architectural Remains, Anuradhapura (Ceylon, 1894); S. Taki, “The Indian Type in the Building of North Wei,” Kokka Magazine, No. 356, 357. See also Marshall, Vogel, Spooner, Longhurst, Rea,

teries such as the Myadaung Kyaung at Mandalay and the Sangyaung at Mandalay, due to the piety of various queens. Still more modern is the famous Shwe Dagén pagoda (stiipa) at Rangoon; ifs tapering form, the outline of the spire being almost continuous with that of the body, contrasts conspicuously with the more

bibliography; and Reports and Memoirs of the Archaeological Surveys of India, Hyderabad, Mysore and Ceylon.

monumental hemispherical and cylindrical types of early Indian

Strzygowski, etc., as listed in Coomaraswamy, History (ut supra),

FARTHER INDIA AND INDONESIA There can be traced in each area, first of all, an Indianesque

period, when the local art is closely related to that of India in which the forms of Indian art were reproduced, then a Classical period (A.D. 800-1200) in which local national formulae

are evolved and crystallised; and finally a local national phase no longer in direct contact with India, and passing into a stage of folk-art which has survived up to the present day. It is at all times an injustice to apply to the local schools the name of Indian

colonial art, for although the structural and decorative elements are all originally of Indian origin, the originality and energy of the local forms derive from indigenous sources, and the expression

art. There is a general fined and aspiring, and of Indian architecture DONESIAN AND FARTHER

tendency to the development of more reless massive types in all the later stages wherever it is found. (See BURMA, ININDIAN ART.) SIAM The architecture of Siam is not well known. No edifice of importance survives from the Dvaravati (Mon) period, but the Brah Pathamacetiya reliefs have decorative representations of buildings with caitya arches (kádu), suggesting, as in the case of the contemporary pre-Khmer architecture of Cambodia, direct connections with Indian originals. At Labapuri and Ayuthia, up to the r4th century, the architecture is of directly Khmer inspiration; Wat Mahathat at Labapuri is a good example. Simi-

INDIAN

226

ARCHITECTURE

larly at Svargalok and Sukhodaya, buildings dating before the The Bayon, intended to be Buddhist, was adapted to Saiva establishment of an independent Thai kingdom, ¢.g., the Wat before its completion, and ultimately contained the statues y Mahadhatu at Svargalok, and Wat Brah Bay Hluang at Sukho- | Hindu and Buddhist deities, the Deva Raja (a lingam represent. daya, are equally Khmer, and the sculptures found in them are | ing the king’s divinity), and statues of deified royal ancestors, If analogous to those of the Khmer school at Labapuri. The 13th cen- most conspicuous feature consists of the towers with enormom tury Wat Kukut at Larnbiin (a pyramidal tower apparently re- masks (representing Loke$vara) on each face; but equally interlated to the Sinhalese Sat Mahal Pasada at Polonnaruva) and the esting are the reliefs in which almost every aspect of contempo. Wat Chet Vot at Xieng Mai (modelled either directly after the rary life is depicted. The Baphuon, c. A.D. 1000, is a typical Indian temple at Bodhgaya, or more likely on the 13th century Burmese copy at Pagan) belong to the last days of Mon government in the north. The remains of the Wat Keo at Jaiya in the

far south belong to the school of Srivijaya. It is only after the foundation of Ayuthia that a distinctively Siamese architecture develops, and as seen at Ayuthià and Bangkok, this is characterised by slender, aspiring, and pointed forms. (See SIAM.) CAMBODIA

Pre-Khmet or Khmer Primitive.—The history of Indian architecture in south-eastern Asia can be followed in Cambodia better than anywhere else; here, despite the fact that with the disappearance of wooden architecture more abundant than that in stone, the sequence is relatively complete. In the Khmer prim-

itive, or pre-Khmer (as different authors interpret it) architecture of southern Cambodia, dating from the 6th and 7th centuries (when permanent material such as brick, laterite, and stone were just coming into use), we find a series of buildings which exhibit striking analogies with those of the early Calukyas of the western

Dekhan, as well as with those of the Pallavas, and even with the earlier style of the Andhras. M. Parmentier, in his two fine volumes entitled L’Art khmer primitif, has argued, probably rightly, that both these early Cambodian and the contemporary Indian forms are developed locally from common earlier Indian sources.

A slab-built cella at Hanchei recalls the small shrine on the roof

of the Lad Khan at Aihole; it was once perhaps surrounded by a pillared hall as at Bhumara. Another very elegant square cella at Préi Kuk has shallow pilasters, and characteristic Indian cornices with dormer-arches framing Gandharva heads, and is quite Pallava in appearance. Here also, and at Bayang there are high brick towers suggesting such Gupta types as Deogarh or Bhitargaon; at Maha Roséi there is a granite shrine of Pallava type.

' Classic Period, Khmer.—From the oth to the 12th century and even later, Cambodian architecture develops still in brick and laterite, but more characteristically in stone. Indian forms are

departed from, or freely modified, and local features appear, so

that a truly national architecture comes into being. Unlike anything in India are the half-vaulted arches with curved stone sloping roofs imitating tiles, and so too the huge faces or masks on the sides, of the early towers of the Bayon and Angkor Thom gateways. On the other hand the later towers develop as in India by a reduplication of storeys, vertically compressed, and many motifs, seemingly novel, for example the Garuda caryatides of the Prah

Khan walls and the Angkor Thom terrace have really older Indian

prototypes. The classic Khmer architecture is widely distributed in northern Cambodia, perhaps the original seat of the Khmers. The best known monuments, out of hundreds still in existence, are the city of Angkor Thom and the neighbouring temple of

Angkor Wat (“Angkor” is 4 corruption of Sanskrit nagara, city or capital; Wat or Vat, a later Siamese term for. any Buddhist

monument). The city, occupied about A.D. 9oo, is of great. extent, and contained within a moat, crossed by five causeways with parapets consisting of gods and giants holding the bedy of a giant Naga; these causeways lead to triple gateways large enough for the passage of elephants, and from these proceed five roads to the

heart of the city. Near the city are the previous capital of Prah

Khan, ‘and other shrines such as the Néak Péan, and Phnom

Bakeng, and Angkor Wat, and many artificial lakes. The city is

terraced, pyramidal structure (prdng), with median stairways lead.

ing to a stone gallery above. Of the many other temples builtin less accessible sites, the Prah Vihéar may be mentioned; it is mag. nificently situated on a spur of the Dangrek range, overlooking rolling panorama of uninhabited jungle. Angkor Wat is the late Siamese designation of the most famous and most beautiful of

Cambodian shrines, of which the true name is unknown, though there is reason to think the dedication was to Visnu. The date js the early r2th century. The r4th century temple of Isvarapura at Bantéi Sréi is proof

that the capacities of the Khmers were not destroyed by the earlier Siamese invasions.

But the country had certainly bee

devastated and Angkor Thom abandoned by the rsth century, and when later inscriptions appear, they belong to the Siames period, and Hinayana Buddhism has replaced the mixed Mahiy. àna Buddhism and Hinduism which formed the state religion of the Khmers in the classical period.

CAMPA Eastern Indo-China, now Annam, once the seat of great Cam kingdoms, must have been Hinduised at an early date, for we find traces of Hindu kingdoms both in the north and south as early as the end of the second century A.D. All the early, and much of the later architecture was wooden. The remains are of two peri ods, one classic from the seventh century to about 1100, the other that of the decadence. The sacred city of Mi-son was founded about A.D. 400, but the great brick tower now surviving was built on the site of the original wooden shrine soon after 600. The plan is square, but the cella is twice as high as it is wide, and the effect of height is increased by the narrow decorated pilasters which emphasize the vertical lines; the pyramidal roof consists of three diminishing storeys, repeating the form of the cella on a smaller scale.

The decorative motifs include makara niches,

geese with extended wings, both old Indian motifs, and acroteria silhouetted against the sky; on the whole we are reminded of Indian Gupta towers, and the pre-Khmer towers of Cambodia. In addition to this main shrine there are six great halls for the accommodation of pilgrims; for Mi-son was a sacred city rather than a place of habitation. Later, about 800, a great temple and monastery, the only important Buddhist buildings in Campa, were erected at Dong-duong by Indravarman II.; but the place was soon ravaged by the Annamites, who were continually pressing downwards from the north and ultimately. accomplished the run of Cam civilisation. Sanctuaries were built again near the new

capital of Binh-dinh at the beginning of the 11th centufy; the colossal towers of Duong-long, and those known as the Towers of Gold, Silver and Copper, are striking monuments. But it was

no longer possible to build up great temple cities in honour of the gods. The Annamites penetrated even as far as Nha-trang, and took possession of the temple of Po Nagar; only Po Klong Garai remains in Cam possession, and here worship is still conducted.

|

SUMATRA

Sumatra, Suvarbabhimi, the “Land’ of ‘Gold, Vavadvipa of

early Indian literature, received! Indian colonists probably before the Christian era; in the 5th century Mahayana Buddhism: was officially adopted as a result of a royal mission: from’ Kashmir. I Ching passed by Palembang about 690 and found here. a great

centre of Sanskritic Buddhist learning. Before this time the great

situated in the plains, among the rice-fields and near the'great lake, Malay kingdom of Srivijaya held for many centuries by the Sail both necessary sources of food supply for :a great population. There the most important’ structures are found to be the great

endra dynasty had been established with the capital at Palembang.

controlling. thence the Malay’ Péninsula and probably Siam às

terrace’ running’ along ithe’ public square’in front«of the palace far as'Prapathom; this wds the greatest maritime power in south site; and numerous temples, of which the Bayon ithe fost re- eastern Asia (Madagascar had been colonised by Hinduised Ma markable, others being known as the Baphuon. ‘and ‘Phimanakas, lays early in’ the Christian era).

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CAMBODIA: 1. Ankor Wat, 12th cent. 9. Slab-built shrine, Préi Kuk, early Khmer, 7th cent. 12. Ankor Wat, galleries, early 12th cent. 13. Ankor Wat, Tower, early 12th cent. JAVA: 2. Borobudur, Sth cent. 3. Candi Puntadewa, Diéng, Sth cent. 4. Candi Bima, Diéng Plateau, early Bth cent. 11. Porch at Candi Sewu, 10th cent. 15. Candi Jabung, A.D. 1354.

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An inscription at Vien Srah in the northern part of the Malay Peninsula records the erection there of brick towers and stupas. That of Kota Kapur in Bangka speaks of a military expedition to

ava, and in fact, from before the middle of the eighth century the whole of central Java was subject to the Sailendras. The

buildings there erected, however, will be discussed under Java (see

below); in Sumatra proper the architectural remains are little known and not well preserved, (See SUMATRA.)

JAVA The old Hindu kingdom of Taruma in western Java is known only by inscriptions of 4th and sth century date. The earliest architectural remains are those of the Dieng Plateau, where in the

seventh or early eighth century stone was for the first time employed in Java as a building material. The plateau was not an inhabited city, but a place of pilgrimage, a temple city comparable with Girnàr and Mi-son. Out of many more, eight temples survive; they are known by the names of the heroes of the Rémdéyana, but these appellations have nothing to do with their original dedication to Siva. The Indian character of the architecture is conspicuous, and in all probability Indian architects were at work here. The construction is generally cubic, with strongly emphasized vertical and horizontal lines; the temples are two-storeyed, the roof repeating the form of the cella. The plan is square, and the walls are divided by pilasters into niches or panels with sculpture; a grotesque makara face crowns the doorways. This description applies to the four temples of the Arjuna group; but Candi

Bhima is a pyramidal tower in the northern Indian nàgara style with successive horizontal stages repeating the fundamental forms, cornices with dormer-arches framing Gandharva heads, and angleamalakas at the fourth and fifth stages; no doubt a single amalaka crowned the now ruined summit. East and south of the Plateau and at Mt. Ungaran there are numerous other small temples of the same period and style, but rather more freely, and exquisitely decorated. We come now to the great monuments of the Sailendra period (see above; SUMATRA) which are easily accessible to visitors from Djokjakarta. In Candi Kalasan, a lovely but ruined building dedicated to Tara, we find the first Buddhist temple on Javanese soil; the date is A.D. 778. This is a building of the Dieng Arjuna type, but the lateral niches are developed into side chapels, the ornament is more elaborate, and there are delicate strips of floral tracery between the plain pilasters. Near by is the three-storeyed rectangular Candi Sari. Candi Mendut which is near Borobudur is similar in plan, but there are no side chapels; on the other hand there is an open sculptured vestibule, and the exterior walls of the cella Y richly decorated with figure reliefs. (See Java; see BATIK.

Borobudur.—Borobudur (“Many Buddhas”) is wonderfully situated on an eminence commanding an extensive view of ricefields and more distant towering volcanoes; it is a hill that has been terraced and clothed with stone. It is in fact a low pyramid,

composed of successively receding platforms with re-entrant angles. The structure is thus exactly analogous with that of contemporary buildings in Kásmir, and that of earlier stupas in the Panjab, and Afghanistan, and the Rawak stupa in Turkistan, which are similarly provided with extensive basements having median stairways on one or four sides, though none of the Indian examples has more than two terraces, so that. Borobudur represents a more developed type. (For the sculptures see INDONESIAN AND FARTHER INDIAN ART.) Borobudur cannot be exactly dated, but was probably built at the close :of the 8th century.

227

cated to Brahma, Siva, and Visnu, and some smaller shrines, within the same enclosure. The Siva temple is typical; the actual shrine occupies the summit of a steep truncated terraced pyramid with median stairways on three sides leading directly to the main shrine and side chapels above. The whole site may have been a royal mausoleum as well as a place of ordinary worship. Nearby is the Buddhist Candi Plaosan. These temples were no sooner built than abandoned, for about A.D. 915 Central Java was deserted, and the further development of Javanese architecture must be studied in the East and in Bali. At Candi Lalatunda and at Belahan there are sculptured bathing places built by Udayana and by his great son, Erlanga. The best known monuments, however, belong to the r3th and r4th centuries, the time of the great capitals at Singasari and Maja-

pahit. At Singasari, Candi Kidal is a Saiva, and Candi Jago a Buddhist temple, but there is a mixture of the two cults amounting almost to fusion, as was also the case in Cambodia; a like condition survives in Bali at the present day. In far eastern Java the great Buddhist shrine of Candi Jabung dates from 1354; the circular tower, unique in Java, stands on the usual high rectangular terraced basement, the transition from base to tower being skilfully effected. At Panataran near Blitar there is a large Saiva temple complex, recently excavated and partly restored; the basement of the main temple is square and terraced, with the usual recessed corners. The associated gates and the sculpture are already in a style forecasting that of Bali. Bali.—Bali, where alone in Indonesia Hinduism and Buddhism survive as practised cults, most probably had early and direct relations with India; but we have also to reckon with the migration of Javanese exiles to Bali at the close of the rsth century, by

which time practically the whole of Java had received Islam. In

Bali the only important early remains are the royal tombs at Tampaksiring, dating from the rrth or 12th century, and the Pura ye Ganga temple, more or less in Panataran style, dating from the r4th or 15th century. The more modern temples of sangsit, Bangli, Batur, Kesiman, Den Pasar, etc., consist of groups of small independent shrines enclosed by walls having high roofed gateways; with rich sculpture in limestone, in fantastic forms and high relief. (See also ARCHITECTURE; INDONESIAN AND FARTHER INDONE-

SIAN AND INDIAN ART.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—General_—J. Fergusson, A History of Indian and Eastern Architecture (2nd ed., London, 1910) ; A. K. Coomaraswamy, History of Indian and Indonesian Art (Leipzig, 1927) ; H. Parmentier, “L’Origine commune des architectures hindoues dans l'Inde et en

Extréme-Orient,” Etudes Asiatiques, vol. ii. (Paris, 1925) ; L. de Beylié,

L’ Architecture Hindoue en Extréme-Orient (Paris, 1907). Burma.—Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Reports, articles by Ch. Duroiselle and by Taw Sein Ko; do. Burma Circle; E, Forchammer, Report on the antiquities of Arakan (1892); Taw Sein Ko., Archaeological notes on Pagan (1917); Archaeological notes on Mandalay (1924); Th. H. Thomann, Pagan, 1923. Siam.—G. Coedeés, “Recent archaeological progress in Siam,” Indian. Art and Letters, N.S., I. (1927); L. Fournereau, Le Siam ancien (Paris, 1908) ; G. E. Gerini, “Siamese archaeology, a synoptic sketch.” Journ. Roy. As. Soc. (London, 1904); K. Dohring, Buddhistische Tempelanlagen in Siam (Berlin, 1920); Der Pracedibau in Siam, Zeit. fiir Ethn., Vol. 44 (1912) ; Siam, II., Bildende Kunst (1923). | Cambodia.—Articles by Parmentier and others in Bulletin de PÉcole frangaise d'Extréme-Orient; by Groslier and others in Arts et Archaeologie khmers; G. Groslier, Recherches sur les cambodgiens (Paris, 1921) ; H. Dufour et C. Carpeaux, Le Bayon d’Angkor Thom (Paris, 1910, 1914); H. Parmentier, L’Art khmer primitif (Paris, 1927); E. Aymonier, Histoire de l'ancien Cambodge (Strasbourg, 1924?); L. Finot, L'Origine d'Angkor, Phnom Penh (1927); H. Marchal, Guide aux Temples d’Angkor (1928); P. Stern, Le Bayon d’Angkor Thom et l'évolution de Part khmer, an important revision of former dating (Paris, 1927); L. Finot, et al., “Le temple d’ISvara-

Candi Sewu Prambanam is a Buddhist temple which dates from the early oth century. The large central shrine represents a o

dn Srei)," Mem. Arch. École frang. d’Extréme-Orient, No. I. 1927). further development of the Candi Kalasan design, with side chapCompà.—H. Parmentier, “Les monuments du cirque de Mison,” Bull. els open to the exterior, and niches containing images. Around it, Ecole frang. d’Extréme-Orient, 1904; Inventaire descriptif des monuwithin the large area enclosed by the prakadra are two double se- ments cams d’Annam (Paris 1909, 1918); J. Leuba, Les Cams et leur

nes ofsmall independent chapels, about 250 in.number. The order

and formality of the design are conspicuous.

.

art (Paris, 1923).

Sumatra.—G. Coedés, “Le royaume de Srivijaya,” Bull. École franc.

@’Extréme-Orient (1918); G. Ferrand, L’Empire sumatranais de After the "Restoration," c. A.D. 860, the Hindu kings of Cen- Srivijaya (Paris, 1922). (A. K. C.) tral Java erected other great buildings at Prambanam. The Candi. Java—N. J. Krom, Inleiding tot de hindoe-javaansche kunst $

t

or Jongrang group consists of three large terraced temples dedi-

(Leyden, 2nd ed., 1923); Het oude Java en zijn kunst

(Haarlem,

INDIAN

228

1923); N. J. Krom en Erp., T. van, Beschrijving van Barabadur (The Hague, 1920), and Krom’s English text of the same, Barabadur, Archaeological description (The Hague, 1927); H. Hoenig, Das Formproblem des Borobudur (Batavia, 1924) ; Publications of the Oudheidkundige Dienst and Archaeologicat Onderzoek op Java en Madura, Weltevreden; Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land-, en VolkenKunde, Batavia. , Bali—N. J. Krom, *L'Art ancien de Bali,” Revue des Arts Asiatiques, I. (1924); P. A. J. Moojen, Kunst op Bali (1926); W. Stutterheim, on a research in Java and Bali,” Indian Art and Letters 1927).

INDIAN

DESERT, THE.

Between the ancient Aravalli

mountains and the wall-like front of the recently folded arcs which carry the Indo-Baluchistan frontier, and from the shores of the Arabian sea to within an average distance of c. 80 m. from the Himalayas, extends a lowland exceeding 200,000 sq.m., with an annual rainfall of less than 15 in. and a population of about 15 million. At one extremity it touches the northern tropic; at the other it passes beyond 32° N. lat. It includes most of that part of the Punjab which constitutes “The Land of the Five Rivers,” together with the adjoining trans-Indus districts of Dera Ghazi Khan and Dera Ismail Khan; the whole of Sind and, to the immediate north, Kachhi (Kalat). The western hem of south-east Punjab must be added also. Native States territory constitutes a solid block extending from the Sutlej-Indus line, east of Sind, to the Aravallis, including Bahawalpur (g.v.), and to the south the Rajputana States of Bikaner, Jaisalmer, and Jodhpur (qq.v.). Native territory touches the Indus again for a short distance below Sukkur where Khairpur State, hinging on to the west of Jaisalmer, breaks across Sind to the river. Finally Cutch State passes down from jodhpur to the seaboard south of Sind. A range of rb? of lat. implies considerable climatic diversity, and the area embraced leaves room for topographical variety. Yet it remains a major natural entity, the character of which is conveyed in the title “Arid Lowland.” The tract has a general slope from the Himalayas to the Arabian sea, 7.e., north-east to southwest. Along its inner margin, in Punjab, the land between the

rivers (doabs) rises to c. 700 ft.; but the western portions of the doabs and south of the Sutlej, almost all Bahawalpur, lie below the soo ft. contour line. The 250 ft. contour line cuts the Indus river as it enters Sind, the heart of which province is well below this; the rest, with the conspicuous exception of the Kohistan, not much above it. To the south-east towards the Aravallis, the lowland attains a general level of over 1,000 ft. whence it grades down north-westwards, z.e., traversing the prevailing slope at right angles. Except for a fringe of Jaisalmer, and the basin of the Luni river draining south-east to the Runn of Cutch, all Rajputana stands well above soo ft. and betrays its physical “betweenness.” Its deep mantle of aeolian deposits allies Rajputana superficially with the alluvial expanse upon which it encroaches. But it is not so completely destitute of solid rocks, and these, rising as low heights above the sandy surface, indicate a deep-seated unity with peninsular India as a coastal margin shelving from the Aravallis towards the seas, persisting to the north until late geological time. Climate.—Climatically the tract is one of extreme temperature range, daily and seasonal. This is tempered somewhat along the coast but increasingly marked northwards. November to February is warm, with a mean daily temperature of 55?—70? F. The minimum falls in January. The designation “Cold Season,” which is applied to this period (particularly the latter half), serves to emphasize the contrast with conditions prevailing during the rest of the year; namely, the low night temperatures with liability to frequent frost in the Punjab (Khushab mean min. Jan. 41-5° F, lowest recorded 25-0° F) and north Sind, though elsewhere such occurrences are very rare; the limitation imposed upon agriculture by the exclusion of essentially tropical plants at this season; and, lastly, the relief, which its duration affords to Europeans. Pressure is high in relation to the neighbouring seas, and only light winds blow from north-west and west. Except during the passage of shallow cyclones from across the North-West Frontier, toward the south-east, bringing a little rain to the Punjab fringe (rarely elsewhere), cloud is absent. March to October is hot. From May to July the mean daily temperature exceeds 90? F, with the maximum in June. Afternoon readings of 110° to 120° F

DESERT are registered (Jacobabad 127° June 1919; highest ever recorded

in India). The rising temperature initiates a reversal in pressure and amid the changing

conditions

duststorms

are

generated

Winds from the west and south-west are well established by

April and persist until October, blowing with increasing strength

as the depression deepens over the land until they reach their fina! expression in the south-west monsoon proper. But the air currents now entering the lowland on this side emanate from the dry land belt about the head of the Arabian sea. Hence they are not saturated like those, which, originating over a broad ocean, impinge on the Bombay coast; but only “stray” just north of the Aravallis,

They confer even scant benefit to the immediate coast fringe:

beyond, they desiccate. Since also the Bay of ‘Bengal branch of the advancing monsoon, which enters the lowland from the east ona downhill journey to its barometric goal, has already served the whole Gangetic plain, its remaining moisture is soon exhausted, Thus of the 213,110 sq.m. actually under review 47,590 receives less than 5 in. per annum; 95,560 5 to ro in., 69,960 ro to 1s inches. The following illustrates briefly the salient features of

distribution, and how precipitation shrinks north, south and east towards Upper Sind and Kachhi:

Jaisalmer. Multan . Karachi . Jacobabad

Var. (variability) indicates departure from average seasonal rainfall as registered in half the years during 1890—1923, expressed in percentage. It is one way of illustrating the violently fluctuating régime. In general, March to May returns are insignificant. Water.—It is a truism that natural boundaries are zonal not linear; and generalizations concerning the biological effectiveness of rainfall are dangerous. Space forbids qualifications, yet it may be accepted that over the lowland precipitation is such that it precludes the transformation of the surface by permanent cultivation, and that over those parts which lie beyond the sphere of running water a desert landscape prevails. At once, therefore, it claims a

continuous area of just over 100,000 sq.m. cut off from effective water circulation. This involves Bikaner, with Jaisalmer and nearly all Jodhpur; Bahawalpur practically to the north-west railway which runs parallel to the Sutlej; the Runn of Cutch, and north of it as much of Thar and Parkar district (Sind), Khairpur State, and Sukkar district (Sind) as lie east of the Nara river (properly canal). Its name “Thar” refers to the sandhills accumulated by the prevailing winds which transport thither the saline dust picked up over the Indus delta and the Runn. Two types of sandhills are recognized. (i) Longitudinal (Sindhi Bhiżs), parallel ridges aligned north-east south-west, 7.e., parallel to the prevailing winds. The bhits are restricted to the west, i.e., Thar and Parkar south of Umarkst, eastwards to the Luni basin.

They reflect

greater wind force than (72) Transverse type, to which they give way, through intermediate forms, north-east of Umarkst.

These

lie at right angles to the wind but are less regularly aligned than

(i). The marginal dunes rise to about 200 ft. above the general Further inland they

sandy surface and are relatively permanent.

are lower, in constant motion, and the landscape tends towards

a low plateau of deep, loose sand, reminiscent of a billowy sea.

Deserted by a “westering” parent, the feeble monsoon streams

which struggle across south-east Punjab, between the Sutlej and Jamna rivers, succumb before the sand ere the Rajputana border

is reached.

The Luni river is the only significant watercourse

within the area. It receives several Aravalli streams from the south-east and is at least a support to the subsoil water within its

bend; but it loses itself in sand at the head of the Runn. Salt.—The salinity of the soil, characteristic of the whole low-

INDIAN land and here very marked, is sufficiently accounted for throughout Thar by the action of the wind, bringing material from the sea-

board. The evaporation of subsoil brine is common over Rajputana (particularly Pachbhadra neighbourhood) and also beyond south-west of Delhi, in Multan and Muzaffargarh. The Rajputana salt lakes, representing the fixation of salt washed into basins of internal drainage, are marginal to the desert. Of these, Sam-

bhar, on the Jodphur-Jaipur boundary is the largest. It lies in a closed depression in the Aravalli schists (1,184 ft.). Its maximum spread is 9o sq.m. and during a normal monsoon it averages 4 ft. deep in the middle, but is dry the greater part of the year. The upper 12 ft. alone of saliferous silt forming its bed represents a salt reserve of about 54,000,000 tons. The lake is worked on lease by the Government of India, and the salt extracted is railed to Sambhar at the eastern end of the lake, whence it is distributed (average annual yield 1918-19 to 1922-23, 230,340 tons). Lesser

lakes, of scant importance, occur to the north-west.

Gypsum, also occurring on the margins of some of the lakes,

may prove more important in the future. In Sind and Khairpur, where the floor of alluvial clay remains uncovered or only thinly

mantled with sand, shallow though often large expanses of water known as dhands are common in the hollows (talis) between the sandhills. They are fed by rain water percolating through the sand and emerging as a spring (sim) above the clay. Prior to the controlling of the Nara river many dhands were replenished by its flood spills, but these have now mostly dried up. Sim. water is

often sweet, and gives rise to fresh pools close to where it emerges

and lying a few feet above the dhand proper, which is either alkaline or saline, rarely fresh, its particular nature being recognizable from its fringe of vegetation. All dhands shrink seriously after rain; the smaller ones dry up. The mineral ¢rona, from the alkaline dhands, supports the soda (chaniho) industry of Khaipur State and Nawabshah district (Sind). Saline dhands yield salt and gypsum. Flora.—A varied, open, shrubby and coarse herbaceous vegetation is characteristically. present, salt lovers being conspicuous. On sweet, damp bottoms, and after rain, good grass abounds. Thus fodder exists for large numbers of cattle, sheep, goats and camels; villages are scattered everywhere. When rain is propitious, millets (principally bajra) are raised and husbanded to eke out a milk diet supplemented otherwise only by such imported grain as the profits of the pastoral industry and associated crafts, such as the making of blankets, felts, lohzs (coarse shawls), ropes, bags, brushes and leather goods render possible. Typical desert talukas of Sind show a population density

per square mile of less than 20 (cf. Diplo. 12; Chachro 18); Jaisalmer the “core” of the desert has an over-all density of 4 per

sqm.; Bikaner gives 28 (Bikaner city 69,410); Jodhpur 53 (Jodhpar city 73,480), but a heavy allowance must be made for that

part of the State outside the essential desert. Roughly, Thar carried ¢. 24 millions, largely marginal. The Runn of Cutch (Rann of Kachh), embracing c. 8,000 sq. m. while an integral part of the desert, possesses a distinctive character. It is a low-lying salt-impregnated alluvial tract. Seemingly uniformly level, it has a general imperceptible slope seaward, while minor irregularities give shallow surface depressions. When the surface is dry it is hard and polished, “even a horse’s hoof hardly dents it in passing.” During the south-west monsoon, however, it is flooded by the waters of the Luni, Puran, Banas and other rivers assisted by rain remaining on the hard surface, but the view that at this season the sea invades it (the sea level is

raised 4 to 5 ft.) has been disproved and abandoned. During flood the water varies in places from a few inches to some feet, but afterit subsides evaporation proceeds until only salt remains.

Lying in a belt liable to pronounced seismic disturbance, the Runn suffered severe displacement in 1819; depression increased the rann” proper, but aeolian deposits have diminished it since.

it is a range for wild asses. The impoverishment of the Runn and

much of what is now Thar reflects the “westering” of the Indus

and associated Punjab rivers. A map shows that the streams makmg for Rajputana across the low Sutlej-Jumna watershed converge towards a large dry water course (the Ghaggar), which runs

DESERT

220

parallel to the Sutlej and is traceable beyond through Sind to the

Runn, roughly via the east Nara and Puran. This is the Hakra, or “Lost River,” fed formerly by the Sutlej (possibly at one time by other Punjab rivers), and in its lower course (as the Mihran of Sind), by the Indus. Such was the known condition in the 8th

century A.D. Subsequent probably to phenomenal flooding in north Punjab, placed in the 14th century, a rearrangement of drainage initiated the decline of the Hakra. First a "westering" Indus ceased to feed its lower reach; eventually the Sutlej completely deserted it and passed to the Indus via the Beas. By 1790 the Hakra was dead. The tapping by bunds of the waters latterly feeding the Puran from an Indus distributary assisted to complete the dereliction of the abandoned delta (the Runn). Irrigation.—Outside Thar, the immediate valleys of the rivers sustained by the snows of Himalayas, tree-lined and recuperated by inundations, break the arid continuity, while as a result of irrigation achievement the desert survives only in fragments. Consequent upon the melting snows, the Indus and rivers of Punjab begin to rise in March, and normally spill over the land in midJune. Floods culminate in August, and the rivers fall fairly rapidly to a minimum about February. From antiquity channels have been dug to utilize the rising waters. Such inundation canals are necessarily restricted to the lower marginal lands, i.e., mainly newer alluvium (Khadar), which in Punjab lies 10 to 50 ft. below the older alluvium (BAanger) comprising the doabs, and. varies from 4 to 10 m. wide. Hence they occur mainly where the “Five Rivers” converge to form the single artery continued in the line of the Indus, and attain their maximum development in Sind, where the widening Khadar merges into truly deltaic land. Many of these canals existed prior to British rule; they have been improved and others added. Since inundation canals function only during the floods and fluctuate with the natural level of the water in the river their shortcomings are obvious. Yet they play a big part. At present they are virtually the only form of irrigation in Sind, and they serve c. 13 million acres in the Punjab. Thus (average annual area irrigated 1923-24 to 1925-26, in acres) : Upper Sutlej canals, 320,237; Lower Sutlej canals, 342,972; Indus Inundation, 234,945; Muzaffargarh Inundation, 333,694; Chenab Inundation, 185,440. In addition, the Sutlej serves c. 900,000 ac. in Bahawalpur and there is a small canal in Dera Ismail Khan. Agriculture—lIt is, however, to the expansion of great perennial systems over the broad backs of the Punjab doabs, and the development of model agricultural colonies thereon, that the elimination of the desert between the Jhelum-Chenab on the one hand and the Sutlej on the other is due. Details of what this has meant must be omitted, but the following Punjab census (1921) return is noteworthy: “In 189r the population density contour line, 100 per sq.m., which enclosed the oasis of Multan was no less than 160 m. distant from the general roo per sq.m. density line. Since 1891, however, due to the development of the Lower Jhelum, Lower Chenab and Lower Bari doab canals the line has advanced at an average rate of c. 10 m. per annum, and in 1911 Multan had been turned, from the point of view of population, from an island into a narrow-necked peninsula." Agriculturally it has meant the establishment of c. r million acres of acclimatized American upland cotton with a staple of c. 1 in., and a great wheat expansion. The following gives the area now being served; canals marked* lie entirely in the arid zone, the others affect its margins (average annual acreage 1923-24 to 1925-26): Lower Chenab*, 2,478,210; Lower Jhelum*, 868,064; Upper Jhelum, 326,786; Upper Bari doab 1,254,234; Lower Bari doab* 1,165,109. The Sutlej valley project, now in hand, will convert certain inundation canals dependent on that river into perennial, and assure the flood supply of the rest, while extending irrigation into the Bahawalpur and Bikaner fringes of Thar. When complete it will irrigate 5,108,000 ac., including 2,075,000 perennial and 2,033,000 non-perennial; 32 million acres at present waste, will be available for colonization. Representation’ by the Bombay Government has led the Government of India to hold up further undertakings by Punjab pending investigations into Indus river supplies; the position is difficult and a Central Indus Board is mooted. Projects.—Punjab is anxious to carry out two big tasks at

230

INDIAN

HEMP—INDIAN

LAW

least. Firstly, to reclaim the Sind-Sagar doab by the Thal proj- |containing numerous downy-tufted seeds. The tough bast fibres ect, which would carry water from the Indus at Kalabagh over of the inner bark were utilized by the Indians for cordage. The Mianwali and Muzaffargarh above its inundated “tail.” Secondly, variety of hemp yielding hashish is also called Indian hemp, INDIAN INK or INDIA INK: see Inx. to construct the Bhakra dam on the Sutlej where it emerges from INDIAN LAW. The law in force in British India may cop. the hills, with a canal to supplement the Sirhind and west Jumna canals (feeding 728,953 and 1,591,629 ac. respectively), and veniently be divided into six heads: (1) The law expressly made to extend irrigation in Hissar and Bikaner. This would give sorely for India by the British parliament, or by the sovereign. (2) Eng. needed protection to the arid skirt of south-east Punjab, at lish law in force in India though not expressly made for Indis, present served only by the lower reaches of the canals mentioned (3) The law made by persons or bodies having legislative ay. (assisted by the small Ghaggar inundation canals), and also nibble thority in India. (4) Hindu law. (5) Burmese Buddhist lay, (6) Mohammedan law. The first three of these are frequently a little off east Thar. The recession of the western mountain wall enables the Indus, described as Anglo-Indian Jaw. They are with rare exceptions after receiving the united volume of the Punjab rivers, to enter territorial, z.e., they apply generally, either to the whole of India Sind as a south-west flowing river. Near Schwan it turns south in or to a given area, and to all persons within those limits. The the presence of the Laki range but manifests its “westering” last three are personal, 7.e., they apply only to persons who answer tendency again in its final struggle seaward. The bifurcation of the a, given description. Law Expressly Made for India by the British ParliaOchito and Haidari is quoted as the head of the delta; but, of course, throughout Sind the river is really deltaic, flowing on a ment or Sovereign.—There are Ín existence many Acts of ridge above the land on either side, restrained in parts by embank- parliament relating to India. Many Acts were concerned with ments, but requiring more to curb its devastating moods, while the constitutional law, the powers of the East India Company, of the lower part of the province is riddled with its dead channels. Only Board of Control, and of the governor-general, and, after 1858, in the gorge between Sukkur and Rohri, where it traverses a gap with those of the Crown, the secretary of State and his council, the at the north extremity of low hills running for 40 m. south from governor-general in council, and the other Governments of presi its left bank, and in the Kotri neighbourhood is its channel con- dencies or provinces. These have now been consolidated in the stant. Its sphere of influence, between the mountains on the west Government of India Act 1915 as largely amended in 19r9. This and Thar on the east, defines settled Sind. The cultivable area Act deals also with the high courts. Such courts have been estabcommanded by canals dependent on it approaches nine million lished by charter at Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, Allahabad, Patna, acres of which, in 1924-25, 2,168,682 ac. were irrigated under the Lahore and Rangoon, and some of the clauses of their charters right bank systems and 1,557,201 under the left. As the Indus are legislative in effect. English Law in Force in India Though Not Made Ex. is not yet weir-controlled, technically all its irrigation is by inundation, its canals functioning only during the flood season (June pressly for India.—Before the wars with France in the middle to early October). One or two, however, receive a little water in of the 18th century the East India Company's possessions had the “cold” season, and the Jamrao canal, weir-controlled and fed been little more than trading posts, and the mayors’ courts estabfrom the east Nara supply channel (linked with the Indus but not lished by charter at the larger ones, such as Calcutta, were not weir-controlled itself), is truly perennial. In order to afford an generally concerned with anything but matters inside the settleassured supply at all times, the Sukkur Barrage project, after long ments, and endeavoured to adjust these on the basis of English years of discussion, has recently been undertaken. The barrage is Law where British subjects were concerned. But, as shown in to be placed 3 m. below the Sukkur gorge. Briefly, four canals will the historical section of Inpra (g.v.), by 1760 the company had take off the left bank and three (one a purely rice canal) off the become responsible for more or less of the administration ‘of right bank. They will take up the area south of Sukkur at present considerable territories in Bengal and southern India. Under under inundation irrigation, and in addition will enable a consid- Acts of parliament commencing with the Regulating Act of 1773 erable area of waste to be cultivated. Actually 64 million acres of supreme courts were established, originally at Calcutta, and then, cultivable land will be commanded, and it is hoped to feed 54 mil- superseding recorders’ courts, at Madras and Bombay. And it ion acres annually, of which two million represents existing inun- was held that they were to administer English law within those dation irrigation to be given an assured supply. Of improved presidency towns, unless by their charters directed to administer cotton alone 700,000 ac. per annum are anticipated. The project some other law. The charters did direct them to apply to Hindus wil take c. 4o years to complete, but big developments are and Mohammedans their own laws in regard both to all matters of inheritance, succession and family law, and to matters relating expected in ten years' time. Westwards beyond the sphere of the Indus, the desert landscape to religion and caste. It was soon found that the law of succesis at once established, and the irrigated patches of daman (clayey sion and inheritance could not be administered without also soil) created and sustained by flood torrents searing the mountain administering that of marriage. Outside the presidency towns, wall, only throw the naked hideousness of the limestone rampart when the company did finally take up the administration of jusinto bolder relief. tice, it did not.at first purport to alter the law. It administered BrsriocRAPERY.—W. T. Blandford, “The Great Indian Desert,” Hindu law to Hindus and Mohammedan law to Mohammedans, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal (vol. xlv., pt. 2, 1876) ; Maj. H. G. Raverty, and retained, at least in Bengal and Madras, Mohammedan crim“The Mihran of Sind and its tributaries,” Journ. As. Soc. Bengal (Ixi., pt. 1, 1892) ; R. Sivewright, “Cutch and the Rann,” Geogr. Journ.

(xxix., 1907). Among publications of Indian Geol. Survey vide particularly, T. D. la Touche, Mem. Geol. Surv. Ind. (xxxv., pt. I, 1911). Geology of West Rajputana: Holland and Christie, “The Origin of the

Salt Deposits of Rajputana,” Records Geol. Surv. Ind. (xxxviii., pt. 2, 1909-10) ; G. de P. Cotter, “The Alkaline Lakes and Soda Industry óf Sind,” Memo. Geol. Surv. Ind. (xlvii, pt. 2) ; R. D. Oldham, “The Cutch Earthquake of June 16, 1819, etc.,” Mem. Geol. Surv. Ind. (xlvi, pt. 2, 1920). The Triennial Rev. of Irrigation in India 1918-21 (1922) incorporates an outline of irrigation history under the British.

(A. V. W.)

' INDIAN HEMP

(Apocynum cannobinum), a North Amer-

ican plant of the dog-bane family (Apocynaceae), -native to fields and thickets from Quebec to British Columbia and southward to

inal law as the criminal law. Gaps in the law, and adaptations to new needs, had to be filled in by recourse to the principles of “justice, equity and good conscience” which Sir Henry Maine

(Village Communities, 1881, p. 299) surmises to have often been, in the case of the subordinate courts, "applying some half-re-

membered legal rule learned in boyhood.” And thus a good deal of English equity, and some English common law, came into the practice of the company’s courts.

And when the supreme courts

at last recognized Hindu wills, they had to apply the methods of the English court of probate.

Legislative La w.—As a general proposition it would be true

to say that wherever a British authority has legislated in Indu

it has been largely influenced by the English law, and until 1908

Florida and Lower California. It is an erect, often much branched

British influences were predominant in the legislative councils.

perennial, t to 4 ft. high, with smooth, oblong, opposite leaves, and small, clustered, greenish-white flowers, from each of which

The present legislative authorities in India are:

develops two very narrow fruit-pods (follicles), about ‘4 in: long,

lative assembly, (2) the legislative council of each “governors

(1) the central legislature, 7.e., the council of state and the legis:

INDIAN

HINDU

al. province,” and (3) (only in emergency) the governor-gener Their Acts deal with topics of every sort suitable for legislation. are now in force. In Bengal in the year 1793, 48 regulations, as was they were then called, were passed in a single day, and it

assumed that all previous legislation in Bengal was thereby superseded. Similar regulations were passed about the same time, and new the same assumption was made, in Madras and Bombay. As

of the country in which the suit arose; if none such appears, the

territories were acquired by the Government of India, the existing

regulations were in some cases extended to them, but in other

cases this was not thought to be convenient, and for these territories the governor-general in council issued general orders, not in the regular way of legislation, but in the exercise of his executive power. Hence the distinction between “regulation” and

Any doubt as to the validity of the

orders so made was removed by the Indian Councils Act 1861. The term “regulation” was dropped after the passing of the 3 and 4 Will. IV. c. 85 (1833), and since that time the word “Acts” has been in use. Acts are referred to by their serial numbers in the year of the sovereign’s reign in which they were

enacted. At times since 1833 commissions have been appointed to draft laws prior to their introduction into the governor-general’s legislative council, but this practice ceased before 1870. To the earliest of these commissions we owe the Indian penal code, much

It was

of the original draft of which was made by Macaulay. finaly passed in 1860 and came into force in 1862.

It leaves

procedure to be dealt with in a separate code. It is based upon English criminal law, but in many points simplifies it and renders it easier to administer, while somewhat altering it in others. What is commonly called larceny in England and the United States is broken up into theft, criminal misappropriation and criminal breach of trust, for instance; and all offences are defined in language which is capable of plain interpretation. The best testimonial to the penal code is that, though it has needed some additions, it has stood without substantial alteration for about 65 years. Other parts of the law which have been codified are criminal procedure, civil procedure, contracts, wills of Hindus in the presidency towns and the old province of Bengal, wills and intestacy of Christians and of Parsees, probate and administration of all wills and of intestate estates, specific relief, registration of title, transfer of property, trusts and evidence. Sir J. F. Stephen was the draftsman of the Indian Evidence Act, which was passed .

in 1872.

The law relating to land revenue has been the subject of innumerable regulations and Acts of the Indian legislatures. A description of the revenue systems prevailing in India will be found in the article Inpra. The law which governs the relation of cultivators to those, whom for want of a better term we must call landlords, has grown to a considerable extent out: of the revenue system. The view which was at first taken of this relation was unfortunately affected by English notions of the relation of landlord and tenant, but this view has been considerably modified in favour of the tenant by later legislation. Tenancy rights vary from province to province, and each province has itstenancy law, or perhaps two or more such laws applicable in different parts of the province. The scope of this article does not admit of an examination of them. The tendency is to encourage hereditary occupancy tenure at rents to be fixed periodically by the courts, or at least life-tenure. In Madras and Bombay much land is owned by the actual cultivators. And in northern India most small landholders cultivate some of their lands while tenants hold the rest of it. The legislative acts of the governor-general in council from 1834

to date have been published by the legislative department of the Gov-

erment of India. They are revised from time' to time, and an annual

volume published of each year's acts. The Madras code, the Bombay code, the Bengal code, the United Provinces code, the Punjab code, the e code, the Central Provinces code, the Bihar and Orissa code, lshAssam code, and the codes of the small provinces have been pub: ed by the legislative department and revised editions are published ladiaUs 2 time. See also Baden Powell, Land Systems of British ro

.

t

I

ii

à

LAW

The Acts establishing courts of civil justice in the various provinces enjoin that Hindu law, or Mohammedan law, or (in Burma) Buddhist law is to be applied to the adherents of those faiths in such matters as succession, inheritance, marriage, divorce, dower, guardianship, minority, family relations, caste or any religious usage or institution. The actual lists vary in the different Acts. Indeed in Bombay the words used are “the usage

No legislative enactments of any kind passed in India before 1793

“non-regulation” provinces.

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law of the defendant.” In Bombay, the Punjab and Oudh, custom, if proved, overrides law, and in Madras, the Central Provinces and Burma it is given the same force as law. Of course a saving is made of anything actually repealed by a statute or Act, and of all things contrary to public policy. For many purposes Jains and Sikhs are Hindus. The section on legal literature in the article SANSKRIT (g.v.), mentions the written sources of Hindu law. The more ancient of these are regarded as sacred, and, as it is sacred, Hindu law is theoretically unalterable. But in fact it has changed, by admitting peoples wholesale into Hinduism who brought their customs with them, by slow local and family changes, and by adaptations to historical, political, economic and social changes. As to custom, indeed, Manu’s code says “immemorial custom is transcendant law.” In actual practice, and apart from modifications by custom, Hindu law as administered in the courts is substantially derived from the commentaries of the great commentators. For most purposes the chief among these are the Daya Bhaga of Jimuta Vahana in Bengal proper only, the Mztakshara of Vijaneswara all over India, and the Vayavakara Mayukha of Nilakanta in western India. The Daya Bhaga in Bengal, and the Mayukha in Bombay overrule the Mitakshara where they differ from it, and in the case of the Daya Bhaga the differences are so farreaching in the matter.of family property and in the theory of inheritance that it is rightly held that there are two main schools of Hindu law, the Mztakshara school and the Daya Bhaga school. The former is divided into the Benares school (Upper India generally), which prefers the Mitakshara to all other commentaries at all points, the Mithila school (northern part of the province of Behar and Orissa), the Maharashtra school (western India) and the Dravida school (southern India). The effects of decisions of the judicial committee of the privy council and of the various high courts on Hindu law are similar to those of the English courts on English common law and statute law. The Joint Family.—tThe striking feature of Hindu society and Hindu law is the joint family. It is the form, no doubt, in which the Aryan patriarchal family has survived in India. The joint family is seen at its weakest in Bengal, the region where Brahmanical ecclesiasticism upon which the Daya Bhaga is based has had its greatest effect. Brahmanical influence on law probably increased at the post-Buddhist Hindu revival, but seems to have had little or no effect in the Punjab, or among the Aryan, or Aryanized, peoples of the Himalayas. Among some of the Himalayan clans, who undoubtedly have Aryan blood in them, the joint family is more like the Roman family than it is among Hindus of the Mitakskara school in India generally. The joint family is so much taken for grarited in the Shastras and the commentaries that it is scarcely described in them.

As the question of whether a family’s land could be validly alienated probably did not arise until comparatively recent times, the distinction between the right to manage, on the one hand, and ownership with the right to alienate on the other, probably did not become an important point of law for many centuries. When it did arise, two conflicting theories emerged. One is that of the Mitakshara, that down to the great-grandson of a living ancestor a male Hindu acquires by birth a right of ownership as a coparcener in'the ancestral family property. The other is that of the Daya Bhaga, that the living ancestor is the sole owner, with unfettered control and power to alienate, even for personal purposes, and that on his death his descendants in the direct male line who have no ascendant living inherit the property in distinct and specified shares, and may either divide it up or retain it as a jointly worked. and managed property. "Under the Mitakshara.

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no co-parcener’s share is a definite thing, even if he has no ascendant living, until a partition is called for. Until that event occurs each co-parcener's share can, in a manner, be said not to be ascertainable. And when a co-parcener, even the common ancestor, dies his rights pass by survivorship, and not by inheritance. Under the Daya Bhaga, then, when the common ancestor dies the ownership passes in immediately ascertained shares to his heirs under Daya Bhaga law. But in such a case under the Mitakshara the ownership, that of the family, is unaltered, but in the family there is one co-parcener the less, and the distribution on a partition made after his death will differ from that on one made before it. And, while the property remains joint, there is no passing of it by inheritance. The nature of the ownership of joint property is not discussed in either the Mitakshara or the Daya Bhaga. If a family of brothers governed by the Daya Bhaga keep their property undivided, then, upon the death of one of them, his share goes to his heir or heirs, who, in default of agnate descendants, may be his widow, his daughters, or the sons of his daughters, and in this last case his share will pass into another family, but it need not therefore be separated off by a partition. In a like case under the Mifakshara, if the deceased brother had any agnate male descendants they were already co-parceners in the family property, while his wife, his daughters, and the sons of his daughters could not be co-parceners. Upon his death there was one co-parcener the less in the family, and the distribution on a partition would be somewhat altered. As long as two or more co-parceners remain in a Mitakshara joint family, such property as it may own cannot pass out of it by inheritance. There is a standing presumption that Hindus nearly related to one another by agnation form a joint family. When they are so far apart in blood as second cousins that presumption is not very strong. And there is some presumption that anything in the possession of a member of a joint family belongs to the family. However, Hindu law now recognizes self-acquired property, though it took a long time to do so, even as the peculium of Roman law was of slow growth. Gains of valour, science and learning made without help from family resources are the chief source of self-acquired property, apart from what is styled “obstructed inheritance.” But when self-acquired property passes by inheritance to agnate descendants it at once becomes ancestral, amd under the Mztakshara the inheritors, unless they have already separated from one another, hold it as an ordinary joint family co-parcenary. Under the Daya Bhaga the fact that each coparcener bas a known and particular share of which he can dispose in his lifetime as he pleases by sale or gift or in any other way, without being answerable to anyone, greatly simplifies questions arising out of alienations. But under ithe Mitakshara the dealings by a co-parcener with the share which would fall to him on a partition, and the rights of his personal creditors against that share, both while he is alive and after his death, have given rise to legal difficulties. Non-inheritors.—A joint family will usually have among it members who are not co-parceners. Under the Daya Bhaga the wives of co-parceners, the male agnate descendants of co-parceners, and the unmarried female descendants of co-parceners or of their agnate descendants come into this category, as well as those who might in time be co-parceners but that Hindu law debars them from inheriting, e.g., those born deaf, dumb, blind or insane. Under the Mttakshara the dependent members will not include qualified sons, grandsons or great-grandsons of the senior generation of living co-parceners, for these are co-parceners themselves by right of birth, unless disqualified by any defects which debar from inheritance. But among the dependents there will be widows of deceased co-parceners. Under the Daya Bhaga such a widew without sons or agnate descendants will herself be owner, at least for her life, of her deceased husband’s share. Under both schools these dependents must be maintained, out of the shares of

their respective branches of the family in the case of the Daya Bhaga, and out of the general family fund under the Mitakshara.

And, in theory, under the Daya Bhaga each actual co-parcener, which here means the owner by inheritance, or possibly by pur-

LAW chase, of a share, can claim, at least approximately, that a core. sponding share of the family income be allotted to him. In, Mitakshara joint family there is no such right. No one can claim more than that he is to be maintained, with his wife and other ġe. pendents, on a scale suited to the family’s resources. Only if fraud or embezzlement or the like is alleged, will current accom

be gone into. When a partition has to be made a capital accom is, of course, necessary. Partition.—To the ancient Hindu lawgivers and comments.

tors partition and inheritance are different aspects of the same subject, and. in fact, in their view partition was the dominant aspect. This was because a Hindu ought to have at least one male agnate descendant, obtained in the last resort by adoption, and therefore ought to die a member of a joint family, if gov. erned by the Mitakshara. And, even under the Daya Bhaga, when

two or more sons succeed their father, they do not get def. nitely marked out shares absolutely their own until they effec a partition. Partition is in theory simple enough under the Days

Bhaga. Each co-parcener has a known share, all that has to be

done is to lay out metes and bounds in the immovable property,

and to make a fair division of the movables. But when the Mitakshara applies the first thing to be done is to determine the share of each co-parcener. The division is made by branches, And when there is a division between a living ascendant and his descendants the ascendant gets the same share as goes to each of his sons. Thus a father and his four sons make a partition, and each gets one-fifth of the property. If any of the sons had predeceased the father, leaving sons or agnate grandsons, these latter between them take what would have been his share. If four brothers divide, whose father and other ancestors are dead, each takes one-fourth. Ancestral and Separate Property.—In case of dispute it will be necessary under either school to decide what is, and what is not, family property. What is claimed and proved to be either self-acquired or separate property has to be excluded from the hotch-pot, and there may have to be special provisions about the right to use wells, rights of way and other things which cannot be split into parts. There is a general Act applying to the making of partitions (Act IV., of 1893). It should be added that in most provinces partitions of land assessed to land revenue are made by the revenue courts, and in those cases the joint owners often are not members of a joint family. A father or other ascendant governed by the Daya Bhaga is sole owner as against his sons and other descendants, yet there

are texts indicating that if he make a partition among his sons he must divide the property equally. However, he undoubtedly

can make a series of gifts to his sons or other descendants, and

by them dispose of the estate in very unequal portions. At the back of this anomaly is the theory that a gift needs acceptance by the donee, and actual transfer of possession, to make it complete and cognizable in law, whereas a partition does not. If a member of a Mitakshara joint family obtains a partition of his share, and has then no sons or other agnate descendants, the share is his sole and separate property. But it remains “ancestral,” and as soon as he has a son born to him, or adopts one, that son becomes a co-patcener in it with him, and so with all his sons born subsequent to the partition and their sons and grandsons. Very often the question arises “Has there been a partition or

not?” The answer may affect the rights of a third party to whom a member of the family purports to have transferred property. The presumption as to jointness has already been mentioned. But whether there has been a partition or not is a question to be

decided on the evidence. A fully united family is joint in house, food, worship and estate.

But a family can easily be joint m

house and worship and yet separated in food and estate, or Y can be joint in estate, and yet to some extent separated in house and in food. On effecting a partition provision must be made for the dependents, e.g., unmarried daughters or sisters, mother whose hus-

band is dead, and incapables. When a dependent belongs plainly to

one branch of the family, and that branch does not itself split up,

INDIAN the liability of course attaches to that branch, for instance one his own of several brothers who separate remains responsible for daughters. But when brothers separate who have unmarried be sisters OT incapable brothers, either a special assignment must

made, for instance to meet the expenses of a girl’s marriage, or of comone member accepts responsibility and receives some sort

pensation. If it is à mother who has to be provided for, it is not

to be uncommon under the Mitakshara for a part of the estate assigned to her. On her death it will be divided among her sons

or their descendants. As ina Daya Bhaga joint family each co-parcener has a definite a share which descends by inheritance; when the estate of such

joint family is the subject of a partition what has to be ascertained is what portion thereof has devolved under the rules of

inheritance to each present member since the death of the person who once held the whole of it. For under the Daya Bhaga all property goes by inheritance when its owner dies, whereas under the Mitakshara the rights of a co-parcener, even if he be one of two only, go by survivorship on his death. So a Hindu governed by the Mitakshara risks losing all chance of inheritance to the rest of the family property when he separates by partition, for as long as two or more members remain joint even their nearest relations, once separated from them by partition, cannot inherit their joint property, as survivorship precedes inheritance. Under the Mitakshara only separate property and self-acquired property can pass by inheritance. Impartible Estates.—Besides estates which under provincial

legislation have been made subject to entail, there are some

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from a common great-grandfather, or nearer relation, by agnation, and when we get beyond it the differences between the two schools

become much greater, for then the Daya Bhaga’s preference of all who offer the full cake over all who offer only crumbs, and its doctrines about mutual sapindaship, and about the effects of sapindaship to the same person, have more far-reaching effect. Order of Inheritance.—Now as to the order of inheritance. The first heirs are sons, agnate grandsons and agnate greatgrandsons. Grandsons and great-grandsons between whom and the deceased a son or grandson survives do not take directly, but representation is allowed in the case of those the links between whom and the deceased are already dead. But for this case representation is nowhere allowed in Hindu law, e.g., a brother excludes sons of deceased brothers. Aíter the three generations of descendants come the widow, then the daughter, and then the daughter’s son. Daughters’ sons take per capita, and a living daughter excludes all sons of deceased daughters. Next come the parents, of whom the Mitakshara places the mother, and the Daya Bhaga the father, first of the two. Then brothers, sons of brothers, and agnate grandsons of brothers. Here the Daya Bhaga interpolates the sister’s son. Then the grandparents and a like three generations from them, with the father’s sister’s son interpolated by the Daya Bhaga. Then the great-grandparents and the three generations from them. For the complications beyond this point, especially under the Daya Bhaga, the reader should consult the works of Mayne and Trevelyan. The Maharashtra school brings in the sister between the two grandparents, and after each circle of heirs brings in widows of members of that circle before going on to males in the next larger circle. Wills.—There can be no doubt at all that in its beginnings Hindu law knew nothing of wills. There is no Hindu word for a will. A legacy can be regarded as a gift to take effect after death, and according to both Hindu and Mohammedan law a gift is of no effect until the donor has transferred possession to the donee. And, when dead, the donor is no longer there to do so. But undoubtedly Hindus were struggling towards a right to bequeath in the days before British rule, especially in Bengal. The doctrines

estates impartible by family custom or special tenure, mostly the residue of suppressed sovereignties or quasi-sovereignties. Junior members and branches of the family are entitled only to maintenance. Under the Mitakshara the rule of succession may involve first discovering the nearest male agnates, and then applying the rule of primogeniture among them, excluding more distant relations even in a senior branch. Inheritance.—We now come to the rules of inheritance. Here there is a divergence of principle between the two schools. The ecclesiMitokshara prefers all male agnates, however remote, to any of the Daya Bhaga had individualized property, and asticism was bound to favour pious gifts and bequests. Slowly except And, son. cognate, however near, except the daughter’s under the Maharashtra sub-school in western India, which does the supreme courts recognized a Hindu’s power to make a will, place some women in a more favoured position, the only women first in Calcutta after formally consulting the E. I. Company’s it brings in as near heirs are the widow, daughter, mother, grand- Sadr court. Now it is settled law that a Hindu can dispose by will mother and great-grandmother. The basis of the scheme is prefer- of all that he can unrestrictedly alienate in his lifetime, 7.¢., in case ence by nearness of agnate relationship. The scheme of the Daya of a male, of all his property under the Daya Bhaga, and of all Bhaga is based upon efficacy of offerings made to the deceased, in his separate and self-acquired property under the Mitakshara, and fact it holds that the heir gets the estate because he makes the in the case of a female of certain classes of her property. The offerings. No doubt the ancient rule, as Mayne surmises, was courts felt themselves compelled to deny to a testator the right that the duty to make the offerings fell upon the person taking the to create anything approaching a perpetuity. The limits during estate. But, for the benefit of the priesthood, the later ecclesias- which final vesting can be delayed are now laid down by legislation tical theories of the Brahmans put all the stress upon the offerings, passed in 1916. Except in the presidency towns, and in Bengal, and said that the estate followed them. This theory brings in some Behar and Orissa, where the Hindu Wills Act applies, a Hindu will may be either written or nuncupative, and does not require to cognates in preference to more remote agnates. There are three grades of offerings, the full cake, or Pinda, those be attested. Debts.—Hindu law undoubtedly recognized that debts ought to making it being called Sapindas, the offerings of crumbs made by Sakulyas, and the offerings of water made by Samanodakas. ‘The be paid, and had its methods of compelling payment. And the cake offering is made for three generations, and the crumb offering religious view of debt in Hinduism is that he who dies in debt for three more. The leading rule is that a Hindu has to make the suffers torment or degradation in the next life, which can be ended cake offering to his father, his father's father, and his father's only by payment of the debts. We have seen that Hindu law is a father's father, and also to his mother's father, his mother's branch of Hindu religious teaching. Hence we have the principle father's father, and his mother’s father’s father’s father. It is of that a son or grandson is under an especial obligation to pay the importance that he does not make offerings to his father’s debts of his father or grandfather. As, in the ordinary way, he is mother's father, and so on. A man is Safinda to his sons, to their the heir, this is fair and equitable. It is now settled by legislation or by survivorship, is sons, and to their grandsons, as well as to his three direct ances- that no one, whether he take by inheritance tors. And he is Sapinda to the three generations in the direct male bound to pay debts to a greater amount than the benefits he line from his Sapinda ancestors, paternal and maternal. Except in receives by the passing of the estate of the deceased. First, of the case of the daughter's son, the claims of all connected with the course, it has to be ascertained what property the deceased leit. deceased through a woman on the ground of sapindaship are re- So far as concerns the estate of a Hindu governed by the Daye jected by the Mitakshara in favour of agnates however remote. Bhaga, or the separate or self-acquired property of one governed But the Daya Bhaga admits these claims with the result, so far as by the Mitakshara, all debts which could have been recovered the inner circle of heirs are concerned, of bringing into it sister’s from him in his lifetime rank for payment, It is when the deceased son, father’s sister’s son, and grandfather’s sister’s son. This inner died as a co-parcener in a Mitakshara joint family that difficulties circle includes those related to the deceased by being descended arise over the “pious obligation” of sons and grandsons. A debt

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may have been incurred for joint family purposes, recognized as | estate. She can absolutely dispose of it for a necessity or with the

such by Hindu law. Then all the family property is liable for it. | next reversioner's consent. She can surrender it to the next reve. It may have been incurred for the debtor's personal purposes, and if the particular purpose of a debt was not illegal or immoral the doctrine of pious obligation will generally make all that share of the family property liable for it which on a partition would have gone to the debtor and his descendants. Or the debt may have been incurred for illegal or immoral purposes. If the creditor knew, or ought to have known, of such purposes, the family property is not liable for it at all As the father can burden the sons by his indebtedness, if it be not due to illegality or immorality, so too he can sell or mortgage their potential shares with his, especially to pay a debt already existing. And it is decided that the creditor can implead the sons and grandsons when suing the original debtor in the latter’s litetime. The effect of failure to implead them, or of failure to state distinctly that their shares are attached when execution of a decree is taken out, has been the subject of numerous rulings of the high courts. Alienation and Maintenance.—Originally, no doubt, a member of a Mitakshara joint family could not alienate his share of the property for personal purposes, until he obtained a partition. Now, not only can he do so according to rulings of the high courts at Madras and Bombay, but his personal debts can be enforced against it, provided always that a decree is obtained and attachment of the share effected during the debtor’s lifetime. On his death his rights vanish, and, as they go by survivorship and not by inheritance, they cannot be followed into the hands of the survivors unless the doctrine of “pious obligation” applies to the latter. The right of certain persons to be maintained out of family funds, or by their living agnate ancestors under the Daya Bhaga, has already been mentioned. But Hindu law also envisages other rights of maintenance. Quite independently of inheritance of ancestral or other property, wives, minor sons, unmarried daughters, and infirm and penurious parents must be maintained by a Hindu who has means or can work. And widows and daughters of deceased members of a Mitakshara joint family, and under either school of law widows of persons whose property is inherited by their sons, grandsons or great-grandsons have a definite right to maintenance. By decree of court that right can be charged upon the property, and under the Daya Bhaga a widow whose sons or other descendants divide up the.property of their deceased father or ancestor, can claim the allotment to herself for life of a share

sioner. And a purchaser or mortgagee dealing with a woman Owner especially put to inquire into the necessity or into the real cy. |issent of the reversioner, as the case may be, and is bound to ag with the very utmost of good faith, because of the habitual secly. sion of women of good social standing. An alienation by a wom, not otherwise justified, is good for her lifetime, apart, of cours from fraud and the like, and a widow with power to adopt devests herself of the estate in favour of the adoptee. A woman owni an estate for life is absolute owner of savings she effects out of income, and unless she deliberately adds them to the estate they go to her heirs. There is also Stridhana, the absolute property of women. The rules of schools and localities as to this vary. The chief sources

of it are gifts from blood relations and gifts at marriage, besides the personal earnings of an unmarried woman. Generally Strid. hana is at its owner's complete disposal. The rules as to the ip. heritance of Stridkana vary with the school, and even with the locality, and with the origin of the particular property. They favour women more than do the rules of inheritance to males, Matriage.—The code of Manu enumerates eight kinds of mar. riage, some of which are barbaric or even savage. Four were “approved” and four “disapproved.” Two only still survive, the Brahma, an approved form, nominally a gift of the bride by her father to the bridegroom, and, among the lower castes, the Asura, a disapproved form, nominally a purchase of the bride by the bridegroom. On the initiative of Indian legislators an Act is in force forbidding marriages of children, which formerly were

very common. The essential part in a Hindu marriage is the seven steps taken together by bridegroom and bride round the sacred fire. Among the higher castes the relation-

ships within which marriage is forbidden are extensive. The parties

should not belong to the same gotra or large family, and they must not be related within six generations on the father's side or within, probably, five on the mother's. Marriage must be within the caste, and sometimes, by custom, within the sub-caste. Strictly speaking there is no divorce in Hindu law. But divorce is practised by many of the lower castes, and an unchaste wife forfeits all rights except that to “starving maintenance.” A Hindu man may marry any number of wives, and may have any number concurrently. A Hindu woman can have only one husband, and strict Hindu law forbade the re-marriage of widows, even of virgm equal to that obtained by each son. So, too, when brothers succeed widows. Many of the lower castes always allowed widows to reto their father, and there is a widow of a predeceased brother to marry, some of them imposing conditions on such re-marriage; be maintained. In some circumstances family property can be and by Act XV. of 1856 any Hindu widow may validly re-marty. followed into the hands of a subsequent purchaser to enforce a She forfeits on re-marriage any property inherited by her from claim for maintenance. A widow’s right to maintenance ceases on her first husband or from a predeceased son, unless she belongs to re-marriage, and any woman's ceases if she leads an immoral life. a caste which, before 1856, permitted re-marriage accompanied Women's Property.—In some respects, and as regards some by retention of such property. Equally she forfeits all rights kinds of property, the ownership of women under Hindu law of maintenance as widow of her first husband. By Act XXX. of 1923 amending Act III. of 1872 a Hindu man differs from that of men. These differences depend on the source from which the property is derived. If a woman has inherited and a Hindu woman of different castes may lawfully marry. Act property from a male, or has obtained it as a gift by her husband ' III. of 1872 originally provided for the marriages of persons of or as a share on partition, she does not own it in the same way as whom neither professed the Christian, Jewish, Mohammedan, a man would do; she obtains only a kind of restricted ownership. Hindu, Jain, Sikh, Buddhist or Parsee religion. Marriages under She has the full enjoyment and management of it, but she cannot it are monogamous, and are subject to divorce on the same sell it, or give it away, or dispose of it by will; and at her death grounds as are marriages between Christians. And the parties it goes not to her heirs but to the heirs of the person from whom come under the rules of inheritance for Christians, and go out of she obtained it; her ownership simply comes to an end. If she a joint family, and cannot originate one.

obtained it by inheritance from a male it will go on her death to the heirs of that male; if as a share on partition it will be divided

amongst the other sharers; if as a gift from her husband, it will go to the heirs of her husband. In those parts of western India where the Mayukha prevails, by exception full rights of property are given to a woman who inherits from a male who belonged to the family in, which she was born, e.g., to a daughter inheriting

from her father, or to a sister inheriting from her brother. On her death such property. devolves as if she had been a man.

Suttee.—The custom for a Hindu widow, especially in the higher castes, to have herself burned alive on the funeral pyre of her husband was prohibited and made an offence under Lord

William Bentinck’s administration in 1829. In consequence Suttee is certainly no longer customary, and educated

Hindus would

revolt from it. But there have been sporadic cases, even as lately as 1927. Those who help the widow to immolate herself are guilty of culpable homicide not amounting to murder, under the Indian penal code; if she is above the.age of 18 years, the fad

The estate. of a woman who inherits only for her own life is that she suffers death with her own consent then reducing the one of the difficult problems.of Hindu law. It is by no means the nature of the offence. If she is under 18 the offence is murder ! same asa “life estate” in English law. The woman represents the abetment of murder, punishable even with death. The widor'

INDIAN own insistence on becoming Suttee is a feature of all present-day A ahipa in very ancient Hindu law the son would seem to have been his father’s property, much as he was in ancient Roman

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man or woman can adopt a son to himself or herself. The adoptee must consent to the adoption, and must be of full age. No ceremony is required, only mutual consent. The adopter and the adoptee succeed to each other, but neither succeeds to the other's

of collaterals. The adoptee is not taken out of his own family. The jaw. In Manu eight kinds of sons are enumerated. Most adoptee performs the obsequies of the adopter if the latter prethem are "sons" because at the moment of birth the woman who decease him. Any person within the caste, even for instance the are bought or self-

Some adopter's brother, or his sister's son, can be adopted, and the surrendered. Now only two kinds are recognized, legitimate sons adoptee may even be older than the adopter. bom in marriage, and adopted sons. (Adoption of daughters is Lack of space forbids any discussion of the interesting matrimostly unknown to Hindus.) There are two extant forms of archal system of the Nairs of Malabar, and of some other castes all over adoption, the Dattaka and Kritina. The former is used of per- in that part of India. The joint family is there found in its duty the and India. The connection between heirship only kind of adoption ever necessary is

bore them was owned by the “father.”

To strongest form, and the forming obsequies and ceremonials has already been noticed. that of a daughter. the ceremonials should be

secure 2 Hindu’s happiness hereafter A carried on by his descendants for at least three generations. the for up make however, can, andson grandson Or & great-gr absence of a son or grandson or both. But it is a grave misfortune for a Hindu to have no such descendants at all, so a male Hindu who has no son, agnate grandson, or agnate great-grandson may adopt a son. The adopter may be married, a bachelor, or a wid-

inower. Among the higher castes the boy must not have been vested with the sacred thread (possibly this will not apply when the child is a brother’s son of the adopter, or otherwise in the

family) and must be the child of a woman whom the adopting father could have married had not someone else done so. So a brother's son and a wife’s sister’s son are obviously eligible. And

the adoption must be within the caste. The child must be willingly given by his natural parents (a boy cannot be re-adopted) so an orphan cannot be adopted.

;

Because of the importance of having a son, the widow of a deceased Hindu can sometimes adopt for him. Of course the condition of sonlessness must exist. Given that, in western India a

widow can adopt unless her husband has forbidden her to while he was alive. In southern India she can adopt if in his lifetime he authorized her to, or if after his death his near agnate relations approve of the adoption being made. In Mithila she cannot adopt at all, and elsewhere she can adopt if in his lifetime her husband authorized her to. These are the varying interpretations of the text “Nor let a woman adopt a son without the consent of her lord.” A married man who adopts does not need his wife's assent to the act, though she may become the adoptee's legal mother. Adoption removes the child entirely from his own family (except that he still cannot marry within its prohibited degrees) and makes him for all legal purposes, including inheritance from and by collaterals, the son of his adoptive father. Ceremonies are necessary, for an adoption is a religious act. Handing over by the natural parent or parents, with a sacred fire at the place, is the principal ceremony, and the absence of evidence of this would throw doubt upon the validity of an adoption, were this disputed. Among some of the lower castes even a married man can be adopted, and the rule about the mother being a possible wife of the adopting father does not hold. A son adopted to a deceased Hindu by his widow becomes the former’s heir at once. If there is membership of a Mitakshara joint family, or if the adopting widow has succeeded to, and still possesses, her deceased husband's estate, things are simple enough. But adoptions by widows fail where their effect, if they were valid, would be to devest the estate of someone (other than the adopting widow) who holds it as heir of some deceased male, other than the person to whom it is sought to make the adoption. This rule is not a mere piece of theory, for if a son adopted, dies without male issue, there may be authority to adopt one in his place, yet he may have married, in which case his widow,

and not his adoptive mother, will be his heir. And an authority to adopt remains effective throughout the life of the widow to whom it is given, so long as she does not exhaust it. Cases have been known where a widow made a valid adoption more than 50 ] years "after her husband's death. Kritima Adoption.—The conditions stated above, other than

that of sonlessness, apply in the case of Dattcka adoption only. The system of Kritima adoption is much looser. It is followed now only in Mithila, where, as we have seen, a widow never can adopt: to her deceased husband. In Kritima adoption a sonless

See Sir E. J. Trevelyan, Hindu Law (and ed. 1917); J. D. Mayne, Hindu Law and Usage (oth ed. 1922, edit. by Sir V. M. Coutts (W. Mar.; A. SAB.) Trotter).

BURMESE BUDDHIST LAW Burmese Buddhist law, which is the body of customs and usages of the Burmese, has its sources in India, but belongs to a social system from which caste, seclusion of women, child marriage, the joint family and other features of the Hindu system are absent. It has been collected at various times in the last 700 years into books called Dhammathats, of which the M anugyé Dhammathat, compiled in A.D. 1756, overrides the others where it is clear and unambiguous. A collection of the Dkammathats made by a high official under the late Burmese kings has been published, with a translation, under the name of the Kinwun Mingyt’s Digest. Marriage is a purely civil contract, and is evidenced by the parties openly living and eating together as man and wife. A social entertainment celebrates the marriage of a youth and a maid, but is dispensed with in other cases. Consent of parents or guardians —which may be given or implied after the event—is required to the marriage of a youth under 16 or a spinster under 20. Monogamy prevails, but polygamy is legal; polyandry is unknown. Husband and wife are joint owners of all property acquired by their joint efforts during marriage, and of the profits of separate property brought by either to the marriage. The last may in time become merged in the joint estate. Hence it is usual for husband and wife to execute business documents together and to be joined together in litigation. In recent times there are legislation and rulings of court relating to the marriage of Burmese Buddhists with people of other races and religions. Divorce is by bona fide mutual consent, as a rule before elders, including openly living apart as no longer husband and wife. Divorce can also be had by decree of court on such grounds as cruelty, desertion, or adultery of the wife. In the former case the parties, generally speaking, divide the property with reference to their rights in it during coverture; in the latter case the guilty party is more or less severely mulcted. Generally also, children inherit from the parent whom they follow and not from the other. Any married couple, or anyone who has attained majority, may adopt one or more sons and daughters, whether already related to them or not, who on adoption sever all rights in their natural family and become co-heirs with the children, if any, of their adoptive parent or parents. To stop vexatious and expensive litigation between rightful heirs and others claiming to have been so adopted, the Burmese legislative council passed an Act in 1926 (not to come into force till notified) declaring that no dispute as to the rights of any person to inherit as or through an adopted child shall be entertained by any court unless the fact of the adoption is evidenced by an instrument executed, attested and registered as required by the Act. Succession and Inheritance.—The estate of a deceased person devolves upon those entitled to it under Burmese Buddhist law. It follows that a Burmese cannot make a will. On the death of one spouse, the rule is that the surviving spouse takes the whole of the property absolutely. But an orasa child, z¢., first-born child who is of.age and competent to assist in the family affairs, can claim one-fourth from the surviving parent of the opposite sex, i.e., from his mother if the orasa is a son, and from her father if a daughter, Also, if the surviving parent re-marries, the children

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can claim a one-half partition, and this right survives, with modification, against the step-parent if the natural parent dies. If the deceased was not married at death, the main principles are that the inheritance shall not ascend when it can descend;

that it shall not ascend more than is necessary; and that the nearer excludes the more remote. Hence, children come first, sharing equally; failing them, grandchildren; failing direct descendants, brothers and sisters; and next in order, parents, grandparents, nephews and nieces, uncles and aunts, grandnephews and nieces, cousins and so on. Where the heirs are children, and offspring of deceased children, such offspring divide among them what would have been their parent's share if he was the orasa, otherwise one-fourth only of their parent's share if he or she had lived to inherit, the remaining three-fourths reverting to the estate. Where only grandchildren, born of different children, are left, the whole body divide the estate equally per capita, e.g. ten of such secure each one-tenth of the estate. It is possible here to give a few examples only; for a fuller discussion, and for the subject of Burmese Buddhist law generally, see S. C. Lahiri, Principles of Modern Burmese Buddhist Law (2nd ed. 1927). (A. Mr.) MOHAMMEDAN

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To Mohammedans much of Mohammedan law is at least as sacred as are the texts of the Skastras to Hindus. The sources of Mohammedan law, its growth and progress, and how it has come

to divide into two schools and some sub-schools are set out in the article discussing Istamic Law (q.v.). For Sunni Muslims the Koran, the traditions (Hddith), the agreement of those who had known the Prophet (or possibly the agreement of the body of the faithful) (Jjmé’a) and analogy (Qiyds) are the sources of law,

but the Hanafites use Qzyds more freely than do the others. The school of Shafei has followers in India to an appreciable number, but the vast majority of Indian Sunnis are Hanafites, followers of Malik and Hanbal scarcely existing in the country. There were commentaries or digests well known in India, called the Hidáya and the Faiáwa Alamgiri. A translation of the former by Hamilton, and Neill Baillie’s work based on the latter, were the only books in English to which the courts could resort for guidance on Mohammedan law for some considerable time. Succession.—The Sunnis and the Shiahs differ widely as to the law of succession, this much being common to both, that the ordinarily bequeathable portion of a person's estate is one-third, the rest going by the law of inheritance. Shiah law will be treated of later, at present our concern is with the Hanafi law of inheritance. There are three primary classes of heirs, who in current usage are loosely spoken of as sharers, residuaries, and distant kindred. Sharers are those who are mentioned in the Koran as entitled to shares. Residuaries are male agnates who are not

sharers (some are both sharers and residuaries) and the full and consanguine sisters. Distant kindred are all blood relations neither

sharers nor residuaries. Sharers have the first claim on the estate, subject to this, that some sharers are liable to be completely ousted by some residuaries. The shares of some sharers vary according to circumstances. Other sharers, e.g., grandparents, daughters of sons, and sisters, can be excluded by the mere existence of nearer relations. The Prophet almost certainly modified the pre-existing Arabian customs by giving a right of inheritance to many women. The sharers are: husband 4 or 4, wife or wives 4 or 4, daughter 4, daughters $ (son's daughter or daughters

replacing daughters if there be none), father 4, mother i or i, full sister 5, full sisters $ (in their absence consanguine sister i, consanguine sisters $), uterine brother or sister 4, uterine brethren 4, true grandfather 2, true grandmother 4. A “true” grandfather is an ancestor in the direct male line, and a “true” grandmother is an ancestress between whom and the deceased there is no “false” grandfather. Thus both actual grandmothers are “true,” as are three great-grandmothers and four great-great-grandmothers. “How high soever” and “how low soever” are technical terms of Mohammedan law, “father’s father how high soever” being the same as “true grandfather.” “Son’s son how low soever” means 2 male agnate descendant. “Child of a son how low soever” means a child of a son or of a male agnate descendant. “Consanguine”

LAW means “related through the father only” and “uterine” mean, “related through the mother only.” The share of either spouse is on the lower level if there he à

child or a child of a son h.ls. The share of the mother is on th

lower scale if there be a child or a child of a son h.ls., or two or

more brothers or sisters. It is also subject to diminution whe,

the heirs are father, mother, and a spouse, in order to give the mother half what the father gets, according to the rule of “doubk share to the male.” A daughter or daughters become “residuaries

with their brother or brothers" when there is a son’ or sons, 4 son (or son of à son h.ls. of higher rank than herself), or tw, daughters, exclude a daughter of a son hls. If there bemerely

a daughter and a daughter of a son, the former gets 4 and the

latter 4-3, 2.e., . Full sister is excluded as sharer by a child o

a child of a son hls. and by father and true grandfather, and

when there is a full brother or brothers who take as residuaries, is residuary with them. Consanguine sister bears much the same

relative position to full sister as son's daughter does to daughter,

Full sister is not excluded as sharer by consanguine brother, but,

of course, consanguine sister is, though she may be residuary with

him. True grandfather is excluded by father, and true grandmother by mother, by nearer true grandmother, or by any heir in the line between her and the deceased. Uterine brethren are excluded by all who exclude full sister from being a sharer. Residuaries.—If there be sharers who by the application of these rules would get the whole estate, the residuaries get nothing. If the sharers are entitled to take more than exhausts the estate (e.g., wife 4, two daughters $, father £, mother 1, total $1) th shares are diminished proportionately. If there be a surplus and there are residuaries the latter get it, but in such case if there be no residuaries the sharers, other than the spouses, divide it proportionately. As noted, residuaries, if there be any, take what is left. They are those who, in addition to father and true grandfather, would

have had a right of inheritance under pre-Islamic Arabian custom,

and in some instances the Prophet gave their sisters a right of inheritance along with them. First come sons, with daughters, each son taking twice as much as each daughter. Then, if there be no sons, sons of sons with daughters of sons, each son of a son taking twice as much as each daughter of a son, there being no division per stirpes. Then agnate great-grandchildren in the same way. A son excludes all grandchildren and a son’s son excludes all great-grandchildren. After agnate descendants comes the father.

Then the true grandfather, with brothers and sisters. One section of Hanafites allows true grandfather to exclude brothers and sisters entirely. Another brings him in with full (or in default of full with consanguine) brothers and sisters under rules which give the grandfather some advantage in certain cases. Full brother excludes consanguine brothers and sisters. Sisters, full or consanguine, come in with brothers of their own kind, each brother getting twice the share of each sister. These sisters are the last female residuaries. Then come sons of full brothers, then sons of consanguine brothers, then agnate grandsons of full brothers, and then agnate grandsons of consanguine brothers, and so on to each generation of the descendants of the deceased’s father. The nearer excludes the more remote, and the full blood, other things being equal, is preferred to the half. Similarly with the agnate descendants of the deceased’s father’s father till they are exhausted, and then similarly with those of the deceased's father's

father's father, and so on, as long as any agnates can be traced. Exceptionally full sister or consanguine sister can take as 4

residuary though she have no brother living. This is when daugh-

ters have taken the £ “allotted to women"

and the nearest

residuaries come later in order than true grandfather, e..

nephew, uncle, or more distant relations. Then the full sister, or in default of her the consanguine sister, comes in in place of brother.

Lack of space forbids discussion of the rules applying to distant

kindred.

Distribution between them has been elaborately dis-

cussed by Muslim jurists, even the case being imagined where heirs are cognate great-great-great-grandchildren, all the links tween whom and the propositus had pre-deceased him. But scendants have a preference, and, other things being equal,

the bedeone

INDIAN who is the child of a possible sharer or of a possible residuary has preference Over others. An infidel, whether by birth or by apostasy, cannot inherit from a Muslim under strict Mohammedan law, but that bar is removed

in India by Act XXI. of 1850. Hanafi law forbids a person to

inherit from one whom he has killed, even when the killing was by

accident or misadventure. Wilis.—Some power of bequest seems always to have been

recognized by Mohammedan lawyers, but it extends, ordinarily,

only to one-third of the estate as remaining after payment of debts and funeral expenses. But, after the succession has opened, the heirs may validate a bequest or bequests exceeding one-third. A bequest to an “heir,” z.e., to one who on the death of the testator

happens to be entitled as a sharer or as a residuary, is void unless

similarly validated by the other heirs. There are rules about the

abatement, proportionately or otherwise, of legacies which between them exceed the disposable one-third. Preference is given to those for pious purposes mentioned in the Koran. Gifts made in what

is called ‘illness of death” are on nearly the same footing as bequests, as are purchases or sales made during such an illness on

terms actually intended to confer an advantage on the other party out of the dying person’s estate, as, for instance, the sale of

property for half its real value. But acknowledgments of a debt

in “illness of death” are good, even in the absence of all other

evidence of the debt, except when such acknowledgment is in fayour of an heir, when it is void. And debts of which there is other evidence have the preference, if the estate is insufficient to meet all. A vill may be in any form, written or oral, and, if written, need not be attested. A Wasi, who is in much the position of an English

executor, may be appointed by a testator. In default of there being a Wasi the estate vests at once in the heirs. But, optionally,

probate of a will, or letters of administration, or a certificate to

collect debts on succession, may be applied for to a court having jurisdiction. Fictitious Relationship.—Ancient Mohammedan law allowed the creation of fictitious relationship, principally when a tribesman stood surety to his tribe for the behaviour of a refugee from another tribe. This is obsolete in India. Therefore the courts in India do not have to take account of what Muslim lawyers designate “the residuary for special cause.” But, by custom, Mohammedans in many villages in the Punjab can adopt, as Hindus can. And, equally by custom, in the Punjab and elsewhere women are often excluded from succession, contrary to strict Mohammedan law. When slavery existed the acknowledgment by a master of the paternity of a child born to one of his female slaves was a matter carrying considerable legal consequences. Nowadays if the child of a maidservant were so acknowledged the courts might have to consider the legal effects, if any. Marriage is essentially a civil contract in Mohammedan law, based upon the consent of the parties, or of those entitled or authorized to represent them. Certain legal results must follow from a marriage, but as to other incidents the parties have some freedom in fixing the terms of the marriage contract. For a minor, i£, a person under puberty, a “guardian for marriage” is neces-

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cannot render a male client liable for more than suitable dower. But if it be no transgressing of his authority, he can marry his client A, a man, to his client Z, a woman, taking the place of each party in the contract. A marriage must take place in the presence of Muslim witnesses, two men, or one man and two women. The parties must say words by which it is made clear that they agree that a marriage between them is called into being from that moment. And the first speaker’s proposal (which may be in the form “I have married thee”) must be answered and assented to practically then and there, "at the same meeting” as it is called, by the other party. Bars to Marriage.—Marriage is forbidden, on grounds of consanguinity, with ascendants, descendants, brother and sister and their descendants, and brothers and sisters of ascendants. It is forbidden on grounds of affinity with ascendants and descendants of a present or former spouse, and with any person who has been tke spouse of an ascendant or descendant. There can, in some circumstances, be a bar through fosterage. A woman can have only one husband at a time, but a man can have four wives at any one time. So a man’s marriage may be void by reason of “unlawful conjunction," z.e., because the wife married makes a fifth, or because she is too nearly related to one of his existing wives. For a man may not simultaneously be husband of two women so related to one another, that if one of them was a man they could not marry each other. This does not of necessity prohibit marriage with the second when the first has died or been divorced. A Muslim’s wife must be a Muslim or a Eitábia, i.e., a Jewess, or a Christian, or (possibly) a Zoroastrian. A Muslima’s husband must be a Muslim. A marriage may be voidable, and not flagrantly void, in which case children born of it before a court pronounces against it are legitimate. Divorce.—A Mohammedan husband may divorce his wife, or any of his wives, at any time, and he cannot divest himself of this right. The approved method of this divorce, or tdldk, is a pro-

nouncement of divorce (which, if not repeated, is not immediately effective) followed by abstinence from marital relations for three of the wife’s periods. A second and a third pronouncement can be made at suitable intervals. Until either three pronouncements have been made, or the three periods have run out, the divorce is revocable at the husband’s option, and he can revoke it (thus wiping out any pronouncement or two pronouncements already made) either explicitly or by renewal of marital relations, and the wife is not entitled to any say in such matter of revocation. But the three pronouncements may be made at any shorter intervals, even in one breath, so to speak, and though this is disapproved, a divorce so made is at once irrevocable, and takes effect when

the iddat or three periods has elapsed, The iddat lasts until delivery if there be a pregnancy. The divorced couple are free to marry again when the divorce takes effect, and can re-marty one another, unless the divorce has been triple, in which case

such a re-marriage cannot take place unless the wife has in the meantime been the wife of some other man. The check on this power of a husband to divorce his wife is in practice the fact that he generally owes her a good part of her dower, and that that becomes payable to her as soon as the divorce takes effect. There can also be a divorce by reason of imprecation followed sary. The preferable guardian for marriage is the father (or father’s father h.h.s.). A marriage at which he is such guardian by cessation of marital relations, or by reason of accusation of the is fnal and complete as regards his ward. But when by reason wife of adultery by the husband on oath, denied by her on oath. of the death or unavoidable absence of the father or grandfather A husband can empower an agent to divorce his wife for him, and another guardian for marriage acts, the ward, whether husband or can limit the agent/s power, e.g., to one pronouncement only, and wife, can repudiate the contract on attaining puberty. But once can make the wife herself such agent. Such power is sometimes it has been explicitly or implicitly ratified after attaining puberty exacted by the wife in the marriage contract, for use if the husthere can be no repudiation. There can also be an “agent for band takes a second wife. There can, of course, be divorce by or marriage.” He is a person commissioned either to marry for his mutual consent on whatever reasonable terms, as to money to. otherwise, agree the may parties principal a certain definite person as husband (or wife) or to find Dower.—Payment by the husband to the wife of a sum of and marry for his principal a suitable husband (or wife). The Principal can make the discretion left to the agent as narrow or money, or other lawful and material consideration, as her dower as wide as he chooses. But to enable the agent to contract with is a necessary feature of a Mohammedan marriage. The dower

himself or herself, or with his or her ward, as spouse for the must not be below a certain small minimum, and either is fixed

when the contract is made, or is the “proper” dower appropriate to a woman of the family and social position of the wife. It may powered cannot marry a woman client to a social inferior, and | be wholly “prompt” or wholly “deferred,” or partly the one and

principal, direct and unequivocal permission to do so must have been conveyed by the principal. And an agent generally em-

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partly the other. Prompt dower is payable at once, and the wife | further. If there are parents and descendants (any descen may refuse to enter upon marital relations till it is paid, but | agnate or cognate, diminishing the mother’s share under Shiah having entered upon them cannot refuse to continue them because law), in imagination the sons and daughters who have left de. it remains unpaid. Deferred dower is payable at the husband’s scendants are restored to life, if there be no living sons or daugh.

option at any time during the marriage, and if not paid during it becomes payable on divorce or on the death of either party. It must be remembered, in the case of the wife’s death, that

though her husband will be one of her heirs, yet her parents, if they survive her, will also be among her heirs, even if she has left children. A wife is legally quite independent of her husband. She can sue him for prompt dower, or for anything else he owes her, and he is not liable for her debts incurred outside her reasonable maintenance, or for her torts. Pre-emption is not mentioned in the Koran, but this “right to acquire by compulsory purchase, in certain cases, immovable property in preference to all other persons” (as defined in Wilson’s Anglo-M ohammedan Law) is undoubtedly a part of Mohammedan law. The possible pre-emptors in order of preference are (a) co-sharers in the property part of which is sold, (b) persons who own a property to which the property sold is servient in respect of an easement, or a property which is jointly dominant with the property sold over some third property in respect of an easement, and (c) owners of contiguous property, unless the estates be large. The pre-emptor is required by Hanafi law to make a demand of pre-emption immediately upon hearing of the sale, and then, without unreasonable delay, to repeat the demand in the presence of two witnesses to the vendor, or to the vendee, or on

the property, stating simultaneously that he has made the first demand. By custom a right of pre-emption has attached to sales of immovable property in various districts, towns and villages, and Hindus and others are then subject to it as well as Muslims. The law of pre-emption has been codified into Acts in the Punjab, the North-West Frontier Province, Oudh and Agra. Pre-emption is recognized to prevail in parts of Behar and Gujarat. It is not recognized at all in the greater part of the‘presidency of Madras.

Schools Other Than That of Hanifa—Sir W. Markby in contributing to earlier editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica, noted that “Mohammedan law as applied to any Mohammedans except those of the Hanafite school has as yet been comparatively little studied by modern lawyers.” But since he wrote, the writings of French administrators and Judges on Maliki law have become available by Major Ruxton’s translation for use in Nigeria (MáEki Law), and Van den Bergh’s rendering of Nawáwis Minháj-ut-Tálibín, used in the Dutch Indies, has been put into English by Howard, a judge in the Straits Settlements. This last is the standard work of the school of Sháfei. Similarly Ameer Ali’s work on Mohammedan Law has set out Shiah law in equal fulness with Hanafi law. There are many Shiahs in India, especially in Oudh, though Sunnis very much outnumber them. Inheritance Under Shiah Law.—The Shiah law of inheritance differs much from that of the Sunnis. The sharers and their shares are found unaltered, for the Koran prescribes them. But agnates and cognates rank together as heirs, so “residuaries” and “distant kindred” disappear. Apart from husband and wife, the Shiahs arrange all heirs in three classes: (1) parents and descendants, (2) ancestors, brothers, sisters and descendants of brothers and sisters, and (3) all other relations. Any person in the first class entirely exchides all in the second, and any in the second entirely excludes all in the third. It will be seen that brother and sister are entirely excluded by either parent, or by any descendant agnate or cognate, but under the Hanafte system mothers need not entirely exclude them, and they themselves entirely exclude all descendants of daughters. Also the nearer excludes the more remote, and no one can take between whom and the deceased a living link survives. So a daughter will exclude all descendants of sons or daughters, both male and female. And there is some representation. If the heirs be the descendants of two'deceased sons

ters, in order to see how the distribution is to be made. With the second class the governing rule (subject to possibh

exception by reason of a single uterine brother’s or sister’s share

being only 4) is $ to the father's side, and 4 to the mother’s. Ang the nearest ancestor ranks with, and as if he or she were, the nearest brother, sister, or descendant of a brother or sister; e.g. mother’s father would come in with uterine brother, or uterine brother’s son. There is a similar governing rule for the third clas The rule that the nearer excludes the more remote applies always to the second and third classes as well as to the first, and full blood excludes equally near consanguine balf-blood. Space dos not permit of a full exposition of this interesting scheme of in.

heritance. If the only persons entitled to inherit (and the rule of exclusion by classes must be remembered) be sharers, and their shares do not exhaust the estate, the surplus is divided propor

tionately among them. But if the shares more than exhaust the estate, then, in the first class, daughters must bear all the loss. Bequests to an heir or heirs, if they come within the disposable

third, do not need the consent of the other heirs, and any be. quests exceeding the third can be validated by the heirs not only after the inheritance opens, but even in the testator's lifetime. Shiah Matriage.—The most notable difference between Sunni law and Shiah law in the matter of marriage is that the latter permits temporary marriage. Husband and wife can agree to marry for any time, say for an hour, or for a millenium. If both are alive when the time specified runs out, the marriage then terminates automatically, but it can be renewed by the consent of both. There must be a proper dower when a temporary marriage is entered into. A husband may have as many temporary wives as he chooses. A husband cannot divorce a temporary wife by tdlak, so among people of position "temporary" marriages for roo years are not unknown, as they secure the wife against the indignity of being divorced. But the husband can virtually terminate the marriage by making the wife “a gift of the rest of the term.” For marriages generally the presence of two witnesses at the making of the contract is not so absolutely necessary as it is with the Sunnis, and possibly among at least some Shiahs something in the nature of a religious ceremony should be added to the civil agreement. Some Shiahs, it appears, would prohibit the marriage of a Muslim man with any non-Muslim woman, and some would go so far as to prohibit marriages between Shiahs and non-Shiahs, especially when the Shiah party is a woman. But the restriction against the marriage of a Shiah man with a non-Shiah or non Muslim woman does not apply if the marriage is a temporary one.

Shiah Pre-emption.—Shiahs allow no right to pre-empt be-

cause of vicinage, and regarding easements, allow such a claim only in one complicated and unusual case. And if there are already three or more co-sharers in the property there is no right of preemption on the ground of co-ownership, at least according to some Shiah sub-schools. The two demands which Sunni law requires are not necessary, for with the Shiahs the pre-emptor must merely make his claim to those interested with due diligence, upon hearing of the sale. See M. Nawawi, Minhaj et Talibin, trans. from ed. of L. W. C. van den Bergh by E. C. Howard (1914); Syed Ameer Ali, Mohammedan Law (4th ed. 1917); Sir R. K. Wilson, Anglo-Mohammedan Law (sth ed. 1921, rev. by A. A. Yusuf Ali). (A. SAB.)

INDIAN LITERATURE.

In Europe literature is, as 1€-

gards its subjects, largely international, and any new fashion, such as romanticism, pessimism, the psychological novel, the detective novel, is quickly propagated. The individual qualities of prominent writers are soon known, directly or through translations, and evoke responses more or less obvious. Moreover, the and of two deceased daughters, then $ îs allotted to the children similarity of social conditions and outlook lends interest to the of each son, and 4 to those of each daughter, and distribution is same problems everywhere, and international science causes them made again on, the principle of the double share to each male to be approached ‘from the same points of view. ; among each of these four groups of grandchildren of the deceased. In India the bulk of the edücated public is acquainted with If the heirs are great-grandchildren the process is carried a step English; new English publications are quickly available in the

INDIAN

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239

and there are also Sanskrit periodicals, inlibraries and reading-rooms ; any new book which has obtained | and literary merit; newspaper. a even cluding a, be and 4 vogue in England will soon be reviewed in India (1) Prakrit, usually that of the

subject of articles in magazines.

Moreover, India has in England, |

America, France, Germany and elsewhere numerous

Other classical languages are:

or students, | Jains and published in the Bombay province or in the Hindi-

(2) the Buddhist Pali, rare in India; and some journalists, who are living the lives of those countries. | Màrwári-speaking areas; at Calcutta and Darjeeling; (4) the published Tibetan, the (3) in| which writings of output large very a 1s Consequently, there in Pahlavi or Gujarati script published Parsees, the of Pahlavi | spirit and manner, and often in subject, are not properly Indian, Arabic, appearing chiefly in the (5) Presidency; but either international or what may be termed “colonial.” In| in the Bombay (6) the Persian, more occasional.

English (irrespective of | Delhi, Lucknow, Hyderabad;

al alone over 1,000 publications in languages also have their old or classical bilinguals) are produced annually, and there are over 100 English | Many of the vernacular the Dravidian group, Tamil, Telugu, y prominentl and periods, the addition in mention might We kinds. periodicals of different of their classical works

and Malayalam; re-editions large number of works by Indians and officials or ex-officials in | Kanarese and for the most part are published within the frequent, very are England. in published India which are actually vernaculars. respective the of areas | writings of consists A second department of Indian literature Translations of Sanskrit works are innumerable in nearly all in Indian languages which are based upon European models or| ita for instance being reprodeeply affected by such. Here we have a great mass of fiction, |the vernaculars, the BAagavad-g and some degree of the same year; every times many duced | political travels, poetry, biography, history, much drama, lyric classics, the Hindi poems of local the of some to extends and social pamphleteering and an immense magazine literature, | favour modes which are simply copied from European models.

In this

Tulasi-dàsa, and the Hindi Bhaktamála.

Among modern Hindu

Swami Vivekananda, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, Sir sphere we should not overlook the considerable number of actual | writers Tagore, Romesh Chunder Dutt and Haraprasad translations or adaptations of individual works in English, French | Rabindranath a vogue in several languages; and popular novels. also have Shastri literature and so forth. This might be described as the vernacular in particular the favourite Chandrakdnta (from the Hindi), of absorption. are frequently translated. Portuguese publiA third stage is represented by that vernacular literature and its imitators, Goa, French at Pondicherry and Chanderat appear cations | which, while it has absorbed European influences, has yet recov-

Roman Catholic missions print some brochures in ered an Indian outlook and temper, whether in the course of | nagore; the is even an Italian periodical issued from Manthere and Latin, Already feeling. nature or in obedience to the strong reactionary di Mangalore). Missione (La in the 80s of the roth century Bengal had produced a novel- | galore polyglot, while

^

The literature of India is, therefore, highly ist, Bankim Chandra Chatterjee, whose work exhibits a creative publications are very often bilingual at least. The individual | the day synthesis of the new and the old; and at the present of the matter has also been partly indicated. aspect alphabetic | representaoutstanding its of irrespective has, language Bengali which has been given to the possibility attention the of spite In | of conscious literature tive, Sir Rabindranath Tagore, a modern some advocating the Roman, some India, for script common a of an independent inspiration. Hindi periodical devoted to its a has (which i Deva-nagar the | of continuance the by constituted is A fourth department progress toward simplification; of evidence no is there interest), ancient modes and conceptions. ü, and Roman is Linguistic Distribution.—Apart from the influence of par- |there is a certain amount of Roman-Urd Marathi and for of form Konkani the for employed usually | unevenly very is literature the , ticular centres, such as universities But in general languages. unwritten previously of rendering distributed. The matter must be stated in terms of languages. In | the script. Sometimes traditional its to holds language leading each | and Nepali Sindhi, Panjabi, Bihari, Oriya, the field of Assamese, Mohammedan writes his Panjabi Kashmiri, the Rajasthani dialects and Malayalam of southern | it has more than one; for the (not, however, his ““MusalmaniIndia, the old modes may be said to prevail with little innovation. | or Hindi or Malayalam or Tamil with any necessary modificacharacter, Urdu the in Bengali”) | said been have might same the High Hindi, in regard to which in the Gurumukhi of the Sindhi his write may Sikh The tions. and a few years ago, is rapidly equipping itself with literary usually also bialphabetic therefore are books Bilingual Punjab. organ chief the Urdü, lines. modern on s composition scientific case of the Sanskrit, ioned above-ment the regards as (except | India, Central and of Mohammedans in Hindustan, the Punjab or Arabic texts with is further advanced in the same direction. The two chief lan- | or similar cases with Pahlavi and Gujarati, appearance of multiform the to adds this and Urdü); or Persian more Marathi, and Gujarati Presidency, guages of the Bombay even if variegated, sufficiently already output, literary Indian the especially the former, have a considerable modernizing literaModi, Kaithi, Savara, ture. The Telugu of Madras is perhaps not so far advanced; | we overlook such characters as the Multàni, old writings but Tamil has a large productivity, hardly second to Bengali. | which indeed are rarely printed, or the numerous the book is Special educational efforts have led to the publication of a fair appearing in philological works. The format of sometimes (in Bengal) number of manuals in Kanarese (Mysore), as also in Gujarati | not seldom that of the old Indian pothi,

and (Baroda) and Urdii (Bhopal and Hyderabad); but other Indian | even printed on palm leaves; while the Punjab Gurumukhi than the Mohammedan Arabic are much less often printed For publications in English about the same proportions hold | lithographed from handwritten originals. Popular Literature.—To begin with the lowest stratum, we as for modernized vernacular literature. English works are, in-|

States are not productive on modern lines.

popular, deed, far more prevalent in the provincial capitals, whereas those | must note the existence in India of an extensive, really perhaps especially but India, of parts all In verse. in literature | Gujarati, in the vernacular abound in the less anglicized districts, for instance, favouring Ahmadabad, Marathi Poona. The non- | in the Punjab, in the Kanarese country and in the Tamil area, modernized literature is also published in all considerable places. | there is a constant production of songs and ballads, provoked by The chief classical language of India, Sanskrit, is represented | any notable occasion, such as a prize-fight, a flood or calamity, a by editions of two kinds, those on old Indian lines with or with- | crime, a tragedy, a personality, a social event, an act of adminisout commentaries in Sanskrit or in modern vernaculars, and| tration; these have a real, though probably in general a brief, those with commentaries in English. The former are very widely| life upon the lips of the people, who sing them over their work has been published in the Deva-nagari character, or in Bengali, or in | or in their social gatherings. Of late years this form Gujarati or in the south Indian alphabets, sometimes even in| largely used for political propaganda, innumerable small collecin all the chief languages. the Panjabi or Urdü; and there’ are various combinations of | tions of “national songs” appearing these scripts. Editions on European: lines appear for the most | There are also many collections of songs for special occasions; for the Holi part in the provincial or State capitals or in the university towns. | Garbhi songs for women, marriage songs, songs for aquatic songs , boat celebrations other and festival (spring) | sphere the in New original works in Sanskrit are not infrequent of oriental philosophy, philology, science and religion; occasion- | sports in Orissa and Bengal and so forth. At certain times of ally there appear new poems and dramas of considerable extent | the year the Mohammedans put forth vast quantities of “verses”

240

INDIAN

LITERATURE

in honour of Mohammed or dirges for Hasan and Husain. Religion has a large share in this poetic activity: songs in honour of Krishna (especially in Hindustan, Bengal and Orissa, but also in Gujarat and southern India), of Caitanya (Rirttans in Bengal), of K§4rttikeya, Ganesga, Dattatreya, Vithoba (in the Marathi area); songs for pilgrims to or at the various shrines (innumerable in the Telugu and Tamil country); songs for temple rites; collections of Jain hymns; and the many publications of Christian sects, which in some cases (Roman Catholic) even deign to follow Indian models. Not all this popular literature is in verse, since there are occasions when sacred stories in prose (Hari-kathds and the like) are narrated in or near the temples. An oral existence appertains also to a good part of the various classical writings of India. This is the case not only with Sanskrit works such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana, some parts of the Puranas, and some stories such as those of Savitri and Harischandra, but also with the classics of the several vernaculars. Not to mention the substance of stories and legends, the texts of such poets as Kabir and Tulasi-disa in the Hindi area; Vidyapati, Govind Das and many others in Bengal; Narsinh Mehta, Mira Bai and Prémanand in Gujarati; Namdév and Tukaram in the Marathi country, Lalla in Kashmir; the Süfi poets of Sindh; the Vaishnava and Saiva saints and moralists of the Tamil country, are very familiar on the lips of ordinary people in their respective areas, and, besides being used in education, are frequently re-edited. In the Punjab some parts of the Sikh Granth are similarly used. On the borderland between the oral and the literary we have the drama. In India it was indigenous in many forms, from the heroic down to the morality, miracle play, the farce, the shadow or puppet show. Except in the extreme south of India, it would seem that the popular forms of representation have been more or less levelled out. The ordinary play, produced chiefly in Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, is similar to the European forms —melodrama, social sketch, burlesque, problem play (the old man and the young wife, the modern young man or woman and so forth), love story: it is generally interspersed with verses, and these are often separately published for popular use. The more literary drama, still sometimes in Sanskrit, takes its subjects chiefly from old Indian poetry and legend, and is not seldom an adaptation of a particular Sanskrit work (the Sakuntali, the Mahabharata and Ramédyana or episodes therein, and so forth). The choice is to some extent affected by local celebrity, and occasionally a political application may be suspected. i

Vividhajnonavistara in its 56th. The Urdii Humayun also jg ol some standing. Modern Indian poetry, excepting translations and adaptation, of old Sanskrit works and themes, is usually in the form of short lyrics issued in small volumes. Larger productions are for the

most part collected works of single authors, or anthologies, or the |

outcome of literary Eisteddfods. In the Hindi area the ball of old style attains a greater length, as do Tamil Küvyas q classical models. The poetry is generally erotic, ethical, phil. sophical or religious; but the satirical and controversial, and also, as we have seen, the political, claim a place.

The verse-form;

are usually the traditional ones: only Bengali, it appears, mani. fests original power in this direction. Fiction on European lines is making rapid headway in Indi, and is supplanting the old romantic tales, at least so far as pros

is concerned. The Punjab may still reprint its Hir and Ramjhj, Raja Rasülu, etc. the Sindh its Sassz and Punnün, the Urdi language its Lastt and Majnàn, and Hindi the tales of BAarihwi and Gopichand. The novel is popular both in the form of the short story and of more substantial narratives; and it reflects all the varieties of subjects which have a vogue in English, historical, social, romantic, adventurous (including the detective novel). A new feature is the translation of well-known (includ ing English) novels into several languages and the immense vogue of such popular stories as that of the Hindi Chandrakünia. Religious Literature.—Indian

religious literature, in so far

as it is not lyrical, philosophical, argumentative or philological, consists mainly of manuals of ritual for daily life (dina-caryà) or for particular occasions (marriage, burial, times and seasons, pilgrimages, vows), and of the stories therewith associated; for instance, the story of the Tulasi plant and that of Satya-Nariyana are constantly reproduced. Benares takes a prominent part in such publications. Since each section, from the Vedic Sakhis downwards, must have its separate rituals, it results that the number of such publications is very great. We pass to a consideration of the activity in the reproduction of old canonical texts, with or without commentaries, for the purpose not of ritual, but of study and edification. This accounts for a great mass of republication: in the Punjab, for instance, there is a steady stream of thick volumes of Selections from the Adi-granth. There are some valuable series of such canonical texts; the Jains have several, and the Madhva doctrine of south India and the sect of the Mahárajas

in Bombay have

thus made accessible their chief writings. Important groups have The pabulum of the ordinary reader in India is furnished by usually one or more periodical organs, which, amid other matthe magazine, containing essays, biographies and descriptions, ter, publish and comment upon their authoritative books. Many _ Short stories and serials, notes and not rarely illustrations. The religious texts are, of course, not the property of any particular total output is enormous; for in addition to the diversity of lan- sect, and are therefore variously reproduced; and from these guages we have to reckon with the division of the Hindus into castes with their separate interests and claims. Important castes prefer an organ (or competing organs) of their own, which, along with the ordinary magazine material, will ventilate any matters having a communal bearing. This literature, therefore, presents no ordinary problem to the bibliographer; somewhere in India it should be sedulously collected and preserved, ca account of the special biographical and sociological items which it contains. Schools and colléges have their organs (usually, however, in English). The missionary agencies, including the Salvation Army,

issue innumerable periodicals of all grades, both in English and in the vernacular. Trades and the business world, professions

we can hardly separate those which are of a philosophical rather

than of a religious character: such are the Vedanta writings, the

Madras periodical Vedanta-dipikai, and other philosophical jour-

nals; of wider scope, the Siddhdnta-dipikat and the Marathi Tattvajndna-vistara. There are English periodicals belonging to one or the other of the above two groups: such are the Vedante-

kesari of Madras, the Ahmadi Review of Religions and The Theosophist (which also has vernacular allies). Modern philos-

ophy is represented by the Calcutta Philosophical Society, and by a now extinct Indian Philosophical Review published during several years in Baroda. Philology.—Philology of a more general character is no longer

(teaching, medicine, law, astrology, and so on), and grades of in India restricted to one or two classical languages, Sanskrit official service all contribute to the mass of vernacular matter. Prakrit, Tamil, Pahlavi, Persian, Arabic. There are societies There are further a Hindi Punch, a Hindi Graphic, a Gujarati which devote themselves to the publication of old texts in the and Marathi Tit-Bits, and short story magazines; music and the existing vernaculars. The Bangiya Sahitya Parishat, with 1s stage are also represented by popular periodicals. Special interests, Pattrika and its series of separate old Bengali texts, has a vely such as the cause of women, social service, co-operation, labour, honourable record. The Tamil Sangam of Madura (which issues economics, business, arts and sciences, travel, boy-scouting, are the Sentamil) is likewise distinguished. There are now other similarly equipped. ‘The chief vernaculars have usually at least Sahitya Parishats in the province of Bengal, and for Telugu one literary periodical of a fairly high type. In some cases these also there is the Andhra Sahitya Parishat. For Hindi there atè have flourished during long periods: the Sentamil of Madras is in the Nagari-pracharini Sabha and certain Mandalas; for the Purits 24th volume, the Hindi Sarasvaii in its 25th, the Bengali Bha- jab the Khals& Tract Society; in Gujarat, where societies for raft in its agth, the Gujarati Samdalochak in its 30th, the Marathi publication seem to flourish, the oldest is the Gujarat Vernacular

INDIAN MUSIC

241

Society, while there is also a Sahitya Parishat, and a Séhitya- and the United Provinces Historical Society, whose journals are yardhana Society; in Marathi an important series of editions of composed of original matter. Biography, including autobiography, is now popular in India, old poetry was published under the title Küvya-samgraka. In literary history there are very important and extensive Works by

Rai Saheb Dineschandra Sen (Bengali) ; Sir G. Grierson and the Misra brothers (Hindi); G. M. Tripathi and K. M. Jhaveri (Gujarati) ; Prof. W. B. Patwardhan (Marathi); and Viresa-

lingam Pantulu (Telugu).

—

ol

As regards general philological activity of India, it is hardly possible to draw any clear line between indigenous scholarship

and that affected by European methods: the main aim and pro-

cedure of scholarship are the same everywhere, and whether a commentary is in Sanskrit or Bengali or English seems to make

little essential difference. Only comparative philology is new to India. This philological activity, wherewith is associated the investigation of archaeology and pre-British history, and from which we may exclude the astounding output of educational work up to the level of university textbooks, is connected chiefly with organizations of some kind. The Government of India itself maintains an Archaeological Survey, which publishes annual reports in the several provinces and at headquarters, and splendid special monographs, as well as a periodical relating to Epig-

raphy (see INDIAN AND SINHALESE ART AND ARCHAEOLOGY).

This example is followed by Indian States, Mysore, Travancore,

Hyderabad, Kashmir. Several provincial Governments have published catalogues of Sanskrit mss. (Bengal, the United Provinces, Bombay, Madras, the Central Provinces); States, small and great, Kashmir, Nepal, Baroda, Mysore, Travancore, Alwar, under the title Bibliotheca Indica a vast collection of Sanskrit, or Arabic texts, too, are officially edited in Bombay, Mysore, Travancore, Kashmir, Hyderabad, Baroda. After the Governments we may mention the universities, colleges and libraries as active in the publication of texts and researches (the universities of Calcutta, Madras, Lahore, the Benares Sanskrit college, the Maharajah’s college, Vizianagram, the Bankipur public library). Important journals are issued by societies (the Asiatic Society of Bengal, which has also published under the title Bzbliotheca Indica a vast collection of Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian and Tibetan texts; the Bombay branch of the

Royal Asiatic Society, the Mythic Society of Bangalore, the Bihar and Orissa Research Society, the Hyderabad Archaeological Society, the Bhandarkar Oriental Institute); and some, like the Sanskrit Research, the South Indian Research and the Jan Purdtattva, are occasionally started independently or by religious bodies. The books issued by authors, editors, or individual publishers are, however, more numerous, and on the whole the Indian publication of philological, historical and archaeo-

logical matter relating to pre-British India quite dwarfs in bulk all that is done outside. Much is highly meritorious, and some of it is fully equal to the best production of Europe. The monu-

mental Linguistic Survey of India, edited by Sir G. Grierson for the Government of India, is now completed (see Pxrrrorocv). History and Biography.—For educational purposes and general reading many short histories of India, of England and of other countries are produced both in English and in the vernac-

wars. But original research and independent judgment will be found chiefly in the few first-hand histories of particular States and dynasties; and with a few exceptions (such as the Maratha

tesearches of Rai Bahadur, D. B. Parasnis and the volumes of Maratha records published by the Maratha Historical Society of Poona; the volumes of Prof. Sarkar concerning Aurangzeb;

the biography of Jahàngir and the Journal of Indian History, published by the Allahabad university school of Indian history; the works on south India by Prof. Kumātaswāmy Aiyangar,

Subrahmanyam Aiyar and a few-others) in the works of Englishmen. The valuable monographs produced in Europe or India by Indian scholars relate for the most part to ancient times, and are less historical than philological. Many volumes of records

and calendars in English have been published by local Governments; the gazetteers also are replete with historical information not absorbed in formal histories; and there are several socieles, the Bengal Historical Society, the Punjab Historical Society

taking chiefly the form of short memoirs, which in the case of princes and of important religious leaders such as Debendra Nath Tagore and Dayananda Sarasvati, may attain a considerable length; so also in the case of historical personages, Sivaji, Jahangir and others. A very favourite form, of which there are old examples, is the serial biography, containing lives of saints, lives of famous women, hierarchical, dynastic and family biographies. Valuable work of this kind has been done in regard to the Tamil and Telugu saints and poets, and the poets of Bengal and Gujarat, Small volumes of “prison reminiscences” have been published by political offenders, and the number of short “lives” of popular heroes, such as Tilak, Gokhale and Gandhi, is beyond counting. The old form of biography in verse is still favoured in relation to saintly and historical characters: naturally, it has aims other than information and research.

Many Indians,

from princes downwards, have written accounts of their travels, whether in England, on the continent of Europe, in America or in other countries, including the Far East. But India itself furnishes rich material and occasions for travellers’ experiences, especially in connection with its shrines and pilgrimages, so that such titles as Bhdrata-bhramana quite naturally recur. (F. W. Tu.) INDIAN MUSIC. The music of India has a threefold interest. It offers the most complete example, in theory and practice, of melody untouched by harmony; hence, it provides a key to the problems of ancient Greek music, which have fascinated scholars and musicians; and it has for an Englishman the appeal that it concerns a majority of his fellow-subjects. Musical literature refers not seldom to the “laws of melody,” but makes no attempt to formulate them, because European melody is always harmonized, and it is nearly impossible to say

what part of it belongs to harmony and what to melody. From a system innocent melody swings, tonic (amsha), that varies with supported by a

of harmony, like the Indian, we realize (x) that in the first instance, on two pivots—the vocal a sort of “Ecclesiastical” Dominant, at a pitch the mode, and the tonic in our sense of the word drone (kharaj) and, secondarily, on notes related

as fourth or fifth to either of these.

On this varying distance

between the two tonics depends mainly the character of the mode (rdg), poignant, if the amsha is high, festive or placid, if low. (2) There is a general contrast of major and minor, but the third of the scale is no more decisive of this than the seventh, sixth, or second; the ethos of the minor is not so much sad as elaborate and reflective, and is graduated or intensified by shades of intonation which we do not possess. (3) a melody is conceived as lying within, or round, the tetrachord, though the second part of it may spring to the upper octave, just as, with us, it would adjourn to a key of contrast. (4) The motion is mainly conjunct; intervals which strike us as odd (augmented second, or augmented fourth) are justified as motion to or from the amsha. (5) The octave contains, like ours, seven notes (it is called saptaka, a set of seven) with, possibly, an eighth or ninth as alternatives, not additions. The “quartertones” (shruti) have been entirely misconceived by European writers. They do not provide a scale of 22 notes through which the voice threads its precarious path, but are in use as increments of intervals well-known to us, and lend them an exhilarating or pathetic colouring. (Thus, from a tonic C, the sixth, A, will have 884 accents in one mode, 906 in another; B flat, similarly, 996 or 1,018.) The Indians have, in fact, preserved distinctions which we have merged by our “temperaments," and now employ them for a musical purpose; just as grammar will sometimes employ different forms (nosco, and novi; ken, can, and know) for diferent meanings. (6) Melody centres in the mode. The amateur knows a dozen of them, the professional at least fiye, perhaps ten, dozen. (It is customary to say that we have only two modes, major and minor; but for those who consider the history and the implications of the

“Neapolitan” sixth, the “German” etc., there are more

than two.)

and “diminished” sevenths, The modes

are differentiated

INDIAN MUTINY

242

by (a) their amskas, (b) the flat (komal) and sharp (tivra), or the very flat and very sharp notes (atikomal, atitivra) and (c)

the martial races eagerly enlisted under the Union Jack, ay :

served gallantly and faithfully, crossing bayonets more tha ` the amount of transilience, z.e., whether they are of five, six or once with the French and sailing as far as the Mauritius, E seven notes in all. The various admixture of these elements and Java to take part in the wars against Napoleon. But eve gives each mode its flavour (ràga), and this is emphasized by behind this great native army marched as a hammer-head Eun. assigning the mode to a particular hour of the day or season pean corps, some enlisted for the service of the Company, by of the year. chiefly consisting of the British Line. The European units always We conceive musical times as multiples, they as sums. We bore the brunt of the hardest service. This vast native army wx take $ as 3X2, and & as 3X3; they, as 3--14-2 and 54-24-2 organized in three distinct Lines, under the presidencies of Bey. (or 44-2--3, or in some other way). In these three instances, gal, Madras and Bombay. The native army of Bengal was by to go no farther, they are representing the dactyl (- ~ ~) of their far the largest, and the three armies, in addition to the Lin prosody, and allowing for (a) different lengths of short syllable had developed many local corps, regular and irregular, whik and (D) different proportions of long to short. They have dealt the larger native states also maintained contingents under treaty, similarly with trochee (~~), iambic (v—) and anapaest («v -). trained as a rule after the manner of the Bengal army, and off. The.tribach (v»-) they treat as three crotchets and a crotchet cered by British officers, which enlisted in many cases the sam rest, thus arriving at common time, which they call “three-time.” races as furnished the Bengal Line. Such procedure soon becomes far too elaborate to follow out here, The Bengal army, and indeed the whole of India, was shaken though, in practice, they confine themselves to only a dozen by the disasters which, for the first time, overcame the Com. kinds of time. pany’s forces in Afghanistan in 1841-42. In the wars with th But, in whatever time it may be, the essence of an Indian Sikhs, 1846-49, the fighting and the nature of the foe was fa melody it that it employs cross rhythm. Singer and drummer more formidable than hitherto experienced; the European troops converge upon a point; one sings seven bars of ten units per- had to bear a more forward part than ever in the great, battles ef haps, while the other drums ten bars of seven units; or the drum- that war, and the prestige of the Bengal army was to some e mer's two hands beat different times, one 2--2-1-2 and the other tent threatened. 34-3; or one hand starts at the beginning and the other in the Earlier Mutinies.—There had been several untoward mili middle of the bar, in different times, and they converge half a tary incidents in the 50 years preceding 1857. As early, indeed, dozen bars later. The audience appreciates such a point, and as 1764 it had been necessary to quell mutiny by the usual or waits for it. ental punishment of blowing away the offenders from the guns, In the absence of harmony, grace-notes are important, to em- when 30 sepoys (sepoy, more properly sipahi, soldier, cf. the fom phasize one moment as against another. The couple of dozen spahi in the French African army) were so disposed of. graces that are practised are, in principle, two—the slide (as on In 1806 a serious mutiny was brewing in the Madras army, the violin) and the “deflect” (as produced by the tangent of a partly born of the over-introduction of European pattern clothes clavichord). The eminence of a performer is largely decided by and accoutrements. In 1824, the 47th Bengal Native Infantry rehis skill in these, and he uses them to accentuate the essential fused to march when it was ordered for active service in Burma, notes of the mode. and after being somewhat severely handled by European artillery, The chief instruments are (1) vīna, with three drone strings, was disbanded. In 1844 no less than seven battalions of the Benand four fretted strings on the finger board, plucked like, and gal Army broke into open mutiny over the question of allowances with the tone of, the. guitar; (2) sitar, a simpler form of guitar, when garrisoning newly acquired provinces. It was to be noticed more easily played, with less noble tone, native to Bengal; (3) that the sterner measures of earlier days were not taken and the

sürangi, an elementary violin, used for the nautsch; (4) surnai, corps involved for the most part remained in the service. a hautboy of strident tone; (5) various drums, the most important Discontent and Danger Signals.—But there were not wantbeing the fabla, a small pair, played one by each hand; and, in ing those who saw farther and thought harder. Lord Ellenborough the jungle (6) the banshri, bamboo flute, of varying size, scale often said that a general mutiny of the native army was the only and compass. Concerted music, vocal or instrumental, is rare, real danger with which the British Empire in India was threatand is in unison. (A. H. F. S) ened. His warning was solemnly repeated by Sir Charles Napier, INDIAN MUTINY, THE, the great revolt of the Ben- when Commander-in-chief, basing his warning on the many degal native army in 1857 which led to the transference of the fects of the military system which had gradually crept in. Gengovernment of India from the East India Company to the Crown eral John Jacob of the Bombay Army uttered still more forcible in 1858. This mutiny, accompanied by rebellion of the popula- warnings during the years immediately preceding the Mutiny. tion in many parts and of somé of the chieftains of India, was due to many causes, some of which remain a matter of controversy to this day. Whatever were the ultimate political and psychological reasons underlying the rebellion, the increasing of

the native army to. implement the holding of the newly acquired territories of Oudh, the Punjab and Sind, out of all proportion to the European garrison, added to a reduction of that small garrison during the Crimean and Persian campaigns, made a mutiny possible and sufficiently attractive to catch up into its whirlwind the discontented political elements. . During the roo years which had elapsed since the battle of Plassey, the East India Company had risen, through the crumbling of the central power of the Mogul empire, from being the mandatory of that empire for the government of certain coastal tracts, to the control of the whole of the Indian peninsula. In overcoming the various warring principalities into which the Mogul pewer had broken up, the instruments were largely Indian soldiers themselves, who had eagerly followed the British who were proud to lead them. ‘A vast army modelled on the British Line,’ and: clothed:to resemble it, had sprung up, with all the complicated machinery..and traditions of a regular standing army. Elated at the contimtial success which attended the British arms,

1Line—an organized’ regular’ army.

E

Sir Henry Lawrence, than whom no greater authority existed,

frequently warned all and sundry that things were not right, and that what had occurred at Kabul might happen at Delhi. There can be little doubt that the social reforms of Lord Dalhousie and his predecessors had disturbed many men’s minds. The prohibition of suttee and female infanticide, the subordination of

Brahmans to the ordinary criminal laws,- all tended to cause bitterness and alarm. The landowning class, especially among the Mohammedans,: found that British rule meant curtailment of inordinate, privileges, and fair treatment for the poor, while at

i British zeal for justice pressed unduly. on these ancient

classes. : B The' Greased Cartridge—the Chappattis.—To this accumulation of inflammatory material, a spark was put in 1857 by strange but intelligible oversight on the part of the authorities re-

sponsible for the manufacture of ammunition. The use of the Minie or Enfield rifle involved a cartridge with a heavily greas

patch at the end. The use of the cartridge fot muzzle loading

muskets had always demanded the biting of the end and the pout

ing of the powder thus released into the barrel. Then occurred an

altercation at Dumdum, between a^high-class Bengal sepoy and@

low-caste employé of the arsenal, and the hurling of a gibe bY

the latter as to the utter defilemdnt involved in ‘the use of the

INDIAN

MUTINY

long terms of imprisonment for mutiny. At a general parade of the garrison the convicts were degraded and put in irons. Just before dusk on the day succeeding the punishment parade, the native garrison broke out into open mutiny. The Sunday, a cavalry saddled and mounted and galloped to the gaol to release

sew cartridge. The news spread like wild-fire. Officers, as soon as they heard of the trouble, took the matter up, and whatever

material had been used, clarified butter was to be the future in-

dient. It was also arranged that men should grease their own materials. But the mischief had been done, and the clever brains which had been plotting against the British, found a stimulant. In India no story is too wild for belief if connected with religion. There is no doubt that the first cartridges did contain material that would be entirely unclean, and there is no doubt that the

fears of the sepoys were perfectly genuine.

At this time, too, when half India was agape and looked for a portent, the strange phenomenon of the chappattis occurred.

The ordinary unleavened cakes of household use seemed to be

passing round.

A village watchman

arrived at a village, dis-

tributed a cake, saying, “To the north, the south, the east and the west,” with injunctions to make four more and increase the snowball. No one knew why they came. The watchmen only knew that someone had brought them. But it was known that in the past similar appearances had taken place in time of trouble. The first signs of the approaching upheaval were displayed at the great military station of Barrackpore, 16m. from Calcutta,

in Jan. 1857. The rumour regarding the cartridges which had

originated at the adjacent Dumdum, had much inflamed the minds of the sepoys quartered there. The well-known sign of unrest, incendiary fires, broke out in the lines. Fortunately Gen.

Hearsey was perhaps the best known and most experienced sepoy

general in India, and active withal

"Trouble was for the time

laid by his judicious handling, but he warned the Government that he was sitting at Barrackpore on a mine ready for explosion. A month later the rgth Bengal Infantry at Berhampur refused to receive their percussion caps, on the ground that to use the new cartridge meant defilement. The absence of any European troops necessitated a temporizing policy. The battalion was, how-

ever, ordered to march to Barrackpore for disbandment. Two days before its arrival, on March 29, a sepoy named Mangal Pandy, drunk with bang and religious enthusiasm, endeavoured to provoke an outbreak in his regiment, the 34th Native Infantry, shooting the adjutant who interfered, and cutting. down the European sergeant-major of the battalion. The regimental guard failed to take action, but General Hearsey, who happened to Be riding by, rode at the mutineer.

At this juncture, the gravest which had ever befallen the British in India, the commander-in-chief and his office, with all the military heads, were separated from the governor-general and the government by many hundreds of miles. Calcutta was the headquarters of government, and though on occasion the governorsgeneral had summered at Simla during the wars with Afghanistan and the Sikhs, the offices and the ministers did not move. The commander-in-chief, finding the major portion of his army was in the north, had made Simla his headquarters. The absence of the commander-in-chief and the adjutant-general from the seat at this period made any concerted policy impos= a sible. The Outbreak at Meerut and Delhi—By May ro the situation developed in grim earnest, and what had fizzled at Berhampur and Barrackpore broke into flame at Meerut. Meerut was the largest station south of the Punjab, commanded by Major-Gen. Hewitt, and containing a considerable European garrison, viz., the Carabineers, the 6oth Rifles and two troops of Bengal Horse Artillery, with the headquarters and principal

depót of the Bengal Artillery, commanded by Brigadier Archdale

Wilson. Meerut was originally instituted to watch Delhi and the

Mahratta frontier. The native troops were the 3rd Light Cavalry (a regular and non-silladar corps), and the 11th and 20th Bengal

Native Infantry.

|

The officer commanding the cavalry, who had lately returned from leave, decided that the cartridge question must be faced, and ordered the sharpshooters of his regiment to receive the

cartridge and practise the new loading drill. Eighty-five of the men d were tried by a native court-martial and sentenced to

From whose name, a commi Inütitieers Secale ERO. as Do

ronymi RD

s ue pu

ns,

E

243

the

their comrades. The 11th Infantry shot the colonel of the 2oth and fell on any of their own officers who came their way. As so often happens in large Indian cantonments, the European and Indian barracks lay some distance apart. At Meerut the two portions of the cantonment divided by a deep watercourse, were especially distinct. While the mutineers were murdering all Europeans they came across, aided by all the ruffians who always inhabit an Indian bazaar, the British troops, unaware of what was happening, were about to turn out for church parade which, at that season, was held in the evening, when the sound of firing broke on their ears. Fortunately the Rifles were not in church, and hurried to get under arms. The regimental sergeant-major ordered the men to exchange from white cotton to their invisible green clothing. When the British troops marched to the scene of the conflagration the mutineers were gone. A few rounds in the direction of the native lines cleared out any stragglers. The scenes of outrage did not continue. The cantonment was surrounded with woods and villages, and there were large numbers of women and children to be collected in a central place of refuge. The Carabineers themselves were hardly a regiment in being. Just out from Europe to replace a regiment sent to the Crimea, full of young soldiers, their horses were young walers, as yet half trained. No one thought that the excited rabble of soldiers without their leaders was going to march straight to face the orderly brigade at Delhi, or that anyone could think of restoring the Moghul dynasty. Whether, had the situation been grasped and correctly interpreted, Delhi could have been saved, can only be a matter of opinion. It has, however, been said that matters had gone too far for any local action to prevent the rebellion, and that Delhi, acting.as a focus of the diseáse in the north, served a valuable purpose and contributed to its eventual suppression in a manner that could not have been foreseen. .Early in the morning the mutinous cavalry reached Delhi, to be followed by parties of tramping redcoat sepoys. Attempts were made to prevent them entering the city and palace, but troops sent cheering from the cantonment three miles away, soon fraternized with the mutineers, and officers were shot down on all sides. ‘The city and palace rabble hastened to massacre all Europeans and Christians. ‘Those who took refuge in the palace were soon butchered. The whole of the civil lines which lay within the city wall became a shambles. Up on the ridge which lay between the cantonment and the city the brigadier with half his garrison stood to arms till dusk, the Europeans clustered at a small tower, the troops muttering and restless. Within the city walls, one of the most famous incidents in British history was taking place. Between the Kashmir Gate and the fortress-palace stood the great arsenal of upper India, left by some strange folly entirely in the hands of Indian troops, and within the city. Sir Charles Napier, when commander-in-chief, had protested, and the magazine itself had been moved to the end of the ridge in the cantonment. Within the arsenal there was an immense park of cannon, with a small “expense” magazine in which small-arms ammunition was made up. After defending the

arsenal for as long as possible the resolute young artillery officers and warrant officers of the arsenal establishment, under Lt. Willoughby, blew up their magazine, causing great damage to their assailants, and sending a thrill of glory and defiance through the whole of India. This glorious act, however, had not the effect generally supposed, for unfortunately Sir Charles Napier’s forethought in moving the main magazine had but resulted in its fall-

ing into the mutineers’ hands. Without its contents (3,000 barrels of powder) the defence of Delhi by the mutineers would have

been impossible. At sunset the remnant of the Europeans left Delhi for Meerut and, Umballa as best they could. The ex-Moghul king was proclaimed by the soldiery and was put at the head ot

the rebellion. A hundred and twenty miles north of Delhi lay the great mililAustralian horses from New South Wales.

244

INDIAN

tary station of Umballa, the headquarters of a large military district commanded by Major-gen. Barnard of Crimean fame, which being in the newly occupied Punjab had many European troops. Of these, three battalions of European infantry were in the Simla hills for the summer, 60 to 80m. farther away. At Umballa itself were the 9th Lancers and two troops of European artillery with several native units. The commander-in-chief, General the Hon. George Anson, at once ordered all the Europeans in the Simla hills to march to the plains and the commander at Umballa was to get ready his force to march to Delhi. It was some days before the troops could be got down from the hills and supplies and transport collected. It must be remembered that there were practically no railways in India in 1857, and that the mutiny occurred in the height of the hot season. On May 17, six days after the outbreak at Delhi, the leading portion of the commander-in-chief’s forces left Umballa for Kurnal, some 50m. down the Grand Trunk road, followed by a stream of detachments. The commander-inchief proceeded to Kurnal on the 23rd and died there of cholera four days later. With the rising at Delhi and the proclamation of the ex-king of Delhi to the throne of his fathers, the whole of the Bengal army, from Calcutta to Delhi, broke into revolt. At some stations the influence of individual officers held the regiments for a time, but with a few exceptions the whole of the Bengal Army and the contingents of the central Indian states caught the contagion. Scenes of tragedy and horror were enacted all over the Bengal presidency, especially along the great waterways of the Ganges and the Jumna. But from Calcutta to Meerut, a marching distance of 1,000 miles, the European garrisons were extremely small. At Lucknow, with one British battalion, Sir Henry Lawrence kept his troops in hand for weeks. At Cawnpore, Sir Hugh Wheeler, experienced but aged, tried to maintain a bold face with a few Europeans sent him by Sir Henry Lawrence. At Agra, one European battalion held the great fortress, and became a refuge for all the neighbouring provinces. As soon as the gravity of the situation was realized by Lord Canning, the governor-general, attempts were made to apply the only remedy, reinforcements of European troops. A battalion from Burma had been brought over when the trouble at Barrackpore had occurred. An expedition on the way to China was now summoned to help, and the European portion of the Persia expedition now returning to India was hurried to Calcutta. With the upper provinces isolated and telegraphs cut, with the commander-in-chief dead at Kurnal, it was necessary to organize a new chief command. General Sir Patrick Grant, the most famous of the Bengal sepoy officers of the day, was summoned from Madras, where he was provincial commander-in-chief. The pacification of the lower provinces first demanded the despatch of such small columns as could be organized to relieve the two places in the greatest danger—Sir Hugh Wheeler, at Cawnpore, Sir Henry Lawrence, at Lucknow. To help the small stations was impossible. The restoration of order at the centre would automatically relieve them. Only in the Punjab, the most important of all the provinces, was the situation reassuring, and this for four reasons. First and foremost, the presence of a far larger number of European troops in the newly acquired provinces; secondly, the commanding character of the ruler, Sir John Lawrence; thirdly, the fact that the Punjabis had recently been handsomely beaten by the British and liked their new masters; fourthly, the pick of the young men of the Indian services were in civil and military employment in the north. Major-Gen. Reid, the senior general in the Punjab, though too old and unfit to cope with the situation, gallantly went off to Delhi to assume the provisional chief-ship when Anson died, to break down immediately from his exertions. But at Peshawur, the Brigadier, Sidney Cotton, was a tower of strength. The eagerness, indeed, of Lawrence caused him to overlook the problem of moving Europeans in the Punjab summer and the want of carriage and equipment, nor did he at first realize the character of the revolt. Seeing that Delhi was the focus and should be recovered at all costs, and finding that even the combined Meerut and Umballa force could not take the city, he poured his British troops down, raising also innumerable levies to

MUTINY replace the Bengal troops, who were disarmed at many station,

His boldness and that of Sidney Cotton, Neville Chamberlin

and John Nicholson, charmed the wild Afghan and frontier tribes

who flocked to serve and share in the loot of Delhi. The Amir of Kabul, contrary to from attacking the required every man The Siege and

expectation, held by his alliance and refrained British. Lawrence gambled and won. But i he could raise before Delhi could be taken

Capture of Delhi .—By June the combine

forces from Meerut, under General Barnard, the commander of the Umballa division, and Brigadier-General Wilson from Meery, defeated the rebels in three engagements, and found themselyes once again in the cantonment of Delbi. The final reinforcements reached the ridge from the Punjab

late in August—under Brigadier-General had hitherto passed rapidly up and down Bengal garrisons. With him came the last and ammunitions. The siege batteries then

John Nicholson, who the Punjab disarming supplies of siege gun opened an intense fire

on a short front of wall and bastion. At dawn on Sept. 14, three storming columns moved against the city, two entering up the breaches and the third blowing in the Kashmir Gate. The walls

on the ridge side were soon in British hands, but with the price of Nicholson mortally wounded. Days of severe fighting were necessary to clear out the city and gain the fortress-palace. This finally done, the ex-king was captured at Humayun’s Tomb outside Delhi, and the sons shot to avoid a rescue. The fittest of the troops then started south to relieve Agra. The Coming of Reinforcements and the Relief of Lucknow.—The course of the Mutiny had four distinct phases:—(r) that of the outbreak, and the recapture of Delhi with the British garrison and Punjab troops which were chiefly stationed in the north of India; (2) the coming of reinforcements and the restoration of order along the course of the Ganges, with the relief of

Lucknow; (3) the final capture of Lucknow in the spring of 1858 and the destruction of the second great centre of rebellion, and (4) the pacification of the country. : Sir Patrick Grant on his arrival had found a government in a military crisis, with no military headquarters. Not one single high official of the staff of the army nor any of its machinery was available. It was necessary to improvise and reconstruct an army ma-

chinery which would handle the large forces arriving for what was now clearly seen to be the re-conquest, not only of Bengal, but of most of Central India, to which the conflagration had now spread. Very soon came the news that government at home had appointed Sir Colin Campbell to succeed Anson, and Grant could only occupy himself with making a machine for Campbell to use. He did, however, push forward as soon as possible a column to relieve

General Sir Hugh Wheeler at Cawnpore, and Sir Henry Lawrence at Lucknow, pushing up first Colonel Neil and his Madras Fusiliers, and then, as soon as he arrived, Gen. Havelock with more reinforcements. The trunk road up country from Calcutta led straight across country to Benares on the Ganges, a distance of some 380m., of which the first 100 could be travelled on the recently opened commencement of the railway. Eighty miles farther lay the

Moghul fortress of Allahabad at the junction of the Ganges and Jumna, and 120m. farther on lay the important military centre

of Cawnpore, which had long watched the adjacent state of Oudh.

At Cawnpore was Sir Hugh Wheeler's headquarters, with four native regiments and one European field battery. At Lucknow,

45m. distant, the headquarters of Sir Henry Lawrence and the administration of Oudh, was a European battalion and a large native force,

Wheeler, greatly experienced in the sepoy army,

realized that his troops were likely to mutiny, and that it must be a race against time. He was encumbered witk a large number of women and children. It was essential to find a place of ref-

uge, and choice lay between a fortified magazine a long way from

the cantonment at the other side of the native city, or of fort fying some disused hospital buildings on the parade ground. Be-

cause of the difficulty of moving to the magazine, and of the

importance of being easily reached by reinforcements expected

early from the south, he decided on the latter. A company of the 32nd Foot from Lucknow came in to help garrison the

INDIAN entrenchment, into which most of the Europeans moved on May „1. On May 31, about 150 men of the 84th Foot from Burma and afew Madras Fusiliers arrived. Believing that the crisis was pass-

ing, Sir Hugh senta company of the 84th on to Lucknow. The total force of possible combatants in the entrenchment now was some 450 men, including civilian Europeans and Eurasians, with

ix guns, but there were 330 women and children. On June 4 and

s, the sepoys mutinied and marched for Delhi. But there lived, ‘ear Cawnpore, one Dundoo Punt, the Nana Sahib, adopted son of the ex-Peishwa,) who prevailed on the mutineers to return and attack the entrenchment, which they did on the 6th. From the 6th to the 24th the garrison held out against heavy

bombardment, and at last, worn out with heat and sickness, surrendered on promise of safe conduct by boat to Allahabad. Then followed the infamous massacre at the boats, and the collection

of women and children to be murdered later. Neil and his Madras Fusiliers, pushing up from the railhead by bullock train and route march through great heat and heavy rain, first reached Benares

in time to quell a mutiny there, and then threw himself into Allahabad, still garrisoned by a few artillery invalids and some Sikhs, Here he collected supplies, pushed parties up the road, and awaited Havelock, who was able to leave Allahabad on July 7, some of his troops moving by road and some by steamer. After

245

MUTINY

the Delhi troops were marching south. It was not, however, till March, 1858, that Sir Colin had enough troops for his purpose, when Jang Bahadur, the prime minister of Nepal, had also arrived with 10,000 Ghurkas.

Lucknow

The attack on the masses entrenched at

began on the gth and partook of the nature of a

siege, lasting till the 16th, when the city was in British hands and the whole rebel army routed. It was the brilliant campaign of Sir Hugh Rose in Central India which destroyed the last mutinous forces in being and clinched the suppression of the Mutiny. The Central Indian Campaign.—Though the two great princes of Central India, Sindhia and Holkar, wisely and fortunately remained true to the British, troops belonging to both of them joined the mutineers. The Gwalior contingent of Sindhia’s army mutinied in the middle of June, and on July 1 Holkar's troops revolted at Indore, and the resident, Henry Durand, was forced to leave the residency. The rani of Jhansi also rose in rebellion, to become known as “the best mam upon the side of the

enemy.” The rising in this quarter received little attention until

Jan. 1858, when Sir Hugh Rose was given the command of two brigades, to act in concert with Sir Colin Campbell, and he im-

mediately began a campaign which for celerity and effectiveness

has rarely been

equalled in India.

Advancing

rapidly

from

Bombay, Sir Hugh Rose relieved Saugor on Feb. 3, after it had seven months. On several engagements with the mutineers Havelock heavily defeated been invested by the rebels for upwards of and took the whole of Madanpur, of pass the forced he 3, March all that find to 16th, the on Cawnpore outside force their main into panic. On the the women and children had been hacked to death in a small the enemy’s defences in rear, throwing them house known as the “Bibi-ghar” the night before. Their bodies, 21st he began the siege of Jhansi, the stronghold of the mutineers some still breathing, were thrown down an adjacent well, on which in Central India, with a garrison of 11,000 men. During the native leader now stands an enduring monument. No act in the Mutiny raised course of the siege Tantia Topi, the most capable of the Mutiny, arrived with a fresh force of 20,000 men, and so fierce a storm of anger. with a boldness At Lucknow, the headquarters of Sir Henry Lawrence and the threatened the British camp; but Sir Hugh Rose, and while still administration of Oudh, the British still held out. Up till June which only success could justify, divided his force, with only Topi Tantia attacked fort, the of siege the maintaining the in and Lucknow in mutinies 30, though there had been victory was won on neighbourhood, the garrison were not beleaguered. On the 3oth 1,500 men and completely routed him. This by assault. Sir Henry, moving out to attack the mutineers at Chinhut, im- April 1, and two days later Sir Hugh carried Jhansi a temperain won and fought was Kunch of battle the 1 May On crippled mediately incurred disaster, which not only severely the force of Europeans, but compelled Lawrence to abandon out- ture of 110° in the shade, many of the combatants on both sides lving positions and concentrate in the group of houses known as being struck down by heat apoplexy. On May 22, the battle of the Residency. The garrison, 1,720 fighting men, of whom 712 Kalpi was won. In five months he had beaten the enemy in 13 were loyal sepoys, and 153 civilian volunteers, were now hotly general actions and sieges, and had captured some of the strongest beleaguered. Unfortunately Sir Henry Lawrence was fatally forts in India. News now arrived that the rebel army under wounded by a shell on July 4, the command devolving on Briga- Tantia Topi and the rani of Jhansi had attacked Sindhia, whose dier Inglis. Gen. Havelock at Cawnpore was compelled to wait troops had gone over to the rebels and delivered Gwalior into for reinforcements, and to collect carriage and supplies. It was their hands. Sir Hugh marched against Gwalior at once, captured not till late in September that he was able to advance to Luck- the Morar cantonments on June 16 and carried the whole of the now. By the 2sth he had reached the Residency, a reinforcement Gwalior positions by assault on the 19th, thus restoring his state enabling the garrison to hold a less restricted area, but it had to to Sindhia within 10 days of taking the field. This was the crownremain for many weeks before the actual relief could come up. ing stroke of the Central India campaign, and practically put an In the meantime Sir Colin Campbell had arrived. By Nov. 3, end to the Mutiny, though the work of stamping out its embers he reached Cawnpore and was ready with 4,500 men to advance went on for many months, and was completed only with the capon Lucknow. That city had become the focus of rebellion of all ture and execution of Tantia Topi in April, 1859. Nature of the Indian Mutiny.—The Indian Mutiny was in who had not hurried to Delhi, and 60,000 armed men were collected round the devoted Lucknow garrison and its reinforce- no sense universal. In the first place it practically occurred only ments: By Nov. 12, the force reached the Alumbagh, and by the in Bengal, Central India, the north-west provinces along the uth advanced on Lucknow. On the 16th the Sikandrabagh was Ganges, Oudh and the Punjab, viz., those provinces garrisoned stormed and Campbell joined hands with Outram and Havelock. by the Bengal army and its off-shoots. The Madras line stood The commander-in-chief had decided to withdraw the garrison firm as did almost all that of Bombay. Seditious movements and all its helpless folk at once, and to leave a strong force out- among the Mahrattas were kept in hand. Even in the affected side the city till he was prepared to attack the whole of the districts the great mass of the people either stood neutral, waitLucknow rebel concentration. The success was marred by the ing with the immemorial patience of the East to accept the yoke death of the heroic Havelock, who was laid to his rest in the Alum- of the conqueror, or helped the British troops with food and bagh, in which Sir James Outram with 4,000 men was left to face service, in many cases also sheltering British fugitives to the best. of their ability. The attempt to throw off the British yoke the masses of the rebels till Sir Colin was ready. The Campaign in Oudh and Central India.—Returning was confined to a few disaffected ex-rulers and their heirs, with to Cawnpore with the rescued people, the chief was in time to their numerous clansmen and hangers-on, besides the badmashes save that important place from a sudden attack by the Gwalior and highwaymen who saw their way to profit by the removal of tebels—and the second phase of the Mutiny, that of the coming the British administration under which their peculiar talents found of the reinforcements and the reopening of the Great Trunk no outlet. The Bengal native army was their tool. But the fighting toad had now been accomplished. Cawnpore had been avenged races of the Punjab saw no reason for casting in their lot with and Lucknow relieved, while in the far north Delhi had fallen and the mutineers, and the great majority of the independent princes of which to complain, like Patiala and Jhind in 'i 'The deposed and pensioned chief of the Mahratta confederacy who who had nothing a loyal or at least an interested friendship. preserved Punjab, the ved in exile near Cawnpore.

246

INDIAN

The Sikhs showed their appreciation of Lawrence's admirable administration by keeping faith with their recent conquerors, and the Gurkhas of Nepal did yeoman service for their fathers’ enemies. The chief result of the Indian Mutiny was the end of the government of India by the East India company. It was felt that a system of administration which could permit such a catastrophe was no longer desirable. On Aug. 2, 1858, the queen signed the act which transferred the government of India to the crown. On Nov. 1, Lord Canning, then viceroy of India, published the noble proclamation in which the change was announced, and a full amnesty was offered to all the rebels who had not been leaders in the revolt or were not guilty of the murder of British subjects. The natives of India at large gratefully accepted the queen’s proclamation as the charter of their lives and liberties, and a suitable opening to a new order. BisLtioGraPHY.—Kaye’s and Malleson’s History of the Indian Mutiny of 1857-8 (ed. by G. B. Malleson 1888-89) ; Sir O. T. Burne, Clyde and Strathnairn (1891), Rulers of India series, No. xxiii. (ed. by Sir

W. W. Hunter, 1890, etc.) ; Sir H. Cunningham, Earl Canning (1891),

Rulers of India series, No. xxiv.; G. W. Forrest, The Indian Mutiny. Selections from the Letters, Despatches, and other State Papers... in the Military Department of the Government of India 1857-58, 4 vol. (Calcutta, 1893-1912), and A History of the Indian Mutiny (190412); Lord Roberts, Forty-one Years in India (34th ed. r901); and Letters written during the Indian Mutiny (1924); R. S. Rait, The Life and Campaigns of ... Viscount Gough (1903); Sir W. L. Warner, The Life of the Marquis of Dalhousie (1904), and Memoirs of FieldMarshal Sir Henry Wylie Norman (1908) ; Sir E. Wood, Articles and Correspondence in The Times (Sept. 30-Oct. 21, 1907) ; R. B. Smith, Life of Lord Lawrence (1912); T. R. E. . Hol Holmes, A History of the Indian Mutiny (1904-12) ; F. Sedgwick, The Indian Mutiny of 1857 (rev. ed. 1920); “The Mutiny Day by Day, being extracts from the Letters of General Sir Archdale Wilson,” in the Journal of the United service Institution of India, Nos. 221, 222, 223, 224, 22%, 227, 228 (Simla, Sept. 30-Oct. 21, 1907) ; A. B. Keith, Speeches and Documents

on Indian Policy, r750—r9g2r, vol. i, World's Classics, vol. ccxxxi. (1922). G. MA.)

INDIAN OCEAN, the ocean bounded north by India and

Persia, south by the northern margin of the south polar continent (Antarctica), west by Arabia and Africa and east by Farther India, the Sunda islands and West and South Australia. From 35? South latitude there are no natural boundaries on the east and west, and artificial boundaries have therefore been laid

down, consisting on the west of the meridian of Cape Agulhas, and on the east of the meridian of South Cape, Tasmania. It attains its greatest breadth, more than 10,000 km. or 5,500

sea miles between the south points of Africa and Australia and becomes steadily narrower towards the north until it is divided by the Indian peninsula into two arms, the Arabian sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east, the distance from Aden to Penang (Malay Peninsula) being 6,100 km. or 3,300 sea miles. Both branches meet the coast of Asia almost exactly on the Tropic of Cancer, but the Arabian sea communicates with the Red sea and the Persian gulf by the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb and Ormuz respectively. Both of these, again, extend in a northwesterly direction of 30° N. Within these boundaries the Indian ocean covers an area of 74,917,000 sq.km. It is thus the smallest of the 3 great oceanic basins comprising only 20-7% of the area of the oceans of the globe; 29.695 being covered by the Atlantic ocean and nearly half (.e., 49-796) by the Pacific. From a purely geographical standpoint the Indian ocean is not exclusively tropical in character, although, because the main shipping of the world only traverses the tropical portions as far as the southern coast of Africa and Australia, such is often assumed to be the case. The mean latitude may be fixed at 25° south; north of this, 34,280,00 sq.km. are in the tropical zone (7.e., 45.895) whilst to the south 40,637,000 sq.km. lie outside the tropics. The two subsidiary basins, which are always included in its area, are very small; the Red sea has an area of 437,900 sq.km. (== about 1-3 of the area.of Great Britain and Ireland); the Persian gulf has an

area of 238,800 sqkm. .

The Indian.ocean receives few large rivers, the chief being the Zambesi, the Zhat el.Arab, the Indus, the Ganges, the Brahmaputra and the Irawadi. Murray estimated the total land area

draining to the Indian-ocean atj.13,080,000 sq.km, (= 1-3, the area

OCEAN of Europe), almost the same as that draining to the Pacific. The Pacific, however, is more than twice as large as the Indian ocean. As besides the rivers mentioned, the South-western and North-western monsoons in the tropical regions on the eastern side of the Indian ocean bring heavy rains, and there is he; rainfall also in the neighbourhood of the equatorial calms, the surface water in these regions contains very little salt, particy. larly in the Bay of Bengal into which flow the great rivers from the mainland. Relief.—Large portions of the bed still remain unexplored, by

a fair knowledge of its general form has been gained from the soundings of H.M.S. “Challenger,” the German “Gazelle” ey. pedition, and many British cable ships, and in 1898 information, was greatly added to by the German “Valdivia” expedition and in 1905 by the British Percy Sladen Trust Expedition of HMS, "Sealark." A ridge for the most part less than 2,000 fathoms from the surface extends south-eastwards from the Cape. This ridge, on which the Crozet islands and Kerguelen are situated, js directly connected with the submarine plateau of the Antarctic

in the neighbourhood of Kaiser Wilhelm Land (Gaussberg) a

go° E. From it the depth increases north-eastward to a deep hole south of South Australia, with depths of more than 2,759 fathoms, and northward to the angle between north-westem Australia and the Sunda islands. It has been ascertained that the ocean floor at this point hasa peculiar formation, consisting of two long, narrow, deep-sea depressions lying parallel to the west coast of Sumatra and the south coast of Java. The depression nearest to the coast is 800 fathoms deep between Sumatra and the Mentawei islands, and from 1,s00 to 2,000 fathoms deep south of Java; then comes a submarine ridge and beyond it a depression which is over 2,500 fathoms deep west of the Mentawei islands and 3,500 fathoms deep at a distance of 250 km. south of Java. All these submarine formations are strictly parallel to one another and are also parallel to the mountain ridges of the Sunda islands. In 1924 a Dutch submarine, by means of echo-soundings, measured depths of over 3,500 fathoms north-east of Christmas island. Along the coasts alike of Further India, Africa and Madagascar, there are no such remarkable deep sea formations. In these western regions of the

Indian ocean however, the Laccadive and Maldive islands and the Chagos archipelago as far as Diego Garcia all rise from a

single ridge; on another ridge lie the Seychelles with the Saya de Malha bank and the Nazareth bank as far as Mauritius. On this latter ridge the sea is, for the most part, not as much as 500 fathoms deep. Madagascar has also a submarine continuation to the south, and is moreover connected with Africa by a plateau less than 1,500 fathoms below the surface.

The Persian gulf is

very shallow, having a mean depth of only 13 fathoms; the Red sea is, in places, 1,000 fathoms deep. Islands.—Like the Pacific, the Indian ocean contains more islands in the western than in the eastern half. Towards the centre, the Maldive, Chagos, and Cocos groups are of characteristic coral formation, and coral reefs occur on most parts ofthe tropical coasts. There are many volcanic islands, as Mauri tius, the Crozet islands and St. Paul’s. The chief continental islands are Madagascar, Sokotra and Ceylon. Kerguelen, a desolate and uninhabited island near the centre of the Indian ocean in its southern part, is noteworthy as providing a base station for Antarctic exploration.

Deposits.—The bottom of the Bay of Bengal, of the northem

part, of the Arabian sea, of the Red sea—with the exception of a

narrow strip in the centre—and the Persian gulf, and the narrow

coastal strips on the east and west sides of the ocean, are chiefly

covered by blue and green muds.

Off the African coasts there

are large deposits of Glauconitic sands and muds at depths down to 1,000 fathoms, and on the banks where coral formation occurs there are large deposits of coral muds and sands.

In the deeper

parts the bed of the ocean is covered on the west and south by Globigerina ooze except for an elongated patch of red clay et

tending most of the distance from Sokotra to thẹ Maldives. The

red clay covers a nearly square area in the eastern part of the basin bounded on two sides by the Sunda islands and the west

INDIANOLA—INDIAN coast of Australia, as well as two strips extending east and west

PHILOSOPHY

247

Hooghly Delta off Calcutta the high waves which accompany the

from the southern margin of the square along the south of storms are dangerous and have caused the loss of thousands of

Australia, and nearly to Madagascar.

In the northern portion of

lives.

Surface Currents.—The surface currents in nearly every case the square from Christmas island and across the Cocos islands to follow the winds and in the tropical regions, therefore, are reguby tract large a over the southern tropics, the red clay is replaced lated by the monsoons. The currents running north-east and east : Radiolarian o02e. In the higher southern latitudes, that is, south of so? South and almost to the ice boundaries, the bottom is covered with the

siliceous deposit of the diatom ooze; on the shelf of the South Polar continent however glacial marine sediments predominate,

je., continental deposits.

Temperature.—North of the southern tropics the temperature

of the surface waters is at all times higher than 20° C and in the

equatorial latitudes over 2 5°; in the eastern half it is generally above 27.5? C; in the Red sea and the Persian gulf the temperature often rises to above 30°. South of 40° the water quickly

cools so that off Kerguelen (49° S.), even in summer the tempera-

ture has been found to be no more than 2-3° C. The isotherms

run mainly from west to east, and their course is not diverted by currents to so great a degree as in the Atlantic. The distribution of deep sea temperatures is very similar to that of the Atlantic if it is borne in mind that the Indian ocean scarcely encroaches on the northern hemisphere. In the Indian ocean also the water

from the depth of 50 m. to 800 m. or 1,000 m. is colder in the equatorial zone (o?—10? S.) than the water of higher latitudes, e.g., than the water in the region between Madagascar and Mauritius. At depths greater than 1,000 m. the temperature tends to

become equalized, and at 2,000 m. it is almost always about 3° C and at 5,000 m. 1° C. Salinity.—The saltiest surface water is found (a) in the Arabian sea and (b) along a belt extending from south-west Australia to south Africa, the highest salinity in this belt occurring at the Australian end. In both regions the salinity exceeds 36/000. In the monsoon region west of Sumatra and throughout the Bay of Bengal, owing to rainfall and the inflow of rivers the salinity is diminished to 34/000 and at the mouth of the Hooghly to as little as 30/000. In the northern portions of the Red sea and the Persian gulf on the other hand, the proportion of salinity is'sometimes as high as 40/ooo. South of New Amsterdam and Saint Paul the salinity—as also the temperature—Qquickly diminishes, and south of Kerguelen as far as the Antarctic shelf there is a uniform “Polar water” containing 33-7/oo0 salinity. In the deep waters of the Indian ocean the saline distribution is for the most part the same as in the Atlantic ocean (q.v.) and therefore the circulation

of the deep-sea layers of the Indian ocean is similar to that of

the Atlantic. There are horizontal movements from north to south and from south to north in the different layers.

Meteorology.—In no oceanic division does the regular half-

yearly alternation of all the factors in weather conditions and particularly the winds play such an important part as in the monsoon regions from ro? S. northward of the Indian ocean. From Oct.-Nov. to March-April north-east winds prevail in the north latitude and north-west winds in the south latitude; from

May-June to Sept.-Oct. south and west winds prevail

In the

Arabian sea between Sokotra and the Maldives these south-west monsoons are very violent and are dangerous even to modern steamship traffic. From the earliest times the voyages of the native sailing vessels between India and Africa have been regulated by these alternating winds. The south-west monsoon

caused by the powerful south-west monsoon during the northern summer in these regions—as in the Gulf stream off Florida— ships may be set from 60 to too sea miles, or 100 to 150 km. out of their course in 24 hours. During the north-east monsoons the water of the Indian ocean in north latitude flows west and south-west, and a contrary current between the equator and 10° S. flows eastward towards western Sumatra. In the region of the south-east tradewind the so-called South equatorial current flows on continuously westwards, and divides into two streams at Cape Amber (Madagascar). The northern half flows up to the coast of Africa and then turns south through the Mozambique channel, to form at a later stage the famous Agulhas current of the South African coast; the other half flows along the east coast of Madagascar as the Mascarene current and gradually turns to the southeast. The Agulhas current also often runs very swiftly westward off the ridge of the Agulhas bank; as the wind drives the waves in an easterly direction, this causes a highly unpleasant motion of the sea. On clearing the land south of the Cape the waters of the Agulhas current meet those of the west wind drift of the Southern ocean, and mingle with them in such a manner as to produce, by interdigitation, alternate strips of warm and cold water, which are met with at great distances south-west and south of the Cape. Between South Africa and Australia the waters form a part of the great west wind drift. The waters of this drift are, in general, of very low temperature, but it is remaxkable that the interdigitation just mentioned continues far to the eastward, at least as far as Kerguelen. The west wind drift sends a stream northwards along the west coast of Australia in a north-westerly direction, but this is not cold, like the corresponding Benguela current of the south Atlantic; in Western Australia, therefore, there is almost an entire absence of the cold coastal waters and the fogs, so characteristic of the coast of south-west Africa. In the high south latitudes of the Indian ocean a wide stream of cold water flows from the south polar continent towards the north-west, north and north-east; this stream carries pack ice and frequently large numbers of icebergs as far as the Prince Edward islands, the Crozet islands and Kerguelen, and sometimes even up to the sea-routes between South Africa and South Australia. BreriocrapHy.—J. Murray, Reports on the results of H.M.S. “Challenger" (1844-95) ; Deutsches Marineamt, Forschungreise S.M.S. *Gazelle” (1888-90) ; C. Chun, Ergebnisse der "Valdivia" Tiefsee expedition (Jena 1902); E. von Drygalski, Deutsche Sudpolar-Expedition auf “Gauss” (1905); J. H. Gardiner, The Percy Sladen Trust Expedition H.M.S. *Sealark" (Transact. Linnean Soc. of London); Meteorol. Office, London, Wind and Current charts for the Indian Ocean (1896) ; Kon Nederl. Meteorol. Inst., Oceanograph en meteorol. Waarnemingen in d. Ind. Oceaan (Utrecht 1915-26) ; Meteorol. Dept. Govt. of India. Weather charts of the Bay of Bengal (Simla 1886) ; Weather charts of the Arabian Sea (Calcutta, 1888) ; Deutsche Seewarte, Segelhandbuch fjür den Indischen Ozean mit Atlas, (Hamburg 1891-92) ; Monatskarten fiir den Indischen Ozean (Hamburg 1908).

INDIANOLA, a city of Iowa, U.S.A., 18m. S. by E. of Des

Moines; the county seat of Warren county. It is on Federal highbrings rain to the whole of India; the north-east monsoon is way 65, and is served by the Burlington and the Rock Island railpredominantly dry. Southwards from the latitude of the Sey- ways. The population in 1930 (Federal census) was 3,488. It is chelles—Chagos—Cocos islands, the south-east trade-wind pre- the seat of Simpson college, a Methodist Episcopal institution

vails throughout the year, and south of 30° S. the west winds which are generally particularly strong between 40° and 55? lat., and of which in the 19th century the fast sailing ships bound for

Australia and China took advantage. The tropical storms, espe-

cally of Mauritius, are much dreaded; they follow a parabolic

course from east to west then southwards and back to the south-

east, and occur in the summer season.

In the Arabian sea and

the Bay of Bengal’ these hurricanes are, fortunately, rare and occur only once or twice a‘year, in April-May and Oct.—Nov., that is to'say, at the periods when the monsoons change. In the

established in 1867. Indianola was laid out and made the county seat in 1849. city in 1884.

It was incorporated in 1864 and chartered as a

INDIAN PAINT-BRUSH: see PAINT-BRUSE. It is not possible to determine INDIAN PHILOSOPHY,

exactly the dates of the Indian systems of philosophy. The following, however, ‘may be accepted as the broad divisions of the philosophic development :—I. The Vedic period (c. 1500-600 B.c:); II. The Epic period (600 B.c. to A.D. 200) ; III. The period

of the six systems (A.D. 200).

INDIAN

248

PHILOSOPHY

| “the idols which we here adore." Cosmology.—At the pluralistic stage the are looked The Vedic literature comprises (1) the four Vedas, which con- upon as the authors of the universe who create deities it by a process of sist of hymns, prayers and spells addressed to the gods; (2) the manufacture or organic development or through the power of th Brahmanas or ritual treatises; (3) the Aranyakas, or the forest sacrifice (X. 123. 1). When we rise to the monotheistic level the treatises, which constitute the concluding portions of the Brahone god creates the world with the help of pre-existent matter manas; and (4) the Upanishads, which form the basis of much of (X. rar). Sometimes the dualism of the creator and the pre. the later Indian philosophy. The religion of Nature of the hymns, existent matter is overcome and God is said to create the word I, THE VEDIC PERIOD

the religion of law of the Brahmanas and the religion of spirit of the Upanishads correspond in a very close way to the three great divisions in the Hegelian conception of the growth of religion.

The Rg Veda.—The Rg Veda represents the thought of successive generations of thinkers, and so contains within it different strata of thought. We see in it the development of religious ideas from the animistic to the absolutistic stages. “Where is the sun by night?” “Where go the stars by day?” “Why does the sun not fall down?” “Of the two, night and day, which is the earlier, which the later?” “Whence comes the wind, and whither goes it?” These are some of the questions which harassed the mind of the early Aryan. His first efforts to answer them resulted in naturalistic polytheism. There is a deity which makes the strong wind to blow, the lightning to flash and the thunder to roll. While some of the chief Vedic deities like Indra and Varuna are completely emancipated from connection with the phenomena of Nature which originally suggested them, others like Sürya (Sun) and Agni (Fire) are conceived on the lines of the actual phenomena whose names they bear. In some later hymns we have abstract deities which show no traces of connection with natural phenomena, as Prajapati (“lord of creatures”), or personifications of pure abstractions, as S’raddha (Faith), Manyu (Wrath). The conception of Varuna, the lord of physical and moral order, reaches a high level and is majestic enough both in its cosmical and ethical aspects. Varuna is the lord of ria: ria refers to the physical order in the universe, the order of the sacrifice and the moral law of the world. On account of rta, the sun pursues his daily, and the moon her nightly, journey across the sky and the silent procession of the seasons moves regularly in light and shadow, in cloud and sunshine across the earth. The doctrine of karma is a reformulation of this principle of ria. When mythical conceptions from beyond the limits of the Aryan world belonging to a different order of thought entered into the Vedic pantheon sceptical tendencies developed. There were men who were harassed by the doubts “who is Indra? whoever saw him?” “To what god shall we offer our oblation?” (X. 121.) Some men were devoid of faith. An undercurrent of satire may be noticed in some of the hymns (RV IX. 112; X. 119; VII. 103). Monotheism.—The crowding of gods and goddesses proved a weariness to the intellect. Attempts were made to identify one god with another or throw all the gods together. The close connection of the elements in Nature helped the growth of syncretism. An orderly system of Nature signified by the conception of yta has no room for miraculous interferences in which alone superstition and confused thought find the signs of polytheism. Besides, religious consciousness is naturally inclined to believe that the supreme is one. What is called henotheism or the worshipping of each divinity in turn as if it were the greatest and even the only god is the expression of the logic of religion. When the same functions of establishing the earth and sustaining the air and the sky are assigned to the different deities we tend to drop the peculiarities and make a god of the common functions. This becomes easy when the several gods are not clear-cut individuals but cloudy and confused corcepts. The supreme is identified with Prajapati (X. 85. 43, 184. 4, 189. 4), sometimes with Hiranyagarbha (X. 12r), sometimes with Brhaspati (X. 72). Monism.—Those dissatisfied with monotheism argue that there is one impersonal reality of which Agni, Indra, Varuna are the names or forms. “The real is one, the learned call it by various names.” This one is the soul of the world, the reason immanent in the universe (X. 129. 2). "Priests and poets with words make into many the hidden reality which is but one.” (X. 114.) Our minds seem to be satisfied with inadequate images of this reality,

out of his own nature. In the Purusgasükta (X. 90) the word

is produced by the gods from the sacrifice of a primeval purus (person). This person is all that has been, is, and shall be. By

the most advanced theory of creation is suggested in the Nasadiy, hymn (X. 129). It starts with the assertion that in the beginning

there was neither being nor non-being, neither air nor sky, neithe death nor immortality, neither night nor day. There was nothing else save the one which breathed breathless, of its own power, This is the poet’s way of describing the primal unconditioni ground of all being, which is beyond our categories. The third

verse states that through the power of tapas (austerity), the first antithesis of being and non-being, the active energy and the

passive matter is produced. Through desire (káma), which is the germ of mind (manasoretah), the rest of the development takes place. Desire, which is the sign of self-consciousness, is the bond binding the existent and the non-existent. We cannot say why the original being develops intó an active creator and the passive chaos. The hymn concludes with an expression of doubt. Cres tion is a mystery. Ko veda? (who knows?") Future Life.—A healthy joy in life dominates the Rg Veda. The worshipper asks not for immortality or heaven but a long life for a full roo years. There is belief in future life, a heaven for the good and a hell for the wicked. Reward follows righteousness and punishment misconduct.

THE UPANISHADS The Upanishads form the concluding portions of the Veda and are therefore called Vedanta or the end of the Veda. Their aim is not so much to reach philosophical truth as to bring peace and freedom to the anxious human spirit. They represent -free and bold attempts to find out the truth without any thought of a system. Notwithstanding the variety of authorship and the period of time covered by them, we discern in them a unity of purpose and a vivid sense of spiritual reality. They are distinguished from the Vedic hymns and the Brāhmaņas by-their increased emphasis on monistic suggestions and subjective analysis as well as their indifference to Vedic authority and ceremonial piety. Metaphysics.—The Taittiriya Upanishad (III.) gives us an account of the gradual evolution of our ideas regarding tbe ulti mate basis of things. 'The seeker tries to find out the one comprehensive principle from which "all things are born, by which they are sustained and into which they return at death.” His first answer that matter (annam) is the basic principle is discarded in view of its inadequacy to vital phenomena. The second answer of life (praua) is found unsatisfactory when sentient en

tities are considered. The third suggestion of mind (manas) is incapable of accounting for logical phenomena and the fourth formula of logical intelligence (vijwana) cannot be regarded as the highest reality, since there are aspects of being which cannot

be reduced to intellectual terms. Thought as ordinarily understood deals with objects viewed as beyond or other than the process of thinking. Reality can be reached in the state of highest

immediacy which transcends thought and its distinctions, which is Gnanda or bliss. Ananda is Brahman.

Subjective Analysis. Atman.—The Chandogya Upanishad

(VIII. 3. 12) institutes an enquiry into the nature of the self. The body which is born, grows up, decays and dies cannot be

the true self which persists throughout the changes of birth and death. The dreaming self, subject as it is to the accidents of experience, must not be confused with the true self. The self 5

not the unity of the evergrowing and changing mental exper ences. The self in dreamless sleep cannot satisfy our need, since it is empty of all content and is a bare abstraction. The true $

is said to be the universal consciousness existing both in itself

INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

249

Moral striving is governed by the law of karma. Our life carries within it a record that time cannot blur or death erase. The soul that sinneth, it shall die. Though we cannot efface the there is no knowledge of objects, internal or external. It is the results of our acts on the outer universe, its effects on us can be unchanged and persistent identity which continues in the midst of wiped away by strenuous exertion. Karma emphasizes individual responsibility. It is more favourable to self-culture and meditaall change. It is the Atman. tion than to prayer and petition. universal of being inmost The one. are Brahman and Átman In every sphere the Upanishads indulged in inconsistent comnature is the same as our innermost self. Taz tvam asi: “that art thou.” The nature of this ultimate reality cannot be defined. It promises with the Vedic views. The chaos of the Brahmanical can be grasped, however, through intuition. This intuition is not religion reached its climax in the post-Upanishad or pre-Buddhist objective like perceptual experience or communicable to others period when truth hardened into tradition and morality stiffened like inferential knowledge. We cannot give a formal exposition into routine. The need for reconstruction was felt by the thinkof it. To any suggested definition of reality we can only say, ing minds. Ii. THE EPIC PERIOD “not this,” “not this” (neti, neti. Brh. IV. 2. 4). Contradictory The systems of materialism, Jainism and Buddhism, belong to accounts are given to show that negative descriptions do not mean negation of all being but only the poverty of intellect. the Epic period, which is the age of reconstruction. Materialism.—Materialism is called LokGyata (directed to the We cannot, however, remain long at this high level. We insist on framing intellectual pictures of the absolute. When the Atman world), as it holds that only this world (Joka) is real: According is identified with the self-conscious individual, Brahman is de- to it, perception is the only source of knowledge. Inference which scribed as a personal being (Jsvara). When the Atman is identi- assumes universal relations, testimony and analogy are all defed with the mental and the vital self, Brahman becomes the fective. Matter is the only reality, of which the elements are earth, cosmic soul (Hiranyagarbha). When the Atman is taken for the water, fire and air. Consciousness is a function of matter. There body, Brahman is taken for the cosmos (Virét). Brahman is the are different opinions about the nature of the soul. It is identified sole and the whole explanation of the world, its material and with the gross body or the senses or breath or thought. There is efficient cause. The metaphors of the spinning of the web by the no future life. As the soul is an attribute of the body, it comes spider, the bearing of the child by the mother, the production of into being when the body is formed by the combination of the notes from musical instruments point to the oneness of Brahman elements even as the power of intoxication arises from the mixture and the world. There is, however, no logical deduction of the of certain ingredients. When the body is destroyed the soul disworld of multiplicity from the ultimate cause. At the theistic appears. The world is born of itself. God is a myth which we level the world is regarded as the self-limitation of the supreme. accept—thanks to our ignorance and incapacity. Pleasure and The power of self-expression possessed by the personal /Svara pain are the central facts of life. Virtue and vice are conventions. Jainism.—Vardhamina (c. 599-527 B.C.), the founder of Jain(God) is sometimes called Maya. The Doctrine of Maya.—There is hardly any suggestion in ism, is a slightly older contemporary of Buddha. He is said to the Upanishads that the entire universe of change is a baseless have systematized the faith held by a succession of 23 other sages, fabric of fancy. The dominant note of pantheism goes against of whom the chief was Pargvanatha (c. 776 B.c.). Theory of Knowledge.—Jainism assumes that truth is relative this view. The assertion of the sole reality of Brahman denies duality and traces all change to Brahman but does not suggest to our standpoints. The Jains are fond of quoting the old story that change is illusion. The frequent emphasis on the oneness of of the six blind men who each laid hands on a different part of the the world and Brahman need not be repudiated as a mere con- elephant and tried to describe the whole animal. The man who cession to common-sense ideas. The texts which declare that the caught the ear thought that the creature resembled a winnowing variegated universe is due to the development of name and form fan; the holder of the leg imagined that he was clinging to a big from out of the one Brahman warn us against getting lost in the round pillar, and so on. It was he who saw the whole that perworld of multiplicity. The passing semblance of life is in no wise ceived that each had only a portion of the truth. The doctrine of its immortal truth. The theory of the world-illusion is incon- nayas brings out this relativity of thought. The most important sistent with the conception of degrees of reality, or, to be more application of this doctrine is the theory of Syédvdda or Saptaaccurate, unreality which is found in the Aitareya Aramyaka (II. bhangi. Every proposition gives us only a perhaps, a may be, or 3.2 e£ seq.). When Yájfiavalkya contends that duality is neces- a syüt. We cannot affirm or deny anything absolutely of any sary for empirical consciousness and suggests that the world of object, owing to the endless complexity of things. Being is not duality is not real by the use of the particle ‘ve (Brh. Up. II. of a persistent unalterable nature. Every statement of a thing is 4. 14; IV. 3. 31), he refers to the non-ultimate character of the necessarily one-sided and incomplete. If we take it as true and complete we make a mistake. There are seven different ways of world of duality. Ethics.—M oksa is release from the bondage to the sensuous speaking of a thing or its attributes according to the point of and the individual. The morality of the Upanishads is, in a sense, view. All things, 7.e., substances (dravya) are divided into lifeless individualistic as it emphasises self-realization. The term “indi- (ajzva) and living (j2va). The former are again divided into (1), vidualistic," however, ceases to have any exclusive meaning. To space (Gkàfa), (2) and (3), two subtle substances called dharma realize oneself is to identify oneself with a good that is not and adharma and (4), matter (pudgala). Space, dharma and private to any one. Insistence on the knowledge of God (jana) is adharma are the necessary conditions for the subsistence of all other things, viz., souls and matter. Space affords them room to tempered by the recognition of the need for moral life. . When the moral striving ends in religious realization the indi- exist; dharma makes it possible for them to move or be moved, vidual is said to be freed from all morallaws. This does not mean and adharma to rest. Time is recognized by some as a quasi-subthat the free can do what they choose with perfect impunity. stance beside those mentioned. Matter is eternal though it may Laws and regulations are necessary for those who do not naturally assume forms as earth, air and so on. It exists in the two forms conform to the dictates of morality. For those who have risen of atoms (anu) and aggregates (skandha). The changes of the above the selfish ego and who have died to sin morality is the very physical universe are traced to atomic aggregation and disintecondition of their being. gration. The atoms are not constant in their nature but are subThose who have not reached the highest perfection will have ject to change or development (parinéma), which consists in their other chances for striving. Samsdra offers a succession of spiritual assuming new qualities. There are not different kinds of atoms opportunities. The hypothesis of rebirth is formulated in this answering to the different elements of earth, water, fire and air. penod (Chan. V. 3. 10; Brh. VI. 2.), though there are still com- Homogeneous atoms produce different elements by varying compromises with the Vedic views. Good and evil actions experi- binations. While things which we perceive are made of gross ence a twofold retribution, once in the other world and again by a matter, there is matter beyond the reach of our senses in subtle tenewed life on earth. form which is transformed into the different degrees of karma.

and for itself. The Mandukya Upanishad observes that the three states of the soul—waking, dreaming and sleeping—are included i a fourth (turiya) which is intuitional consciousness, where

250

INDIAN

PHILOSOPHY

This kind of matter fills all space. The soul by its commerce with the outer world becomes literally penetrated with the particles of this subtle matter. Karma works in such a way that every change

leaves a mark which is retained and built up into the organism to serve as the foundation for future action. The characteristic essence of the soul is consciousness (cefana), which is never destroyed, however much it may be obscured by external causes. The souls are said to possess size, which varies with the nature of the bodies with which they happen to be connected. Subtle matter coming into contact with the soul causes its embodiment. Being then transformed into eight kinds of karma and forming, as it were, a subtle body, it clings to the soul in all its migrations. The individual soul (j7va) is a composite of consciousness and matter or body. Jainism believes that there are souls even in inorganic objects, though they lie dormant in them. Jainism does not believe in God, though the souls can reach a divine status. The souls and the world are self-existent and eternal. The chief means to the end of nirvdua is the performance of austerities. By it we destroy the old karma and prevent the formation of the new. Right faith, right knowledge and right conduct are recommended. The peculiarity of the Jaina ethics is its Insistence on avoidance of taking life of any kind. Early Buddhism also falls within the Epic period, but is dealt with in the articles BuppHa and BUDDHISM.

III. THE SIX SYSTEMS The revolt of Buddhism and Jainism helped to bring about a critical point of view and led to the great movement of philosophy which produced the six systems of thought, where criticism and analysis take the place of poetry and religion. The different systems are not antagonistic but are complementary. They are regarded as an evolutionary chain, a single and gradually advancing series rather than as destructive of one another. Each of them is a metaphysics and a religion, an explanation of the world and a method of salvation. THE NYAYA Logic as epistemology may be called a critical reflection on metaphysics. The VaiSesika, which deals with the analysis of nature, is earlier than the Nyàya, which discusses the problem of knowledge; yet we start with the latter, as it gives the main logical principles assumed by the Vazsesika as well.

. Assuming that the account of the world which our minds afford us is, in the main, a trustworthy one, the Nydya analyses the

established. It is only a suggestion. It contains a subject or what is observed, which is generally an individual or a class, and a predicate which is to be proved. The subject is the minor (paksa, dharmin) and the predicate the major (sadhya, dharma) The second member of the syllogism states the presence inthe minor of the middle term called ground (ketu). The third takes us to the basis of inference, the major premise. Though Gautama and Vatsyayana may not have regarded the example as the ilhy. tration of a general rule, later Nyàya looks upon it as the stat ment of an invariable concomitance between the mark and the character inferred (vyaptipratipadikam vàkyam). The conclusa restates the proposition as grounded. Nagarjuna is given th

|

credit for dispensing with the last two members of the syllogisn as superfluous. Induction.—Universal propositions are reached through em. meration, intuition and indirect proof. Uninterrupted agreement

(niyata sühacarya) reinforced by absence of exceptions (avinibhàvarüpasambandha) leads to unconditional concomitances, Ns.

ture does not always supply us with positive and negative in stances of the necessary type. In such cases indirect proof (tarka) may be used. By pointing out the absurdities in which we are landed, if we deny a suggested hypothesis, we indirectly prove its

validity. Even when we observe all possible cases and strengthen

our conclusion by indirect proof we cannot reach absolute certainty. Experience of sensible particulars, however thorough and

exhaustive, cannot give rise to universal relations. Gañgeśa recog-

nizes the nonsensuous

(alaukika) activity involved in the appre-

hension of universals (sémdnyalaksanca). Causation.—A

cause is that which invariably precedes the

effect. It is not merely accessory to but is necessary for the production of the effect. Two things cannot be causally related wless there is the positive-negative (anvayavyatireki) relation be| tween them, such that the presence of the cause means the presence of the effect and vice versa. Three different kinds of causes are distinguished, material (updddna), non-material or for-

mal (asamavdyi) and efficient (nimitta).

The appearance of

plurality of causes is traced to defective analysis. When the effect is understood in its uniqueness (kdryavisesa) it will be seen to have only one cause.

Comparison.—By means of comparison (upamdna), we gain

the knowledge of a thing from its similarity to another thing previously well known. Hearing that gavaya (wild ox) is likea

Sense-perception follows on the modification of the self produced by the contact of the senses with their objects. Two kinds

cow, we infer that the animal which we find to be like the cow i5 the gavaya. This argument involves knowledge of the object to be known and perception of similarity. Comparison relates to the problem of identification. The problem of fabda or verbal knowledge is mainly of theological interest. Certain questions of logical value are incidentally discussed- Regarding the import of words, the Nyāya holds that a word denotes an individual (vyakti), or a form (Gkrti) ora genus (jazz) or all these. It depends on our particular interest at the moment. | The validity of knowledge is not self-established but is proved by something else (paratah praména). If every cognition were self-evident there would be no possibility of doubt. We discover the truth of our ideas by the test of action.

indeterminate (sirvikalpaka), which correspond roughly to knowl-

possessing the qualities of knowledge, feeling and desire and aver-

Inference.—Inference operates "neither with regard to things unknown nor with regard to those known definitely for certain; it functions only with regard to things that, are doubtful" (N. B.

ing. It is all-pervading though it does not cognize many things

different ways in which our knowledge is acquired. They are said to be intuition (pratyaksa), inference (anumdna), comparison (upamüna), and verbal testimony (sabda). Though pratyaksa originally meant sense-perception, it soon came to cover all immediate apprehension whether through the aid of the senses or

otherwise. It is knowledge whose instrumental cause is not knowl-

edge (jwanakaranakam jndnam). In inference, comparison, etc., we require a knowledge of premises or of similarity, but such

knowledge is not an antecedent condition of intuition. The word

is used for the result. or the apprehension of the truth as well as the process or the operation which leads to the result. :

of perception are distinguished, determinate (savikalpaka) and

edge about and acquaintance with am, object. |

|

I. I. i). It derives a conclusion from the ascertained fact of the subject possessing a property which is constantly accompanied

by another. We ascertain that the hill is on fire from the fact that the hill has smoke and smoke.is universally accompanied by fire.

Inferential reasoning is stated in the form of a.syllogism of which the five members are r, proposition (pratijna) i,thehill is on fire;

2, reason (Reiu): because it smokes; 3, example (udàkarama):

whatever shows smoke shows fire, e.g., a kitchen; 4, application

Metaphysics.—The individual self is a real substantive’ being

sion. Jt is different from the body, the senses and the understand

simultaneously on account of the atomic nature of manas or the inner sense,

It is unique in each individual, and we have an in-

finite number of souls. The soul is an unconscious principle cap: able of being qualified by consciousness.

'

THE VAISESIKA The system takes its name from vifega or particularity. It is

in.the particulars of the world, pre-eminently in the particular imperceptible souls and atoms, that, true individuality is to be found.

:

Sah

(upanaya): so is this hill, and 5, conclusion (migamana): thereCategories—The Vaisesika adopts a sixfold classification of fore, the hill is on fire, The first member states the thesis to be padarthas (objects which can be thought and named) into sub:

INDIAN

stance (dravya), quality (guna), movement (karma), generality (sámánya), particularity (vifega) and inherence (samavàya), to

which later thinkers add a seventh, non-existence (abhäva). That something is, is the first principle; but nothing can be without possessing certain qualities. Some of the qualities reside in a plurality of objects, while others are confined to individuals. The former are general qualities (sémanya), while the latter are distinguished

into permanent (guna) and transitory (karma). Inherence is a special kind of relation distinct from occasional or separable conjunction. When the scheme became logical in scope non-existence was included. Later Nyaya develops this idea with great subtlety.

The first three categories possess a real objective existence, while the other three are products of intellectual discrimination. Atomic Theory.—The atomic theory is developed in connec-

tion with the substances of earth, water, light and air. The things

that we experience are made up of parts. They are therefore noneternal. Non-eternal has no meaning apart from eternal. The component particles are eternal. The atom marks the limit of

division. If it were endlessly divisible, then material things would

be products of an equally endless number of constitutent parts, and differences in the dimensions of things could not be accounted for. Though the atoms have no extension, their heterogeneous nature is the cause of the extension and visibility of the combinaHons of atoms. Though Kanada is not clear about where the

visibility of the combinations begins, his later followers suggest that an aggregate of three atoms

251

PHILOSOPHY

(tryanuka), others of three

double atoms, produces extension, and it is visible in the shape of the dust mote (trasarenu) dancing in the sunlight. Answering to the four kinds of material objects—earth, water, light and air, we have four kinds of atoms producing the four senses of touch, taste, sight and smell. This is why each special sense reveals a single quality, however excited. Though the qualities of earthly things, as colour, taste, smell and tangibility, vanish on the destruction of the thing itself, they are always found in their respective atoms, though in earth and atoms of earth new qualities are produced by heat (pakaja). Water, light and air do not suffer a similar change. There can never come a time when there will be an utter annihilation of things. The atoms will abide for ever.

THE SAMKHYA The Sdmkhya is a reaction against the idealistic monism of the Upanishads. It believes in a real matter and an infinite plurality of individual souls which are not emanations of a single world-soul. The Satnkhya adopts the view that the cause and the effect are

the undeveloped and the developed states of one and the same

substance. Development is the coming to light of what is latent or hidden even as destruction is disappearance into the original cause. There is no such thing as utter annihilation. Applying this principle, the ultimate basis of the empirical universe is said to be prakrti (nature). The world is the transformation of prakriz

(nature), which cannot be equated with any one of the stages of its evolution: Prakrti (nature) is a string of three strands or gunas, sattva or potential consciousness, rajas or activity and tamas or restraint. They are called gunas (qualities), as they are factors in the substance of prakrti (nature). They represent different stages in the evolution of any particular phenomenon. Sattva signifies the essence or the form which is to be realized, tamas the obstacles toits realization, and rajas the force by which the obstacles are overcome. The gunas are always changing, but when they are

held together in a state of equilibrium (sémydvastha) there is no

arise. The rajas element helps both. From the five fine elements, by a preponderance of tamas, the five gross elements are produced. The account is probably suggested by the subject’s experience and transferred to a cosmic plane. In the state of dreamless sleep the self is present, though it does not apprehend the world. So, in the case of world dissolution, the selves are not distinguished and prakrti (nature) is unperceived. When one wakes from sleep there is, first, the rise of consciousness, followed immediately by

the sense of selfhood and the restlessness of desire. The senses begin to function until the world is perceived. This order is followed in the Samkhya theory of evolution. Plurality of Souls.—Purusa is the intelligent self, for whose experience prakrti (nature) evolves. It is a mere witness, a solitary indifferent spectator. It is pure consciousness while prakriz (nature) is unconscious. It is inactive, unalterably constant, and devoid of the gunas while prakrti is active, alterably constant and consists of them. Prakrti and its products depend for their manifestation on the light of purusa (self), which does not depend on anything else for illuminating objects. The Samkhya believes in a plurality of selves. If the self were one all should become free when one attained freedom, which is not the case. Freedom is not coalescence with the absolute spirit but isolation from prakrti. The empirical individual is not the pure self but the self distinguished by the conjunction of the senses, etc., and limited by the body. While the pure self remains beyond the intellect the reflection of the self in it appears as the ego. Activity belongs to the intellect, and on account of its union with purusa (self) the indifferent self appears as an actor. Though not an agent, the self appears as an agent through confusion with the agency of nature, even as the latter through proximity to the self appears to be conscious. Every ego possesses within the gross material body, which suffers dissolution, a subtle body formed of the psychical apparatus including the senses. This subtle body is the basis of rebirth as well as the principle of identity in the various existences. The evolution of nature is adapted to the ends of the self. The spiritual centres are, however, incapable of exerting any direct influence on nature, though they are said to excite it to activity. 'The union of self and nature is compared to a lame man of good vision mounted on the shoulders of a blind man of sure foot. The real self has relations with a real world on account of a fancied relation between the two. When the self recognizes its distinction from the ever evolving and dissolving world of nature the latter ceases to operate towards it. The efficient cause of the development of nature is not the mere presence of the selves but their non-discrimination. Freedom is the result of discrimination. No cause is assigned for the original entanglement of the free spirits in the bonds of ignorance.

THE YOGA The Yoga differs from the Samkhya in its insistence on mental discipline and acceptance of theism, though its connection with belief in God is somewhat loose. God does not create, reward’ or punish. Union with God is not the goal of Yoga endeavour. God is only a particular soul not essentially different from other souls co-eternal with him. He stands in an eternal connection with the most refined constituent of matter and is endowed with supreme power, wisdom and goodness.

Our bondage is due to non-discrimination. The true light of the spirit will shine if the obscuring mental activities are suppressed. The method of Yoga consists in the suppression of all mental activities, conscious as well as unconscious. The eightfold

action. The tendencies to manifestation and activity are held in

path is a means of it. The first two, yama (abstention) and

tension is relieved development results. Prakrti (nature) evolves under the influence of purusa (subject) into the apparatus of thought as well as the objects of thought. Theory of Evolution.—The first product of the evolution of Prükr (nature) is mahat, “the great” or buddhi (intelligence).

two dsana (posture), prandyama (regulation of breath) insist on the discipline of the body so as to make it flexible. We can control involuntary muscles as well by the breathing exercises. The next step of pratydhdra or the withdrawal of the senses from their natural outward functioning answers to what modern psychology calls introversion. While these five are only accessories, dhyana (fixed attention), dhdrana (contemplation), and samadhi (concentration) are integral elements of Yoga. Through concentration we get into direct touch with the reality of the things and obtain

check by that of non-manifestation and non-activity. When the niyama (observance), refer to the ethical preparation. The next

Self-sense (ahamkara), or the principle of individuation, arises

next;. From this, in its sattva aspect, arise the mamas (internal

organ), the five organs of perception and the five of action; from 'Same'in the tamas aspect the five fine elements (tanmdtras)

252

INDIAN

PHILOSOPHY

intuitional knowledge. The process of concentration is to be continued until the mind is dissolved and self illumination results. Samüdhi is the perfect life of spirit.

THE The Pūrva Mimarhsa ment of duty (dharma). it refers to philosophical

PURVA MIMAMSA has for its special object the ascertainIt is not a philosophical system, though topics incidentally. It believes in the real-

ity of the world and the individual souls. As it deals with ritual specially, it points out how every act produces its effect sometime or other through the principle of apdrva or the link between the act and the result. While the earlier writings do not admit the existence of God, the later ones do. A chief writer of this school, Kumirila argues for the theory of self-evidence (svatak pramdua). Truth is its own guarantee. Cognitions are by themselves valid and their validity can be set aside only by the contrary nature of their objects or by the recognition of discrepancies in their causes. When we are in doubt about the true nature of a thing perceived at a distance or in faint light, we can resolve the doubt by a second cognition obtained under improved conditions. Even in the most difficult cases we can obtain an absolutely true cognition after a series of three or four. Correspondence and coherence theories do not produce validity but only test it. THE VEDANTA The Veddnia Sutra attempts to set forth the teachings of the Upanishads in a consistent way. Its short aphorisms are unintelligible by themselves. Many different systems ranging from pure non-dualism to explicit dualism attempt to interpret the Sutra.

When we are not content with such negative accounts we desc it as the personal God (/Svara). God is the absolute cast through the moulds of logic.

Doctrine of Maya.—Every object in the world tends topas away from itself to something else. The categories of time, space and cause which bind experience are self-contradictory. Oy knowledge of the world is inconsistent.

When intuitional expe

rience arises the pluralistic universe is sublated. The term mày registers the imperfection and relativity of the world. It dos not mean that the world is a mere illusion. Sarhkara’s refutatig of Buddhistic subjectivism is decisive on this question. Whik

he traces the world to avidyd (ignorance) he takes care to point

out that this ignorance is cosmic in character. The phenomem|

self and the phenomenal world are mutually implicated facts, The mind with its categories on the one side and the world which# construes through them on the other hang together. We

cannot conceive

the relation between

the world and the |

absolute. The question of relation has meaning only if we hav two "distincts," but the world is not distinct from Brahman. Th finite is the infinite hidden from our view through certain bar riers. When we intuitively recognize the absolute the relative dis appears; when we discuss about the relative there is no absolute to which it has to be attached. The problem arises on account of a confusion of standpoints. If Brahman is to be viewed as the cause of the world it is only in the sense that the world cannot explained apart from Brahman, though the latter is in no way touched by the world of appearance. Brahman is the basis of the apparent existence of the world (vivartopadana). The individual soul is different from the Atman. Its divine n The chief of them are those of Samkara, Rámànuja and Madhva. ture is concealed by the external adjuncts (upddhis) of the sense organs and vital airs which form the subtle body. These, together Samkara’s Non-Dualism (Advaita).—Samkara in his Sys- with karma, accompany the soul in its migrations. Moksa or saltem asks whether there is anything in experience which may vation is the lifting of the veil of ignorance which conceals from be regarded as foundational and discusses the claims of the the soul the truth that it is and always has been one with Brahman. different factors of experience to that title. Our senses may de- The road to realization lies not through something done or ac celve us and our memory may be an illusion. The waking tracts complished but through knowledge or the sweeping aside of the may not be different from dream worlds, where also we visit delusive veil of ignorance. Sarhkara is clear that this insight canplaces, handle shadows, and battle with ghosts. Though all ob- not be attained without the discipline of moral life. Insight is not jects of experience may be open to doubt, there is something so much an answer to a riddle as a victory in a battle. which is beyond all doubt. Every one is conscious of the existence Ramanuja’s Theism.—Ramanuja endeavours to show that of one’s own self and no one thinks “I am not.” The self cannot the God of religious faith is not the unconditioned abstraction of be doubted or denied for “it is the essential nature of him who Sathkara but a personal being whose reality need not be doubted denies it.” Though we cannot know it by thought, it does not simply because our knowledge of him is imperfect. The sense entirely escape us. It is the object of the notion of self (asmat- of personal communion with God involves a real fellowship with bratyayavisaya) and is known to exist on account of its immediate an other. The supreme Brahman has internal differences (svagatapresentation (aparoksatvdt). This self is distinct from the body, bheda). Souls and matter are comprehended within the unity the senses, and the understanding. It is the principle of consciousof the supreme as attributes to the substance or parts to a whole ness which is unaffected when the body is reduced to ashes and the or body to the soul which animates it. Though attributes of God, mind perishes. It is one, universal and infinite. souls and matter are in themselves substances possessing qualities Logical knowledge based on the distinction of subject and óbject is not final. The real excludes all relations, but logical with their own distinct modes, energies and activities. Souls, matter and God are different on account of their natural differences knowledge is relational in character. The real simply is, but we (svaripabheda) but one on account of their identity (aikyam) attempt to characterize it in knowledge and no predicate is found of the modes and substance. Identity means only inseparable exadequate to it. In judgment, we equate the real with the unreal, the subject with the object. We attribute to the Atman activity, istence (aprthaksiddhi). For Ramanuja, causation is only an alteration of state. The agency and enjoyment. All our knowledge is strictly speaking of non-knowledge (avidyà). The ascertainment of the ultimate real. creation of the universe from Brahman is not a production something new but only a change of condition. It is a modification ity by the exclusion of all that is imposed (adhyasta) on it is wisdom (vidyd). Avidyd is another name for our finitude. When its of that which is subtle into that which is gross. In the causal conroots are cut our bondage i$ broken. Sarhkara admits the reality dition Brahman has for his body or mode the conscious (it) of intuitional consciousness where the distinctions of subject and and unconscious (acit) entities in their subtle form, while in the effect condition they are in a gross form. object are superseded. Ramanuja does not accept the explanation of the world and

Sathkara adopts the distinction between truth (parüvidya) and

empirical truth (apardévidyd). The latter is not illusory or deceptive but only imperfect or relative. The empirical world is not self-existent or real. Yet there must be a reality on which it rests.

Even if we regard the whole universe as merely imaginary there

of the individual souls as mere productions of ignorance enveloping the nature of Brahman. If the multiplicity is due to human ignorance, then there should be no such world for God. But Scrip-

ture tells us of God's creation, etc., which means that God reckons

must be something which is the basis of all imagination. That with the world of multiplicity. We cannot regard the world as ur real, like the mirage, for while the activity prompted by the latter reality is Brahman. As it is opposed to all empirical existence , it is unsuccessful, that based on the knowledge of the objects 1s sucis given to us as the negative of everything that is positivel y known. We cannot even call it one (ekam). It is to be called non-dual (advaitam). It is the wholly “other” but not non-being.

cessful. The reality of the world established by perception cannot

be sublated by Scripture as the spheres of perception and Scripture are different. Simply because objects do not persist we cat-

INDIAN

PIPE—INDICATOR

€ not conclude that they are unreal. While for Sarhkara, freedom consists in the removal of a bar-

tier and the entering into the secure realization of a permanent and inalienable truth, for Ramanuja,

it is communion with God

to be reached by devotion and faith. The individual is not effaced

when the goal is reached but maintains his self-identity and enjoys

the fruit of his faith in unending felicity.

Madhva’s Dualism.—Madhva stands out for unqualified dual-

ism and insists on the five great distinctions of God and soul,

God and matter, soul and matter, one soul and another and one part of matter and another. Reality is of two kinds, independent (svatantra) and dependent (paratanira). God is the only independent reality; matter and souls are dependent. God controls

253

lucent atmosphere and mellow sunshine, in sharp contrast to climatic conditions which precede and follow it, especially in

the northeastern States and the Mississippi valley. The haziness in the atmosphere is attributed to the smoke and dust floating in the still dry air, which absence of wind and rain makes possible. Indian summer is preceded by squaw winter, a cold spell when the thermometer first dips below the freezing point.

INDIA OFFICE: see GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS. INDIA-RUBBER: see RUBBER. INDICATOR. Many kinds of apparatus are included under

this name, which, in general, implies a device to reveal conditions not otherwise apparent to the eye or hearing. Thus depths in a tank are indicated by a float, either showing a rod above, or souls and matter though he does not create or destroy. He is the moving a chain over a pulley and sliding a pointer down the outefficient but not the material cause of the universe. Though abso- side. The depth of a cage in a mine is revealed at the windinglutely dependent on Brahman, the individual souls are essentially engine by a huge dial marked with figures, or in electric winders active agents and have responsibilities to bear. While God is all- on a vertical scale with pointers travelling up and down. A scale pervading, the souls are said to be of atomic size. They yet per- is used to indicate the radius of a crane jib. Big dials on rollingvade the body on account of the quality of intelligence. No two mills show the distance apart of the rolls in inches and fractions. Some machines have indicators to signify when a certain quansouls are alike in character. This brief sketch of Indian philosophy indicates the main lines tity of work has been turned out. In others a bell rings when an of a singularly manifold philosophic development. It has been automatic mechanism has used up a supply of raw material. A impossible to touch in this article on all the special points of in- danger signal may be given by a bell in case of excess temperaterest or doctrinal variations. For these the student must consult ture. The copious forced oil-supply for the massive bearings and Pinions of a rolling-mill has an alarm bell that rings should the special articles and treatises. Busriocrapay.—A. B. Keith, The Religion and Philosophy of the circulation fail. A gas leak indicator is a very sensitive instrument, Veda and Upanisads, Cambridge, Mass. (1925), careful and critical which will instantly show the presence of gas by the moving of a but overcautious; R. D. Ranade, A Constructive Survey of Upan- hand on a dial. Direction of movement is shown on some indiisadic Philosophy, Poona (1926), contains important extracts in San- cators where risk might arise through a misunderstanding on this skrit; B. M. Barua, Pre-Buddhistic Indian Philosophy, Calcutta (1921); S. Radhakrishnan, Philosophy of the Upanisads, London point. A speed indicator is a small instrument with a point to press (1924); P. Deussen, Philosophy of the Upanisads, Edinburgh (1906), against the end of a shaft, or a roller against a rim, to show the follows Sarnkara; J. L. Jaini, Outlines of Jainism, Cambridge, (1916) ; speed; or it is a permanently fixed apparatus to indicate a rotaM. Stevenson, The Heart of Jainism, Oxford (1915); A. B. Keith, tional speed of an engine or machine, or the travelling speed of a Indian Logic and Atomism, Oxford (1921); Faddegon, The Vaisesika vehicle. A test indicator is used in machine-tool practice. It System, Amsterdam (1918); J. C. Chatterji, Hindu Realism, Allahabad (1912) ; F. H. Woods, The Yoga System of Patanjali, Cambridge, magnifies the movement of a button-ended spindle to make recMass. (1914); V. S. Ghate, Vedünta, Poona (1926); P. Deussen, The ords in thousandths of an inch on a dial; very fine deviations System of the Vedanta, Chicago (1912) ; Max Müller, Six Systems of Indian Philosophy, London (1899); S. N. Das Gupta, History of Indian Philosophy, Cambridge (1922); S. Radhakrishnan, Indian Philosophy (2 vols.) London (1923 & 1927); expository & critical; E. W. Hopkins, The Ethics of India, New Haven (1924). Translations: R. E. Hume, The Thirteen Principal Upanisads, Oxford (1921), a good translation; author’s introduction unsympathetic; H. Jacobi, Jaina Sutras, (2 vols.), Oxford (1884, 1895) ; A. Chakravarti, Kundakundécirya’s Pancdstikdyasdra, Allahabad (1920); S. C. Ghoshal, Nemicandra’s Dravyasanigraha, Arrah (1917); T. C. Jaini, Umdsvat’s Taitvarthddhigama Sitra, Arrah (1920) ; Ganginath Jha, Nyéya Sitra (1919); Nanda Lal Sinha, Sémkhya Philosophy, Allahabad (1918),

with _Vatsydyana’s

Bhisya

&

Udyotakara’s

Varttika,

INDIAN PIPE

(S. Ra.)

(Monotropa uniflora), a saprophytic herb

of the family Pyrolaceae, plant, American ice-plant woods almost throughout and also in the Himalaya

or differences in thicknesses of components can be rapidly gauged in a sort of caliper, one anvil of which is at the end of the indicator spindle. The pressure in the cylinder of a steam or explosion engine, or in a pump, compressor, or hydraulic machine, is ascertained with an indicator. This has a rotating drum turned by the pull of a cord from the cross-head (or in some cases the crankshaft) LEVERS WORKED BY PISTON AS THE STEAM FROM THE CYLINDER MOVES IT *

Allahabad

contains translations of important Samkhya texts; G. Thibaut, The Vedanta Siitra with Samkara’s commentary (2 vols.), Oxford (1890 & 1896); G. Thibaut, The Vedanta Sitra with Ramdanuja’s Commentary, Oxford (1904); E. B. Cowell and A. E. Gough, Sarva-

dérSanasamgraha, London (1882).

from truth are thus indicated in the parts of machines or work,

allied to the heaths, called also corpseand ghost-flower, found in moist, rich temperate and warm North America mountains and Japan. It is a smooth

Waxy-white plant, of unusual appearance, which grows on decay-

ing vegetable matter and is somewhat parasitic on roots. The erect, usually clustered stems, 4 in. to ro in. high, bear small sales representing leaves and terminate in a single nodding flower, about x in. long, blossoming from June to August, followedby a many-seeded capsule which becomes erect in ripening.

07...

DRUM ON WHICH PAPER IS CLAMPED

PENCIL CORD PULLED BY ENGINE CROSSHEAD TO ROTATE DRUM CYLINDER CONTAINING PISTON AND SPRING AN INDICATOR DIAGRAM PIPE CONNECTION TO ENGINE CYLINDER

Derate, one of. which, M. Hwpopytis, the yellow bird's-nest or

STEAM ENGINE INDICATOR, USED TO TRACE THE VARYING PRESSURES IN AN ENGINE CYLINDER AND ENABLE THE HORSE-POWER TO BE CAL. CULATED of the engine. Paper is wrapped round the drum, and a pencil connected by levers to a piston in a small cylinder traces a diagram on the paper as the drum turns. A spiral spring of known strength is placed above the piston and the cylinder is connected

nANDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN: see NoRTH AMERICA:

by a pipe to the engine cylinder. The varying pressures in the latter therefore affect the pencil accordingly. The diagram is measured to ascertain the mean effective pressure, and from this

e autumn in the United States characterized by a calm trans-

gines, including electrical recording, and optical types, which latter

Occasionally the flower, or more rarely the whole plant, has a pinkish or reddish tinge. All parts of the plant turn blackish in

drying. There are two other species of the genus, both north tem-

9me-sap, with flowers in a drooping cluster, widely distributed m Europe, Asia and North America, occurs.in the British Isles.

ogy. the LH.P. (indicated horse-power) can be calculated. Refined p INDIAN SUMMER, a season of several weeks duration in developments have taken place in indicators for high-speed en+

254

INDICATORIDAE—INDICI MENT

use a beam of light, tracing a diagram on a photographic plate.

INDICATORIDAE: see HoNEY-GUIDE. INDICATORS, in chemistry, are substances which are used, in virtue of colour changes which they undergo, in order to show when a certain reaction has reached completion, or to give information as to the acidity of a solution (see also CHEMISTRY: Analytical). Thus, if a solution of a neutral chloride is being titrated with silver nitrate, a few drops of potassium chromate solution are added; as soon as all the chloride has been precipitated as silver chloride, the next drop of silver nitrate will form silver chromate (which is much less insoluble than silver chloride, but still fairly insoluble), and the precipitate will assume a faint reddish tinge whilst the liquid acquires a dull colour in place of the clear golden-yellow tint. The indicators in general use may be divided into two classes (a) internal, and (b) external; for convenience, a large number of internal indicators used for determining acidity are dealt with as a separate class in HYDROGEN IoN CONCENTRATION. The potassium chromate in the above example is an internal indicator, because it is added to the solution undergoing titration with which it does not interfere. In titrating a solution of a ferrous salt by potassium dichromate, a very dilute solution of potassium ferricyanide is a useful indicator, but this has to be used externally, because, not only would it interfere chemically with the titration if used internally, but its colour changes could not be seen in the deep green solution. A drop of the titrated fluid is therefore withdrawn on a glass rod from time to time

and mixed with a drop of the indicator solution on a white tile.

by the grand jury on their own motion and their own knowledge. and from informations, which are instituted on the suggestion of a public officer without the intervention of a grand jury.

An indictment lies for “all treasons and felonies, for misprisiy of treasons and felonies and for all misdemeanours of a puli

nature at common law.” And if a statute prohibit a matter of public grievance or command a matter of public conveniengs all acts or omissions in disobedience to the command or prohibi. tion of the statute are treated as misdemeanours at common law and unless the statute otherwise provides are punishable on indict. ment. In other words, the ordinary common law remedy in m. spect of criminal offences is by indictment of the accused and

trial before a petty jury; and except in the case of information for misdemeanour and summary proceedings by a court of record for “contempt of court” it is the only remedy, except where; statute creates another remedy, e.g., by trial before a court of summary jurisdiction. Until the mitigation of the draconic severity of the English lay in the early part of the 19th century, little or no power existed of amending defective statements or indictments, and the cours in favorem vitae insisted strictly on accurate pleading and m proof of the offences exactly as charged. Since 1827 numerow

enactments have been passed for getting rid of these technicalities,

which led to undeserved acquittals, and from 1851 the courts had power to disregard technical objections to the form of indictment and to amend in matters not essential in case of variance between the indictment and the evidence.

The difficulties and technicalities of criminal pleading were finally dealt with by the Indictments Act 1915, which made rules as to indictments and set up a rule committee under the lord chief justice having power to vary or annul the rules in the statute and make further rules germane to the subject. By that act it was provided (s. 3) that "every indictment shall contain, and shall be sufficient if it contains, a statement of the specific offence or offences with which the accused person is charged, together with such particulars as may be necessary for giving reasonable information as to the nature of the charge.” Again, by s. 4, “subject to the provisions of the rules under this act, charges for more than one felony or for more than one misdemeanour, and charges for both felonies and misdemeanours, may be joined in the same indictment, but where a felony is tried together with any misdemeanour, the jury shall be sworn and the person accused shall have the same right of challenging jurors as , (b) Other external indicators are uranyl acetate in the titration if all the offences charged in the indictment were felonies.” of zinc salts by phosphates (brown precipitate as soon as the Power is given before or at any stage of the trial to amend a latter is in excess); potassium ferrocyanide in the titration of defective indictment, if it can be done without injustice; to order phosphates by uranyl acetate (brown precipitate with slightest the separate trial of separate offences if the accused would be excess); potassium iodide and starch in titrations involving ni- prejudiced or embarrassed; or to postpone a trial for amendment trites or Fehling’s solution (blue with a trace of either); ferrous or separate hearing. By the Vexatious Indictment Act, 1859 thiocyanate with Fehling solution titrations (red until all the (save as therein excepted), no bill of indictment can be preFehling solution has been reduced); tannin solution in the titra- sented to the grand jury for the numerous offences to which it tion of lead salts by ammonium molybdate (brownish-yellow applies, unless (a) the person presenting it has been bound by colour with excess of the latter). (A. D. M.) recognizance to prosecute or give.evidence; or (b) the accused has INDICTION, a period or cycle.of rs years, the origin of been committed to or detained in custody or has been bound by which is obscure. It is thought to have originated in Egypt in recognizance to answer the indictment; or (c) unless it is preA.D. 312, the year of the defeat of Mascentius. The assessment ferred by the direction or consent of certain high legal authoriand dating of Roman tax censuses took place every xs years ties. The act has since been.extended to other offences. (the “indiction” period), and became a recognized form of reckIn Scotland the terms indictment or criminal letters are used oning during the Middle Ages, particularly in Ecclesiastical to express: the acte accusation. But except in the case of high affairs. See CHRONOLOGY and EGYPT. treason there is no grand jury, and the indictment is filed like

As the titration approaches completion, the deep blue precipitate produced by the early drops gives place to a deep blue coloration, then pale blue, then green, then a slight dirty green, and finally no change at all, thus showing that the last trace of ferrous salt has been oxidized. (a) Further examples of internal indicators are ferric alum in the titration of silver salts by thiocyanates (red coloration produced by the first drop in excess); starch solution in all iodometric titrations (blue while the least trace of iodine is present): methylene-blue in titrations with Fehling’s solution (decolorized as soon as all the latter solution is reduced); diphenylamine, with phosphoric acid, in dichromate-iron titrations (purplish-blue with first drop of dichromate in excess); potassium thiocyanate in iron-titanous chloride titrations (red whilst any ferric iron remains).

INDICTMENT, in law, a formal accusation in writing laid an English criminal information by the lord advocate or one of

before a grand jury and by them presented on oath to a court of

competent jurisdiction.

In England the accusation is drawn up

in the form of a “bill” of indictment, prepared by the officer of the court or the legal adviser of the prosecution, engrossed on parchment or durable paper, and sent before the grand jury. The grand jury hear in private the witnesses in support of the accusa-

his deputies: and it is only by order of the court of justiciary that a prosecution can be instituted without the general assent of the lord advocate. By the Criminal Procedure Scotland Act 1887 the form of Scots indictments is much simplified.

(X.)

United States.—As a general rule, the indictment must charge

but one crime and in one form, but the crime may be charged in tion (whose names are endorsed on the back of the bill), and, if separate counts to have been committed in a different manneror

satisfied that a prima facie case has been made out, find.the bill means; and where the acts complained of may constituté differént

to be a true bill and return it to the court as such. If otherwise,

the jury ignore the bill and return to the court that they find “no true bill.” Indictments differ from presentments, which are made

crimes such crimes may also be charged in separate counts. ‘+ The form of the indictment varies more or less in the. diferent States, because of particular constitutional or statutory ?

INDIES—INDIUM

255

provisions. In many States the form is prescribed by statute, the in Porto Rico and the Philippines) that the later history of the object of which is to simplify the form and to do away with the Laws of the Indies (see Cusa) are to be found. . BrBLr0GRAPHY.—Of the Recopilación of 1680, five editions were strictness formerly required by law. issued by the government, the last in i84r (Madrid); and there Since an indictment is a finding by the grand jury upon oath, are later, private editions approved by the government. See also J. M. and depends, for its validity, upon that fact among others, it Zomora y Coronado, Biblioteca de legislación ultramarina (Madrid,

could not, until recent times, be amended by the court without

the concurrence of the grand jury that presented it. Under modern statutes, however, mistakes in the statement of time or

in the name or description of any place, person or thing, may, in

the discretion of the court, be cured by amendment at the trial upon such terms as the court may deem reasonable.

So, under modern statutes, an indictment is good if the crime

charged is stated with such a degree of certainty as to enable the

defendant to prepare his defence and the court to pronounce judgment, upon conviction, according to the rights of the case and to prevent a second prosecution for the same offence. It is not regarded as insufficient by reason of any imperfection in matter of form, which does not tend to the prejudice of the substantial rights of the defendant upon the merits. The U.S. Constitution declares that “No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on presentment or indictment of a grand jury.” This provision

applies only to prosecutions in the Federal courts. But, in many of the State Constitutions, there is a similar provision applying to

.prosecutions in the courts of such States.

Under such a con-

stitutional provision an indictment is absolutely essential to the

jurisdiction of the court to try the offender, and the accused can-

not even waive the benefit of the provision by consenting to be tried without such. The court of appeals of the State of New York has recently held that a statute, which purports to permit one charged with a capital or otherwise infamous crime to plead guilty without an indictment having first been found against him, is unconstitutional as violative of the Constitution of that State. But where the Constitution does not require an indictment, there is nothing to prevent the legislature from providing for prosecution of all crimes, even capital, by some other mode of accusation; as, e.g., by information, which is a written accusation of crime preferred by the prosecuting officer without the intervention of a grand jury. And, in some States, such statutes have

been enacted.

“INDIES, LAWS

(J. H. Ba.)

OF THE,” in the colonial history of

Spain, a general term for (1) certain codes for the colonies listed below, and especially the compilation of 1680; or (2) the whole body of colonial law, made up of a multitude of royal cédulas, orders, letters, ordinances, provisions, instructions, autos, dispatches, pragmatics and laws—all emanating from the crown (or crown and cortes) and all of equal force—that were passed through to officers and branches of the colonial administration, or between

the departments of government in Spain. The transfer of Spanish law to Uliramar began with the Conquest; and especially the civil law was translated with comparatively slight alteration. Many things, however, peculiar to colonial conditions—the special relations of the crown and the papacy in America, the “divisions of lands” and “commendations” (a system of patronage, or modified slavery) of the Indians, the development of African slavery, quesHons of natural and international law, the spread of discovery and administrative areas, the sales and grants of public lands— necessitated organizing the general doctrine and a vast quantity of administrative applications, into a body of special law. The general doctrine was applicable everywhere in Ultramar, and dificult and inconstant communication and other considerations

1844-49) ; J. Rodriguez San Pedro, Legislación ultramarina concordada, covering 1837-68 (Madrid, 1865-68) ; the Boletín oficial del Ministerio de Uliramar, covering 1869—79; and M. Fernández Martín, Compilación legislativa del gobierno y administración civil de Uliramar (Madrid, 1886-94) ; for Cuba 1854-98, see the series of Reales Ordenes . . . publicadas en la Gaceta de la Habana (Havana, 1857—1898).

INDIFFERENTISM in philosophy has several partly disconnected and partly opposed meanings. (1) In Scholastic Logic it means the view that objects are neither particular only nor universal only, but are indifferently particular or universal according to the point of view from which they are regarded. This view was held by Adelard of Bath (about 1200) and others. (2) In the history of ancient philosophy “indifferentism” is used to denote the view common to the Stoics, Sceptics and Cynics, that all things are a matter of indifference except virtue, which is the only thing that has intrinsic worth. (3) Sometimes the term is employed to indicate the view that nothing has any intrinsic value, not even the moral life, all things being essentially "indifferent," that is asciologically neutral.

INDIGEN, the horticultural term applied to a plant species

or form which originated in a natural habitat in distinction from cultigen (g.v.), a plant form originated in cultivation.

INDIGO, one of the most important and valuable of all dyestuffs, until about 1890 was obtained entirely from plants, mainly those of the genus Indigofera (Leguminosae) of which the I. sumatrana and I. arrecta have been most important, though in China the Polygonum tinctorium, and in West Africa the Lonchocarpus cyanescens find use for this purpose. In Europe, to the middle of the seventeenth century, the woad plant Isatis tinctoria was entirely used for the application of indigo to textile fabrics. Owing to the lower cost of the synthetical dye, natural indigo for export is now manufactured in but small amount, and almost entirely in Bengal. The plant, which is reared from seed sown in April, is cut down in June, a second crop being obtained therefrom in August. The indigo-yielding principle, present mainly in the leaf, is the glucoside indican, Cu.Hi;NO.H.O, which is readily soluble in water. This, by the action of an enzyme also present in the plant, is transformed into glucose and indoxyl, C,5H;NO, and the latter (also colourless), in contact with air, becomes oxi-

dized with the production of indigo, C4H,,N.O, (see GLUCOSIDES, NATURAL). The plant is cut early in the morning and at once transported to the factory. Here it is steeped in water for 9-14 hours in large vats, when, under the joint influence of the enzyme and of bacteria, the indican is transformed into indoxyl. The extract is now transferred to “beating” vats, which lie at a lower level, and is there submitted to intimate contact with air, employing a paddle (or so-called *beating") wheel, or a steam injector. Conversion of the indoxyl into indigo thus occurs, which settles and is collected, boiled with water, well drained, pressed into moulds, and dried at the ordinary temperature. Though the introduction of more scientific methods into the manufacture of the natural product has effected various improvements, this industry has continued to decline, and is now of minor importance. (See also Dyes,

SYNTHETIC.) (A. G. P.) INDIGO-BIRD (Cyanospiza cyanea), a North American bird of the finch family (Fringillidae), breeding chiefly in the

early counselled some codification. This was begun in Mexico in north-eastern United States and adjacent Canada, but extending 1525; a volume was published in 1563, and other inadequate westward to Colorado and Texas. .The adult male is of a deep compilations in 1596 and 1628, finally the great Recopilación de blue nearly all over, changing to brownish in the autumn. The Leyes de los Reinos de las Indias of 1680. This code has re- female is brown above and ochreous-white beneath.

ceived even extravagant praise. But its minute administrative

strangulation of colonial political life and its monopolistic ecohomic principles were serious defects. Two centuries in formation,

code of 1680 was only one century in effect; for in the 1760's harles MI. began to break down the monopolistic principles of

colonial commerce. This came too late to save the mainland colonies in America, but it aggrandized Cuba. It is there (also

INDIUM, a soft malleable metal about as heavy as tin.

Chemically it is an element (symbol In, atomic number 49, atomic weight 114-8) included in the periodic group containing aluminium, gallium and thallium (see Pertopic Law). It melts at 155° C and vaporizes above 1,450° C. Its specific gravity is 7.2 to 7.42 and its specific heat 0-05695. Indium was discovered in the zinc blende of Freiburg in 1863 by F. Reich and Th,

256

INDIVIDUALISM—INDIVIDUALITY

Richter, who detected in the spectroscope the strong indigo-blue line (A 4,511) in its spectrum (Latin, indicus, Indian; cf. indigo). It is one of the very rare elements, occurring only in small quantities in zinc blende. It is best obtained from commercial metallic zinc, which contains small amounts of indium, by treating the metal with insufficient hydrochloric acid for complete solution, whereby indium is precipitated on the undissolved zinc. The metallic residue is dissolved in nitric acid, the solution evaporated with excess of sulphuric acid and treated with ammonia, when indium and iron hydroxides are precipitated. These hydroxides are redissolved in hydrochloric acid and boiled with excess of sodium bisulphite, when basic indium sulphite is precipitated. These processes are repeated to obtain pure indium sulphite. Indium is also separated from a mixture of anhydrous chlorides by addition of alcoholic pyridine, when the complex salt InCl,,3C.H;N, is precipitated. Indium oxide, In.03, a yellow powder formed by igniting the hydroxide, is readily reduced on being heated with carbon or hydrogen. The hydroxide, In (OH)s,a gelatinous precipitate thrown down by adding ammonia to any soluble indium salt, is readily soluble in caustic soda or potash but not in ammonia. Three chlorides are

known: (1) The trichloride, prepared by the action of chlorine on the metal or of chlorine and carbon or sulphur on the oxide, is a soluble deliquescent salt; its vapour density corresponds with InCl,. (2) The dichloride, InCl, (vapour density normal at 1,300? C), prepared by the action of hydrogen chloride on the metal. (3) The dark red monochloride, InCl (vapour density normal at

among different types. In extreme cases the colony behaves ag a single unit (Portuguese man-o’-war and other Siphonophora) the members being entirely subordinate. (See COELENTERATA)

The units of the colony are here themselves compound, co.

sisting of many cells: but a parallel series occurs with si :

celled units. The Protozoa (g.v.) are typically single, free-living

cells. A number are colonial, and a few colonial forms (e.g., Zop.

thamnium) exhibit division of labour, one or two (eg., Volvos) being co-ordinated to move as wholes. The same type of problem, but in exaggerated form, arises in regard to symbiotic organisms

(See Symeprosis.) What we call a termite is an obligatory partner.

ship between an insect, the termite proper, and protozoan inhabitants of its intestine which digest wood for the partnership. A lichen (g.v.) is a compound of a fungus and a green alga. Equal difficulties arise with regard to reproduction and regen. eration. All organisms are part of a continuous stream of life the offspring taking origin from a piece of living substance de. tached from its parent or parents.

The individual can therefore

never be sharply delimited from the stream of life, any mor than an eddy from the river. In higher animals each fertilized egg normally gives rise to a single organism; but exceptionally it divides, wholly or partially, during early stages. When it divides completely, so-called “identical” twins result; common-sense calls these two individuals. But all gradations are found between this

condition, slight union as in the Siamese twins, intimate union,

and various states of partial doubling. Similar partial and total duplications can be artificially produced in lower organisms. (See 1,100° C), obtained by distilling the dicloride over sodium. The REGENERATION; EXPERIMENTAL EMBRYOLOGY.) di- and mono-chlorides are both decomposed by water to give the Hitherto we have been implicitly considering the organism as trichloride and indium. stable; but in reality no organism is at all stable—even the long. The salts of indium correspond in type with the trichloride; est-continued adult stage is but part of a changing life-cycle. We among them are the indium alums, R-In(SO,)2,12H.O, where R are accustomed to think of ourselves as the same individual which is NH, Rb or Cs. Indium sulphide, In.Ss, is obtainable by direct we were as a child, and to extend this identity backwards to combination of indium and sulphur as an infusible red mass, or embryo and egg. This is legitimate, but involves a rather new as a yellow precipitate on passing sulphuretted hydrogen into a conception of individuality. The individual thus viewed ceases solution of an indium salt; it dissolves in concentrated acids. to be a static being; it is rather, as Le Dantec says, a history. Indium acetylacetone, In(C,H,0.)s, colourless prismatic crystals, What breaks in this history suffice to justify us in saying that melts at 186° C and sublimes with partial decomposition. It a new individual has arisen? In higher animals there are no very exhibits isomorphous relationships with the acetylacetones of abrupt changes from egg through embryo to adult. In frogs the aluminium, gallium, iron and scandium (G. T. Morgan, H. D. K. change at metamorphosis (g.v.) is so violent that two states reDrew and T. V. Barker, 1921) and is obtained by dissolving ceive different names—tadpole and frog. In higher insects, the freshly prepared indium hydroxide in acetylacetone. organs of the grub are actually broken down during pupal life, and Brsriocrapoy.—R. E. Meyer, Das Indium (1868); P. E. Browning, those of the adult arise from rudiments previously dormant. In Index to the Literature of Indium (1905); J. W. Melor, Comprehensive Treatise of Inorganic and Theoretical Chemistry, vol. v. (1924). sea-urchins the adult arises as a separate lateral rudiment in the late larva; and in Nemertina (g.v.), the bulk of the larva is INDIVIDUALISM, in political philosophy, the theory of actually thrown off at metamorphosis. government according to which the good of the State consists in We generally call such cases transformations of a single indithe well-being and free initiative of the component members (Lat. viduality; but there is no hard line to be drawn between them individualis, that which is not divided, an individual), From this and other cases, e.g., liver-flukes (see TREMATODA), whose lifestandpoint, as contrasted with that of the various forms of Social- cycle consisted of a whole succession of forms, which here we ism (g.v.) which subordinate the individual to the community, the usually style separate individuals. Finally, there are difficulties community as such is an artificial unity. Individualism is, how- concerned with dedifferentiation (g.v.). A sea-squirt such 4s ever, by no means identical with egoism, though egoism is always Clavellina dedifferentiates to an opaque simply-constructed mass, individualistic. An individualist may also be a conscientious al- then redifferentiates to a normal Clavellina. Is it the same truist: he is by no means hostile to or aloof from society (any individual, or a new one? more than the Socialist is necessarily hostile to the individual), In plants, difficulties are even greater, since often there is no but he is opposed to State interference with individual freedom definitely shaped body, but only a tangled felt of filaments, e.g. wherever, in his opinion, it can be avoided. The practical distinc- some Algae, most fungi. Mushrooms are only fructifications; tion in modern society is necessarily one of degree, and both “In- the plant’s vegetative business is performed by a subterranean dividualism” and “Socialism” are very vaguely used, and generally felt-work of wholly irregular construction. Even in higher plants as terms of reproach by opponents. See ANARCHISM; CAPITAL- this sort of thing may hold. Many trees grow by suckers, s0 ISM; EcoNoWMICS; SocrALISM. that one “individual” may be in organic connection with several

INDIVIDUALITY.

The individuality of organisms is a

difficult problem of scientific philosophy. The common view is that each obviously separate organic entity is an individual—man, cow, beetle, oak-tree, cabbage. But difficulties arise when we

take lower organisms into account, and look deeper into life-

history. Many animals such as polyps form colonies whose members are attached to a common living stem. All gradations occur between single polyps, those forming temporary colonies by budding, and those with permanent colonies. In permanent colonies, all members may be alike, or there may be division of labour

others. „The climax is reached in the case of the banyan tree, m

which the branches let fall aerial roots which turn into new trunks, so that a many-trunked colonial tree is produced.

These examples will show the impossibility of defining an ind

vidual in any absolute way, is ever complete or perfect. degrees of individuality, and plants and many animals. An individual must be in

or of believing that individuality We must rather say that there are that it is very poorly exhibited by .

some degree a unitary whole with interdependence of parts; it must have a history of appreciable

INDO-ARYAN sharply duration, singleness and continuity; it must be rather directed marked off from other individuals; its working must be

at least partly to continuing either itself or other systems like

itself. In so far as portions of living substance exhibit these characters, they are individuals. The more definite the unity, the

more obvious its continuity, the greater the interdependence of

its parts, the greater its independence as a whole, the more individuality must we ascribe to it.

During the course of evolution, two, in a sense contrary, tendencies have been at work—aggregation and individuation. In-

dividuation is the tendency towards making a given unit more of an individual. Aggregation is the tendency to fit together a number of individuals to make an aggregate, or unit of higher

order (which may then be progressively individualized). We can

distinguish individuals of three orders or grades. The lowest are single cells, e.g., free-living protozoa, bacteria. These first-grade

units may become aggregated to form colonies; the colonies may show division of labour between their cellular units and may even be so co-ordinated as to behave and move as wholes (e.g., Volvox). When this stage is reached, we may properly speak of a second-order individual.

All multi-cellular animals are sec-

ond-order individuals: and the evolutionary history by which a simple coelenterate has been transformed into specialized crea-

tures like insects or mammals is the history of the individuation of

such units. These units, however, may again undergo aggregation. Colonies without division of labour are seen in Polyzoa, corals, etc.: colonies with some division of labour are frequent

among hydroid polyps; and colonies which can be called thirdorder individuals are found in siphonophores. The bonds holding the parts of such units together are physi-

cal; but with the development of efficient sense-organs and brains, the parts can be held together by psychical bonds. This, without

division of labour, is seen in gregarious animals; with division of labour, in the communities of social insects and of man, which thus also are incipient third-grade individuals. As a general rule, where a unit of higher grade acquires more individuation, the lower-grade units composing it become less independent and more subordinate, and so lose individuality. The only exception to this occurs in human communities, in which the presence of language and conceptual thought has transformed the method by which the second-grade individuals (men and women) enter into relation with each other and with the whole. In man for the first time mental life can become organized into & continuing unity with interdependent parts. Superposed upon (but interwoven with) the physical individuality is the mental individuality, which we call personality. Obviously degrees of individuation of the personality are possible, both as regards the integration of the different emotional tendencies and the intensity to which any one capacity is developed. It is not necessary that personality should be intensified by living in a highly-organized society—indeed, the reverse is often

the case—but it is.true that only in highly-organized societies do thehighest levels of individuation become possible. High degree

ofindividuation undoubtedly seems to be a progressive character-

istic of life. It is thus important to notice that the individuation attained by the state or any other human community is, and apparently must always remain, far lower than that possible toits component members; and that therefore, biologically speakmg, the community exists for the individual more than the individual for the community. Since both, however, are intimately interdependent, there are, from the purely biological point of view, many cogent duties of the individual to the community.

hat we have said about the aggregation of similar units to

LANGUAGES

257

inorganic world. A stone, e.g., is continuously losing or gaining matter and energy to or from its surroundings, and it is not the same to-day as yesterday. It is relatively but not absolutely distinct from the rest of the world. So the individual is relatively separate, unified and independent, but never absolutely so. Among animals, the highest degree of individuation is found among second-grade units, but the greatest biological success is achieved by the combination of these to form third-grade units of low individuation (social insects, man). Man’s mental powers make it possible for him to merge his individuality with that of other individuals, with that of the community, and with general ideas; or, as it is often justly put, to lose his own individuality in something other, greater, or higher than himself. The mental individuality (personality) is integrated out of a number of relatively separate emotional tendencies and systems of ideas; besides the central well-integrated portion, which alone has the right to be called personality, there exists a fringe of loosely-connected or unconnected mental life, and also subterranean systems of ideas gathered round emotional tendencies which have been repressed instead of integrated with the rest. (See Psycuorocy.) Peculiar sudden enlargements of mental individuality may occur if these unintegrated or repressed systems are brought into connection with the main personality. Conversely, certain conflicts may terminate in a total splitting of the personality into two or more parts—a process analogous to the reconstitution of the halves of a bisected planarian or other low

animal into complete individuals. (See REGENERATION.) Paradoxically, the mental individuality attains its highest development only by entering into relation with the greatest possible number of facts and ideas outside itself (though it must of course organize them within its own system into a unifed whole). If physical individualities are never at all completely separate or independent physically, mental individualities can only develop by the mutual interpenetration of subject and object in experience. Many ideas bearing on this last point of view will be found in A. N. Whitehead, Science and the Modern World. See J. S. Huxley, The Individual in the Animal Kingdom (Cambridge, 1912) ; Le Dantec, “L’Individualité et L’Erreur Individualiste,” Science Progress; J. C. Smuts, Holism and Evolution (1927). (J. S. H.)

INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES.

This term applies to the

members of the Indo-European family of languages which are spoken in India at the present time. They are all Satem languages. Classification.—The oldest specimens of Indo-Aryan speech very closely resemble the oldest Iranian. The development of the two old forms of speech went on independently and followed somewhat different lines. This is most marked in the treatment of a nexus of two consonants. While modern Iranian often retains the nexus with little or no alteration, modern Indo-Aryan prefers to simplify it. The earliest extant literary record of Indo-Aryan languages is the collection of hymns known as the Rig-Veda which probably contained many dialectic variations. As we have it now, we may take it as representing, on the whole, the particular vernacular dialect spoken in the east of the Punjab and in the upper portion of the Gangetic Doab. Later it extended between the Punjab and the modern Allahabad from the Himalayas to the Vindhya hills in the south, over the area known to Sanskrit geographers as the

Madhyadésa or Midland, also called Aryévarta, or the “home of the Aryans.” Here it received constant literary culture, and a refined form of its archaic dialect became fixed by the labours of grammarians about the year 300 B.c., receiving the name of

form units of higher grade, applies also to the aggregation of similar units, as in the development of symbiosis (g.v.). The

Samskria

(Sanskrit) or “purified,” in contradistinction to the

symbiotic species, but that their difference and separateness makes Progress towards a higher degree of intimate union and mutual

Sanskrit (g.v.) became the language of religion and polite literature, and thus the Midland, the native land of its mother dialect, became accepted as the true pure home of the Indo-Aryan speech. Dialectic Variations.—In the time of Asoka (250 B.c.), there were at least three dialects, an eastern, a western and another in

folk-speech of the same tract and to the many Indo-Aryan dialects of other parts of India, all of which were grouped together under

only differences are that a good deal of division of labour is already given from the start in the difference between the two the title of Prükrta (Prakrit) (g.v.) or “natural,” “unpurified.”

integration very difficult.

he idea of absolute individuality must thus be given up,

Just as much the idea of definite and unchanging objects in the

258 the extreme north-west.

INDO-CHINA, FRENCH The grammarian Patafijali (150 B.c.)

mentions the existence of several dialects. Round the Midland, on three sides—west, south and east—in Vedic times, Indo-Aryan dialects were spoken which were all more closely related to each other than was any of them to the language of the Midlands. Thus, at an early period of the linguistic history of India there were two sets of Indo-Aryan dialects—one the language of the Midland and the other that of the dialects which form an Outer Band. As time went on, the people of the Midland conquered the eastern Punjab, Rajputana with Gujarat (where they reached the sea) and Oudh. Hence in ail these territories we now find mixed forms of speech. The basis of each is that of the Outer Band, but the body is that of the Midland. As we leave the Midland and approach the external borders of this tract, the influence of the Midland language grows weaker and weaker, and traces of the original Outer language become more and more prominent. In the same way the languages of the Outer Band were forced farther and farther afield over the Maratha country, into Orissa, into Bengal and, last of all, into Assam. At the present day, a Midland Indo-Aryan language (western Hindi) occupies the Gangetic Doab and the country immediately to its north and south. Round it, on three sides, is a band of mixed languages, Punjabi (of the central Punjab), Gujarati, Rajasthani (of Rajputana and its neighbourhood), and eastern Hindi (of Oudh and the country to its south). Beyond these again, are the Outer Languages (Kashmiri, with its Dardic basis), Lahnda (of the western Punjab), Sindhi (here the band is broken by Gujarati), Marathi, Oriva (of Orissa), Bihari, Bengali and Assamese. The Pahari languages in the Himalaya, north of the Midland belong to the Intermediate Band, being recent importations from Rajputana, while Kohistani includes the mixed dialects of the Sivat and Indus Kohistans. The Midland language is therefore now enclosed within a ring fence of intermediate forms of speech. i

knob of Upper Tongking and Upper Laos, formed of Calcareons

plateaux and sandstone hills, whence arises the Cordillera gj Annam, which

curves

parallel to the coast from the Gulf of

Tongking to the delta of Cochin-China, sending out seawank

buttresses which bound the enclosed bays of Annam. This mowtain chain has a steep slope on the eastern side, but descends in

steps on the western side to the plateaux of Laos. It is through i

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this plateau country of Laos that the Mekong (g.v.) one of the longest rivers (1,900 m.) of south-east Asia descends in steps towards its delta. The Red river descends from the mountains of Yun-nan, rising near Tali-fu between deep and inaccessible gorges, and becomes navigable only on its entry into Tongking. Means have been taken to render it available to steam launches,

and in consequence of an agreement between the State and the BrsLiocraPHy.—J. Beames, Comparative Grammar of the Modern Compagnie des Correspondances Fluviales a service of steamers Aryan Languages of India (1872-79); A. F. R. Hoernle, A Grammar of the Eastern Hindi compared with the other Gaudian Languages is provided from its mouth to Lao-Kay. Near Hung-Hoa the Red river receives its two chief tributaries, the Black river from the (1880) ; R. G. Bhandarkar, “The Phonology of the Prakrits of Northem India,” in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society (Bombay plateaux of the west—the land of the Muongs—and the Clear Branch), vol. xvii., 2, 99-182. For the linguistic conditions of Vedic river, one of the largest of whose tributaries issues from the times, the introduction to J. Wackernagel’s Altindische Grammatik Ba-Be lakes. The Black river is navigable for a considerable (Gottingen, 1896) gives much useful information in a convenient form. G. A; Grierson, “On the Phonology of the Modern Indo-Aryan distance, the Clear river only from Tuyen-Kwang. The general Vernaculars” in the Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlündischen Gesell- features of the climate, of soil and of relief, give to the rivers schaft, vols. xlix., 1 (1895-96), 393, i; "On the Radical and Parti- of Indo-China certain common characteristics; they are swollen cipial Tenses of the Modern Indo-Aryan Vernaculars” in the Journal in summer and low in winter in consequence of the monsoons; of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, vol. lxiv. (1895), part i, 352; and “On certain Suffixes in the Modern Indo-Aryan Vernaculars” in the rapids and cascades play an important part in limiting navigation; Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung (1903), p. 473; Linguis- their erosive activity is shown in the formation of deltas. The tic Survey of India, vol. i. (1927, full discussion). A list of works on coasts reflect the general character of the relief, being low the history of philological discovery is given by W. Schmidt, Sprach- and muddy at the edge of the deltas, sandy along the coastal familien und Sprachenkreise der Erde, p. 39-40 (1927). See also J. plains, and scarped and dissected at the points where the mounVendryes in Les Langues du Monde, p. 28-31. tains reach the sea. In spite of the great length of coastline INDO-CHINA, FRENCH. The geographical denomina- (1,560 m.) it is therefore not favourable to navigation. tion of French Indo-China includes the protectorates of Annam, Geology.—The geological history is still far from clear; the Tongking and Cambodia, the colony of Cochin-China and part region seems to have been land in the Secondary period. In Late of the Laos country. In 1900 the newly-acquired territory of Tertiary times the mountain chains of Tibet, prolonged towards Kwang-Chow bay, on the coast of China, was placed under the the east and compressed between the southern edge of the massif authority of the governor-general of Indo-China. French Indoof China and the northern edge of the Deccan, gave rise to the China, the eastern portion of the Indo-Chinese peninsula, lies confused mountain masses of Upper Tongking and Upper Laos. between 8° 30’ and 23° 25’ N. and roo° and 109° 20 E. It In the peninsula these chains spread out in two arcs, one of is bounded north by an arbitrary line which separates it from Which, the Cordillera of Annam forms the backbone of French China, east and south-east by the Gulf of Tongking and the China Indo-China. In the Quaternary, river-alluvium filled the gulfs sea; west by the Gulf of Siam and Siem, and north-west by Burma. and joined to Asia the islands which formed the nuclei of TongThe area is 274,385 sq.m., with a population of 19,636,137, of king, Cambodia and Cochin-China. The geological formations which 26,137 are Europeans. Indo-China is made up of several belong to two main series, one Archaean and Primary, which cor very distinct regions; two great deltas (that of the Song-K oi, stitutes the main mass of the mountains and of the plateaux which forms Tongking, and that of the Mekong, forming Cochin(granite, schists and metamorphic limestone), and the Quaternary. China and part of Cambodia), and between them the Cordillera making up the plains and deltas (continental alluvium). Recent of Annam. To the west of this chain lie the mountainous contieruptive rocks are found in the north of Saigon and in the nental regions of Laos. The relief of Indo-China is thus very un- south-west of the delta of Cochin-China. . even, the only plains being the deltas of Tongking (13,000 sq.km.) Climate.—The climate of Indo-China is that of an inter and of Cochin-China (40,000 sq.km.) and some small coastal tropical country, characterized by a dry and a wet season, bu plains. The north of the country is occupied by the mountainwith diversities due to differences of latitude, altitude and exp

INDO-CHINA, FRENCH sure. Cochin-China and Cambodia have very regular seasons, corresponding with the monsoons The north-easterly monsoon

blows from about Oct. 15 to April 15 within a day or so. The

259

southern Annam; the Thais, including the Laotians; and the autochthonous tribes classed by the other inhabitants as Mois or Khas (‘savages’). The last-named representatives of the indigenous peoples, survive only as strays; they were driven into

temperature remains almost steady during this time, varying but slightly from 78-8° to 80-6° F by day, to 68° by night. This is the interior by the now dominant races. In the north of Tongthe dry season. From April z5 to Oct 15 the monsoon reverses king people of Laos origin occur—the Thés round Kaobang, and blows from the south-west; the season of daily rains and the Muongs in the mountains bordering the Red river. When tornadoes cornmences; the temperature rises from 80-6° to 84-2°, mixed with Chinese the Muongs and the Thos are known as the at which it remains day and night. April and May are the hottest Hung-dans, Mans and Miens. The Muongs are bigger and months (from 86° to 93-2°). The damp, unwholesome heat some- stronger than the Annamese, their eyes often almost straight. times produces dysentery and cholera. The climate of Annam is They have square foreheads, large faces and prominent cheekless regular. The north-easterly monsoon which is “the ocean- bones. In the centre and south of the Indo-Chinese mountain wind,” brings the rains in September. The north-easterly gales chain are found, under a multiplicity of names, people of Malayan lower the temperature below 59°. September is the month in origin mixed with all the races of Indo-China. Laos is inhabited which the typhoon blows. During the dry season—June, July and by an essentially miscellaneous population, falling into three August—the thermometer oscillates between 86° and 95°. The nights, however, are comparatively cool. Tongking has a winter season—October to May. The temperature, lowered by fog and rains, does not rise above 75-2° and descends to 50° over the delta, and to 44-6° and even 42-8°, in the highlands, where white frost is occasionally seen. The summer, on the other hand, is scorching. The wind veers to the south-east and remains there until October. The temperature rises to over 83°; often it reaches and continues for several days at 95° or even more. The nights are distressingly airless. The Laos country in the interior, and lying at a high altitude, is cooler and drier. Its deep valleys and

high hills vary its climate. Fauna and Flota.—The fauna is abundant and varied. The

wild life of Laos includes elephants, rhinoceros, one- and twohorned (rhinoceros horn is employed as a "medicine"), rare as a result of hunting; tiger, panther, bears, monkeys and rats, among which is the mu-khi, or rat found in the rice-fields of the highlands, in which its ravages are considerable. In the mountain districts the leopard, wild boar and deer are found, and in the neighbourhood of habitations the tiger-cat and ichneumon. The buffalo is commonly found wild in Laos; as a domesticated animal it also holds a prominent place. The zebu bull is used for transport purposes. There is an indigenous race of horses, excellent in spite of their small size—the horses of Phu-Yen. Birds are numerous. Reptiles (apart from the caimans of the Mekong, which attain a length of over 30 ft., and are much appreciated by the Annamese as food) are extremely numerous and varied in species. The rivers are rich in fish. The sole is found in the rivers of Tongking. The Mekong is fished for two species peculiar to it—the pa-beuk and the pa-leum, which attain a length of nearly 6 feet. All varieties

of mosquitoes, ants and leeches combine to render the forests bordering the Mekong impracticable. Peculiar species of grubs and caterpillars destroy the cotton and coffee plantations of Cochin-China. The silkworm may be said to be indigenous in Tongking, where there are several thousand acres of mulberry ees. The flora is inter-tropical, and comprises nearly all the trees

known in China and Japan. and a variety of other ways.

The bamboo is utilized in building Teak was found some years ago

in considerable abundance, and plantations of it have been made. Certain hard woods are used for marqueterie and other ornamental work. Rubber is also exploited. Cotton, previously cultivated in Cochin-China and Cambodia, gives excellent results in Laos and in Tongking. Tea, of which there are a certain number of plantations in the highlands of Tongking and Annam, grows Wild in Upper Laos. Cocoa and coffee are cultivated in Tong-,

king and Cambodia.

Cinnamon and cardamoms are gathered in

Laos and Annam. Ground nuts, sesame, sugar canes, pepper, Jute, tobacco and indigo are also grown. Rice is incomparably the most

important crop. All European fruits and vegetables have been introduced into Tongking, and with certain exceptions—the grape, for example—succeed perfectly. People.— The population of French Indo-China is very heterogeneous, owing to the situation of the country, exposed to every

invasion. The Annamese form the bulk of the population in Annam, Tongking and Cochin-China and four-fifths of that of

main groups—the Thais; various aboriginal peoples classed as Khas: and the Moos and the Yaos, tribes of Chinese origin. (For general anthropology of this area see the section devoted to anthropology of Further Asia in the article Ast.) Religions.—The Annamese religion is a somewhat vague and very tolerant Buddhism, which in practice resolves itself chiefly into the worship of ancestors. Certain ceremonies performed in Cambodia resemble distantly the Brahmanical cult from which they are derived. The Roman Catholic religion has been introduced by missionaries. There is an apostolical vicariate in CochinChina, one in Cambodia and several mission stations in Tongking

Administration.—Indo-China, or rather the Indo-Chinese Union, is not, properly speaking, a colony; it is an administrative scheme which comprises a colony (Cochin China), four protectorates (Annam, Tongking, Cambodia and Laos), and a special territory (Kwang-Chow-Wan). Originally Cochin-China, the only French possession in the peninsula, was a colony directly administered like other colonies, by the Ministry of Marine. As further conquests were effected, Tongking, Annam and Cambodia were subjected to the régime of a protectorate somewhat illdefined, and in 1887 these territories were grouped together under the governor-general of French Indo-China. In 1893 the group was enlarged by the inclusion of Laos and, in 1898, by that of Kwangchow-Wan. The government of the colonies having been transferred (1889) from the Ministry of Marine to the Ministry of Commerce, and in 1894 to the newly-created Ministry of the Colonies, the control of the residences passed gradually into the hands of civil agents. Cochin-China, which already, by the decree of Feb. 8, 1880, had been endowed with a colonial council, had a municipality, a chamber of commerce and even a deputy in the French parliament. Indo-China is administered by a governorgeneral, who resides sometimes at Hanoi sometimes at Saigon. The functions and powers of the latter official were, however, but vaguely defined before the decree of April 21, 1891. The residentsgeneral of Tongking, Annam and Cambodia, and the lieutenantgovernor of Cochin-China, as well as the military authorities, were placed under him. But this change of policy, which put an end to the system of expeditions and minor military operations, and restricted the power of the residents whilst restoring to the mandarins a share of authority, was unwelcome to numerous interests, which, combining, secured the abrupt recall of M. de Lanessan, first governor-general, on Dec. 29, 1894. The decree of April 21, 1891, was not revoked, but the powers it conferred were restricted. After the appointment of M. Doumer (1896), successor to M. Rousseau, this decree was again put in force on the former scale, and in 1898 it was supplemented by the decree of July 3 and 31, which definitely established the political and financial unity of Indo-China. The governor-general is the sole intermediary between the Indo-Chinese Union and the Home Government, the powers of which, with few restrictions, are delegated to him. He controls the civil services, and though prohibited from commanding in the field, disposes of the land and sea forces in the country. His diplomatic negotiations with foreign Powers must be carried on under the authorization and surveillance of the home authorities. The governor-general is assisted by the Superior Council of Indo-China, which meets

the whole country; the Khmers or Cambodians; the Chams of monthly and is composed of the chiefs of staff of the General

INDO-CHINA,

260

Government, the deputy of Cochin-China, the presidents of the chief chambers of commerce and important native members. This | council has as its chief task the drawing up of the general budget and of the local budgets. The Superior Council meets not only at Hanoi, the seat of the Government, but also at Saigon, Hué and Pnom-Penh. It delegates its powers to a “permanent com- | mission” consisting of 13 of its members, and dispensing with the attendance of the local authorities of regions other than those in which the place of meeting is situated. The contrôle financier, which scrutinizes and sanctions all measures of the public services involving outlay of money, is dependent on the Ministry of the Colonies and returns communicated to the governor-general. The governor-general is also assisted by a “‘council of defence,” comprising the chief military and naval authorities. Justice.—The whole of Indo-China is, in principle, subject to French justice, represented by a court of appeal and a certain number of tribunals. The decree of Aug. 8, 1898, established one court of appeal for French Indo-China: two chambers sitting at Saigon and the other two at Hanoi. Three tribunals of commerce are established at Saigon, Hanoi and Hai-Phong. There are nine courts of first instance, one at Pnom-Penh for Cambodia, and two at Hanoi and Hai-Phong for Tongking. These courts are supplemented by juges de paix in Cochin-China, and there are juges de $aix at Nam-Dinh (Tongking) and Tourane; elsewhere in the protectorates the residerits perform judicial functions. There are four criminal courts in Cochin-China, at Hanoi in Tongking and at Pnom-Penh in Cambodia. In Cochin-China Annamese law is administered in the French courts in suits between natives, but native tribunals have been superseded. In Annam-Tongking, outside the sphere of the French tribunals, the natives are subject to Annamese justice, represented in each province by a mandarin called the An Sat and in Cambodia the natives are subject to the native tribunals. At the same time, whenever a French subject or European or other foreigner is a party in an affair, French justice only is competent. Public Works.—The order of Sept. 9, 1898, placed the pub-

lic works

of Indo-China

under the “direct authority of the

governor-general as regards works entered to the general budget account.” There is a director of public works in Indo-China at Saigon, a director of engineering in the other countries. In 1895 a “special service” was created in Tongking to consider railway business. | Posts and Telegraphs.—The country is divided into two sections for the purposes of this service, the one comprising Annam, Tongking and Upper Laos, the other Cochin-China, Cambodia and Lower Laos. Education and Culture.—The educational movement is parallel to the political, but as the province has over 2,000,000 children of school-going age much remains to be done. In 1924-25 primary and secondary French schools had an attendance of 2,525 (about half natives); the 3.395 Franco-native official schools, an attendance of 213,977; the private schools (native and missionary) one of 99,790, the expense of education being 6,000,000 piastres (1924). The 1917 public instruction code laid down the principle of the teaching of French, even in elementary schools, but there are reservations, defined in the arrété of Sept. 18, 1924. The “University of Indo-China” at Hanoi, is a high school with many branches giving practical and theoretical training; it alms at turning out competent native assistants for the different French administrators, and training lawyers, planters, traders and manufacturers. Most of the students are Annamese.

The Ecole Francaise d’Extréme

Orient at Hanoi, under the

patronage of the Institut de France, conducts valuable research work in native art, history and language. It has a fine library and museums in Hanoi, Tourane, Saigon and Pnom-Penh, and has done epoch-making work in its Inventaire of Cambodian and Cham monuments, its excavation of the ruins of Angkor, etc.

(See its two vols., L’Ecole Frangaise d’Extréme Orient depuis

som origine jusqu’a 1920 [1922] and its semi-annual Bulletin.)

Defences.—The divisional general commanding troops of Indo(hina (Hanoi), has under him three brigadier-generals (Tong-

king two, Cochin-China).

FRENCH

French Colonial Infantry (Tongking, Cochin-China); two py. talions of the Foreign Legion; two regiments of artillery; ty, detachments of French gendarmes; two flying squadrons, whic, also do excellent work in mapping and fiscal service. There are four native regiments of tirailleurs in Tongking, one in Cochin ' China. There are five “military territories” on the Chinese fron. tier and in Laos. The medical service is relatively importan;

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VIEW OF PNOM-PENH, CAMBODIA, SHOWING THE PNOM-PENH, SITUATED ON THE MEKONG RIVER, IS THE CHIEF MARKET FOR THE PRODUCTS OF CAMBODIA, LAOS, UPPER BURMA AND PART OF SIAM

and helps in the general sanitary organization.

The navy is under

the command of a capitaine de vaisseau (Saigon). The local squadron has been reduced almost to nothing since the World War. There is a question of handing the Saigon arsenal over to a private enterprise. Finance.—The unification of the budget brought about by M. Doumer (decree of July 3r, 1898) specially contributed to that of the Government. The financial scheme is based on the political. In addition to the general budget, comprising the revenue and expenditure of the supreme Government, there are several local budgets, including the revenue and expenditure inddental to the individual provinces. The general budget, under 24,000,000 piastres in 1901, was 76,466,490 piastres in 1926. The Bank of Indo-China (capital £1,440,000), besides receiving deposits and discounting bills, has the privilege of issuing notes, a privilege renewed by the French parliament in 1925. Commerce, Agriculture, Industry.—Although there is still a plethora of French officials (about 4,600), especially in the lower ranks of the Customs and Excise and similar services, there are

over 3,000 French non-officials (males), traders, manufacturers and planters. In 1922 from 250,000,000-300,000,000 fr. were invested in private French enterprises. Rice remains the staple product; 4,750,000 ac. in the Mekong delta were under rice in 1920. There were 62,500 ac. of rubber plantations, and other tropical plants were cultivated successfully. The anthracite mines of Hongay and Dongtrieu produce 1,000,000 tons annually. The production of zinc (40,000 tons) and phosphates (20,000 tons) is important. In 1925, 33,833 hands were engaged in mining (329

Europeans). The presence of coal has given birth to a rapidly

expanding industry in the Red river delta, where there are large cement works, brick, tile and ceramic works, three naval yards

(besides the Saigon arsenal), two important French river steamet

companies, three large cotton-spinning works and minor industries. Home industry (lace-making, etc.), employs many native women. The piastre, worth 2-50 fr. before the war, was, in 1926, worth r5 fr. (the piastre is worth 2,700 sapeks, the chief native coin, of zinc or tin) ; but on a piastre basis, exports have increased

by 77% since 1900, imports by 14% only. Imports to France

from Indo-China.in 1925 were 612,000,000 fr., exports 760,000;

ooo. Total exports reached 1,771,541,353 fr., of which 6296 repre-

sented rice; imports reached 1,388,593,768 fr. The customs tariff

Troops consist of two regiments of is substantially the same as that of France, severe import duties

INDO-CHINA, FRENCH

HISTORY]

being levied on foreign goods. French goods pay no import duty, and goods exported thither are exempt from export duty, with the exception of sugar, which is regulated by special legislation, and of various other colonial products (¢.g., coffee, cocoa, tea,

vanilla, pepper), which pay half the duty applicable to similar

Anti-Europeanism.—His

261 successors

were

averse

to French

influence and started persecutions of the Christian missionaries and natives. For 40 years, from 1833 onward, eight European bishops and 15 missionaries were put to death; 20 others incar-

China line, which will follow the coast from Hanoi to Saigon, and from which will branch the lines penetrating China, Laos, Cam-

cerated and tortured, and several died of misery in the mountains, where they had taken refuge. Many thousands of Annamese perished among the 60,000 who had then embraced the Christian religion (they are over a million now). The French and Spanish Governments (some of the priests killed were Spaniards) only intervened in 1858 by the capture of Tourane, the port of Hué, under Admiral Rigault de Genouilly; but the real campaign in Cochin-China began in 1861, under Admiral Charner. Saigon was taken in February, and by treaty of June 5, 1862, the three eastern provinces of Cochin-China were ceded to France.

bodia and Siam. An important line, 126 km. long, is planned which will run from Tanap to Thakhek and link up Central Laos

French Suzetainty.—Then began the "administration of the Admirals” (1863-79), foremost among whom was Admiral de la

foreign products according to the minimum tariff.

Goods from

French colonies pay no import duty. About 53% of the imports, comprising nearly all manufactured

goods of European origin,

come from France. China, Japan and Singapore are the other chief sources of imports. Communications.—There are now 2,075 km. of railways. The general plan, formed in 1898, will include a great trans-Indo-

with Central Annam. Tourist traffic is now possible and encour-

aged. Over 20,000,000 piastres were spent during the years 1919-25 on dredging, irrigation, etc., and 50,000,000 piastres on the roads, of which there are now over 30,000 km. (11,000

metalled, 9,000 made possible for motors in the dry season). BIBLIOGRAPHY .—J.—Official and semi-official publications: Annuaire général de l'Indochine (Hanoi annual); Rapports au Conseil de Gouvernement (annual); Bulletin Economique de l’Indochine (every two months with monthly statistical annexes); L’Indochine (no. spé-

cial de Ia vie technique, industrielle, agricole et coloniale, 1922);

Bulletin de Ecole Francaise d’Extréme-Orient

(bi-annual).

Among

the publications of the school must be noted: Inventaire archéologique

de l'Indochine. (x) Monuments Lunet de la Jonquiére (1902-12) 2 vol. by H. Parmentier (ibid. H. Cordier, 4 vol. (1912-15), an

du Cambodge, 3 vol., with atlas by ; (2) Monuments Chams de l'Annam, 1909-18); Bibliotheca indosinica, by admirable bibliography of books and

papers on the whole Indochinese Peninsula; Mémoires du service géologique de PIndochine (Hanoi Imprimerie d’Extréme-Orient); Revue indochinoise, 1925, xxvii. year (zbid.); Henri Brenier, Essai d'Allas Statistique de Indochine Francaise (Hanoi, 1914), 88 charts, 38 maps, with commentaries; Service géographique de lIndochine, map scales: 1/1,000,000; 1/500,000; 1/100,000; 1/25,000 (deltas);

Grandiére (1863-68). Under this administration the first protectorate treaty was signed with Cambodia, the local administration was organized, Doudart de Lagrée and Francis Garnier’s exploration of the Mekong (1866-68) was undertaken, and as a counter-move to the continual revolts in the three western provinces of Cochin-China, these were annexed in 1867.

Admiral Dupré (1873), with Luro, an ex-officer of the navy, instituted at Saigon a college for French probationary administrators. In November of the same year, Lieut. Francis Garnier, with 188 men, became master of the delta provinces of Tongking

(g.v.). He had been sent on a mission of enquiry into the differences between the merchant, Jean Dupuis, and the Annamese authorities in Hanoi. Garnier was killed in Dec. 1873. In March of the next year a protectorate treaty was signed by France and the emperor Tu-duc. Tu-duc, however, still sent an embassy to

China promising “obedience,” although he had promised “to conform his policy to that of France.” This raised many difficulties in the enforcement of the treaty. Bulletin des Amis de Vieux Hué (articles of Annamese history, archaeology and art); J. de Galembert, Les Administrations et les An expedition being deemed necessary, in 1882 Henri Riviére took services publiques Indochinois (Hanoi, 1924) ; Henri Lecomte, Membre charge, and was killed in 1883. Annam united with China in a de l'Institut, Flore Générale de l'Indochine; Les Bois d'Indochine (in war against France, in the course of which Admiral Courbet bompreparation, 1926). II.—Non-official: Cl. Madrolle, Guide de l’Indobarded the Foochow arsenal and defeated the Chinese at Son-Tay. chine, 2 vol. (new ed., 1924) ; H. Russier and H. Brenier, L'Indochine Française (Paris, 1911); C. B. Maybon and H. Russier, Notions Hostilities ended with the signature of two treaties (with Annam d'Annam (Haiphong, 1916) ; Chassigneux, L’irrigation dans le delta du June 6, 1884, and with China April 4, 1885). The frontiers beTonkin (1912); C. Dussault, Inventaire général de l’Indochine. Struc- tween China and French Indo-China were defined in two conveniure ei géographie physique (1927) ; Lt.-Colonel Abadie, Les Races du Haut Tonkin (1924); Henri Maitre, Les Jungles Moi (1912); J. Commaille, Guide aux ruines d'Angkor (1912); Marquis de Barthélemy, Mon Vieil Annam (Recits de Chasse) (1925) ; Marcel Bernamose, Les arts décoratifs au Tonkin (1922); Paul Collard, Cambodge et Cambodgiens (1925) ; Georges Groslier, Recherches sur les Cambodgiens

(1921);Angkor (1924).

HISTORY

tions (June 26, 1887, and June 20, 1895), and the bay and territory of Kwang-Chao-wan, in the province of Kwangtung were leased to the French (April 12, 1898). New Organization.—After the 1884 treaty a new French protectorate was organized, with Paul Bert as first resident-general. On Bert’s death, M. Constans was appointed the first governorgeneral of Cochin-China, Cambodia, Annam and Tongking (1887). In the succeeding years lack of harmony between the French military and civil administrations and failure to appreciate the provisions of the protectorate system, led to difficulties. These were augmented by Chinese attacks along their frontier. Under the governorship of J. L. de Lanessan (1891-94) affairs improved and the decree of April 21, 1891, gave the governor-general real

French influence in Indo-China dates from as far back as the year 1787, when, through the efforts of a great French missionary, Pigneau de Behaine, bishop of Adran, a treaty was signed between the "king" (Chua) of Cochin-China, Nguyen phua Anh, and Louis XVI., king of France. Though the opposition of the then governor of Pondicherry, the count of Conway, and general events, such as the French Revolution, prevented the entire execution of powers, which were clearly defined in the decree of Oct. 20, 1911, the treaty, a number of French officers and men, conspicuous again reinforced by a decree on Sept. 11, 1920, whereby the govamong whom were Colonels Olivier, Vannier, J. M. Dayot and ernor-general became a legislator. He can dissolve or suspend the ] B. Chaigneau, helped the Annamite prince to reconquer his Colonial Council, an elected body mainly French, but his financial throne, disputed by the Tay Son rebels, and to become, in 1801, measures are supervised by the director of financial control. An the founder of the new imperial dynasty of the Nguyen. His line ordinance of the governor-general can, however, at any time be (under the name Gia Long) is still in possession of the power in revoked by the Colonial minister in France. Hué, The remains of the Vauban fortifications built by the In Tongking, wherever the status of the Annamese is directly French, who aided the Annamite prince a century and a half ago concerned, the sanction of the emperor is necessary. It was an still confront the visitor to the capital and other towns. ordinance of the emperor Khai Dinh (July 16, 1917), which orSuch was the respect Gia Long professed for the bishop of Adran dered the putting into force, both in Tongking and in Annam, of he had, at the latter’s death in 1799, a tomb (temple) the five new Codes on the organization of the tribunals, comthat specially built for him, close to Saigon, and himself composed mercial and civil procedure and the penal laws. The new Civil Pigneau’s epitaph, which can be read to this day. Gia Long proved Code was put aside for revision by a commission where Annamese à great ruler; a new Code was enacted, inspired (as are most mandarins are in the majority. mnamite institutions) by the Chinese Code; great public works There was instituted in the colony a geographical service for Were undertaken, and a new land-survey instituted. explorations and surveys, and splendid geodetic and cartographic

UN

262

INDO-EUROPEANS

work has been done. In 1927 M. Varenne prepared a new scheme, for the Council of Government to be composed of 60 members (35 Frenchmen and 25 natives), 32 of whom were to be elected by local assemblies, 12 (nine French and three natives) by the Chambers of Commerce and Agriculture, and 16 (ten French and six natives) to be appointed by the governor-general. In Aug. 1928 Pierre Pasquier was appointed governor-general. His whole administrative career has been in connection with Indo-China, the first to enter on his task with such a preparation. There are many problems still confronting administrators in a country of 20,000,000 inhabitants of mixed race and civilization. The old self-recruited village oligarchy of headmen is dying out; attempts to combine in some measure the old and the new regime have not been conspicuously successful. So far compulsory education exists only in Cochin-China, and the general medium of instruction is guoc ngu, or romanized Annamese, a system devised originally by the Portuguese to avoid the use of Chinese characters. The present emperor of Tongking, Prince Vinh Tuy, whose official name is Bao Dai, succeeded his father in 1926. While he is being educated in France, according to his father’s wish, the regency is exercised by the president of the council of Annamese Ministers. (See also CAMBODIA, TONGKING, SIAM, ANNAM, subsections History.) (Hr. Br.)

INDO-EUROPEANS.

The term Indo-European appears to

have been invented by the well-known physician and physicist Thomas Young. In an article in the roth volume of the Quarterly

Review (Oct. 1813) he uses the word without any remark as to its being a new coinage. The word was devised especially to indicate a family of languages, but from the beginning it has been found very difficult to keep apart the use of the word as indicating languages and the application of the term not only to the speakers of the languages at any given period but also to the supposed original speakers of these languages. The effect. of this confusion has often been serious. It is obvious that a language may be spoken by persons who have no blood relationship with the general body of speakers of the language, and that this body itself may not be all of one and the same origin. Thus the negro in Liberia or in the Southern States of America who speaks English as his mother tongue may have no drop of English blood in his veins, and even 200 years ago Daniel Defoe was certain that there was no such person as the “true-born Englishman.” Ever since it was possible to identify a separate family of languages as Indo-European, continual efforts have been made to ascertain who were the original speakers of the language from which the surviving members of the family, or those which are recorded in literature or other monuments, have sprung, where was their home, what were their surroundings and their manner of life. The first of the elaborate statements of these problems was that published by Adolphe Pictet in 1859. The more important attempts of the same kind which have appeared since are enumerated in the bibliography at the end of this article. It is hardly necessary to say that the majority of such attempts deal mainly or altogether with the evidence derived from language. This is necessarily so, because, when the question arose, the linguistic scholars were the first who were ready to carry on the investigation; but the problem can be attacked in various other ways, and it is only by an attack converging from all quarters that a certain result will ever be attained. Fatina.—From language it is clear what were the animals, what were the plants and what were the seasons in the country whence this language was derived. The animals still familiar amongst us were well known; the sheep, the cow, the horse, the dog and the pig. The names of the goat vary much more from language to language; but it does not necessarily follow from this that the

goat was not known until a later time. . Animals for which there

are no early terms in the Indo-European languages are the lion, the tiger, the elephant, the camel and the ass. It may therefore be safely concluded that these animals did not exist in the original habitat. The lion, at one time, certainly roamed over a much larger area than.it does now. According to Herodotus lions were found as far to the west as Macedonia and the prevalence of the

[FLORA AND FAUM

representation of the lion in monuments of Asia Minor and Peri is proof to some extent, that the animal was well known. Yt stil

survives in Cutch but has lost its mane and is on the way to e tinction in Asia. As there is no word for the elephant and representation of it in the more western part of Asia or in Europe it is clear that this animal also was unknown. of the tiger and the camel and the ass.

The same is try

In Asia the comma

beast of burden was the ass. The horse, though known in Mes. potamia from the time of Hammurabi before 2000 B.c., owesiis introduction to the Kassite invasion of 1926 B.c., and was called the mountain ass. Palaeolithic man was able to represent in his drawings two species or varieties of horse. The name of the coy has the same origin in almost all the languages and the samejs true of the sheep, the pig, the dog and the mouse; but in they wild state the same environment is not suitable to all. The horg is an animal of the prairie; it lives in the open plain and the foi is able from the day of its birth to accompany the mare. The coy, on the other hand, in the wild state lives in countries with opm spaces well provided with woods or clumps of trees. When the

cow travels afield to find food, the calf is unable to accompany

her and has to be hidden in some brake or thicket, as it can walk but feebly and its eyesight is still imperfect. Unless it were s

hidden it would fall a prey to animals like wolves or eagles, both of which seem to have been known to the first Indo-Europeans. The grass which suits horses or cows is unsuitable for sheep which prefer the short crisp grass of upland pasture. If, therefore, all these animals were well known to the early Indo-Europeans they must have lived in an area where the landscape was diversified The country seems to have no connection with the sea; the more widely.spread meanings of the word for the sea are either moor or marsh. That open water was known is shown by the fact that there were words for water birds, the swan, the goose and probably the duck, but all of these could find a resting place in very small sheets of water. From what has been said, it will be clear that the Indo-Europeans must originally have lived in the temperate zone. The bear was known, but which species we cannot tell. It is well known that the name “bruin” meant the brown bear, being cognate with the Lithuanian word béras, for the Lithw anian word is used as an adjective meaning brown. Other animals known were the beaver and the hare, the word for the beaver being generally a reduplicated form from the same stem as the word for the bear and the hare, meaning originally the grey beast. Its origin was the same as that of the Latin adjective canus from an older cas-nos.

Flora.—The trees and other plants are not so easy to identify because it is found that when men migrate to a new area, they carry with them the names of plants and, to some extent, also of animals and apply them to plants or animals in the new area which bear some resemblance to the plants or animals they have left

behind. Thus in England the oriental plane, so well known in Asia Minor and Persia as the Chinar, grows only with difficulty north of the Trent and in northern Scotland not at all. But the name plane is preserved, notwithstanding, and applied to the

sycamore which resembles the plane in being an umbrageous tree

and having a leaf somewhat similar. In the same way, the Eng lish in America have given the name of robin to a much larger bird, because it has a red breast. The trees most widely spread in the temperate zone are the willow and the birch. The birch extends from the British Isles to the farthest Himalayas. Some variety of willow is the first tree to grow near streams in à

country like Siberia which has not long been freed from surface

ice. On the other hand, some of the commoner trees, like the beech, do.not

penetrate

far into the southern

peninsulas of

Europe. The consequence is that in Greece the word correspond ing to beech in English and to fagus in Latin, means oak or some times possibly chestnut. In the same way in Latin the word cog nate with the English birch is used for the ash, fraxinus. pine in some of its numerous forms was also certainly known. |

Cereals and Seasons.—More important, perhaps, for the his

tory of the race, is the existence of cereals.

Within histori

times, only two new cereals have been introduced into Europé, rice and maize,.though a plant of another kind, buckwheat, ws

MIGRATION]

INDO-EUROPEANS

brought in by the Tatars and has received its name because its

fruit was ground, and treated as a cereal. Many attempts have been made to connect the Greek oryza with the Sanskrit vrzhi, which in modern Persian appears as birinj. But traffic down the Red Sea was mostly with southern India and the simpler explanation is to connect the Greek word with the Tamil, arishi. The early

names for grain are very ambiguous. The word corn connotes in

England wheat, in Scotland oats, in Sweden barley, in Germany rye and in America maize. The most widely spread name for a cereal is that which appears in Sanskrit as yava, in Greek as zéa

or seid, the latter a derivative of the former, in Lithuanian jawat.

It may have meant originally barley, but is also used for spelt, a simple and ancient form of wheat, which, as being such, was long

262

what is now the intervening desert, but also passing still further to the east to a distance which is not yet clearly determined. Scholars often talk lightly also of great hordes passing the Caucasus. This also would be very difficult to achieve. According to early Greek notions the Caucasus was a barrier without openings through it and in fact at the present day there is but one, the Pass of Dariel. Historical migrations, in fact, have taken place much more readily across Asia Minor than across the Steppes. The

main movement from Asia into Europe which went north of the Caucasus was in early times that of the Scythians and in mediaeval times that of the Hungarians. That the migration of the IndoEuropeans was through Asia Minor is proved by the discovery in

1906-07 of a large mass of records dating from the rsth and r4th centuries B.c., at Boghaz Keui, an important site east of the The names for the seasons of the year help us somewhat. There river Halys. Here were discovered the archives of the ancient are words widely spread for winter and for snow. The stem Hittite empire, recorded in eight languages of which two have a hima is found in the name of the Himalayas (“the abode of certain Indo-European element in them. The most important is Snow") and in the Greek kheima with its adjective duskhimos, the called Kanisian by Dr. Emil Forrer, who has been very successLatin hiems and many others. We do not use a word from its ful in their decipherment. The grammar of this language, its root for winter ourselves; but notwithstanding we have a word noun and verb forms, are clearly Indo-European; but only a small borrowed from the Norse and much used by Cumberland shep- part of its vocabulary is so, the main part coming from an unherds, gimmer, a winterling or sheep one year old. There is less known tongue. The first records of this language which were disagreement about the other seasons but there is a fairly widely covered came not from this find at Boghaz Keui, but from two spread word for spring. In many countries summer is simply the letters discovered many years before, in the archives of Ikhnaton hot season. For harvest the languages do not agree very well; (g.v.), the heretic king of Egypt at Tell-el-Amarna. The mixture the Latin auctumnus is simply the “season of increase,” which we of two languages might be compared to what has happened in have introduced into English as autumn. The word harvest is English where the pronouns, the numerals and the few remaining probably the season of fruit gathering, not of corn harvest, the inflections of noun and verb are Teutonic but the bulk of the two being still distinguished in German as Herbst, the fruit har- vocabulary is of Latin, or of Greek origin. The forms of this vest, and ernte, the reaping time. Snow was certainly known be- language, particularly in the names of certain deities, and of the cause the stem is found in so many languages, but with lofty numerals were so like those of Sanskrit that the first investimountains in the neighbourhood that might well be, even in a gators were of opinion that either the records proceeded from hot climate; from the names of the animals and plants, however, Indians advancing westwards, or that the original home of the as we have seen, the climate was temperate and if it was a con- Indo-Europeans must once more be carried back to central Asia, tinental climate as, from the absence of words for sea, it appar- where it had been located by some of the early authorities. A ently was, the climate might be severe, even if it were tolerably difficulty was found in the fact that the existing remains of the far south. The areas that will satisfy the conditions require a ancient languages of Persia—Zend and old Persian—as repreland with a temperate climate, remote from the sea and shut sented in the dialects of the Avesta and the kindred tongue of off from other areas, for otherwise it seems impossible that Darius’ inscriptions at Behistun were so much less archaic in languages with so complicated a grammatical system as the Indo- sounds than either the forms of these records or of Sanskrit. The European could have developed, bearing so close a resemblance to explanation, however, is simple. When the speakers of Sanskrit one another and on the whole so strongly differentiated from other passed over the mountains into a new country, they found themlanguages. The only area which will satisfy the conditions postu- selves faced by powerful tribes more numerous than themselves lated by the languages is the great area in Europe which includes and speedily realized that if they were not to be absorbed, they practically the former empire of Austria-Hungary. In this area must stand aloof from mixture with the native tribes. Hence the are found rich corn land, great prairies for the production of beginning of the system of caste in India, for the Sanskrit word horses, pasture for cattle in the plains and for sheep on the for caste" means colour. The changes found in the language left mountain slopes, while the mountains themselves contain a large behind in Persia must have taken place after the migration of the supply of minerals which were later utilised by man. But when emigrants to India. This is not at all unusual. In the 16th centhe migrations from this centre began, the use of metals had not tury important changes took place in Spanish, but these changes advanced very far, the only word for metal common to many were not shared by those who had already established Spanish in languages being that which appears in Sanskrit as ayas, in Latin America. The English settlers of New England carried with them as aes and in English as ore. The word at the time of the migra- the forms zoos for news and Toosday for Tuesday, because the y tion meant either copper or bronze which sometimes, as in Greek, sound before v had not developed when these settlers left England. ate not distinguished, the first bronze probably being a natural If the original home of the Indo-Europeans is really located in alloy. From what has been said it is clear that much could be Austria-Hungary, we should expect a considerable number of the done on this subject by the geographers. Indo-Europeans to have been pile-dwellers. For this country had Migration.—Even when we have found a people using a cer- at one time much more water in it than it has now, when the tain vocabulary, it is necessary to discover, if they migrated from Platten See, a shallow marshy lake, is all that remains of what was their original habitat, in what manner it was possible or probable at one time a vast expanse of slowly drying morass. That there thatthey did migrate. It is, for example, a common belief that were amongst them many pile-dwellers, we can be certain, bemigration from Europe to Asia or the reverse, was carried on cause they carried into Switzerland and into Italy for the western largely by the steppes of Southern Russia, the shores of the Cas- migrations, the same form of habitation, and gradually extended it pan and Turkistan. In ancient times, however, progress in this further to the West. direction would not have been so easy as it is to-day. In the Anthropology.—What manner of men were these emiSpan area very large and important changes in the earth’s grants? In Germany many scholars contend that they were tall surface have taken place. The eastern end of the Caucasus, for men. with fair hair and blue eyes and they attribute to the Indo-

used in religious ritual.

example, has sunk till it is now far below the level of the Caspian.

The northern Caspian is steadily being filled up by silt from the Volga, In earlier times, it extended much further north than it does atpresent, while eastwards its extent was very much greater, Including within its area not only the present Sea of Aral and

Europeans all the characteristics of the ideal German.

For this,

however, there is no solid foundation. It is said by these scholars that when Homer talks of xanthos Menelaos, this should be translated “yellow haired Menelaos.” This translation, however, is not accurate. To a Greek xanthos did not mean blond, but brown,

INDO-EUROPEANS

264

as is clearly shown from the use of the verb, which signifies “to change the colour of meat in roasting,” so that the colour would not have been lighter than auburn. In fact, when the Greeks came in contact with German children they did not know how to describe the colour of their hair and said they had hair like old men and described them as polioz, “with grey hair.” The anthropologists at one time maintained that the IndoEuropeans had long heads as distinct from other people with short heads. The mixture, however, of long and short heads is not a new thing. As Sir Arthur Keith points out (Antiquity of Man, vol. i. p. 110 [1925]), the antiquary, Dr. R. R. Schmidt, found at Ofnet, fifty miles south-west of Nuremberg, a large

[LANGUAGES

for this distinction are not certainly known and the distinction did not mark a deep difference between the languages at an earlier period, because the Greek, which is a k language, resembles in its syntax Sanskrit, which is a ¢ language, more than any other. The

two series are generally named from the word for 100, in Latin centum (kentum), in Zend satem. The languages which preserye the guttural are centum languages, those which change it intoa

sibilant are sutem languages. Thus the Greek kudn “dog,” Latin

canis, appears in Sanskrit as cvà (7) and in Lithuanian as szuj The chief centum languages are (1) Greek, in three distinct groups of dialects, Aeolic, Ionic and Doric, with more archaic forms in Arcadian and Cyprian. (2) Latin and the other Italic languages of number of skulls of the Azilian epoch (a period linking up palaeo- Italy, Oscan in Campania and the South, Umbrian on the East of lithic with neolithic times), some of which were long and others the Apennines. (3) The Celtic languages, which fall into two short. There is no reason to suppose that the Indo-Europeans had groups according to their treatment of an original combination of only one type of skull. No records lead us to suppose that we can a guttural with a w sound like the English qu. One group changes trace the Indo-Europeans back more than ten thousand years. In qu into » (ancient Gaulish, Welsh, Cornish, Breton), the other earlier Europe there were peoples of different types, some of à represents gu by c (Irish and its descendants, Scotch Gaelic and physical frame now confined to the natives of South Africa, others Manx of the Isle of Man). Thus, corresponding to Latin quis is with features akin to those of native Australians, and others again Irish cia and Welsh pwy. (4) The Teutonic or Germanic lan. of types which no longer exist. The Basque language in the Pyre- guages which fall into three groups: (a) Gothic, (b) Norse (Dannees is a last relic of languages which preceded the Indo-European ish, Norwegian, Icelandic, Swedish), (c) West Germanic, including in the west of Europe; and the characteristics of colouring, hair English, Frisian, Dutch and Flemish, Low and High German, and eyes of natives of western Britain and western Ireland, which The most distinctive feature of this group is the “sound shifting” Huxley called Iberian, are probably the relics of this population which the stop consonants and s have undergone, and which are which has been almost absorbed. In Persia, on the other hand, catalogued under the action of “Grimm’s Law” and “Verner's a short, very dark people (negrito), which survives only in the Law,” in the treatment of Teutonic languages. (5) Very remote extreme south-west of Asia, apparently preceded the Indo-Euro- from these four sections which are all in Europe, is Tocharish, pean stock. The value of the relation of length to breadth of presumably the language of migrants from somewhere much farhead, to which the elder Retzius first referred, has been much ther to the west, though the records of this now extinct language exaggerated, for the total content must be of more importance are found in Chinese Turkestan. (6) The Indo-European section than the relation of length to breadth. As has been emphasized of the Hittite languages (see above). The satem languages are (1) in northern India Sanskrit and its in recent years by Mr. Griffith Taylor, the height of the braindescendants, and in Persia and its adjacent countries the ancient pan is worthy of consideration. Pottery.—Still more recently the subject has been attacked dialects called Iranian, viz., Zend (of the Avesta), Old Persian, from another point of view. In r9o2 Professor Kossinna of Sogdian and North Iranian; Sanskrit and Iranian together form Berlin undertook to show that pottery would.be a more certain the Aryan branch properly so-called, though in England the word index to the history of peoples than any of the other methods pro- has often been applied wrongly to mean Indo-European, (2) Armeposed. But in the quarter of a century which has since elapsed, nian, (3) Slavonic in its numerous dialects and Baltic (LithvProfessor Kossinna has withdrawn almost all the statements which anian, Lettish, and Old Prussian, which is now extinct), (4) Al he then made and his proposed new treatment of the Indo-Euro- banian, more probably the descendant of the Ancient Thracian peans has stuck fast after one part was published. That, however, than of the-Ancient Illyrian which occupied in part the same area. evidence will be forthcoming from this side is certain. But a good The relation of Illyrian to the Ancient Venetic, once spoken north deal more has still to be done in identifying the makers of par- of the Po and to the Ancient Messapian spoken in the heel of ticular types of pottery before this clue can be regarded as of Italy, is not yet definitely ascertained. The other important more value than any of the others. At present the best chance of language of Italy, Etruscan, did not belong to this family, but progress lies in the possibility of dating positively, and linking up seems to have been related to Ancient Lydian and other languages with the linguistic evidence, the results which can be derived from of the Levant now extinct. (See also articles on HrrTITES; ÅRthe “Bell-beaker Civilization” and the Megalithic graves which YANS; MIGRATIONS, and separate articles on various languages.) O. Schrader, Antiquities: Indo-European BrsrioGRAPHY —(i.) extend very nearly over the same area which was covered by the (3rd ed., 1907) ; Reallexikon dtr Urgeschichte und. Sprachvergleichung early migrations of the Indo-Europeans. The probability is that indogermanischen Altertumskunde (2 vols., 2nd ed., 1917-26); H. the Indo-Europeans and their civilization arose from the mixture Hirt, Die Indogermanen (2 vols., 1905, 1907); S. Feist, Kultur, of two earlier types, a Mediterranean and a Northern type. But Ausbreitung und Herkunft der Indogermanen (1913), Indogermanen Schuchhardt in the second edition of his Alteuropa (1926) goes und Germanen (3rd ed., 1924), and Germanen und Kelten in der (1921); further and boldly assigns (p. 282) the Indo-Europeans to a mix- antiken Ueberlieferung (1927) ; A. Carnoy, Les Indo-Européens Dawn of European Civilization (1925), and The Childe, Gordon V. ture of the Germans coming from the north and the Celts from The Aryans (1926); Carl Schuchhardt, Alteuropa (and ed., 1926); the Danube area, a stock in Thiiringen possibly first “indoger- Sir G. A. Grierson, Linguistic Survey of India, vol. i. part i. (1927). manizing” north Germany by settlement and south Germany by The best book of reference for prehistoric antiquities is Max Ebert, conquest. To this he has added (Sitzungsberichte der preuss- Reallexikon der Vorgeschichte (1924 etc., S~Z still unpublished).

ischen Akademie, Feb. 16, 1928) that it was the conquest by the

Thiiringians of South Germany and Switzerland that created the Celtic stock; the Thiiringians afterwards wandered to the Danube and were thus the original stock of the Indo-European people.

Language

Classification.—Leaving

these

archaeological

points to be definitely decided by future investigation, we may classify the Indo-European languages according to their connections. The Indo-European languages fall into two groups distinguished from one another by their treatment of certain guttural sounds. In one group, lying mainly in Europe, these sounds remain as k, g, kh and gh, whereas in the other group they change into some form of sibilant ç, z and the aspirated sounds either drop the aspiration and are treated as k or g, or appear as k. The causes

Grundriss der (i) Indo-European Languages: K. Brugmann, vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen (and ed,

1897-1916),

of which

a small additional part has been published

since the author’s death in 1919; a.shorter work by the same author is Kurze vergleichende Grammatik (in 3 parts, 1902-04), dealing only with the more important languages; H. Hirt, Indogermanische Grammatik (the first four vols., only, are published, 1921-28) ; A. Meillet,

Introduction

à l'étude

comparative

des langues

Indo-Européents

(1903, now in the sth ed.), and Les dialectes indo-européens (1908).

The comparative grammar of Latin and Greek is often treated separately, as by A. Meillet et J. Vendryes, Traité de grammaire comparte

des langues classiques (1924) ; P. Giles, A Manual of Comparative Phil-

ology for Classical Students (3rd ed. in preparation). A complete bibliography of recent publications appears annually in the Indoger-

manisches Jahrbuch begun by A. Thumb and W. Sc t

265

INDOLE—INDONESIA INDOLE

(BENZOPYRROLE),

first prepared

by A. | flakes were selected for further fashioning and the rest were

Baeyer in 1866 and regarded by him as the parent substance of thrown away. Among the implements were scrapers, points and

indigo.

It crystallizes

in colourless lustrous leaflets, melts at

52° C, boils at 253-2 54° C, is readily volatile in steam and easily soluble in water, alcohol, ether or benzene. Its odour is generally faecal, but after careful purification and in sufficient dilution indole possesses a not unpleasant odour of flowers.

Accordingly

it finds a limited application in perfumery. Indole occurs in the coal-tar fraction (see Coat Tar), boiling at 220-260° C; after removal of phenols and strong bases the oil is treated with sodium or sodamide to form sodium indole, which is separated mechanically and decomposed by water. It is synthesized by boiling

dichloroether, CH.C1-CH Cl-OC2Hs, with aniline and water, or by heating ethylaniline to redness. These reactions indicate its constitution (L).

CH (L)

/\/ A

C(CH;) S`" Pa

NH

SNZ V

\ ES

(IL.)

NH

Scotole (3-methylindole; IL.) occurs in human faeces, of which itis the chief volatile constituent; it melts at 95? C and boils at 265-6? C.

two-edged, more seldom one-edged knives. Especially numerous were stone arrow-heads, partly with dented edges, partly barbed. Dented stone flakes of scale-like shape were probably inserted into wooden clubs like those now used by the Toala with metal flakes. Spindle or prick-shaped arrow-heads of bone or the teeth of the wild boar were probably used, the one end serving for a point, the other one for a barb as in the South Seas and America. Small whistles were manufactured of long and phalangeal bones; pieces of shells were used as scrapers and scratchers. Perforated fragments of human bones were probably worn as amulets.

Re-

mains of domestic animals and cultivated plants are completely absent. The dog perhaps was known. All the animal species remains of which have been found in the caves still live in Celebes. Most of the stone implements of Lamontjong at first sight resemble those of late European palaeolithic times, especially the Magdalenian, but were manufactured in a far more primitive way. The barbed arrow-heads, however, show a form which, in other parts of the globe, only occurs in neolithic times. The culture

of the cave-dwellers of Lamontjong was probably influenced by some neighbouring neolithic civilization. A fragment of an

earthen pot was found in the ash layer. The occurrence of stone

INDONESIA, a term used to indicate the group of islands

arrow-heads in the caves is also remarkable since the bow is almost unknown at present in Celebes, and with this sole exception stone arrow-heads are not/found among the prehistoric finds of Indonesia and Indo-China. Since barbed arrow-heads are frequent

physical characteristics which are easily recognizable. (See Ethnology.) Geographically the term Indonesia comprises eight insular areas: (x) Madagascar, (2) the Sumatra group, (3) the

in the neolithic period of Japan, and arrow-heads of stone are

variously known as the East Indian archipelago, the East Indies and Philippine islands, etc. In Ethnologic usage the term relates to a family speaking languages of a well defined type, and having

northern part of the Malacca peninsula, (4) Java, Madura and

Bali, (5) Celebes, (6) Borneo, (7) the Philippines and (8) the

said to have been used in the Philippine islands as late as the 17th century, these implements may be regarded as remnants of an ancient cultural current that in the neolithic period may have come from Japan through the Philippines as far as Celebes. In

islands east of long. 120° E. The basis of the classification is any case this contact must have been but slight. The culture of mainly linguistic, and the Indonesian language family has supplied Lamontjong is therefore a culture of hunters and collectors of many of the links between Polynesian, Melanesian and Micro- natural produce with a palaeolithic base and a slight neolithic nesian speech-systems. For the geography, etc., of Indonesia, touch. The stone implements were immediately covered by a very recent layer with iron implements and fragments of china. The se the articles under headings 1—7 above and PACIFIC ISLANDS. S present Toala may be considered the direct descendants of the Xa anthropology see Asra; Anthropology and Ethnology, $ stone-age cave-dwellers. In the cave of Ulu Tjanko in the basin of the River Djambi, in ARCHAEOLOGY

In Indonesia there have been found remnants of human types and cultures still represented in Australia and the Pacific. The skull fragments found by Earl in a shell-mound in the Province of Wellesley on the west cost of the Malay Peninsula were described by Huxley as Australoidic. Skulls of Melanesian type were excavated in the caverns of Tongking by Mansuy and his collaborators. The skulls and fragmentary skeletons of a man and a woman, discovered by Van Riedschoten and Dubois in 1889 and 1890 in a mountain slope above Lake Rawa Bening near Wadjak in eastern Java, belong to a dolichocephalic tall race thoroughly different from the present inhabitants of Java and

resemble the skulls of recent Australians. Dubois therefore terms the Wadjak men “Proto-Australians.” PALAEOLITHIC

PERIOD

The term palaeolithic is not used here as indicating that the

palaeolithic civilizations of south-eastern Asia are of the same age as those of Europe. All the palaeolithic finds as yet known from Indonesia belong to the geological present. The Palaeolithic Culture in Celebes and Sumatra.—The Lamontjong caves are situated in the interior of the south-western

peninsula of Celebes, about 6okm. east of Makassar in the territories of the Toala, a tribe now tilling the soil, though they prob-

ably lived till recently by hunting and collection of natural

products. The caves were discovered and examined in 1902 and

1903 by Paul and Fritz Sarasin. In five of them the ash stratum forming the ground contained remnants of game animals, imple-

ments of stone, bone, teeth and shells. The stone implements (mostly of quartzite, andesite, limestone, only exceptionally flint) betray a very crude manufacture. The whole stone lump was caused to burst with a blow after which the few suitably splintered

central Sumatra, Dr. Tobler found a palaeolithic dwelling containing remnants of food and skeletal fragments, apparently of a slender-framed race, a number of implements manufactured of obsidian, especially knives and points of different size, and some scrapers. Typologically this Sumatra palaeolithic culture is connected with that of the Toala caves of Celebes, yet differs from it by the diverse material, the better working of the stone, the lack of the barbed and dented arrow-heads and of any perceptible neolithic influence. In both cases we have “point and blade civilizations” with rather small implements, which cannot, however, be called microliths. They are radically different from the coup-de-poing culture of India, in spite of local differences, but are probably related to the stone-age culture of Ceylon and that discovered by Nótling and Swinhoe at Yenangyaung in Upper Burma. This late palaeolithic point and blade culture must have been once widely spread over broad areas in southern Asia, possibly propagated by the small and cymotrichous race now surviving in small, scattered remnants like the Veddah, Sakai, Toala, etc. The

Coup-de-Poing

Culture

of Sumatra.—A

culture

of

different character has lately been discovered by Dr. van Stein Callenfels in the country around Medan and Deli in the eastern division of north Sumatra. It is characterized by crude implements of almond-like, elliptical or pointed-oblong shape. These coups-de-poing and pick-axes are mostly manufactured by work-

ing a stone nodule with blows on only one side, the other side showing the natural unworked surface. On account of its frequency in Sumatra Dr. van Stein Callenfels termed this type which also occurs on the Indo-Chinese mainland, the Sumatra

type.

Traces of this civilization were found along the river

courses of eastern Sumatra. In a shell mound in the neighbourhood of Medan examined in 1925-26, the stratum containing the

INDONESIA

266

coups-de-poing was immediately covered by another one containing iron weapons of types identical with those still used today in northern Sumatra though somewhat old-fashioned. This north Sumatra coup-de-poing palaeolithic culture which began at the latest about sooo B.C. lasted up to a late time, and was succeeded by a culture already acquainted with iron. This Sumatra culture is closely related to that from the oldest cave strata of the Malay Peninsula and Tongking, where the palaeoliths and coups-de-poing worked exclusively on one side are found in great number, but together with so-called protoneoliths, roughly worked or even unworked stone axes with ground edges. Since these protoneoliths are missing in Sumatra, Stein Callenfels regards this Sumatra culture as an earlier stage of the continental one, brought to Sumatra by a tribal and cultural wave still ignorant of stone-grinding. These coup-de-poing cultures of Sumatra and Indo-China belong probably to a great group of related late palaeolithic and mesolithic cultures once widely spread over large parts of the globe. ;

The “Horn and Bone Civilization” of Java.—A third, ap-

parently preneolithic civilization of Indonesia was discovered in 1926 by Engineer van Es near Sampung, Residency of Madiun, Java, in a cave on the slope of Volcano Lawu. The very thick layer contained two skeletons of a tall-grown' race (1-7om. to 1-80m.) interred as lying squatters, numerous implements of horn and bone (arrow-heads, fishing-hooks, etc.), grinding stones that had served for grinding ruddle, thousands of unworked fragments of silex, jasper and agate, but no worked stone implement. THE NEOLITHIC PERIOD

The number of neolithic objects in the museums is very large, almost exclusively stone axes found by chance. About pottery, as yet practically nothing is known. Most of the megalithic monuments undoubtedly belong to the metal periods. The neolithic cultures of Indonesia may be divided by local criteria. Eastern Indonesia and the Philippine Islands.—The neolithic period of eastern Indonesia (Celebes, Moluccas, Little Sunda islands, South-west and South-east islands) is characterized by two types of stone axes'(a) somewhat clumsy broad-necked axes having the shape of a short rectangle or trapezium, often approaching the quadrate and square in the transverse section; (b) narrow or pointed-neck axes with lenticular or oval transverse section. The second type is very frequent in ancient Europe, is characteristic of the neolithic period of India, occurs, though seldom, in Japan, and is still present in New Guinea and Melanesia, directly derived from the ancient forms of east Indonesia. It is not known how this type came into Eastern Indonesia as, except there and in Borneo, it is not known in Indonesia or further India. It may be due to influences from India, or, with

the stone arrow-heads of the Toala caves, to a cultural current from Japan. The occurrence of ancient stone hooks reminiscent of the magatama of the Japanese neolithic period possessed by some Dayaks in Borneo might thus be explained. As is shown by the shouldered celts found in Formosa the neolithic culture of this island must at some time have been in close connection with that of Indo-China. The existence of stone axes is however proved with certainty at least for Mindanao and the Visayas.

Two such axes from a cave on the Island of Masbate have been published with illustrations. Of oblong-rectangular shape they resemble certain Indo-Chinese stone-axes more than those from Indonesia. In the same place numerous pottery fragments decorated with scratched waving lines and points were found. It is, however, impossible to say with certainty, whether they were coeval with the stone implements. Western Indonesia.—The oldest neolithic type of western Indonesia, especially of Java, according to Stein Callenfels seems to be a broad-necked axe the two broad sides of which have a swell whereas the narrow sides frequently do not show a single plane but several narrow ones joining at greater or smaller angles. This axe is about as thick as it is broad. Java has furnished by far most of the neolithic material, due partly to her dense population and very extensive agriculture as the occasions for finds are thus multiplied. The neolithic civilization there seems to

[NEOLITHIC PERIQp

have reached a very high level, as shown by the beauty and perfect working of the implements of the late neolithic period, whic are frequently made of precious stones: jasper, chalcedony, lydite opal, agate. Especially characteristic of Java are thin flat-azp. of oblong trapezium-shape, mostly with distinct side-planes ang frequently with chisel-like edge of one-sided bevel. Frequently one side is convex, the other concave so as to make the who, head longitudinally crooked. All these types which also occur Sumatra, show a certain resemblance to those of the Malay Peninsula and of Upper Laos. It thus seems that in late neolithi times a cultural and perhaps also tribal wave spread from the region of Luang Prabang on the Mekong southwards over Sian

and the Malay Peninsula as far as Java. Besides these flat-axes and adzes, gouges also occur in Java. The most characteristic type however, probably found exclusively in Western Indonesia, are the pick-axes. On their upper side either they have a swell o show two planes sloping like a roof from a middle ridge. Th transverse section may be semi-circular, triangular or pentangy. lar according as they have side-planes or not. The upper side js frequently convex, the under side sometimes concave, thus mak. ing the axe head longitudinally crooked. The edge always forms a point. On the under side it is frequently ground hollow. Such pick-axes are also known from Bali and the southern half of Sumatra. Neolithic Cultural Provinces and Chronology.—In th Malay Peninsula another kind of pick-axe occurs the upper side of which is for the most part flat and is ground to a point only

in front. The under side is always flat and sometimes ground hollow at the edge. Since the neolithic civilization of the Malay Peninsula is in other respects very closely related to that of Upper Laos (region of Luang Prabang), it represents perhaps a transition or a mixture of the stone-age civilization of Indo-China and Western Indonesia. The south of the Malay Peninsula is dis

tinctly opposed to the remaining part of Indo-China by the lack of shouldered celts and by the occurrence of the pick-axes mentioned. Thus the south of the peninsula belongs rather to Indonesia than to Indo-China. .The division between the territories of the neolithic axe-types of Eastern and Western Indonesia, seems to correspond with the division between the East and West Indonesian languages and represents to-day the limit of distribution of many important cultural elements. In Borneo Eastern as well as Westem Im donesian axe-types (also pick-axes) are found side by side, and the Dayak languages are intermediate between those of Eastern and Western Indonesia. Thus the present distribution of tribes and languages in Indonesia goes in substance back to the neolithic period, at least therefore to the first millennium B.c. More accurate criteria for the chronology of the Indonesian neo lithic period are derived from the distribution of the Indo-Chinese shouldered celts.

The distribution of these celts closely agrees

with that of the Austro-Asiatic languages and from that it i to be inferred that they belonged to the cultural inventory of the ancient Austro-Asiatics (Mon-Khmer). They are found m Indo-China (except the south of the Malay Peninsula) in Assam,

Orissa, Chota Nagpur, in the Santal Parganas and near Allaha-

bad, in regions of India in which Mon-Khmer or Munda (AustroAsiatic) languages are either spoken to-day or once were spoken.

There was probably a tribal migration starting from Indo-China,

hardly later than between 1500 to 1000 B.c. Since the shouldered celt is missing in Indonesia and the south of the Malay Peninsula,

we may infer that the separation of the Austronesians (Malayo Polynesians) from the Austro-Asiatics (Mon-Khmer) and also their migration to Indonesia took place at a time when the shouldered celt had not yet been developed, that is about from 2000 to 1500 B.c., though it may have happened earlier. Since

the late phases of the Indonesian neolithic period are ascribable

to these migrations, we must suppose a considerably greater: age for the earlier phases. The stone-age appears to have terminated at very different times in the different parts of Indonesia. In Western Indonesa

(Java, Sumatra) the foundation of Indian expansion and rule commenced at the latest in the second century a.D., perhaps

INDONESIAN

AND

FURTHER

earlier. Yet it is almost certain that mining and the manufacture

of iron were known there before the arrival of the Hindus.

Traces of a bronze age spread to the remotest east of the archipelago, and are especially numerous in Sumatra, Java, Celebes and Sumba. Therefore it is probable that in some parts of Indonesia the neolithic period had terminated in pre-Christian times. In other parts, however, it appears to have lasted much longer. The working of metals has not yet been fully established in every

part of Indonesia, and the use of implements of stone, bone, wood and bamboo still survives.

INDIAN

ART

267

replaced the Pyus and absorbed the Talaings. Pagan became an independent cultural centre, but very few of its countless temples and stupas date before the r1th century. It is only with the unification of Burma under Anawrata (104077) that the great building era was initiated, which covered the Pagàn plain with some 5,000 pagodas, as the Buddhist temples and stupas are commonly called. Anawrata conquered Thaton and brought Hinayana traditions to the north. The quantity of sculpture extant is not very great, and all that is of real importance dates from the rith to the 13th century. The finest is the great series of 81 reliefs depicting the life of Buddha according to the

BricRAPHY.—A. B. Meyer und O. Richter, Steinzeit in Celebes (Abhandlungen und Berichte des Königlichen Zoologischen und Avidura Nidana, set up in the Ananda Pagoda (11th century); aniAnthropologisch-Ethnographischen Museums zu Dresden vol. x., No. 6, mated and exceedingly elegant, they exhibit already the develop1603, bibl); Paul und Fritz Sarasin, Reisen in Celebes (Wiesbaden, nent of a definitely Burmese style, distinct from the earlier, almost 190%); Paul und Fritz Sarasin, Die Toala-Hohlen von Lamonijong (Wiesbaden, 1905); H. H. Juynboll, Katalog des Ethnographischen purely Gupta tradition. The Brahmanical reliefs of the Nat

Reichsmuseums, vol. v., Javanische Altertiimer (Leyden, 1909, bibl.) ;

Hlaung Gyaung are somewhat more Indian. Most of the smaller bronzes and stone reliefs are very closely related to examples of the Pala school of Bihar and Bengal, and some may have been lungen der Naturforschenden Gesellschaft in Basel, vol. xxv., 1914) ; direct importations. A noteworthy phase of Burmese sculpture W. D. Smith, “Ancient Cave Dwellers of Batwaan, Masbate, Philippine is represented by the large series of high relief glazed terracotta I. H. N. Evans, “On a Collection of Stone Implements from the

Tempassuk District, British North Borneo” (Man, vol. xiii., 1913); P. Sarasin, Neue lithochrone Funde im Innern von Sumatra (Verhand-

Islands” (The Philippine Journal of Science, vol. xix., 1921); P. V. van Stein Callenfels, Bijdrage tot de Chronologie van het Neolithicum is Zuid-Oost Azie (Oudheidkundige Dienst in Nederlandsch-Indie, Oudheidkundig Verslag 1926); R. Heine-Geldern, “Die Steinzeit Südostasiens” (Mitteilungen der Anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien, vol lvii, 1927, bibl); R. Heine-Geldern, *Ein Beitrag zur

Chronologie des Neolithikums in Südostasien" (P. W. Schmidt-Fest(R. H.-G.) schrift, 1928, bibl).

INDONESIAN AND FURTHER INDIAN ART. Toa certain extent, and in a broad historical survey, all of Further India or Indo-China (Burma, Siam, Malay peninsula, Cambodia, Campa and Indonesia [Sumatra, Java, and Bali]) may be treated as a unit. Throughout this area the population consists essentially of Sino-Tibetan races who have occupied the river valleys (Irawadi, Salween, Menam, Mekong) and islands by successive migrations from prehistoric times to the 14th century; throughcut this area Indian cultural influences began to be felt before or about the beginning of the Christian era, and by the 4th century AD. or even earlier, Hindu kingdoms had been established in each area, using Sanskrit as an official language and a south Indian alphabet as official script. Sculpture and architecture, Hindu or Buddhist, of sth to 7th or 8th century date are closely related to contemporary or slightly earlier Indian types, especially those of eastern, central, and western India in the Gupta period; Indian Sipasdstras must have been in use, and Indian master-craftsmen at work, though local characteristics are already recognizable. After this period there develops in each area a local national culture, with an art somewhat less closely dependent on that of India; these several classical arts, in the period a.D. 800 to the 13th century, have so much stylistic originality as to make the designation “Indian

plaques, which decorate the Schwezigon,

Petleik, Ananda

and

other pagodas, and illustrate Jüzakas; the art seems to have been introduced from the south. Several of the Pagàn temples contain contemporary paintings. Those of the Kubezatpaya and Kubyaukkyi, illustrating Jatakas, consist of small square panels closely grouped, but here and elsewhere there are separate representations of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas on a larger scale. The Minnanthu frescoes illustrate the Tantrik Buddhism of the Ari sects, a mixture of Buddhism and Hinduism, often quite erotic in its symbolism. Frescoes in the Kyanzitthu cave temple represent undoubted Mongols, who invaded Burma at the end of the 13th century. The stylistic affinities of Burmese paintings are with Bengal and Nepal, as exemplified in well known manuscripts of 11th and r2th century date; the outline is wiry and nervous, the hair above the brow descends in a central point, the eyebrows and eyelids are doubly curved; the three-quarter face is often seen, and the markedly projecting farther eye recalls an Indian mannerism that appears already at

Elūrā and survives in the Gujarati painting of the r5th—r6th

other places; Pali inscriptions in a south Indian character and

centuries. After the 13th century the political conditions are more disturbed, the connection with India is not so intimate, and the sculpture and painting become more rigidly stylistic, until an art of purely folk character is developed, and this has survived into the roth century. Much of the best work in this kind has been done in wood; wood-carving, indeed, became the dominant art of Burma in later times; some of the best examples occur in the elaborate decoration of the wooden monasteries of Mandalay and Amarapura, and also in the ornament of river boats. Of the minor arts, Burma is famous for its lacquer, applied either architecturally or to small objects for personal or monastic use, the latter including books and book-covers. The smaller objects, baskets, etc., are made of finely plaited bamboo or horsehair; this foundation is varnished black, other colours are superposed, and by engraving revealed in the required designs. Much of the work is restricted to black and gold; other colours employed are red, green, and yellow. The designs may be geometrical or floral, or when more elaborate, may include figures of divinities or scenes from Jdtakas. Siam.—It is of primary importance to realize that the early art of the country now called Siam is not “Siamese,” but includes a variety of schools; the Thais or Siamese did not themselves come into possession of the Menam delta before the r3th century, and before this time it is impossible to speak justly of “Siamese”

gold and silver Buddha images in Gupta style have been dis-

art.

Colonial”: inappropriate.

Finally after 1300 the culture and art

in each area are either undermined by political disturbances, invasion, etc., or develop a provincial character; so far as it has

survived to the present day, typically, for example, in Bali, the artbecomes a folk-art, and as such deserves high respect and ad-

miration, though it lacks some of the force and monumental qualities of earlier periods.

Except in Burma, hardly any trace of

painting has survived, so that our account of the most important artistic developments in each area will be essentially a study of

2

ptu

the architecture having been treated in another

article. Burma.—The northern area, extending southward as far as

Old Prome (SrikSetra) was originally occupied by Pyus, the far south (Thaton) by Talaings, relatives of the Mon-Khmers. Indian colonies had been established in Arakan, Prome, Tháton, and

covered, and together with other remains, partly Hindu and

partly Buddhist, afford evidence of early and strong Indian influ-

ence. Burma, however, has always been predominantly Buddhist;

Mahayanist in the north, Hinayànist in the south. In the oth century the Talaings captured Prome and established a capital at old Pagan, farther north. Shan-Thai invasions followed, introducingtheancestors of the true modern Burmese, who have gradually

The designation "School of Dvàravati" applies to remains, mainly of 6th century, found at Brah Pathama (Prapathom), Labapuri, Phong Tuk and other sites around the north-west angle of the gulf of Siam, an area which constituted the Mon kingdom known to the Chinese as Kan To Li and Dvàravati. Among the sculptures are a finely decorated wheel (Dharmacakra) and standing and seated Buddha figures in stone and bronze, ail in a stylé

INDONESIAN

268

AND

FURTHER

INDIAN

ART

closely related to that of the Gupta period in India, as seen at |Ayuthia, cast probably in the 16th century, and still in situ, isa

Samath, Mathura, and Ajanta. Brahmanical figures include statues of Visnu with the cylindrical head-dress. All these types correspond in style and date with the “Khmer primitif” or preKhmer art of Cambodia. These early sculptures are usually made in a hard bluish limestone. The tradition of the school of Dvāravati must have persisted until the Khmer invasions of the rzth century, and can perhaps be traced even in the earliest works of the southern Siamese kingdom of Ayuthia. The sculptures from Ligor and Jaiyà, in the northern Malay peninsula, a part of the Siamese territory, are now preserved in the museum at Bangkok, but they are rightfully classified as be-

longing to the school of Srivijaya, and will be referred to below under Sumatra. Khmer influence is not felt until the beginning of the 11th century, with the foundation of a Khmer kingdom at Labapuri; to the Labapuri school belong the characteristic “Siamese” sculptures of Khmer type, dating from the 11th and 12th centuries. Most of these are executed, as in Cambodia, in sandstone; they are almost entirely Buddhist. The majority are somewhat inferior to the actual Cambodian works, but three at least (Coedés, Collections du Musée National, Plates XVIL-XXL.) are of superb quality, the most remarkable being the royal portrait said to be that of the legendary king Brahmadatta. In the sculpture of the Labapurl school the classical Khmer type with level brows and eyes, large mouth, and impassable serenity, is easily recognizable, but a certain provincial differentiation can be distinguished, for example in the rather longer and sharper nose, due perhaps already to a certain mixture with native or northern elements. Later Siamese art is in part founded on this Labapuri tradition, as modified by the northern Thai formulae. At this time, however, and up to the 13th century, Lambiin in the north remained under Mon rule, as is proved by inscriptions. Meanwhile Siamese (Thai) Buddhist art had been developing in the extreme north at Xieng Sen, to some extent under Indian Pala influences passing through Burma. Almost all the northern works are in bronze. The main characteristics are the bulky form, producing an almost feminine type, the arched brows, small mouth, and fleshy chin. About the same time a similar type appears in the far south at Ligor, a fact similarly referable to the widespread Pala influences exerted at this time. The classical Thai (Siamese) type was created by the independent kingdom of Sukhodaya (Sukothai-Sawankalok], which came into being only in the middle of the 13th century. It exaggerates the Xieng Sen formulae, but is more refined; it is in every way the opposite of the old Khmer type of Labapuri. The Siamese type established at Sukhodaya is characterized by markedly arched brows, doubly curving upwardly inclined eyelids, an aquiline or even hooked nose, and delicate sharply moulded lips. To this Sukhodaya school and its earliest southern prolongations belong all the finest examples of Siamese art properly so called. Simhalese influence can also be recognized, confirming literary evidences and tradition; for example, the terminal flame of the 255150, characteristic in Siamese art from this time onwards, is of Simhalese origin, and the engraved Ja£aka illustrations of Wat Si Jum at Sukhodaya, of high decorative beauty, but really drawings on stone rather than sculpture, show a decided affinity with the contemporary painting at Polonnàruwa in Ceylon. The Siamese formula extended rapidly to the lower Menam valley with the 'Thai advance, overlying and profoundly changing the Khmer art of Labapuri. The main developments are represented by the early transitional school of Ü Thong (late 13th and early r4th century) and the later school of Ayuthià from the middle of the 14th century. By this time, too, the Siamese formula is beginning to exert its influence even in Cambodia, Ayuthia remained the capital until 1757, the year of the foundation of Bangkok. The art of the Ayuthia period, often fine in technique and elegant in form, is on the whole that of a period of decadence; the plastic quality is gradually lost, the forms of the features are accentuated by outlines, and the modelling becomes at last inSensitive. But the bronze seated Buddha at Brah Mongkol Bopitr, *

magnificent figure, the largest bronze Buddha in the world, after

the Dai Butsu in Japan. Somewhat less interesting, dating fro,

the early 16th century, are the large brass statues of Siva and Visnu recently rediscovered at Kampeng Brej (Kampeng Phet): these illustrate an occasional tendency to "Khmerism" which ap pears sporadically even in true Siamese art. Siamese painting on walls and in illustrated manuscripts k hardly known by extant examples of earlier than 17th or 18th century date, but has a very definite ethnic character, and may he

considered ‘of high merit, regarded as a folk rather than as; classic art. Closely related to this painting is the excellent gold

lacquer work applied to temple doors and windows, book cover; and book chests (fine examples in the royal library, Bangkok), Siamese porcelain is mainly of Chinese origin, that is to say made

in China, but in Siamese designs and for the Siamese market:j is gaily enamelled in five colours, and the wares of this type

range in date from the 16th century to about 1868. Earlier, abou

the 13th century, the manufacture of celadon and crackled wares had been established at Sawankalok with good results, and production continued for some time. Of other Siamese arts and crafts, the silverware (filigree, repoussé and niello), jewellery and damascening on steel all maintained a high standard of er

cellence up to quite modern times. Another craft deserving men.

tion is that of preparing the cut leather figures used in shadow plays. Cambodia.—Here the record is most complete, extending at least from the 6th to the 14th century. The early or pre-Khmer or Indianesque art (as it is variously called) occurs mainly in the south (Funan), and includes many sculptures in the round and in relief, Buddhist and Brahmanical. Buddha figures of sth or 6th century dating from Romlok are closely related to Gupta types; the drapery, without indication of folds, clings closely to the body, and the swayed pose vividly recalls the types of Ajanta and Sarnath. A vigorous and powerful Buddha head is in some respects intermediate between Indian and Chinese T’ang types. Even more striking and distinguished are the best of the Brahmanical figures; the Stoclet figure from Phnorn Da and also the Harihara from Prasat Andet may be said to rank amongst the very finest examples of any Indian school. The former is almost unique in pose, and may represent either a deified king, or possible Krsna in the act of raising Mt. Govardhana; the figure has a concentra tion and living quality that are powerfully impressive. The Harihara (union in one person of Siva and Visnu), if somewhat less animated, has a like simplicity of form, and truly royal dignity. The characteristic cylindrical head-dress is directly of Indian origin; it is worn by kings at Amaravati, and in earlier Indian art by Indra. Comparatively little sculpture can be assigned to the. disturbed period of the 8th century. With the oth, we reach what is known

as the classical period of Cambodian

(Khmer)

art, covering

nearly five centuries. While cult and mythology are still essentially Indian, a local ethnic type, very definite and unmistakable, is developed, characterized by broadness and straightness of the features. Two special cults are strongly developed, the one that

of the worship of deified royal ancestors, represented by images in the form of their patron deity, the other that of the “royal divinity” (Devaraja), represented by a lingam. Apart from these, almost the entire Brahmanical and Buddhist pantheon is repre-

sented. Highly characteristic of the later, but not the latest phase of Khmer classical art is the representation of immense faces in relief on the towers of temples and city gateways; these most typically in the Bayon of Ankor Thorh, the city to which the seat of government was removed from the adjacent Prah Khan about A.D. goo. The Bayon, c. A.D. 1050, is in many respects the most

remarkable, as the later Ankor Wt, c. A.D. 1125, is the most beautiful, of all Khmer buildings. All the great towers have masks on

four sides. Besides this, the various chapels held images of Buddhist and Hindu deities, deified ancestors, and the Devaraja. Few

of these remain im situ, but in addition to those, and to rich floral decorations, the walls of the lower galleries are covered with reliefs representing divinities, epic legends, processions, naval com

INDONESIAN AND FURTHER INDIAN ART

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BY COURTESY OF (1, 2) THE DIRECTOR OF THE BASLE MUSEUM (3, 4, 6) THE DIRECTOR OF THE RIJKS ETHNOGRAPHICAL MUSEUM,

PALAEOLITHIC 1. Objects from the caves of Lamontjong, southern Celebes.

RELICS

Left to right,

beginning at the top: Two two-edged knives, point, scraper, one-edged knife, point, three arrow-heads with saw-like edges, three barbed arrowheads Showing neolithic influence, two flakes (probably used for insertion In wooden clubs), an arrow-head from bone, an arrow-head from the

FROM

PrareI

4

~

(5) THE DIRECTOR OF THE MUSEUM FUR VOLKERKUNDE

INDONESIA

lower tooth of a boar, two scrapers made larum (a land-snail). 2. Knives, points cave Ulu Tjanko in central Sumatra. 3, western Java. 5. Axe-head from the island

from the shell of Nanina Toaand flakes of obsidian from the 4, 6. Neolithic axe-heads from of Leti, eastern Indonesia

INDONESIAN

Pirate IT

AND

FURTHER

INDIAN

ART

“ps a6 Ea,evpuppexe

$

BY

COURTESY

JOHNSTON

AND

OF (8)

DENMAN

W.

ROSS, (12)

P. JACKSON

HIGGS,

(15)

THE

MUSEUM

OF FINE

HOFFMANN

INDONESIAN

AND

FURTHER

INDIAN

ART

FROM

1. Deity, Phnom Da, Cambodia, early Khmer, 7th cent. 3' 11". 2. A tower of the Bayon temple, Ankor Thom, Cambodia, 11th cent. 3. Harihara; Prasăt Andèt, Cambodia, early Khmer, 7th cent. A.D. 6 3”, 4. Garudas, terrace, Ankor Thom, Cambodia, llth cent. 5. Buddha from Borobudur, Java, Jate Sth cent. 6. The message of

the ring (Sudhana Kumara), Borobudur, Java, late Sth cent.

7. Ganega, Singasari,

Java, 19th cent. 8. The Bodhisativa (Buddha); Ananda temple, Pagan, Burma, late

ARTS

; BOSTON, (2, 9, 11, 14) A. K. COOMARASWAMY;

THE

6TH

TO THE

13TH

PHOTOGRAPH,

CENTURY

(5)

A.D.

llth cent. 9. Bodhisattva, Diéng, Java, copper, 10th cent., 5'%2’’. 10. Episode of the Ramayana;

Prambanam,

Java, 9th cent.

ll. Devata;

Ankor

Wat, Cambodia,

12th cent. 12. Buddha; Chieng Mai, Siam, 13th-14th cent. 1’ 10/2".

13. Tempta-:

tion of the Buddha, Borobudur, Java, Sth cent. 14. Gallery relief, Ankor Wat, Came bodia, 12th cent. 15. Head of Siva or the sage Agastya; Cambodia. 10th cent.

INDONESIAN

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269

the offerrats, and scenes from contemporary industrial life, as though the lingam set up in the 13th or 14th century still receives

founders of Ankor had wished to perpetuate a record of the glory also been of their state. Bronzes of the classical period have

the found in considerable numbers. Towers with masks crown triple gateways of the city, and the causeways leading across a

moat to these entrances are flanked with parapets consisting of Devas and Yaksas of colossal proportions supporting the body of a gigantic Naga, which takes the place of a railing. These

Naga parapets, with or without giant supporters, and terminating in elevated many-hooded heads, are most characteristic of Khmer terrace, art, Within the city, the retaining wall of the great of the which ran along one side of the public square and in front lace, is covered with a continuous series of reliefs representing lions, horses, elephants, Garuda caryatides, games and hunting and

battle scenes; at one end there is a kind of belvedere, with a reor taining wall decorated with successive tiers of seated royal divine figures; and upon it there still remains im situ the nude

figure known as the “Leper King,” who may have been Yasovarman, the first ruler of the city. In the vast number of extant Cambodian temples, and in the museum at Phnom Pef as well as in French and American musums, there survive innumerable examples of classical Khmer sculpture; amongst the few of the latter which can be localized may be mentioned the seated figure, probably of Süryavarman I., from Phnom Chisor. The perfect application of the classical art, however, is reached at Ankor Wat, the later name of the most famous Cambodian temple, a Brahmanical erection of the first half of the r2th century, due to Süryavarman II. Most of the

Buddhist images now to be seen here are of much later date; the

sculptural importance of the temple depends on the two great series of reliefs, one widely distributed and decorating wall and pilaster surfaces, the other along the inner wall of the lower galteries surrounding the central mass. Of the former, the most enchanting are the figures of Devatas, often described as dancing

girls, though in reality the descendants of the Yaksis of early

Indian art. In the words of a later Cambodian poet (Fang), “one cannot see them thus, so beautifully made, and in the flower of their youth, without adoring them. The eye does not tire, the soul is delighted, the heart is never satisfied. One cannot make up one’s mind to leave them. They are no longer figures made by human hands; they are living women, beautiful and gracious.” On the other hand the gallery reliefs are heroic, dealing with the battle scenes of the Ramayana and Mahabharata, cosmic events like the Churning of the Ocean, and images of heaven and hell. In their superb vitality these reliefs are superior to the more exquisite and lovely sculptures of Borobudur. That Khmer sculpture maintained a high level of achievement much later is proved by the remains of the temple of I$varapura at Bantay Srei, distant 13 m. from Ankor Thorn, and of 14th century date. After this, the Khmer régime was altogether broken down by the Siamese

conquerors; all that survives to the present day is the great traditon of the theatre and of the sumptuary arts. Cambodian weavers still excel in the weaving of silks in which the threads are parti-dyed before the warp is laid (chiné or ikat technique), and their productions are amongst the finest textiles still made in the East. Fine work on traditional lines in gold and silver is done, and there exist craftsmen able to cast bronze figures in admirable reproduction of ancient types.

Campa (Annam).—Although the Sanskrit inscription of Vo-

canh dates back to about A.D. 200, the only really early sculpture

Is à standing Buddha figure in bronze found at Dong-Duong, this is so closely related in style to the Indian school of Amaravati, and to the early sculpture in Ceylon, that it may well have

been an importation.

Nothing Indianesque in the Gupta style

has been found. The best sculptures in stone are the Brahmanical figures (Siva, Karttikeya, Ganega, etc.) from Mi-son, dating

partly from the 7th century, and now to be seen in the museum at Tourane. At Dong-Duong, the only Buddhist site in Campa, a

colossalbroken Buddha still lies amongst the ruins, dating from

the beginning of the roth century. At Po Nagara, a statue of Bhagavati, which in the roth century replaced an original lingam, is now worshipped by the Annamites.

At Po Klong Garai, the

ings of Cam worshippers. Sumatra and Malaysia.—Little remains in Sumatra proper in the way of sculpture; and the art of the Sailendra period in Central Java (see below), though due to Sumatran patronage, must be regarded as essentially Javanese. Beautiful and important sculptures dating from the same period, and quite in the Sailendra style, have been found at various sites in the north of the Malay peninsula, now part of Siam. Towards the end of the 7th century, as is proved by inscriptions, the influence of Srivijaya (the name of the Sumatran empire of the Sailendras) was exerted in the region of Ligor and Jaiyà, and this fully accounts for the “Javanese” character of the magnificent bronze figures of Lokesvara from Jaiya, now in Bangkok, and for the plan of Wat Keo at Jaiya, so like that of Candi Kalasan in Java. But at these sites there have also been found sculptures much more like those of 4pre-Khmer" art in Cambodia, and a Mon-Khmer influence in northern Malaysia must also be allowed for. Java.—Nothing in the way of sculpture remains from the old Hindu kingdom of Taruma in western Java; this would have been of the Gupta type. The earliest sculptures are those of the temples of the Dieng plateau, already possessing a definitely Indonesian character. The best, perhaps, are the Brahma, Siva and Visnu reliefs of Candi Srikandi. Immediately afterwards we come to the extensive monuments of the Sailendra or Sumatran period (c. A.D. 732—860) in middle Java. The earliest of these is Candi Kalasan, where there remains much beautiful decorative sculpture, but the main image, probably a bronze Tara, is lost; at Candi Sari, however, there are numerous figures in relief. The reliefs of the small chapels of Candi Sewu at Prambanam are perhaps more beautiful. At Candi Mendut, near Borobudur, the serene and lovely Buddha and Bodhisattva figures are still ¿n situ, perfectly preserved, and these are probably the finest examples of middle Javanese sculpture in the round. At Borobudur, sculpture in the round is represented by a great series of seated Buddha figures, placed in niches and in the hollow dagabas on the upper terrace. Varying somewhat in quality, the forms are full and serene rather than strongly energized. Most remarkable is the great series of reliefs illustrating the life of Buddha according to the Lalita Vistara, and edifying legends from the Divydvaddne, Gandadvyuha, and Jdtakamala, all of which are reproduced and described in the magnificent publications by Krom and Erp. These reliefs are found along the inner sides of the terraced procession paths, and if placed end to end would extend for nearly three miles. The untroubled richness of the forms, the absence of dramatic emphasis, reflect the enormous wealth and security of the Sailendra culture; devotion itself appears rather as culture than as passion; yet the beauty of these reliefs once realized can never be forgotten. The return of the Javanese kings to Central Java at the end of the gth century accounts for the great Brahmanical temple complex of Candi Loro Jongran at Prambanam. Most remarkable here are the reliefs of the terrace of the Siva temple, illustrating the Ramdyana; fundamentally in the same style as those of Borobudur, they are more animated and more dramatic, as is perhaps natural having regard to their heroic theme. After 915 Central Java was for long completely deserted, and the continuation of the art history must be sought in the east, under the kings of Kediri, Singasari and Majapahit. A remarkable “portrait” figure of Erlanga (A.D. 1010-42) near Belahan takes the form of a representation of Visnu riding on Garuda, a true masterpiece of vigorous sculpture. Singasari in the 13th century has yielded numerous magnificent sculptures, including figures of Ganesa, Durga, Mafijusri and the goddess Prajfiaparimita; the last, now in Leyden, is one of the most famous pieces of Javanese sculpture, though in reality somewhat lacking in vitality and over-refined. Really more significant, though already remote from the classic tradition, are the wayang (leather puppet-like) reliefs of Candi Jago, illustrating the Krsnayana, a rather unexpected theme in a Buddhist temple, but exemplifying the profound intermixture of Brahmanical and Buddhist cult which had already taken place in Java, as in Nepal and Cambodia,

270

INDORE—INDRE

and as still surviving in Bali. Here, and more conspicuously in the | states in Central India the territory is not homogeneous, but dg. later (14th to rsth century) reliefs of Panataran, illustrating the tributed over several political charges. The Vindhya range tr. same theme and the Rémdyana, there becomes apparent a passing over of the classical tradition into a purely folk art, and the emergence of an indigenous Malay-Polynesian ethnic factor in which the stylistic inheritance of India is almost overwhelmed. After the 15th century, when almost all Java had accepted Islam, this later folk art continued to flourish in Bali, and has survived there up to the present day. Borneo.—A handsome standing bronze Buddha from Kota Bangoen has long been known, and is now to be seen in the museum at Batavia. More recently, there have been found in the Koetei district of Middle East Borneo, in the caves of Kombeng, where they were perhaps hidden about 1600 when Islam prevailed in Borneo, numerous sandstone images, both Brahmanical and Buddhist; the former include figures of Siva, Kárttikeya, Ganesa, Agastya, etc., the latter various Bodhisattvas, or perhaps deifed royal ancestors. Further, amongst the crown jewels of Koetei is a gold pendant consisting of a standing figurine of Visnu, four-armed, and flanked by a pair of Garudas. These remains show that eastern Borneo too was at one time the seat of a Hinduized kingdom. The iconography of the images is a little confused, and their style somewhat provincial, but the best examples are of really fine quality. The bronze Buddha shows clear traces of the Indian Gupta style. Taken all together, the sculptures show a close stylistic connection with those of the Dieng plateau and Borobudur in Java, and they may be regarded as the products of a local school in Borneo, dating from the Sailendra epoch in Java, and for the most part referable to the 7th or 8th century. (See also INDIAN ARCHITECTURE; INDIAN AND CEYLONESE ART AND ÅR-

CHAEOLOGY; TEXTILES; BATIK.)

BrsriocRaAPRY.—E. Aymonier, Histoire de l'ancien Cambodge (Stras-

bourg, 1924); F. D. K. Bosch, *A Hypothesis as to the Origin of Indo-Javanese Art," in Ripam, xvii. (1924) ; “Het Linga-Heiligdom von Dimaja,” Tijd. T. L. en Volkenkunde, liv. (1924); “Oudheden in Koetei (Borneo),” Oudheidkundige Verslag (1925); G. Coedés, Bronzes khmers (1923); "Les collections archeologiques du Musée National de Bangok," Ars Asiatica, xii. (1928); "Le Royaume de Srivijaya," in B.É.F.E.O. (1918) ; “Excavations at P’ong Tuk,” Journ. Siam. Soc. (1928); K. Dohring, Kunst und Kunstgewerbe in Siam, L., Lackarbeiten (1923) ; H. Dufour and C. Carpeaux, Le Bayon d’ Angkor Thom (2 vols., 1910, 1914); C. Duroiselle, articles in Arch. Surv.

erses the southern

division of the state from east to west, a

small part of the territory lying to the north of the mountains bt by far the larger part to the south. The latter is a portion of

the valley of the Nerbudda, and is bounded on the south by the Satpura hills. Basalt and other volcanic formations predominate in both ranges, although there is also much sandstone. The Nerbudda flows through the state.

The state had its origin in an assignment of lands made early

in the 18th century to Malhar Rao Holkar, a peasant’s son who worked his way up to a cavalry command in the army of the Mah. ratta peshwa. Of the Dhangar or shepherd caste, he was born

in 1694 at the village of Hol near Poona, and from this circun. stance the family derives its surname of Holkar. Before his death

in 1766 Malhar Rao had added to his assignment large territoria] |

possessions acquired by his armed power during the confusion of

the period. By the end of that century the rulership had passed to another leader of the same clan, Tukoji Holkar, whose sop, |

Jaswant Rao, took an important part in the contest for predomi.

nance in the Mahratta confederation. At first he defeated a Bri

ish force that had marched against him under Colonel Monson; but when he made an inroad into British territory he was com-

pletely defeated by Lord Lake in 1804, and compelled to sign a treaty which deprived him of a large portion of his possessions In 1818, by the treaty of Mandason, the state transferred to the British government its suzerainty over a number of minor tributary states, and acknowledged the British protectorate. For many years afterwards the administration of the Holkar princes was troubled by intestine quarrels, misrule and dynastic contentions, necessitating the frequent interposition of British authority; and in 1857 the army, breaking away from the chief's control, besieged the British residency. In 1899 a British resident was appointed, and a change was made in the system of administration, which was from that date carried on by a council. Of its last two rulers, one abdicated in 1903 and his successor in 1926. The present Maharaja was born in 1906. His salute is 19 guns. The Crrv or INporE (pop. 93,091) is situated 1,738 ft. above the sea, on the river Saraswati, near its junction with the Khan.

It is one of the most important trading centres in central India, with flourishing cotton-mills, a good hospital and college, besides

India, Ann. Reports; Etudes asiatiques, Ecole francaise d’Extréme-

palaces and gardens.

leur art (1923); H. Marchal, Guide aux temples d'angkor (1926); S. Marchal, Costumes et parures khméres (1917); P. A. J. Moojen, Kunst op Bali (1926); H. H. L. Melville, et al., Beschrijving van

greatest and best of deities; he is lauded in some 300 hymns (or

Orient (1925) ; G. Ferrand, L'Empire sumatranais de rivijaya (1922) ; East of the city lies the British Residency, an area reserved by L. Finot, H. Parmentier and V. Goloubew, Le temple d'Igvarapura treaty under British jurisdiction. The Resident and his staff live (Bantei Srei, Cambodge) (1927) ; L. Fournereau, Les ruines khméres (2 vals., 1890), Le Siam ancien (2 vols., 1908); J. Gróneman, T'jandi here, and it is the site of the Daly college, a fine marble building, Payambanam (1893); G. Groslier, Recherches sur les Cambodgiens for the education of young Indian princes and nobles. (1921); H. Hoenig, Das Formproblem des Borobudur (1924); T. S. INDORSEMENT or ENDORSEMENT: see But oF Ko, Archaeological Notes on Pagan (1917), on Mandalay (1924). articles in Arch. Surv. India, Ann. Reports; N. J. Krom, Inleiding tot EXCHANGE. _INDO-SCYTHIANS, a name commonly given to various de Hindoe-Javaansche Kunst (and ed., 3 vols., 1923), The Life of Buddha, on the Stupa of Barabudur (1926), Barabudur, Archaeological tribes from central Asia, who invaded northern India and founded Description (1927); N. J. Krom and T. van Erp, Beschrijving van kingdoms there. They comprise the Sakas, the Yue-Chi or Barabudur (1920) ; L. de Lajonquiére, Inventaire descriptif des monuments du Cambodge (2 vols., 1902, 1907); J. Leuba, Les Chams et Kushans, and the Ephthalites or Hünas. INDRA, in Vedic Hindu mythology god of the clear sky and

.. . Ljandi Jago (1904), Beschrijving van Singasari . . . en Panataran ` (1909); H. Parmentier, Inventaire descriptif des monuments Čams de l'Annam (1909, 1918) 3 Les sculptures chames.au Musée de Tourane (1922); L'art khmer primitif (2 vols., 1927); A. Salmony, Sculpture in Siam (1925); K. Seidenstucker, Die Buddha-Legenden in den skulpiuren des Ananda-Tempels zu Pagan (1916), Die vorgeburthliche Buddha-Legende (Jataka) in Tempelgemdlden von Pagan (1929); E. Forchammer, Report on the Antiquities of Arakan (1892); M. von F. Trautz, Ceylon (1926); P. Stern, Le Bayon d’Angkor et Pévolution de Part khmer (1927); R. C. Temple, “Notes on Antiquities in Ramamadesa,” Indian Antiquary (1894) ; Th. H. Thoman, Pagan (Stuttgart, 1923) ; W. Stutterheim, Rama-Legenden und Rama-Reliefs zn Indonesien (2 vols., 1924, 1925) ; K. With, Java .. . (1920) ; Bulletin de l'École francaise d'Extréme-Orient; Arts et Archéologie Khmers; Journal of the Siam Society. (A. K. C

INDORE, an Indian State in the Central India agency, com-

prising the dominions of the Maharaja Holkar. Its area, exclusive of guaranteed holdings on which it has claims, is 9,519 sq.m. and the population in 1921 was 1,1 51,598. As in the case of most

quite a fourth of the Rig-Veda).

Unquestionably of Zoroastrian

origin, the Boghaz Keui inscription (c. 1400 in Asia Minor) mer tions Indra with Varuna and Asvins, but in the Avesta he appears

as a demon. In the Vedas however his paternity is ascribed to

Dyaus, the Sky, and he is almost the national god of the invading

Aryans. Represented as having four arms and hands, in two he holds a spear and in a third a thunderbolt, his body is depicted as Sahasrakhsha, as one of the Brahma, Siva vicegerent of

“with 1,000 eyes.” In the epic age Indra survives eight great Devas, but is gradually subordinated to and Vishnu, and in modern Hinduism he is merely Swarga the heaven of the gods.

INDRE, a department of France, formed in 3790 from paris

of the old provinces of Berry, Orléanais, Marche and Touraine. Pop. (1926) 255,095. Area 2,666 sq.m. It is bounded north by the department of Loir-et-Cher, east by Cher, south by Creuse and Haute-Vienne, south-west by Vienne and north-west by Indreet-Loire. The department slopes north-westwards from the Ph; teau Central and is drained by the river Indre. In the north is tle

INDRE-ET-LOIRE—INDUCTION Champagne, a land of corn and of sheep with fine wool; in the ; the west is the Brenne, once marshy, now drained and afforested

wooded Boischot is in the south, east and centre. The average

annual temperature is nearly three degrees higher than that of

Paris, but the winter on the higher Boischot is somewhat severe. The average rainfall is 234 inches. Wheat and oats are largely own, as are beetroots and artichokes. Wool-spinning and weaving and iron-working are the chief industries; felt hats and parch-

beats ment are made. The department is divided into the arrondissements of Cha-

teauroux, the capital, le Blanc and la Chatre, with 23 cantons and 247 communes. It is in the archbishopric of Bourges, where is the court of appeal; it is in the region of the IX. Army Corps (Tours), and of the académie (educational division) of Poitiers. At Neuvy-St. Sépulchre there is an 11th century circular church with a 12th century nave; at Méziéres-en-Brenne a 14th century church; at Levroux a 13th century church, and the remains of a feudal fortress; and a magnificent Renaissance chateau at Valencay. St. Genou has an 11th century church and a 12th century tower. There are several dolmens in the department.

INDRE-ET-LOIRE, a department of France, consisting of

nearly the whole of the old province of Touraine and of small

portions of Orléanais, Anjou and Poitou.

Pop. (1926) 334,486.

Area 2,377 sq.m. It is bounded north by the departments of Sarthe

and Loir-et-Cher, east by Loir-et-Cher and Indre, south and south-west by Vienne and west by Maine-et-Loire. The department is floored by the southern outcrop of Eocene of the Paris

basin, with barren shell-marl at Sainte-Maure between the Indre and the Vienne; the Loire and its affluents, the Cher, Indre and Vienne, cut valleys with fertile slopes through these Eocene deposits. North of the Loire is the barren Gatine; between Cher and Indre the vine-clad slopes of Champeigne; between the Loire and Vienne the vine- and fruit-growing Véron sloping down to the Val d'Anjou; and in the south the Brenne (see INDRE). The climate is mild with average annual temperature 1-8? F. above that of Paris, and about 24 in. of rainfall. Cereals, potatoes, hemp, beetroot and the vine are grown, and many sheep reared. There are quarries of building- and mill-stones. The industries include iron and lead working, potteries, silk-spinning and weaving, important tanneries and the making of famous wines. Indre-et-Loire is divided into the arrondissements of Tours and Chinon, possessing 24 cantons and 282 communes. The chief town is Tours, which is the seat of an archbishopric; the court of appeal is at Orléans, and the department is in the region

of the IX. Army Corps (Tours) and of the académie (educational division) of Poitiers. Chinon, Loches, Amboise, Chenonceaux, Langeais and Azay-le-Rideau are also important. Montbazon has the ruins of a square donjon of the rrth and rath centuries. Preuilly has the most beautiful Romanesque church in Touraine. The Sainte Chapelle (16th century) at Champigny is a survival of a chateau of the dukes of Bourbon-Montpensier. The church of Montrésor (1532) has the mausoleum of the family of Montrésor. The town of Richelieu, founded in 1631 by the famous cardinal,

271

to discover any kind of order or connection between certain facts, whether it results in a generalization or not. Now the various methods by the aid of which the attempt is usually made to trace order and connection in phenomena are known as the methods of science, and are described in the article ScreENTIFIC METHOD (g.v.). Here it is only necessary to discuss some of the more general aspects and problems of induction, more especially its logical basis or justification. Logical Basis of Induction.—Generalization is probably as old as human thought. In fact, the tendency to rash generalization would seem to be one of the original sins of mankind. It is one side of the formation of habits. When a certain number of things have been observed to have certain attributes, uncritical people form the habit of expecting all such things to have those attributes. Witness the reckless way in which such people generalize about the characters of whole peoples, after a superficial acquaintance with a very few representatives. Similarly, where certain events have been observed to occur at the same time, or in rapid succession, they are apt to be regarded as uniformly connected. It is in this way that the numerous superstitions have originated. Mankind did not have to wait for the growth of the scientific spirit to learn to generalize; it only had to wait, and still waits, for the growth of the scientific frame of mind in order to learn to check that rash tendency, and to tread warily im order to reach legitimate generalizations. Early thinkers like Aristotle attempted to check the tendency to rash generalization by setting up a severe standard, and insisting that the ideal of generalization is what is still known as “perfect induction,” that is, generalization based upon an exhaustive examination of the whole group or class of facts concerned. No doubt it would be a great boon to mankind if people refrained

from generalizing about whole countries or communities until they knew every citizen or member thereof. But then the ideal of perfect induction has made no impression on practical people, and has proved to be worthless as a guide for scientific people. In the vast majority of cases the classes of objects and events with which science is concerned are far too numerous to permit anything even distantly approaching exhaustive individual examination of all the members. All the important inductions of science are what used to be called imperfect inductions, that is to say, generalizations based on the examination of a bare sample of the whole class under investigation. And its great problem has been, and still is, how to excuse, or to justify, such extensive generalizations after the study of but a few instances or specimens. To this question various answers have been attempted, and the most important of them may now be considered briefly. One answer, which is rather in favour among some of the more philosophical of contemporary men of science, is to the effect that there is really no justification for induction.

All inductions,

INDRI, the largest of the existing lemurs. Belonging to the

and all forecasts based on them, are just more or less sanguine adventures, or speculations. And the fact that they do not always disappoint us is nothing short of marvellous. It is just like drawing a cheque on a bank and finding it honoured, although one has no reason for thinking that he has a balance there. This kind of agnostic solution, if it may be called a solution, is not really satisfactory. It practically amounts to giving up the prob-

family Lemuridae (see Primates) it typifies the subfamily Indrisinae, which includes the avahi and the sifakas (q.v.). From both these it is distinguished by its rudimentary tail, measuring

business of the investigator to interpret nature in the light of the clues she affords. If a bank honours one’s cheque, one does not

preserves its enceinte and many 17th century buildings. Megalithic monuments are numerous.

lem as hopeless.

After all, in this as in other matters, it is the

onlya couple of inches in length, whence its name of Indris marvel at it, but draws certain conclusions about one’s balance or

brevicaudatus. It measures about 24in. in length, exclusive of the tail; its colour varies, but it is usually black, with.a number

of whitish patches. It inhabits the forests of a small tract on rl coast of Madagascar; shoots, flowers, and berries form ood.

INDUCTION, means sometimes generalization; sometimes the whole series of steps by which a generalization is discovered

EY established (that is, the processes of observation, formation : hypothesis, verification of hypothesis by further observations

= experiments, and formulation of the generalization in a man-

t that will best fit all the observations and experiments); and Sometimes the term is used in a still wider sense for any attempt

one’s credit. If nature fulfils anticipations based on inductions, some inference might be drawn about her character or constitution. Law of Succession.—Another answer given, and one that is much in favour among certain statisticlans and other mathematically minded people, is based on what is known as the law of succession. Assuming that all generalization is essentially of the artless type mentioned above, and commonly known as induction by simple enumeration, the solution now under consideration bases itself on the calculus of probability, and correlates the reliability of the generalization with the number and kind of observations made. Each observed occurrence of an event in certain

272

INDUCTION

COIL

[HISTORY

circumstances is treated as a point in favour of expecting its recur- always be regarded with a measure of diffidence. They may inj. rence in similar circumstances. However, the probability dimin- cate temporary or partial conjunctions rather than general Cop. ishes for every increase in the number of recurrences contem- nections. It is rather different in those cases in which the inductis plated. Thus if the event in question has been observed « times methods have been applied (whether in the form in which m and has failed to occur x times, then the probability of r recur- Mill has formulated them, or in some similar form). | Even in such cases, it is true, what the method applied r rences will be expressed by the formula (m-L-1)/(m--x-4-r-4-1), which is known as Laplace's Law of Succession. If the number proves is that in the particular instance observed, or experimented of occurrences observed (m) is very large, and if no exceptions with, a certain phenomenon was causally connected with a cu. are known (ie., x=o), and if one contemplates just one recur- tain other phenomenon. It does not by itself prove the generzliz. rence (ie, r=1), then the probability may approximate tion that those two kinds, or classes, of phenomena are Causally certainty, for (m+1)/(m-+r-+1) will in that case nearly =1, że., connected. But we are so constituted that, wittingly or m certainty (see PROBABILITY). But now ina real scientific general- wittingly, we assume what has been called the principle of the ization (say, e.g., the Law of Gravitation, or the Laws of Motion), uniformity of reasons, which states that “whatever is regarded the number of recurrences contemplated (r) is practically infinite, as a sufficient reason in any one instance is regarded as a suf. so that its probability, according to the above formula, cannot cient reason in all instances of that type.” If in a particular cag really be high, even at the best. Moreover, on what rational it appears, through the application of one of the inductive methods, grounds can a previous occurrence be regarded as a reason for its that d as such was causally connected with z, then d must be recurrence, as distinguished from our spontaneous expectation of assumed to be always causally connected with z, and in this way it? This solution, too, cannot therefore be regarded as satis- we arrive at the generalization. The extreme sceptic or agnostic factory. may dismiss this principle as a mere prejudice or defect of huma J. S. Mill based all induction on the principle of the uniformity intelligence. But is it so unreasonable to suppose that huma of nature, but his conception of this was not very satisfactory. intelligence has gradually and painfully been shaped so as to fit For, on the one hand, he regarded this assumed objective uni- the constitution of nature? formity, in the character and connections of natural phenomena, See SCIENTIFIC Meron and the bibliography given there. For as the ground of all induction, and, on the other hand, he regarded induction in mathematics see MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION. it as being itself a very comprehensive induction based upon (A. Wo.) numerous other inductions each much more limited in scope. This INDUCTION COIL, an electrical instrument for producing ambiguous attempt to make the same principle at once the foun- high electromotive force, consisting of two coils of wire wound dation and the roof of this whole structure of science has not one over the other on a core formed of a bundle of thin iron wires been received with favour. But it may be reasonably interpreted, or a number of thin iron sheets. An induction coil is thus essenperhaps, as meaning that we start with the assumption of the tially an electromagnet with two windings called the primary and existence of uniformities among natural phenomena, that we jus- secondary coils. The action of induction coils depends upon the tify all actual generalizations on the strength of this assumption, effect known as electromagnetic induction, discovered by Faraday but that, on the other hand, the very success of the numerous in 1831. (See Etectrriciry.) If an electric current in the primary generalizations made may be regarded as a kind of verification coil is caused to vary rapidly, a current is induced in the secondary (and, in that sense, as a ground) of the principle itself. This, at which, flowing to its terminals, produces temporarily an accumulaall events, would afford some explanation of the unexplained mar- tion of electricity on and near them and a high potential difference vel referred to in the agnostic answer already stated above. And, between them. The variation of the primary current is usually in any case, it seems impossible to dispense entirely with some effected by “interrupting” this current, 1.0.4 by breaking the consuch postulate as that of the uniformity of nature, even if we also nection between the primary coil and the source of.current supply. admit that by itself it does not help us to discover, or to test, In some applications of induction coils, however, the primary coil any actual generalization. In this respect we need also the postu- is supplied with alternating current, and the action is then similar late or principle of fair samples, that is, the assumption that, to that of a transformer (g.v.). Induction coils are largely used with reasonable care, it is possible to judge the character of a in X-ray work in which very high voltage is required to produc large group, or of a whole class, of phenomena by means of a the discharge through the tube in which the X-rays are generated. sample selected with discrimination. À few years ago, in the early days of wireless telegraphy, induction Perhaps the least unsatisfactory way of answering the general coils were much used for actuating the transmitting apparatus. question as to the logical ground of induction, using this term They are still employed in connection with the production of high in its widest sense for every attempt to trace order in nature, is frequency discharges for medical purposes. Small induction coils on the following lines. The scientific search for order among are used in very large numbers for producing the sparks required natural phenomena would seem to assume the existence of order for ignition in internal combustion engines. there. Science does not propose to invent it and impose upon The history of the induction coil begins in Nov. 1831, when nature, only to discover it, if possible. This search does not neces- Faraday described an experiment (Phil. Trans. R.S., 1832; and sarily presuppose a definite conviction that what is sought is Experimental Researches, vol. i.) in which two coils of wire wete actually there. One may look for what is hoped for, or for what is wound on an iron ring and insulated from each other. Faraday deemed probable, as well as for what is definitely expected to be observed that if the terminals of one of the coils were brought

there. Moreover, to assume that there is some order in nature is near each other, short sparks appeared between them when 4 not the same thing as to suppose that nature is orderly through current was started or stopped in the other coil. Soon afterwards and through. other experimenters began to develop this method of producing After all the world is vast, and the field of actual scientific high potential effects, among them Joseph Henry, C. G. Page. investigation is comparatively limited, so it is always open to N. J. Callan, and William Sturgeon. It was soon found that the the man of science to select for his field of research some class effects could be obtained with coils wound on a straight iron core, of facts in which the discovery of order looks fairly promising. and that a core made up of a bundle of thin iron wire was more On the whole, experience has shown that there is some order in effective than one consisting of a single bar of iron. Before 184 nature, indeed, sufüciently so to justify and encourage the con- the automatic mercury, or platinum contact, interrupter, actuated tinued search for more. Turning to the question of the ground by the intermittent magnetization of the core, had come into use. of generalization more particularly, one must, in the first place, No further marked improvement was effected till 1853, when distinguish between those which rest on induction by simple Fizeau added the condenser, connected to the terminals of enumeration only, and those which are based ultimately on one interrupter, which greatly increased the length of spark obtainable of the induction methods, especially when these can be applied with induction coils. About the same time Ruhmkorff, in Paris, with some rigour, and not rather loosely. Inductions based on introduced several improvements, especially in connection with simple enumeration, and even statistical generalizations must the insulation of the secondary wire. He also increased the number

reti crar aarm ue

HISTORY!

INDUCTION

COIL

273

to to the source of current supply. A diagram of the circuits of an of turns in the secondary coil, and wound it on a glass tube also induction coil is shown in fig. 1. improve its insulation from the primary coil. Ruhmkorff In early forms of mercury jet interrupters the jet and plate adopted in his later coils the method (previously suggested by E. and C. Bright) of winding the secondary coil in numerous flat were immersed in oil or alcohol, but coal gas is now generally sections instead of arranging it In layers extending over the whole used as the insulating medium in which the interruption takes jength of the coil, the object being to keep as far apart as possible i windings which are at a great difference of potential. During the period 1867-1900 several very large induction coils

were made by different manufacturers for the purpose of produc-

ing sparks of great length. One of these, made by A. Apps, for the

old Polytechnic Institution of London, had a core of iron wire

z ft. long, and a secondary wire 150 m. in length. This coil gave sparks 30 in. long. A still larger coil, made by Apps for Spottiswoode, and now preserved at the Royal Institution, London, had a secondary coil of 341,850 turns, the total length of the wire being 280 miles. With a battery of 30 Grove cells, sparks 42 in. long could be obtained with this coil. Very large coils have also been made by Klingelfuss, of Basle, who employed an improved method of sectional winding of the secondary coil. The wire is

wound in one continuous length and, by the use of separating discs of stepped form, the thickness of the insulation between

neighbouring turns of consecutive sections is graded in accordance with their difference of potential. Induction coils made by this frm are notable for their comparatively small number of secondary turns, one of them, with only 86,000 turns, producing sparks 1 metre long. A coil made by the same firm for the Paris Exhibition

of 1900 gave sparks 150 cm. (59 in.) long. During this period induction coils came much into use in experimental work, especially in connection with the discharge of electricity through gases, and with the production of electrical oscillations, and they were instrumental in such important discoveries as the Hertzian waves, the cathode rays, and the Röntgen rays. In large modern induction coils, such as those used for the production of X-rays, the cores are usually built of long strips of thin transformer sheet insulated from one another, the length of the core being 1o to 15 times its diameter. On the core, and well insulated from it, is wound the primary coil, the thickness of the copper wire depending upon the current to be used in operating the coil. The primary coilis sometimes arranged in three or four sections which, by means of a commutator, can be connected in series or in parallel. The core and primary coil are placed within a thick-walled tube of micanite or other material of great dielectric strength, upon which is placed the secondary coil of no. 36 or no. 32 silk-covered copper wire. There is considerable diversity in the method of winding the secondary coil Some makers arrange the coil in thin flat sections only one wire thick, separated from one another by discs of insulating material Others prefer to wind the coil in sections, three or four wires thick. In either case the separating discs should be wide enough to extend well beyond the

inner and outer boundaries of the sections, so that the wire can be well surrounded by insulating material, and the whole should be thoroughly impregnated with insulating wax. Several modern coils are arranged in only two or four sections, each section wound in layers, on the grounds that with this construction the windings are less likely to become displaced, and that the turns having the highest potential can be kept furthest away from the primary coil. As an alternative to impregnation with wax the plan of immersing the coil in insulating oil contained in a

metal or porcelain vessel has come into use in recent years. Such dil-immersed coils are usually placed with their axes vertical. The dry type of coil is usually covered with a sheet of ebonite

and mounted on a base board, or is cast in solid wax in a wooden case.

Improved forms of hammer break, with platinum contact pieces, are still used with small coils, but with large coils a motor-

driven mercury interrupter is much more suitable. The most effective form of mercury interrupter is that known as the “turne,” or “jet” type, in which a pair of revolving jets of mercury, pumped up by the rotation from the bottom of an iron container, makecontact during their rotation with two or more metal plates. e Jets are diametrically opposite to each other, and the two

plates with which they simultaneously make contact are connected

place. As many as 150 breaks per second may be produced with this particular type of interrupter. Sometimes the motor of a mercury jet interrupter is also SECONDARY used for driving a rectifier, or f) | INTERRUPTER rotating commutator, connected BATTERY in the secondary circuit for the CONDENSER purpose of eliminating the reverse potential induced in the FROM JONES, “THEORY OF THE INDUCTION COIL” (PITMAN & SONS, LTD.) secondary when the primary cirFIG. 1.—DIAGRAM OF THE CIRCUITS cuit is “made.” This reverse poOF AN INDUCTION COIL tential at “make” is usually very small in comparison with the direct potential at “break,” but when the coil is operated by a battery or other source of high voltage, it may be sufficient to produce some discharge the wrong way through an X-ray tube. If very high rates of interruption are required an electrolytic interrupter, devised by Wehnelt in 1899, may be employed. This consists of a plate of lead immersed in dilute sulphuric acid, and a platinum wire protruding a short distance from a porcelain tube. When this is connected in series with the primary coil, with the platinum wire to the positive pole of the battery, the current becomes rapidly intermittent owing to the successive formation of gas bubbles, the frequency being sometimes over 1,000 per second. A very important application of the principle of the induction coil is found in the high tension magneto, which consists essentially of a very small induction coil mounted on an armature rotated in the field of a permanent magnet, the current in the primary coil being generated by the rotation, and being interrupted by a contact breaker at a suitable point in each revolution. Another form of induction coil, usually called an oscillation transformer, is the Tesla coil, which is used for generating currents of high frequency and high voltage. It consists of a primary coil, having a few turns of thick copper wire, connected in series with a Leyden jar and a spark-gap, and a secondary coil having a large number of turns of finer wire. A succession of sparks is produced at the spark-gap by an ordinary induction coil, each spark giving rise to a group of high frequency oscillations which produce remarkable brush discharge and other effects in and near the terminals of the secondary coil. Similar effects are produced with the auto-transformer, a single coil of bare copper wire wound on an ebonite frame and having a few turns at one end connected to the Leyden jar and spark-gap so as to form the primary circuit. The remainder of the coil forms the secondary winding. In this arrangement the primary and secondary influence each other not only by magnetic action but also in consequence of the electrical connection between them. Theory of the Induction Coil.—The theory is much simplified by the fact that the iron core usually forms a very “open” magnetic circuit, so that the magnetic flux in it is, over a wide range, approximately proportional to the current flowing in either of the coils. The self inductances, which we will denote by L, and L, may therefore be treated as constant. The mutual inductance may also be regarded as constant but, owing to the fact that the secondary current is not distributed uniformly along the secondary wire, the coefficient of inductance of the primary on the secondary is greater than that of the secondary (for unit current in its central winding) on the primary. These two coefficients will be denoted by L4 and L4. If the capacities in the primary and secondary circuits are C,, C2, the relation between the potentials Y. and Va in the two circuits is expressed by the equations I4

LO

d? Yi

d? Y.

d Vi

d? + LCs TE T RC ETE T VQ, dy

T LaO

dy

dV

d ROT + Va = 9;

274

INDUCTION

where Rx, Re, are the resistances of the circuits and E is the battery electromotive force. If the resistances are neglected these two equations can be easily solved, and the result shows that the wave of potential in each circuit, after the interruption of the primary current, consists of two simple harmonic components differing in amplitude and frequency. Each of the two frequencies of the system depends upon the inductances and capacities of both circuits. If the frequencies are represented by M, Mz ("a being the greater), the expression for the potential at the terminals of the secondary coil at any time £ after the interruption of the primary current 7, is = 2T Loa tonite

Vo =

———

(me sin 21m t—

sin 27141).

No — Hy

This expression shows that the two components of the potential wave in the secondary circuit begin from zero in the opposite phase, and that their amplitudes are inversely proportional to their frequencies. In fig. 2 are shown the potential waves for four different values of the frequency ratio 75/114. The upper curves show the two components separately, the lower curves the result of their super-

FABFAHFSUFAW T-HTLKEULENZENM NIAI NAV Lid.

HHHH ATAT CL A TTT ZEN VE AV 5

FROM

JONES,

“THEORY

COIL”

(PITMAN

& SONS,

A AW E

7

OF

THE

INDUCTION

LTD.)

FIG. 2.—WAVES OF POTENTIAL IN AN INDUCTION COIL FOR DIFFERENT VALUES OF THE FREQUENCY RATIO

position, i.e., the actual wave of N»/Ni

potential in the secondary circuit. It will be seen that when the frequency ratio is 3 or 7, maxima of the two component waves occur simultaneously, giving a specially high voltage at this moment. 'This also happens when 75/7 has one of the values 1r, 15, etc. When the frequency ratio is 5 or 9, a minimum of the more rapid component coincides with a maximum of the slower, resulting in a reduced value of the maximum voltage. In these latter cases there are, in fact, two equal peaks in the potential wave, one occurring before, the other after, the maximum of the slower component. The curves in fig. 2 cover only one half-period of the slower component; their continuation in the second half-period is a repetition with the ordinates changed in sign. Curves similar to the lower curves of fig. 2 can be obtained experimentally by the use of a suitable oscillograph. An example is given in fig. 3, a photograph of the wave of potential at the secondary terminals of an induction coil as indicated by an electrostatic oscillograph’ connected directly with them.

The instrument was of the kind in which the deflection is proportional to the square of the potential, consequently the deflections are in the same direction for both positive and negative parts of the wave. The form of the first half-wave of the curve shows that the ratio of the two frequencies was very nearly 7, as in the third of the lower curves in fig. 2. The wavy line below the oscillograph curve in fig. 3 represents the oscillations of a tuning fork, each wavehr. in 3 this line corresponding to ły second. u : The foregoing expression for V; enables us to calculate the effect of varying one or pe rc ak other of the “constants” of the circuits, fuss HAC A EM for example, the capacity Ci of the con- Fic. s——acrUAL oscILdenser connected to the interrupter. The LOGRAPH RECORD OF Po.

result of such a calculation is shown in the TENTIAL AT TERMINALS

full-line curve of fig. 4, in which the OCF SECONDARY

abscissa is proportional to the primary capacity—it represents, in fact, the ratio L,C,/L2C,—and the ordinate is proportional to the maximum secondary potential. In this example the coupling

(defined as L4 L/ LL) is 0-835.

It will.be seen that the curve of secondary potential consists of portions of a series of arches, all lying within and all except one touching the broken line curve which represents the sum of the amplitudes of the two potential oscillations in the secondary circuit. As the primary capacity is increased from zero, the frequency

COIL

TEOR

contact of the full-line and broken-line curves in fig. 4, m/n, ta the values 19, 15, 11 and 7. At the points of intersection ofthe arches the frequency ratios are 17, 13, 9 and 5. One of the points contact (7,/2,— 7) occurs at the summit of the broken line curve

| + i

and it therefore represents a very favourable adjustment of thy circuits for producing high secondary voltage.

Not only is ty

potential equal to the sum of the amplitudes of the two cop ponents, but the sum of the amEi] ] plitudes also has its maximum | |A NINT

Ty | Al Pt value in this adjustment. These | r favourable conditions do not oc- |$ HANAL NY

cur at all values of the coupling, but only at certain values, four of which are 0-571, 0-835, 0-902 and 0-931. If the coupling k? has one JONES, “THEORY OF THE INDUCTN of these values, the optimum FROM COIL” (PITMAN & SONS, LTD.) primary capacity is that which FIG. 4.—CALCULATED CURVY: makes L,C;—- (r—Ek?)L,C., and SHOWING EFFECT OF VARYING TH the maximum secondary voltage CAPACITY OF THE PRIMARY Cox.

is then fV La/LuaV L/C

DENSER

The

Abscissae are proportional to primary

form of the curve showing the capacity, ordinates proportional % relation between primary capac- maximum secondary potential. Coup

ity and secondary potential de- !ing—0-855

pends upon the coupling. In fig. 5 is shown a curve obtained by experiment with a coil the coupling of which was 0-767. The ordinate of this curve represents the reciprocal of the leas

primary current the interruption of which causes a spark to appear at a spark-gap connected with the secondary terminals, and it i therefore proportional to the maximum secondary potential fora given primary current. The extreme arch on the right of this curve is more prominent than that of fig. 4, and at values of the coupling below o-71 the right-hand arch is higher than all the others. It

follows that as the coupling is reduced the frequency ratio neces sary for maximum secondary potential also becomes smaller, zg, when the coupling is 0-571, the primary capacity should be & adjusted that the frequency ratio is 3. Damping of the Oscillations—In this sketch of the theorywe have neglected the resistances of the circuits and other causes of dissipation of energy. In practice, owing to the resistances and the leakage and core losses (see ELECTROMAGNET), the oscil tions are subject to decay factors; they die away just as do tle vibrations of a tuning fork after it is struck. This damping d the oscillations is clearly shown in fig. 3. In a good modern coi the maximum secondary voltage may be reduced by over 25% by the losses, which are, however, not sufficient to affect to any great extent the frequencies of the oscillations or the conditions in which maximum voltage is produced. When a spark or other form of discharge is allowed to pas $

9

z

TALLLLLEFL x IN LLLLLLL MTT FROM JONES, “THEORY OF THE INDUCTION COIL” (PITMAN & SONS, LTD.) FIG. 5.—EXPERIMENTAL CURVE SHOWING VARIATION OF MAXIMUM SECONDARY POTENTIAL WITH PRIMARY CAPACITY. COUPLING=0-767

between the secondary terminals, the theory hitherto described with allowance for the damping of the oscillations, is applicable up to the moment at which the discharge begins. The ordina spark discharge of an induction coil, in air at atmospheric pressure generally consists of an initial true spark followed by an atc. the initial spark, which represents the discharge of the electrialy

accumulated on the secondary coil, and which probably conta

a train of high frequency oscillations, the potential falls rapidly to a small value, and thereafter the secondary current, fo

ratio M/m, diminishes from infinity, and, at the four points of as an arc in the conducting path prepared for it by the 1n

INDULGENCE

275

spark. In the arc the current usually pulsates with a period de- However definite may have been the ideas originally conveyed by pendent upon the constants of the primary circuit and the coupling, the approximate expression for the period being ony LiCi(1-F?).

I

m

"n

The total quantity of electricity passing in the ordinary spark discharge depends upon the length of the spark and upon the current interrupted in the primary circuit. It increases with the current, though not in proportion to it, and it diminishes as the length of the spark is increased. When the discharge takes place through a “soft” X-ray tube the secondary voltage again follows the course indicated by the foregoing theory up to the moment at which the discharge begins. During the discharge the potential falls, not with great rapidity as in the spark discharge, but much more

gradually, and with fluctuation, to a smaller value at which the discharge ceases. After this the systém continues to oscillate, with what energy it has left, in the two frequencies which it possesses

when the secondary circuit is open.

In the case of discharge

through an ordinary high resistance, the discharge current consists of two damped oscillatory components if the resistance is suffciently high; but if the resistance is below a certain value, one of the oscillations becomes replaced by aperiodic components.

Theory of the Tesla Coil.—This 1s somewhat similar to that of the induction coil, the chief difference arising from the fact that the oscillations are started in a different way. The potential in the secondary of a Tesla coil is the result of the superposition of two oscillations differing in frequency but having the same amplitude. The two oscillations begin in opposite phase but not from zero, ġe., they begin at their maximum positive and negative values. In order to produce the highest potential at the secondary terminals of a given Tesla coil, operated by sparking across a given gap, the Leyden jar should have a capacity considerably greater than that which satisfies the resonance condition L1C1— LC», 2.¢., the condition which makes the periods of oscillation of the primary and secondary circuits equal when they are separated. In the

ordinary induction’ coil worked by an interrupter the primary capacity which gives the highest secondary voltage is, as we have seen, much smaller than the value which makes L,C, equal to LCs, BIBLIOGRAPHY.— J. A. Fleming, “History of the Induction Coil,” The Alternate Current Transformer (1900) and “Construction of

Induction Coils and Theory of Coupled Circuits,” Principles of Electric Wave Telegraphy (1919) ; Lord Rayleigh, On the Induction Coil,” Phil. Mag. (1901) ; P. Drude, “Theory of the Tesla Coil,” Ann. d. Phys. (1904) ; E. Ruhmer, Funkeninduktoren (1904) ; H. Armagnat, La Bobine d’Induction (1908); E. Taylor Jones, The Theory of the

Induction Coil (1921).

(E. T. J.)

INDULGENCE, a term defined by the official catechism of the Roman Catholic Church in England as “the remission of the temporal punishment which often remains due to sin after its

guilt has been forgiven.” This remission may be either total (plenary) or partial, according to the terms of the Indulgence.

(Lat. indulgentia, indulgere, to grant, concede.) The theory of Indulgences is based by theologians on the fol-

lowing texts: 2 Samuel (Vulgate, 2 Kings) xii. 14; Matt. xvi. 19 and xviii. 17, 18; 1 Cor. v. 4, 5; 2 Cor. ii. 6—11; but the practice itself is confessedly of later growth. As the primitive practice of public penance for sins died out, there grew up a system of equivalent, or nominally equivalent, private penances. Just as many of the punishments enjoined by the Roman criminal code were

gradually commuted by mediaeval legislators for pecuniary fines, 50 the years or months of fasting enjoined by the earlier ecclesiastical codes were commuted for proportionate fines, the recitation

of a certain number of psalms, and the like. The practice of

Indulgences in the mediaeval church arose out of the authoritative remission, in exceptional canonical penalty.

cases, of a certain portion of this

The first definite instance of a plenary Indulgence is that of Urban II. for the First Crusade (Council of. Clermont, Mansi, Concilio, xx. 816): “Whoever, out of pure devotion and not for sake of gaining honour or money, shall go to Jerusalem to liberate the church of God, may count that journey in lieu of all

these notes of time, their first meaning has long since been lost. The rapid extension of these time-Indulgences is one of the most remarkable facts in the history of the subject. Innocent II., dedicating the great church of Cluny in 1132, granted as a great favour a forty days’ Indulgence for the anniversary. A hundred years later, all churches of any importance had similar Indulgences; yet Englishmen were glad even then to earn a pardon of forty days by the laborious journey to the nearest cathedral, and by making an offering there on one of a few privileged feast-days. A century later again, Wycliffe complains of Indulgences of two thousand years for a single prayer (ed. Arnold, i. 137). In 1456, the recitation of a few prayers before a church crucifix earned a Pardon of 20,000 years for every such repetition (Glassberger in Analecta Franciscana, ii. 368); and at length Indulgences were so freely given that there was now scarcely a devotion or good work of any

kind for which they could not be obtained. It must be noted that, according to the orthodox doctrine, not only can an Indulgence not remit future sins, but even for the past it cannot take full effect unless the subject be truly contrite and have confessed (or intend shortly to confess) his sins. This salutary doctrine, however, was obscured by the phrase a poena et a culpa, which, from the 13th century to the Reformation, was applied to Plenary Indulgences. The prima facie meaning of the phrase is that the Indulgence itself frees the sinner not only from the temporal penalty (poena) but also from the guilt (culpa) of all his sins. “The laity cared little about the analysis of it, but they knew that the a culpa et poena was the name for the biggest thing in the nature of an Indulgence which it was possible to get” (Father Thurston in Dublin Review, Jan. 1900.) It is recorded that during the Jubilee of 1300, all the Papal Penitentiaries were in doubt about the meaning of the words and appealed to the Pope. Boniface VIII. did indeed take the occasion of repeating (in the words of his Bull) that confession and contrition were necessary preliminaries; but he neither repudiated the misleading words nor vouchsafed any clear explanation of them. The phrase exercised the minds of canonists all through the middle ages, but still held its ground. The most accepted modern theory is that it is merely a catchword surviving from a longer phrase which proclaimed how, during such Indulgences, ordinary confessors might absolve from sins usually “reserved” to the Bishop or the Pope. However it originated, it undoubtedly contributed to foster popular misconceptions as to the intrinsic meaning of Indulgences, apart from repentance and confession though Dr. Lea seems to press this point unduly (p. 54, seq.), and should be read in conjunction with Thurston (p. 324, seq.). These misconceptions were widespread from the 13th to the 16th century, and were often fostered by the “pardoners,” or professional collectors of contributions for Indulgences. This can best be shown by a few quotations from eminent churchmen during those centuries. Berthold of Regensburg (c. 1270) says, “Fie, penny-preacher! . . . thou dost promise so much remission of sins for a mere halfpenny or penny, that thousands now trust thereto, and fondly dream to have atoned for all their sins with the halfpenny or penny, and thus go to hell” (ed. Pfeiffer, i. 393). A century later, the author of Piers Plowman speaks of pardoners who “give pardon for pence poundmeal about” (ż.e., wholesale; B. ii. 222); and his contemporary, Pope Boniface IX., complained of their absolving even impenitent sinners, for ridiculously small sums (fro qualibet parva pecuniarum summula, Raynaldus, Ann. Ecc. 1390). In 1450 Thomas Gascoigne, the great Oxford Chancellor, wrote: “Sinners say nowadays ‘I care not how many or

how great sins I commit before God, for I shall easily and quickly get plenary remission of any guilt and penalty whatsoever (cujusdam culpae et poenae) by absolution and indulgence granted to me from the Pope, whose writing and grant I have bought for 4d. or 6d. or for a game of tennis! "—or sometimes, he adds, by a still more disgraceful bargain (fro actu meretricio, Lib. Ver. p. 123, Cf. 126). In 1523 the princes of Germany protested to the Pope in language almost equally strong (Browne, Fasciculus, i.

penance" (1095). A little earlier had begun the practice of partial

354). In 1562 the Council of Trent abolished the office of “pardoner.”

dulgences, which are always expressed in terms of days or years.

See H. C. Lea, Hist. of Auricular Confession and Indulgences in the

276

INDULINES—INDUSTRIAL

Latin Church (Philadelphia, 1896); his standpoint is frankly nonCatholic, but he gives materials for judgment; T. Brieger, art. “Indulgenzen” in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopddie and A. Boudinhon, art. “Indulgences” in Hastings’ Ency. of Religion. The greatest orthodox authority is Eusebius Amort, De Origine indulgentiarum (1733). More easily accessible are Father Thurston’s Tke Holy Year of Jubilee (1900) ; F. E. Hagedorn, General Legislation on Indulgences (1924); Johannis Hus tractus responsivus, now first edited by S. Harrison Thomson (1927); and art. “Indulgences” in the Catholic Encyclopaedia.

ACCIDENTS

70 ft. above the plains of the Sind frontier, some 50 m. W. ofi The total length of the Indus, measured directly, is about : 509 m., and the area of its basin is computed at 372,000 sq.m, Even at its lowest in winter it is 500 ft. wide at Iskardo (near the Gilgit junction) and g or ro ft. deep. At Attock, where the river narrows between rocky banks, a height of 50 ft. in the flood seas above lowest level is common, with a velocity of 13 m. per hog

class. (See Dyes, SYNTHETIC.)

At its junction with the Panjnad (the combined rivers of t Punjab east of the Indus) the Panjnad is twice the width of t Indus, but its mean depth is less, and its velocity little more tha, one-third. Below the junction the united discharge in flog

ment among the Kafir (Zulu-Xosa) tribes of South Africa. It is formed from the inflexional prefix zm and duna, a lord or master.

August). Unusual floods, owing to landslips or other exception] ` causes, are not infrequent.

INDULINES,

dark blue dyestuffs belonging to the azine

INDUNA, a Zulu-Bantu word for an officer or head of a regi- season is 380,000 cu. ft. per sec., rising to 460,000 (record& INDUS, one of the three greatest rivers of northern India.

Its sources are in the glaciers of the Himalayan peaks of the Kailas group, which overlook the Mansarowar lake and the sources of the Brahmaputra, the Sutlej and the Gogra to the south-east. Three affluents, flowing north-west, unite about 80° E. to form the main stream. At Leh, the Ladakh capital, the river has already run north-westerly for 300 m., except for a divergence to the south-west, which carries it through the Ladakh range, about 100 m. above Leh, to follow the same course on the southern side that had been maintained on the north. For another 230 m. the Indus pursues a comparatively placid north-western course over its sandy bed between the giant chains of Ladakh to the north and

Zaskar (the main “snowy range” of the Himalaya) to the south, through magnificent mountain scenery. Then the river receives from the north the waters of the Shyok (a tributary nearly as large as itself), having already been augmented by the Zasvar from the south, together with innumerable minor glacier-fed streams.

The Shyok rises near the southern foot of the Karakoram pass on the high road between Ladakh and Kashgar, drains the southern slopes of the Karakoram range and then breaks across the axis of the Muztagh chain, before bending north-westward to run parallel to the Indus for 150 m. before its junction with that river. The combined stream still flows north-west for another 100 m., under the shadow of a vast array of snow-crowned summits, until it arrives within sight of the Rakapushi peak, midway between Gilgit and Hunza. Here occurs a change of direction to the south-west, which is thereafter maintained till the Indus reaches the ocean. At this point it receives the Gilgit river from the north-west, having dropped from 15,000 to 4,000 ft. (at the junction of the rivers) after about soo m. of mountain descent through the northern Kashmir. It continues through mountainous country till it emerges into the plains of the Punjab below Darband, in 34° 10’ N. There are a few native bridges in the upper course, and a wooden bridge at Leh. There are iron bridges above Bunji and at Attock, where the valley narrows almost to a gorge, goo ft. above sealevel. Twenty miles below Attock the river has carved out a central trough believed to be 180 ft. deep. Forty miles below Attock a bridge carries the railway to Kohat and the Kurram valley; and at Mari, beyond the series of gorges which continue from Kushalgarh to the borders of the Kohat district there is a boat-bridge. Another hoat-bridge opposite Dera Ismail Khan connects that place with the railway. The Lansdowne bridge at Sukkur is one of the greatest triumphs of Indian bridge-making. Kotri is connected with Hyderabad in Sind, and the Indus is now

aeee AER mere meth rs

The naturally arid lands of Sind depend largely for their pro. perity upon the waters of the Indus. Canals from the river iri gated nearly 3,000,000 acres in 1926, but their water-supply fluctuates with the rise and fall of the river. A vast scheme was therefore undertaken to ensure a continuous supply; it includes a barrage in the gorge below Sukkur, three weirs on the Sutlej, and one on the Panjnad. The scheme is designed to command a area of 7,500,000 acres, and to irrigate over 5,000,000 in British territory, Bikaner and Bahawalpur. The Thal irrigation project, also in hand, is intended to irrigate nearly 2,000,000 acres from the Indus on and about the watershed between that river and the Jhelum. .

INDUSTRIA

(mod. Monteù da Po), an ancient town of

Liguria, 20 m. N.E. of Augusta Taurinorum. Its original name was Bodincomagus, from the Ligurian name of the Padus (mod. Po), Bodincus, ż.e., bottomless, and this still appears on inscriptions of the early empire. It stood on the right bank of the river, which has shifted over 1 m. to the north. It was a flourishing town, as excavations (which have brought to light streets, the forum, theatre, baths, etc.) have shown, but was deserted in the 4th century A.D.

INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS.

In the term industrial acd-

dent, the adjective implies that the accident results in injury to a person and has some causal connection with work, employment or occupation. The relevant wording of the Workmen's Compensation Act, 1923, of Great Britain runs “. . . accident arising out of and in the course of employment”; this definition has been incorporated in laws enacted in the British Dominions and the United States, while in other countries the definition though different in wording is similar in intent. There is a dstinct tendency towards making the term cover several “health risks” also, for these, though “accidental” only in a limited sense, have an eminently “industrial” character. Experience shows that industrial accidents (including industrial diseases) occur with great regularity in all industries and cause a loss to persons engaged in it. They therefore constitute a risk to labour. This risk may be regarded under different aspects. First, it may be qualified as an “economic risk”; secondly, accidents imply à

human cost, a “personal risk,” because attended with physical and mental suffering, both on account of the injury itself and because wage earners exposed to the risk generally have a very

small margin between income and necessary expenditure.

Frequency of Industrial Accidents.—The frequency of acc

dents is shown by relating the number of accidents to “accident exposure.” The simplest measure of the exposure is the numbet one of the best-bridged rivers in India. The river is navigated of workers employed in the industry concerned. When the industry is large and the period covered long (e.g., one year), allowin the plain by high-sterned flat native boats. In Sind there is much variation in the channel beds within the ance should be made for the irregularity of employment, and for outside banks of the river. In prehistoric days a branch found its this reason the accident exposure may be expressed in terms of way to the Runn of Cutch, and the gradual shift of the river the "number of full-time workers," ie., those who would have westward led later to the disappearance of many populous places been employed, had all employees worked regularly during the which were more or less dependent upon it for their water supply. whole possible working time (in practice, the number of mam The greatest change was caused when the stream broke through days divided by 300). A similar result is secured by the method the limestone ridges of Sukkur and assumed a course which has (devised in the United States) of expressing the accident exposure been fairly constant for nearly two centuries. These variations are due largely to the fact that the Indus carries down sufficient detritus to raise its own bed above the general level of the sur-

rounding plains. At present the bed of the river is stated to be

in terms of the man-hours worked; the frequency rate is then

number of accidents per 1,000 workers employed, or per 1,0 full-time workers, or per 1,000,000 man-hours. Statistics—It would be very instructive to compile an ite

INDUSTRIAL

FREQUENCY]

ACCIDENTS

277

The German statistics cover practically all industries except national survey of the number and frequency of industrial accismall undertakings and domestic service, agriculture being given pubas statistics the y, Unfortunatel countries. dents in the chief lished to-day are still far from comparable, and in most cases in- apart. In 1926, the number of insured persons in industries was ternational comparisons would be positively misleading. The main

sources of incomparability are the following: (a) different scope of the statistics; (b) different definition of accidents covered; (c) different standards of reporting; and (d) different calculation of the accident exposure.

For Great Britain, no comprehensive statistics of all industrial

accidents exist. The statistics of workmen’s compensation cover seven principal groups of industries, and all accidents disabling for at least three days and for which compensation was paid for

the first time during the year. It is estimated that not more than

half of the employees under the Workmen’s

Compensation Act

are thus covered by the statistics, the principal exclusions being the building industry, agriculture and domestic service. The figures for 1926 are as follows: Great Britain: Frequency of Industrial Accidenis, 1926

MBDIOXM

accidents per I,000 persons

Fatal

Non-

fatal

|Fatal

Non-

fatal

. | 203,340 | 333 | 6,175 | 1°64 | 30°37

Shipping, total

Factories, total

accidents

of pens

Industry

Steam vessels Sailing vessels

Rate of I

Number of

Number

.

198,860 | 311 4,480 22

550,234 254,472 208,495 126,821

Grand total, 1926 Grand total, 1925

34 | 10,226 17 3,451 3 2,105 33 5,317

o6 18:58 *07 I3:56 *OI IO'IO -26 | 41°93 79 | 24,006 | °24 | 72:99

330,134

382,088 801,263 335,900 Chinaandearthenware| 70,497 Miscellaneous . 2,147,822 Docks ' 127,606 Mines 772,883 Quarries EE 77,791 Consiructional work III,705

Clerical staff Otherraillway servants|

29:78 56:47

5,207,735 | 724 |165,122 | *14 | 31-72

Cotton . . .| Wool, worsted, shoddy| Other textiles Wood. . . Metals(extraction,etc.)| Engine and shipbuildig . . . Other metal work Paper and printing . |

Railways, total

5,022 | 1°56 253 | 491

| 113 | | 154 | 21 17 | 253 | | II2 | | 787 | 62 72

19,077 | 30,858 | 4,996 | 1,556 | 57,140 | 10,987 | 88,770 | 5,068 | 7,270 |

500,735 | 228 | 17,614 |

:30 | 19 | -06 | °24 | -°12 | -:88 | r:o2 | :80 | *64 |

51°50 46°00 14:58 19°23 26-60 86-10 x14:86 72:86 65:08

+46

35°18

85,302 2 205 | o2 2:40 415,433 | 226 | 17,409 | °54 | 4r'9X

7,001,793 | 2,318 |301,606 | +33 | 43°08 7,541,014 | 2,989 |403,826 | 40 | 53°55

In the United States, too, no statistics for all jurisdictions and all industries are compiled. Summing up the information available for 38 States in 1925, it is found that the total number of fatal cases was 10,537, and that of non-fatal cases, 1,687,957. It should be noted that these figures exclude agriculture, domestic service, maritime and railway employments in all States, and all accidents in 14 States and territories. More accurate statistics are compiled for a few important industries; the number and edfrequency rate per 1,000 full-time workers in 1925 were as

ollows:

United States: Industrial Accidents, 1925

Industry

Number of fulltine workers

Number of : accidents

Rate of accidents per 1,000 full-time workers Fatal

Coalmines

.

Metal mines . Quarries. Iron and steel

480,227 123,908

83,487

445,223

4°65 2°99 1:78 0:46

Nonfatal

283-53

169°67 81:90

The total number of employees killed in steam railway accidents in 1925 was 1,594, and of those injured, 118,874; the frequency rates among trainmen were 2.r4 fatal and 87.66 non-

fatal cases per 1,000 men in service.

10,794,031, the number of fatal accidents, 5,429, and that of nonfatal accidents, 826,899, the rates being 0-50 fatal and 76-61 nonfatal cases per 1,000 persons; in agriculture, there were 14,068,000 insured persons, 2,682 fatal and 176,119 non-fatal cases; or 0-19 and 12-52 cases respectively per 1,000 persons. In France, the total number of accidents in all industries, including agriculture, commerce, transport and domestic service, but excluding mines and railways, in 1926 was 2,392 fatal and 981,244 non-fatal; the number of coal-mining accidents (in 1925) was 354 fatal and 93,516 non-fatal, while the railway employees sustained (in 1923) 387 fatal and 615 severe non-fatal accidents. The situation in a small highly industrialized country is illustrated by the Belgian statistics; they covered (in 1921) 601,841 workers and recorded 209 fatal and 95,146 non-fatal accidents, 7.e., 0-35 fatal and 158-09 non-fatal cases per 1,000 workers. There is one important industry in respect of which an international comparison may be attempted, viz., coal-mining. Owing to the fact that work underground involves quite particular occupational risks, and coal-mining actually is the most hazardous industry (with the possible exception of shipping), special statistics relating thereto are more developed than others. The accident exposure may be expressed for the several countries in uniform terms (though in Germany allowance is not made for overtime). Nevertheless, the reporting of accidents is different, and while the fatal accident rates are fairly comparable, those of non-fatal cases are less so. The figures for 1925 are as follows: Coal Mining:

Frequency of Accidents in Various Countries, 1925 Number of fulltime workers

Country

Number of : accidents

Fatal

Belgium.

.

163,061

Canada (1926)

France

.

$^

AS

Germany (Prussia) Great Britain Saar Territory United States

Nonfatal

147

i 2,580

354 277,603 489,463 | 1,320

03,516 96,429

21,853

77

931,700 | 1,128

64,343

63

Rate of accidents per 1,000 full-time workers

177,347

2,824

480,227 | 2,234

Finally, as regards industrial diseases assimilated to industrial accidents, the scope of the statistics is determined by the diseases compensated. The most comprehensive statistics are those for Great Britain which cover 32 diseases. The total number of cases for which first payment was made in the seven groups of industries was in 1925, 41 fatal, 8,792 non-fatal, in 1926, 27 fatal,

5,816 non-fatal. The bulk of these cases (87 and 79 per cent. respectively) occurred in the mining industry, and the considerable decrease noted in 1926 is largely due to the long coal stoppage in that year. In Germany, the statistics refer to 11 diseases; the total number of cases reported in the year 1925-26 was 3,310, of which 2,781 (72 per cent.) were due to lead poisoning. In France, only two industrial diseases are compensated; in 1925 there were 1,343 cases of lead poisoning and 5 of mercury poisoning of occupational origin. Severity of Industrial Accidents.—The severity of an acci-

dent means the extent of resulting incapacity for work. In order to calculate the severity of a group of accidents, it is first ‘necessary to determine the extent of disability in each case. The main categories of disability are (i.) fatal, (ii.) non-fatal, distinguishing between (a) permanent, and (b) temporary disability. The British statistics do not contain precise information as to the extent of disability caused by accidents, beyond the distinction between fatal and non-fatal cases. According to an estimate, based on the statistics of several other European countries, of the general distribution of industrial accidents usually reported, less than 1 per cent. result in death, about 5 per cent. in perma-

INDUSTRIAL

278

ACCIDENTS

[CAUSES

Causes of Accidents (percentages) nent disability, and about 94 per cent. in temporary disability. It should, however, be remembered that both from the human Great Britain | United States and the economic point of view, the few cases of death or per(2x States) manent disability of high degree are of more importance than the Machinery . . 23:4 mr ` bulk of minor accidents. This point is the basis of the calculaTransport, vehicles ; I*o O94 | uon of "severity rates," which show the number of working days Hot or corrosive substances 6-1 4:0 lost on account of accidents, related to the accident exposure. Handling of tools or articles 27:7 28-6 Struck by falling body . I3:2 13:3 In order to know the working time lost, an arbitrary value is Persons falling z a I2:3 9:6 fixed for cases of death (6,000 days lost in the United States, Electricity, explosions, fires, gas7,500 days in Sweden and Switzerland); the time loss entailed by sing Be er c I-I permanent disability is assessed at a given fraction of this basic Other I5°2 7] value (e.g., loss of a thumb equal to 600-1,000 days lost); the Total . IOO 100 time loss resulting from temporary cases is recorded directly. The accident exposure is the number of workers or “full-time in motion; and (iii.) “non-movement accidents” attributable par. workers” or man-hours, as in the case of frequency rates. The severity rate gives a truer idea of the actual risk of indus- ticularly to loading and unloading of wagons, attending to engine trial accident than the frequency rate; but it is rather trouble- at rest, falling of wagon doors and lamps, working on the lin, some to calculate, and has therefore as yet been employed neither etc. In the American statistics, accidents to (i.) trainmen, occy in the British nor in most other statistics. The following instances most frequently to the class of brakemen (55 cases per milli drawn from the American records will illustrate the results which hours’ exposure, the general average being 30), while accidents tg have been obtained by the calculation of severity rates as com- (ii.) non-train employees are principally attributable to handling pared with those given by frequency rates. In the United States (7-4 out of 20-7 cases per million hours). It may be noted that iron and steel industry, during the five-year period 1920-24, the shuntirig operations present a conspicuously high risk, a fact total number of full-time workers was 1,839,818, and the number which has given rise to the question of introducing automatic of cases, as well as the frequency and severity rates per million couplings for trains. Finally, the British statistics of shipping accidents for the 5-year period 1921-25 show that the yearly , hours' exposure, were as follows: average of accidental deaths amongst the crews of (mercantik Severity Frequency and fishing) vessels was 724, of which 327 were due to casualties Number E rate

Death.

Permanent disability Temporary disability

Total

:

to vessels and 395 to other accidents at sea or in river or harbour.

1,345

4,810 179,128

I,500 8oo 500

185,283

2,800

The United States National Safety Council has calculated on similar lines the accident experience of 13 industries employing 828,028 workers and 74,367 cases of accident for 1925. The frequency and severity rates per million man-hours were as follows: United States: Frequency and Severity Rates, 1925 Industry

Mining Quarry

.

Construction Cement : Woodworking . Chemical . Petroleum . Paper and pulp. Metals . . . Packers and tanners

Rubber

Automotive Textile

Total

Number of | 4 accidents Frequency covered rate

6,851 -| 744

1,778 2,541 3,087 2,507 5,855 4,021 21,492 1,425 5,054 17,861 1,061

74,367

— 99709 48°56 69°54 26-08 44*20 20°91 27°35 38-43 32°50 40°15 29*IS 23*42 13°61

30°60

ents Severity rate

—: 8,510 7,640

7,570 5,000 2,750 2,710 2,330 2,150 1,820 1,270

I,IIO

1,060 450

2,020

Causes of Industrial Accidents.—The principal causes of accidents in factories and workshops are shown in the report for 1924 of the Chief Factory Inspector of Great Britain (covering 157,835 accidents) and in the reports for the same year of compensation authorities of 21 American States (covering 838,042

accidents); the figures in the table in next column represent percentages of all accidents. As regards particularly coal-mining accidents, the statistics show that the largest part of them are due to falls of roofs (in 1926, 33 per cent. in Great Britain; 43 per cent. in the United States), haulage and explosions underground coming next. The accidents to railway employees are classed in the British statistics in (i.) “train accidents,” mostly caused by collisions and derailments; (ii) "movement accidents," the most frequent causes of which are shunting operations, mcluding coupling and uncoupling of vehicles, working-on ‘permanent way, and attending.to engines

These classifications, however, do not refer to “causes” properly so-called. The determination of the real and most important causes is a difficult task, but it may be briefly stated that each accident is the outcome of a long train of events which is ulti mately traceable to some failure of human foresight or insight Accident statistics have attempted to find out these ultimate causes on two different lines. Some earlier statistics classified accidents by what may be called their “moral causes” or responsibility for the occurrence of acddents. For instance, according to the German statistics for 1907, I2 per cent. of accidents were attributed to the fault of the employer, 41 per cent. to that of the worker, 7 per cent. to both of them or to a third person, while in not less than 4o per cent. of cases no fault was established.

The failure of care, attention and skill which underlies the occurrence and incidence of the great majority of accidents

results fróm the combined action of numerous factors, one of the

most important of which is inexperience. Evidence obtained from the American metal trades shows that the accident frequency df new workers engaged diminished rapidly from week to week amd from month to month, so that the accident rate during the first week was 9o times higher than six months later, while, among men having worked for six months, it was 2.5 times higher than among those employed for from three-to five years. Further, accident

frequency is larger during the night than the day, night work

being always more or less abnormal.

Experiments made in the

British munition factories during the World War and in the American iron and stéel industry showed that the hour-to-how

accident incidence was almost completely reversed during the day and during the night; the day accident rate reached its maximum

toward the end of the shift, while the night rate fell for the

most of the shift. Hence it appears that the accident incidence 5 influenced by the mental state of the workers rather than fatigue. Fatigue, however, also plays a part in accident causation when working hours are particularly long, e.g., in docks and railway service, and when heavy muscular effort is required, especially

in the case of women..On the other hand, alcoholism has been found to be a potent cause of accidents, especially chronic alc*

holism, 2.e., excessive regular indulgence; excessive drinkers have been found to be about three times more liable to accident than

other persons.

i

Consequences of Industrial Accidents.—The consequence resulting from industrial accidents may be studied from thr

INDUSTRIAL

UNITED STATES]

different points of view, viz., medical, economic, and financial. In order to elucidate the medical consequences of accidents the

resulting injuries are to be classified according to their anatomic

and clinical character, 7.e., their “location” and “nature.” Accord-

ing to the statistics of some European countries and several American States as to the location of injury, the parts of the

body most commonly affected are upper extremities, viz., arms,

hands and fingers (40 to 5o per cent. of all injuries) and lower extremities (20 to 30 per cent.). With regard to the nature of injury, the most usual cases appear to be abrasions, contusions i and cuts, puncand bruises (25 to x per cent. of all es and lacerations (25 to 30 per cent.). Uy the economic consequences are meant the loss of working days and loss in earning capacity of the injured persons. With

a view to showing the consequences of accidents taken as a group, in this respect, these are classified according to the “extent” and “degree of disability.” The main classification by the

extent of disability was discussed above in connection with accident severity. The “degree of disability” is fixed according to diferent criteria in different groups of disabilities. In fatal cases it is indicated by the age of the killed person; moreover, these cases are Classified by the number of his dependents. Non-fatal cases resulting in “permanent disability” are often classified according to the percentage of incapacity for work, total disability (e.g., loss of both eyes) being taken as equal to roo. Cases of “temporary disability” which form about 94% of all accidents, are subdivided according to the number

of working

days lost. According to an estimate based on the statistics of a number of countries, this loss is in one-third of the cases less than a week; : e less than a month; and in about 8% of cases, less than three months.

nally, industrial accidents involve important financial consequences. The loss of earnings consequent upon industrial accidents affects in the first place the workers, but a part of this loss is, in practically all countries, à charge on the employers in virtue of workmen's compensation and accident insurance legislation; moreover, the State participates in many countries by bearing the cost of the administration of insurance institutions. International comparisons are still less feasible in this feld than in other parts of accident statistics, and for several countries, €.g., the United States and France, no information is available. In Great Britain, the regular statistics only show a part of the cost; a recent official estimate, however, puts the total charge on employers in 1925 (including compensation, administrative expenses, commissions, profits, etc.) at £12,117,000. In Germany, the total of payments of the industry and of the State to the accident insurance

institutions

was

in the same

year

RM. 266,916,000 (£12,934,000). And it should be remembered that these amounts represent hardly more than one-third to onehalf of the aggregate burden which industrial accidents constitute on labour and industry as a whole.

Robcraray.—Ofiicial

—P———

a a " eA

Workshops nd E:

s

Statistics of Great

Britain.

Statistics of Compensation

Home

Office.

and of Pro-

72. Ps E s Inspector of Factories and d E He D rdiet E ao pee of the

tistical D Department. Munui sre prend ofrn Mines, Board of Return ra of Trade » ShStatistical Shipping Casualti asualties. Ministry of Transport. Report upon the Accidents that "Sapte on the Railways. Industrial Fatigue Research Board. Reports

:

9. 4 19; 34 and 38.

cial Statistics of the United States:

U.S. Department

of Labor,

n of Labor Statistics. Bulletin No. 157 (xors). Industrial er Statistics. No. 234 (1918). Safety Movement in the Iron and theC ndustry, 1907 to 1917. No. 251 (1919). Preventable Deaths in i uh Manufacturing Industries. No. 256 (1919). Accidents and Wie ent Prevention in Machine Building. No. 276 (1920). Standard: on of Industrial Accident Statistics. No. 298 (1922). Causes and atog of Accidents in the Iron and Steel Industry, r9q10—r919.

: 339 (1923). Statistics of Industrial Accidents in the United States. Dos (1927). Record of Industrial Accidents in the United States

fatal? US. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Mines. Coal-mine are n in the United States, 1870-1914 and subsequent years. MetalStates ne in the United States. Quarry Accidents in the United ei Accidents at Metallurgical Works in the United States." Cokeaccidents in the United States. Interstate Commerce Commission, vureau of Statistics. Ouarterl Accident i i i i the United States Quarterly Bulletins, Railroad Accidents

ACCIDENTS

279

International Labour Office (League of Nations). Studies and Reports. Series F. (Second section) No. 1 (1924). Automatic Couplings and the Safety of Railway Workers (1928). Series N, No. 3 (1923). Methods of Statistics of Industrial Accidents. Series N, No. 14 (1928). Statistics of Occupational Diseases. Prevention of Industrial Accidents. Joseph L. Cohen. Workmen’s Compensation in Great Britain (1923) Boyd Fisher. Mental Causes of Accidents (1922). P. Sargant Florence. Economics of Fatigue and Unrest (1924). Edouard Fuster. Statistique internationale des accidents du travail (Bulletin des assurances sociales 1913). T. M. Rubinow. Standard Accident Table as a Basis for Compensation Rates (1915). H. M. Vernon. Industrial Fatigue and Efficiency (1921) ; The Human Factor and Industrial Accidents (International Labour Review 1926). T. Voionmaa, Alcoholism and Industrial Accidents (International Labour Review 1925).

PREVENTION

OF ACCIDENTS

IN AMERICA

The prevention of industrial accidents, or as it is popularly termed in the United States, “industrial safety work,” is that activity undertaken by the employer or in some cases by groups of employers, to remove the physical causes of accidents and to encourage safe practices by the employees. Estimates show that between 23,000 and 25,000 persons meet their death annually as a result of industrial accidents, while approximately 3,250,000 receive non-fatal injuries from the same cause. The economic cost of accidents in industry is placed at $1,000,000,000 annually. The industrial accident situation, therefore, presents a social problem of considerable importance, as well as a great economic problem. To the employee an accident means the loss in income equal to the difference between his pre-accident wage and his accident compensation or the wage he is capable of earning after the injury. To the employer, accidents mean the expenditure of funds for the payment of compensation awards, medical and burial expenses or insurance premiums to cover the same. They also mean the permanent or temporary loss of valuable employees; the demoralization of the working force; damaged equipment, raw material and finished product; and curtailed production. These latter items, it has been computed, represent a charge equal to at least four times the cost of compensation and medical service or insurance premiums. To the general public, industrial accidents mean an increase in the cost of living, as the expenses of the manufacturer are included in the cost of producing his product. In the early years of accident prevention work in industry, it was considered largely a duty of the mechanical engineer in designing and erecting guards and protective devices and making provision for the greater physical safety of the workman. In some cases such activities were required by State law. In other cases, encouragement was given by insurance carriers through their plan of offering credits on premiums. It soon became apparent, however, that human defects and failures were accountable for a much larger proportion of accidents than were mechanical defects.’ In 1928, statistics indicated that between 80 and 85% of all industrial accidents are due to unsafe practices, while only: 15 to 20% are chargeable to unsafe conditions. Methodical education, therefore, is the governing principle in the prevention of industrial accidents. A study of successful industrial accident prevention work shows that the best results have been obtained in organizations where safety activities, both mechanical and educational, are considered as a direct function of supervision, rather than as a welfare activity, independent of production. It has been the experience of many organizations that the degree of success resulting from the safety plans is dependent in large part upon the amount of direct personal interest taken in this phase of operation by the chief executive. To the employees and supervisors, he is representative of the company and his interests and activities reflect the policy of the employing organization. In the majority of larger plants or companies, however, the chief executive cannot give personal direction to this because of many other duties. In such cases it is customary to assign this work to some other official, sometimes with a supporting staff, to direct the safety activities. In some organizations the safety engineer is placed on the staff of the personnel director. Regardless of the type of organization,

however, it is considered important that the individual in charge of safety be given a position on the company’s

staff, which

280

INDUSTRIAL

ARBITRATION—INDUSTRIAL

wil clearly indicate the importance with which the employer views the safety work. A system for obtaining reliable information relative to each accident and for tabulating and utilizing this material is considered essential to a reduction of the accident rate. It is customary to obtain an accident report from the injured employee's immediate superior. Where the nature of the injury is serious or the indicated cause of sufficient importance, this initial report may be supplemented by an investigation or by a hearing conducted by the safety director and a committee of workmen or supervisors. Accident statistics are usually classified by cause in order to determine their relative importance and to serve as a guide in planning for safety. This information also provides effective material for use in educational work. Based upon the accident statistics, the accident frequency rate (usually considered as the number of injuries per 1,000,000 man hours worked) and the accident severity rate (the number of days lost per 1,000 man hours worked) are developed to measure the effectiveness of the accident prevention programme and to serve as a means of comparing the progress and standing of the various units of the organization. Accident cost figures are frequently used to keep the executives informed of the value of the safety activities. Within the individual unit of the industrial organization, the responsibility for the prevention of accidents is placed upon the respective supervisors—the superintendents or foremen. They are charged with carrying out the safety policies of the management, with the aid and advice of the safety engineer or director. Interest in this plan is sometimes secured by including safety as a definite part of staff meetings. Information regarding the company departmental accident experience and the causes of accidents are furnished the safety supervisors. Through personal contact, participation in meetings and general or personal letters from the chief executive, the safety policy of the company and the part which supervision has to play in it are kept before those in charge of others. In the final analysis, however, the cause and prevention of accidents rests with the individual employee. It is essential that the employee be selected and placed with due consideration to his physical and mental ability to perform his designated duties in a safe manner. Safety Methods.—The general methods of accomplishing this are fairly well standardized in American industry to-day, although the details incident to carrying them out vary considerably. The outstanding methods are given below. Department meetings provide an effective means of developing mutual interest in safety between foremen and men. These meetings are usually called and presided over by the foreman and present an opportunity for free discussion of the past accident experience of the group and of measures for the prevention of future accidents. Safety committees of fóremen and men serve to place a definite responsibility upon the committee members. Through the rotation of membership the entire force may gradually be reached and convinced of the value of safety to the employee. Advertising through bulletin boards, special messages on blackboards, safety signs, pay roll inserts, leaflets or articles in house organs aids the management to keep the idea of safety constantly before the working force. Friendly competition between plant units, plants or companies provides a definite incentive for the practice of safety. Safety rallies or mass meetings of employees and their families arouse a group interest and encourage the formation of constructive public opinion. The introduction of safety education in the grade school curriculum helps to train the future workman and also provides a splendid medium for reaching the workman through his children. Considerable aid in connection with industrial safety work is rendered to American industry by the National Safety Council, bureaux of the U.S. Government, State departments of labour, individual insurance companies, organizations of insurance companies, trade bodies and other national and local institutions. (See also INDUSTRIAL WELFARE AND MEDICINE; SAFETY FIRST;

DANGEROUS TRADES.) INDUSTRIAL

(G. W. Co}

ARBITRATION

TION: see INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS.

AND

CONCILIA-

ARCHITECTURr

INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE. This article i; Co. cerned with the design of contemporary buildings in which mam. facture, purchase, sale, exchange or transport of commodities

carried on, or the financing of business enterprises is negotiate Architecturally, it represents the most important developments g the early 2oth century, which is primarily an age of industry, The number, mass and height of factories, office buildings, Stores, etr

have increased, and their design has improved, more than Cond have been deemed possible at the close of the last century. The reader may also well consult the article ARCHITECTURE; a Compre. hensive list of related articles in this work appears under the head. ing ARCHITECTURAL ARTICLES.

I, INTRODUCTION The birth of the industrial age towards the middle of the igh | century coincides with discovery of iron to be used for machinery and transport. Iron and industry, material for machinery and po.

duction by machinery, are implicit in each other. Their joint cop. ception, namely the conception of “technique,” was the symb of a new age, of a new generation. That generation regarded industrialism as more or less their own creation, as some mag nificent weapon forged for private use, as something nation rather than international, fighting competitors both at home and abroad. There resulted from all this a sharp contrast betwee the lifeless monotony

of their factories

and the unproductive

swagger of their administrative buildings and offices.

The World War marked the end of this first stage of develop.

ment.

The economic and social results of the war produced what

was the beginning of a fundamental change of attitude. Indus trialism began to be regarded in a clearer perspective and the essential principles of its activity to be recognized; that is, its cultural possibilities and the necessity of adjusting it to some world-embracing scheme. Hitherto science has regarded the two conceptions, material and energy, as separate from each other; we recognize to-day that they are merely different conditions of a single primary element. The modern engineer therefore is abandoning the old mechanistic theory of dead material and is again coming to believe in vitalism as the principle to which he is obliged to render service. Machinery, which till now has been the

ready tool of a dead exploitation, is becoming the constructive element in a new and living organism. Machinery was born as a necessary by-product of development, and at the very moment when the need for it arose. The essential task of machinery is to satisfy, to co-ordinate, and to control the mutual rela tions between population and increased production, between industrialization and increased consumption of human material In this way machinery can be regarded both as a symbol of overripe decay and as an element of a new life which is capable of ordering itself afresh. Through the discovery of mechanical potentialities, men and cities, countries and continents have become directly inter-dependent. Each knows the other, each requires the other. This universalization of requirements is complete: never was fashica so internationally authoritative as to-day. Social distinctions ar diminished, abolished; national distinctions wear each other away, cancel each other out; a supra-national point of view is formed, isolated particularities, the result of geography, climate and rac,

are merged in the whole. In this way the spirit of man is freed from the narrowness of the Middle Ages. No longer is the Earth a gloomy corridor, it is living reality, and a spiritual, as opposed

to a material fulfillment.

Reason and inspiration, the earthly

and the heavenly, are at the same moment implicit in it. Thu

the traditional conception of God is changed; belief and doctrine find a new basis in a conception which is at once broader and mort universal than any hitherto known, and calculated to absorb

those antitheses. Individualism and Collectivism, Capitalism and Socialism, divest them of their dogmatic character, and achieve 3 final compromise. The individual is the “first servant” of the general; the general is the basis on which leaders of men wo

In other words, the new world-conception will only be sha by a fusion of the dogmas of materialism and idealism. As applied to the domain of architecture this realization meat

INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE

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MODERN

(9) THE ARCHITECT AND BUILDING

INDUSTRIAL

l. American Radiator Building,

New York city.

Raymond

Hood, architect

3. Bush Building, New York city.

Helmle, Corbett & Harrison, architects

4. New York Life Insurance Building.

5. Union Station, Washington, D.C.

Cass Gilbert, architect

D. H. Burnham & Co., architects

6. Exterior of the Pennsylvania Railroad Station, New York city. McKim,

Mead and White, architects T. Glass. manufacturing building,

Albert Kahn, architect

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ARCHITECTURE

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Wallis Gilbert & Partners, architects

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Carr & Wright, architects

California.

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Trowbridge & Livingston, architects,

From a drawing by Hugh Ferris

FACTORIES]

INDUSTRIAL ARCHITECTURE

281

that pure calculation and pure inspiration when considered alone | a tendency to make the industrial building a very standardized are without roots, but by their fusion Industrialism is freeing itself | structure. Whilst it is not possible to lay down rules applicable to all ‘rom materialistic limitations. The gloomy and desolate factory of older days is becoming a temple of labour, a shrine of creative countries because building work is always governed by local reality. This affective revolution must, if it is sincere, express restrictions such as climatic conditions, materials, national charitself in form, and In convincing form. It coincides with the acteristics and resources, industrial buildings may be divided into revolutionary discovery of new material for construction, of iron two classes, the one-storey building and the multi-storey buildand reinforced concrete. The new methods of construction are ing. Most large factories embody in their sequence of manufacleading to a revolution in the whole practice of architecture, ture both these types, the heavy components being allocated to since the application to building of iron construction with its the one-storey buildings, and the lighter to the multi-storey. For scientific principles and its static calculus is supplanting the foundries, forge shops, heat treating plants and plants manufactraditional theory of construction on the load and support prin- turing articles producing in the course of their creation noxious ciple by the principle of hinged construction of the girders. The odours, the one-storey is employed. Where ground is cheap and frst iron girder represented a solution of an architectural problem large areas are available for future expansion of business the no less important than that by which the middle ages replaced modern practice, especially in the United States, is to use the the classic formula by the invention of vaulting. But for cen- single storey building throughout the entire sequence of manuturies the human eye has been accustomed to deduce the solidity facture, both for the making of light and heavy articles. This of a building from the harmony of its horizontal and vertical method is ideal for mass production and would be extensively constituents. It is thus obvious that we are making some demand used were it not for insufficient available ground area and the on human comprehension, and one which can only gradually be relative extra cost of the single storey building over the multisatisfied, when we ask people to transfer their sense of statics storey building per square foot of floor area. The multi-storey building is usually constructed of either from the traditional principle of load and support to the architectural methods employed in iron construction. The first archi- steel or reinforced concrete and is designed so that extra floors tectural experiments with rolled iron date back to the middle of may be added with the increase of business. The usefulness of the 19th century, to that amazing production, the Crystal Palace this class of building has been greatly enhanced by the introduction of the continuous conveyor system as the floors are now in London. Structural technique, and architectural expression simultane- no longer dependent upon an elevator service for vertical transously achieved a common basis when the World War enormously portation of goods during manufacture. The multi-storey buildincreased industrial production both quantitatively and qualita- ing is restricted in width by lighting and ventilation requirements tively. We are to-day on our guard against wastage of human which in turn are relative to an economical height from floor to labour even as we avoid the wastage of material which was floor. This ratio of width to height of floor varies little in all inseparable from the older methods. We rationalize a man’s countries and the majority of multi-storey buildings are designed capacity for work even as we rationalize our bricks and mortar. so that the glass in the side walls is not less than 22% of the They are both so much raw material. We render building an floor area. The height, floor to floor, is usually between r2 and industrial production, we render the craft of building an industry 14 ft. and the width of floor area from 5o ft. to go ft. The area of building. We thereby eliminate the contradiction between of ventilators should not be less than 30% to 35% of the total human efficiency and machine work by regarding both as a law of area of the windows. In South Africa and in other countries with material and ideal self-preservation. Only by such means can similar intensity of light the area of glass must of necessity be the way be opened for a homogeneous form, by which the logic reduced to one-third of that used in European buildings and no of our new materials can be uniformly applied to industry, trans- direct sunlight must be allowed to enter. port and building. Since the products of industry, owing to the In order to gain a maximum of light and ventilation use has clarity and precision of their shape, are the most authentic evi- been made of an elevation with a continuous window. This has dence of the new capacity for form, since our modern means of been made possible by using a cantilever construction so that no communication are the purest symbols of the spirit and pulse of columns are visible on the exterior. It is this type of constructhe age, so also must industrial building, regarded as architectural tion which has given to the multi-storey factory a facade which production, draw its sustenance from the same soil as has given lends itself to an expression suitable for an industrial building; birth to the forms and shapes of technical production. Thus it is by it great scope has been given to the architect in his endeavindustrial construction which is leading the way towards a new our to uplift its aesthetic qualities. The most satisfactory attempt style of architecture. It was industrialism that invented, or, more in dealing with this problem has been to encase the whole elevation correctly, necessitated, our new material: it was industrialism also with a large architrave of flat bands sometimes enriched with that called into being the means and localities of production. It is coloured tiles or faience work; this has the effect of giving staindustrialism therefore which has imposed on the craft of building bility to the strong horizontal lines of the continuous fenestration. its definitive tasks, from the first primitive workshop up to the One-Storey Buildings.—Where one-storey buildings are neclarge factory of the modern industrial corporation. Industrialism essary the practice in Europe is to use the north light type of fachas thus progressed beyond its original material aims, and has tory, the usual pitch of the roof being 60 and 3o with the horibecome at once the womb and the nurse of a new development zontal (see Plate, fig. 9). These roofs are designed so that which will carry us over from the death of the civilization of the no direct sunlight can enter the building and by this method a igth century to the emergence of a fresh form of creative culture. uniform intensity of light is distributed throughout the building. This development is based upon a uniform material need and The height from floor to supporting beam is usually from r2 to upon a uniform spiritual attitude. It is supra-national and already 15 ft. but where a great deal of overhead shafting is used the height carnes with it as its symbol the elements of a new conception of is increased to obtain an adequate drive for the belting. A modern style, (E. MEN.) tendency is to localize power units, and a growing tendency in favour of individual motors for each machine permits the height II. INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS of the one-storey building to be reduced. This is an asset which, It Was not until the World War that architects and engineers so long as the ventilation is adequate, makes construction and heatd given to this class of building any special study and the out- ing requirements less expensive. come of their efforts has resulted in increased production and For certain manufactures in America north light factory roofing etter working conditions for the operatives. An increase in the is considered obsolete. This form of construction has given way to interest in factories from the international standpoint has accrued a variety of a new combination of trusses which give better lightby thefact that a great number of firms are setting up factories ing and ventilation and are sometimes known as the "butterfly" i countries to which they are foreign. This building abroad has truss (see Plate, fig. 7). Apart from the improvement in the een caused by the duties levied on imported articles and has had efficiency of a factory and its workpeople, this butterfly con-

282

INDUSTRIAL

ARCHITECTURE

struction possesses many qualities which will give the industrial architect opportunities for making the single storey factory build-

ing just as complete a piece of architecture as the multi-storey factory has now become. Hitherto the multi-storey building stood alone in having gained for itself a definite style of architecture. The outstanding demand of the modern manufacturer is for clear floor space and this demand is fully met by this construction. Spans from so to 60 ft. are usually more necessary in the onestorey building than the multi-storey building and whilst these can be obtained by north light construction, butterfly construction solves the problem more efficiently for certain manufactures. North light with its awkward angles makes maintenance work expensive whereas in butterfly construction, flashings, ridges and surface water problems are considerably reduced. The interior appearance of a one-storey building designed with a butterfly truss is superior to the north light type and receives readily the numerous factory accessories such as sprinklers and heating pipes. In order that the direction from which the light enters the building may be always changing throughout the day, these roofs are faced east and west. Tests have been made and it has been proved that operatives suffer less fatigue when the object upon which they are working has varying intensities of light cast upon it. The direct beam of light is diffused by the use of prismatic or ribbed glass so that this variation may be kept within working limits. There are articles which will not withstand this alteration of light values, but the majority of manufactures are not affected by even a very strong light for short periods during their production. An excellent natural ventilation is brought about and is controlled by automatic opening gear, consisting in some factories of ranges of glass over 800 ft. which are operated by one push-button, the entire length of glass moving en masse. Whilst this is recommended in certain cases roo ft. is most preferred. With this type of roof facilities for cleaning the glass are much more convenient than with the north light construction, as the cleaner can work freely from the flat portion of the roof. Layouts.—Great strides have been made in the layout of works, and sequence of manufacture has become a special study in all countries. It is in this sequence of manufacture that mass production has been made possible. The elimination of handling and reduction of the travelling distance necessary for an article during its creation has been reduced to a minimum. Many large factories incorporate in their layout large service basements in which goods are conveyed from one part of the factory to another without covering any of the manufacturing area. These are also used as interim stores in which goods may be placed awaiting their despatch to another department. So important is this sequence of manufacture that it is among the first drawings prepared for a proposed new factory, and great care is taken to design the building in such a way that some or all departments may receive additional area without a dislocation of the normal sequence of manufacture. In America use is made of apartment factories in which several firms will rent floors in the same multi-storey building thereby greatly reducing the transport of goods when these manufacturers are inter-dependent. The delivery and despatch of goods varies in the different countries; in the United States and on the continent of Europe much use is made of railway transport, even for the smaller factories; whereas in England considerable use is made of road transport and many important factories are found depending solely upon this method. Many factories are now independent units and it is possible in some instances for workpeople to obtain within their

own works most of the necessities as well as some of the entertainments of life. It is not an unusual occurrence to find in America and in many European factories, large recreation grounds, ranges of shops, hospitals, restaurants at which the employees are supplied at cheap rates. The two main considerations in modern factory design are the possible maximum output and the health and welfare of the factory operatives, and there are architects and engineers who specialize in this branch of building. (See also Facronv Drsicw.)

See Internationale Architektur (ed. W. Grotius, Munich, 1925) ; W. Linder, Bauten der Technik (1927) and current architectural periodi-

[INTERIOR SURFACES

cals of London, New York, Paris and Berlin.

INDUSTRIAL BUILDINGS: INTERIORS Interior Surfaces.—The interior surfaces of factory build. ings are largely controlled by the manufacturer and there are many ways of treating wall surfaces, ceilings and floors. A grano-

lithic concrete surface has been found satisfactory, and is used extensively in England. Maple and woods offering similar proper-

ties are also used, but the surface of floors has not come so near perfection as other materials in factory work.

All excrescences and ledges on wall surfaces are reduced to an

absolute minimum. a light colour;

Generally the wall surfaces are painted in

in corridors and passages

they should always

receive a dado of a darker colour at least shoulder-height. The actual wall surface is best left in concrete and all edges protected

with metal casings where liable to be in contact with trucking, The floors of lavatories should be laid to falls, and the walls tiled. The divisioning of a factory should generally be reduced to a minimum. Where it is essential the division walls should take the form of metal-glazed removable screens so that in the event of any future alteration they may be taken down and re-used

without interference either to themselves or floor and walls to : which they were attached. Ceilings of both one-storey and multi-storey buildings should act as reflecting surfaces and should be designed so that they may be easily cleaned and are not liable to condensation. Miscellaneous Buildings.—There are many structures complementary to the purely industrial or manufacturing make-up of any large centre of commercial production; e.g., warehouses, silos, gate houses, railway sidings, chimney stacks, power stations, reservoirs, markets, coal bunkers, fire stations, water towers,

etc. These structures are necessary adjuncts to the factory proper, but they may form units by themselves.

When they are part of the factory group, the location of these smaller dependent units may form part of the sequence of manufacture. They should be placed so as to function with the factory

and incidentally they themselves must be capable of further extension. It is in these structures that the industrial architect is given the opportunity to create a layout that not only allows the most efficient manufacturing process, but also gives relief and contrast in building shapes. The warehouse, usually a large multi-storey building of low floor heights and small window area, is in direct contrast with the airy and light feeling of the manufacturing plant. The chimney stack, always a dominating feature, need not be looked upon as something to be rid of, for if in itself it is well designed it can serve a useful purpose, to mark the main axis. Many water towers have been designed in reinforced concrete and treated frankly as such. Others have been erected in structural steelwork and both of these types have their merits but the latter has to be studied very carefully in order to produce an effect which will be in sympathy with the rest of the group of buildings.

Independent Structures.—When these complementary build-

ings are independent structures they must be designed from another aspect and are usually on a much larger scale. The warehouse, and more especially the grain elevator and market, are buildings which sometimes dominate all surrounding architecture. There are many examples of silos, towering structures in concrete, whose mass effect is one of the finest achievements 1n modern architecture.

Grain elevators, in which huge quantities

of grain are stored, weighed and shipped need not be the ungainly

structures which they are occasionally. An example of well de-

signed silos.is that at Capetown Harbour where a large grain elevator gives a scale and fits well into the background afforded by Table Mountain.

The enormous height of the grain elevator is mainly due to the therefore fact that the thrust of the grain is constant and it is economic design to carry these structures to a great height. In

addition to these huge structures, small silos are found alongside the railroads in agricultural districts of the grain producing countries for ensiling the produce of the local centres.

Markets.—In recent times there have been a few new examples of that old institution, the market, which is now chiefly

OFFICES]

INDUSTRIAL

ARCHITECTURE

used for the sale of perishable goods. The advent of the large store buildings has been a determent to their extended use, and so it is only in a few cases where a large self contained market has

been a practical proposition. The huge factories which now deal in perishable manufactures have also restricted the extension of the market system. But there are examples such as T. Garnier’s market at Lyons which is in itself an industrial group and has

skillfully combated the problem of dealing with a large floating population. (D. T. W.) III. COMMERCIAL BUILDINGS Under this heading are included all buildings designed for the purchase, sale, exchange or transport of goods or for the work mvolved in the financing of businesses, etc. In former times the bulk of business was carried on between individuals and their more or less immediate neighbours; when the business concerns, then comparatively small, built at all it was for themselves; 40 years ago à small building or one or two floors in a larger one sufficed. The corporation, the trust and the super-trust have since been organized. To-day nearly all business is national in scope, and much of it international; it requires great headquarters in the principal cities, notably the larger ones, and sky-scrapers in concentrated masses, grouped for centralized business as in New York, co-ordinate and speed it up. Business has either to build for itself on a vast scale or else to rent space in the build-

ings now being erected with a rapidity heretofore unequalled (see

283

tion, or at least members of the same profession, and in New York, for example, the installation of common services, notably for doctors, in whole buildings occupied by them, has been carried even further to include rooms for special examinations, appliances and even attendants. Authorities differ as to what constitutes the ideal office unit; they agree that it is better to have less space (less capital investment) permanently rented at a high figure than much space partially rented at a low figure. Lighting is the important factor here. The depth, z.¢., distance from windows to corridor, of a welllighted office is never more than twice the clear ceiling height. Twenty feet is better than twenty-five. The width of the unit varies with the distance between steel columns, which economical engineering consideration places at not less than r5 ft. nor more than 22 feet. In the best office units each internal division can be subdivided into smaller rooms in the single large office unit. Although a 4 ft. corridor might serve all practical purposes, the width should increase with the length for the sake of beauty of proportion. Corridors should also increase in size as they approach the elevators. The building lot at the architect’s disposal determines the arrangement of offices. It should be noted that “dark” spots, such as always occur where a wing joins the main building, are used, as far as possible, for the necessary utilities, such as elevators, stairways and smoke towers. Toilets can be artificially ventilated and lighted, but it seems better to place them on small back courts, which furnish inferior office space at best, thereby retaining some degree of natural light and full natural ventilation. The British building laws require outside toilets, always; z.e., they must always have outside windows, no matter how much artifcial ventilation

ARCHITECTURE). Building space is produced where it is needed and where speculating builders think it will be; it is manufactured, rented, sold; it differs from other merchantable commodities only in that it cannot be transported; but for this reason, and because considerable capital is necessary for any building and full : returns on the investment may not come in for years, speculation may be provided. Staircases and Elevators.—In American office buildings, in this field is small. The need for larger buildings and the introduction of skeleton stairways are little more than fire-escapes. As the law requires construction, two factors that appeared almost simultaneously, them to be entirely enclosed with fire-resisting walls and doors, have resulted in the new American architecture whose buildings they are never conspicuous and rarely visible. In London, where have tremendous bases and multi-storeyed towers (see ARCHITEC- the height of buildings is limited to nine or At the most ten storeys, TURE). To preserve adequate light and air for all, however, in there is one conspicuous open stairway and there are one or two most American cities the form of the new buildings is restricted sets of enclosed stairs. Elevators are often the key to the plan scheme and are usually by law, with a tower of unlimited height sometimes permitted on an area equal to one-fourth of the lot (see Zonrnc). Aestheti- grouped together for greater service efficiency. Even small buildcally, the most refined effect and greatest symmetry, and practi- ings have at least two (because of possible breakdown), and if cally, the best lighting and ventilation, are obtainable when this more are needed on account of greater floor area or greater numtower rises from the centre of the lot, a position in which it can also ber of storeys, they are so placed that a tenant waiting for a be taller and structurally stronger than when placed elsewhere. lift may be able to step easily to the first one that flashes a signal. A battery of six elevators, three facing three, is the ideal arrangeOFFICE PLANNING ment. Eight, four facing four, are possible. More than eight in Since the office building of the sky-scraper type is the most one battery is not practical, because then the passenger might not distinctive example of commercial architecture, let us consider reach the lift before it had passed. If more than one system is itin detail. The'usual procedure in most plan studies is to start installed, the systems must be separated enough for each to serve With the ground floor and build up. But in planning office build- effectively an entirely new area, and the plan problem simply reings, and this applies to apartments and hotels as well (see SOCIAL peats itself; z.e., two buildings side by side, but. with connecting ARCHITECTURE), the architect reverses this process and plans from corridors. the top down. That is to say, he develops a typical upper-floor Just as 1oo ft. each way from the elevator line is the convenplan first, because the major income is derived from these typical ient limit one may go horizontally, 15 storeys is about the limit of floors, and if some sacrifice is to be made, it can better be made effective service for a single battery. As the building with ground on the ground floor than on the office floors. A typical office unit area for one group of elevators increases in height, it may require is frst determined upon, a series of such units is arranged along a battery of more than eight, in which case the problem becomes both sides of a corridor, and then the line of vertical circulation two buildings, one placed on top of the other, with the vertical (lifts or elevators) is fixed at a central point on this corridor so circulation .of the upper structure running through the lower as an that no tenant is obliged to walk more than roo ft. from his office “express” service. door to an elevator. Utility spaces—toilets, cleaners’ closets, vent Lighting.—Window spacing and height is an important conshafts, lues, etc.—are then added and the plan is completed. A sideration. The usual bay between steel columns is from 15 to 20 type of plan which, with the ever-increasing concentration of feet. Experience seems to dictate the use of two windows in this business and the development. of larger and larger organizations, bay. One window to a bay gives too much wall space and too is rapidly becoming popular, is that in which a building is de- little light; three windows give too little wall space and too much signed as a solid mass, as opposed to the more usual type in which light. An even field of equally spaced windows is more elastic for it contains area-ways and courts. The typical upper-floor plan of interior division into offices. The amount of natural light is not as such buildings shows a series of connecting offices on the outside, important as the quality of light. Windows located with regard while the artificially lighted and ventilated core of the building is to exterior architectural effect rather than to interior comfort given over to elevators and rooms for storage, conferences, etc., and convenience sometimes extend nearly to the floor, while above belonging 1n common to the occupants of the various offices. This is left a dark void of wall space and ceiling. Many windows of type necessitates each floor being occupied by a complete organiza- average size are preferable to a few large openings, just as several

284

INDUSTRIAL

ARCHITECTURE

[BANKS

well-distributed ceiling lights in a room give better illumination

is more important. While in a building occupying such a square

than one powerful centre light. In most northern countries, par-

several entrances would be placed along the side streets and both avenues, a starting point for distribution might be determined a a point near the most important avenue. A moving stair or similar contrivance might be developed to carry passengers toward the rear and sides of the building while rising. This would probably serve only the first ro or 12 storeys, as, owing to the narrow side streets, most building laws permit an average of only about 12 storeys, with a tower on an area equal to one-fourth of the base. Due to the size of the average city squares, buildings more than 200 ft. wide from the elevator centre are improbable. The architectural treatment of a building for advertising purposes is receiving increasing consideration. The Telephone Company and Sears Roebuck and Company are but two examples in the United States that, each having their own architects,

ticularly North America, window openings have to be suitable for both tropical summers and severe winters; while large glass surfaces are attractive in warm weather, they cause financial loss

in the heating of buildings and discomfort in cold. Ground Floors and Basements.—No general principles can be formulated for the planning of ground floors, basements and sub-basements, because conditions vary widely according to the local problem.

In the entrance hall, in addition to the elevators,

telephone booths, news-stands, etc., specialty shops of all kinds and frequently a bank occupy the spaces opening on the streets. The entrance hall itself is often lavishly adorned; magnificent and

imposing entrances are appreciated by the tenants and facilitate the renting of space. The ceilings are often treated in colour; the metal-work on the doors, elevators and mail chutes is sometimes masterfully conceived and executed; large lamps made up of vertical and horizontal planes of coloured glass hang from the ceiling; an effect of spaciousness is striven for. Straight lines and simplicity in the various designs introduce an air of modernism. The number of floors below the street level depends on the height and, to some extent, on the location of the building. Some very high buildings have as many as five floors below the street level. In some, situated near subway stations, tunnels run from the building to the station; the first basement floor then becomes a second entrance hall; however, it is usually simply treated and such services as boot-black stands and extra telephones are in-

stalled. Caretakers’ quarters, boilers and other mechanical equipment are located on various of these subterranean floors according to the needs of the problem. Theory and Forecast.—A business city is essentially a manufacturing plant producing everything from architectural plans to legal briefs. It is created with a full service of streets and buildings but is used to full capacity hardly eight hours a day with Sundays off. The plant works at 30% efficiency. Cities have never been intelligently planned because they have never been planned co-operatively. Individual buildings have been well designed from the point of view of distinct units, but never from the point of view of the community as a whole. There is a tendency in building to utilize larger and larger lots. In New York city, for example, the Telephone building and the New York Life Insurance Company building both occupy small city squares. If the city square were made the lot unit for a building, it would be possible to design structures to serve better the various needs of modern city life, with each building a coherent part of the whole scheme. Buildings so planned could contain apartment dwellings in the top storeys and commercial spaces in the lower; a man leaving his office could then take an elevator to his home; the enormous waste entailed at present when practically whole city populations are transported to and from their places of business twice daily would be eliminated. The cores of such buildings would be given over to elevators, communal services and theatres, elements in which artificial light and ventilation suffice. By using an arcaded side-walk one storey up with bridges at the cross streets the present side-walks could be given over to vehicles and the capacity of the present streets increased. Farther up, at the first set-back, above which would be residences, would be a second side-walk, as a promenade. The other set-backs could be used for terraces and gardens. Business and residence would be united, economy effected and an abundance of light and air provided for the dwellings. On the ground floor, on a level with the vehicular traffic, could be supply services, motors, power and electricity, while underground would be parking spaces, and, further down, sewerage. When a building occupies an entire city square, it requires four distinct lines of distributing elevators instead of one or two. It becomes four buildings instead of one; 2.e., four similar units with connecting corridors. It might be possible to provide means of transporting people through buildings in some way other than or additional to the present system of elevators. None has yet been tried. There has been no building large enough. A large city square, 200 ft. by 800 ft., generally faces two avenues of which one

give their buildings throughout the country a distinctive appear.

ance. In the American Radiator building, New York city, Ray. mond Hood has portrayed in the black shaft and the gold and red crest the glow and warmth of heating apparatus. Such advertising features, used as an inherent part of a building's composition,

have aesthetic as well as commercial value. The time is coming when crude signs will be considered as offensive as foul smells; restrictions on noise, smells and ugliness will increase as the aesthetic sense of the public is educated.

The illumination of the exteriors of buildings at night will, probably, play an important part in the city architecture of the future. Already flood-lights are used on the upper set-backs to illuminate the topmost storeys. With the development of new materials and the ever-improving methods of lighting, it is possible that the giant buildings of future cities will be beacons that light both directly and by reflection the streets themselves. BANK BUILDINGS

The planning of modern banks and financial institutions involves the many mechanical improvements that affect lighting, ventilation and control, and the new inter-communicating devices that facilitate the rapid transaction of business. Due largely to experiments made by the Federal Reserve System of the United States, established by act of Dec. 23, 1913, vault construction has made notable advances, certain types of vault being virtually impregnable to fire, burglar and even mob attack. Although these practical matters are part of the architect’s work, they do not materially affect the aesthetic problem. One tendency that does concern the purely architectural aspect should be noted. The main banking room, where the major part of the public transacts business, is becoming more and more the architectural feature of the interior. Even the officers of the bank, from the president down, are quartered in this space, and the various partitions necessary to separate bank employees and public take the form of screens, counters, rails, etc., which thereby become a kind of furniture rather than an architectural separation. Some of these great banking rooms are among the most magnificent and richly treated spaces in modern architecture, comparable to the interiors of government buildings (see GOVERNMENTAL ARCHITECTURE), or those of the palaces of former times. The period when it was considered necessary for banks to be designed like Greek temples has passed, and their most characteristic exterior feature to-day is an air of solidity and permanence. They frequently occupy part or all of the ground floor in office buildings, but where a whole building is constructed for one, the exterior (through few windows and wide expanses of smooth wall and imposing metal ornament) is designed to give an effect of impregnability and endurance. Iron, especially since the

invention of non-rustable iron alloys, has been used increasingly

in grilles, for it has inherent decorative qualities as well as the appearance of strength. The vault is usually placed in the basement, for it is more easily protected there, and, according to the psychology of safety, it is a better advertising feature for it to be situated underground than on the main floor where it is conspicuous to every passer-by. Among large banks it is becoming customary for the same architects to design all the branches, giv* ing them a characteristic style; their common qualities, howevet,

INDUSTRIAL

STORES]

are usually achieved through decoration, since the dissimilarity in lot sizes and building shapes makes it difficult to get much similarity in exterior design. STORES

Following the trend of all commercial and industrial construction, stores are being concentrated in larger units. The small shop

on the street level continues to exist, and, the modern designers of its facade, in both Europe and America, in their efforts to attract the passer-by, have taken full advantage of new materials,

combinations of colours and tastes in composition (see SHop

Front DESIGN). The great department store is the principal mod-

ern solution of the retailing problem. The building often covers an

entire city block (occasionally even two), and is sometimes many storeys in height. By means of quantity purchase and elaborately developed service and delivery systems, the department store sup-

plies the public with every kind of commodity, so competing with

the specialty shops. In its design the architect must consider (1)

the movement of people, and (2) the movement of merchandise. In Paris and Berlin the centrally lighted “well” type of store, with its surrounding galleries, is still the rule and gives an impressive interior which is both airy and attractive. But in London and New York every inch of floor-space is utilized, and artificial illumination takes the place of the natural light proceeding from the sky-light over the central well. In fact, American building laws in most cities do not permit the open well form of store because of fire hazard. In addition to the usual lifts, the movement of shoppers is facilitated by means of mechanical devices such as escalators and ramps. Intercommunicating belt conveyors, etc., are usually installed to speed the movement of merchandise. TRANSPORT

Although architecture relating to transport is here listed in the commercial category, transport affects every branch of human endeavour more or less directly and might well be discussed under

any or all subdivisions of contemporary architecture. Railway Terminals.—This is the most important problem the architect has to deal with in this group. Mammoth stations are becoming an impressive feature of the modern cicy and, since the advent of electricity has largely eliminated the old-fashioned smoke-filled shed that architects formerly tried to express, they offer fine opportunities for architectural genius. There are two reasons: the tendency to combine the terminals of several railways in a central or union depot, and the increasing realization that railway stations are the real gateways of the modern city. Moreover, business communities grow up around railway stations, property values increase, and the terminal may then take the form of a sky-scraper with income producing offices in its upper storeys. Hotels adjacent to, and even connected with, the terminal are, of course, frequent. First impressions are likely to be lasting ones, and no better point could be chosen at which to make an effective display. Even in small towns and villages, stations are being erected in keeping with the local environment and designed with an eye to artistic fitness. Generally speaking, two classes of people make use of a station; those travelling daily to adjacent suburbs, who know precisely where and how to go, and desire to reach their trains with the least possible inconvenience; and strangers who must make inquiries at every turn. The architect, therefore, has to provide an entrance of generous proportions leading directly to à central hall where information booths, booking-offices, luggagetooms, parcel deposits, news-stands, etc., are convenient, and from which gates to trains, conspicuously marked, are readily accessible.

Furthermore, the movement of trains, luggage and freight in-

volves engineering complications of no mean order. These exact-

mg requirements have been met with notable success in several

imposing structures. The Pennsylvania station (McKim, Mead and White, architects), and the Grand Central terminal (Warren and Wetmore, architects), both in New York, the Union station in Washington, D.C. (D. H. Burnham and Company, architects), € new Union station in Chicago (Graham, Anderson, Probst

and White, architects), and the station at Helsingfors, Finland (Eliel Saarinen, architect), are some of the most impressive

examples. (See RAILROAD PASSENGER TERMINALS.)

ARTICLES

285

Airports.—The growing popularity of air transport has cast a new challenge to the architect. International air travel is an accepted fact on the continent of Europe to-day, and its air terminals require all the passenger facilities of railway stations plus the customs provisions of steamship docks. At the airport of the future passengers will doubtless be able to take different lines to diferent countries and transfer from one line to another. Future airports will be centres of international as well as domestic travel; the boundaries of a country will no longer mark its ports

of foreign call. Since the first requisite of an airport is a good flying field, it is usually situated outside the city that it serves; consequently hotel and restaurant facilities must be previded for both passengers and pilots, and subway or bus terminals for the lines transporting people to and from the field. The architectural development of the airport is in its infancy. For the most part flying fields have been equipped merely with mechanical requisites, and planned mainly from an engineering viewpoint. With the present rapid growth of the industry, however, the possibilities afforded for designing airports with imposing and striking effect, making use of the most recent methods of construction and lighting, and the need for these new entrances to nations and cities to be impressively ‘planned is becoming appreciated. Perhaps the most striking design at the present time is that planned by Maurice Chauchon for Pau, France, 50 m. from Bor| deaux, which is considered a strategic site for airway travel. The international aerodrome, 370 ft. wide by 260 ft. long, will hold three giant commercial continental passenger planes, the wingspread of each being about 130 feet. The plan is conceived in such a way that the hangars can be made longer and more added when necessary. Parts of aeroplanes and all mechanical supplies required will be kept on hand in adjoining machine shops. The project calls for a restaurant, hotel, customs-house, information bureau, ticket office, money change booth with provisions for the exchange of foreign money, porters, radio and meteorological service. A roof of glass slabs set in reinforced concrete provides daylight illumination for the main hangar. At night, at either side of the aerodrome, two lateral beams can be deflected over the ground to indicate the best angles for landing, according to the

direction of the wind; two vertical beams, each of 1,000,000 candle power, are especially adapted for foggy weather; a permanent light will always be displayed in the right-hand corner of the field; the name PAU, in illuminated letters 70 ft. long, will be so sunk in the ground that planes can taxi over it safely. (H. W. C.)

INDUSTRIAL

ARTICLES.

The various aspects of in-

dustry, its development and ramifications are fully dealt with either in key articles or under separate headings, while in the separate articles devoted to the great industries themselves will be found historical introductions of those industries together with indications of the general linking up of modern industry. The following branches of the study of industrial conditions are treated under special headings, viz:— ASSOCIATIONS, INDUSTRIAL; ELECTRIFICATION OF INDUSTRY; FATIGUE IN INDUSTRY; INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENTS; INDUSTRIAL CouNCILS; INDUSTRIAL CoURT; INDUSTRIAL FATIGUE RESEARCH BOARD; INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE; INDUSTRIAL PsvcHorocv; IwDUSTRIAL RELATIONS; INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION; INDUSTRIAL ‘TRANSFERENCE; INDUSTRIAL WELFARE AND Meprcine; INDUSTRIAL WORKERS OF THE WORLD; and NATIONAL WonksHoPs. ÁÀ special article, INDUSTRY AND Trane, War CONTROL OF, embodies the chief industrial lessons learned from the World War. Labour’s increasing activities in coming to grips with organized

industry are well-covered in the various articles on LABOUR and its connotations. Labour colonies are found treated in the article Farm Corony, and other leading articles of interest to students of labour and its problems are LAsour DAY; EMPLOYMENT ExCHANGE; Houns or LABOUR; STRIKES AND Lock-oUTS; TRADE Unions; TRADE UNION ConcrESS; TRADE, WORLD’s STATISTICS, and kindred articles such as TRusts and TRADE ORGANIZATION. All the main articles are supplied with full cross-references to subsidiary articles where further and, in some cases, more detailed

286

INDUSTRIAL

ASSOCIATIONS—INDUSTRIAI,

information will be found.

INDUSTRIAL

ASSOCIATIONS: see Associations, IN-

DUSTRIAL.

INDUSTRIAL

CHEMISTRY

may be broadly defined as

applied chemistry, whether in testing laboratories or in chemical industry. Recent compilations by the National Research Council indicate more than 1,000 industrial research laboratories in America, and to these should be added laboratories which analyse materials against specifications, exercise control over some industrial processes, and examine finished products with reference to published guarantees or the purchasers’ stated requirements. The recognition of adequate analysis and testing has spread to department store and individual laboratories as well as to corporation and Federal Government laboratories. The interpretation of analytical results is usually more important than the data themselves. Even the older industries such as baking, ceramics and textile manufacture now recognize the necessity of chemical control as a major step in plant efficiency, cost reduction, waste elimination and uniform properties of saleable products. Many industries not commonly regarded as chemical industries are

successful only when under complete chemical control. The manufacture of sugar, tanning of the best leather, and the manufacture of steel are examples. Remarkable strides have been made in the chemical industry since 1914, when the World War made necessary the rapid creation of such an industry to supply the shortage of many necessities, particularly in the field of organic chemistry. This situation confronted England, America, France, Italy, Japan and practically all civilized countries, since Germany had specialized in this type of manufacture and exercised a virtual world monopoly. As a result, many countries determined to become self-contained so far as the chemical industry was concerned, providing in particular chemical compounds such as synthetic pharmaceuticals, medicinals and dyes which, though comparatively small in tonnage, bear such relation to other industries as to give them the character of a “key” material. The end of the World War saw a world supply far in excess of the demand for many types of industrial chemicals. There followed a number of drastic readjustments. Many of the smaller manufacturers had to discontinue and sell out to their financially stronger associates, or unite themselves in groups. The laws and customs of the different countries have directed this readjustment to a great extent. In Europe cartels have been formed. The most important example is the Interessengemeinschaft or “I.G.” of Germany, which has become a cartel of international importance, with connections reaching into not only all major lines of chemical industry but into allied fields, particularly those concerned with raw materials. Consolidations have taken place in Great Britain, giving rise to Imperial Chemical Industries, Ltd., an exceedingly strong group composed of the major chemical manufacturers of Great Britain. There have been international agreements on the European continent with respect to division of market, consolidation of sales and advertising, and similar functions. In the United States there have also been certain groupings or consolidations, but due to the Sherman Anti-Trust law, there has been nothing approaching the I.G. in extent. NEW

INDUSTRIES

Chemistry has introduced many new notes into industry. The photographic industry is an example of one founded on a single chemical fact, namely, that halogen salts of silver turn dark in the light. Unpromising raw materials have been made the basis of new industries such as the manufacture of ethylene glycol and its derivatives from natural gas, and the preparation of amyl alcohol and compounds derived therefrom, from pentane separated from natural gas gasolene. Cellulose derived from wood, cotton and annual growing stocks, has been made the promising raw material of the immediate future, and already supplies a variety of lacquers, several kinds of artificial silk or rayon, artificial leath-

COUNCILS

moulding compounds, enabling metal inserts to be moulded i; place, and intricate forms to be produced by a single operation, Acetic acid, once a by-product of wood distillation, is now produced by fermentation, and acetic anhydride is prepared by catal.

ysis from acetylene gas. Methanol is prepared on a great scale from gases derived from coal. Aluminium since its introduction into industry has become a metal of many uses produced in great quantity. Metals such as tungsten, tantalum and molyb. denum, once regarded as rare, are now important commercially, Another service has been the supply of materials prepared accord. ing to precise requirements. The range of alloys permits to-day a careful selection, depending upon the peculiar use, thus contributing directly to economic savings possible through longer life in service or resistance to rust and corrosion. In the field of organic chemistry the work of arranging atoms and molecules to order has been of the greatest importance. The organic chemist begins by isolating and identifying the active principle of some natural medicinal product. When the characteristics of such a compound have become established, he then proceeds to synthesis. This work begins in the laboratory and when perfected there, goes through semi-works development and innumerable physiological tests before manufacture is attempted on

a commercial basis. By this method it has at times been possible to eliminate groups of atoms found to be responsible for such deleterious properties as habit-forming, or perhaps other groups are added in the synthetic product to widen the use of the compound or make it more specific. Such work does not always start with natural products, for organic chemistry now produces in commercial quantities numbers of compounds quite different from anything known in nature and devised to meet a particular need. Chemistry is valued by industry on many accounts. It serves to guard raw materials as to quality and supplements them by establishing new sources. It prevents waste by assisting in the selection of materials for particular uses, thereby avoiding the production of “seconds.” It turns by-products into profits and often creates a new industry as a result. It speeds production by the improvement of processes and by imparting improved physical characteristics through changes in chemical composition. It protects the guarantee by determining in advance that the warranted material will meet specifications. It supplies reliable information as to products and processes as well as trends in industry; such information may save industry by avoiding surprise. It bas assisted in breaking monopolies and in countless instances has reduced costs to a surprising degree. Since chemistry is a fundamental science dealing with the ways of materials, it naturally occupies a position in the front rank of the aids to modern industry. (H. E. H.)

INDUSTRIAL

COUNCILS.

In the principal British in-

dustries working conditions in the widest sense—including wages, hours of labour and terms of employment generally—are normally settled or adjusted by some form of direct negotiation between employers organised in associations and workpeople organised in trade unions. As between these organisations there has been built up, in many industries, more especially those engaged in the export trade, stable and definite machinery for discussion often comprising elaborate local and national arrangements for com ciliation and for arbitration in the last resort. Thus the half century prior to the World War witnessed, side by side with the

growth of representative associations formed for contest, the joint development by these organisations of conciliation or arbitration machinery for avoiding disputes or settling them if they arose. A Royal Commission appointed in 1891 drew attention to the existence and spread of these voluntary conciliation boards

and urged their extension and encouragement. In rgrr an attempt

was made by the State to strengthen the machinery of conciliation by the establishment of an Industrial Council of a national character, comprised of r3 representatives of employers and a corre-

sponding number of workpeople and presided over by a nominated ers, Sausage casings and films used for a variety of display and independent chairman, “for the purpose of considering and ewrapping purposes. Synthetic resins, prepared in the laboratory, quiring into matters referred to them affecting trade disputes, and have provided a building material of great importance in these | especially of taking suitable action in regard to any dispute te days of mass production, lending themselves particularly to į ferred to them affecting the principal trades of the country a$

INDUSTRIAL

COURT—INDUSTRIAL

likely to cause disagreement involving ancillary trades, if the parties before or after the breaking out of a dispute are themselves unable to settle.” The Industrial Council of r9rr functioned for a time, but in the special circumstances created by the

war it fell into abeyance. Since the war the extensive voluntary machinery for direct discussion between organised employers and

workpeople has been supplemented by the creation of Joint In-

dustrial Councils formed in accordance with the recommendations of the Whitley committee of 1917.

See also INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS, CONCILIATION AND ARBITRATION, WHITLEY COUNCILS, STRIKES AND LOCKOUTS. (J.H.) INDUSTRIAL COURT. The Industrial Court is a permanent Court of Industrial Arbitration to which

the British

Minister of Labour can refer, with the consent of both parties, industrial disputes for settlement. The Court had its origin in the recommendations of the Whitley committee (report of 1918) which were in part to the effect that there should be established

INSURANCE

287

services which they rendered, other organizations founded on a broader basis, and employing the medium of collectors, were established, and have developed to such a degree that the business now transacted by the larger collecting societies and industrial insurance companies has attained enormous proportions. The provision of funeral benefits remains the predominant function of the system. The advantages of life insurance as a means of making provision for dependents are, however, becoming more generally appreciated. The great majority of the contracts in force consist of whole-life policies, but the popularity of endowment assurance, which is so conspicuous a feature of ordinary life insurance business, appears to be extending in some measure to industrial insurance. The principal characteristics of the system are well known, and all, or at least some of them, are present in a greater or less degree in every form of industrial insurance policy: the sums

assured are small in amount, the premiums are collected by agents a standing arbitration council to which differences might be sub- at the homes of the assured, and are generally payable weekly mitted in cases where the parties failed to reach an agreement and or at other short intervals, and the weekly premium is the basic wished to refer to arbitration. Effect was given to these recom- unit of the tables, the sum assured being the variable depending mendations in the Industrial Courts Act, 1919. Under Part I. upon the age of the policyholder and the form of policy. It is of this act a trade dispute may be reported to the minister of interesting to note that the statutory definitions of industrial labour, whereupon the minister has to take the matter into con- insurance have varied in different countries, and even from time sideration and to take such steps as seem to him expedient for to time in the same country according as emphasis is laid on one the settlement thereof. This enables the minister, if the parties or other of these characteristics. to the dispute consent, to endeavour to settle the dispute by conIn Great Britain industrial assurance business is defined by the ciliation. The fact that such action is taken only by the consent Industrial Assurance Act, 1923, as that of effecting assurances of the parties ensures that negotiations are carried on under upon human life, premiums in respect of which are received by favourable conditions; and it is by conciliation that the majority means of collectors, and are payable at intervals of less than two of disputes in which the minister is called upon to intervene are months. In the same Act a collector is described as a person who settled, in many cases by the ultimate agreement of the parties to makes house-to-house visits for the purpose of receiving life refer their difference to arbitration. An important provision of assurance premiums. the act (section 2 [4]) is designed to ensure that, before a difThe British System.—An account of the British system may ference can be referred to arbitration, any existing joint concilia- serve to indicate the essential principles governing the conduct of tion or arbitration machinery shall have been tried and found industrial insurance business wherever it may be transacted. wanting. The arbitration procedure outlined in the act is that the In Great Britain industrial assurance business is regulated minister of labour may, with the consent of the parties, refer mainly by the Industrial Assurance Act, 1923, 13 and 14 Geo. 5, c. differences to arbitration either by the Industrial Court, a single 8. The institutions authorized to transact the business of industrial arbitrator, or a board of arbitration constituted of employers and assurance are divided into two classes, registered friendly societies, workpeople with an independent chairman. During 1927 there referred to in the Act as collecting societies, and assurance comwere issued 82 decisions on cases referred to the Court for deter- panies, referred to in the Act as industrial assurance companies. mination, making a total of 1,354 decisions since the establishment The operations of registered friendly societies are governed by of the Court. In Part II. of the Industrial Courts Act the minister the Friendly Societies Acts, and those of assurance companies by is given power to enquire into the causes and circumstances of à the Assurance Companies Act, 1909, and the provisions of these dispute, whether apprehended or existing, and if he thinks fit, Acts so far as they have not been superseded or repealed by the to refer any matters appearing to him to be connected with or 1923 Act continue to apply to societies and companies transacting relevant to the dispute to a Court of Inquiry. This power is industrial assurance business. Under the Act the Chief Registrar intended to be exercised by the Minister in cases in which, in his of Friendly Societies is constituted the sole authority for the opinion, the interests of the public are involved and the object is supervision of industrial assurance business, and in this capacity to render the public familiar with the authentic facts of the dis- is to be known as, and styled, the Industrial Assurance Compute. A Court of Inquiry is not a form of arbitration, and there missioner. The powers conferred upon the commissioner include Is no question of securing the consent of the disputants to its not only those in relation to industrial assurance business hitherto appointment. Courts of Inquiry have power to request persons to vested in the Board of Trade and the Chief Registrar of Friendly gve evidence and, though no penalties are attached to failure to Societies respectively, but also certain others of a far-reaching fulfil the request, in no case has it been refused. Up to the end character. He may reject any account, return a balance sheet of 1927 sixteen Courts of Inquiry had been appointed. that does not comply with the requirements of the Act, and give See Reports of the Ministry of Labour for years 1923 and 1924 such directions as he thinks necessary for the variation thereof. (Cmd. 2,481) and for 1927 (Cmd. 3,090). (J. H.) Disputes may be referred to him, and acting in a judicial capacity

INDUSTRIAL

ELECTRIFICATION:

see ELECTRIFI-

CATION OF INDUSTRY. INDUSTRIAL FATIGUE RESEARCH BOARD, a body constituted in 1918 in Great Britain under the control of the Medical Research Council to study, on scientific lines, prob-

lems relating to the human factor in industry. It is responsible for a special series of published reports. (See FATIGUE IN INDUS-

TRY; and INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY.)

, INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE.

The system of industrial

insurance in its present forma has been evolved from the endeavours on the part of small local burial societies to secure to persons in humble circumstances a sum sufficient to defray their funeral expenses. Many of these small societies are still in existence, but

as it became apparent that there was a general demand for the

he may hear and determine such cases. He has power to investi-

gate offences, and in cases where he has reasonable cause to believe that an offence has been committed or is likely to be committed, he is authorized to hold an inspection into the affairs of the society or company. His decisions in the more important cases are published in the annual report which he is required to make each year of his proceedings under the Act, and which is to be laid before Parliament. By the 1923 Act every company and society transacting industrial insurance business is required to deposit and to keep deposited with the Paymaster General in respect of such business the sum of £20,000. Under the Life Assurance Act, 1774, a policy issued to one

person on the life of another is invalid unless the person proposing the assurance has an insurable interest. By the 1923

288

INDUSTRIAL

[COLLECTING

INSURANCE

Act and the Friendly Societies Act 1924, policies insuring money agents. There is an increasing tendency, however, especially in to be paid for the funeral expenses of a parent, child, grand- the case of endowment assurances, to quote the sums assured by parent, grandchild, brother or sister are not to be invalidated by monthly premiums, and as in ordinary assurance business to show the premiums required to provide specified sums assured. The the absence of insurable interest. The maximum sums payable on the death of a child are, however, fixed at £6 for children following are specimen rates taken from the prospectus of a large British office:—The sum assured at death by a premium of one under three years of age, £10 for children up to six years of age, penny per week is, for age next birthday at entry 10, £r5:0:o; and £15 for children up to ten years of age. £7 178.; age 40, £5 75.5; age 50, £3 9s.; The provisions of the Act relating to valuations are of great age 20, £10 188.; age 30, age 60, £2 3s. A premium of 5s. paid every four weeks will secure the and actuary, importance. The valuation must be made by an at the expiration of 15 years or at death, if previous, for age at liabilities, the on value proper a place to as such be to is basis regard being had to the mortality experience, to the average rate of interest from investments and to the expenses of management including commission. There is in the Act no suggestion of anything in the nature of a standard basis of valuation or of a maximum scale of expenditure on management. A certificate is

entry 1, £45; age 10, £44 58.; age 20, £43 58.; age 30, £42 1as.;

age 40, £40 15s.; and age 50, £37 IOS.

In Great Britain, since 1919, almost all offices have issued revised tables giving more favourable terms than formerly. This has been made possible by the general decrease in the death-rate, to be given by the same persons as sign the balance sheet that and the increase in the rate of interest obtainable on investments, It may be anticipated that with the continuance of these inthe assets are in the aggregate fully of the value stated therein. fluences, profits will enure, to a share of which policyholders will it order and valuation, a reject to power has The commissioner no doubt be admitted, even although industrial insurance policies to be amended, and may direct further particulars and explanathe right of participation in profits. Several tions to be furnished in order to satisfy himself whether the usually do not carry offices, both proprietary and mutual, have for some time had valuation a If Act. the of valuation complies with the provisions bonus schemes in operation, and surpluses have been distributed discloses a deficiency the commissioner may, if he is satisfied that the society or company should cease to carry on business, take either in the form of additions to the sum assured or curtailment of the period for which premiums were originally payable. One the necessary steps to have it wound up. Lapsed Policies.—The large number of lapsed policies has been large company for many years gave “mortuary” bonuses, that is, additions to the sum assured varying with the duration of the a frequent subject of complaint in regard to industrial insurance policies, in all cases becoming claims during the ensuing year or business. The Act, however, contains stringent provisions for a further specified period, but to policies issued since Jan. 1, safeguarding the rights of owners of policies. Before the foronly on the policy remaining in feiture of a policy can be incurred, a notice of the arrears owing 1923, a vested bonus conditional force for five years is allotted in respect of the premiums paid in the If pay. to which in allowed days 28 and must be served each year. This is a reversionary bonus, payable at the same time prea for force arrears are not paid, and the policy has been in thus introducing into industrial assurassured, sum original the as application making on is policy the of owner the period, scribed of surplus previously conto the insuring office within one year from the date of the notice, ance business a system of distribution for which information year last the In business. ordinary to fined entitled to a free paid-up policy or in certain circumstances to a policyholders industrial its to distributed company this available is value the ascertaining for prescribed surrender value. Rules are large Another millions. £3 of short far not to amounting surplus of a policy and for determining the amount of the free paid-up company has extended to existing policyholders the proprietary in printed be to are forfeiture regarding provisions The policy. advantages of the new tables intended for future entrants, under every premium receipt book. larger benefits are insured. These concessions to industrial which The Industrial Assurance Act, 1923, was the direct outcome of are examples of the general disposition on the part policyholders in appointed committee the recommendations of a departmental proprietors to admit them to a share in the and directors of 1919 by the Board of Trade to enquire into the business carried It must be pointed out, however, that company. the of prosperity The societies. collecting and companies on by industrial assurance a number of offices has been to confronting task first the report committee in the following year presented a unanimous standard required by the 1923 Act. the to reserves their criticizing the methods of some of the offices, and proposing strengthen first complete return of the results of the of publication The amending legislation. valuations under the British 1923 Act affords an opportunity of COLLECTING surveying the position of British Industrial Assurance organizaCostly Collections.—The great problem which all industrial insurance companies, no matter where they may be established, have to solve is the reduction of expenditure. The collection of premiums by agents is necessarily a costly process, and owing to the smallness of the sums involved, the expense ratio must inevitably be considerably higher than in the case of ordinary life

assurance business.

tions. The date of valuation in the majority of the cases was Dec. 31, 1926. The following is a summary of the results:— British Industrial Insurance Returns Industrial

assurance

ordinary business at a cost of about r2 to 1596 of the premiums, || No. of companies

but from the evidence furnished to the departmental committee

ee

Total

COINS

Most companies are able to conduct their

or societies.

18

170

188

71,626,000 15,529,000 56,097,000 . of policies expenditure :of com- || Noannual total thatiethe average it appeared . | £821,542,000 | £202,051,000 | £1,024,493,000 Sums assured ; : i 1 {107,322,000 £32,634,000 £164,688,000 | . ds panies and societies on industrial business tor the six years || Assurancefun 18,524,000 11,035,000 £6,589,000 . . 1912-17 represented about 44% of the premium Income. In 1926 || Surplusss £410,000 £357,000 £53,000 , the expense ratio for all companies had fallen to 34% and for || Deficiencies . weighted is ratios two these of former The 41%. to all societies From an analysis of the returns it can be affirmed that there heavily by the experience of the largest company whose rate of strengthening of the bases of valuation, that expenditure has shown a progressive decline to 26%, a figure which has been a definite of expenses to the premium income is diminishing, is much lower than that of any other company. The substitution the proportion improvement in the administration of the general a that and of a salary basis of remuneration for that of commission is becomof the policyholders is being effected. interests business in the ing more usual, and the introduction of the "Block system," s to the sums assured appears to surpluse the of on proporti The under which a given area is exclusively allotted to a particular for the companies, but this 35 than societies the be greater for agent, promises to be productive of satisfactory results. es’ surpluses are in most compani the that fact the to able attribut The tables issued by industrial assurance companies usually those of the societies whilst ns, valuatio annual of results the show for each age at entry the sum assured by weekly premiums cases which had in many s interval longer of one penny or multiples thereof. The plan of taking the penny have accumulated during the ns. valuatio previous the since elapsed s instance premium as the unit facilitates accounting as well as collection by

US. AND CANADA]

INDUSTRIAL

It will be observed that the number of policies brought under review was nearly 72 millions, about two policies per head of the total industrial population of the British Isles, assuring on the average about £14 each. The total funds held by the companies and societies amounted to about £200 millions, a'notable result of the accumulation of a

multitude of small sums contributed by a large proportion of the

total population, who are thus given a direct interest in the

fnancial stability of the nation. Statistics of Growth.—The stages in the remarkable development of industrial assurance business are indicated by the follow-

ing statistics.

In Great Britain, for industrial assurance companies and collecting societies together, in 1877 the premium income amounted

to about £2 millions, in 1897 it was about £94 millions, in 1907 about £17 millions, in 1920 nearly £36 millions, in 1925 £45,-

182,000, and in 1926, the latest year for which figures are available, £45,435,000. At the end of these years the funds amounted to nearly £2 millions, £214 millions, £48 millions, £108 millions, £184 millions and £201 millions respectively. In 1926, 8,116,000 policies were issued, a decrease of about a quarter of a million from the average of the previous five years which was attributable to the coal strike. In Australia the number of policies in force at the end of 1925 Was 1,311,000, Or 220 policies per 1,000 of population, and the sums assured were not far short of £50 millions.

These are impressive figures and indicate that industrial assurance is performing -a very valuable social service. It is claimed, and no doubt quite reasonably, by the advocates of the system, that such results could not be obtained without the personal contact of agent and policyholder. It is clear, however, that the agents do not restrict their activities to industrial business but use the opportunities afforded by their acquaintance with the circumstances of policyholders to advocate the advantages of the extended benefits to be obtained through the medium of ordinary life assurance. That these efforts are attended by considerable success is evidenced by the fact that both in Great Britain and in America the largest industrial offices transact also the largest amount of ordinary business. The practice of using the organization of the industrial branch to extend the operations of the ordinary branch is no doubt profitable to the offices and their agents, but they are entitled to claim that it enables them to confer on their policyholders the benefits of assurance facilities at the relatively cheaper rates of the ordinary system. Amongst other examples of the pressure deliberately exerted by offices in popularizing the less expensive types of

INSURANCE

289

tive societies, which frequently failed after a comparatively short existence. There were also arrangements whereby social organizations collected premiums weekly and paid them over to insurance companies. During the year 1875, through the efforts of John F. Dryden, the Prudential Friendly Society was organized in Newark, N.J., and in 1877 the name was changed to the Prudential Insurance Company of America. This company adopted in large measure the methods of the Prudential of London, and may properly be called the first industrial company in America. In 1879, the Metropolitan Life and the John Hancock of Boston, both of which were already transacting ordinary insurance, commenced writing industrial insurance. These three companies now have in force over 85% of the industrial life insurance in the United States. The business was introduced in Canada in 1881, and is now carried on there by three Canadian, two United States and an Australian company. Industrial insurance has grown steadily and rapidly in volume and in public favour. Policy conditions have been greatly liberalized, and restrictive provisions in the earlier policies gradually eliminated. Expense rates and lapse rates have been notably reduced, and mortality rates, especially at the younger ages, have greatly improved. Hence the companies have been able to largely increase the amount of benefit for a given premium. As an illustration, In one company, under a policy issued in 1895 on a child aged two years next birthday, weekly premium ten cents, the maximum benefit, reached after r1 years, was $230, whereas under the present table, the benefit for the same weekly premium is $424, reached in nine years, and the premiums cease at age 75. The remarkable growth of this form of insurance will be seen from the following table (Spectator Year Book, 1927) showing the industrial insurance in force in United States companies :— End of year

Policies in force

Insurance in force

1880 1900

228,357 11,215,531

1920

49,178,887

7,121,380,255

78,268,739

14,213,136,743

1926

$ | 19,590,780 1,468,474,534

The foregoing table includes the business of United States companies in Canada, amounting in 1926 to 3,217,885 policies and $517,984,522 insurance. It also includes not only policies of pure life insurance, but policies of combined life, health and accident insurance. Some of the small companies are not included in the tabulation. At the end of 1927, there were probably more than too compolicy may be mentioned the recent development of industrial panies transacting industrial life insurance in the United States, assurance by monthly premiums. (P. G. B.) most of them issuing only life insurance policies, but some, especially in the South, issuing policies of combined life, health and UNITED STATES AND CANADA accident insurance. It is estimated that these companies had in Industrial life insurance in the United States and Canada is, force in the United States at the end of 1927 about 76,000,000 In general, similar to that transacted by the British insurance policies of pure life insurance, representing perhaps 45 or 50 companies. The collecting societies, however, have no counterpart million lives, and $14,500,000,000 insurance, about 7% being here. In the United States, supervision of industrial as well as on coloured persons. In addition, there were probably 3 or 4 other insurance is exercised not by the Federal Government, but million policies of combined life, health and accident insurance by the several States. In Canada the business is regulated partly carrying 200 or 300 million dollars of life insurance, and weekly by the Dominion Government and partly by the provinces. Theré sickness benefit of many millions. In Canada, at the end of 1927, are few States that have specifically defined industrial insurance, there were about 3,900,000 industrial life insurance policies in although often references in the law indicate its nature. The force, with insurance of $680,000,000. following definition was adopted in New York State in 1927: Plans.—Most industrial life insurance is based upon the colIndustrial life insurance is hereby defined to be that form of life lection of a weekly premium of 5 cents or multiples thereof, with Insurance, either (a) under which the premiums are payable the amount of insurance varying according to the age at entry. weekly, or (5) under which the premiums are payable monthly or Many companies also publish tables for even amounts, such as oftener, if the face amount of insurance provided in the policy is $100 and $250, with the weekly premium varying according to less than $1,000, and the words, ‘industrial policy’ are printed age. While premiums are usually payable weekly, the Metroupon the policy as a part of the descriptive matter.” In Canada, politan Life Insurance Company has also been issuing monthly the Dominion Insurance Act, as amended in 1927, provides, “ ‘in- premium industrial policies, at reduced premiums, since the begindustrial insurance’ means life insurance the premiums for which ning of 1927. The most popular industrial policies are whole life , 2€ payable at shorter intervals than quarterly and are normally (frequently with premiums ceasing at the age of 70 or 75) and 20 Collected at the home of the insured." year endowment. In most companies, Insurance may be written Early History and Growth.—Prior to 1875 insurance for at any time from birth up to age 60, 65 or 7o at entry. The Workingmen and their families was supplied largely by co-opera- average benefit per policy is about $200, but the average amount

290

INDUSTRIAL

MANAGEMENT-—INDUSTRIAL

per insured person is larger because many persons carry two or

PSYCHOLOGY

tions to death claims and matured endowments.

Most of the small

more policies. Policies are rarely written for more than $1,000 except by the principal Canadian company, which issues a special series of weekly premium industrial policies at reduced premium rates, for $1,000, $1,500 and $2,000. The benefits on policies issued on children usually start considerably below the maximum provided under the policy, and increase with duration until the maximum is reached. Several States, in fact, and the principal Canadian provinces, limit the insurance a parent may legally carry on the life of a child. From about 1895 to 1905, there was considerable agitation against the insurance of children, but this movement has gradually become of little importance.

companies are stock companies, and pay no dividends to policyholders. The London Life of Canada, although a stock company allows mortuary and maturity dividends. Disability benefits and double indemnity in case of accidental death, such as are common in ordinary insurance, are rarely found in industrial policies. Some companies, however, including the largest three, do provide a disability benefit payable in event of total loss of sight, or the loss

culation of reserves is the Standard Industrial Table, based on the experience of the Metropolitan Life on standard industrial risks during the period 1896-1905. It has been recognized as a

dissemination of health literature, offers of free nursing service,

Bases.—The mortality table in most common use for the cal-

permissive standard by laws of New York State and Canada. The more recent tables of premiums and benefits, however, have been based, directly or indirectly, on later and much improved mortality rates. Mortality under industrial policies is naturally much higher than under ordinary policies because of the lower economic status

of the average industrial policy holder. The interest rate generally

assumed for calculation of premiums and reserves is 33%. PRACTICAL WORKING

Collections.—A company usually divides its territory into “districts’—a district being a part or the whole of a city, perhaps with nearby cities and towns. It is in charge of a manager or superintendent, controlling a staff of agents, together with assistant managers or assistant superintendents averaging about one for every eight or nine agents. The agent is usually compensated partly by collection salary or commission, based on the size of his "debit" (e. the business on which he collects), and partly by a commission for. his "increase" in weekly premium, resulting from

the excess of new business issued over business lapsed. Industrial agents, as a rule, write ordinary insurance as well, and are paid a commission thereon. There are not far from 70,000 industrial agents and probably 10,000 managers, superintendents and assistants. By far the greater part of industrial insurance is written without medical examination, being inspected by the writing agent.

Policy Provisions.—Industrial policies are usually incontest-

able after one or two years from the date of issue. There may or ‘may not be a named beneficiary, but in either event, most policies contain a “facility of payment” clause permitting payment to any relative by blood or connection by marriage or other person incurring burial or other expenses on behalf of the insured. Restrictions as to travel or residence are rare, and in the large companies there is no limitation of benefits on account of suicide. There is usually a grace period of four weeks for payment of premiums—in monthly premium policies it is 31 days. Reinstatement of lapsed policies within one year, upon satisfactory evidence of insurability, is usually provided by the policy, and actual practice is still more liberal; in two of the large companies, revival is permitted within r3 and 20 weeks respectively, irrespective of the condition of health. If premiums cannot be paid in cash, many companies will reinstate lapsed policies by charging the arrears against the policy as an interest bearing lien. Non-forfeiture values in the form of extended insurance or reduced paid-up insurance are usually provided after payment of premiums for three (sometimes five) years. Cash surrender values are usually granted after ten years; in some companies five. There is seldom a provision for loan values. One large company provides that if premiums are paid for one year direct to the home office or a district office, thereby saving the expense of collection by an agent, a refund of 10% will be allowed the policy holder. The John Hancock Company has always been a mutual company, and the Metropolitan and Prudential companies were mutualized in r9rs. Dividend distribution is annual, and the dividends to industrial policy holders declared by these three companies in 1927 amounted to

approximately $79,000,000. Dividends are declared mainly in the form of credits on premiums, paid-up additions to the face of the policy, and mortuary and maturity dividends, which are addi-

of both hands or both feet, or one hand and one foot; ina few

companies, also for the loss of a single hand or foot. Health and Welfare Work.—The weekly calls of the agents

at policy holders’ homes afford the companies a notable opportunity for health and welfare work. Among their activities are the participation by the companies in general public health work (in co-operation with public health authorities), including surveys of sickness and unemployment, studies of mortality and sickness health exhibits, health demonstrations in various localities, the exhibition of films, support of health legislation and publication of magazine advertisements relating to various phases of health and welfare. The Metropolitan company, which has beenaleader in health activities, has in 19 years distributed about 490,000,000 pamphlets relating to health and citizenship, and has provided 30,000,000 free nursing visits to policy holders. The marked reduction in the mortality rate of its industrial policy holders—an

even greater reduction than among the general population—indi-

cates that its efforts have been successful. INDUSTRIAL MANAGEMENT:

(R. V. C.) see ScreNTIEIC Max-

AGEMENT.

‘ INDUSTRIAL PENSIONS: see PENSIONS IN THE UNrtep TATES.

INDUSTRIAL

PSYCHOLOGY.

Industrial psychology

may be defined as the study of the conduct of men and women in their capacity as wage earners. It aims at describing and explaining all those activities by means of which a person adjusts himself

to his economic environment; hence it must take into account the

fundamental elements of man’s constitution, his innate tendencies and their expression in thought, feeling and action both on the conscious and unconscious level, as well as his acquired aptitudes. As yet, only a tentative beginning has been made, so that we are far from even an approximation to scientific generalisation. HISTORY OF THE SCIENCE

The development of industrial psychology has been largely determined by its history. Prior to 1914, psychologists concerned themselves but little with industrial problems. A few writers occasionally saw a possible industrial application of some psychological generalisation; and in 1913 Münsterberg made a more ambitious attempt (Psychology and Industrial Efficiency). Industrial development had been governed by the claims of machinery rather than of man. The enormous improvement in machinery during the roth century, the studies made in the natural sciences, the growing knowledge of the mechanism of the body, all tended to.focus general interest on man’s likeness to a machine. The phrase "the human machine,” which is rightly applied to part of his structure, became synonymous with man himself rather by

implication than by design. The outbreak of the World War, with

its urgent demands for increased production in all departments of activity, brought home to society the futility of considering the worker merely as a machine. Industrial operations, as usually conducted, had been implic-

itly based on a crude mathematics. If 6 units of work could be done in one hour, then 68 would be done in 8 hours, 6X12 12 hours. The physiological necessity for sleep prevented the com-

plete working out of this principle. Up to about 6 or 7 hours, according to the nature of the work, there seemed nothing ob-

viously wrong with the calculation; when however, the problem was one of 12 hours, the discrepancy between the facts and the

calculation challenged investigation.

Though it was not then

recognised, that stage marked an epoch in the history both of psychology and of industry. The focus of interest was changed from the machine to the worker of the machine, and the assistance

INDUSTRIAL of psychology, hitherto looked upon as a somewhat recondite

study, was invoked. The Work Curve.—Previous work of a more or less theoretical

character into problems of fatigue suggested the lines of investi-

gation. Hence the earliest work in industrial psychology was concerned with fatigue. As the time was one of urgency, the problem had to be dealt with practically, and the only measure

"D

2o m

Z

2m o a

CO

XEz

100 Er/En

Q

x a

o c

A

g c

i

PSYCHOLOGY

29 I

quired. Where, however, direct experiment has been possible, it has shown that the organised rest pause is the better working arrangement.

The observations of H. M. Vernon for the Health of Munition Workers’ Committee proved the advantage of breaking up working spells, and since then it has been verified in the boot industry, in metal-polishing, in celluloid-polishing, in shirt ironing, in sweetpacking, in handkerchief-folding and in stamping lids. The introduction of a rest about the middle of the spell of work improves the output as a rule by about 5%, and in some processes it affects advantageously the period preceding the rest. Not only is the work improved, but the regular rest is much appreciated by the worker. The probability is that the improvement is largely due to changes in feeling; most people can face with equanimity and possibly enthusiasm the prospect of two hours’ work at the end of which will come a period of free time, but to face four or five hours of unbroken labour is depressing. The subject of rest pauses has not yet been exhaustively studied, and particular cases need particular study; still the above statements seem to be valid in general. Exactly when a rest pause should occur must depend on the nature of the work, while the amount of actual increase in output will vary with the relation of the human factor to the machine factor in the particular process.

Physical Environment.—Among other influences that have

FROM

"INDUSTRIAL

FATIGUE

RESEARCH

BOARD

REPORTS"

GRAPH SHOWING INCREASE IN OUTPUT AND DIMINUTION OF ERRORS (BOTH TOTAL AND TURNED LETTERS) WITH INCREASE OF ILLUMINATION

to hand was the one that had prompted the inquiry, viz., the work curve, obtained by computing and graphing the hourly output records of numbers of workers. The reproach is sometimes made against industrial psychology that it is primarily interested

in output. The truth is that output happens to be a convenient

been shown similarly to affect the worker and have been effectively measured by means of the output curve are improvements

in lighting, heating, ventilation and seating. WorxsHors Law; OFFICE MANAGEMENT.)

(See FACTORY AND

MOTION AND TIME STUDY

At an early stage the young science of industrial psychology had to encounter the previous application of quasi-scientific methods to industry, initiated in America by Taylor and Gilbreth. Their general object was to study the nature and rate of the movements made by a worker, in order to eliminate the unnecessary ones. This is technically known as motion and time study. Unfortunately this study had resulted in imposing on all the so-called “one best way,” obtained by analysing the movements of the quickest workers. So unnatural a procedure awakened much criticism and no little resentment. It is not irrelevant to note that the movement originated with engineers, not with psychologists. Properly conducted, motion and time study are but special applications to industrial processes of the laws of habit formation. Young learners pick up, by watching proficients, many actions of industry; with practice they evolve a commendable copy but uncritically they may adopt some unnecessary movements which, while apparently not interfering with the work, may become fixed; the result is that the worker develops muscular habits harmful to himself, or fails to attain a speed commensurate with his real ability. Just as the skater, swimmer or golfer improves by expert teaching, itself the resultant of careful study, so does the industrial worker. In such varying trades as silk weavFROM "INDUSTRIAL FATIGUE RESEARCH BOARD REPORTS” ing, metal-polishing, chocolate THE PATH TRAVELLED BY THE covering, it has been found that WORKER'S HAND IN ORIGINAL by systematising movements and METHOD OF SWEET-DIPPING by training novices in the relevant motions, a saving of energy results, which is an advantage to all concerned. Faulty methods of learning are not only a hindrance during the learning period, but there is also an invariable tendency for the worker to regress to them under certain conditions, even when they are apparently overcome. (The Medical Problems of Flying, Medical Research Council Report

measure. Psychology's real interest lies in what is measured. Hours of Work.—Thus the earliest systematic inquiries of industrial psychology concerned the problem of the 12-hour day in munition factories, and used as data the records of large numbers of people working over long periods. Comparisons were made between groups of people working a 12-hour day and other comparable groups working a ro-hour day. (Health of Munition Worker? Committee, [a] Interim Report, Cd. 8511 [1917]; [b] Final Report, Cd. 9065 [1918].) In many processes the results of the latter groups showed that an increase in hourly output more than counterbalanced the shorter time available for production, so that the total production was actually greater than when the hours of work were longer. Similarly lost time and sickness were found to diminish with the shorter working day. When hours are shortened, a long period elapses before adaptation to the new conditions is fully obtained; on the other hand, when hours are lengthened, there is sometimes an immediate reduction in hourly output. Since the War, researches along these lines have been pursued in such different occupations as: charging of blast furnaces, silk weaving, shell making, metal-polishing, tinplate manufacture and in the processes of collar machining, folding and shirt ironing in the laundry trade. The curves of the output of the average worker, when graphed, usually assume the same general shape, viz., arise at the beginning of the spell, a period of relative stability, and a fall at the end. The interpretation of these empirical facts cannot yet be given. Slight variations occur according to the arrangement of the hours of work, but the type remains characterisüc of many industrial processes. Muscio, experimenting on women medical students doing mental tests, obtained similar curves. Rest Pauses.—An important innovation stressed by the industrial psychologist has been the introduction of short rests, in e middle of a working period, of about 10 or 1 5 min. duration. These regular breaks are technically known as rest pauses. It is No. 53 [1920] and A Study of Telegraphist sometimes argued that frequent irregular rests are invariably Fatigue Research Board, Report No. 43.) s’ Cramp, Industrial taken by the workers, either voluntarily or because the supply of The aim of Taylor and Gilbreth, in standardising the time and Work fails, and: that regular rest pauses are therefore not re- method taken to perform a task, was primarily to reduce the cost

PSYCHOLOGY

INDUSTRIAL

292

of production, and they also had in mind the welfare of the worker and higher wages. From the worker’s point of view however, the drawback of their system was that it produced a feeling of being always keyed-up. From the psycho-physiological point of view it was based on the fallacy that the shortest and speediest movements were necessarily the least tiring, and that the best style of movement could be obtained from combining a number of best movements adopted by different workers. If the study of industrial processes in relation to the worker is to be scientific, it must consider the whole of the conditions, not a part; it must regard the worker as a human being, not as the performer of a limited set of movements. LEADERSHIP

standing as to justify their position, then they need as emotional

interpreter someone of different temperament to neutralise their more harmful effects. A good leader should possess vitality, sympathy, justice and humour, as well as knowledge of the work. The emotional, and as a corollary, the physical effect on subordinates of different

types of leaders is patent throughout industry. Where the commands of one are cheerfully obeyed, those of another arouse

truculent antagonism or sullen acquiescence.

Can anyone doubt

the effect on the health, happiness and efficiency of the workers? Many authorities are unwittingly the cause of the sick leave they

deplore among their subordinates.

Monotony.—In addition to the effect of the leadership, one

AND MONOTONY

has to accept the fact that in modern industry, with its sub. Important though the material environment undoubtedly is, division of labour, a large number of people are employed in no workers can do their best unless the general mental environ- repeating the same limited set of movements for hours, days, months and years. This “repetition of movement" is often ment is right. Not even the very erroneously called monotony. Literally “monotonous” means best material conditions will “of one tone”; it suggests absence of change and refers rightly result mechanically in good work, to the general mental atmosphere and not to the movements of and sometimes even poor mathe worker. Repetitive movements must either be studied as terial conditions can be nullified 8 such, in which case they belong to the psychology of habit formaby good mental conditions. By | 4 tion, or else put in their complete setting, including, at least, the this is understood the conditions FROM “INDUSTRIAL FATIGUE RESEARCH BOARD repetition work, the varying amount done as the hours go on. governing the group as a whole, REPORTS," CONTROLLER, H.M. STAT. OFFICE dependent primarily on the eff- THE PATH TRAVELLED BY THE the opinions of fellow workers and authorities about that work, ciency or otherwise of its leader- WORKER'S HAND IN NEW SWEET- physiological changes, emotional changes, and the collective life ship. Industrial life is often criti- DIPPING METHOD. AN OUTPUT IN- of the factory. The total reaction at any given moment will be cised for failing to supply that CREASE OF 20% FOLLOWED THE the reaction to a composite situation which constantly changes. INTRODUCTION OF THIS METHOD The worker on one process often stigmatises some other process effective stimulus of working for a common end, which is more obviously evident in the army. as monotonous, when to the observer there is nothing to choose Factories where there is this sense of working for a common end between them. There are compensations too in many processes as well as for individual wages are more common than those not if one studies the worker as a human being and not merely as the performer of a repetition process; e.g., some workers exfamiliar with the inside working of factories realise. If, as McDougall asserts (The Group Mind, p. 135 [1920]), perience a sense of power in operating a large or a delicate ma“the personalities of its leaders more effectively than any other chine. It is not suggested that repetition work is good'in itself; factor engender national unity and bring it to a high pitch,” it but merely to describe the repetition work as monotonous and to is no less true that a factory owes its corporate unity to the per- imply that such description embraces the whole psychological sonality of its leader and his deputies. The time may come when situation, is misleading. it will be possible to test for leadership as it now is for intelliVOCATIONAL GUIDANCE AND SELECTION gence; at the moment the problem has only been formulated. The Observation of workers shows that in particular posts some are qualities of leadership are required by all those in charge of others, and there is no correlation between ability to do a job and much more successful both subjectively and objectively than ability to superintend others doing it. To the psychologist there others. Hence arises the question of vocational guidance, which

MODE 2. FROM

"INDUSTRIAL

FATIGUE

RESEARCH

aumento err prts.

MODE 3

BOARD

REPORTS"

TIT

(CONTROLLER

DIAGRAM

MODE 5.

MODE 4.

OF

H.M.

STATIONERY

ILLUSTRATING

MODE 6.

MODE 7.

MODES.

NORMAL.

OFFICE)

DIFFERENT

METHODS

OF

CARRYING

Investigation showed that these modes can be arranged in order of efficiency, the displacement of the body necessary gravity over the foot being an important faotor. Modes 7 and 3, yoke and bundle carrying, are most economical

are certain types, almost neurotic, whose symptoms find expression chiefly in their relations with others. The person who reacts always to the emotion aroused in himself by a situation and not to the situation itself, the inevitable “nagger” who can never govern easily because he is always at war with himself, the “obsessional" whose obsession can be readily touched up by the work—these represent a few whose emotional development makes life much harder for some of their subordinates and unbearable for others. (See M. Culpin, The Nervous Patient, p. 92 [1924].) If their other qualities, e.g., their business acumen, are so out-

to bring

the centre of

must be distinguished from vocational selection, a simpler problem.

The latter problem sets out to select a worker to fit the

job, the former to select for a given person (usually an adoles-

cent) that job most suited to his capacities. This theoretically

presupposes a knowledge of the person, a knowledge of all possible occupations, and a power of relating one to the other. Those

who have done most work in this field are convinced that the most useful measure of a person is his general intelligence.

Mental Ratio.—By suitable tests it is possible to gauge with a

high degree of accuracy the intelligence of any child, and to ex

INDUSTRIAL press it in a quantitative form, known as the mental ratio. This

remains fairly uniform throughout the years of growth, and inborn intelligence does not develop to an appreciable extent beyond the age of puberty. It is the amount and kind of knowl-

edge and interests that separate the adult from the child, not the intelligence with which he deals with that knowledge and those

RELATIONS

293

population in towns, largely destroyed the personal bond between master and man who had worked together in the scattered and rural hand industry units. The rapidity of the change and the domination of employers caused an embitterment which has greatly influenced the labour movement.

of relations

Joint stock enterprise, which developed after the Limited Liabil-

interests. To put a child of a high level of intelligence to a job ity Act 1858, created a more complex situation than in the case requiring little, is wasteful, while the reverse process is futile; of individual employers using their own capital, the employing section being divided into (a) investors of capital, (b) users of moreover, the one provokes discontent, the other worry. Temperament and Character.—In other directions, viz., capital or management. The latter alone have relations with the

the measurement of temperamental and character qualities, less

advance has been made.

In this field, observation and interpre-

tation are still the only methods available.

There are some occu-

pations where people of a particular temperament are more likely to become inefficient and break down than in others. This tem-

perament is characterised by a disproportionate development of fear in some form. Whether this is due to its innate strength or io some environmental influence, or both, cannot be adjudged yet. The sufferer shows over-anxiety concerning things he cannot alter, is unduly sensitive to the opinions of authorities, etc. Sometimes the symptoms appear in a more objective form, masking their actual subjectivity, so that the focus of anxiety appears outside the sufferer, who, with more than normal frequency complains of machine trouble, noise, unsuitable keys (in telegraphy), etc.

Such people, in the interests

of themselves,

their fellow-

workers and the work, ought to be diverted from occupations

where their mental make-up cannot fail to be expressed in the work. If they enter such occupations as telegraphy or dispensing or even coal-mining they will almost certainly break down: the breakdown will be attributed to overwork, although actually the overwork may have subjective rather than objective reality. If there is an occupational disease recognised as such, the problem

is still further complicated. (Reports of the Miners Nystagmus Committee [Medical Research Council Reports Nos. 65 and 80]; “Psycho-neurotic Aspects of Miners’ Nystagmus” [Brit. J. Med. Psy. vol. iii. 1923].) When the qualities of the applicant for a job have been assessed and the requirements of various trades are known, it is possible to advise a child as to what he may most advantageously take up.

Organization.—A vast field is, however, still untouched. Most of the studies made so far relate to those aspects of industry which are primarily a means to an end, not ends in themselves, and even in this limited sphere there is much to be done. Little is known as yet, for example, about the organiser and his organisation. It is obvious that the organisation of a big business is no mere rule-of-thumb working out of principles gained by even a scientific analysis of other places; it has some of the qualities ofa work of art, and the attitude of mind of an original organiser is akin to that of the artist. No real appreciation of the field of industry is possible without a recognition of this. BisriocrapHy.—J. Amar, Le Moteur humain et les Bases scientihiques du Travail professionnel (Paris, 1914); Organisation physiologique du Travail (Paris, 1916); Reports of the Industrial Fatigue Research Board. (1919, etc.) ; publications of the Service Médical du Travail (Brussels, 1920) ; Jour. of the Nat. Inst. of Indus. Psychology

(1923); H, C. Link, Employment Psychology (1919) ; L. M. Terman,

Measurement of Intelligence (1919); J. Goldmark and M. Hopkins, Comparison of an Eight-hour Plant and a Ten-hour Plant (Washington, 1920); C. Burt, Mental and Scholastic Tests (1922) ; P. Florence, Economics of Fatigue and Unrest (1924). C. S. Myers, Indus. Psy-

chology in Great Britain (1926).

INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS.

(M. Sm.)

This term is used to denote

the relations of all those engaged in the production and distribution of goods and the rendering of services. It involves the methods by which the proceeds of these activities are divided between employers and workers or different classes of workers, and the settlement of the conditions under which work shall be carried on. The adjustment of the position of individuals in relation to those With whom they are associated in work is part of a wider adjustment in relation to the general community, and there is a Close connection between political and industrial movements. In Great Britain the rapid development of the factory system during the Industrial Revolution and the concentration of the industrial

wage-earners. The repeal of the Combination Laws 1824-25 gave workers the right to combine and to withhold labour by concerted action. Organization, hitherto confined to craftsmen, extended

among other classes after a docks strike (1889). From r9ro the growth of trade union organization was shown by national and other strikes, one object of which was to secure the recognition by employers of the right of the unions to make agreements for their members in the industries concerned. During the War compulsory arbitration and State control of profits were instituted by the Munitions of War Acts. Results of the War were (1) increased trade union membership and political power; (2) the improvement of the earnings of unskilled and semi-skilled workers owing to (a) uniform cost-of-living advances without changes in base rates, (b) increased organization, (c) employment on machine production; (3) increased employment of women. Varying economic conditions in different industries since the War have further disturbed the pre-War wage position, when the rates of skilled and unskilled workers showed no great variation by industry. Such irregularity is a disturbing factor. Existing wages-rates were maintained for a short period after the War by the Wages (Temporary Regulation) Act. Unrest caused the Government to call two national conferences of employers’ and workers’ organizations which led to extended Trade Board action and further legislation relating to unemployment. Arising from a dispute a royal commission on coal mining was appointed and hours, which under an act of 1908 had been fixed at eight and one winding turn, were reduced to seven, being restored to eight by an act of 1926. In 1919 and 1920 hours in industry generally were reduced to 48 or less, by agreement, without reduction of wages. Depression in industry from 1921 onwards caused considerable unrest owing to reductions in wages, and there was a substantial loss of trade union membership. Recurrent coal-mining disputes led, in 1925, to the appointment of a royal commission, the report of which was accepted by neither side. A further stoppage in 1926 culminated in a general strike called by the trade union congress general council which, since the War, had steadily increased its authority as the central trade union co-ordinating body. This strike lasted ten days, the essential services being carried on by the Government. There has since been a movement for co-operation between employers and the unions in the solution of industrial difficulties, and few stoppages of work have occurred. Economic difficulties created by the War caused similar disturbances in other countries. While in Great Britain industrial conditions continue still to be settled by voluntary agreements between employers and workers, Governments have taken greater powers of intervention in other countries, e.g., in Russia, Italy, Spain and Germany. Working conditions may be regulated by employers and workers themselves, by individual or collective bargaining. Whitley or joint industrial councils are a form of standing joint machinery for collective discussion within individual industries. There are also, as part of the voluntary arrangements within industry, conciliation, arbitration or wages boards. The constant problem for the State is the harmonizing of the interests of employers and workers in industry with those of the community, and the conditions under which industry may be carried on have been subject to intervention, in the interests of the workers as citizens, by legislation upon such matters as the establishment of minimum wages, the regulation of hours, insurance against unemployment and sickness, the protection of health and safety and the general welfare of workers while engaged in their work. (See TRADE

Boarps; HEALTH Insurance.)

The adverse effect on the com-

294

INDUSTRIAL

munity of stoppages of work owing to differences between employers and workers has caused States to take action for the avoidance and settlement of disputes. NATIONAL

AGREEMENTS

Collective Bargaining.—Individual bargaining and collective bargaining are terms used to describe the discussion that pre-

RELATIONS

[AGREEMENTS

ence, responsibility and negotiating ability on both sides increases the chance of reaching amicable settlement of the most difficult new problems, and this, together with the adaptability and freedom from rigidity of the system, causes it to be recognized as the main means by which constructive progress towards a merging of the interests of all parties in industry can be made. A new

development in this direction is the appointment of joint com-

mittees of both sides to examine all the costs and circumstances of an industry with a view to greater efficiency. Collective bargaining demands for its efficient operation the wage-earner and the latter is the discussion between an employer or group of employers and a group of workers with a view to a possession by representatives of adequate authority to bind their collective agreement as to working conditions covering all those members. While some trade union executives have considerable represented in the discussion. Organization ensures stability to authority, it is usually necessary to take the opinion of the memUnless satisfactory conditions are bers either by a ballot or through a delegate conference, before the agreements reached. settled, employers may refuse to give employment or may "lock- agreements are made. Ht is difficult on some occasions, when disout” employees and workers may withhold their services or cussions have been long and intricate, to convey all the reasons “strike.” Organization gives the workers the bargaining power for a particular policy to thousands of workers who have not had which is lacking in an individual. It provides also a means of the advantage of being present at those discussions. At the same discussion of their desires and for the expert presentation of de- time, the effectiveness of a voluntary agreement depends upon its mands by officials skilled in negotiation and freed from the fear terms being in general accord with the views of those who are of reprisal which is often present in the minds of employees. Fur- bound by it, and experience has shown that statutory and comther, the workers in a particular establishment have the support pulsory measures are practically unenforceable unless this conof their fellows in other establishments and a union has resources dition is satisfied. In practice the recommendations of leaders for obtaining information outside the particular establishment or carry very great weight. Collective agreements have a stabilizing effect as, when there locality concerned. Collective agreements have effect beyond the membership of organizations both in establishments in which is a settled procedure for dealing with questions which may arise, union members are employed and in others. In some cases, how- and when the basic conditions are clearly defined and the settleever, only union members may be employed, these being called ment is for a definite period or subject to termination only after “closed shops” as distinguished from “open shops” in which there due notice, employers are enabled to enter into contracts with is no such restriction. Action to compel non-members to become confidence. Where organization is not strong and unions are not members often causes serious disputes. The agreed conditions able to compel unorganized employers to observe agreed conare usually the “recognized” or “standard” conditions in any ditions, there is a demand for the statutory extension of agreeoccupation in a district and under the “Fair Wages Resolution” ments, a policy which involves serious practical difficulties. Collective agreements usually provide for a settled procedure of the House of Commons, Government contractors must observe for dealing with disputes in order to obviate stoppages of work. these conditions. There are often national agreements relating to procedure and A common form of procedure is for the matter to be discussed general matters such as the length of the working hours, relation first within the establishment. Failing settlement it may then be of piece-rates to time-rates, overtime and night-shift rates of pay- discussed between the local employers’ association and representament, rules for the working of tools, general fluctuations of wages tives of the union, and then by the national executives, work conand sliding scales, holidays, apprentice questions, training and tinuing in the meantime. In the shipbuilding industry in Great employment of workers. Detailed conditions as to wages are Britain provision is made for the appointment of an independent sometimes settled nationally but it is more usual for basic con- chairman, without the power to give a decision, when there is an ditions to be settled locally, the national organizations confining irreconcilable difference of opinion on matters other than general themselves to the settlement of general changes and to acting as wages fluctuations. The fact that a stoppage of work may be the co-ordinating and appeal authority. Thus the conditions in the result of failure to settle provides an incentive to agreeorindustries which are carried on in many parts of the country, are ment. When action is taken in breach of an agreement, the the to restore expected is fault at are members whose ganization degree required the to and circumstances local adjusted both to of the matter in dispute. of uniformity. Wages-rates fixed by national bodies are often status quo ante pending discussion are called graded according to area. The existence of different types of Stoppages without the sanction of an organization “unofficial.” collecof complexity the unions with conflicting interests adds to Conciliation, Arbitration and Wages Boards.—Conciliative bargaining. The craft unions, for example, seek to obtain, as boards are a form of standing or ad hoc joint machinery in ortion their which in industry each in conditions far as possible, similar industries for the purpose of enabling agreement to be ganized members are employed. Where there are several unions having on matters which ordinary negotiations have failed to reached unions of federations sometimes are there industry an in members generally consist of an equal number of representaThey settle. which act as a unit for negotiating purposes. of trade unions who are In some industries, e.g., iron and steel, collective agreements tives of employers’ associations and the board. The rules of establishing agreement the to parties of price selling the on based wages of provide for sliding scales event of failure to secure the in that, provide boards the of some the product or, as in the tinplate industry, on the. cost of the raw shall be appointed. conciliator or arbitrator umpire, an agreement, the to according vary wages coal-mining, In bars. steel material, but conditions questions, wages to themselves limit boards Some deproceeds of production, after costs have been deducted, are not within the power termined by accountants appointed by the two sides, the proceeds settled by general collective agreements of boards usually require that there being divided between wages and management on an agreed basis. of boards to alter. The rules pending the consideration of the work of stoppage no The Coal Mines (Minimum Wage) Act rgi2 provides for the shall be them. to referred difference if decision, the (by es subsistence-wag fixing of district minimum In the iron and steel trade differences not settled in a works necessary, of the independent chairman) by district boards. Other referred to a neutral committee chosen from employers and are accordregulated are wages which by scales sliding have industries from other works. If this fails there is reference to a workers now is these of ing to a cost-of-living index figure. The number tives of the two sides greatly reduced and the principle of payment according to the board of arbitration consisting of representa are several standing there addition In chairman. neutral a with estimated capacity of the industry has been re-adopted. tives of the two representa of composed boards, The enormous number of questions which constantly arise is district wages who may give 4 president neutral a cases, some in with, sides, The agreements. collective of length and shown by the complexity : i decision. constant association, however, of representative persons of experi- binding

cedes the making of an agreement concerning working conditions. The former is the discussion between an employer and a single

INDUSTRIAL In the coal-mining industry there are district conciliation boards

sed of equal numbers of both sides. In some districts, if

where is no settlement, the matter 1s referred to an independent chairman. Disputes under the Minimum Wage Act 1912 are refered to statutory joint district minimum wage boards having an independent chairman, who has the power to give a decision.

RELATIONS and works committees. The works committees was to be throughout, the membership tions. In the circumstances

295 constitution of district councils and defined by the national councils, and, was to be determined by organizacreated by the War, in which cen-

tralization of the settlement of conditions became the rule, and the preoccupation of the leaders of organizations with national In the boot and shoe manufacturing industry under the agree- matters caused them to become somewhat detached from the rank ment of 1895 there are local boards of conciliation and arbitration. and file in the shops, a shop stewards movement commenced In case of failure to reach agreement an independent chairman is which threatened to disintegrate the whole system of collective inted with power to give a decision. There is also a national bargaining. The committee's plan was intended to maintain a sanding committee of three of each side to deal with all ques- constant and live connection between the individual members in tions arising out of the national agreements. In national negotia- the individual establishments, and the machinery by which their

tions there is a standing independent chairman who acts only as a conciliator. In the bleaching, dyeirig and finishing industry there are standing reference boards, constituted of four representatives of each side to which any dispute on other than a general question must be referred. If the board fails to settle, each side appoints an

arbitrator who appoint an umpire. The decisions of the tribunal e final. pos railway services have a form of wages board on which the users of railways are represented. In default of agreement by negotiation, questions are referred to a central wages board constituted of eight representatives of each side. Appeal may be made to a national wages board which is constituted of six repre-

sentatives of the companies, two representatives from each union and four representatives of users of railways (nominated by the trade union congress, co-operative union, federation of British industries and associated British chambers of commerce, re-

spectively) and an independent chairman. The board must report

within 28 days from the date of reference of a matter to it, and it is agreed that there shall be no stoppage of work within that period. This agreement, which is terminable by 12 months’ notice on either side, received statutory effect in Part IV. of the Railways Act 1921, but there are no penalties for its non-observance. The electricity supply, tramways and wool textile joint industrial councils, not desiring arbitration, have adopted interesting ad hoc procedure of a combined court of inquiry and conciliation board character, and have referred important matters to boards consisting, in the first two cases, of representatives of the parties, employers’ and workers’ representatives from other industries and an independent chairman for investigation and recommendations. In the third case the parties themselves were not represented on the tribunal. The councils were free to accept or reject the recommendations but, in fact, they were accepted. This procedure associated the parties in friendly circumstances ina thorough investigation of facts. Trade boards and agricultural wages committees in Great Britain, wages boards in Victoria and Tasmania, labour disputes committees in New Zealand and the minimum wage boards for home workers in Germany, France, Austria, Czechoslovakia and Norway are of a compulsory character, but they have the characteristic feature of being constituted mainly of representatives of the industries concerned. Whitley or Joint Industrial Councils.—These are standing bodies which meet regularly for the purpose of discussing not only matters upon which there are differences but also all questions

affecting their industry. A committee of employers’ and workers’

representatives, with the Right Hon. J. H. Whitley, M.P., as chairman, Was appointed in 1916 to consider the means of securing a permanent improvement in industrial relations, and to recommend means for securing that those relations should be systematically reviewed by those concerned. The committee stated their opinion

that an essential condition of securing a permanent improvement in the relations between employers and employed is that there

should be adequate organization on the part of both, that a permanent Improvement must be founded upon something other than à Cash basis, and that workpeople should have a greater opportunity of participating in the discussion about, and adjusting of,

those parts of industry by which they were most affected. They Proposed, therefore, a tripartite organization of standing joint bodies, a national joint council for the whole industry, district Hint councils to provide the means of discussion in the districts,

conditions were settled, and to provide means by which both the

interests of individuals and those of the whole industry would

receive full consideration. This report gave a new impetus to the creation of constitutional machinery, and, assisted by the Ministry of Labour, joint industrial councils were established in many important industries and services including municipal and Government services. In addition, in industries in which organization was not sufficiently strong for the requirements of a Whitley council, interim industrial reconstruction committees were established. On the railways, station, depot and sectional councils were established to deal with the local application of national agreements, suggestions as to operating and working, and co-operation in obtaining increased business and efficiency. These received statutory recognition in the Railways Act 1921. The councils are constituted of employers’ and workers’ representatives alone, except in the case of the pottery council on which there are three independent members in an advisory capacity. The number on each side is not always equal but each side votes as an entity. Usually, unless there is agreement, no action is taken on the proposal under consideration. The chairman is appointed from among the members and is often, alternately, an employers’ and workers’ representative or there may be joint chairmen acting in turn. Each council has a written constitution and practically all councils have appointed executive or general purposes committees, the number of council: members often being large. Spécial committees may be appointed such as, in the case of the pottery council, which was the first to be established, the research, inventions and designs committee, wages and conditions committee, organization committee, statistical and enquiries committee, apprenticeship committee. An important rule is that meetings shall be held regularly, usually not less than once a quarter. Another important advantage of the Whitley council procedure is that all the organizations in an industry meet on one body and there is provided an opportunity of reconciling conflicting interests, and of emphasizing the community of interest of all concerned. There is no settled practice as regards supervisory workers who are generally not represented. In the electricity supply industry, however, there is a separate joint body for the technical and supervisory staff. The national maritime board has panels for (ri) masters, (2) navigating officers, (3) engineers, (4) sailors and firemen, (5) catering department. These sit separately to negotiate conditions, the board meeting as a whole when general questions arise. There are district panels which | may be divided into sections. Craft unions receive ad hoc representation when questions affecting their members are under discussion. In consequence of the difficult economic conditions since the establishment of Whitley councils, the main subject of consideration, contrary to the intentions of the Whitley committee, has been wages and working conditions, and this subject has been

responsible for their breakdown in many cases before they had been in existence long enough to stand the strain. A contributory cause has been insufficient organization on both sides for the effective operation of council decisions. Further, councils some-

times attempted too much regulation by national decisions without adequate regard to local circumstances. Of the councils which survive (about 50) many have found it necessary to delegate considerable freedom to district councils and to confine their action to co-ordination and to the settlement of differences.

296

INDUSTRIAL

RELATIONS

[SHOP STEWARDS

Important work has been done by certain councils in research | tions or by departments. Some are composed entirely of members and in the collection of information and statistics. Other im-j of trade unions so elected. In some cases officials of unions may portant matters considered have been unemployment, education, attend meetings regularly or in special circumstances. In large training and apprenticeship. safety, health, welfare and com- undertakings there is often a general committee comprised of dele. mercial problems. The docks joint council has carried out gates from departmental committees. It is usual for meetings to be allowed during working hours and for wages to be paid for important work for the decasualization of dock labour. It is usual to require differences to be considered by councils time so lost. Among subjects which are dealt with by works before a stoppage of work occurs. Certain councils, e.g., pottery, committees are welfare, benevolent, holiday and loan funds, penboot and shoe, printing, do not exercise the function of wage sions schemes, sports and recreation, accident prevention, sharesettlement, this being left to agreements between the various or- purchase schemes, piece-price fixing and education. In some cases ganizations, but they act as the conciliating authority in the case dismissals of individuals, or, in case of slackness of business, of numbers of individuals, are subject to review by works comof differences involving the possibility of a stoppage of work. In other countries, there is no general application of the mittees. This is greatly valued as it gives individuals greater Whitley scheme except in Belgium where organization has grown security of employment and protection against victimization. At since the War, and where there are national joint commissions a time of depression prior consultation enables plans for the sharing of work or regularization of employment to be discussed, with district and shop councils in many industries. Methods of production, regularity of output and prevention of POSITION OF SHOP STEWARDS waste are other matters dealt with by committees. They are in Works Committees and Councils in Great Britain.— some cases informed regularly of the state of business. Works committees may be of two main kinds (a) committees of Works Committees in Other Countries.—The works com. workpeople or their representatives or (b) joint committees of the mittee movement was stimulated in other countries, as in Great management and the workpeople. As the works became organized Britain, by the War circumstances. In Europe, it was influenced in trade unions, official shop representatives, known as shop also by the revolutionary movements between 1918 and 1920 stewards or delegates, were appointed either by the workpeople based on workers’ and soldiers’ councils. Between 1919 and 1922 or by the union for various purposes, such as the collection of Germany, Austria, Czechoslovakia, Norway and Luxembourg dues, and representing the workers in the discussion of griev- passed laws on the subject. In Japan, works councils of varied ances with the management. During the War the application of types have continued to be established in many undertakings, dilution and the introduction of payment by results raised many always as purely advisory bodies. Both labour organizations and questions of detail, and works machinery gained a new importance. works committees have established themselves but the interests Committees of shop stewards became common and, although in of the two forms of organization are not yet reconciled. In Russia some cases shop stewards of unions of skilled and unskilled industrial establishments are generally controlled by workers’ comworkers were in conflict on matters such as the manning of mittees in association with trade unions, the latter being strongly machines, committees were usually representative of all trades represented on the governing authorities of the country. In other in the establishments. The stress of the War conditions in the countries provision has sometimes been made for particular shops also made it necessary to promote the physical welfare of industries such as railways and mining. workers and many welfare committees were formed which were In Germany the Weimar Constitution provided for the estab.known as works committees. Further impetus was given to the lishment of workers’ councils, regional workers’ councils and reformation of joint works committees by the report of the Whitley gional economic councils, a federal workers’ council and a federal committee on works committees. The committee regarded “the economic council, all in organic connection. A provisional federal establishment of works committees representative of the manage- economic council was established, which has now been reconstiment and the workpeople, and appointed from within the works, tuted, but regional councils have not been set up. The Works as an essential part of the scheme of organization suggested to Councils Act of 1920 was not in accord with this workers’ control secure improved relations between employers and employed,” and movement which was antagonistic to trade unions. This act prostated that “in every industry there are certain questions, such as vided that “workers’ representative bodies” should be established rates of wages and hours of work, which should be settled by in all industrial and commercial undertakings, including agriculture district or national agreement and with any matter so settled no but excluding shipping, employing not less than 20 persons. works committee should be allowed to interfere; but there are Within the council there are sections’ for wage-earners and for also many questions closely affecting daily life and comfort in, and salaried employees. In smaller undertakings employing more than the success of, the business, and affecting in no small degree five persons, shop stewards were to be appointed. Appointments, efficiency of working, which are peculiar to the individual work- which are for a year and can be terminated only by a labour shop or factory.” They urged strongly that such committees court, are confined to workers aged 24 years and upwards with not should be set up with the co-operation of employers’ organiza- less than three years’ continuous service and are made by ballot tions and trade unions. There had arisen early in the War a strong of workers over 18 years old. In certain circumstances a represhop stewards’ movement by association between works organiza- sentative body set up by collective agreement (“tarifliche Betriebstions in different undertakings which was of a somewhat extreme vertretung") may be substituted for a works council. In a compolitical character, and which acted independently of trade unions. posite undertaking a joint works council (*Gesambetriebsrat") In Germany, Italy and Russia, and other countries also, such may be formed, the councils for the constituent works continuing movements occurred with revolutionary results. Trade unions to function. In exceptional cases a “common works council" are suspicious of works committees with which they are not di- (“gemeinsamer Betriebsrat”) may be formed, the individual works rectly concerned, in view of the menace to their organization councils being eliminated. Representatives receive their wages which arises from isolated arrangements. On the other hand, for the time spent in their work in that capacity within working workpeople are apt to lose interest in works committees when the hours. By an act of 1922 one or two members of works councils conditions of employment in which they are mainly interested, are appointed to the control board (this is not a board of directors) wages and hours, are settled by other machinery or are otherwise of a joint stock company, a limited partnership with share capital generally satisfactory. (“Kommanditgesellschaft auf Aktien”), a registered co-operative In addition to the creation of works committees following the society, a mutual insurance association, a company established Whitley reports, the position of shop stewards was regularized in under the mining laws, or, optionally, the control board of a limsome industries, e.g., engineering, in order to enable works discus- ited liability company. Agreements between works councils and sions to be conducted in a constitutional manner and with due employers must always be subordinate to any collective agree regard to existing agreements in the industry. ments in force. Subject to this, the councils deal with such matWorks committees are sometimes composed entirely of indi- ters as wages and other working conditions, methods of producvidual workers elected by ballot, secret or otherwise, by occupa- tion, staffing, discipline and dismissals, and employers must keep

STATE INTERVENTION]

INDUSTRIAL

RELATIONS

207

the councils informed of all action taken which affects these mat-

lished or, in serious disputes, a committee of investigation may be ordered. In Canada, besides conciliation under similar conditions to those in Great Britain, there is, in respect of five provinces, power to compel submission of a dispute in mining, transport and

In case of disagreement with the employers appeals may be made

public utility industries to a board of conciliation and arbitration, stoppage of work in the meantime being prohibited.

peals resolve deadlocks and are substantial aids to the mainte-

There is usually provision for arbitration in which a decision

review of dismissals is highly valued. Since the years of depression 1923-25 the councils have largely

arbitrator, a board of arbitration or a labour court. Arbitration may be voluntary and the awards open to voluntary acceptance, or compulsory in both cases. The great difficulty in compulsory measures is the enforcement of penalties when large numbers of workers are involved. Moreover, the fact that either party can force the other to arbitration tends to make conciliation procedure ineffective. Conciliation and arbitration machinery is constantly being modified in the various countries. National circumstances and psychology, the size and distribution of the population, the nature of the industries, and the economic conditions prevailing must all be taken into account in estimating the suitability of the machinery in any country. Great Britain.—Although there had been much legislation re-

ters, of the trading position of the undertaking, and of the anticipated demand for labour. In large undertakings a profit and loss account and a balance sheet must be presented and explained. to the State conciliation boards and the labour courts. These ap-

nance of peace. The power given to the council in respect of the is made on the matters in dispute by a third party, either a single disappeared from commercial establishments.

In spite of the

statutory provisions, the working of the councils has been to a considerable degree dependent upon the extent to which the

workers have been organized in trade unions. There is, however, a tendency among some employers to favour works agreements

in place of general collective agreements. The trade unions have tended to become industrial unions covering whole industries, and have formed organizations of works councils corresponding with the main groups of the trade union movement, with works councils headquarters in various localities, divided into groups for each branch of industry. There is a trade union central works committee for the whole country and all the councils are linked up in industrial groups. A movement of some importance has been the

linking up of the councils in undertakings which form vertical

trusts, i.e., covering the whole process of production from the raw material to the finished products. These are voluntary associations

known as trust works councils (““Konzarnbetriebsrat”). The effect on the trade unions has been to cause them to concentrate more attention on the production problems of industry and to produce a type of leader who is more closely associated with the work and the workmen in the undertakings. In Austria the act of March 15, 1919, is similar to the German act. Agriculture is excluded and there are special arrangements for railways, Government departments and postal services. Disputes with regard to the working or establishment of councils are referred to a conciliation board which usually works through committees constituted of one representative nominated by the employers and workers, respectively, and an impartial chairman, usually a judge, all appointed by the Ministry of Social Administration. Failing settlement by agreement the board gives a final decision against which there is no appeal, but the administrative court, which is not in terms debarred from action, has allowed appeals to be made to it. In Austria the expenses of the councils other than wages are a charge upon the workers. EXTENT

OF STATE INTERVENTION

Conciliation and Arbitration.—Conciliation and arbitration form an important part of State intervention in every country. In Great Britain conciliation or arbitration action can be taken only with the consent of the parties. In Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Norway, Austria, Holland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa (public utilities) and in some South American countries,

conciliation procedure can be enforced on the parties. In Belgium, unless conciliation procedure is utilized, the parties are penalized in respect of payments from the unemployment insurance fund. In Australia the presidents of arbitration boards or concillation committees have power to intervene on their own initiative before the compulsory arbitration procedure, which follows failure lo settle, is put into operation. In Italy there are “co-ordinating bodies” which have a statutory right to intervene and stoppages

ofwork are prohibited. In Germany the proposals of conciliation tribunals, if not accepted, can be made binding on the parties, al-

though the use of this power is strictly confined to disputes seriously affecting the public interest. In Austria the conciliator may proceed to arbitration. In Norway a stoppage of work can be prohibited by the conciliator pending conciliation proceedings

and a settlement by arbitration may be ordered in disputes endangeting the public interests. In Denmark, Sweden, Finland and New Zealand the conciliation authority may make proposals and publish them with the facts. In Italy the “co-ordinating bodies” may determine the conditions to be put into operation. In Holland the facts as elicited by conciliation proceedings may be pub-

lating to the settlement of disputes and the regulation of wages, the only effective action until 1896 was the operation of agreed conciliation arrangements within various industries, based on the inherent desire of those engaged in industry to settle their own affairs, against which compulsory systems have never been more than partially successful in this or any country. Other reasons for

the failure of legislation were dislike of appearance before justices of the peace, unwillingness to trust untried arbitrators and the severe penalties for non-observance of decisions. The Conciliation Act 1896 removed all elements of compulsion and gave the Board of Trade power to promote the settlement of disputes by conciliation or arbitration by consent of both parties, and to establish standing conciliation boards. In 1908, standing panels of independent chairmen, employers’ and workers’ representatives were appointed with a view to assisting parties in making their nominations for arbitration proceedings. Increasing unrest caused the appointment in 1911 of an industrial council of 13 representatives of employers and workers respectively, with Sir George (now Lord) Askwith as chairman. The council proved to be too large to be effective for either conciliation or arbitration and ceased to function. In 1912, for the settlement of a coal-mining dispute, the Coal Mines (Minimum Wages) Act, which provided for the fixing of minimum conditions by 22 district joint committees with independent chairmen, was passed. During the War it was of vital importance to prevent stoppage of production and, under the Munitions of War Acts, compulsory arbitration, with the prohibition of strikes and lock-outs, came into operation. The effect was that the slower procedure of negotiation or conciliation was largely abandoned. As so much work was for Government purposes and increased wages were reimbursed by the consumer, employers had not the same financial interest as under normal conditions. Even in War circumstances, however, the legal prohibition of strikes was only a qualified success and, as in Australia, was ineffective when large numbers were concerned. The Whitley committee made a recommendation against compulsory arbitration but in favour of a standing arbitration tribunal as a part of the voluntary machinery, and the Industrial Courts Act 1919, which superseded the Conciliation Act, complied with these recommendations. Part I. provided for a standing industrial court consisting of a president and panels of representatives of employers and workers, including women members, and independent persons, the expenses being borne by the Government. A court is constituted by the president and usually consists of three persons. There is power also to utilize technical assessors. Cases are referred to the court, by consent of the parties, by the Ministry of Labour, the terms of reference, as in all arbitration cases, being agreed upon by the parties. Terms of reference define the issues upon which a decision is required. Requests for inter_pretations of the court's awards may be referred direct to the court by either of the parties. The awards are not of compulsory application. For civil service cases, which, under an agreement,

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are referred to the industrial court for settlement, there are special panels nominated by the chancellor of the Exchequer and the staff organizations, respectively. Part I. of the act also provides that any trade dispute may be reported to the Minister by either party to a dispute and the Minister may take expedient steps to promote a settlement. If both parties consent, he may refer the dispute to the industrial court or to one or more persons appointed by him or to a board of arbitration of one or more persons nominated by each side, and an independent chairman appointed by him. Boards are sometimes constituted of an independent person, by whom the decision is given, with assessors, the object of the latter being to provide the former with the assistance of experienced persons from either side for the elucidation of facts, and to give the parties the assurance that the points in their case are made clear when the award is made. The policy is based on the acceptance of the principle of the general regulation of industrial conditions by collective agreements and, to minimize Government intervention, the act precludes the Minister from referring a dispute to arbitration unless existing agreed arrangements in the trade for the settlement of disputes have been exhausted. Although arbitration awards are not compulsorily binding, agreement to refer a dispute to arbitration is regarded as a settlement of a dispute, work being resumed in the case of a stoppage on the conditions operating when the stoppage occurred. Arbitration proceedings under voluntary conditions are informal and are free from restrictions such as apply to proceedings in courts of justice. The parties are encouraged to state their case freely and without hostility. For the purposes of its conciliation work the Ministry of Labour has six district conciliation officers who keep in touch with industrial movements in their areas. Discussion with an im-

partial and experienced person at an early stage often directs negotiations into a course which leads to an amicable settlement. Circumstances arise in which one party cannot approach another or make proposals for settlement without the appearance of giving

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[STATE INTERVENTION

minimum conditions, the determination being referable in Victoria to a court of industrial appeals for confirmation or revision. The Federal court, unlike the State courts, has not power to determine

industrial conditions otherwise than in the settlement of a dispute

but State courts cannot fix conditions inconsistent with those fixed by the Federal court. The Federal court fixes a basic living wage independently of those fixed by the States. The president of the Federal court can call compulsory conciliation conferences and the court may refer disputes to a conciliation committee or local board. Under the Industrial Peace Act 1920, a Commonwealth council of employers’ and workers’ representatives with an independent chairman was appointed to inquire into disputes and provision was made for special tribunals and local boards with power to make compulsory awards which may modify those of the court. The legislation generally is operative in the towns and difficulty arises owing to overlapping of Federal and State decisions. In New Zealand the system of compulsory arbitration applies to registered unions. Disputes are referred to the court of arbitration if they have not been settled by a district conciliation officer sitting with assessors as conciliation councils. These have compulsory powers. A strike or lock-out is prohibited while a dispute is under consideration or during the currency of an award. For other workers there is compulsory reference of disputes to a conciliation commissioner and later to a labour dispute committee composed of representatives of the parties and an independent chairman. Failing a settlement within 14 days of the publication of a committee’s

findings, a secret ballot may be

taken. Strikes and lock-outs are prohibited if an award or agreement is in force or a period of three weeks has not been allowed for investigation and a ballot. The provision as to awards and

agreements is similar to that in Australia. A minimum wage is in operation. In South Africa strikes in public utility undertakings are prohibited and compulsory arbitration applies to these cases. The

main provision for the settlement of disputes is by the creation of joint industrial councils in organized trades and boards of conciliation in others. The Minister of Labour can appoint arbitrators on application and if a majority of employers and workers tricity supply and local authorities’ services (Conspiracy and Pro- agree to be bound by the award a stoppage becomes unlawful tection of Property Act 1875, Electricity Act 1919, Trade Union before the award is issued. Agreements may be made binding in any district. Act 1927). Other Countries.—In Germany there are Federal and district British Colonies.—In Australia there is a Commonwealth court of conciliation and arbitration, with a justice of the High conciliators and district conciliation committees. Failing success, Court as president, which deals with disputes extending beyond an “adjustment board” consisting of a conciliator with assessors the boundaries of any one State, and each State has a wage- may be appointed. Failing agreement, an award may be made fixing authority which also deals with industrial disputes. In New which may be declared binding. This, however, is put into operaSouth Wales there is a court of arbitration with district courts tion only when the dispute menaces the well-being of the comand an appeal court of three judges. Subject to the court of arbi- munity as a whole. Either party can apply to have a decision made tration’s control, industrial boards for any industry or section of binding, and the party that refuses to accept it is legally liable for industry, or combination of industries may be established to deal loss, damage or other consequences. Unless there is adequate with matters referred to them by the court. There are also con- evidence to the Minister of Labour that it is financially impossible ciliation committees and officers with power to call conferences. to carry out a compulsory award; an establishment may be comStoppages of work are illegal in public utilities, in industries pelled to carry on under Government supervision. An act of 1926 covered by awards or agreements (unless, by secret ballot of two- provided for the establishment in 1927 of local, State and Federal thirds of the members, an award is no longer binding, and when labour courts with jurisdiction, to the exclusion of civil courts, 14 days’ notice of strike has been given). The Government can in civil disputes affecting collective agreements, or arising out of order a secret ballot. A minimum living wage is settled by the employment or apprenticeship, or concerning a contract of emState Board of Trade. In Queensland there is a court of arbitra- ployment, or arising out of the Works Council Act but not distion of not more than three judges, which may regulate conditions, putes on claims for new conditions of employment. The local with or without application, remit disputes to industrial boards, and State courts are divided into chambers for manual and nonhold inquiries and fix a minimum living wage. Strikes and lock- manual workers, and special chambers for crafts or disputes in outs by organized workers and employees are prohibited unless particular occupations, constituted of a judge and assessors. The authorized by secret ballot or, in others, unless authorized by the Federal labour court is a branch of the Federal court of justice. In Italy, under the act of April 1926, strikes and lock-outs are court after a secret ballot. In South Australia there are an industrial court and industrial boards with an appeal from the latter to prohibited. Provision is made for the recognition of one association only for employers and workers, respectively, for each occupathe former. -Strikes and lock-outs are prohibited and a minimum wage is settled by a board of industry. In Western Australia tion in a district, the associations being federated. There are six there is a: court of arbitration and strikes and lock-outs are pro- employers’ confederations covering large sections such as I hibited. Awards and agreements filed with the courts are binding dustry, agriculture, commerce and one confederation for trade throughout industries or districts in all cases. In Victoria and unions, which have authority over the constituent associations, Tasmania there are wages boards in each industry which fix approve collective agreements and give permission for action to

way, and in such cases a mediator renders useful service. There is no general prohibition of strikes and lock-outs but strikes in breach of contract are illegal, under penalty, in gas, water, elec-

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be taken before the labour magistracy. There are also national

299

| action has been taken by the Government, enforcement being left

| to

the parties. In the report of the Nova Scotia coal commission

|in 1926 it was indicated that the commission had come to the concon- clusion that the power of a party to secure the appointment of a

federations under the confederations. Agreements between associations are binding under penalty on all employers and workers

in the category and district covered. All organizations are

RELATIONS

trolled by the Minister of Corporations. Co-ordinating bodies or corporations of employers’ and workers’ associations may deal with collective labour questions and disputes. For the purpose

of settling disputes arising out of collective agreements or demands for new conditions of employment there is a labour magistracy constituted, as special sections of the 16 courts of appeal, of the president and two experts on production and labour, with an appeal to the court of cassation. A charter of labour defines ihe position of the Fascist State in relation to problems of labour

and production. ` In Norway, following serious disputes in 1927, compulsory arbitration was re-introduced by the Labour Disputes Act. If conciliation (which may be compulsory) fails to settle a dispute and it is likely to injure public interests the Government, on the report of the national conciliator, may order settlement by arbitration and prohibit a stoppage of work. Ballots on proposals

board of investigation, if and when it so desired, had the effect in some cases of making prior negotiations unreal and of operating against the settlement of disputes by the parties themselves. It has also been suggested that the existence of this power has caused claims to be made and to be pressed to the point of a dispute which would not otherwise have been allowed to reach that stage. The administration of the act, like that of the Industrial Courts Act, has been on a voluntary basis. In 1925 the act was declared by the judicial committee of the privy council ulira vires of the Dominion parliament under the constitution. The act has since been amended to render it possible for each province to make itself subject to the provisions. British Columbia, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia have passed laws for this purpose.

In the Netherlands there is similar power to appoint a committee of enquiry in a dispute which may seriously affect the interests made by conciliators may also be required and a report made of the community and in which at least 300 workpeople are giving the numbers voting for and against the proposal. In any involved, if all other means of settlement have failed. Under the Australian Industrial Peace Act, the Commonwealth case stoppage of work must not commence within four days of council of employers and employees may appoint committees of notice being given to a conciliator. In France there are, as in Belgium, conseils de prud'hommes enquiry and may itself conduct enquiries, and in many countries which conciliate in disputes affecting individuals. These consist of conciliation officers and conciliation tribunals have power to puba justice and representatives of employers and workers. There is lish facts and recommendations. In New Zealand this action is also conciliation by Government officials by consent of the parties. taken for the purpose of allowing the proposals to be balloted In Belgium there is a system of conciliation boards, constituted upon. In special circumstances, royal commissions are appointed in by industries themselves or by the Government. Employment Great Britain. These are established by act of parliament and exchange committees also have power to intervene in disputes. In Austria there are central and district conciliation boards, have power to compel persons to attend and to supply evidence. the chairman acting alone in the first place. The boards may act This procedure permits a longer and more thorough investigation as arbitration tribunals. Factory inspectors also act as conciliators. than is possible to a court of enquiry which has to act in the diffiEnquiry and Investigation.—In various countries special cult circumstances created by a threatened or existing stoppage of action is taken by Governments with a view to informing the pub- work. BisriocRAPEY.—G. R. Askwith, Industrial Problems and Disputes lic of the facts concerning disputes. In Great Britain under Part (1920); B. and S. Webb, Industrial Democracy, History of Trade IL. of the Industrial Courts Act, the Minister of Labour may Unionism (1920); C. L. Goodrich, The Frontier of Control (1920) ;

appoint a court of enquiry to enquire into matters connected with an existing or apprehended dispute. Sixteen courts have been appointed, two of which were in respect of coal mining and three

in respect of docks. The appointment of courts is entirely within the discretion of the minister and does not depend upon the application or consent of parties to a dispute. Courts have been constituted of an independent chairman and representatives of employers and workers, usually one of each chosen from industries outside those involved in the dispute. All are nominated by the Minister. A court may require any person to give evidence before it but no penalties are attached for refusal to do so. Evidence may be required on oath but this power has not been used. The above provisions were based on the Industrial Disputes Investigation Act 1907, of Canada, which, however, is of a more compulsory character, and is confined to mines and public utilities. During the War its scope was extended temporarily and boards may be appointed in other industries by joint consent of parties. A board of conciliation and investigation may be appointed by the Minister of Labour on his own initiative or on the application of a party to a dispute. In practice boards have never been appointed except on such application which must be accompanied by a declaration that a stoppage is imminent. When a board has been applied for or appointed, a strike or lock-out is prohibited under

penalty pending the report of the board. Thirty days’ notice of changes in working conditions is required. A board consists of one member nominated by each party and an independent chairman agreed upon by the members or nominated by the Minister, the latter being the usual procedure. There are penalties for failure to attend or supply evidence but these do not appear to be enforced. Of the 642 cases up to 1926 in which action was taken either by conciliation or by the appointment of a board, a stoppage was averted or ended in all but 37 cases. In all these cases "e or both parties had indicated by making application, a desire avoid a stoppage. Where illegal stoppages have taken place no

C. E. Renold, Workshop Committees (1921); B. G. de Montgomery, British and Continental Labour Policy (1922); Lynden Macassey, Labour Policy—False and True (1922); H. Wolfe, Labour Supply and Regulation (1923); W. W. Mackenzie, The Industrial Court, Practice and. Procedure (1923) ; G. D. H. Cole, Workshop Organization (1923), Organised Labour (1924), Payment of Wages (1928); E. M. Burns, Wages and tke State (x926) ; A. G. B. Fisher, Some Problems of Wages and their Regulation in Great Britain since 1918 (1926); Reports of Royal Commissions on Labour (1867 and 1891); Reports of Whitley Committee (1917-20) ; Report on the Establishment and Progress of Joint Industrial Councils (1917-22); Reports of Royal

Commissions

on Coalmining

(1919 and 1925);

Report

of Com-

mittee on Women in Industry (1919); Awards of Industrial Courts (1919, etc.) ; International Labour Office, Studies and Reports (1920, etc.); Trade Union Congress, Industrial Negotiations and Agreements (1922); Committee on industry and trade, Survey of Industrial Relations (1925, 1926); League of Nations Union, Report of Conference, Towards Industrial Peace (1927); R. N. Gilchrist, “Conciliation and Arbitration,” Bulletin of Indian Industries and Labour, no. 23; Office du Travail, Paris, Réglement aimable des confits collectifs du Travail (1924); International Labour Office, Works Councils in Germany (1924) ; J. Feig, Schlichtungswesen (Jena, 1925) ; B. Stern, Bureau of Labour Statistics, U.S.A., Works Council Movement in Germany (1928); Dr. Hauschild, Der vorlaüfige Reichswirtschaftsrat, 19020—26 (1926); B. M. Selekman (Russell Sage Foundation), Postponing Strikes (Canada) (1927); Dr. Verner zur Megede, Volkswirtschaftliche und. Sociale Auswirkungen des Betriebsrategesetz (Munich, 1927); Utredningar till belysande av Arbetsfredsfragan (Stockholm, 1927) ; Neils Bergstein, Utländsk lagstiftning om medling og skiljedom i arbetstvister (Stockholm, 1927); Ministry of Labour, Annual Reports; Ministry of Labour Gazette (monthly); Reports of Courts of Inquiry; International Labaur Review ee i5

THE UNITED STATES Industrial Relations in the United States have been coloured at every turn by the individualistic traditions of the country and by the absence of caste distinctions. These two strains in American life should be kept in mind in attempting to understand the various aspects of labour relations, such as trade unionism, social

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INDUSTRIAL

legislation, arbitration and conciliation, and the latter-day emphasis on securing co-operation within the individual plant. The relations between employers and employees can be divided into a controversial phase and a constructive phase, though these aspects overlap. The historical developments are largely concerned with the controversial phase. Trade Unionism.—American trade unionism has quite a different complexion from the European. In Europe unionism has fulfilled not only economic functions but also political and social; its purpose has been not only to raise the economic status of the worker, but also to compensate him for his inferior social status by giving him vicarious prestige through the power of the unions. In America, on the other hand, labour organization has largely taken the form of “business unionism” for purely practical bargaining purposes. Unionism in the United States is a much more recent phenomenon than in other countries. The industrial revolution, which was in full swing in England around 1800, did not produce its full effects in the United States until about the middle of the century. Thus American unionism did not gain any momentum until after 1850, and no existing union traces its history beyond that time. In colonial days, the newness of the environment, the predominance of agriculture, the local industrial development retarded through the fixed policy of the English Government, kept difficulties between organized workers and employers from being a national problem. The earliest known workers’ association is that of the Philadelphia shoemakers of 1792, which was followed by a few other sporadic societies. It was not until the end of the first third of the century that labour organizations became numerous enough to be conspicuous. Even to-day union organization has not reached foreign proportions. As late as 1900 the American Federation of Labour (g.v.) embraced less than 600,000 members. At present the total membership of all unions combined is less than 4,500,000. The late development of trade unionism is perhaps one reason for this; another is the persistent opposition of employers. Various court decisions have made organization more difficult, since unions do not have the legal position they achieved in England. In some of the recent decisions of the supreme court it has been made

RELATIONS

[UNITED STATES

| workmen. With success in the more purely political programmes, unions turned to legislation for economic reforms. The limitation of

hours of labour formed the earliest of the major issues upon

which labour organizations co-operated. They were successful, in 1840, in securing, by an executive order of President Van Buren,

a limitation to ten hours a day for certain Government employees, and in 1868 in securing, through the action of Congress, a general eight hour day for these employees. When, however, labour unions tried to secure the limitation of hours and the improvement of wages and other economic condi. tions in private industry through Government action, they en. countered such obstacles that in time their faith in this approach was much weakened. Among the difficulties which they met was the hostile attitude of the agrarians on the one hand, who were not much in sympathy with legislation pampering the city workers, and of the employers and the commercial group on the other. Furthermore, progress had to be achieved in 48 States. Not only had public opinion to be roused, but legislation had to run the gauntlet of the courts and be watched at every point to keep it

from being nullified by ineffective enforcement. The courts proved the greatest obstacle, for they were none too favourable to legislation suggesting an abandonment of freedom of contract. Latterly, therefore, unions have evinced comparatively little interest in labour legislation and have to a large extent left the field to outside groups. (See further TRADE UNIONS.) STATE AND WORKER

Labour Legislation.—In recent years, labour legislation has been largely promoted by public groups composed neither exclusively of employers or of unions. Progress, however, has been

hampered by the individualist traditions of the country. Then again, though there were many examples of unsatisfactory conditions in factories, it is probable that they existed to no such extent as they did in the early English factories, or in Continental factories. The result was no such intense reaction as in England to bring about a public outcry for labour legislation. Besides, labour legislation had to meet the usual criticism that it was based upon illegal for a union to attempt to organize workers into unions if “foreign socialistic ideas.” There was little sympathy with these workers have signed a so-called individual ("yellow dog") German bureaucratic ideas and as such legislation found its most contract with the employer agreeing not to do so. Union leaders scientific exposition in Germany, the cry that it was un-American have also complained that the process of injunction has seriously and collectivist was easily raised against it. As a result, there is no health insurance law, old-age pension hampered their activities. Unionism is embodied largely in the American Federation of provisions or unemployment insurance law in any State in the Labour, a loosely federated group of national unions, each to some Union or in the Federal Government. Many of the larger comdegree with its own economic aims. But there are certain charac- panies have made elaborate provision for pensions, health insurteristics common to all groups. American labour for the most part ance and even group life insurance, but of course this has left the has for over 40 years renounced the struggle for independent po- employees of smaller companies without protection of this charlitical power and is the most determined enemy of communism acter. The various attempts to regulate child labour federally have and, to a large degree, of socialism. There has been much bitter- been, upset and the constitutional amendment was defeated by an ness against individual and group employers, but the philosophy of overwhelming vote of the people, so that this regulation of child class conflict -as such is not much in evidence. American workers labour must depend upon the various types of legislation passed in are not inclined to regard their status as immutable. It is true that each State in accordance with its own particular standards. Miniunions, though started with economic purposes, soon took on a mum wage legislation for women and children which has been considerable political complexion. But though at first they at- on the statute books in 14 of the States, was recently interpreted tempted to use legislation to improve the conditions of the worker, so unfavourably by the United States Supreme Court as largely to latterly they have shown little interest in labour legislation and nullify it. But in factory codes, sanitary regulation and safety provisions indeed at times union leaders have opposed certain measures State regulation has decidedly advanced. This has been accomintended particularly for the benefit of the worker. Equality of citizenship for the wage earner was a much nearer panied by a wide-spread safety movement on the part of emgoal for early American unions than it was for those in other ployers, resulting in part from the recently awakened interest in countries. A political democracy had already been established in systematic management, and in part from an admirable system of principle. A few States still lagged behind with property quali- workmen’s compensation in approximately 40 States. This legisfications attached to the franchise, and these and other injustices lation, once bitterly opposed by the employers, now includes gave occasion for a good deal of political activity. But with the industrialists as its strongest supporters. advent of practically universal suffrage it was easy to remedy | Mediation and Arbitration.—In accordance with the concertain other abuses. The unions took a prominent place every- flict theory of labour relations, a technique of mediation and conwhere in intensive campaigns to abolish imprisonment for debt, ciliation was developed both in the Federal and State administrato establish laws providing for a mechanics’ lien, to reform the tions, and within industries in private contract between groups of regulations concerning compulsory militia service, to develop a employers and the unions. But compulsory arbitration of the system of public education having no taint of charity, and to type developed in Australia has made no headway. For the most exclude Mongolians from immigrating to compete with American part Governmental intervention has avoided:compulsion and relied

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n the friendly offices of governmental agencies in investigating

the dispute and bringing the parties together. The only element of compulsion is the power to summon witnesses, hold hearings and

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301

given a place, but in which other aspects, previously neglected, are accorded their due prominence. These aspects are those dealing with the proper organization of work relations in each plant.

Differences in morale and in satisfaction with their daily job command evidence. The distinction has been made that there is more cause for the State exercising compulsion on essential indus- between the employees in two organizations may have no relation tries than on so called non-essential ones. Nevertheless, neither to the wages paid. There are examples of factories existing side

by side in the same vicinity paying the same wages in one of which there is a contented working force and in the other a law of 1915 and the Kansas "Court of Industrial Relations” of dissatisfied, restless group. Sometimes, where there is a disparity 1920—has an element of compulsion been included. In the latter in wages, the concern paying the higher wage has the dissatisfied instance, the law met with determined opposition on all sides and workers. The difference is one in technique,—the degree to which

in Federal or State legislation has compulsion obtained any permanent foothold. In only two important instances—the Colorado

was declared unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court

so far as it applied compulsory arbitration to other than transport or public utilities, and was superseded by a new law which abolished the court. Federal legislation applicable to disputes on transportation corrations engaged in interstate commerce began with the act of 1888, and gave the president power of voluntary arbitration, and

of making an inquiry into the facts that would make it easier to settle such disputes. The principle of voluntary arbitration was

maintained in the Erdman Act of 1898 and the Newlands Act of 1913, the successive laws which superseded the act of 1888. The Transportation Act of 1920 gave certain powers to render awards to the National railway board. Though the awards of that board

were not legally binding there was dissatisfaction with the element of compulsion which inhered in its powers to invoke public opinion without the submission of both parties. Largely as a consequence of this dissatisfaction the latest law, the Railway Labor

Act of 1926, abolished the provision for such a board. Voluntary

system

and practical common

sense have been applied to the

every-day problems of living and working together. Present day interpretation of the labour problem adds to the old-time conception of “the economic man,” invented by the economists, and described as one struggling for his share of what is provided, the conception of "the administrative man," who has his place in industry as a unit in a complicated organization. In other words, we now recognize that in any private business plant there is, in addition to the economic side of industrial relations, a purely administrative problem of organization and functions. This problem in an industrial concern is not very different from that which arises in a Red Cross or consumers’ co-operative organization, in the post office, and in other agencies which also are trying to provide services, and in which no question of capitat or labour is involved. There are laws of sound administration as

well as “economic laws.” Realistic analysis has, furthermore, taken out some of the mis-

placed conflict allocated to the factory. It has been recognized that the determination of real wages takes place chiefly not within mediation and arbitration are outstanding features. The prejudice against compulsory arbitration has had a definite but without the factory walls in the competition between indusbasis in the fear that under a system of compulsory arbitration tries and in taxation, and that often the contest for the economic surplus is not solely, or even for the most part, between capital awards would finally be made even in matters of minute detail. Thus both nationally and locally judicial process has been and labour but between various other groups. Agricultural workconfined to conciliation and voluntary arbitration. A department ers are pitched against industrial workers, employers and emof conciliation was included in the scope of powers of the Federal ployees in one industry against those in another. Sometimes the Department of Labor by an Act passed in 1913, and its commis- inequalities between groups are due to the vagaries of credit and sioners intercede whenever a situation suggests that they may be monetary systems. Though the economic struggle has been dramaable to prevent a break. National commissions have also been tized as taking place in the factory, only a very small part of that appointed to take testimony on important strikes and to recom- struggle in fact takes place there. mend the principles upon which the issue should be settled and Thus, the modern United States emphasis in the treatment of these have also been of a voluntary character. One of the out- the difficulties of industrial relations is upon the improvement of standing ones was President Roosevelt’s anthracite coal commis- the more routine problems in the individual factory. sion of 1902, whose report was long a basis of agreement. Attention to the administrative aspects has developed a “techWithin the field of private agreement there have been many nique of good will," with an extensive literature going under the experiments in setting up judicial machinery, such as the protocols general title of personnel administration. The problem has been of the New York garment trades, in which a complicated extra- to satisfy the desires of workmen within the limits of the requirelegal industrial Government was established. Since the back- ments of productive efficiency and to see how productive efficiency ground for such experiments have been grievances, the subject could be furthered by this satisfaction of workmen's aspirations. Modern behaviouristic psychology has been invoked to satisfy was handled largely from a juridical point of view, rather than from the point of view of co-operation and production, as is the these desires. They may perhaps be roughly classified as the decase in the more recent clothing agreements. sire for justice, the desire for status and the desire for opporThese processes of mediation and conciliation, and judicial tunity. The first, “justice,” is the elemental desire for fair play; processes aS a means of solving the labour problem, have been "status" is the desire of the workman for some recognition of his given a disproportionate popular interest. For a while there were dignity as a participant in the industrial activities, and “opporindications that they were regarded by many as panaceas, but tunity” is the ‘desire of a certain proportion of the employees to recently the attitude has changed. '| forge ahead. As a step in the effort’ to satisfy the desire for justice might be included the pension systems and provision for CONSTRUCTIVE PHASE OF INDUSTRIAL RELATIONS health and group life insurance which have been set up particularly Since about rgo a movement has developed to introduce into by the larger companies. At times these are established on a Management scientific and professional principles. One of the basis under which the employees contribute to the fund and at frst points was the importance of a highly co-operative em- times on a non-contributory basis. To satisfy the desire for ployee morale. It is true that many aspects of personnel man- status the technique that has been developed has been that of agement may have been introduced as a defence against unionism works councils and employee representation, employee stock and to this extent may be involved in the controversial phase of ownership and similar plans. Industrial relations; but its main impulse has been constructive. Employee representation is probably one of the most interesthis new conception of labour relations as part of manage- ing aspects of the new personnel movement. Feeling the need of ment has introduced a constructive attitude towards the labour providing some form of group expression to the workers, execuproblem and prevented it being regarded inherently as a matter tives have introduced employee representation having no conpurely of unionism, legalism, conciliation and arbitration or legis- nection with trade unionism as such but in a way as a substitute lation. The way has thus been made clear for the adoption of a for unionism. Over 1,500,000 individuals are employed in conbroader perspective, in which the items mentioned above are cerns operating such plans.

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In some plans the function of the employees’ representatives is purely advisory. No vote may be taken and the advice is not necessarily followed, but the employees realize that at least their viewpoint has not been entirely ignored. On the other hand, there are types in which preliminary legislative power is given to employees’ committees on matters of employee interest; this may be subject to the veto of the management or may provide for outside arbitration of issues. The method of satisfying the desire of the workman for “opportunity” is to recognize that what the more energetic workman particularly desires is a successful career. In order to satisfy this desire, elaborate systems for detecting, training and promoting

workers have been established in many plants. Much effort has been made to evolve systems of training and methods of making promotion available to able employees. These are particularly

necessary in America because of the decline of the apprentice sys-

tem. It has been estimated that only a minority of employees are really ambitious for advancement, but it is recognized that it is important to train and advance this group, however large it may happen to be. In connection with this desire of the workman for opportunity can be included the large question of security of employment, as an essential aspect of making the worker’s job a career. The individual employer cannot do much to prevent the effects of cyclical unemployment, but he can temper its effect. Much attention has been given to seasonal unemployment, particularly by some large corporations. Here the subject of industrial relations becomes involved in the larger problems of management, for to do away with seasonal unemployment the production manager must plan skilfully and the financial and sales executives of the company must co-operate in stabilizing operations. In the dispensation of justice and in the more general problem of carrying out a personnel programme it has been recognized that specialized machinery is necessary. As a result progressive companies have established “employment” or “personnel” departments. This is particularly important because new groups of employees are constantly being marshalled into new industries. Formerly the theory in certain plants was that any worker could see the general manager or the employer. Now it is recognized that it is impossible for the able manager to give time to these matters, and that injustice was often done to the workman because of inadequate provision for the specialization of this function. Hence the necessity of such departments has been accepted as particularly important in large companies. Among other things the purpose of such a personnel department is to make certain that the employees are treated fairly and grievances adjusted at the source. Complaints are handled in such departments with a works council acting mainly as a court of appeal. In some cases the right of “firing,” as well as the right of hiring, has been taken away from the foreman, and though there were misgivings at first, this system has worked fairly successfully. The trend is not to have these matters settled in a juridical fashion but as matters of adjustment. Personnel administration and the larger movement for thorough and systematic management have become fused, and tend towards

the fading of class distinctions, the existence of which has been known to interfere considerably with efficient organization. This new attitude of employers to their labour problems as a part of good management has served as a challenge to trade unionism. This has been particularly true of the employee representation movement where there have been some interesting attempts on the part of the union to join with management in "union-management co-operation. The most notable example is on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad in which the shop crafts and the railroad company have been working out methods of furthering their mutual responsibility for successful production. Another example of unionism in a constructive relation may be found in the men’s clothing industry. In this industry the trade union has assumed a very real responsibility for securing production, and an elaborate plan of unemployment insurance and production standards. has been worked out. There have been other examples of what may be called industry-wide co-operation

RELATIONS

[UNITED STATES

between unions and employers.

It must be confessed, however,

that the greatest progress in industrial relations has been made

in the better adjustment that has been worked out as a part of good management in the individual plant in abolishing any differ. ence in the treatment of the rank and file of workers and other members of the organization. Brsriocrapuy.—John R. Commons and associates, History of Labor in the United States (1918); O. Tead and H. C. Metcalf, Personnel Administration: Its Principles and Practice (1926); S. Perlman, 4 History of Trade Unionism in the United States (1922); Norman Ware, The Industrial Worker, 1840-1860 (1924) ; Mary Beard, Short History of the American Labor Movement (1920); John A. Fitch, The Causes of Industrial Unrest (1924); S. Blum, Labor Economics (1925) ; J. B.S. Hardman, edit., American Labor Dynamics (1928) ;W. B. Catlin, The Labor Problem in the United States and Great Britain (1926); W. English Walling, American Labor and American Democracy (1926); J. R. Commons and J. B. Andrews, Principles of Labor Legislation (1928); R. F. Hoxie, Trade Unionism in the United States (1923) ; G. G. Groat, An Introduction to the Study of Organized Labor in America (1926); J. R. Commons, edit., Trade Unionism and Labor Problems (1921) ; Rand School of Social Science, The American Labor Year Books (1920-27); P. H. Douglas, C. N. Hitchcock and W. E. Atkins, The Worker in Modern Economic Society (1923); W. E.

Atkins and Harold D. Lasswell, Labor Attitudes and Problems (1924); C. H. Parker, The Casual Laborer and Other Essays (1920) ; Whiting

Williams, What's on the Worker’s Mind (1920); Sam A. Lewisohn,

The New Leadership in Industry (1926) ; H. C. Metcalf, edit., Linking Society and Industry (1925); J. R. Commons, Industrial Goodwill (1919) ; E. R. Burton, Employee Representation (1926) ; E. G. Draper, J. R. Commons, S. A. Lewisohn and Don D. Lescohier, Can Business Prevent Unemployment? (1925); H. Feldman, The Regularization of

(S. Lx)

Employment (1925).

ARBITRATION IN THE UNITED STATES

In general any business controversy may be submitted to arbitration. Experience has proved, however, that arbitration is more particularly adapted to the following general categories of controversies: differences concerning the interpretation of the terms of a commercial contract; questions involving the interpretation of commercial custom and the application of trade rules in determining such questions; matters involving professional skill or opinion as, for instance, in architectural and engineering undertakings; trade disputes where questions concerning quantity, price, quality or other question of classification arises; controversies arising out of contracts relating to public undertakings; matters of dispute between partners; disputes under leases or transactions in real property except, perhaps, where some questions of title are involved. The United States Arbitration Act also facilitates arbitration in the general field of maritime transactions and in foreign and interstate commerce. Systems of commercial arbitration may be classified into two general types: (1) where, in the absence of or without regard to any statutory provision, the parties submit the matter in controversy to the decision of other persons and where performance

of the terms of the agreement must depend solely upon the good faith of the parties; (2) where, by statute, enforceability Is given to the agreement of the parties to submit a controversy to arbitration.. Some statutes make enforceable only the arbitrators

awards while others make enforceable also the agreement to

*

arbitrate. The agreement to arbitrate may be supplemented by rules, by-laws or other regulations of trade and commercial associations which require their members to arbitrate their differences, and for failure to do so such members may be fined, suspended, or disciplined by action of the organization. An agreement to arbitrate a future as well as an existing dispute 15 irrevocable and enforceable only under the United States Arbitration Act and under the recent laws of New York, New Jersey, Territory of Hawaii, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, California, Oregon and Louisiana.

The common law rule of the right of a party to revoke the authority of the arbitrator prevails in the States of Alabama,

Delaware, Maryland, Mississippi, New Mexico, Oklahoma, South

Dakota and Vermont.

In these States the only remedy the

aggrieved party has is to sue for damages for breach of contract

when the second party refuses to perform under an arbitration agreement.

A party to a submission to arbitration of an existing

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dispute may not revoke such an agreement in the following

industry, printing and engraving trades, real estate, rubber trade, silk industry, toy manufacturers, transportation, warehousing, Nevada, New Hampshire, North Carolina, Utah, Wisconsin and wool and the theatrical industry. The aeronautical, electrical manWyoming, and also in Georgia after the submission has been de- ufacturing, music, paper and pulp, chemical and zinc industries, livered to the arbitrator, and in Missouri and North Dakota if furniture and florists’ trades and the great retail organizations hearings have been started. An agreement to submit to arbi- have the matter under consideration. Approximately 75% of all commercial arbitrations in the United tration an existing dispute is irrevocable if the submission is made 4 rule of court prior to the rendering of an award in the follow- States are disposed of through trade associations, of which 332 ing States: Arkansas, Connecticut, Florida, Idaho, Indiana, Kan- have adopted rules and maintain facilities for their members. In sas, Montana, Ohio, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Virginia and West addition, 162 trade associations provide occasional facilities and Virginia, and in Kentucky when the submission states the issue arrange for an informal procedure. The distinguishing features and names the arbitrators. In Colorado and Washington the are that they deal with a given commodity, that they recognize courts have held that an agreement to submit to arbitration a trade customs in their consideration of the question and that the future dispute must be performed before an action at law may proceedings can be held locally and conducted uniformly by be commenced on the subject. branches of associations in different parts of the country. Mixed In January 1926, the United States Arbitration Act came into cases are disposed of through local commercial bodies, such as

States: Illinois, Iowa, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Nebraska,

effect. Under this act a dispute arising out of a contract relating

chambers of commerce

or boards

of trade.

In such instances,

there is usually a supervisory committee, a panel of arbitrators and rules of procedure. Certain definite tendencies in policies are apparent: (1) toward uniform State arbitration laws which will irrevocable and enforceable. make valid, irrevocable and enforceable either an existing or future Practically all statutes in the United States make majority definite agreement to arbitrate; (2) toward the use of arbitration awards valid. While the practice still prevails of each party ap- clauses in contracts, safeguarding the parties against the unknown pointing an arbitrator, both to select an additional arbitrator, risks and costs of litigation; (3) toward the responsible adminissuch additional arbitrator cannot alone render a valid award unless tration of arbitration under rules of procedure; (4) toward the he is specifically authorized to do so by the parties. Under these finding of awards in accordance with business customs and pracstatutes, except in the States of Massachusetts, Illinois, Nevada, tice; (5) toward the submission of questions of law to the courts Utah, Wyoming, North Carolina and to a more limited extent, only when requested by both parties; (6) toward limiting arbitraPennsylvania, questions of law can be referred to the court only tion to matters wherein the basis exists for making a business upon the request or consent of both parties if any reference is judgment; (7) toward the elimination of the umpire and the suballowed. Differences in the State statutes lead to different prac- stitution of neutral arbitrators for the appointment of a partisan tices in different States and for this reason efforts are being made by each of the parties. by business men and commercial and professional organizations The increase in the practice and scope of arbitration in the to obtain a uniform State law applicable to all business contro- United States is due to a number of causes, the most important versies alike throughout the country. being: (1) The increase in business makes it impossible for the The principles and practice embodied in the United States Ar- courts to keep pace in the settlement of disputes. The fact that a bitration Act and in the State statutes of New York, Massachu- legal decision is often long delayed has compelled business to setts, New Jersey, Hawaii, Pennsylvania, California and Oregon, adopt a more expeditious, cheaper and simpler method than may be said to represent the commercial policy of the United litigation. (2) The changing provisions of the State laws, their States. Under these laws there are five outstanding principles: liberal interpretation by the courts and the use of arbitration by (1) A written arbitration agreement is valid and irrevocable save attorneys on behalf of their clients greatly advance the practice as any other contract is revocable, and specifically enforceable if of arbitration. (3) The desire of business to order its own affairs, made in accordance with the statute. (2) The agreement may be to keep out of the courts and to avoid unnecessary publicity leads for either an existing or a future dispute. (3) The court, upon business men to settle their differences in private. (4) The educaapplication of either party, is authorized to enforce the agree- tional work being carried on by such organizations as the American ment, if necessary appointing an arbitrator. (4) The court will Bar Association, the Chamber of Commerce of the United States stay an action brought by a party to an arbitration agreement, and local chambers, universities and trade associations, all workpending its settlement by arbitration. (5) The award when con- ing toward a common policy and practice, in co-operation with firmed by a court may have judgment entered upon it and is then the American Arbitration Association—a central co-ordinating enforceable in the same manner as any other judgment. body—account for the direction now being given to arbitral policy Tribunals.—As a result of these laws and the business use and its development throughout the country. But most important of arbitration thereunder in the United States, arbitration has be- is the realization that arbitration stabilizes an industry with recome highly organized, requiring competent administration. New spect to the relationships of its members, eradicates trade abuses, York city alone has more than 80 trade and commercial tribunals promotes ethical standards and increases trade through the elimiadministered by various trades or commercial organizations. The nation of friction and ill-will. These values, added to that of American Arbitration Association, which is representative of the economy, are responsible for the extension of arbitration in the business, legal and professional arbitration interests of the coun- United States. (M. H. G.) try, maintains a national panel of arbitrators consisting of several INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH: see RESEARCH, INDUSTRIAL.

to interstate commerce in which more than $3,000 is involved, or arising out of a maritime transaction, is arbitrable, and an agreement to arbitrate either an existing or a future dispute is valid,

thousand carefully selected persons distributed in different localiINDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION, THE. When we say of ttes, so that throughout the country it is possible to arbitrate a a society that it has passed through the industrial revolution we

dispute under standard rules compiled from the extended experi-

have in mind a definite picture of its life and power. We are thinking of a society that makes great use of machinery, conducts its operations in industry and commerce on a large scale, and supplies the needs of its simplest members by an elaborate and commerce had adopted arbitration in some degree or form, series of world-wide exchanges. The creation of any such society to be administered through trade associations: the automobile must be in some respects a gradual development. Certain features Industry, boot and shoe industry, bottlers’ trade, clothing and dry of our modern economic life can be traced back to the days when goods trades, confectioners, construction industry, cotton and by- Columbus and the great sailors of his time put Europe in touch products, financial institutions, food industries, fuel, heat, light with the New World and the Far East; others to the history of and power, furs, grain, hay and seeds, hardware, imports and ex- the Crusades, when a brisk trade was conducted by the chief ports, leather, hides and skins, lumber and allied industries, Italian cities in the rich textiles of Syria; others to the earlier Jewellers’ trades, motion: picture industry, paint, oil and varnish history of Europe. when classical Greece, the successors of Alex-

ence of the American Arbitration Association by men who are informed in arbitration principle and procedure. . At the beginning of 1928 the following branches of industry

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ander the Great, and the Roman empire in turn exploited the wealth of the Mediterranean basin. There was large capital invested in industry as well as in commerce before the 18th century, and even so modern a phenomenon as mass-production was not altogether unknown before the industrial revolution. No people and no age.could pass directly from a primitive and simple economy to a life so complicated as that of modern Britain or modern Germany. Some critics, surveying these earlier tendencies, doubt whether the term “industrial revolution” is appropriate, arguing that revolution implies sudden and catastrophic change. But a

closer examination tinguished the 18th in creating the new lution, invented by

shows that the great inventions which disand roth centuries played so decisive a part kind of society that the term Industrial revoa Frenchman and made familiar by Arnold

Toynbee, is not too violent a description of the changes they produced. It is now an established phrase, like the Renaissance, or the middle ages, with a well-understood meaning and content.

England the Pioneer.—We mean, then, by the industrial revolution the change that transforms a people with peasant occupations and local markets into an industrial society with world-wide connections. This change has come to different peoples at different times. There are parts of the world, like China, where it did not begin till the 2oth century began. It came first in England because the English people had favourable political institutions, internal free trade, advantages of climate and geographical position, considerable experience of foreign trading, special connections with the New World and abundance of coal. In the first phases of the revolution coal mattered much less than it did afterwards, for the first great mechanical inventions in the textile industries were worked by water-power, and rapid industrial development was possible at this stage without coal. This explains why France made such rapid progress as an industrial nation before the. French Revolution. France had great inventors like Jacquard and Vaucanson, and she had a richer foreign trade than Great Britain. But when a series of inventions had made coal the chief source of economic power, France was at a great disadvantage. As late as 1847 she produced only 5,000,000 tons of coal, whereas the English production so early as 1800 was 10,000,000 tons, and from 1845 it was over 34,000,000. If France had kept the frontiers established by the Treaty of Amiens, her history would have been very different, for that treaty left her with the Belgian coal-fields. The Revolution in Iron.—The inventions which gave this predominant importance to coal began with the discoveries by the two Abraham Darbys and by Henry Cort of methods of using coal instead of charcoal in blast furnaces and forges. Before these discoveries iron manufacture depended on charcoal. It was therefore carried on mainly in counties like Sussex with extensive woodlands. But by the early 18th century the industry was in great difficulties, for the supplies of fuel were giving out. When the Darbys, Cort, John Wilkinson and James Watt had revolutionized the industry the difficulties vanished, coal took the place of charcoal, and the iron manufacturer could set up his plant in the neighbourhood of coal-fields. So the industrial revolution created the black country, and enabled England to turn to account the good fortune which had given her abundance of coal, and coal conveniently placed near her ports. Between 1720 and 1788 the production of pig-iron in England grew from 25,000 to 68,000 tons; between 1788 and 1839 it grew from 68,000 to 1,347,000 tons.

The Textile Revolution.—The revolution in the manufacture of iron which created the black country was accompanied by a revolution in the textile industries which transformed Lancashire and the West Riding. This revolution was started by a series of inventions in the 18th century. The flying shuttle was invented by John Kay in 1733; the spinning jenny was patented by James Hargreaves in 1770; a roller spinning frame, worked by water-power was patented by Richard Arkwright in 1769 and 1775; the mule which enabled English mills to match the delicate muslins produced by Indian fingers was invented by Samuel Crompton in 1779. The cotton industry established by these discoveries was conducted at first by water-power, but before the

REVOLUTION end of the century its progress and its power received a great stimulus from the most important of all the discoveries of the industrial revolution. Steam Power.—Profiting by the earlier pioneer work of Thomas Savery and Thomas Newcomen, Watt learnt how to make steam the servant of man’s will. By his invention of the separate condenser, patented in 1769, he produced a new type of engine, In his early engines steam was used to force a piston up and down and they were mainly used for pumping water in mines, but Watt went on to devise a method by which steam could be applied to rotary movements as well, and this was in some respects the most

important of his discoveries. From that time there was scarcely any limit to the range of the invention, which revolutionized one industry after another.

In the textiles the new power was first

applied to spinning; later it was used for weaving, as the result of a series of inventions, beginning with the imperfect power-loom patented by the Rev. Edmund Cartwright in 1785. The effect was to give new freedom to the industry, which was now independent of water-power, just as the iron industry was independent of woodland. The growth of the cotton industry was the most sensational event of the early revolution. In 1764 England imported 4,000,000 lb. of cotton wool, in 1833 she imported 300, 000,000 pounds. A table drawn up by the Chamber of Commerce at Mulhouse in 1835 shows that in that year England produced over 60% of the cotton goods consumed in the world; France 16%; the United States 7%; Switzerland, Saxony, Prussia and Belgium between them a little less. This expansion of the industry involved, of course, a great increase in the demand for raw cotton. When first the industry began to grow England and France competed for a deficient sup-

ply. At that time the West Indian islands provided more cotton than the continent of America. The United States had a great deal of short stapled cotton, which could not be exported profitably, because the cotton adhered so closely to the seeds that it was difficult and costly to prepare it for export. But in 1793 Eli Whitney invented a saw-gin which enabled this cotton to be cleansed, and from that time the United States became the chief source of supply. This invention led incidentally to a great extension of slavery in the southern States, for slaves were especially suitable for growing cotton in the river beds. The woollen and worsted industries were older than the cotton industry, and in their case these technical improvements were introduced more gradually. They led to the concentration of both industries in the West Riding, the worsted industry declining m the eastern counties, and the woollen in the south-west. Canals.—It is important to notice that the cotton industry was established on a large scale while England was still depending on canals and roads for transport. There had been a great development of road making and canal making in the 18th century, in consequence, partly, of the agrarian revolution. This revolution, which increased rapidly the system of large tenant farming, with landlords applying their capital to improvement, made farming much more productive. It was effected partly by Enclosure Acts which were passed through parliament, setting up commissioners to enclose the common fields and the common wastes. Under the old system individual freedom was limited by the rights of the commoners. By this change enterprising landlords could apply the lessons taught by Jethro Tull and other agricultural pioneers, who had discovered how to improve crops and stock. But the roads were in a very bad state, much worse than in contemporary France, and it was necessary to construct new roads and reconstruct old ones, in order to enable corn and other agricultural products to be taken to the towns. So the governing class threw itself into road development, and turnpike trusts were set up all over the country for that purpose. Similar motives led to canal building. The most famous of the inventors in this field was James Brindley, who was commissioned by the duke of Bridge-

water to make a canal to connect his coal-field with Manchester.

His success gave a stimulus to the movement, and the industrial

districts of the north and the midlands were rapidly connected with each other and with the ports by a network of waterways.

Railways.—But man’s new servant, steam, was soon brought

INDUSTRIAL into use for the purpose of transport.

The first steam locomotive

was tried at the Merthyr Tydfyl iron works in the early days of the roth century. The founder of the British railway system

was George Stephenson, the engineer of the Stockton and Darlington railway, opened in 1825, and the designer of the engine which

won the prize in the competition held at Rainhill in 1829. The success of the Liverpool and Manchester railway opened in 1830 led to an age of feverish activity in railway building, and by 1848 nearly 5,00om. of railway line had been laid in Great Britain. This in its turn had a powerful influence on the metal industries. Sea transport changed more slowly; the first steamship crossed the

REVOLUTION

305

ment In production, and the opportunities this new world offered to individual talent and character. The great cheapening of commodities was illustrated in one of the publications of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, by the case of stockings. This little book, The Results of Machinery, put it thus: “Two centuries ago, not one person in a thousand wore stockings; one century ago, not one person in five hundred wore them; now, not one person in a thousand is without them.” Life was in this sense easier, and the first impression made by this improvement led to a belief that the secret of progress was to allow every enterprising

person to make what profit he could by any means that he chose. There was another way in which the early results of the revolution made enlightened persons suspicious of any attempt to interEngineering.—In some respects the most important of the fere with industry, or to control and direct the social life of the results of Watt's discoveries was the use of machines for making times. The revolution gave great opportunities to the workman machines. Mechanical engineering begins to be important in who could save a little money and was shrewd and daring in inEnglish history about 1820 (the first textile machinery was made vesting it. Most of the early cotton spinners were men who had of wood), and with the rapidly growing demand for machinery made their way. It might have been expected that the new indusfrom all parts of the world its importance grew at a rapid rate. trial capitalists would come from the class of merchant capitalists The scope and power of the industry were increased by a series of who financed the woollen industry, but in fact they came from inventions such as James Nasmyth's steam hammer in 1838, and men of small beginnings. Robert Owen, for example, one of the by discoveries associated with the names of Henry Bessemer most successful of them, owed his success to a loan of £100. The (1856), the brothers Siemens (1866) and Snelus (1879), which exhilarating atmosphere of a world in which men could make their created the modern steel manufacture. All the metal industries own careers helps to explain the optimism of the time, and the were helped further by the chemical discoveries of which Michael disregard of evils which called for action. Faraday had made a beginning in 1826, discoveries that created Evils of the New Town Life.—For the industrial revolution in their turn the successful chemical industries of Lancashire had produced mischief of which the consequences still pursued the and Cheshire. British people in the 20th century. That revolution found Great The effect of all this energy in scientific pursuits and industrial Britain without any effective system of local government. The enterprises was to make England the leading representative of the country districts were in the hands of the country gentlemen, new civilization: the workshop of the world. Her early progress acting as magistrates, and the towns were unorganized for any was all important. For, as we have seen, England had an indus- of the more important purposes of administration. Manchester, trial revolution before the railway era. In the two countries where which had a population of a quarter of a million, was at the industrial expansion was most rapid in the latter half of the roth time of the Reform bill administratively a collection of villages century, Germany and the United States, the industrial revolu- governed by a court leet. It is not surprising, therefore, that tion began with the introduction of the railway. In earlier ages the towns which sprang up so rapidly, as the textile and metal the chief obstacle to industrial development was the difficulty of industries expanded, were quite unable to handle the new probland transport. In Germany and America this difficulty was re- lems, and that their uncontrolled growth made the new town life solved by the railways. In England, on the other hand, where the hideous and squalid. In the forties, when parliament had been resea was nowhere very far distant, an industrial revolution was pos- formed, and a spirit of enquiry was active the state of the towns sible without the railways, because canals and roads could give was examined by committees and commissions, such as the Health access to the ports. It was mechanical engineering that received of Towns Commission, and their appalling condition was revealed. the greatest stimulus from the railways. Therefore, when the A first effort to reform those conditions was made by the Public world wanted railways and docks, England was ready with the Health Act of 1848, but the problem proved too difficult, and the plant, the experience, the capital and the skill. Hence it was to several attempts that were made in the 19th century showed how English capital and English labour that the world turned for this fatal was the mischief done in the early days when there was no task. But there was this difference between the early days of the legislation to cope with the new conditions. The Regulation of Factories.—The revolution had made revolution, when England sold piece goods all over the world, and the later, when she sold railways; for the railways she sold were this problem of town life acute and pressing. It created also new turning peasant into industrial societies, and it was certain that industrial relationships which soon caused strife and discontent. when this change had taken place, England’s preponderant share Before the textile industries passed into the factory, spinning and in the trade of the world would decline. When the 2oth century weaving were done either in the workers’ homes or in the house opened England had powerful industrial rivals both in and out of a small master. Spinning was woman's work and weaving man's of Europe. work., In the mill, spinning was mainly men’s work and weaving Electricity—The 19th century was the century of steam. women’s work, but both weavers and spinners depended on the Before its close man had discovered in electricity an even more help of children. The early mills had difficulty in getting labour, valuable servant. A new industrial revolution was thus set in for they were built on streams in districts where there was little train, a revolution of which we cannot yet forecast the conse- population. The difficulty was got over by the supply of children quences. One effect is seen in the growth of motor industries in from the workhouses. The hardships of these children led to an Atlantic in 1819, and, by 1847, 60 or 70 steamships were turned out every year.

the home counties. The great industrial revolution concentrated

industry in certain districts; Lancashire is the home of cotton, theWest Riding of wool, Staffordshire of pottery, the great metal industries are found near the coal-fields. Electricity gives industty again a wider choice, and the factory inspectors’ reports for 1926 drew attention to the development of industries in the south of England. Transport is easier, and power can be made

available in the country districts.

Social Results.—The conversion of a peasant to an industrial society brings with it great changes in a nation’s habits and man-

ner of life. Of the changes that followed the first development of the new system, those that made the greatest impression on the thinkers and observers of the time were the great improve-

agitation and it was made illegal to apprentice children 40m. from home. But by this time the use of steam-power had made it possible to put up factories in or near towns, and the apprentice children were no longer needed. The campaign against the long hours of children became a campaign against the long hours of the factory, for it proved in practice impossible to shorten the

hours of children without restricting the hours of the factory, and this campaign was brought to success in 1847, when parliament passed the Ten Hours Act, for which Shaftesbury (then Lord Ashley) had fought since 1833. Factory legislation and factory inspection were gradually extended to other industries in the course of the century. In this department of government England has led the way.

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SCHOOL—INDUSTRIAL

Trade Unions.—Large-scale industry in engineering and min-

ing as well as in the factory created a different relationship between employer and employed than the sort of relationship which

existed in the days of the craftsman. The place of the guild was taken by combinations of employers and employed. Strikes and combinations were not unknown before the industrial revolu-

tion, but the revolution gave a new importance and a new scope to trade unions. Their rights and their liabilities became one of

the acute questions of politics. A fierce act against trade unions, called the Combination Act, was passed in 1799, modified in 1800, and repealed in 1824. Next year a new act defined the powers of the trade unions in such a way as to make effective combination very difficult. Trade unions did not obtain full recognition until

after the workmen had been enfranchised in 1867. After the World War they were given a new place in public life by the institution of Whitley councils and similar bodies, composed of representatives of organizations of employers and workpeople.

can leave his own country without passing into a wholly strange

and separate world. BiBLi0GRAPEY.—ÀArnold Toynbee, The Industrial Revolution of the 18th century in England (new ed., 1908); L. C. A. Knowles, The Industrial and Commercial Revolutions in Great Britain during the nineteenth century (rev. ed., 1922); J. A. Hobson, The Evolution of Modern Capitalism (rev. ed., 1926); J. H. Clapham, Economic History of Modern Britain: The Early Railway Age (1926); J. L. and Barbara Hammond, Tke Rise of Modern Industry (new ed., 1923) Paul Mantoux, The Industrial Revolution in the Eighteenth Century (J.L. H) (rev. ed. 1928).

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL (in Great Britain) a school for the education and vocational training of neglected or delinquent children, under 14 and generally under 12 years of age when they are sent there by a court. A child may be committed to an indus-

Unemployment.—Another result of the industrial revolution

was periodic mass-unemployment, à consequence of mass-production. The revolution made industries interdependent, and by it bringing the whole world into close economic relationships ons made the industries of one country dependent on the. conditi in remote places. A coal strike hits the textile industries; a deadthe lock in engineering holds up shipbuilding. The poverty or a ies; industr export British all affect nt Contine the of s quarrel cotton the throw may a Americ in crisis political or commercial industry of Lancashire or the engineering industries of Newcastle al into distress. Unemployment was not a new thing at the industri d in revolution, but it is evident that a nation which is involve affect this world economy is subject to vicissitudes that do not inthe that said es sometim is It a more primitive community. as famine for oyment unempl uted substit has ion revolut dustrial the nightmare of mankind. Problems of Industrial Civilization.—The industrial revo. lution has not had exactly the same consequences in all countries For those consequences depended partly on the conditions preced-

ing the revolution and those conditions varied. English experi-

TRANSFERENCE

ence has been peculiar in one important respect. In England n that peasant farming disappeared with the agrarian revolutio other In century. roth the in ended began in the 16th century and countries the peasant survived. France, for example, possesses important industries, but her people are mainly rural. Germany, much more industrial than France, has still a large peasant population. In England the old peasant type of life, in which agriculwhereas ture and village crafts were combined, has vanished, passed have that countries other in remains it of g somethin n. through the industrial revolutio But the industrial revolution has produced certain results after that are common to industrial civilization. Thus one country and another has been obliged to copy the example of England Europe. d followe has Asia s. factorie of control the for e to legislat ce Provision against unemployment by State or municipal insuran y was first made in certain Continental countries, notably German scheme a hed establis England war the and Belgium. Just before d for a few industries, and after the war this scheme was extende almost In ure. agricult except y industr every to cover almost If every industrial country this problem has received attention. to done has ion revolut al industri the much how realize to want we s we create common problems and to suggest common remedie have only to glance at the publications of the International Labour it Office of the League of Nations, or to consider what reforms same pursues by conference and convention. In every country the

trial school for such period as the court thinks proper, but not beyond the age of 16. The word was formerly used in the United States in the same sense, but has died out of late. See also REFORMATORY SCHOOLS.

INDUSTRIAL TRANSFERENCE.

In the normal course

of industrial development the decline of particular industries (or,

as has more frequently happened, of particular crafts) occurs gradually, and the adjustment of the personnel of the trade or craft to its reduced demand for labour accomplishes itself, without mass distress, through such natural processes as the retirement or death of its ageing workers, the reluctance of youths to enter a

declining trade where working conditions are bad and prospects worse, and the continuous voluntary exodus from the industry

of persons of all ages attracted by the better conditions prevailing and prospects offered in other industries in the neighbourhood or, maybe, in another part of the country, or of the world. This organic readjustment has not always taken place in such rapid and thorough fashion as to provide against any and all cases of individuals or communities being left stranded by the

receding of their craft, but for at least a century and a half prior to the close of the World War the development of trade, commerce and industry was such as to create an absorptive power which in good time drew sufficient surplus labour from the declining industries or areas to reduce the position there to locally manageable proportions. After the armistice, however, British in-

dustry found itself in a position in which the decline of certain industries from their pre-war or swollen post-war dimensions was so rapid, and the expansion of other industries needing increased numbers of workpeople so halting, that large numbers of individuals skilled in particular crafts, and large blocks of the industrial population located in depressed areas, were left for several years in a chronic state of under-employment for which the internal readjustment of the industrial organism provided no escape. It was the coal, iron and steel, engineering, shipbuilding, and,

later, the cotton and woollen and some other staple industries

which were found, as the post-war wave of prosperity subsided,

to have workers in excess of their capacity for employment. On the other hand certain industries and certain areas of Great Britain were enjoying an expansion and activity comparable with that of any good pre-war year. The south-eastern half of the kingdom was much more prosperous than the north-western half. There were industries—such as those in the chemical group, some

branches of the textile trade, the clothing trade, the printing trades, etc., whose rate for unemployment was round about 5 per cent. and in some cases as low as 3 per cent. There were whole counties in which the rate of unemployment was less than 3 pet cent. Experience over the previous few years had shown that surplus workers in the depressed areas and industries could, given favourable opportunity, find work in the more thriving areas and seemed probable that with encouragement, guidance and assistit problems and the same remedies are under discussion: unemploy- ance the rate of this movement could be increased. But the emof ment insurance, factory acts, hours of work, minimum rates ployment exchange system was not cut out to move large wages, the rights of trade unions, family endowment. One effect groups of workpeople with their families from one part of the of the all-embracing system which the revolution has established kingdom to another. One of the difficulties in the way of the transhas been to standardize the occupations, the cares and even the ference of long-unemployed workers was the petty debt to tradesamusements of man. The cinema is as much the mark of the men, ánd perhaps to the local authorities, incurred by the family modern world as the factory; the' railway as the football or basehouses, whose head was unemployed; another was the scarcityIn ofthese cit brisk. ball field; the wireless talk as the trade union. It is by these inwas nt employme where parts the in especially estabthe stitutions that the modern traveller is reminded, as the mediaeval 1928 6, Jan. on d cumstances the Government announce traveller was reminded by cathedrals and monasteries, that he

INDUSTRIAL WELFARE AND MEDICINE

397

lishment of an Industrial Transference Board “for the purpose of ers and colliery owners are represented. Four-fifths of the contrifacilitating the transfer of workers, and inparticular of miners, for whom opportunities of employment in their own district or occupation are no longer available." See House of Commons Official Report Dec. 7, 1927. (J. H.)

butions coming from each coal-field must be spent within that field: the remaining one-fifth of the fund is devoted to welfare matters of mutual interest to the whole industry, such as the promotion of research into safety and health, and the provision of

used in Great Britain to embrace not only the activities of industrial medical services but the control of environment and working

higher education for miners and their families. Expenditure from the fund is now year by year keeping pace with contributions. The Act of 1920 was due to expire in 1925, but the success achieved by the activities thus instigated led to prolongation

tional health hazards and the investigation of the mortality and morbidity experience of occupational groups. In the United States the work is called industrial hygiene. The subject is treated here in two sections: A. Great Britain and B. The United States.

of the life of the levy to the fund for a further period of five years. The total credits of the fund on Dec. 31, 1928, amounted to £7,883,105. The provision of pithead baths has been insured by part III.

INDUSTRIAL

WELFARE

AND

MEDICINE, a term

conditions, the study of the effects of poisons and other occupa-

GREAT BRITAIN Industrial Welfare.—The movement, which was only embryonic before the World War, received great impetus in Great

Britain from the recommendations of the Health of Munition Workers’ Committee.

The work includes needs within and outside

the factory. Within the factory it covers the selection of workers for engagement; supervision of general behaviour; of progress and apprenticeship; of transfer and disposal of workers; of general cleanliness, ventilation and temperature; of canteens;

of ambulances, rest-rooms and first-aid; of cloak-rooms, sanitary conveniences and of overalls. Outside the factory it covers housing accommodation, transit facilities, sick visiting, recreation and education. The keeping and studying of personal records of

earnings, sickness and accidents is required. Welfare committees composed of workers are found invaluable to the activities of welfare superintendents. The Home Office obtained powers under the Police, Factories, etc. Act 1916, enabling the Secretary of State by order to

require occupiers of factories to make reasonable provisions relating to “arrangements for preparing or heating and taking meals; the supply of drinking water; the supply of protective clothing; ambulance and first-aid arrangements; the supply and use of seats in workrooms; facilities for washing; accommodation for clothing; arrangements for supervision of workers.” Under these powers more than 14 orders had been made by the beginning of 1928 concerned with the special needs of different industries. At the same time a series of valuable pamphlets have been issued to set forth how the requirements of the orders can be complied with. Action on these lines continues; but already some matters have become of general application, thus drinking water must now be supplied in all factories, while the provision of first-aid has bems generally compulsory under the Workmen's Compensation

of the Mining Industry Act 1926, which placed a levy on royalties, “the royalties welfare levy.” The sum so raised is made

over to the central Welfare committee to be devoted to the pro-

vision of pithead baths. The central committee consults with district committees concerning the amount and purposes of grants in each district. The activities of the fund (with the one exception of allocations for pithead baths) deal with needs outside working hours; while progress in factory welfare made under statutory orders is extending with regard to needs within working hours. The contrast is sharp. In the case of factories voluntary effort is forwarding outside welfare schemes; but in the mines no similar efforts are taking place with regard to such needed inside welfare as the provision of

drinking water, improved lighting, or pithead kitchens. The procedure followed in these two lines of advance is also in contrast. Factory welfare proceeds through statutory orders, compliance with which can be enforced; while mining welfare consists of activities, originated and pursued by the mining community, but financed through a statutory levy. Industrial Fatigue.—The maintenance

of health, especially

that of women and young persons, has always been a driving force in the code of legislation controlling factories and mines, but its close study is practically a new science, known technically as the study of industrial fatigue. In Great Britain the study is pursued on general principles by the Industrial Fatigue Research board, an integral part of the Medical Research council. This board came into existence in 1918, owing to appreciation of a national need for intensive investigation to which attention was directed during the War by the activities of the Health of Munition Workers'

In 1872 the Metalliferous Mines Regulation Act called for ac-

Committee. Problems of interest to particular establishments are tackled by the National Institute of Industrial Psychology (see InpuSsTRIAL PsycHotocy). Much practical knowledge as to human activity, embodied in some 5o reports issued by the board, and in the Journal of the Institute, has been placed on a scientific basis. Certain points may be succinctly stated: work is necessary to health, and health is needed for efficient work; even, steady work is better than spasmodic efforts; an optimum temperature, which should vary about a mean, exists for each process and is associated with best output, least sickness and fewest accidents; venti-

commodation for persons employed in metalliferous mines to dry

lation is to be read in the stimulating effect of air movement,

ct 1923.

Other activities which may be called “voluntary” welfare include housing efforts, recreation grounds, institutes, educational schemes, nurses and sick visiting, canteens and dental clinics at factories; all provide examples of extension of factory welfare

without legal compulsion.

rather than in change of air; rest periods during long ‘spells of dents (Rescue and Aid) Act gave power to make orders relating work, particularly if posture is changed, may increase output and to: (a) The supply and maintenance of appliances for use in res- lessen monotony; monotony in repetitive work, in temperature, cue work, and the formation and training of rescue brigades; (b) in ventilation, in long spells of activity without pauses, and even The supply and maintenance of ambulance appliances and the in food supply, is disadvantageous; good factory canteens imtraining of men in ambulance work. prove health and output; change of personnel; że., labour turnThe Coal Mines Act of rọrr contained, too, an important over, reduces production and increases lost time due to sickness dause providing for accommodation and facilities for taking and accident; suitable overalls create pride in work and in person; baths and drying clothes where the majority of workmen employed vocational training adds joy to work; vocational selection on enI à mine desire such. Unfortunately this clause was a dead letter gagement increases output and reduces labour turnover; certain except at some half-dozen collieries. But under the Mining In- workers exhibit a predisposition to sustain accidents and should dustry Act 1920, welfare work for miners received a great impetus. be employed where accident-risk is at a minimum; the tendency This Act provides a fund, derived from a levy of 1d. a ton on the to sustain accidents is associated with a tendency to fall sick. output of each mine every year, to be applied for purposes conIndustrial Medicine.—This deals with the prevention of sicknected with social well-being, recreation and conditions of living ness and the restoration to health of the disabled. Modern research of workers, and with mining education and research. has enabled important protective measures to be adopted, and es_The fund amounts to about £1;000,000 a year; its allocation is tablished the tremendous importance of personal, as contrasted directed by an independent central committee on which both min- with mechanical, factors; they account for 80% of industrial acciconveniently and change their clothes.

In ro10 the Mines Acci-

308

INDUSTRIAL

WELFARE

AND

MEDICINE

sweeps have long been noted for their high death-rate from scrotal cancer which originates from exposure to soot, a distillation prod. Action should, therefore, aim at interesting workers in accident uct of coal. Quite recently an equally high mortality from scrotal prevention through the safety-first movement (see SAFETY First), cancer has been revealed among mule-spinners in the cotton trade at reducing labour turnover, at maintaining health, and at elimi- due to contact with lubricating oils, possibly obtained from shale. nating the susceptible. Under the heading of accidents are here in- Cancer of the lips and buccal cavity is nearly confined to males cluded sudden gassings; e.g., from carbon monoxide, nitrous who by smoking expose these parts to the distillation products of tobacco. The evidence here summarized suggests that certain fumes and arseniuretted hydrogen, as well as caisson disease. Information as to the occurrence of certain occupational dis- products obtained by distilling vegetable substances can sensitize eases; e.g., anthrax, toxic jaundice, chrome and epitheliomatous the skin to cancer. Evidence from the dye industry suggests that the products in " ulcerations, and poisoning from lead, mercury and arsenic, is obtained from notification sent by practitioners to the chief inspec- question may possibly be benzene compounds. Workers in this industry exposed to certain amino-benzene compounds, particutor of factories. Compensation claims for diseases named in the schedule to the larly benzidine and naphthylamine (compounds which, when they Workmen’s Compensation Act 1906 give information concerning gain access to the body, are excreted by the kidneys), have been the occurrence of other diseases, of which certain troubles which found to develop malignant tumours of the bladder. Treatment during the early stages of illness and injuries susparticularly concern coal-miners are the most important; 2.¢., elbow. tained in occupation is not peculiar to industrial medicine, even beat and hand beat knee, beat miners’ and nystagmus, Here recent investigation into causation is ahead of prevention; though recent advances in orthopaedic surgery have been of thus, the distressing trouble, nystagmus is associated with work great benefit to those manually employed. But in a few cases for long periods in imperfectly lighted galleries of coal-mines. treatment is special to the disease; e.g., the onset of caisson disOwing, however, to the danger of explosions from mine-gases, the ease can be met by immediately resubmitting the victim to the problem of improving the lighting underground is not a simple high pressure atmosphere from which he has just too rapidly emerged; or, again, persons overcome by carbon monoxide gas one (see Coat; MrnINc). In contrast stands another compensatible eye trouble, cataract, can be best brought round by the new method of administering which occurs among glass blowers and furnacemen exposed to a mixture of oxygen and carbon dioxide through artificial respiraglowing heat. Here means for prevention are known; they con- tion; while burns caused by acids or alkalis, which must be sist in wearing spectacles, the glass of which has been specially de- specially neutralized before ordinary treatment is applied, may vised for cutting off heat rays, but difficulty arises in getting the be added to the list. The convalescent stage on the contrary may be profoundly exworkers to use them. Further knowledge is drawn from occupational mortality rec- pedited by occupation, particularly where recovery is slow and ords. They reveal any undue prevalence among a group or groups tedious. The industrial convalescent tends either tọ return to of workers of some particular cause of death; phthisis is the most work too soon before he is ready for full employment, when he notable example (see TusERCULOsIS). Recent statistical investi- may quickly break down again, or, by saving himself, develop bad gation has shown that when this cause of death (a) is the only habits; or to delay—particularly if he is receiving compensation— one in excess, its undue prevalence is due to the spread of infec- until he has lost skill, developed some permanent stiffness, or betion among persons whose daily work brings them close together; come neurasthenic. He needs, at an early stage, amusement to e.g., in tailoring, printing, and making boots and shoes; (b) is divert his thoughts; next, occupational therapy, in which work is associated with excessive death-rates from other lung diseases, and performed for wages during limited hours, in order to occupy occurs later in life than usual, as happens among sandstone ma- his mind and assist in restoring lost or weakened function; e.g. sons, gold-miners, tin-miners, grinders of metal, some pottery a hand stiff after a wound; or lastly, vocational training for new workers and others, its excessive prevalence is due to inhaling work when he cannot return to his previous occupation. At each stage industry can play its part, but with regard to fine dust of silica, which sets up a condition in the lungs known as silicosis, a condition which takes some years to develop and pre- occupational therapy and training it is the only available agency. disposes its victims to tuberculous infection; and (c) is associated “After-care” in workshops, and special settlements for those diswith excessive death-rates from all other causes of death, and charged from tuberculosis sanatoria is pointing the way, which is occurs rather earlier in life than usual, as happens among publi- equally valuable for orthopaedic, mental and other cases. Occuto cans and inn-servants, its undue prevalence is caused by excessive pational therapy and vocational training are rapidly coming the front both in Great Britain and America. indulgence in alcohol. Knowledge of causation in each case points the way to prevenWelfare:—Reports of Health of Munition BIBLIOGRAPHY.—(1) (1918); Annual Reports of tion: (a) Commodious, well ventilated and lighted premises, as- Workers’ Committee, 1915-18, Cd. 9065 Chief Inspector of Factories; A. M. Anderson, “Welfare in our sociated with medical examination to eliminate the tuberculous, Factories and Workshops,” Jour. Indus. Hyg., vol. 2 (1920); Annual will rid tailoring, printing and shoe-making from the scourge of Reports of Miners’ Welfare Fund; Industrial Welfare Jour. (2) Indusphthisis. (b) Reduction to a minimum of risk from breathing silica trial Fatigue.—]. Goldmark, Fatigue and Efficiency (1912) ; Industrial Committee, Indust must abolish silicosis; the problem now belongs to the tech- Efficiency and Fatigue, Health of Munition Workers’ Cd. 8511 (1917) ; E. L. Collis and M. Greenwood, The nical engineer and is being solved in certain industries, The terim Report, Health of the Industrial Worker (1921); H. M. Vernon, Industrial financial burden of compensation is promoting active attention to Fatigue and Efficiency (1921); P. S. Florence, Economics of Fatigue dents. Further, just as in the case of sickness, the newly employed and those who are not quite well are disposed to sustain accidents.

dust prevention and control (c) Limitation of alcohol consumption, such as has been taking place in this country in recent years,

and could be extended, has already reacted not only upon the occurrence of phthisis in industry, but also of ill health from other causes, including accidents. Another disease to which mortality records have directed attention is occupational cancer (see CANCER). Workers who handle pitch, a distillation product of gas-tar, and others who mix pitch

with coal-dust in the manufacture of briquettes, suffer from warts which appear on the exposed parts of the skin, and also on the scrotum. These warts show a special tendency to become epitheliomatous with the formation of “pitch” cancer. Shale-oil workers coming in contact with crude paraffin, a product obtained by distillation, similarly suffer from warts and “paraffin” cancer; but workers manipulating refined paraffin do not suffer.

Chimney-

and Unrest

(1924); Reports of Industrial Fatigue Research Board;

Four. Nat. Inst. Indust. Psychology.

(3) Industrial Medicine —J. T.

Arlidge, Diseases and Mortality of Occupations (1892); T. Oliver, Diseases of Occupation (1908); E. L. Collis, Industrial Pneumono; conioses (1919) ; H. E. Mock, Industrial Medicine and Surgery (1919) and E. W. Hope, W. Hanna and C. O. Stallybrass, Industrial Hygiene

Health Medicine (1923) ; G. M. Kober and E. R. Hayhurst, Industrial (1924) ; E. L. Collis, PAthisis and. Industrialism (1925) ; E. L. Kennaway, “Anatomical Distribution of Occupational Cancers,” Jour. Indust. Hyg., vol. 7 (1925).

(E. L. C).

THE UNITED STATES

relaThough the specific occupational diseases are numerous, à su tively small part of the sickness of working persons is due to ailments. Apart from such disabilities as those due to faulty

posture and inadequate or defective illumination, most of the

INDUSTRIAL

WELFARE

AND

MEDICINE

309

cesses. A list of skin irritants would be almost as long as that of the industrial poisons. Prominent, however, among the industrial dermatoses are the superficial cancers produced by coal tar, soot by way of the skin, nose or mouth. Dust, Fumes and Gases.—With little doubt, the most impor- and a number of petroleum products (see DANGEROUS TRADES), rant single occupational health hazard is atmospheric pollution chrome sores, a great variety of burns by powerful acids and by toxic or irritant dusts, fumes and gases. Most of the industrial alkalies, the dermatitis of candy workers and chocolate dippers, poisons are air borne and through inhalation reach the lungs, while that of masons and plasterers and the folliculitis or infection certain ones are in part swallowed and thus exert their effects of the hair follicles of the arms common among machinists. The through the gastro-intestinal tract. Most dusts are made up of causes of the many industrial skin diseases are so diverse, the units of a wide range of sizes, from fragments readily discernible conditions differ so greatly and so many simulate dermatoses of by the unaided eye, to microscopic particles measured in fractions non-industrial origin that most cases call for the investigation of a micron. Probably one-half of the dust inhaled is exhaled; a and care of a dermatologist. Ventilation.—Wholly apart from risks of atmospheric large portion of the remainder is caught by the moist mucous membranes of the upper respiratory tract, the nose and throat. poisons, of increased or diminished atmospheric pressure and of Some is trapped on the walls of the larger tubes leading to the extremes of temperature and humidity, good working conditions lungs and much of this is driven back toward the throat and is entail proper ventilation. The criteria of good ventilation are eliminated with mucose secretion. Only the very small dust that air should be (1) pure rather than polluted by dust or other particles, those approximately -ro microns or less in diameter, foreign matter, (2) cool rather than warm, (3) moist rather can penetrate far into the lungs. Dusts made up of fine particles than dry and (4) moving rather than still. In the United States work rooms tend to be too warm. A may not be readily visible. They can be present even in a damp temperature of approximately 68° F is sufficiently high for peratmosphere. Not all dust is notably harmful, nor all harmful dusts equally sons engaged in sedentary or very light work and too high for dangerous. Certain dusts are injurious because they are definitely those engaged in more active exertion. At 68° F the relative poisonous. Others cause a disease of the lungs known as pneu- humidity for sedentary work should be about 45%.

ible ill effects of work and working environment obviously must be exerted upon the body or through entrance to the body

moconiosis.

Generally

metals or minerals,

speaking,

do more

inorganic

damage

dusts, as those of

than organic dusts, as

vegetable or animal matter. Not infrequently, dusts are of mixed character, inorganic dust being mingled with organic, as for

example, the dust of jute or flax mills where earth or sand

Light.—A

great part of the work men and women

perform

under modern conditions must be done in buildings dependent for light upon sources other than the sun. The aspects of industriallighting which warrant particular consideration are its character, its adequacy and the location of the source in relation to the

(inorganic) may be present in considerable quantities mixed with eyes of the worker. Apart from the question of general or focal illumination of vegetable (organic) particles. By far the most important of the injurious dusts is silica work, a discussion of light involves consideration of the hazard (an oxide of silicon) which is the major constituent of sand, of such light rays as the ultra-violet rays and of the kindred rays quartz and granite. It produces a form of pneumoconiosis known known as Roentgen rays or X-rays and those emanating from as silicosis, characterized by a growth of fibrous tissue in the radium. Ultra-violet rays given off in arc welding, in arc flashes lungs accompanied by gradual loss of normal lung function on electric switchboards and from various other sources, may proand usually, ultimately, is associated with the development of duce a very distressing dermatitis or ophthalmia, the latter a congestive reaction of the conjunctivae or lining membranes about pulmonary tuberculosis. (See MiQNERS' PuTHISIS.) Poisons cause perhaps the most clearly defined group of occu- the eye. Workers with X-rays and radium or with certain other pational diseases. The rapid progress of industrial chemistry has radio-active substances may develop a severe dermatitis or even led to the introduction of many substances known to be toxic, cancer of the skin. In recent years numbers of workers with radiowhile new processes are constantly being developed bringing, not active earths have suffered injury or even death due to the infrequently, new hazards in the exposure of workmen to poison- destructive action of the gamma rays of radium upon the bloodforming organs and upon other tissues. ous substances. Industrial Medical Service.—The mutual interest of emLead is used in most paints, in floor coverings, in many sorts of glass, commonly in brass and in solder; in plumbing installa- ployer and employed in the maintenance of the health of workers tions, in the storage batteries which furnish power or light for has led to the establishment in the United States of hundreds, permotor cars, railroads and aeroplanes, in the rubber of tires and haps thousands, of industrial and mercantile health services, varyin much of that used for other purposes, in modern high com- ing greatly in purpose, in degree of elaboration and in standards pression gasolene, in the type and plates from which books and of professional service, but all contributing in some measure newspapers are printed and in scores of other articles of common toward the furthering of the physical well being of the working use. Inevitably, the men and women who produce, use or market many of the articles containing lead may be affected by this very

toxic substance. Reports of deaths attributed to lead have declined relatively in recent years, but such reports do not accurately reflect the actual influence of lead poisoning. There

is abundant evidence that lead reaching the lungs is more readily toxic than that ingested. Some individuals are extraordinarily susceptible to poisoning and when exposed for even a few days to considerable quantities of lead may be seriously affected. True

men and women who utilize them. Many of the industrial medical activities found their origin in an effort to meet the need for furnishing the prompt and adequate medical care demanded of employers by the operation of workmen's compensation acts which most of the several State legislatures passed between 1912 and 1920. Many of the industrial clinics, dispensaries or plant hospitals continue to limit their activities largely to emergency surgery. There is, however, rapidly spreading a realization of the

fact that sickness is more important as a cause of working incapacity than are accidents, that from five to ten days are lost recognized have been exposed to lead over a period of months or from work on account of illness for one lost from injuries, and years. Death may be due directly to severe poisoning, but in that economic self-interest, if not humanity, calls for intelligent most cases is in part attributable to other causes, with lead as a consideration of the ill health of workers and of means for its Secondary factor. The disease admits of prevention and control. prevention or remedy. The most simple effort to meet the medical needs of industrial It is quite impracticable to list all of the recognized industrial polsons, which number several hundred. The most important workers lies in the provision of the “first-aid kits” found in most are lead and its derivatives, benzol and many of its derivatives industrial establishments throughout the country. From this and carbon monoxide. There are others scarcely less important, elemental installation, plant medical services range far in comsuch as mercury, arsenic and hydrogen sulphide (g.v.). plexity of organization. In many industrial dispensaries a trained, Skin Affections form a very large and important group of registered nurse is on duty the full working day, who usually Occupational diseases involving a multitude of industries and pro- works under the direction of a part-time or full-time physician.

acute poisoning is very rare. Most of the cases of chronic type

INDUSTRIAL

310

WORKERS

Few full-time physicians are engaged in plants employing less than a thousand, but many such plants employ part-time physicians. In larger establishments a reasonable ratio for adequate health protection is one physician to every 2,000 employees and one nurse

to every

1,000.

Where plant medical departments serve a large organization the variety of activities may include certain or all of the following: Physical examination of labour applicants and the subsequent periodic examination of employees; re-examination of individuals transferred from one department to another; emergency treatment of minor injuries and illnesses; diagnostic aid in involved and obscure clinical conditions with guidance in the seeking of further medical counsel and care and a well-trained and competent visiting nurse service. In addition, there may be an eye clinic for the treatment of eye injuries and diseases as well as for refraction; dental clinics for the examination of the teeth of labour applicants and for the supervision of the dental hygiene of employees; psychiatric clinics for the study and guidance of cases of mental abnormality; physiotherapy units with facilities for the care of such cases as old fractures, burns, bruises, sprains and arthritis, by baking, massage or diathermy; posture clinics for the correction of gross postural defects: and nutrition clinics offering supplementary diet for cases of malnutrition or underweight. A few establishments maintain sanatorium facilities for tuberculous employees, either through a private institution or through the support of beds or cottages in semi-public sanatoria. Others conduct rest houses or camps for the use of debilitated employees. A few railroads or isolated groups operate excellent private hospitals. More frequently, industrial organizations maintain in local hospitals beds or wards, for the care of injured employees. In most instances these various services are conducted at the cost of management; in others, the cost is shared by employees, perhaps through a mutual benefit association. The prime purpose of these varied industrial medical activities is not to replace or supplant the personal physicians of employees, but rather to meet emergency needs without loss of working time, production and wages; to stimulate an intelligent interest in the maintenance of health and to offer guidance in the efforts of sick or defective individuals seeking competent medical care at prices they can afford to pay. Through the study of the clinical records of the all too small portion of plant medical departments which keep trustworthy and accurate records, there is coming to light knowledge of the nature and extent of sickness among the great portion of the population engaged in industries. Industrial mor-

INDUSTRIAL

number of cases of occupational disease. There is observable a very definite trend toward the inclusion of such diseases, and in a number of States, there are being developed better resources for guidance of industry in connection with the control of hazardous processes. A number of the larger municipal health departments have nominal organizations 1n the field of industrial hygiene. Generally speaking, their contribution is negligible beyond the realm of examination of food handlers. The U. S. Public Health Service, through its office of industrial hygiene, has for years made many notable contributions to the subject. BrsriocrarHy.—Final Report of British Health of Munition Workers’ Committee, reprinted as Bull. 249, U.S. Bur. Lab. Stat. (1919) ; L. Hill, “Science of Ventilation and Open Air Treatment” Med. Res. Comm. Spec. Reports, Series 32 and §2 (1919-20) ; Journal of Industrial Hygiene, Harvard Medical school (1919 seq.) ; I. W. Clark, Jr. Health Service in Industry (1922); R. P. White, Occupational Affections of the Skin (1923); A. Hamilton, Industrial Poisons in the

(W. WR.)

WORKERS

OF THE WORLD, THE, revolutionary labour union

organization which played in the early 20th century a considera. ble part in American and world labour history. It was founded in July 1905 at Chicago, Ill, as a result of a conference of Social. ists and trade union leaders, of whom the most outstanding were E. V. Debs (g.v.), William D. Haywood, Daniel DeLeon, W. E,

working conditions is not uniform throughout the States. In most of the larger industrial States, departments of labour or industrial commissions maintain inspection forces and issue regulations for the suppression of unhealthful conditions and the encouragement of safe practices in operation. Subsidiary or separate boards administer the workmen's compensation acts, But few State or territorial compensation laws assure compensation for any important

United States (1925) ; J. C. Aub and others, Lead Pozsoning (1926);

WORLD

commonly known as the LW.W.,a

bidity data are of such great value as to justify almost alone the cost of plant medical service. The Governmental Control of industrial and mercantile

Y., Henderson and H. W. Haggard, Noxious Gases (1927).

OF THE

Trautmann, Vincent St. John and the Rev. T. J. Hagerty, who provided the first organizational plan of the union (known by Samuel Gompers’ derisive nickname of “Father Hagerty’s wheel of fortune”). All workers of every trade were to be accepted by the union which was, and is, subdivided into industrial sections

(29 in number in 1928), craft unions not being allowed. The basis of the organization was explained in its well-known preamble, “The working class and the employing class have nothing in common.

. . . Between these two classes a struggle must go on

until the workers of the world organize as a class, take possession of the earth and the machinery of production and abolish the

wage system.” (This phrasing was adopted in 1908, a previous reference to political action being deleted, as a result of a struggle in which the syndicalist element thrust out the followers of DeLeon.) The organization was bitterly opposed to the American Federation of Labor (g.v.) on the ground of its alleged supineness in defending its members, its toleration of inter-union craft quarrels, and the anti-revolutionary attitude of its president, Samuel Gompers (q.v.). Its chief strength, originally, lay in the Western Federation of Miners, which withdrew in 1907 on the unseating by the LW.W.

of President Sherman, its nominee.

Since that time its strength

has varied very greatly; the figures of paid-up membership in 1906 were 60,000 and in 1919 35,000, but these figures give no reliable indication of its strength. Since the defection of the

miners, the I. W.W. membership has become more and more pre-

dominant among the nomadic workers (partly foreign born) such as lumber-men, long-shoremen and '"hoboes," for whom the American Federation of Labor made no provision. This class of worker rarely pays dues, except on the occasion of first taking out an I.W.W. ticket. Of the innumerable strikes directed by the LW.W. the Lawrence, Mass., strike of 1912 was the most famous and first brought the organization into prominence. Some 30,000 textile operatives were involved and for the first time large bodies of non-English-speaking workers were led together to ultimate victory; their spirits being kept up partly by the use of the LW.W. “red book” songs, of a coarse but vigorous character, which have since travelled across the world. In addition, many “free speech fights” were undertaken, e.g. in 1909 at Missoula, Mont., Spokane, Wash., Newcastle, Pa., and later more important struggles at Paterson, N.J., Aberdeen, S.D., Old Forge, Pa., San Pedro, Calif., etc. These were mostly cases in which the municipalities objected to I.W.W. propaganda and arrested the “wobbly” (the slang name for I.W.W.) speakers, the LW.W. replying by providing a continuous stream. of speakers “until the jails burst.” Over 5,000 “wobblies” have been in prison. Elsewhere, especially in the western States, the history of the LW.W. has been violent and sanguinary. The facts which led, for example, to the shooting of the organizer and poet, Joe Hill, in Utah, are greatly disputed; the murder of organizer Frank Little in Butte, Mont., has been dealt with in a Federal enquiry. (See the Sixth Annual Report of the Secretary of Labor.) In some of the States attempts were made to drive the I.W.W. out of existence. After the World War, the general attack on “red” organiza nal tions, together with a quarrel with the Communist Internatio (g.v.) gravely weakened the I.W.W. A large number of States have passed “criminal syndicalism" laws, mostly held constitutional on appeal to the Supreme Court, with the object of suppressing the I.W.W. altogether. A mass trial of over 100 prominent I.W.W. members at Chicago in Aug. 1918 resulted in

a number of heavy sentences. The less important position of the LW.W. since the War may be due to the cutting off by the immigration laws of the influx of unskilled labour which formed 15 most hopeful field. But it should be added that the LW.W. claims to have had its highest recorded membership in 1923.

INDUSTRY—INDUSTRY Australia.—I.W.W. locals exist, or have existed in nearly every industrial country, especially in the ports. In Great Britain

they have appeared in London, Liverpool and Glasgow.

But

they have only achieved importance, outside America, in Australia between 1911, When the first local (Adelaide) was chartered from Chicago, and 1917—18, when the organization faded away. See P. F. Brissenden, History of the IW.W., Columbia university Studies xxxiii. (1920) with bibl.; V. G. Childe, How Labour Governs

in Australia, ch. x.—xi. (1923).

Dmectr ACTION.

See also SYNDICALISM, SABOTAGE and

INDUSTRY, the quality of steady application to work, diligence; hence employment in some particular form of productive

work, especially of manufacture; or a particular class of produc-

tive work itself, a trade or manufacture.

INDUSTRY AND TRADE, WAR CONTROL OF. Government control of industry has appeared sporadically in

every important war of modern times, under the form of com-

mandeering of supplies and means of transportation and produc-

tion. It has also occasionally assumed the form of price-fixing.

But, except in the rare cases of cities under siege, governmental control never assumed the form of a general system, dominating the whole economical life of a belligerent nation, before the World War of 1914-18. In that war the general control of industry was

inaugurated promptly by Germany, after a considerable delay by France and England, and, after many half-way measures that

proved ineffective, by the United States in the last year of the

war. In the case of every belligerent nation the extension of con-

trol was a gradual process, which had by no means reached its

logical limits when hostilities came to an end.

The conditions that forced control of industry upon the several warring nations were:— I. Universal conscription, with its tendency to disorganize all industries, essential and unessential alike, by the withdrawal of the most energetic labourers and “key-men” in the technical and administrative staffs; 2. The vast consumption of material and equipment under the technical conditions of modern warfare; 3. The insatiate demand for financial resources for maintaining and supplying the huge armies in the field and the services incidental to

them;

4. The maintenance of the health and spirit of the working civil population through the provision of the necessities of life at practicable prices.

While the conversion of national industry to the uses of war was nowhere complete, it is a conservative estimate that in all the chief belligerent states from three-fourths to four-fifths of all industry was by the time of the armistice converted to the meeting of war requirements, direct or indirect.

I GREAT BRITAIN The system of state control of trade and industry in Great Britain, which played so vital a part in the successful issue of the war, was not planned as a comprehensive whole by anything in the nature of an economic general staff, but was built up gradually in a number of different departments as a series of partial adjustments to particular needs and emergencies. In many ways

it was characteristic of British temperament. Modern Germany had shown a capacity for large-scale organization of trade and industry which was foreign to the British tradition: Great Britain was, and still is, the home of an obstinate individualism and independence of character which resisted bureaucratic regulation and

made even co-operation in trade and industry difficult. France too had a traditional way of thinking based on first. principles and clear-cut definition of rights and duties which was equally alien

toBritish psychology. The Englishman distrusted logic and definitions, and prided himself on being able to “muddle through."

i s system of government was based on an unwritten constitutlon, a genius for compromise and a profound distrust of State

interference. With such a background State control of trade and industry on the scale it eventually reached would have been unthinkable be-

fore the war and certainly formed no part of the Government’s plan of operations in the event of a European war. The only measure of State intervention which had been carefully worked out

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before the war was the taking over of the railways. This was car-

ried out in August, 1914, and throughout the war the railways of the country were run by a Railway Executive on behalf of and for the account of the State. The British “War Book” contained no other plans for State intervention in trade and industry. Throughout the war there were two slogans which must have been repeated many hundreds of times, in scores of different contexts—“Every private interest must be subordinated to the successful prosecution of the war" and "There must be as little interference as possible with the normal channels of trade." 'The real problem was to determine the exact degree of interference with normal trade channels which was necessary for the successful prosecution of the war. On this question opinions varied widely at different times and among different persons. In the abstract there was an almost universal bias against State interference. Manufacturers and traders naturally believed in freedom of trade, the rights of property, and the merits of Jaisser-faire; they had a deep-rooted dislike for the restrictions on individual liberty and private enterprise which State Socialism implied. By a process rationalisation this instinctive antipathy gave rise to the axiom that State management was necessarily inefficient and that Government interference would therefore only make matters worse. If this were true, it followed that to substitute an inefficient for an efficient system of industrial organisation just when the nation was fighting for its existence, would be suicidal folly. Nor was the attitude of ministers and departmental officials very different. They distrusted the power of the Government to intervene successfully in matters on which there was no past experience to serve as a guide. During the early stages of the war "business as usual" was the accepted doctrine. During the first few months the main problem was to combat unemployment and get the wheels of industry restarted in the normal channels, or, if that was impossible owing to the blockade of Central Europe, to open new markets in other parts of the world. In the absence of any plan of industrial mobilization for war, this was the only possible policy to pursue. A prosperous state of trade, regular employment at good wages and high profits for the revenue to tax and the Treasury to borrow, were regarded with good reason as essential conditions for the successful prosecution of the war. First Steps in State Control.—Three large measures of State intervention, however, were introduced in the first month of the war, the first of which—the taking over of the railways—has already been mentioned. The second was in the sphere of finance. The Government suspended the Bank Act, introduced a State paper currency and placed the credit of the nation behind approved commercial bills payable by enemy and other debtors, who were unable to meet their liabilities. These two measures saved the money market from an acute crisis; but at the same time opened the door for that expansion of currency and bank credit under Government auspices, which more than anything else was responsible for the rise of prices throughout the war. So far as State control was designed to combat high prices, it was an indirect consequence of the system of inflation by which the war was to a considerable extent financed. As Lord Rhondda said in Nov. 1917 (Parl. Debates, Housé of Lords, vol. XXVI., cd. 1077, 1917) :—"The real controller of prices is not the Food Controller but the Treasury. The principal factor in the rise of prices is the expansion of currency arising from inflation of credit and the issue of large amounts of paper money.” Lastly the Government set up the Royal Commission on Sugar Supply to monopolise the purchase and import of sugar on Government account. The outbreak of war cut off all supplies from Central Europe, which in 1913 sent over 75% of the sugar imported into Great Britain. Large purchases were made by the Government in other markets within the first three weeks of the war, and from that time onwards the import and distribution of sugar was carried on under

direct State control. (See Foon, MINISTRY OF.) The next steps in control arose as a result of the difficulties experienced in obtaining military supplies for the British and Allied armies. In July 1914 the Army Contracts Department of the War Office consisted of 56 officials and clerks. A staff of not more

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than 20 was sufficient to handle the business of purchasing munitions and explosives under the system of competitive tendering then in vogue. (In Nov. 1918, the staff employed by the Ministry of Munitions for the administration of complete control numbered 65,142.)

By Oct. 1914, the centralised buying machinery

of the War Office, which had functioned smoothly and efficiently before the war, as a result of reforms introduced after the Cri mean and South African wars, was becoming paralysed. In Nov. 1914, the new director of army contracts, U. F. Wintour C.B., C.M.G., presented a report to the army council which contained

the following sentences, the truth of which was not generally realised for many months: “The war is a war of organisation, in which the raising of men is one very important item. It is equally

important that they should be equipped, clothed, fed and provided with guns, arms and ammunition. For the provision of these necessaries, industry, and industry alone, has to be relied upon, and the rapidity and effectiveness with which industry can be organised to meet the emergency cannot but have an enormous influence upon the issue of the struggle.” A proposal was made in Oct. 1914, that the Government should take over the big armament firms as they had already taken over the railways, but the authorities at that time shrank from assuming such a responsibility and preferred to rely on private enterprise and the law of supply and demand to produce an adequate flow of munitions. In June rors, with the establishment of the Ministry of Munitions, the theory that industry could be left to adapt itself of its own accord to war needs was abandoned. National organisation and detailed control of supplies, prices and methods of production were introduced. National factories were built; raw materials of all kinds required for making munitions were imported on Government account and distributed at fixed prices; and manufacturers, instead of being left to produce munitions or not as they thought fit at prices determined by their own sense of propriety, were now compelled to produce them at prices based on cost and

if necessary were instructed how to do it. (See MUNITIONS,

i MINISTRY OF.) The Path to General Control.—By requisitioning practically the whole output of the engineering industry and making use of nearly all the iron and steel obtainable for making munitions, the Ministry of Munitions virtually suppressed private trade and ignored civilian needs. The Army Contracts Department of the War Office on the other hand, which continued to purchase food, textiles, leather goods and other miscellaneous articles for the Army, only needed a proportion, though a growing proportion, of the national supplies. Civilian requirements had to be met, and this introduced a competing demand which had somehow to be reconciled with military necessities. It was this that led eventually to the extension of State control to cover the supply and distribution of many of the necessaries of life for the whole population. During the first period, which may roughly be defined as the first twelve months of the war, the problem was primarily that of obtaining supplies for the forces regardless of price. This in itself was by no means a simple problem. It soon became evident that supplies were lacking, first, because only those familiar with Army requirements were invited to tender, or if invited were able or willing to do so; secondly, because manufacturers were either full up with private orders, or, with large private orders on their books, were unable to offer their whole output; and thirdly, because in certain items the requirements outran the productive capacity of the industry to meet them. In nearly every case delays inherent in the purchasing machinery of the War Office aggravated the difficulties; and the confusion and dislocation caused by speculation, by competitive buying on the part of local commands and Allied delegates and by uncertainties about supplies of raw material, the need of the Army for men and the probable requirements of the War Office, rendered some more systematic form of organisation essential, if the Government was to count on being able to obtain what it wanted. This stage was marked by negotiations with representative associations or committees able to speak on behalf of a whole industry, and the substitution of collective agreements covering a long period and a wide area of production for the previous system of piece-meal demands, indi-

vidual tenders, and frenzied speculation. The next stage in the problem was marked by the growing importance attached to the question of price. Hitherto with minor exceptions the prices paid by the Government had been those that any large buyer would have had to pay; they were determined by market forces and on the whole were neither more nor less

than private individuals had to pay for similar goods. As aresult

however, of Parliamentary criticism of Government extravagance. but without any express sanction from Parliament (which at that time was even more opposed to measures of State interference than the Government itself), attempts were made by voluntary agreement to base prices on cost of production and a reasonable

profit. Later this principle, known as the “costings system,” was embodied in regulations 7 and 2b of the Defence of the Realm Regulations, and it became the accepted doctrine that Government

Departments had not merely the right, but the duty, to purchase supplies at prices bearing no necessary relation to market prices. The culminating point came when the right to fix maximum prices was laid down first by an administrative extension of the right to licence dealings, and finally by explicit mention in regulations 2b and 2f. Thus the price problem was solved in theory and in law (at least for the duration of the war) by giving the Government the power to fix its own prices. Before the end of the second year of the war this right had been successfully established, having

been applied by the Ministry of Munitions to certain metals as early as Sept. 1915 and by the War Office to the whole of the domestic wool clip in June 1916. During the second year the twin problem of supplies and prices began to develop more general implications and to cover an everwidening range of commodities and processes. 'The corollary of limited State interference with market forces was more State interference; control and centralized purchase had to be extended from the finished article to the raw material. This introduced further problems. The Government had to devise the best methods, varying greatly in different trades, for buying raw materials in foreign markets or for controlling their purchase by traders. The control of purchase, import and shipment of raw

materials was adopted by the War Office in March 1916, for

Russian flax, in May 1916 for kips, and in August 1916 for jute. In the meantime the decision to requisition the domestic wool clip in June 1916 raised a new set of problems relating to the treatment of the farmer and the purchase of agricultural produce at fixed prices from hundreds of thousands of individual growers. The State had now to become wholesale collecting merchant as well as wholesale distributing merchant. Control of Materials, Industry and Man-power, 1917.—In the third year of the war a change of Government occurred, which reflected and emphasized the growing changes that were taking place in the economic situation. The shortage first of finance, and then of tonnage, became increasingly stringent towards the end of 1916 and the beginning of 1917, and signs of actual shortage were becoming pronounced in certain essential raw materials. All three reasons added weight to the general considerations which by that time were beginning to favour control of raw materials. The War Office accordingly carried through negotiations for the purchase of the whole of the Australian and New Zealand wool clips. The vast scale of the Government’s operations in the woollen and worsted industry now brought to the fore two problems which had not hitherto needed any special attention: the maintenance of the export trade and the provision of necessary supplies for the civilian population. The first was of importance owing to the difculties of the financial situation and the need of obtaining foreign currency to pay for essential imports. But after the United States had joined the Allies foreign exchange difficulties ceased to be so pressing a problem, and the shortage of tonnage and the need for conserving raw materials for military and essential civilian needs, rendered the maintenance of the export trade of secondary importance in the system of war economy. The provision of supplies for the civilian population, however, rapidly became from Jan. 1917, onwards one of the most difficult and complex problems of the whole war organization, and it was in the establishment of the Ministry of Food and the introduction of standard clothing and

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TABLE I. National Organization of War Control War Cabinet, War Priorities Committee

2. Ministry of Food

;. Ministry of Munitions

Jron & Steel Industry

Non-ferrous Metals Machinery ] Explosives & Chemicals, tilisers

Mechanical Transport

3. Ministry of Shipping

Shipping Industry

Wheat Commission

Shipbuilding

(cereals, pulse, etc.) Sugar Commission Fer-| Meat & Animal Fats Dairy Produce

Oils & Fats Industry

(margarine, soap, feeding stuffs, etc. Fruit & Vegetables Tea & Coffee

Glass Manufactures Mineral Oil

6. Railway Executive 7. Port and Transit Executive 8, Canal Control Committee

g. Liquor Traffic Control Board 10. War Trade Department (Import & Export Regulations)

iz. Food Production Department 12. Director General of National Service

4. War Office

5. Board of Trade

Woollen & Worsted

Coal Industry

Boots & Shoes

Petroleum Executive

Timber Supply Industry Flax, Jute & Hemp In-| Cotton Industry dustries Tobacco & Matches. Leather Industry Paper & Pulp Supplies

These war organizations, with the exception of the Food Production Department, were connected with the Board of Trade, though they necessarily had relations with other departments. The Food Production Department was attached to the Ministry of Agriculture.

hoot schemes, with the object of supplying the necessaries of life |should be entrusted to the Tobacco and Matches Control Board for civilians and ensuring their fair distribution at controlled' or to the Oils and Fats Department of the Ministry of Food, prices, that Government control during the war approached | which was already controlling soap. A glance at the accompanying chart illustrates the immense field nearest to the programme of State Socialism. (See Foop, MiNrsTRY oF.) The year 1917 also marked the most critical point in over which control was exercised and the large number of departthe man-power problem. A director-general of national service ments concerned in its administration. The principle of piecewas appointed to facilitate the release of men for the Army, to meal growth rather than logical planning favoured initiative and restrict employment in non-essential trades and industries, and to elasticity, but raised problems of overlapping and lack of cosecure the transfer of labour where it was most required. Finally, ordination which had to be met by inter-departmental conferences towards the end of 1917, the necessity of rendering greater assist- and in the last resort by the intervention of the Cabinet. To deal ance to the Allies both in tonnage and supplies led to the imposi- with questions of priority in supply of labour and materials the tion of further restrictions on civilian consumption, to the estab- Cabinet appointed in 1917 a War Priorities Committee, which in lishment of a common programme of imports for all the Allies, 1918 had as many as seventeen sub-committees. The system of national organization thus built up rested in the and to the gradual recognition of the principle of equality of sacrifice and the pooling of resources. (See ALLIED MARITIME last resort on the quite simple consideration that to the extent to which labour and capital were not engaged in essential war services, TRANSPORT COUNCIL.) Control by 1918.—By the middle of 1918 the national organ- the nation’s war effort was being weakened. In other words the ization of war control had reached approximately its final stage. political economy of war consists in the economical direction of There was virtually no trade or industry which was not subject to the nation’s resources towards the greatest possible efficiency in control in some form or other. The Ministry of Munitions and the war. This involves (1) economy of man-power, to release men for Ministry of Food between them controlled 7o per cent. of the the army and supply labour for essential services; (2) economy of country’s imported supplies and followed up control of import by finance, to prevent wasteful private expenditure and enable the control of price, distribution and manufacture. The Ministry of nation to purchase supplies from abroad; (3) economy of transMunitions covered the iron and steel industry, the non-ferrous port, or the avoidance of all unessential movement of goods and metals industry, explosives and chemicals, machinery, mineral oils, the reduction of land and sea transport to the minimum necessary; glass manufacture and mechanical transport. The Ministry of (4) economy of production, or the centralized planning of proFood through the Wheat commission, the Sugar commission and ductive activity in the right order of priority to meet essential its supply departments was responsible for importing and dis- requirements and with the minimum of waste and duplication of tributing cereals, sugar, meat, dairy produce, vegetable oils, fish, effort; and (5) economy of consumption, or the rationing and fruit, tea and coffee and controlled the price and distribution of limitation of current consumption of food and necessaries, with the most home-produced foodstuffs. The Raw Materials department prohibition of the manufacture and sale of luxury articles. The above principles were never of course completely realized of the War Office controlled the woollen and worsted industry, the leather industry, boot and shoe manufacture, and the flax, hemp in practice, but they all nevertheless influenced the policy in some and jute industries. Under the Board of Trade were ranged the sphere or other in varying degrees and with varying success. Their Coal Controller, the Railway Executive, the Port and Transit literal application on a universal scale would have been politically Executive Committee, the Canal Control Committee, the Cotton and psychologically impossible. War control appears to violate Control Board and the import of paper and pulp. The Ministry of human instincts and human traditions even more than the instiShipping controlled shipbuilding, the shipping industry and the tution of war itself; and the military effort of a nation at war is allocation of tonnage, and through its programme committees and seen to depend not merely on the strength of its armed forces but the Allied Maritime Transport Council acted as a co-ordinating on the extent to which the civilian population will submit to body for all importing departments. The War Trade Department irksome restrictions and interference in the normal routine of (E. M. H. L.) issued import and export licenses on the advice of the appropriate everyday life. The Future of Control.—The essence of war control of trade Departments for such foreign trade as still remained in private hands. The Liquor Traffic Control Board, the Food Production and industry is the replacement of private enterprise by collective Department and the Director General of National Service dealt organization. Control is clearly necessary in war time; but inas-

with the remaining field of home production—the last-named by restricting employment

in non-essential industries.

Even such

much as the conditions of war are wholly unlike those of peace, it is said that the experience of State control during the war gives

industries as piano-making came under war control and found

us no guidance on the vexed question of the degree of State intervention which may be desirable in peace. This statement has a

required. One of the Jast conferences on control held at the Board of Trade in Oct. 1918, was to decide whether the responsibility for controlling the manufacture, price and distribution of candles

large measure of truth, but the question merits some further examination. In the first place it is evident that if the League of Nations

themselves precluded from obtaining the labour and material they

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breaks down and the Great Powers were to engage in another world war, State control on a drastic and comprehensive scale would be introduced in each country. The organization would probably start about where it left off in the last war; and if the

world's economic resources proved able to stand the strain of a prolonged struggle, the final stage would be a sort of military communism compared with which the existing system in Russia would appear a very paradise of liberty. Private property would cease to exist; freedom of speech, freedom of thought and freedom of movement would be abolished; the whole population would be conscripted and not only their food but their incomes would be rationed down to the minimum necessary to support life. The public and private resources of the community would be wholly devoted to the prosecution of the war and the privileges and amenities now enjoyed by the few would be wiped out in the interests of social harmony. Personal freedom and private property are condemned by the exigencies of modern war. This is an aspect of the matter which has received too little attention and provides, perhaps, an additional reason for taking risks, and even making sacrifices, in the cause of peace, disarmament and the abolition of war. But setting aside the possibility of another war, the experience of war control is held by some to have other lessons that may be applied in peace. Short of rationing, it is said, and the more extreme forms of arbitrary interference with personal freedom and private enterprise, there are still left many features of war organization which the State might well adopt in times of peace. Among these, for instance, might be the principle of State importation of primary foodstuffs and raw materials; the control of power and transport on national lines; the guarantee of fixed prices for certain staple agricultural products; and the compulsory amalgamation of competing firms into publicly supervised Cartels or Trusts. Such proposals would be included in the programme of some Socialist thinkers. At the other end of the scale would be the view of extreme individualists, who would not only oppose any extension of State control in peace but would maintain that the experience of State control during the war had demonstrated once more that State organization is necessarily inefficient and wasteful and in all circumstances inferior to private enterprise. To those who preserve an open mind in this controversy and regard the question of the precise degree of State intervention or collective organization which is desirable in economic affairs as among the most important and difficult problems for the future to solve, two conclusions may suggest themselves: 1. that administration by public or semi-public bodies is not always and necessarily inefficient and inferior to private enterprise; 2. that collective organization of trade and industry is at its best where consumption or demand is fairly regular or can be foreseen with considerable accuracy. The field over which accurate measurement of future demand could be made during the war was enormously widened owing to the formulation of precise requirements by the military authorities and the limitations of tonnage. Nothing comparable to this stabilization of demand is conceivable in peace, except in a comparatively narrow field. In war “production for use" was possible because the “use” for which each product was required could be laid down with some confidence and the relative order of priority of different “uses” could be to some extent gauged. In peace, short of rationing or communism, production mist be for a market, the essence of which is that it provides an automatic measure of the “usefulness” of products. Even in the absence, however, of effective control over demand, it is still possible to regulate supply and thus indirectly influence consumption and prices. Jt is in this direction that post-war developments show a parallel to war control Control of supply at source was the key which enabled the State in the interests of consumers to prevent prices rising. A similar technique can be applied to stabilize prices in the general interests of producers. In both ‘cases the underlying principle is that within limits the play of economic forces ‘can be modified and controlled by collective action. “Rationalization” of industry, “orderly” marketing, and “management” of credit can be regarded as lineal descendents of

TRADE

ideas which had their origin or at any rate received a large stimulys from war control.

The underlying issue on which the study of war control may throw light, is not so much the question whether the State, con. ceived of as public Departments, should actually conduct this or that trade or industry; but how far the State, conceived of as the guardian and trustee of the general welfare, should permit or

encourage, or itself initiate the sort of large-scale co-operation and collective planning which is now being tried out as an alternative to the unrestricted play of economic forces. Laissez faire and unregulated competition may be even more wasteful of wealth and welfare than the operation of trusts and monopolies,

It is perhaps the task of State control to minimise the evils and preserve what is best in both systems. IL GERMANY The first systematic action toward industrial control was taken by Germany. Upon the declaration of war by England it became at once evident that overseas supplies of raw materials, on which German industry had become largely dependent, would be cut off. The conservation of supplies on hand and their appropriation to essential uses was imperative. Within a fortnight, at the instance of Walter Rathenau, the Government, in co-operation with the cartels, had completed a rapid survey of the material resources of the nation and had worked out a policy, based partly on the requisition of materials and plant, but mainly on voluntary agreements, which offered a reasonable assurance of the continuous supply of military necessities on the scale then contemplated as adequate—erroneously, as the development of the war proved. Through the Reichsbank and the system of financial institutions dependent on it the necessary credit was supplied without stint to all industrial enterprises regarded as essential for war. The

mobilization plans provided from the outset for the exemption of *key-men," technical and administrative, and the suppression of unessential industries provided labourers to take the place of those who had been called to the colours. On Dec. 2, 1916, the control of industrial resources was strengthened bya law instituting an industrial conscription of labour, applying to all males between 16 and 6o. Auxiliary measures stiffened Government control over industrial enterprises. But to the end of the war the essential basis of industrial control was the quasi-voluntary agreement between the Government and the independent business man or group of business men, with a reserve power of compulsion

in the Government’s hands resting on the control of materials,

credit and labour. This power of compulsion served to secure supplies, but did not restrict prices so strictly as to preclude large war profits, with attendant manifestations of popular discontent that grew more serious as the war dragged on. III. FRANCE In France the outbreak of the war was followed by a mobilization of men for military service which took the experts and "keymen" out of industry along with those who could be easily replaced. In consequence economic life was seriously dislocated. Unemployment reached extraordinary proportions. After the mobilization in Aug. 1914, the principal industries employed on the average only 60% of their normal personnel, and as late as Jan. 1915, 20% of the industrial working population was wiemployed. French industry, being highly individualistic in spirit, was far slower than that of Germany to adjust itself to war needs and war control. Gradually, however, a machinery of control was set up, of which the most effective part was the disposition of manpower. Committees of economic action composed of business men and engineers were organised in the several departments, to co-operate with the military and administrative authorities in supplying labour to agriculture and the essential industries. Price control, so far as the munitions and supplies for the army were concerned, was effected through contracts, with sufficient reserve power over labour, raw materials, transportation and credit on the side of the Government to ensure reasonable terms. The prices of products for the use of the civil population Were

INDUSTRY

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departsubject to an informal and inadequate control through the

mental committee of laymen co-operating with the administrative

authorities. In neither case was the control rigid enough to check

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to the national needs, both of the people as a whole and of the military forces.

In America direct authority to fix prices was never granted by

a rise in prices, which produced much discontent among the law nor established by executive order. The War Industries Board workers, whose wages did not rise in equal proportion. IV. UNITED

STATES

The situation in America, upon that country's entry into the

War, was in many respects peculiar. The Allies had already at-

tained to a. practical maximum of their industrial war effort, and

the demands of war were still rapidly expanding. In this effort American industry had already come to play a conspicuous part.

Allied war industry was drawing heavily on America for steel,

copper, cotton and a large class of wholly or partly finished war materials. A powerful chain of war industries had been built up

n America; labour and materials were rapidly advancing in price, and profits rose on à huge scale.

The American Government had to meet the problem of supplying the American armies with the materials of war without cutting

off the supplies needed by the Allies. Control was essential not only to national but to international ends. Whereas in the early

part of the War each belligerent had aimed primarily at effecting

the most practicable distributions of resources between its own military and essential civil uses, the United States from the outset was confronted with the problem of making the best practicable distribution among the military, Allied and essential civil uses. American control was bound to envisage the entire system of needs of the Allied and Associated Powers. The difficulties to be overcome in instituting control were, how-

ever, all but insurmountable. No close relation between government and industry had been developed, as in Germany; neither was the American administrative system adapted to prompt coordination. At the outbreak of the War the army and navy, each enjoying the power of commandeering, were in a position to enter

the market for supplies, in competition with the Allied purchasing agencies, and there was no authority anywhere competent to allocate limited supplies in the order of importance of needs or to keep prices within bounds. A council of national defence, consisting of the secretaries of War, the Navy, the Interior, Agriculture, Commerce and Labour, with an advisory council and a widely ramifying organisation of committees, of executives and experts, had been created prior to the declaration of war. Out of this grew a multiplicity of organs of control, a War Industries Board, a railway control, a control of ocean tonnage, a food administration, a fuel administration and a War Trade Board. But there was no central co-ordinating principle except the war powers of the President, which in the nature of the case could be exercised only sporadically. Co-ordinated control of industry came into existence on March 4, 1918, when the President, by a letter, reorganised the War Industries Board and specified its duties, constituting it in effect the administrative organ with power to apply the President’s war powers over industry. Mr. Bernard M. Baruch was named by the President chairman of the board, with direct responsibility for its functioning, the other members of the board to act in an advisory capacity.

As finally reorganised the board controlled the exercise of the power of requisitioning. The army and navy, the railroad administration, the food and the fuel administrations, the War Trade

Board, the Shipping Board, the War Finance Corporation, the Allied Purchasing Commission and other agencies dealing with industry, were required under the President’s orders to co-operate with the War Industries Board. Thus it became possible to secure efective co-ordination in the whole field of industry. The board Was In a position to control exports and imports, the movement

of traffic over the railways and coastwise shipping; it was able to

tation out materials, fuel, power, credit facilities to every business establishment in the country, to place a check upon every con-

struction enterprise, public or private, except on proof of absolute necessity, to standardise production in the interest of economy,

and in short to do everything necessary to ensure that the reSources of the nation at war should be applied most effectively

had, however, sufficient power to control prices in effect, and in case of need it actually controlled them. No specific theory of fair prices lay behind the board's control, but a conception of efficient economic organisation for war. V. LABOUR AND PERMANENT ECONOMIC RESULTS War control of industry in its highest phase of development amounted in effect to nationalisation of economic resources, la-

bour, capital, material things. Men could not work at what they liked best or put their capital to the most lucrative uses or sell their materials and goods to the highest bidder. They were called on to subordinate their private interests to the national needs. The conception of public service became generalised, as it were, and although with the end of hostilities private motives were again given free play, the conception of service retained a large measure of its vitality, exerting a considerable influence upon action. Labour, conceived of as “man-power,” won recognition early in the history of war control as the most vital of the national resources. The proper provisioning of labour, care for the health of the labourer and his family, maintenance of proper housing standards and the like, assumed the rank of military necessities. Here too the influences set in motion in war carried over into times of peace.

One of the most striking results of war-time control was the

revelation of the extent of economic waste in the conventional scheme of production. By co-ordination, by concentration of effort upon essentials and by curbing of excessive variety in forms through standardisation, it became possible for the United States, while maintaining 4,000,000 men under arms, to supply the civil needs of its population with no appreciable lowering of peacetime standards. While recognising that such extreme application to practical needs would in the long run be deadening to industry, most leaders of industry came out of the War convinced of the necessity of eliminating much waste that had gone unnoticed in the pre-War period. War control of industry promptly fixed in the minds of those who participated in its decisions a conception of international economic interdependence. Control of the resources within a nation led straight to the necessity of controlling exports and imports, and this in turn led to an understanding of the need of permanent economic relations under which all nations might have equal access to the raw materials of the world. This remains a problem, the solution of which will tend to lessen war. Another result of the war-time control was the more systematic survey of the potential resources, and their development where at all practicable. As a consequence, many resources are being developed in peace that formerly had been neglected. War control, with its compulsion to the use of substitutes, gave a greater freedom and elasticity to production, making a higher degree of efficiency possible in peace time. Incidentally to the control of industry, financial institutions, money and credit were everywhere subjected to control, with the result that new and more efficient methods of handling specie reserves and managing the flow of credit were devised and added to the peace times equipment. Some countries, finding themselves cut off because of the War from their usual sources of manufactured articles, soon learned to make these things for themselves, with the result that when peace returned the old manufacturing countries found that a part of their former markets for manufactured articles had been permanently lost. And so with raw materials; new sources of supply and substitutes were found. For the most part the achievements of war control were made possible only by the solidarity of feeling and concentration upon national purposes engendered by extreme national necessity. No conclusions as to national control in peace time can be deduced from them. But we have learned that government can co-operate with business to the advantage of both. What may be deduced

INE—INEBRIETY

316

from the experience of the World War is that war under modern conditions demands drastic control of industry. War cannot now

be conducted incidentally with business as usual.

(B. M. B.)

(See also SHIPPING, MINISTRY OF; Foon, MINISTRY OF; MUNITIONS, MINISTRY OF; ALLIED Maritime TRANSPORT COUNCIL; SHIPPING CONTROL COMMITTEE; TONNAGE PRIORITY COMMITTEE; WHEAT COMMISSION, etc.) BIBLIOCRAPHY.—There

is no book adequately covering the whole

field of War Control of Trade and Industry. Brief contemporary surveys are contained in the Reports of the War Cabinet for 1917 and 1918 (Cd. 9,005 and Cmd. 325). Different aspects of war control are dealt with in the volumes contained in the Economic and Social

History of the World War (British Series), e.g., J. A. Salter, Allied Shipping Control; E. M. H. Lloyd, Experiments în State Control; H. D. Henderson, Cotton Control Board. The unpublished and official History of the Ministry of Munitions may be consulted at the London School of Economics and some other libraries. The following contain accounts of control based on first-hand information:—Sir Leo Chiozza Money, The Triumph of Nationalisation; Rt. Hon. C. Addi-

son, Politics from Within, 1911-1918 and Practical Socialism, voL l.; F. H. Coller, A State Trading Adventure; and F. H. Hatch, The Iron and Steel Industry, 1914-1918; J. L. Garvin, Economic Foundations of Peace and A. C. Pigou, Political Economy of War. See also Bernard M. Baruch, American Industry in the War (Report of War Industries Board, 1921); Paul Willard Garrett, Government

Control over Prices, 1920;

Grosvenor

B. Clarkson, Industrial Am.

in the World War, 1924.

INE, West Saxon king, of the line of Ceawlin, succeeded Cead-

applied in South Africa, drunkenness, like insanity, appears tg vitiate absolutely a contract made by a person under its influence

(Molyneux v. Natal Land and Colonization Co., 1905, A.C. 555)

In the United States, as in England, intoxication does not vitiate contractual capacity unless it is of such a degree as ty prevent the person labouring under it from understanding the

nature of the transaction pending (see infra). The same rule is by implication adopted in the Indian Contract Act (Act ix. of 1872 s. 12). In some legal systems, however, habitual drunkenness is : ground for divorce or judicial separation (Sweden, Law of April 27, 1810; France, Code Civil, art. 231, Hirt v. Hirt, Dalloz, 1898

pt. ii., p. 4, and n. 4).

Il. Criminal Responsibility.—Under the law of England until early in the rọth century, voluntary drunkenness was never

an excuse for criminal misconduct.

Sir Matthew Hale (P.C,

32) took a fairly moderate view, viz., that a person under the influence of this voluntarily contracted madness “shall have the same judgment as if he were in his right senses.” But the law on the subject was ultimately defined by the House of Lords in 1920, in the case of Director of Public Prosecutions v. Beard (1920, A.C. 479), in which all the earlier decisions were reviewed in the following terms: (1) Insanity, whether produced by drunk-

enness or otherwise, is a defence to the crime charged; (2) evi-

dence of drunkenness which renders the accused incapable of

forming the specific intent essential to constitute the crime should be taken into consideration with the other facts proved in order to determine whether or not he had this intent; (3) evidence of

walla in 688. In the earlier part of his reign he was at war with Kent, but peace was made in 694, when the men of Kent gave compensation for the death of Mul, brother of Ceadwalla, whom drunkenness falling short of a proved incapacity in the accused they had burned in 687. In 710 Ine fought in alliance with his to form the intent necessary to constitute the crime, and merely kinsman Nun against Gerent of West Wales and was victorious, establishing that his mind was affected by drink so that he more and in 715 he repulsed an attempted invasion by Ceolred, king readily gave way to such violent passion, does not rebut the preof Mercia. In 721 Ine slew the rebel Cynewulf, and in 722 his sumption that a man intends the natural consequences of his acts; queen Aethelburg destroyed Taunton, which was held by Ead- (4) the test of criminal responsibility is not the same in the case briht, another rebel. In 725 Ine fought with the South Saxons, of drunkenness as in the case of insanity, and upon aplea of who had previously been subject to him, and slew their leader drunkenness where insanity is not pleaded, the jury should not be Aldbryht. In 726 he resigned the crown and went to Rome where asked to consider whether, if the accused knew what he was doing, he died shortly afterwards, being succeeded by Aethelheard in he also knew that he was doing wrong. Wessex. Ine is said to have built the minster at Glastonbury. He The law of Scotland accepts, if it does not go beyond, later deissued a written code of laws for Wessex, which is still preserved. velopments of that of England in regard to criminal responsibility Gesetze See B. Thorpe, Antient Laws, i., 2-25 (1840); R. Schmid, in drunkenness. Indian law on the point is similar to English der Angelsachsen (1832, 2nd ed. 1858) ; Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, ed. J. (Indian Penal Code, Act. xlv. of 1860, ss. 85, 86; Mayne, Crim. Plummer, C. Earle (1865); C. Plummer (1865) ; Bede, Hist. Eccl. ed. Law of India). See also the Criminal Code of Queensland (No.9 iv., 15, V. 7 (1896) ; F. Liebermann, Gesetze der Angelsachsen (1898).

INEBOLI, a town on the north coast of Asia Minor, 7o m.

W. of Sinub (Sinope). Ineboli represents the ancient Abonouteichos, famous as the birthplace of the false prophet Alexander, who established there (2nd century A.D.) an oracle of the snakeGod Glycon-Asclepius. Alexander obtained leave from the emperor Marcus Aurelius to change the name of the town to Jonopolis, whence the modern name is derived. (See ALEXANDER THE PAPHLAGONIAN.) It is the first place of importance touched at by vessels going eastwards from Constantinople. The roadstead is exposed and landing difficult. The exports are chiefly wool and mohair. The population (1927) was 47,538.

of 1899), art. 28; the Penal Code of Ceylon (No. 2 of 1883), att. 79; the Criminal Code of Grenada (No. 2 of 1897), art. 51; and the Criminal Code of St. Lucia (1920, s. 22). Under the French Penal Code (art. 64), i n’y a ni crime, ni délit, lorsque

le prévenu était en état de démence au temps de l'action. According to the balance of authority (Dalloz, Rép. tit., Peine, ss. 402 et seg.) intoxication is not assimilated to insanity within the meaning of this article, but it may be and is taken account of by juries as an extenuating circumstance (Ortolan, Droit Pénal i. s.

323: Chauveau et Hélie i. s. 360). Nor is it assimilated to insanity in Germany (Clunet, 1883, p. 311) ; but in Germany, as in France, be an extenuating circumstance. UnINEBRIETY, LAW OF. The legal relations to which in- intoxication may apparently (arts. 46-49) intoxication—unless Code Penal Italian the der criminal. partly and ebriety gives rise are partly civil afford an excuse for crime—may to as so induced voluntarily I Civil Capacity.—The law of England as to the civil capacIn the United States the prevaresponsibility. modify or exclude passed has and with identified practically is ity of the drunkard English legal view. the to similar is doctrine legal lent law the through substantially the same stages of development as There remains the question how far drunkenness itself is a in regard to the civil capacity of a person suffering from mental on is not, in England, indictable as disease (see INSANITY). Unless (see III. inf.) a modification is crime. Mere private intoxicati in all civilized countries public but law; common at effected in his condition by the fact that he has been brought an offence it amounts to a breach of the when e punishabl is ss drunkenne intoxiof spite in may, man a under some form of legal control, tion of public order; and contraven or Laws) Liquor (see peace cation, enter into a valid marriage or make a valid will, or bind countries provides for deprivation. of many in legislation modern is he what know to enough sober is he if contract, a himself by in case of a frequent repetition doing, and no improper advantage of his condition is taken (cf. personal liberty for long periodsbe made in this connection to the may Matthews v. Baxter, 1873, L.R. 8 Ex. 132; Imperial Loan Co. v. of the offence. Reference 1899 and 1900 (see III. inf.), and also to Stone, 1892, 1 Q.B. 599). The law is the same in Scotland and Inebriates Acts, 1898, British colonies and in foreign legal systhe in legislation in Ireland; and the Sale of Goods Act, 1893 (which applies to similar Hope, No. 32 of 1896; Ceylon, Licensing Good of Cape (e.g., tems sold are necessaries where that provides whole of Great Britain), 29; New South Wales, Vagrants Pun24, 23, ss. 1891, , Ordinance and delivered to a person who by reason of drunkenness is incom1891, c. 427, 1893, © petent to contract, he must pay a reasonable price for them. ishment Act, 1866; Massachusetts, Acts of 6). art. 1873, 23, Jan. of Law France, 44: 414, Under the Roman law, and under the Roman Dutch law as

INEBRIETY IIL State Action in Regard to Inebriety.—This assumes a variety of forms. (a) Measures regulating the punishment of occasional Or habitual drunkenness by fines or short terms of im-

prisonment. (b) Control in penal establishments for lengthened

periods. (c) Laws prohibiting the sale of liquor to persons who are known inebriates: ¢.g., in England (Licensing Act, 1902); Ontario (Rev. Stats., 1897, C. 245, ss. 124, 125); New South Wales (Liquor Act, 1898, ss. 52, 53); Cape of Good Hope (No.

28 of 1883, s. 89). (d) Laws regulating the appointment of some rson or persons to act as guardian or guardians, or who may be endowed with legal powers over the person and estate of an in-

ebriate. Thus in France (Code Civil, arts. 489 e£ seq.) and Ger-

many (Civil Code, art. 6 [3]), an inebriate may be judicially interdicted if he is squandering his property and thereby exposing his family to future destitution. (e) Control for the purpose of reformation. Legislation of this character provides reformatory treatment: (1) for the inebriate who makes a voluntary application for admission; (2) by compulsory seclusion for the inebriate who refuses consent to treatment and yet manages to keep out of

the reach of the law; (3) for the inebriate who is a police court recidivist or who has committed crime caused or contributed to

by drink. The legislation of Great Britain (Inebriates Acts, 1879-

1900) deals both with voluntary application and with the committal of criminal inebriates or of police court recidivists. A brief sketch of the English system must suffice.

The Inebriates Acts of 1879-1900 deal in the first place with non-criminal, and in the second place with criminal, habitual drunkards. For the purposes of the acts the term “habitual drunkard” means “a person who, not being amenable to any jurisdiction in

lunacy, is notwithstanding, by reason of habitual intemperate drinking of intoxicating liquor, at times dangerous to himself or herself, or incapable of managing himself or herself and his or

her affairs,” although when sober no such danger or incapacity exists (Eaton v. Best, 1909, 1, K.B. 632). A person would become amenable to the lunacy jurisdiction not only when habitual drunkenness made him a “lunatic” in the legal sense of the term, but where it created such a state of disease and consequential “‘mental infirmity” as to bring his case within s. 116 of the Lunacy Act, 1890, the effect of which is explained in the article Insanity. Any “habitual drunkard” within the above definition may obtain admission to a “licensed retreat” on a written application to the licensee, stating the time (the maximum period is two years) that he undertakes to remain in the retreat. When an habitual drunkard has once been committed to a retreat, he must remain in the retreat for the time that he has fixed in his application, subject to certain statutory provisions similar to those prescribed as to leave of absence and discharge from mental homes; and he may be retaken and brought back to the retreat under a justice’s warrant. The term of detention may be extended on its expiry, or an inebriate may be re-admitted on a fresh application, without any statutory declaration, and without the attesting justice being required to satisfy himself that the applicant is an habitual drunkard. Licensed retreats are subject to inspection by an inspector of retreats appointed by the home secretary, to whom he makes an annual report. There are also statutory provisions as to offences—(1) by licensees failing to comply with the requirements of the acts; (2) by persons ill-treating patients, or helping them to escape or unlawfully supplying them with intoxicating liquor; (3) by patients refusing to comply with the rules. The home secretary may (1) authorize the establishment of “State inebriate reformatories,” to be paid for out of moneys provided by parliament; and (2) sanction "certified inebriates' reformatories" on the application of any borough or county council, or any person Whatever, if satisfied concerning the reformatory and the persons Proposing to maintain it. cellaneous.—Any person convicted on indictment of an

offence punishable with imprisonment or penal servitude (i.¢., of any non-capital felony and of most misdemeanours), if the court Is satisfied from the evidence that the offence was committed under the influence of drink, or that drink was a contributing Cause of the offence, may, if he admits that he is, or is found by

S

the jury to be, an habitual drunkard, in addition to or in substitution for any other sentence, be ordered to be detained in a State or certified inebriate reformatory, the managers of which are willing to receive him. Again, any habitual drunkard who is found drunk in any public place, or who commits any other of a series of similar offences under various statutes, after having within 12 months been convicted at least three times of a similar offence, may, on conviction on indictment, or, if he consent, on summary

conviction, be sent for detention in any certified inebriate reformatory. Habitual drunkenness has been held to be a ground for the refusal of restitution of conjugal rights (Fisk v. Fisk, 122 L.T. 803). Where the husband of a woman is an habitual drunkard, she may obtain a protection order; where the wife is an habitual drunkard, the husband may obtain an order equivalent to a decree for judicial separation (Licensing Act, r9o2, s. 5). A convicted inebriate of 60 years or upwards may be disqualified for an old age pension (Old Age Pensions Act, 1908, s. 3). A parent who is convicted of an offence under the Children Act, r908, may be sentenced to detention in a certified inebriate reformatory (s. 26). BisLroGRAPHY.—Às to the history of legislation on the subject see Parl. Paper No. 242 of 1872; 1893 C. 7008. See also Wyatt Paine, Inebriate Reformatories and Retreats (1899); Blackwell, Inebriates Acis, 1879-1898 (1899); Wood Renton, Lunacy (1896). An excellent account of the systems in force in other countries for the treatment of inebriates will be found in Parl. Pap. (1902), cd. 1474.

(A. W. R.) United States.—In the United States, by the decided weight of authority, the contract of a completely intoxicated person is voidable. It is capable of repudiation or ratification when the party becomes sober, and the ratification may be express or implied, the burden being upon him to take action within a reasonable period after he becomes sober to disaffirm it; otherWise ratification is presumed from his silence. The rule is the same in the United States as in England that a man may, in spite of intoxication, bind himself by contract, if he knows what he is doing and comprehends the consequences of his acts. If his intoxication utterly and entirely deprives him of his reason and understanding he may set his contract aside on the ground of drunkenness. Voluntary intoxication carries with it the assumption by the drunkard of all criminal responsibility, while if the criminal act was committed when the intoxication was involuntary this is a complete defence to a criminal charge based on the act. However, the condition known as delirium tremens, when it has progressed to a degree establishing permanent insanity, which renders the person incapable of distinguishing between right and wrong, relieves him from criminal responsibility for his acts, even though the condition was voluntary in its inception. The theory and reason for the rule is that the man is insane, and his insanity is a defence even though it was produced by the voluntary excessive use of intoxicating liquors. (People v. Rogers, 18 N.Y. 9; Flayigan v. The People, 86 N.Y. 554; State v. Haab, 195 La. 230.) Intoxication, even though voluntary, may be adduced in evidence in

those acts which become crimes when done knowingly or with a Specific intent or purpose, and the courts have held that in such cases the fact of intoxication is admissible to negative the existence of such knowledge or intent, which is a necessary element of the crime. The manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors for beverage

purposes in the United States is controlled by the 18th amendment to the Constitution, commonly known as the Volstead Act. This grew out of the so-called Prohibition Act of Nov. 21, 1918, upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court (Hamilion v. Kentucky Distilleries, etc., Co., 251 U.S. 146; United States v. Standard Brewery, 251 U.S. 210; Ruppert v. Caffey, 251 US. 264), on the ground that the act was a proper exercise of the war powers granted to the United States by the Constitution. The National Prohibition Act (Oct. 28, 1919, chap. 83, Acts 66th Congress, 41 Stat. at L. 305) prohibits the manufacture, sale and transportation of intoxicating liquors for beverage purposes and the U.S. Supreme Court (Rupfert v. Caffey, supra) held that the provisions of the act extending such prohibition to malt liquors, whether intoxicating or not, with alcoholic content of 4 of 1% of alcohol by volume, was a proper

318

INFALLIBILITY

exercise of the powers of Congress; thus the validity of the 18th amendment was upheld. The act itself made certain exceptions, under a permit system (chap. ii., ss. 12 and 13, and chap. iii., ss. 78 and 80), stating lawful uses of liquor; że., for scientific,

sacramental, medicinal and mechanical purposes. PROHIBITION ACT.)

may be, are infallible; it is only his ex cathedra instruction which

(See NATIONAL (J. P. EA.)

INFALLIBILITY, the fact or quality of not being liable to

err or fail (Med. Lat. infallibilitas, infallibilis, formed

from

fallor, to make a mistake). At the present time the idea of infallibility in religious matters is most commonly associated with the claim of the Roman Catholic Church, and more especially of the pope personally as head of that Church, to possess the privilege of infallibility, and it is with the meaning and limits of this claim that the present article deals.* The substance of the claim to infallibility made by the Roman Catholic Church is that the Church and the pope cannot err when solemnly enunciating, as binding on all the faithful, a decision

on a question of faith or morals. The infallibility of the Church, thus limited, is a natural outcome of the fundamental conception of the Catholic Church and its mission. Every society of men must have a supreme authority, whether individual or collective, empowered to give a final decision in the controversies which concern it. A community whose mission it is to teach religious truth, which involves on the part of its members the obligation of belief in this truth, must, if it is not to fail of its object, possess an authority capable of maintaining the faith in its purity, and consequently capable of keeping it free from and condemning errors. To perform this function without fear of error, this authority must be infallible in its own sphere. The Catholic Church has expressly claimed this infallibility for its formal dogmatic teaching.

The infallibility of the pope (g.v.) was first defined in 1870 at the Vatican Council The exact formula for the papal infallibility is given by the Council in the following terms (Constit. Pastor aeternus, cap. iv.); "we teach and define as a divinely revealed dogma, that the Roman Pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra—i.e., when, in his character as Pastor and Doctor of all Christians, and in virtue of his supreme apostolic authority, he lays down that a certain doctrine concerning faith or morals is binding upon the universal Church—possesses, by the Divine assistance which was promised to him in the person of the blessed Saint Peter, that same infallibility with which the Divine Redeemer thought fit to endow His Church, to define its doctrine with regard to faith and morals; and, consequently, that these definitions of the Roman Pontiff are irreformable in themselves, and not in consequence of the consent of the Church.” A few notes will suffice to elucidate this pronouncement. (a) As the Council expressly says, the infallibility of the pope is not other than that of the Church; this is a point which is too often forgotten or misunderstood. The pope enjoys it in person, but solely gua head of the Church, and as the authorized organ of the ecclesiastical body united with him. (b) The late date at which the dogma was defined is explained by the fact that the mode of exercising authority on the part of the Church has varied since the time of Christ; but it is affirmed that the dogma was already contained in that of the papal primacy established by Christ himself in the person of St. Peter. A certain dogmatic development is not denied, nor an evolution in the direction of a centralization in the hands of the pope of the exercise of his powers as primate; it is merely required that this evolution should be well understood and considered as legitimate. (c) Infallibility is the guarantee against error, not in all matters, but only in the matter of dogma and morality; everything else is beyond its power, not only truths of another order, but even discipline and the ecclesiastical laws, government and administration, etc. .(d) Again, not all dogmatic teachings of the pope are under the guarantee of infallibility; neither his opinions as private instructor, nor his official allocutions, however authoritative they lOn the idea of infallibility in reference to a written revelation, see INSPIRATION.

is guaranteed; this is admitted by everybody. (e) The last phrase of the definition is aimed at Gallicanism and kindred doctrines, political rather than theological, which placed the authority of the Church above that of its head, But when does the pope speak ex cathedra, and how is it to be distinguished when he is exercising his infallibility?

As to this

point there are two tendencies among Catholics. (7.) Some extend the privilege of infallibility to all official exercise of the supreme magisterium, and declare infallible, e.g., the papal encyclicals, In this sense it was understood by Dóllinger, who pointed out that the definition of the dogma would commit the Church to all past official utterances of the popes, e.g., the Syllabus of 1864, and therefore to a war ù outrance against modern civilization.

This view was embodied in the circular note to the Powers, drawn up by Dóllinge and issued by the Bavarian prime minister Prince Hohenlohe-Schillingsfiirst on April 9, 1869. It was also the view universally taken by the German governments which

supported the Kulturkampf in a greater or lesser degree. (ii) Others, while recognizing the supreme

authority of the papal

magisterium in matters of doctrine, confine the infallibility to those cases alone in which the pope declares positively that he is

imposing on all the faithful the obligation of belief in a certain definite proposition, under pain of heresy and exclusion from the

Church (cf. J. Fessler, Die wahre und die falsche Unfehlbarkeit der Pépste ; French trans. 1873). Those who hold this second view

contend that it has never been officially condemned; and they are able, while admitting the supreme authority of the encyclicals,

to assert that no infallible definition has been formulated by the popes since 1870. The controversies occasioned by this question had started from the beginning of the Council, and were carried on with bitterness on both sides. The minority, among whom were prominent Cardinals Rauscher and Schwarzenberg, Hefele, bishop of Rot-

terdam (the historian of the councils), Cardinal Mathieu, Mgr. Dupanloup and Mer. Maret, did not pretend to deny the papal infallibility; they pleaded the inopportuneness of the definition and brought forward difficulties mainly of an historical order. The majority, in which Cardinal Manning played a very active part, took their stand on theological reasons of the strictest kind; they invoked the tu es Petrus and the pasce agnos of Christ; they showed the popes, in the course of the ages, acting as the guardians and judges of the faith, arousing or welcoming dogmatic controversies and authoritatively settling them, exercising the supreme direction in the councils and sanctioning their decisions; they argued that the few historical difficulties did not involve any dogmatic defect in the teaching of the popes; they insisted upon the necessity of a supreme tribunai giving judgment in the name of the whole of the scattered Church; and finally, they considered that the definition had become opportune for the very reason that under the pretext of its inopportuneness the doctrine itself was being attacked. The definition once proclaimed, controversies rapidly ceased; the bishops who were among the minority one after the other formulated their loyal adhesion to the Catholic dogma. The last of to do so in Germany was Hefele, who published the decrees April ro, 1871, thus breaking a long friendship with Dóllinger. In France, though no bishops abandoned it, a few priests, such as Father Hyacinthe Loyson, refused their adhesion. The most distinguished among the German dissentients was Déllinger, who resisted all the advances of the archbishop of Munich, was ex communicated on April 17, 1871, and died unreconciled, though

without joining any separate group. After him must be mentioned

Reinkens Friedrich of Mumich, several professors of Bonn, and (q.v.). Catholics” “Old the of bishop first the was of Breslau, who London, See Dom Cuthbert Butler, The Vatican Council (2 vols. 1930) ; L. Billot, S.J., De Ecclesia Christi (3 vols., Rome, 1898-1900) ; 1.w.; Acton, “History of the Vatican Council,” North British Rev., Mirbt, P. J. Toner, art. “Infallibility,” Catholic Encyclopaedia; and C. (ful art. “Vatikanisches Konzil” in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyhlopédie of Religtor bibliography) ; “Infallibility” in Hastings’ Encyclopaedia Privilegi um, and Ethics (Protestant); H. E. Manning (card.), Petri 1871, and The Vatican Decrees in their Bearing on Civil Allegiance, 1375; J. H. Newman, Letter to the Duke of Norfolk, 1875.

INFAMY—INFANCY

919

INFAMY, public disgrace or loss of character. Infamy oc-| monthly, from the fourth to the sixth month half to two-thirds cupied a prominent place in Roman law, and took the form of a | of an ounce daily or x Ib. monthly, from the sixth to the twelfth censure on individuals pronounced by a competent authority in month $ oz. daily or less than r Ib. monthly. At the sixth month the State. Such a censure involved disqualification for certain it should be twice the weight at birth. The average weight at the rights both in public and in private law. In English law infamy as twelfth month is 20 to 21 lb. The increase of weight in artificially

a cause of incompetency was abolished by 6 & 7 Vict. c. 85. The

same has occurred in most of the codes which followed the Roman law in this relation, e.g., the Spanish penal code of 1848.

The word “infamous” is used in a particular sense in the Engjsh Medical Act of 1858, which provides that if any registered medical practitioner is judged by the General Medical Council,

after due enquiry, to have been guilty of infamous conduct in any

professional respect, his name may be erased from the medical

register. The General Medical Council are the sole judges of

whether a practitioner has been guilty of conduct infamous in a professional respect, and they act in a judicial capacity, but an accused person is allowed to appear by counsel. See Pratt v. British Medical Association, 1919, l. K.B. p. 270 and cited cases. As to dentists, see the Dentists Act, 1921, establishing a dental board.

INFANCY, in medical practice, the first year of life. On

being born the normal infant cries lustily, drawing air into its

lmgs. As soon as the umbilical cord which unites the child to the mother has ceased to beat, it is tied about 2in. from the child’s navel and is divided above the ligature. The cord is wrapped in a sterilized gauze pad and the dressing is not removed until the seventh to the tenth day, when the umbilicus is healed. The first event in a baby’s life is its first bath. The room should be at a temperature of 70° F, and the bath water at 100° F. The child should be well supported in the bath by the left hand of

the nurse, and care taken to avoid wetting the gauze pad covering the cord. In some cases infants are covered with a white substance termed "*vernix caseosa," which may be carefully removed by a little olive oil. Sponges tend to harbour bacteria, so absorbent cotton wool should take their place. After the first ten days 94° F is the most suitable temperature for a bath. Night and morning, from the first, the mouth and nostrils should be cleansed with wet pledgets of cotton wool. When the baby has been well dried the skin may be dusted with pure starch powder to which a small quantity of boric acid has been added. The most important part of the toilet of a new-born infant is care of the eyes, which should be carefully cleansed with cotton wool dipped in warm water, and one drop of a 2% solution of nitrate of silver dropped into each eye. The clothes should consist exclusively of

woollen undergarments, a soft flannel binder, which should be tied on, being placed next the skin, with a long-sleeved wool vest, aad over this a loose garment of flannel coming below the feet and long enough to tuck up. Diapers should be made of soft absorbent material about 2ft. square and folded in a threecomered shape. An infant should always sleep in a bed or cot by itself. More than half the deaths from violence of children under one month are due to suffocation in bed with adults. A healthy infant should spend most of its time asleep, and should be laid into its cot immediately after feeding. _Physically, the first year is the most important one of the entire life cycle. Increase in height and weight and development of the

fed is less regular than in breast-fed babies. Gain in weight is less in warm weather. Teething is apt to delay a regular gain in weight and from the seventh to the tenth month the weight may remain almost stationary or increase very little. The baby should be weighed once each week during the first six months and once every two weeks during the second six months. Weighing should take place at the same hour on the same day each week and with the same amount of clothing.

The average height at birth is about 19 in. If the weight of the baby is over or below seven Ib., the height should be correspondingly greater or less. The important points in determining health are: first, the relation between height and weight and, second, the rate of increase in height and weight. From birth to three months, the increase in height will be about three in.; the same rate of increase should take place during the second three months and again during the following six months. At birth, the circumference of the abdomen and of the chest should be the same; in the average baby, about 134 in. The circumference of the head should be about 14 in. The chest and abdomen increase in size at the same rate and the head at a slightly less rate during the first year. At one year of age, the circumference of the head, chest and abdomen should be the same; about r8 in. for the average baby. Any disproportion to these measurements is evidence of malnutrition or some definite disease. Food.—The ideal food for an infant is its mother’s milk. Artificially-fed children are more liable to epidemic diseases. The child should be applied to the breast the first day to induce the flow of milk. The modern tendency is to feed it at 6 A.M., 10 A.M., 2 P.M., 6 P.M. and ro P.M., thus the mother gets a night's rest. Frequently, however, these intervals have to be shortened. Artificial Feeding.—The simplest artificial food is cow’s milk, diluted with boiled water and with the addition of a little cream and milk sugar. At first two parts of water should be added to one of milk and week by week the water should be diminished until at three months equal parts of milk and water and at six months three times as much milk as water are used. A teaspoonful of cream and a quarter of a teaspoonful of sugar of milk in each feed are appropriate amounts. Unless the source is unimpeachable the milk should be either sterilized by boiling or pasteurized, że., subjected to a form of heating which, while destroying pathogenic bacteria, does not alter the taste. The milk in a suitable apparatus is subjected to a temperature of 65° C (149° F) for half an hour and is then rapidly cooled to 20° C (68° F). Various patent foods are on the market, some of which are satisfactory, but great care must be exercised in their selection as many are injurious. All infants artificially fed should be given fresh orange juice daily, beginning with a teaspoonful at the end of the first month, gradually increasing the amount to two table-

spoonfuls at the end of the fourth month and thereafter. Twice the amount of the juice of canned tomatoes (uncooked) and diluted with an equal amount of water may be used in place of

organs of the body are greater than at any future similar period. the orange juice. These juices supply the needed vitamins which The degree of health during the first year will determine, to a may be lacking in the pasteurized or boiled milk. (See Vitamins; great extent, the health of the individual during later life. The Dret.) As an additional aid to nutrition and to supply the vitamain factor of proper infant care is nourishment, dependent upon

mins that may be lacking in other foods, codliver oil may be given to babies more than one month old. The average dose is tors of proper infant care are those which are concerned with the one-half teaspoonful at one month, one teaspoonful at two months, favirenmental conditions of life including fresh air, sunshine, one and one-half teaspoonfuls at three months and two teaspoonsleep, Cleanliness, bathing, exercise and the other measures of fuls thereafter during the first year. This dose is given twice daily. Additional foods may be given daily as follows: At four months, Physical hygiene. The most definite evidence of health in infancy I5 an éven continuous gain in weight in relation to height. two tablespoonfuls of strained vegetable soup. At five months, The normal infant at birth weighs about 7 lb. During the two three tablespoonfuls of the soup and one teaspoonful of vegetable or three. days following birth a slight decrease in weight occurs, pulp. At six months, one tablespoonful of strained cereal gruel, wually. 5 to 6 oz, When nursing begins the child increases in two ounces of vegetable soup and two teaspoonfuls vegetable pulp.

the amount, character and regularity of feeding. Secondary fac-

Weight'up to the seventh day, when it will have regained its weight atbirth. Prom the second to the fourth week after birth (accord-

Mg to Camerer) an infant should gain 1 oz. daily or rà to 2 lb.

At seven months, double the amount of cereal gruel and vegetable pulp, increase amount of vegetable soup by one ounce, add onethird slice dried bread. At eight months, give above amount cereal

320

INFANCY

gruel twice daily. At nine months, increase vegetable soup to four ounces and pulp to one tablespoonful, add one tablespoonful mixed coddled egg. At ro months, increase vegetable pulp to two tablespoonfuls, coddled egg to two teaspoonfuls, dried bread to onehalf slice, cook beef bone in soup stock. At rz months, increase amounts of all foods, add one teaspoonful mealy part of baked »otato and same amount strained applesauce.

Method of Modifying Milk.—Wash all utensils in hot soap suds and rinse in boiling water. Boil bottles, nipples and corks for three minutes. Measure sugar and dissolve in small amount of water; pour into pitcher and add full amount of water; stir milk in bottle and add amount for day’s formula. Stir mixture and pour right amount in each feeding bottle. Cork the bottles and place them on ice. Keep at a temperature at or slightly below so degrees, Fahrenheit, until used. At feeding time replace cork with nipple, hold bottle in pan of hot water until contents are warm. Test warmth of milk by dropping a small amount on arm just above wrist; the milk should feel warm but not hot. Rules for Feeding t. Establish regular feeding habits and keep to them. 2. Feed by weight rather than age. 3. Wash bottles and nipples after each use; keep nipples in covered jar full of sterile water. 4. Give the baby water to drink from a bottle, cup or spoon between. feedings. s. Give the milk first at each feeding; then the additional foods. 6. Increase the additional foods gradually and in small amounts. 7. Decrease the amount of the milk formula at each feeding by the amount of other liquid given. 8. Give only one additional food at any one feeding. 9. Cook all cereals longer than the directions given on the package. IO. Strong and healthy babies can take solid food at an earlier age than weak and delicate babies can. II. Vegetables used in making soup are: carrots, turnips, spinach, chard, celery, asparagus, lettuce, beet greens, onions, string beans, cabbage and cauliflower (not more than three at any one time); all vegetables should be fresh. 12. The formulae and other directions given for feeding apply to the average normal baby. If the baby is not gaining in weight or if any digestive disturbance develops, medical advice about the diet should be secured. Normal Infant's Development.—A healthy infant should live out of doors during the daytime as much as possible, warmly clad, with a hot water bottle if necessary, protected from wind and rain and excessive sunlight. On the second day the eyes are sensitive to light, in the second month the infant notices colours, at the sixth month it knows its parents, and should be able to hold its head up. During the sixth month the baby usually begins to cut its temporary teeth. Attempts to stand are made about the tenth month, and walking begins about the fourteenth month. By this time the intelligence should be developed, memory is observed, and the child should be able to articulate a few small words. With the advent of walking and speech the period of infancy may be said to end. BrsLi0cRAPHY.—W. M. Feldman, Principles of Ante-natal and Post-natal Child Hygiene (bibl) (London, 1927); L. T. Royster, Nutrition and Development (New York, 1927) ; J. H. Hess, Feeding and the Nutritional Disorders in Infancy and Childhood (sth ed. bibl.) (Philadelphia, 1927); D. Paterson and J. F. Smith, Modern Methods of Feeding in Infancy and Childhood (London, 1926);

L. W. Hill, Practical Infant Feeding

(bibl.)

(Philadelphia,

1922);

J. Comby, Alimentation et hygiéne des enfants, 4th ed. (Paris, 1922) ; C. G. Grulee, Znfant Feeding (4th ed., bibl) (Philadelphia, 1922); L. E. Holt, The Care and Feeding of Children (New York, 1921); F. Tweddell, How to Take Care of the Baby (New York, 1915); R. M. Smith, The Babys First Two Years (Boston, 1915); S. J. Baker, Healthy Babies (Boston, 1920).

PHYSICAL HYGIENE One of the most important questions in the physical hygiene of children is that of habit formation. Babies are born with-

out habits. They acquire them and the type of habits formed depends upon the kind and regularity of infant care and the en-

vironment, or surroundings, of the baby and young child duri

these early, formative years of life. “Habit” may be defined as the

repetition of an act until it becomes automatic and a more or

less unconscious action. The kind of habits we acquire affect health, development mentality, character and adjustment to life. The majority of

habits have their inception during the first five years of life and habit formation

begins at birth. A

common

example

of thi.

occurs in earliest infancy. If a baby is taken up when he cries he learns immediately that a cry will accomplish this desired result. If his cry does not bring this attention, he learns that it js useless to cry for this purpose and this type of crying habit i; prevented. Habits of regularity in feeding, sleeping, bathing and the other functions of the body vitally affect health and the proper ones should be established as soon as the baby is born and per.

sisted in without interruption. While the best. habit formation consists in the cultivation of good

habits and the avoidance of bad habits, there are instances where the bad habits have already been formed and correction is necessary. For the prevention of bad habits which are concerned with the routine of daily life, it is essential to establish regular and fixed hours for feeding, sleep, bathing, exercise or play and bowel movements. For information regarding all except the last mentioned, see NuRSERY EQUIPMENT. The more common bad habits

which are to be prevented or corrected are: nail biting, sucking, the use of a pacifier, dirt eating, bed wetting and masturbation.

Training for Regular Bowel Movements.—This may be started during the second month. Set a small chamber between the nurse's knees, place the baby on this with his body supported

firmly and his back braced against the nurse's chest. At first it may be necessary to insert into the opening of the rectum, the end of ‘a rolled cone of oiled paper or the end of a piece of white

soap whittled into the shape and size of a lead pencil. As it is normal for the baby to have one or two bowel movements a day, this practice should be carried out twice daily; immediately after

the first morning and the late afternoon feedings. It is probable that for the first week or two the effort will be unsuccessful but after that time the use of the cone or soap may be omitted, the baby will begin to learn what is expected and the habit of regular bowel movements at these times should be established. Persistence and absolute regularity are essential for success. Sucking and Nail Biting.—The habit of sucking a piece of the clothing, a corner of the blanket, the thumb or the fingers begins early in infancy. This may be a sign of hunger and attention should be paid to the amount and the quality of the feeding. If uncorrected, this habit may persist until the child is five or six years old. The results of this practice may be serious and lead to misshapen lips, irregular teeth, malocclusion of the jaws, deformed palate and excessive adenoid growths. The flow of saliva is stimulated and digestive disturbances may result. The use of a pacifier is equally harmful and will produce the same symptoms and deformities. In addition it may cause an infection of the mouth or a general infectious disease as it is practically impossible to keep a ‘pacifier clean. Nail biting commonly begins later in life—at about three years—and is most common in nervous children and those who are undernourished. The prevention and treatment of these conditions consists of attention to the diet and general health of the child, avoidance of the use of the pacifier and, the emotional development of the child permitting, some form of mechanical restraint. Bed Wetting.—Children should be able to control the bladder at two years of age. If lack of control persists beyond this time, either during the day or night, some physical cause for this condition may be looked for. This may be excessive nervousness, anemia, malnutrition, local irritation in the genital region or 4 rectal irritation due to worms. Such causes should be sought for and removed by competent medical care. Early training in good habits of bladder control may be commenced by the end of the first year and consist in placing the child on the chamber at regular intervals during the daytime, the last thing before bedtime and once during the night. If the bed wetting persists, the child should sleep without a pillow and the foot of the bed may

INFANT be raised slightly. All fluids in the diet should be eliminated after four o'clock in the afternoon. At the same time a definite effort

should be made to interest the child in overcoming the habit. An appeal to his self-respect, pointing out the way in which he differs from other children in this practice and the promise of recognition of his self-helping efforts by simple rewards have been found helpful.

Masturbation—As

this habit is more often an emotional

than a physical one, proper attention to the mental hygiene of

early childhood insures the best results. It must be remembered however that irritation of the genital region may produce efforts at masturbation and a physical examination and medical advice

are essential in such instances. In the majority of instances the action is reflex and mainly subconscious with no moral signifi-

nce. Intelligent guidance and simple rewards yield the best results

in correcting all types of bad habits. Punishment will invariably bring harmful consequences. (S. J. B.) INFANT, in non-legal use, a very young child, a baby, or

one of an age suitable to be taught in an “infant school”; in law, a person under full age, and therefore subject to disabilities not affecting persons who have attained full age. This article deals with “infants” in the last sense; for the

more general sense see INFANCY and CuiLp. The period of full

age varies widely in different systems, as do also the disabilities attaching to nonage (non-age). In Roman law, the age of puberty, fixed at 14 for males and 12 for females, was recognized as a

dividing line. Under that age a child was under the guardianship

321

only applied to the three classes of contract made void by the

previous section, viz., for goods supplied, money lent and on account stated. Others thought the effect to be that no contract, except for necessaries, made during infancy could be enforced after the infant came to full age.

After several conflicting deci-

sions it has been settled that both these views were wrong. Of the infant’s contracts voidable at common Jaw there were two kinds. The first kind became void at full age, unless expressly ratified. The second kind were valid, unless repudiated within a reasonable time after full age was attained by the infant. The Infants’ Relief Act (sec. 2) strikes only at the first class and leaves the second untouched. Thus a promise of marriage made during infancy cannot be ratified so as to become actionable; but an infant’s marriage settlement, being of the second class, is valid, unless it is repudiated within a reasonable time after the infant attains full age. What is a reasonable time depends on all the circumstances of the case. In a case decided in 1893 a settlement made by a female infant was allowed to be repudiated 30 years after she attained full age, but the circumstances were exceptional. A contract of marriage may be lawfully made by infants; since the passing of the Age of Marriage Act, 1929, marriageable age is 16 for both sexes. So an infant may bind himself by contract of apprenticeship or service. Since the passing of the Wills Act, an infant, except he be a soldier in actual military service or a seaman at sea, is unable to make a will. Infancy is in general a disqualification for public offices and professions, e.g, to be a member of parliament or an elector, a mayor or burgess, a priest or deacon, a barrister or solicitor, etc.

Before 1886 the custody of an infant belonged in the first place, and against all other persons, to the father, who was said to be “the guardian of his children by nature and nurture”; and the father might by deed or will dispose of the custody or tuition By the law of England full age is 21, and all minors alike of his children until the age of 21. The Guardianship of Infants Acts.—The Guardianship of are subject to incapacities. The period of 21 years is regarded as complete at the beginning of the day before the birthday; for Infants Act, 1886, placed the mother almost on the same footexample, an infant born on the first day of January attains his ing as the father as to guardianship of infants. On the death of majority at the first moment of the 31st of December. The the father the mother becomes guardian under the statute, either incapacity of an infant is designed for his own protection, and alone when no guardian has been appointed by the father, or its general effect is to prevent him from binding himself abso- jointly with any guardian appointed by him under 12 Chas. II. c. lutely by obligations. Of the contracts of an infant which are 24. À change of the law even more important is that whereby the binding ab initio, the most important are those relating to “neces- mother may by deed or will appoint a guardian or guardians of saries.” By the Sale of Goods Act, 1893, an infant liable on a con- her infant children to act after her death. If the father survives tract for necessaries can be sued only for a reasonable price, not the mother, the mother's guardian can only act if it be shown necessarily the price he agreed to pay. The same statute declares to the satisfaction of the court that the father is unfitted to be “necessaries” to mean “goods suitable to the condition in life of the sole guardian. On the death of the father, the guardian SO the infant, and to his actual requirements at the time of the appointed by the mother acts jointly with any guardian appointed sale and delivery.” In the case of goods having a market price, by the father. The act of 1886 also gives power to the high the market price is reasonable. In all other cases the question is court and to county courts to make orders, upon the application one of fact for the jury. The protection of infants extends some- of the mother, regarding the custody of an infant, and the right times to transactions completed after full age; the relief of of access thereto of either parent. The court must take into heirs who have been induced to barter away their expectations consideration "the welfare of the infant, and . . . the conduct isan example. “Catching bargains,” as they are called, throw on of the parents, and . . . the wishes as well of the mother as of the persons claiming the benefit of them the burden of proving the father." The same statute also empowers the high court of their substantial righteousness. justice, "on being satisfied that it is for the welfare of the infant," At common Jaw a bargain made by an infant might be rati- to "remove from his office any testamentary guardian or any fied by him after full age, and would then become binding. Lord guardian appointed or acting by virtue of this act," and also to Tenterden’s act required the ratification to be in writing. But appoint another in place of the guardian so removed. Power is now, by the Infants’ Relief Act, 1874, “all contracts entered into given to a court sitting in divorce practically to take away from by infants for the repayment of money lent or to be lent, or for a parent guilty of a matrimonial offence all rights of guardiangoods supplied or to be supplied (other than contracts for neces- ship. saries), and all accounts stated, shall be absolutely void,” and The passing of the Guardianship of Infants Act, 1925, has no action shall be brought whereby to charge any person upon brought about a further very important change in the law on this any promise made after full age to pay any debt contracted dur- subject and this act is to be "construed as one with" the act ing infancy, or upon any ratification made after full age of any of 1886. The welfare of the infant is declared to be "the first promise or contract made during infancy, whether there shall and paramount consideration" in the making of a custody order, orshall not be any new consideration for such promise or ratifica- but the principle of equality between the sexes is "now to obtain tion after full age.” For some years after the passage of this with respect to the guardianship of infants," so that “the mother statute highly conflicting views were held as to the meaning of shall have the like powers to apply to the court" as are possessed the part of sec. 2 whereby it was enacted that “no action shall by the father. It is, however, in the extension of jurisdiction to € brought, whereby to charge any person . . . upon any ratifica- courts of summary jurisdiction that the act is most remarkable, ion made after full age of any promise or contract made during since it confers upon these courts powers differing very widely mfancy.” Some authorities were of opinion that the section from those which formed the original basis of their jurisdiction. of a tutor, but several degrees of infancy were recognized.

The

first was absolute infancy; after that, until the age of seven, a child was infantiae proximus, and from the eighth year to puberty he was pubertati proximus.

322

INFANTE—INFANTICIDE

This extension is of immense benefit to the very poor, amongst whom quarrels as to the custody of children are not less common than amongst those able to afford more expensive litigation. The incorporation of the act of 1886 with the act of 1925 has

given rise to a curious difficulty. The former act gave the mother

United States.—In the United States the principles of ti, English common law as to infancy prevail, generally the most conspicuous variations being those affecting the age at which women attain majority. In many States this is fixed at 18. There is some diversity of practice as to the age at which a person can make a will of real or personal estate. INFANTE, atitle of the sons of the sovereigns of Spain and Portugal, the corresponding infanta being given to the daughters (From Lat. infans, young child.) The title is not borne by the eldest son of the king of Spain, who is prince of Asturias. 7}

the right to apply, but did not mention the father; but as right of application to a court of summary jurisdiction is purely statutory, it would appear that the father had no right to apply to such a court. Sec. 16 of the Administration of Justice Act (1928), however, has explicitly conferred the right of application principe de Asturias. While a son or a daughter of the soverei on the father. Another radical change has been made in the rights of parents | of Spain is by right infante or infanta of Spain, the title, alone as to guardianship of their children. In consequence of several | is granted to other members of the blood royal by the sovereign, l INFANTICIDE. In sharp contrast to the modern anxiety to cases where, after children had been rescued by philanthropic persons from squalid homes and improper surroundings, the | lessen child mortality, a feature due to the ethical advance of civicourts had felt bound by law to redeliver them to their parents, lization, is the extent, as vouched for by sound historical evidence the Custody of Children Act, 1891, was passed. A parent who has and by the direct observation of cultures in modern times, of the abandoned or deserted his child, is, prima facie, unfit to have the practice of infanticide or of putting new-born infants to death or custody of the child. And before the court can make an order of allowing them to die. Thus it is recorded of the Nandi that “children are buried alive giving him the custody, the onus lies on him to prove that he is fit. The same rule applies where the child has been allowed by in cow-dung if they cry in their mother’s womb or if at birth they the parent, “to be brought up by another person at that person’s present their legs first, or are born with teeth, as these events are expense, or by the guardians of the poor-law union, for such a considered unlucky. Children who are blind or badly deformed, length of time and under such circumstances as to satisfy the and illegitimate children, z.e., the offspring of unmarried girls, are court that the parent was unmindful of his parental duties.” likewise made away with at birth.” From every quarter of the Many cases of this kind can now be dealt with most satisfactorily under the Adoption of Children Act, 1926, which has decreased

to a large extent the importance of the earlier legislation. (See ADOPTION.) In the same direction as the Custody of Children Act, 1891, and the Guardianship of Infants Act, 1925, is the Children Act, 1908, whereby considerable powers have been conferred on courts of summary jurisdiction. (See CHILDREN, PROTECTIVE LAWS.) There is not at common law any corresponding obligation on the part of either parent to maintain or educate the children. The legal duties of parents in this respect are those created by the poor laws, the Education Acts and the Children Act, 1908. An infant is liable to a civil action for torts and wrongful acts committed by him. But, as it is possible so to shape the pleadings as to make what is in substance a right arising out of contract take the form of a right arising from civil injury, care is taken that an infant in such a case shall not be held liable. With respect to crime, mere infancy is not a defence, but a child under seven years of age is presumed to be incapable of committing a crime, and between seven and r4 his capacity requires to be affirmatively proved. After 14 an infant is doli capax. Scotland.—The law of Scotland follows the leading principles of the Roman law. The period of minority (which ends at 21) is divided into two stages, that of absolute incapacity (until the age of r4 in males, and r2 in females), during which the minor is in pupilarity, and that of partial incapacity (between r4 and 21), during which he is under curators. The guardians (or tutors), of the pupil are either tutors-nominate (appointed by the father in his will); tutors-at-law (being the next male agnate of 25 years of age), in default of tutors-nominate; or tutors-dative, appointed by royal warrant in default of the other two. No act done by thé pupil, or action raised in his name, has any effect without the interposition of a guardian. After 14, all acts done by a minor having curators are void without their concurrence. Every deed in nonage, whether during pupilarity or minority, and whether authorized or not by tutors or curators, is liable to reduction on proof of “lesion,” z.e., of material injury, due to the fact of nonage, either through the weakness of the minor himself or the imprudence or negligence of his curators. Damage in fact arising on a contract in itself just and reasonable would not be lesion entitling to restitution. Deeds in nonage, other than those which are absolutely null ab initio, must be challenged within the quadriennium utile, or four years after majority: | The Guardianship of Infants Act, 1886, the Custody of Children Act, 1891, the Children Act, 1908, and the Guardianship of Infants Act, 1925, mentioned above, all apply to Scotland.

world, from simple nomadic

peoples to settled agriculturalists

comes evidence of similar practices, supported by similar reasons, The horror of the abnormal explains many of the cases. Breaches of the rules regulating sexual intercourse (an element present of necessity in all marriage systems whereby the status of the issue of the sexual union of the parents is established) may, as with the Nandi, lead to the immediate death of the offspring of an irregular union because, as is definitely certain in some instances, the ancestral spirits seeking reincarnation can only achieve their desire by regular marriage. They are ready therefore to punish matrimonial offences; and to avoid the dreadful consequences of rearing illegitimate children, in the community which the ancestors built up, the community is purged at once of their presence. In some cases a distinction is drawn between children born to parents who have neglected the formalities of marriage but are otherwise free to marry, and the offspring of those whose unions are forbidden by the law of exogamy (g.v.) or by some fundamenial social ordinance. Illegitimate children of the first category are perhaps allowed to live, even to obtain membership of the community, to be legitimized by the subsequent formal marriage of their parents, while illegitimate children of the second category are put to death sometimes in a horrible manner, as if, it may be because, they are regarded as evil spirits. The birth of twins, as an abnormal occurrence, may be viewed as either an indication of future prosperity or of impending misfortune and social attitudes conform with the view taken in the community of the incident. Some welcome twins as proof of divine favour, others deem them akin to animals and therefore to be destroyed, while special treat-

ment is often found to be applied to the cases where the twins are of opposite sex and therefore deemed to have had intercourse m violation of the law of exogamy. Tofanticide is sometimes practised for economic reasons as when

an Australian mother thinks she is unable to rear the new-bom babe owing to there being a young child whom she is still feeding. A child of a few years of age is sometimes killed; to pass is & strength on to a weakly elder child. Cases are known where child has been killed in order that its soul may pass to a women desirous of offspring. In India female infanticide was attributed

to the custom of hypergamy (q.v.). To some superstition relat

to the social order is also attributed the rule of the Wataveta tequiring the destruction of every child born to a woman after her daughter’s marriage. The system of age-grades which forms 8n

essential part of the structure of that tribe is perhaps the factor

in this connection.

Children, especially the first-born, were killed to cure barres ness, to ensure health, good fortune and general fertility. Rem carnation beliefs play a part since if the son is the reincarnation

INFANTRY

HISTORICAL]

of his father, the son is put to death and the father lives. Again ‘al sanctity, special virtue attached to the first-born and therefore the sacrifice of the first-born had special efficacy. In certain conditions the legitimacy of the first-born is dubious and his destruction may then be regarded as a special case of illegitimacy.

There are many proofs of infanticide in religions possessing ethical

323

were called soldados and contrasted with French fantassins and Italian fanteria. The Oxford English Dictionary suggests that a foot-soldier, being in feudal and early modern times the varlet or follower of a mounted noble, was called a boy (cf. Knabe, garçon, footman, etc., and see VALET).

who was just above a calendar month old at the date of its death, the judge at the trial held that there was no evidence that

I. HISTORICAL Although it may be confidently asserted that the original fighting man was a foot-soldier, infantry was differentiated as an “arm” considerably later than cavalry; for when a new instrument of fighting (a chariot or a horse) was discovered, it was assimilated by relatively picked men, who i$so facio separated themselves from the mass or reservoir of men. How this mass itself ceased to be à mere residue and developed special characteristics; how, instead of the cavalry being recruited from the best infantry, cavalry and infantry came to form two distinct services; and how the arm thus constituted organized itself, technically and tactically, for its own work—these are the main questions that constitute the historical side of the subject. It is obvious that the “residue” was far the greatest part of the army; the history of the foot-soldier is practically identical with the history of soldiering. The natural evolution of primitive fighting was towards the differentiation of the champion, the proved excellent fighting man, and to providing this man, on whom everything depended, with all assistance that better arms, armour, horse or chariot could give him. But suppose our champion slain, how are we to make head against the opposing champion? For long ages, we may suppose, the latter, as in the Ziad, slaughtered the sheep who had lost their shepherd, but in the end the “residue” began to organize itself, ‘and to evolve a method of fighting which enabled it, or at least the better part of it, to oppose a firm and united front to the enemy’s champions—in which term we include all selected men, whether horsemen, charioteers or merely specially powerful axemen and swordsmen. But once the individual had lost his commanding position, the problem presented itself in a new form— how to ensure that every member of the group did his duty by the others—and the solution of this problem for the condition of the ancient hand-to-hand struggle marks the historical beginning of infantry tactics. The Phalanx and the Legion.—Gallic warriors bound themselves together with chains. The Greeks organized the city state, which gave each small army solidarity and the sense of duty to an ideal, and the phalanx in which the file-leaders were in a sense champions yet were made so chiefly by the unity of the mass. But the Romans went further. Besides developing solidarity and a sense of duty, they improved on this conception of the battle to such a degree that as a nation they may be called the best tacticlans who ever existed. They split the mass of combatants into three bodies, of which the first, formed of the youngest and most impressionable men, was engaged at the outset, the rest, more experienced men, being kept out of the turmoil. This is the very opposite of the "champion" system. Those who would have fled after the fall of the champions are engaged and "fought out" before the champions enter the area of the contest, while the champions, who possess in themselves the greatest power of resisting and mastering the instinct of self-preservation, are kept back for the moment when ordinary men would lose heart. It might be said with perfect justice that without infantry there would never have been discipline, for cavalry began and continued as a crowd of champions. Discipline, which created and maintained the intrinsic superiority of the Roman legion, depended first on the ideal of patriotism. This was ingrained into every man from his earliest years and expressed in a system of rewards

the court held that his ruling was correct in law.

and punishments which took effect from the same ideal, in that rewards were in the main honorary in character (mural crowns,

potentialities such as Druidism and Semitism as well as in advanced communities such as Egypt, Greece and Rome. It has been suggested that there is a social norm, a belief that «a particular number of children is the right number of children" (Carr-Saunders, see bibl.) and families in excess of the number approved by this convention may well have been kept to the norm by infanticide. How far among primitive peoples there is at times

some deliberation as to whether a child shall be allowed to live, is not clear, but the evidence is thought to point to some semiconscious adjustment of numbers.

'That the destruction of weak, deformed and unsightly children at birth would have favourably affected the quality of the community is highly probable. Eugenic motives, however, were not

present and the destruction of such children was conditioned by the superstitions attached to them. Misinterpretation

of imperfect

data

led McLennan

in his

pioneer work on Human Marriage (1865) to attribute an importance to infanticide as a factor in producing exogamy and thus

shaping the social structure, which is now regarded as without

warrant. The case of infanticide which he cited from Assam as due to the constant capture of girls taken by stronger villages as wives proved to be a case of “a superstition which condemned to death such as were born in a particular position” analogous to those cited above. BrmLrocRAPHY.—À. C. Hollis, The Nandi (1909); Sir B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen; The Arunta (1927); A. M. Carr-Saunders, The Population Problem (1922), in which, with a copious bibliography, there is a full discussion of the evidence for infanticide among hunting and fishing races, agricultural and historical races. See also E. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, 6th ed. 3 vols. (1925); and The Origin and Development of Moral Ideals (1905); Reports of the Census of India rgo0r and ror. (X.)

Law.—Infanticide is murder or manslaughter according to the presence or absence of deliberation. The infant must be a human being in the legal sense; and “a child becomes a human being when it has completely proceeded in a living state from the body of its mother, whether it has breathed or not, and whether it has an independent circulation or not, and whether the navelstring is severed or not; and the killing of such a child is homicide when it dies after birth in consequence of injuries received before, during or after birth.”

A child in the womb or in the act of

birth, though it may have breathed, is therefore not a human being, the killing of which amounts to homicide. In 1922 by the Infanticide Act of that year it was provided that where a woman by any wilful act or omission causes the death of her newly born child, but at the time of the act or emission had not fully recovered from the effect of giving birth to such child, and by reason thereof the balance of her mind was then disturbed, she is, notwithstanding that the circumstances were such that the offence would have amounted to murder, to be found guilty of infanticide and may for such offence be dealt with and punished as if she had been guilty of the manslaughter of the child. What constitutes a “newly born child” was considered by the court of criminal appeal in Rex v. O’Donoghue (138 L.T. Rep. 240). The court declined to define the expression,

but where a woman was charged with the murder of her child the child was “newly born” within the meaning of the act, and

(W. ve B. H.) INFAN TRY, the collective name of soldiers who fight on foot. The word is derived ultimately from Lat. infans, infant, but tt is not clear how the word came to be used to mean soldiers: :hesuggestion that it comes from a guard or regiment of a Span-

linfanta about the end of the rsth century cannot be main-

tained in view of the fact that Spanish foot-soldiers of the time

etc.), while no physical punishment was: too severe for the man who betrayed, by default or selfishness, the cause of Rome. Secondly, though every man knew his duty, not every man was equal to doing it, and in recognition of this fact the Romans

evolved the system of three-line tactics in which the strong parts of the machine neutralized the weak.

So closely knit were the

parts of the system that not only did the decadence of patriotism

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[HISTORICAL

sap the legionary organization, but also the unsuitability of that organization to new conditions of warfare reacted unfavourably, even disastrously, on the moral of the nation. Between them, the Roman infantry fell from its proud place, and whereas in the Republic it was familiarly called the "strength" (robur), by the 4th century A.D. it had become merely the background for a variety of other arms and corps. As the Roman imperium extended the burden of foreign service became too heavy for the ordinary citizen, the citizen-army ceased to exist, and the mere necessity for garrisoning distant lands threw the burden of service upon the professional soldier.

the infantry masses of the English slipped from the control of their leaders directly the front ranks became seriously engaged For many generations after Hastings there was no attempt to ute

this last was the uniform training of every man. There were no longer any primary differences between one cohort and another, and though the value of the three-line system in itself ensured its continuance, any cohort, however constituted, might find itself serving in any one of the three lines, ż.e., the moral of the last line was no better than that of the first. In brief, the old Roman organization was based on patriotism and experience, and when patriotism gave place to “egoism,” and the experience of the citizen who spent every other summer in the field of war gave place to the formal training of the paid recruit, it died, unregretted either by the citizen or by the military chieftain. The latter knew how to make the army his devoted servant, while the former disliked military service and failed to prepare himself for the day when the military chief and the mercenary overrode his rights and set up a tyranny, and ultimately the inner provinces of the empire came to be called inermes—unarmed, defenceless— in contrast to the borderland where the all-powerful professional legions lay in garrison. In these same frontier provinces the tactical disintegration of the legion slowly accomplished itself. Originally designed for the exigencies of the normal pitched battle on firm open fields, and even after its professionalization retaining its character as a large battle unit, it was soon fragmented through the exigencies of border warfare into numerous detachments of greater or less size, and when the military frontier of the empire was established, the legion became an almost sedentary corps, finding the garrisons for the blockhouses on its own section of the line of defence. Further, the old heavy arms and armour which had given it the advantage in wars of conquest—in which the barbarians, gathering to defend their homes, offered a target for the blow of an army—were a great disadvantage when it became necessary to police the conquered territory, to pounce upon swiftly moving bodies of raiders before they could do any great harm. Thus gradually cavalry became more numerous, and light infantry of all sorts more useful, than the old-fashioned linesman. To these corps went the best recruits and the smartest officers, the opportunities for good service and the rewards for it. The legion became once more the “residue.” The battle of Adrianople (g.v.), the “last fight of the legion,” illustrates this. The frontal battle was engaged in the ordinary way, and the first line of the imperial army was fighting man to man with the front ranks of the Gothic infantry, when suddenly the armoured heavy cavalry of the Goths burst upon their flank and rear. There were no longer Principes and Triarii of the old Republican calibre, but only average troops, in the second and third lines, and they were broken at once. The first line felt the battle in rear as well as in front and gave way. Thereafter the victors, horse and foot, slaughtered unresisting herds of men, and on this day the infantry arm, as an arm, ceased to exist.

result, but they contributed little or nothing to bringing it about

The Roman Imperial Army.—The natural consequence of

The Dark Ages.—Regular infantry was still maintained for

siege, mountain and forest warfare. But the robur, the kernel of the line of battle, was gone, and though a few of the peoples that fought their way into the area of civilization in the dark ages brought with them the natural and primitive method of fighting on foot, these infantry nations, without any infantry system comparable to that of the Greeks and Romans, succumbed in turn to the crowd of mounted warriors—not for want of good military qualities, but for want of an organization which would have distributed their fighting powers to the best advantage. One has only to study the battle of Hastings to realize. how completely

infantry as the kernel of armies, still less to organize it as such beforehand.

Indeed, except in the Crusades, where men of high

and of low degree alike fought for their common faith, and ip sieges, where cavalry was powerless and the services of archers

and labourers were at a premium, it became unusual for infantry to appear on the field at all. In those days in truth the infantry was no more the army than to-day the shareholders of a limited company are the board of directors. They were deeply, sometimes vitally, interested in the

except when the opposing cavalries were in a state of moral equilibrium, and in these cases anything suffices—the appearance of camp followers on a “Gillies Hill,” as at Bannockburn, or the sound of half-a-dozen trumpets—to turn the scale. Once it turned,

the infantry of the beaten side was cut down unresistingly, while

the more valuable prisoners were admitted to ransom. Revival of Infantry.—But even this infantry contained within itself two half-smothered sparks of regeneration, the idea of archery and the idea of communal militia. Archery, in whatever form practised, was the one special form of military activity with which the heavy gendarme (whether he fought on horseback or dismounted) had no concern, in sharp contrast to the Byzantine army in its heyday and to the Mongols who inflicted such sharp lessons on European chivalry in the 13th century. Here therefore infantry had a special function, and so far ceased to be “residue.” The communal militia was an early and inadequate expression of the town-spirit that was soon to produce the solid burgher militia of Flanders and Germany and after that the trained bands of the English cities and towns. It was under the influence of these two ideas or forces that infantry as an arm began once again, though slowly and painfully, to differentiate itself from the worthless “residue.” Courtrai—tThe first true infantry battle since Hastings was fought at Courtrai in 1302, between the burghers of Bruges and a feudal army under Count Robert of Artois. The citizens, arrayed in heavy masses, and still armed with miscellaneous weapons, were careful to place themselves on ground difficult of access— dikes, pools and marshes—and to fasten themselves together, like the Gauls of old. Their van was driven back by the French crossbowmen, whereupon Robert of Artois, true feudal leader as he was, ordered his infantry to clear the way for the cavalry and without even giving them time to do so pushed through their ranks with a formless mass of gendarmerie. This, in attempting to close with the enemy, became immovably fastened in the mud. The citizens swarmed all round it and with spear, cleaver and flail destroyed it. Crécy (g.v.) was fought forty-four years after Courtrai. Here the knights had open ground to fight on, and many boasted that they would revenge themselves. But they encountered not merely infantry, but infantry tactics, and were for the second, and not the last, time destroyed. The English yeomen had reached a level of self-discipline and self-respect which few even of the great

continental cities had attained.

They had, further, made the

powerful long-bow (see ARCHERY) their own, and Edward I.had combined the shock of the heavy cavalry with the slow searching

preparatory rain of arrows

(see FALKIRK).

That is, infantry

tactics and cavalry tactics were co-ordinated by a general, and the

special point of this is that instead of being, as in France, the

unstable base of the so-called “feudal pyramid,”

infantry had

become an arm, capable of offence and defence and having its own special organization, function in the line of battle and tactical method. This last, indeed, like every other tactical method, rested ultimately on the moral of the men who had to put it into execu-

tion. Archer tactics did not serve against the disciplined rushcom-of Joan of Arc’s gendarmerie, for the solidarity of the archer panies that tried to stop it had long been undermined.

The English Archer.—Yet we cannot overrate the importance of the archer in this period of military history. In the city militias

relationsolidarity had been obtained through the close personal

HISTORICAL]

INFANTRY

ship of the trade gilds and by the elimination of the champion. Therefore, aS every offensive in war rests upon boldness, these militias were essentially defensive, for they could only hope to

325

impetus, a Henry V., to set the old machinery to work again for a third great triumph. But again, after Agincourt, the long war

knights, nobles and sergeants—the armoured champions—whose

lapsed into the hands of the soldiers of fortune, the basis of Edward’s and Henry’s tactics crumbled, and, under Joan of Arc, the French cavalry rode down the stationary masses of the English, lances and bowmen alike. The net result of the Hundred Years’ War therefore was to re-establish the two arms, cavalry and infantry, side by side, the one acting by shock, and the other by fire. The lesson of Crécy was “prepare your charge before delivering it,” and for that purpose great bodies of infantry armed with bows, arblasts and handguns were brought into existence in France. When the French king in 1448 put into force the “lessons of the war” and organized & permanent army, it consisted in the main of heavy cavalry (knights and squires in the ordonnance companies, soldiers of fortune in the paid companies) and archers and arblasters (francsarchers recruited nationally, arblasters as a rule mercenaries,

etum to the “residue” state, and it only needed a fresh moral

handgun-men, with some spearmen and halberdiers to stiffen them,

ward off the feudal champion, not to outfight him (see LecNANoO). England, however, had evolved a weapon which no armour could resist, and a race of men as fully trained to use it as the gendarme

was to use the lance.

Crossbows indeed were powerful, and also

handled by professional soldiers (¢.g., the Genoese at Crécy), but they were slow in action, six times as slow as the long bow, and the impatient gendarmerie generally became tired of the delay and crowded out or rode over the crossbowmen. The long bow gave them the power of killing without being killed, which the citizens’

spears and maces and voulges did not. But like all missiles, arrows were a poor stand-by in the last resort if determined cavalry crossed the “beaten zone” and closed in, and besides pavises and pointed stakes the English archers were given the support of the

steady lances guaranteed their safety. Here was the real forward stride in infantry tactics. Archery had existed from time imme-

though largely recruited in Gascony). To these armes de jet were added, in ever-increasing numbers, hand firearms. Thus the morial, and a mere technical improvement in its weapon could “fire” principle of attack was established, and the defensive prinhardly account for its suddenly becoming the queen of the battle- ciple of “mass” relegated to the background. In such circumfeld. The defensive power of the “dark impenetrable wood” of stances cavalry was of course the decisive arm, and the reputation spears had been demonstrated again and again, but when the of the French gendarmerie was such as to justify this bold eliminicavalry had few or no preliminary difficulties to face, the chances ation of the means of passive defence. This tendency of the of the infantry mass resisting long-continued pressure was small. French military temperament reappears at almost every stage in It was the combination of the two elements that made possible a the history of armies. Burgher Militias.—The foot-soldier of Germany and the Crécy and a Poitiers, and this combination was the result of the English social system which produced the camaraderie of knight Low Countries had followed a different line of development. Here and yeoman, champion and plain soldier. Fortified by the knight’s the rich commercial cities scarcely concerned themselves with the unshakable steadiness, the yeoman handled his bow and arrows quarrels or revolts of neighbouring nobles, but they resolutely with cool certainty and rapidity, and shot down every rush of the defended their own rights against feudal interference, and enforced opposing champions. This was camaraderie de combat indeed, and them by an organized militia, opposing the strict solidarity of in such conditions the strategic offensive was possible and even their own institutions to the prowess of the champion who threateasy. The English conquered whole countries while the Flemish ened them. The struggle was between “you shall” on the part of the baron and “we will not” on the part of the citizens, and German spearmen and vougiers merely held their own. The Hundred Years’ War.—But the war of conquest em- the offensive versus the defensive in the simplest and plainest bodied in these decisive victories dwindled in its later stages to form. The latter was a policy of unbreakable squares, and wherea war of raids. The feudal lord, like the feudal vassal, returned ever possible, strong positions as well. Sometimes the citizens, home and gave place to the professional man-at-arms and the sometimes the nobles gained the day, but the general result was professional captain. Ransom became again the chief object, and that steady infantry in proper formation could not be ridden except where a great leader, such as Bertrand Du Guesclin, com- down, and as yeomen-archers of the English type to “prepare” pelled the mercenaries to follow him to death or victory, a battle the charge were not obtainable from amongst the serf populations usually became a mélée of irregular duels between men-at-arms. of the countryside, the problem of the attack was, for Central The war went on and on, the gendarmes thickened their armour, Europe, insoluble. and the archers found more difficulty in penetrating it. Moreover, Ihe Wagenburg.—The unbreakable square took two forms, in raids for devastation and booty, the slow-moving infantryman the wagenburg with artillery, and the infantry mass with pikes. was often a source of danger to his comrades. In this guerrilla The first was no more, in the beginning, than an expedient for the the archer, though he kept his place, soon ceased to be the main- safe and rapid crossing of wider stretches of open country than stay of battle. It had become customary since Crécy (where the would have been possible for dismounted men, whom the cavalry English knights and sergeants were dismounted to protect the headed off as soon as they ventured far enough from the shelter archers) for all mounted men to send away their horses before of walls. The men rode not on horses but on carriages, and the engaging. Here and there cavalry masses were used by such carriages moved over the plains in laager formation, the infantryenergetic leaders as the Black Prince and Du Guesclin, and more men standing ready with halbert and vowlge or short stabbing often a few men remained mounted for work requiring exceptional spear, and the gunners crouching around the long barrelled twospeed and courage—as for instance when thirty men-at-arms “cut pounders and the ribaudequins—the early machine guns—which out” the Captal de Buch from the midst of his army at Cocherel were mounted on the wagons. These wagenburgen combined in —but as a general rule the man-at-arms was practically a mounted themselves the due proportions of mobility and passive defence, infantryman, and when he dismounted he stood still. and in the skilled hands of Ziska they were capable of the boldest Cavalry therefore became, in a loose sense of the word, infantry. offensive. But such a tactical system depended first of all on drill, But we are tracing the history not of all troops that stood on their for the armoured cavalry would have crowded through the least feet to fight, but of infantry and the special tactics of infantry, gap in the wagon line, and the necessary degree of drill in those and the period before and after 1370, when the moral foundations days could only be attained by an army which had both a permaof the new English tactics had disappeared, and the personality nent existence and some bond of solidarity more powerful than ofDu Guesclin gave even the bandits of the “free companies” an the incentive to plunder—that is, in practice, it was only attained minnsic, if slight, superiority over the invaders, is a period of in full by the Hussite insurgents. The cavalry too, learned its deadlock. Solidarity, such as it was, had gone over to the side ‘of lesson, and pitted mobile three-pounders against the foot-soldiers’ the heavy cavalry. But the latter had deliberately forfeited their one- and two-pounders, and the wagenburg became no more than power of forcing the decision by fighting on foot, and the English a helpless target. Thus when, not many years after the end of the archer, the cadre of the English tactical system, though diminished Hussite wars, the Wars of the Roses eliminated the English model m numbers, prestige and importance, held to existence and sur- and the English tactics from the military world of Europe, the Vved the deadlock. Infantry of that type indeed could never French system of fire tactics, masses of archers, arblasters and

INFANTRY

326

was left face to face with that of the Swiss and Landsknechts, the system of the “long pike.”

The

Swiss.—A

series of victories ranging from Morgarten

(1315) to Nancy (1477) had made the Swiss the most renowned

infantry in Europe. Originally their struggles with would-be oppressors had taken the form, often seen elsewhere, of arraying solid masses of men, united in purpose and fidelity to one another rather than by any material or tactical cohesion. Like the men of Bruges at Courtrai, the Swiss had the advantage of broken ground and the still greater advantage of being opposed by reckless feudal cavalry. Their armament at this stage was not peculiar —voulges, gisarmes, halberts and spears—though they were specially adept in the use of the two-handed sword. But as time went on the long pike (said to have originated in Savoy or the Milanese about 1330) became more and more popular until at last on the

verge of their brief ascendancy (about 1475-1515) the Swiss armed as much as one quarter of their troops with it. The use of firearms made little or no progress amongst them. But in a very few years after the Swiss nation had become soldiers of fortune

en masse, the more open lands of Swabia entered into serious and bitter competition with them. From these lands came the Landsknechts, whose order was as strong as, and far less unwieldy than, that of the Swiss, whose armament included a far greater propor-

tion of firearms, and who established a regimental system that left a permanent mark on army organization. The Landsknecht was the prototype of the infantryman of the r6th and 17th centuries, but his right to indicate the line of evolution had to be wrung from many rivals. The Long Pike.—The year 1480 was a turning point in military history. Within the three years preceding it the battles of Nancy and Guinegate had destroyed both the old feudalism of Charles the Bold and the new cavalry tactics of the French gendarmerie. The former was an anachronism, while the latter, when the great wars came to an end and there was no longer either a national impulse or a national leader, had lapsed into the old vices of ransom and plunder. With these, on the same fields, the francarcher system of infantry tactics perished ignominiously. It rested, as we know, on the principle that the fire of the infantry was to be combined with and completed by the shock of the gendarmerie, and when the latter were found wanting as at Guinegate, the masses of archers and arblasters were swept away by the charge of some heavy battalions of Swabian and Flemish pikes. Guinegate was the début of the Landsknecht infantry as Nancy was that of the Swiss, and the lesson coula not be misread. Louis XI. indeed hanged some of his franc-archers and dismissed the rest, and in their place raised “bands” of regular infantry, one of which bore for the first time the historic name of Picardie. But these “bands”

[HISTORICAL

arquebusiers and arblasters in the French army did little o nothing; it was the Swiss who were lésperance de lost. At Agnadello or Vaila in 1509 the ground and the “encounter-battle”

character of the engagement gave special chances of effective employment to the arquebusiers on either side. Along the front the Venetian marksmen, secure behind a bank, picked off the leaders of the enemy as they came near. On the outer flank of the battle the bands of Gascon arquebusiers, which would other. wise have been relegated to an unimportant place in the general line of battle, lapped round the enemy's flank in broken ground and produced decisive effect. But this was only an afterthought

of the king of France and Bayard. In the rest of the battle the huge masses of Swiss pikes were thrown upon the enemy much

as the old feudal cavalry had been, regardless of ditches, orchards and vineyards. Then for a moment the problem was solved, or partially solved

by the artillery. Thus by degrees a very numerous and exceedingly handy light artillery—“carts with gonnes,” as they were called in England—came into play on the Italian battlefields, and took over from the dying franc-archer system the work of pre-

paring the assault by fire. At Ravenna (g.v.) (1512), the fire

action of the new artillery was extraordinarily murderous, ploughing lanes in the immobile masses of infantry. At Marignan (q.v.)

the French gendarmerie and artillery, closely and skilfully combined, practically destroyed the huge masses of the Swiss, and so completely had “infantry” and “fire” become separate ideas that on the third day of this tremendous battle we find even the “bands of Piedmont" cutting their way into the Swiss masses. The Spanish Infantry and the Arquebus.—But from this point the lead fell into the hands of the Spaniards.

These were

originally swift and handy light infantry, capable, like the Scottish Highlanders at Prestonpans and Falkirk long afterwards, of sliding

under the forest of pikes and breaking into the close-locked ranks with buckler and stabbing sword. For troops of this sort the arquebus was an ideal weapon, and the problem of self-contained infantry was solved by Gonsalvo de Cordoba, Pescara and the great Spanish captains of the day by intercalating small closed bodies of arquebusiers with rather larger, but not inordinately large, bodies of pikes. These arquebusiers formed separate, fully organized sections of the infantry regiment. In close defence they fought on the front and flanks of the pikes, but more usually they were pushed well to the front independently, their speed and excellent fire discipline enabling them to do what was wholly beyond the power of the older type of firing infantry—to take advantage of ground, to run out and re-open fire during a momentary pause in the battle of lance and pike, and to run back to the shelter of their own closed masses when threatened by an oncomwere not self-contained. Armed for the most part with armes de ing charge. When this system of tactics was consecrated by the jet they centred on the 6,000 Swiss pikemen whom Louis XI., in glorious success of Pavia (1525), the "cart with gonnes" vanished 1480, took into his service, and for nearly fifty years thereafter and the system of fighting everywhere and always “at push of the French foot armies are always composed of two elements, the pike" fell into the background. By 1550 infantry had ceased to be an auxiliary arm. It conhuge battalions of Swiss or Landsknechts, armed with the long pike, and for their support and assistance, French and mercenary tained within itself, and (what is more important) within its “bands.” The term Landsknecht was not confined to the right regimental units, the power of fighting effectively and decisively bank of the Rhine. The French /ansquenets came largely from both at close quarters and at a distance. It had, further, developed Alsace, according to General Hardy de Perini. In the Italian a permanent regimental existence, both in Spain and in France, and wars Francis I. had in his service a famous corps called the “black in the former country it had progressed so far from the “residue” state that young nobles preferred to trail a pike in the ranks of the bands” which was recruited in the lower Rhine countries. The Italian Wars, 1494-—1525.—The Italian wars of 1494 to foot to service in the gendarmerie or light horse. The service 1544, in which the use of “fire” and shock was readjusted to meet battalions were kept up to war strength by the establishment of the conditions created by firearms, were the nursery of modern depóts and the preliminary training there of recruits. The wars in which this system was evolved were wars for presinfantry. The combinations of Swiss, Landsknechts, Spanish tercios and French “bands” that figured on the battlefields of tige and aggrandizement. But the wars of religion raised questhe early 16th century were infinitely various. But it is not tions of life and death for the Frenchmen of either faith, and thus endowed operations with a new decisive spirit. Hence the difficult to find a thread that runs through the whole. immobile “‘battalion” of pikes diminishes in importance relatively . The essence of the Swiss system was solidity. They arrayed themselves in huge oblongs of 5,000 men and more, at the corners and the arquebusiers and musketeers grow more and more efi-

of which, like the tower bastions of a 16th-century fortress, stood small groups of arquebusiers. ‘The Landsknechts and the Romag-

nols of Italy, imitated and rivglled them, though as a rule developing more front and:less depth. At this stage solidity was every-

thing and fire-power nothing. At Fornuovo (1495) the mass of

cient. Armies, too, became smaller, and marched more rapidly.

Encounter battles became more frequent than “pitched” battles,

and in these the musketeer was at a great advantage. Thus 1600 the proportions between pikes and musketeers in the Freneh army had come to be 6 pikes to 4 muskets or arquebuses, and the

HISTORICAL]

INFANTRY

igillon de combat or brigade was normally no more than 1,200

grong. In the Netherlands, however, the war of consciences was fought out between the best regular army in the world and burgher militias. Even the French fantassins were second in importance to the Spanish soldados. The latter continued to hold the preeminent position they had gained at Pavia. They improved the yebus into the musket, a heavier and much more powerful weapon (fired from a rest) which could disable a horse at zoo

es. Piresi this moment the professional soldier was at the high-water mark of his supremacy. The musket was too complicated to be rapidly and efficiently used by any but a highly trained man; the pike, probably because it had now to protect two or three ranks of “shot” in front of the leading rank of pikemen, as well as the pikemen themselves, had grown longer (up to 18 ft.);

and drill and manoeuvre had become more important than ever, for in the meantime cavalry had mostly abandoned the massive armour and the long lance in favour of half-armour and the pistol, and their new tactics made them both swifter to charge groups of musketeers and more deadly to the solid masses of pikemen. This superiority of the regular over the irregular was most conspicuously shown in Alva’s war against the Netherlands patriots. Desperately as the latter fought, Spanish captains did not hesitate to attack patriot armies ten times their own strength. If once or twice this contempt led them to disaster, the normal battle was of the Jemmingen type—seven soldados dead and seven thousand

rebels. Such results as these naturally confirmed the “Spanish system” of tactics. The Dutch themselves, when they evolved reliable field armies, copied it with few modifications, and by degrees it was spread over Europe by the professional soldiers on both sides. The French, however, with their smaller battalions and more rapid movements were inclined to disparage both the cuirass and the pike, and only unwillingly hampered themselves with the

long heavy Spanish musket, which had to be fired from a rest. In 1600, nearly fifty years after the introduction of the musket, this most progressive army still deliberately preferred the old light arquebus, and only armed a few selected men with the larger weapons. On the other hand, the Spaniards, though supreme in the open, had for the most part to deal with desperate men behind fortifications. Fighting, therefore, chiefly at close quarters with a fierce enemy, and not disposing either of the space or of the opportunity for “manoeuvre-battles,” they sacrificed all their former lightness and speed, and clung to armour, the long pike and the heavy 24 oz. bullet. But during the 17th century solidity, and the powers of passive resistance were, little by little, replaced by a more offensive armament and faculty, until at last the long pike disappeared altogether and the firearm, provided with a bayonet, was the uniform weapon of the foot-soldier. As far as France was concerned, it was a natural evolution. But the acceptance of the principle by the rest of the military world, imposed by the genus of Gustavus: Adolphus, was rather revolution than evolution. i

Gustavus Adolphus.—In the army which Louis XIII. led against his revolted barons of Anjou in 1620, the old regiments

seem to have marched in an open chequer-wise formation of compantes which is interesting not only as a deliberate imitation of

theRoman legion (all soldiers of that time, in the prevailing confusion of tactical ideas, sought guidance in the works of Xenophon, Aelian and Vegetius), but as showing that flexibility and handi-

hess Was not the monopoly of the Swedish system that was soon

to captivate military Europe. But the generals of the Thirty Years’ War who were trained in the Spanish school formed their infantry Into large battalions (generally a single line of masses). Hence certainly gave the troops that used these unwieldy

formations a relatively high manoeuvring capacity, for Tilly’s army at Breitenfeld (g.v.) “changed front half-left” in the course the battle itself. But the manoeuvring power of the Swedes was higher still, Each party represented one side of the classical ‘vival, the Swedes the Roman three-line manipular tactics, the imperialists and Leaguers those of the Greek line of phalanxes.

former, depending as it did on high moral in the individual

347

foot-soldier, was hardly suitable to such a congeries of mercenaries as those that Wallenstein commanded, and in the later stages of the Thirty Years’ War, when the old native Swedish and Scottish

brigades had been annihilated, the Swedish infantry was little if at all better than the rest. But its tactical system, sanctified by victory, was eagerly caught up by military Europe. The musket, though it had finally driven out the arquebus, had been lightened by Gustavus Adolphus so far that it could be fired without a rest. Rapidity in loading had so far improved that a company could safely be formed six deep instead of ten, as in the Spanish and Dutch systems. Its fire power was further augmented by the addition of two very light field-guns to each battalion; these could inflict loss at twice the effective range of the shortened musket. Above all, Gustavus introduced into the military systems of Europe a new discipline based on the idea of exact performance of duty, which made itself felt in every part of the service, and was a welcome substitute for the former easy-going methods of regimental existence. The adoption of Swedish methods indeed was facilitated by the disrepute into which the older systems had fallen. Courage the mercenary certainly possessed, but his individual sense of honour, code of soldierly morals, and sometimes devotion to a particular leader did not compensate for the absence of a strong motive for victory and for his general refractoriness in matters of detail, such as march-discipline and punctuality, which had become essential since the great Swedish king had reintroduced order, method and definiteness of purpose into the conduct of military operations. The Great Rebellion.—The problem of combining the maximum of fire power with the maximum of control over the individual firer was not fully solved until 1740, but the necessity of attempting the problem was realized from the first. In the Swedish army, before it was corrupted by the atmosphere of the Thirty Years’ War, duty to God and to country were the springs of the punctual discipline, in small things and in great, which made it the most formidable army, unit for unit, in the world. In the English Civil War (in which the adherents of the “Swedish system” from the first ousted those of the “Dutch’’) the difficulty was more acute, for although the mainsprings of action were similar, the technical side of the soldier’s business—the regimental organization, drill and handling of arms—had all to be improvised. Now in the beginning the Royalist cavalry was recruited from “gentlemen that have honour and courage and resolution"; later, Cromwell raised a cavalry force that was even more thoroughly imbued with the spirit of duty, “men who made some conscience of what they did," and throughout the Civil War, consequently, the mounted arm was the queen of the battlefield. The Parliamentary foot too “made some conscience of what it did," more especially in the first years of the war. But its best elements—the drilled townsmen—were rather of a defensive than of an offensive character; towards the close of the struggle, when the foot on both sides came to be formed of professional soldiers, the defensive element decreased, as it had decreased in France and elsewhere. The war was like Gustavus’s German campaign, one of rapid and far-ranging marches, and the armoured pikeman had either to shorten his pike and to cast off his armour or to be left at home with the heavy artillery (see Firth’s Cromwell’s Army, ch. iv.). Fights at “push of pike” were rare enough to be specially mentioned in reports of battles. Disuse of the Pike.—A small proportion of pikes was still held to be necessary by experienced soldiers, for as yet the socket bayonet had not been invented, and while there was still cavalry © in Europe that could be trusted to ride home, the development of fire power was everywhere hindered by the necessity of self-defence. On the other hand the hitherto accepted defensive means militated against efficiency in many ways, and about 1670, when Louis XIV. and Louvois were fashioning the new standing army that was for fifty years the model for Europe, the problem was how to improve the drill and efficiency of the musketeers so far that the pikes could be reduced to a minimum. In 1680 the firelock was issued instead of the matchlock to all grenadiers and to the four best shots in each French Company. The bayonet—in its primitive form merely a dagger that was fixed into the muzzle of

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[HISTORICAL

the musket—was also introduced, and the pike was shortened. | fight and pushing the troops forward again. The linear system The proportion of pikes to muskets in Henry IV.’s day, 2 to 1 or rested on the principle that the maximum weight of controlled fire 3 to 2, and in Gustavus’s 2 to 3, had now fallen to 1 to 3. The day of great causes that could inspire the average man with the resolution to conquer or die was, however, past, and the “shal-

at short range was decisive, and the practical problem of infantry

low order" (l'ordre mince), with all its demands on the individual's sense of duty, had become an integral part of the military system.

many years the question of fire versus movement held the first place. The purpose was settled, and it remained to discover the means. This means was Prussian fire-discipline, which was elaborated by Leopold of Dessau and Frederick William I., and practically applied by Frederick the Great. It consisted first in the combination, instead of the alternation, of fire and movement, and

How then was the sense of duty to be created? Louis and Louvois and their contemporaries sought to create it by taking raw recruits in batches, giving them a consistent training, quartering them in barracks and uniforming them. Henceforward the soldier was not a unit, self-taught and free to enter the service of any master. He had no existence as a soldier apart from his regiment and within it he was taught that the regiment was everything and the individual nothing. Thus by degrees the idea of implicit obedience to orders and of ésprit de corps was absorbed. But the self-respecting Englishman or the quick ardent Frenchman was not the best raw material for quasi-automatic regiments, and it was not until an infinitely more rigorous system of discipline was applied to an unimaginative army that the full possibilities of this enforced sense of duty were realized. Methods of Fire Before 1740.—The method of delivering fre originally used by the Spaniards, in which each man in succession fired and fell back to the rear of the file to reload, required for its continued and exact performance a degree of coolness and individual smartness which was probably rarely attained in practice. This was not of serious moment when the "shot" were simple auxiliaries, but when under Gustavus the offensive idea came to the front, and the bullets of the infantry were expected to do something more than merely annoy the hostile pikemen, a more effective method had to be devised. First, the handiness of the musket was so far improved that one man could reload while five, instead of as formerly ten, fired. Then, as the enhanced rate of fire made the file-firing still more disorderly than before, two ranks and three were set to fire volews" or "salvees" together, and before 1640 it had become the general custom for the musketeers to fire one or two volleys and then, along with the pikemen, to “fall on.” The Bayonet.—With the decay of cavalry methods and moral the adoption of the flintlock musket and the invention of the socket bayonet (the fixing of which did not prevent fire being delivered), all reason for retaining the pike vanished, and from about 1700 the invariable armament of infantry became the musket and bayonet. The manner of employing the weapons, however, changed but slowly. But the idea of “push of pike” remained, the bayonet (as at Marsaglia) taking the place of the pike, and musketry methods were still and throughout the War of the Spanish Succession somewhat half-hearted and tentative. Linear Tactics.—Meanwhile the tactics of armies had been steadily crystallizing into the so-called “linear” form, which, as far as concerns the infantry, was simply two long lines of battalions (three, four or five deep) and gave the utmost possible development to fire-power. The object of the “line” was to break or beat down the opposing line in the shortest possible time, whether by fire action or shock action, but fire action was only decisive at so short a range that the principal valley could be followed immediately by a charge over a few score paces at most and the crossing of bayonets. Fire was, however, effective at ranges outside charging distance, especially from the battalion

tactics was how to obtain this. The question of fire versus shock had been answered in favour of the former, and henceforward for

secondly in the thorough efficiency of the fire in itself. But both

these demanded a more stringent and technically more perfect drill than had ever before been imagined, or, for that matter, has ever since been attained. Prussian Fire Discipline, 1740.—On approaching the enemy the marching columns of the Prussians, which were generally open columns of companies 4 deep, wheeled in succession to the tight or left (almost always to the right) and thus passed along the front of the enemy at a distance of 800-1,200 yd. until the rear company had wheeled. Then the whole together (or in the case of a deployment to the left, in succession) wheeled into line facing the enemy. These movements, if intervals and distances

were preserved with proper precision, brought the infantry into two long well-closed lines, and parade-ground precision was actually attained, thanks to remorseless drilling and to the reintroduction of the march in step to music. Of course such move-

ments were best executed on a firm plain, and as far as possible the attack and defence of woods and villages was left to light

infantry and grenadiers. But even in marshes and scrub, the line managed to manoeuvre with some approach to the precision of the barrack square!. This precision allowed Frederick to take risks that no former commander would have dared to take culminating in the oblique order attack of Leuthen (g.v.). With it was bound up a fire discipline that was more extraordinary than any perfection of manoeuvre. Before Hohenfriedberg the king gave orders that pelotonfeuer was to be opened at 200 paces from the enemy and continued up to 30 paces, when the line was to fall on with the bayonet. The possibility of this combination of fire and movement was the work of Leopold, who gave the Prussian infantry iron ramrods, and by sheer drill made the soldier a machine capable of delivering (with the flintlock muzzleloading muskets, be it observed) five volleys a minute. This pelotonfeuer or company volleys replaced the old fire by ranks practised in other armies. Fire began from the flanks of the battalion, which consisted of eight companies (for firing, 3 deep). When the right company commander gave “‘fire,” the commander of No. 2 gave “ready,” followed in turn by other companies up to the centre. The same process having been gone through on the left flank, by the time the two centre companies had fired the two flank companies were ready to recommence, and thus a continuous series of rolling volleys was delivered, at one or two seconds’ interval only between companies. In attack this fire was combined with movement, each company in turn advancing a few paces after “making ready.” In the advance of the deployed line the special Prussian fire-discipline gave Frederick an advantage of five shots to two against all opponents. The bayonet-attack, if the rolling volleys had done their work, was merely “presenting writer puts it. guns, and however the decision was achieved in the end, it was the cheque for payment” as a modern German in the fire-fight. given, decision the drawn, been had cheque The yd. 50 and yd. necessary to cross the zone between about 300 Leuthen.—For some years this method of infantry training range as quickly as possible. It was therefore the business of the the Prussians a decisive superiority in whatever order gave fire before zone this across men regimental officer to force his But their enemies improved and also grew in numfought. was opened. If, as Catinat recommended, decisive range was they Prussian army’s resources were strictly limited. the while bers, hand, in well troops the and loaded musket every reached with Years’ War, after the two costly battles of Seven the in Thus decisive. their fire when finally it was delivered might well be necessary to maBut in practice this rarely happened, and though here and there Prague and Kolin (1757) especially, it became

such expedients as a skirmishing line were employed to assist the advance by disturbing the enemy’s fire the most that was hoped by the average colonel or captain was that in the advance fire should be opened as late as possible and that the officers should strive to keep in their hands the power of breaking off the fire-

noeuvre with the object of bringing the Prussian infantry into

1A bout this time there was introduced, for resisting cavalry, the wellknown hollow battalion square, which, replacing the former mass

of pikes, represented up to the most modern times the defensive as the line or column represented the offensive formation of infantry.

HISTORICAL]

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329

contact with an equal or if possible smaller portion of the enemy’s | infantry became more in demand and wider in scope. Yet there was no suggestion that light troops or skirmishers were capable of bringing about the decision in an armed conflict. Light Infantry.—In the American War of Independence the such that the classical “oblique order” attack was only once completely executed. This was at Leuthen (Dec. 8. 19594). perhaps line was pitted against light infantry in difficult country, and the the greatest day in the history of the Prussian army. Frederick's British and French officers who served in it returned to Europe object was to destroy the left of the Austrian army (which far full of enthusiasm for the latter. Nevertheless, their light infantry was, unlike Frederick’s, selected line infantry. The light outnumbered his own) before the rest of their deployed line of battle could change front to intervene. His method was to place infantry duties—skirmishing, reconnaissance, outposts—were is own line, by a concealed flank march, opposite the point where grafted on to a disciplined training. At first these duties fell to he desired to strike, and then to advance, not in two long lines but the grenadiers and light companies of each battalion, but during in échelon of battalions from the right (see LEUTHEN). The the struggle in the colonies, the light companies of a brigade were échelon was not so deep but that each battalion was properly sup- so frequently massed in one battalion that in the end whole regiline. If this could be achieved, victory was as certain as ever, put the difficulties of bringing about a successful manoeuvre were

ported by the following one on its left (roo paces distance), and ments were converted into light infantry. This combination of each, as it came within 200 yd. of the Austrian battalion facing it, “line” steadiness and “skirmisher’ freedom was the keynote of ned its “rolling volleys” while continuing to advance; thus Sir John Moore’s training system fifteen years later, and Moore’s long before the left and most backward battalions were committed regiments, above all the 52nd, 43rd (now combined as the Ox-

to the fight, the right battalions were crumbling the Austrian

infantry units one by one from left to right. One lesson of Leuthen that contemporary soldiers took to heart was that even a two-to-one superiority in numbers could not remedy want of manoeuvring capacity. It might be hoped that with traming and drill an Austrian battalion could be made equal toa Prussian one in the front-to-front fight, and in fact, as losses told more and more heavily on Frederick’s army as years went on, the specific superiority of his infantry disappeared. The last campaigns were indeed a war of positions, because Frederick had

no longer the men available for forcing the Austrians out of them, and on many occasions he was so weak that the most passive defensive and the most elaborate entrenchments barely suffied to save him. But whenever opportunity offered itself, the

king sought a decisive success by bringing the whole of his infantry against part of the enemy’s—the principle of Leuthen put in practice over a wider area with more elastic manoeuvre meth-

ods. In a battle each battalion or brigade fought as a unit in line, using company volleys and seeking the decision by fire. Controversies and Developments, 1700-1790.—In this, and even in the most minute details of drill and uniform, military Europe slavishly copied Prussia for twenty years after the Seven Years War. And withal, the period 1763-1792 is full of tactical and strategical controversies. The principal of these, as regards infantry, was that between “fire” and “shock” revived about 1710 by Folard, and about 1780 the American War of Independence complicated it by introducing a fresh controversy between skirmishing and close order. As to the first, in Folard’s day as in Frederick’s, fire action at close range was the deciding factor in battle, but in Frederick’s later campaigns, wherein he no longer disposed of the old Prussian infantry and its swift mechanical fire-discipline, there sprang up a tendency to trust to the bayonet for the decision. If the (so-called) Prussian infantry of 1762 could in any way be brought to close with the enemy, it had a fair chance of victory owing to its leaders’ previous dispositions, and then the advocates of “shock,” who had temporarily been silenced by Mollwitz and Hohenfriedberg, again took courage. The ordinary line was primarily a formation for fire, and only secondarily or by the accident of circumstances for shock, and,

fordshire Light Infantry) and gsth Rifles (Rifle Brigade), were the backbone of the British Army throughout the Peninsular War.

Meantime the infantry organization and tactics of the old régime, elsewhere than in England, had been disintegrated by the flames of the French Revolution, and from their ashes a new system had arisen. The French Revolution.—The controversialists of Louis XVI.’s time, foremost of whom were Guibert, Joly de Maizeroy and Menil Durand (see Max Jahns, Gesch. d. Kriegswissenschaften, vol. iii.), were agreed that shock action should be the work of troops formed in column, but as to the results to be expected from shock action, the extent to which it should be facilitated by a previous fire preparation, and the formations in which fire should be delivered (line, line with skirmishers or “swarms’’) discussion was so warm that it sometimes led to wrangles in ladies’ drawing-rooms and meetings in the duelling field. The drill-book for the French infantry issued shortly before the Revolution was a compromise, which in the main adhered to the

Frederician system as modified by Guibert, but gave an important place in infantry tactics to the battalion “columns of attack,” that had hitherto appeared only spasmodically on the battlefields of the French army and never elsewhere. This, however, and the quick march (100 paces to the minute instead of

the Frederician 75) were the only prescriptions in the drill-book that survived the test of a “national” war, to which within a few ' years it was subjected (see FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY Wars). The rest, like the “linear system” of organization and manoeuvre to which it belonged (see ArmY; CONSCRIPTION, etc.) was ignored, and circumstances and the practical troop-leaders evolved by circumstances fashioned the combination of close-order columns and loose-order skirmishers which constituted essentially the new tactics of the Revolutionary and Napoleonic infantry. Tactical Evolution in France 1792-1807.—The process of evolution cannot be stated in exact terms but certain tendencies are easily discernible. The first tendency was towards the dissolution of all tactical links. The earlier battles were fought partly in line for fire action,Spartly in columns for the bayonet attack. Now the linear tactics depended on exact preservation of dressing, intervals and distances, and what required in the case of the chiefly perhaps under Saxe’s influence, the French army had for Prussians years of steady dril at 75 paces to the minute was many years been accustomed to differentiate between "linear" hardly attainable with the newly levied ardent Frenchmen marchformations for fire and “columnar” for attack—thus reverting to ing at 100 to 120. Once, therefore, the line moved, it broke up Iéth-century practice. While, therefore, the theoreticians pleaded into an irregular swarm of excited firers, and experience soon for battalion columns and the bayonet or for line and the bullet, proved that only the troops kept out of the turmoil were suscepthe practical soldier used both. Many forms of combined line tible of manoeuvre and united action. Thus from about 1795 and column were tried, but in France, where the question was onwards the forms of the old régime gave way to new ones in Most assiduously studied, no agreement had been arrived at when which the skirmishers are fewer and the closed troops more

the advent of the skirmisher further complicated the issues. In the early Silesian wars, when armies fought in open country

numerous, and the decision rests no longer with the fire of the leading units (which of course could not compare in effectiveness

m linear order, the outpost service was performed by irregular

with the rolling volleys of the drilled line) but with the bayonets of the second and third lines—the latter being sometimes in line but more often, owing to the want of preliminary drill, in columns. The skirmishers tended again to become pure light infantry, whose rôle was to prepare, not to give, the decision, and who fought in a thin line, taking every advantage of cover and marks-

light troops, recruited from wild characters of all nations, who

were also charged with the preliminary skirmishing ckar up the situation before the deployment of the but once the line opened fire their work was done and away to the flanks (generally in search of plunder).

necessary to battle-army, they cleared Later, light

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manship. In sum, then, from 1792 to 1795 the fighting methods of the French infantry were, as they have been aptly called, “horde tactics.” From 1796 onwards to the first campaigns of the Empire, on the other hand, there was an ever-growing tendency to combine skirmishers, properly so called, with controlled and wellclosed bodies in rear, the first to prepare the attack to the best of their ability by individual courage and skill at arms, the second to deliver it at the right moment (thanks to their retention of

[HISTORICAL

ambushes and fights in woods and villages there are few recorded cases of bayonets being crossed in these wars. Napoleon himself said “Le jeu est tout, le reste peu de chose," and though a mere

plan of his dispositions suggests that he was the disciple of Folard and Menil Durand, in reality he simply applied "fire-power" in the new and grander form which his own genius imagined.

The problem, then, was not what it had been one hundred and

fifty years before. The business of the attack was not to break down the passive resistance of the defence, but to destroy or tg

manoeuvre formations), and with all possible energy (thanks to the cohesion, moral and material, which carried forward even the laggards). Even when in the long wars of the Empire the quality of the troops progressively deteriorated, infantry tactics within the regiment or brigade underwent no radical alteration. The actual formations were most varied, but they always contained two of the three elements, column, line and skirmishers. Column (generally two lines of battalions in columns of doublecompanies) was for shock or attack, line for fire-effect, and skirmishers to screen the advance, to scout the ground and to disturb the enemy’s aim. Of these, except on the defensive (which was rare in a Napoleonic battle), the “column” of attack was by far the most important. The line formations for fire, with which it

evade its fire-power. No attack with the bayonet could succeed if this remained effective and unbroken, and no resistance (in the

was often combined, rarely accounted for more than one-quarter of the brigade or division, while the skirmishers were still less numerous. Withal, these formations in themselves were merely fresh shapes for old ideas. The armament of Napoleon’s troops

infantry that represented the Frederician tradition and prepared

was almost identical with that of Frederick’s or Saxe’s. Line, column and combinations of the two were as old as Fontenoy and were, moreover, destined to live for many years after Napoleon had fallen. “Horde tactics” did not survive the earlier Revolutionary campaigns. Wherein then lies the change which makes 1792 rather than 1740 the starting point of modern tactics? Napoleon's Infantry and Artillery Tactics, 1807-1815.— The answer, in so far as so comprehensive a question can be

answered from a purely infantry standpoint, is that whereas Frederick, disposing of a small and highly finished instrument, used its manoeuvre power and regimental efficiency to destroy one part of his enemy so swiftly that the other had no time to intervene. Napoleon, who had numbers rather than training on his side!, only delivered his decisive blow after he had “fixed” all bodies of the enemy which would interfere with his preparations —i.e., had set up a physical barrier against the threatened intervention. This new idea manifested itself in various forms, strategic as well as tactical. As regards infantry the effect of it was revolutionary. Regiments and brigades were launched to the attack to compel the enemy to defend himself, and fought until completely dissolved to force him to use up his reserves. “On s'engage partout et puis Pon voit” is Napoleon’s own description of his holding attack, which in no way resembled the “feints” of previous generations. The self-sacrifice of the men thus engaged enabled their commander to “see,” and to mass his reserves opposite a selected point, while little by little the enemy was hypnotized by the fighting. Lastly, when “the battle was ripe” a hundred and more guns galloped into close range andpractically annihilated a part of the defender’s line. They were followed up by masses of reserve infantry, often more solidly formed at the outset than the old Swiss masses of the 16th century. If the moment ‘was rightly chosen these masses, dissolved though they soon were into dense formless crowds, penetrated the gap made by the guns (with their arms at the slope) and were quickly followed by cavalry divisions to complete the enemy’s defeat. Here, too, it is to be observed there is no true shock. The infantry masses merely “present the cheque for payment,” and apart from surprises, iPerhaps a still more significant cause was that Napoleon as a tacticiaņ reveals himself as more scientist than artist. His victories owed more to superiority of method and scientific calculation than to superiority of art—expressed in stratagem and surprise. Unlike Hannibal, Scipio, Cromwell, Wellington and other great tactical artists throughout the greater part of his career he had, or his strategy gave him, the advantage of numbers. Thus he tended, and was able to expend this fund of man-power more freely in battle than others among the Great Captains, who used surprise and ground as a means both to economise, and o pom the highest sividend from, their/limited capital.—M7Etary

2tor.

‘

um

open field at least) availed when it had been mastered or evaded In Napoleon’s army, the circumstance that the infantry was (after

1807) incapable of carrying out its own fire-preparation forced

the task into the hands of the field artillery. In other armies the r8th-century system had been discredited by repeated disasters and the infantry, as it became “nationalized,” was passing slowly through the successive phases of irregular lines, “swarms,” skirmishers and line-and-column formations that the French Revolp. tionary armies had traversed before them—none of them methods that in themselves had given decisive results. The British Peninsular Infantry.—In all Europe the only its own charge by its own fire was the British. Eye-witnesses who

served in the ranks of the French have described the sensation of powerlessness that they felt as their attacking column approached the line and watched it load and come to the present. The column stopped short, a few men cheered, others opened a ragged individual fire, and then came the volleys and the counterattack that swept away the column. Sometimes this counterstroke was made, as in the famous case of Busaco, from an apparently unoccupied ridge, for the British line, under Moore’s guidance, had shaken off the Prussian stiffness, fought 2 deep instead of 3 and was able to take advantage of cover. The “blankness of the battlefield” that distinguished the South African and Manchurian Wars was characteristic of Wellington's battles from Vimeiro to Waterloo, in spite of close order and red uniforms. But these battles were of the offensive-defensive type in the main, and for various reasons this type could not be accepted as normal by the rest of Europe. Nonchalance was not characteristic of the eager national levies of 1813 and 1814, and the Wellington method of infantry tactics, though it had brought about the failure of Napoleon’s last effort, was still generally regarded as an illustration of the already recognized fact that on the defensive the fire-power of the line, unless partly or wholly evaded by rapidity in the advance and manoeuvring power or mastered and extinguished by the fire-power of the attack, made the front of the defence impregnable. There was indeed nothing in the English tactics at Waterloo that, standing out from the incidents of the battle, offered a new principle of winning battles. , Infantry Methods,

1815-1870.—Thus

the later Napoleonic

battle became the model for military Europe, and infantry tactics retained, in Germany, Austria and Russia, the characteristic Napoleonic formations, lines of battalion or regimental columns, sometimes combined with linear formation for fire, and always covered by skirmishers. The moral power of the offensive “will to conquer” and the rapidity of the attack itself were relied upon to evade and disconcert the fire-power of the defence. If the attack failed to do so, the ranges at which infantry fire was really destructive were so small that it was easy for the columns to deploy or disperse and open a fire fight to pre

pare the way for the next line of columns. And after a careful

study of the battle of the Alma, in which the British line won its last great victory in the open field, Moltke himself only proposed such modifications in the accepted tactical system as would admit of the troops being deployed for defence instead of meeting attack, as the Russians met it, in solid and almost stationary columns. Fire in the attack, in fact, had come to be considered as

chiefly the work of artillery, and as artillery, being an expensive arm, had been reduced during the period of military stagnation following Waterloo, and was no longer capable of Napoleonic

INFANTRY

MODERN]

331

feats, the attack was generally a bayonet attack pure and simple.

Imperial army in favour of the pure bayonet charge in masses that had followed upon Magenta and Solferino.

io English solidity, and as Ardant du Picq observes, “All the

With the stiffly drilled professional soldier of England, Austria

Waterloo and the Alma were credited, not to fire-power, but

es of Europe say ‘no one can resist our bayonet attack if and Russia the handiness of the new weapon could hardly have

i is made resolutely —and al] are 2 right. . . . Bayonet fixed or in the scabbard, it is all the same." But the means (moral and

material) at the disposal of the defence for the purpose of mas-

tering this resolution were, within a few years of the Crimean War, revolutionized by the general adoption of the rifle, the

of the breech-loader and the revival of the “nation introduction a 5.”

P thirty years before the Crimean War the flint-lock had given way to the percussion lock (see GuN), which was more certain in its action and could be used in all weathers. But fitting a copper cap on the nipple was not so simple a matter for nerv-

ous fingers as priming with a pinch of powder, and the usual rate of fire had fallen from the five rounds a minute of Fred-

erick’s day to two or three at the most. “Fire power” therefore was at a low level until the general introduction’ of the rifled barrel, which while further diminishing the rate of fire, at any

rate greatly increased the range at which volleys were effective.

Artillery, the fire-weapon of the attack, made no corresponding progress, and even as early as the Alma and Inkerman (where the British troops used the Minié rifle) the dense columns had suffered heavily without being able to retaliate by “crossing bayonets.” Fire power, therefore, though still the special .prerogative of the defence, began to reassert its influence, and for

a brief period the defensive was regarded as the best form of tactics. But the low rate of fire was still a serious objection. Many incidents in the American Civil War showed this, notably Fredericksburg, where the key of the Confederate position was held—against a simple frontal attack unsupported by effective

artillery fire—by three brigades in line one behind the other, 2.e., by a six-deep firing line.

No less force could guarantee the

"inyiolability of the front," and even when, in this unnatural and uneconomical fashion, the rate of fire was augmented as well as the effective range, a properly massed and well-led attack .in column (or in à rapid succession of deployed lines) generally reached the defender's position, though often in such disorder that a resolute counterstroke drove it back again. The Americans fought over more difficult country and with less previous drilltraining than the armies of the Old World. The fire power of the defence, therefore, that even in America did not always prevail over the resolution of the attack, entirely failed in the Italian war of 1859 to stop the swiftly moving well-drilled colunns of the French professional army—and the Austrians were thus induced to abandon their new “defensive” doctrine and restore “bayonet tactics.”

But a revolution was at hand.

The Breech-loading Rifle—In 1861 Moltke, discussing the war in Italy, wrote, "General Niel attributes his victory (at Solferino) to the bayonet. But that does not imply that the attack was often followed by a hand-to-hand fight. In principle, when one makes a bayonet charge, it is because one supposes that the enemy will not await it. . . . To approach the enemy closely,

pouring an efficacious fire into him—as Frederick the Great’s miantry did—is also a method of the offensive." This method was' applicable at that time for the Prussians alone, for they

alone possessed a breech-loading firearm. The needle-gun was a rudimentary weapon in many respects, but it allowed of maintaining more than twice the rate of fire that the muzzle-loader could give, and, moreover, it permitted the full use of cover, because the firer could lie down to fire without having to rise

between ,every round to load.

Further, he could load while

actually running forward, whereas with the old arms loading not ey required complete exposure but also checked movement.

The advantages.of the Prussian weapon were further enhanced,

mthe war against Austria, by the revulsion of feeling in the Rifles had, of course, been used by corps of light troops (both infantry and mounted) for many years. The British Rifle Brigade was edin 1800, but even in the Seven Years War there were riflecorps or companies in the armies of Prussia and Austria. These older fred d not compare in rapidity or volume of fire with the ordinary

been exploited, for (in Russia at any rate) even skirmishers had to march in step. The Prussians were drilled nominally in accordance with regulations dating from 1812, and therefore suitable, if not to the new weapon, at least to the “swarm” fighting of an enthusiastic national army, but upon these regulations a mass of peace-time amendments had been superimposed, and in theory their drill was as stiff as that of the Russians. But, as in France in 1793-1796, the citizen composition of their army saved them from their regulations. Dietrich von Bülow's predictions of the future battle of “skirmishers” (meaning thereby a dense but irregular firing line) had captivated the younger school.of officers, while King William and the veterans of Napoleon’s wars were careful to maintain small columns (sometimes company columns of 240 rifles, but quite as often half-battalion and battalion columns) as a solid background to the firing line. Thus in 1866 (see SEVEN WEEKS’ War), as Moltke had foreseen, the attacking infantry fought its way to close quarters by means of its own fire, and the bayonet charge again became, in his own words, “not the first, but the last, phase of the combat,” immediately succeeding a last burst of rapid fire at short range and carried out by the company and battalion reserves in close order. Infantry in the War of 1870.—Immediately after the Austrian overthrow at Königgrätz the French army was served out with a breech-loading rifle greatly superior in every respect to the needle gun, and after four years’ tension France pitted breechloader against breech-loader. In the first battles (see WorTH and Metz: Battles) the decision-seeking spirit of the “armed nation,” the inferior range of the needle-gun as compared with that of the chassepot, and the recollections of easy triumphs in 1864 and 1866, all combined to drive the German infantry forward to within easy range before they began to make use of their weapons. Their powerful artillery would have sufficed of itself to enable them to do this (see SEDAN), had they but waited for its fire to take effect. But they did not, and they suffered accordingly. In these circumstances their formations broke up, and the whole attacking force dissolved into long irregular swarms. 'These swarms were practically composed only of the brave men, while the rest huddled together in woods and valleys. When, therefore, at last the firing line came within 400 or 500 yd. of the French, it was both severely tried and numerically weak, but, fortunately for it, the French counterstrokes were subjected to the fire of the German guns and were never more than locally and momentarily effective. More and more German infantry was pushed forward to support the firing line, and, like its predecessors, each reinforcement, losing most of its unwilling men as it advanced over the shot-swept ground, consisted on arrival of really determined men, and closing on the firing line pushed it forward, sometimes 20 yd., sometimes roo, until at last rapid fire at the closest ranges dislodged the stubborn defenders. Bayonets (as usual) were never actually used, save in sudden encounters in woods and villages. The decisive factors were, first the superiority of the Prussian guns, secondly, heavy and effective fire delivered at short range, and above all the high moral of a proportion of resolute soldiers who, after being subjected for hours to the most demoralizing influences, had still courage left for the final dash.

II. INFANTRY IN MODERN WAR The net result of the Franco-German war on infantry tactics, so far as it can be summed up in a single phrase, was to transfer the fire-fight to the line of skirmishers. Henceforward the old and correct sense of the word “skirmishers” is lost, and their duties of feeling the way for the battle-formations came to be taken over by a lesser number of “scouts.” But although the firefight on this line of scouts built up into a firing line, was established as the centre of gravity of the modern battle, a hot controversy sprang up over its form. This, in the early stages, became a contest between “drill” and “individualism.” To many German officers the most indelible impression of the battlefield was what

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[MODERN

they called Massen-Driickebergertum or “wholesale skulking.” The rest, who had perhaps in most cases led the brave remnant of their companies in the final assaults, believed that battles were won by the individual soldier and his rifle. The difference between the two may be said to lie in this, that the first sought a remedy, the second a method. The remedy was drill, the method extended order. The extreme statement of the case in favour of drill pure and simple is to be found in the famous anonymous pamphlet 4 Summer Night’s Dream, in which a return to the “old Prussian firediscipline” of Frederick's days was offered as the solution of the problem, how to give “fire” its maximum efficacy. The other school, although closer akin to the reality of the fire-swept modern battlefield, under-rated the importance of control and instilled the idea that to teach the recruit to shoot and to work with other individuals in the squad or company, was as far as training could, or need, go. Disorder and crowding in the firing line was accepted, not as an unavoidable evil, but as a condition in which individuality had full play—a view that held much truth, but not the whole truth. Between these extremes, official opinion, with the emperor William at its head, spent a few years in groping for close-order formations which admitted of control without vulnerability—a vain ideal even at that stage of the development of small arms, and ultimately formulated a compromise, combining the “drill” and teaching ideas in the German infantry regulations of 1888, which at last abolished those of 1812 with their multitudinous amendments. The necessity for "teaching" arose partly out of the new conditions of service and the relative rarity of wars. But it was still more the new conditions of fighting that demanded

of fire-weapons. However useful it may be to get men to advance

careful individual training. Of old, the professional soldier (other

ing. To maintain it was right; the error lay in maintaining it in this place and form. No organization, military or industrial, can dispense with drill, for it is, fundamentally, but the method of executing a movement repeatedly, so that it may develop into a habit, thereby enabling it to be carried out with the minimum expenditure of energy and the maximum of efficiency. Battle Drill.—Executive skill of any kind owes much to habit. Thus the changed conditions of warfare made drill more necessary than ever—but in a new form. For drill is a fine cement, but a bad foundation. The enforced dispersion, due to fire, required a “battle drill” as a means of developing the swift selfcontrolled movements of widely extended units and of synchronizing the co-operative action of the scattered groups of skirmishers. Unfortunately for the solution of infantry problems “drill” and “close order” were commonly confused—as they still are 5o years later, owing largely to the fact that in the 1870 battles the dissolution of close order formations practically meant the end of control as control was then understood. Thus, dispersion was only tolerated as an unavoidable evil and European soldiers sought to mitigate its consequences by postponing the moment of dispersion as long as possible—instead of seeking a permanent cure by adapting drill to the needs of dispersion. As the years passed and the memories of the battlefield faded, there was a natural tendency to make the wish father to the thought and to believe—

than the man belonging to light troops or the ground scout) was either situated out of danger, or so deep in battle that he became the unconscious agent of his inborn or acquired instincts. But the increased range of modern arms prolonged the time of danger, which was further prolonged by the increasing duration of battles. Psychological Problems.—The psychological strain and próblem created by this increased exposure to danger was further complicated by the enforced and inevitable dispersion of the troops while in the danger zone. Thus they stepped out of the control of their regimental leaders, and the higher commander lost the power to direct the fight according to a purposeful plan. In battle he could no longer proportion his effort to his ends, but only his means. Instead of being the driver of the battlemachine, with his hand on the throttle able to regulate the pressure, he was reduced to the róle of stoker shovelling in more or less human fuel as he judged advisable. Military thought reconciled itself to this new conception in a remarkable spirit of resignation, and with a still more remarkable lack of research for fresh ways of reviving the craft of generalship. In default of this the only practicable alternative was to raise soldiership to a craft. If generals in the true sense could no longer be trained, the fighting man could at least be imbued in some degree with the faculties of generalship, so that he could control and direct himself when higher control and direction was released. Unfortunately, the tradition of “moulding” soldiers was too strong for the new training to have effective scope. This was merely soldered on to the old pattern frame. Man’s natural instinct in a fight is “to kill without being killed,” while the tendency of traditional military training has always been by stifling this natural instinct, to produce a man ready to let himself be killed—at the word of command. Such discipline of the instinct is undoubtedly a valuable quality. In situations of great danger the ordinary man is the slave of the unconscious, and his actions are determined mainly by his strongest natural instinct. The very nature of late r9th-century armies tended to emphasize the importance of disciplining the instincts. For under conscription armies were no longer composed of the naturally adventurous, but of the more normal lovers of safety. By constant drill, however, they might be converted into danger-disregarding automata. There was, however, a weak point, and one accentuated by another modern condition—the increasing deadliness and range

automatically in face of danger, their usefulness ceases the mp.

ment they are dead. And as weapons developed, automatic men offered an easy target. Was it then a choice between two evil or could a third course be found? The experience of many wars suggests that such an alternative existed.

For at the end of any

long war it has been found that men become cunning and skilful

individual fighters, and although more wary do not lose unless

of indifferent material their willingness to sacrifice themselves

at the call of need. This is “reason” as against inborn or implanted instinct. Tactical Training.—There is one form of training in peace

which is aimed at the cultivation of reason—tactical training. Jt

may be robbed of most of its utility by meaningless application, but fundamentally it is an appeal to the reason, just as drill in the opposite way is a development of the instinct. But when tactical training has been applied to men whose natural instinct of self-preservation has been drilled out of them, and replaced bya purely automatic instinct of self-sacrifice, it cannot hope to provide self-directed soldiers as an effective substitute for generals who have lost the power to direct their men. After 1870 there was a great opportunity to take this new middie road. The war on both sides had furnished ample proof that drill-disciplined troops, once their acquired instinct had been uprooted by heavy initial losses, suffered a worse reaction into confusion, and even panic, than could possibly have occurred with

soldiers whose reason had been educated.

But military doctrine,

spurred on by the conscriptive system, chose to continue on the

old road which led them in 1914 to a still deeper pit. Drill was therefore maintained as the basis of all European military train-

in face of the evidence of technical progress in fire-arms—that

closer rather than looser formations could be used on the next battlefield. The German infantry regulations of 1906 aptly illus-

trated this spirit—"It must never be forgotten that the obligation of abandoning close order is an evil which can often be avoided. . . .” As the memories of 1870 faded, the absence of bullets on the mimic battlefields of peace training lent impetus to the inevitable reaction which follows every step of progress. It is difficult to visualize bullets but easy to see men. Hence, those who direct

and umpire field exercises in peace tend to base their verdict on

a count by heads, and thus if a commander wishes to gain 4

favourable verdict he is almost driven to put in sufficient numbers of men to impress the observer that his attack has adequate “weight.” Even if he is adjudged to suffer casualties, they are

customarily calculated in proportion to his strength, whereas the

more discriminating verdict of bullets penalises dense numbers out of all proportion to the original strength. The inevitable out-

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come was that each successive training regulation issued between

1875 and 1914 tended to encourage greater density of numbers, while all the time in the armament factories fresh weapons were

ing

produced to take an even greater toll of thickened targets.

Influence of Boer Tactics.—In the course of this unreal re-

action there was however one interruption. In the South African War of 1899-1902 the soldiers of Europe were astonished to find

the ill-organized and undrilled Boers more than holding their own

333

fire to revive the deadly Napoleonic artillery preparation, and the infantry were to fulfil the rôle of the massed reserves which

had poured through the breach thus made. Naturally, this conduced to greater density and was in turn accentuated by the propaganda of a new metaphysical school of military thought which was so obsessed with its discovery that the “will to conquer” is the soul of victory that it tended

to forget that the

human will, to be effective, must retain its habitation in the human

ginst superior numbers of regular troops, by the deadliness of body, and that human bodies are vulnerable to bullets.

The influence of this school grew when its leader and prophet, Colonel de Grandmaison, became chief of the Operations branch of the General Staff. The “security” aspect of the Napoleonic method was entirely overshadowed by the “audacity” form. De to make an abnormally early deployment into many successive Grandmaison’s text was that instead of waiting for the enemy to disclose his hand, “it is the quickness with which we engage lines of widely extended men. For a year or two some of the European armies were inclined the enemy that guarantees us against surprise, and the power to flirt with “Boer tactics,” but its “individualism” was repugnant of the attack which secures us against the enemy’s manoeuvres.” to their traditions, made too shadowy a spectacle, and was diffi- He summed up his theory by saying, “We must not recoil before cult to apply to short-service conscript troops. Besides it had this principle, of which only the form seems paradoxical: in the outwardly ended in defeat, however uneconomic to the nominal offensive, imprudence is the best of safeguards.” The conclusion victors, and critics were quick to point out that its pure individual- was that, whatever the réle of a force or unit, there was only ism had hampered co-operative effort so that its exponents had one mode of action—attack, which meant a headlong assault. heen unable to push home their opening success. From this, it The very simplicity of this theory combined with its appeal to the was an easy conclusion that individualism itself was at fault. Frenchman's temperament—and its implicit tribute to the irreHence European armies soon reverted to their old doctrines, and sistibility of his spirit—to capture the imagination of the Army. so far as any permanent change occurred it was derived from Those who opposed it were derided and superseded, as “lacking the modifications introduced by the British, and "extended order" in nerve.” And the official doctrine was re-cast on the foundabecame the rule for infantry in battle. The British practice in and tion that “the French Army, returning to its traditions, no longer immediately after the South African war was to deploy the knows any other law than the offensive. . . . All attacks are to whole body before the attack began into a deep series of lines, be pushed to the extreme with the firm resolution to charge the with intervals of ten to 20 paces between men. The rear lines enemy-with the bayonet, in order to destroy him. . . . This result were merely used to feed the first, or "firing" line. These long can only be obtained by bloody sacrifice. Any other conception continuous lines however had shown themselves unable to pro- ought to be rejected as contrary to the very nature of war.” Accordingly, the training of the infantry was directed to a duce any decisive effect and were essentially unmanageable. Opposing positions were nearly always taken by wide outflanking discipline of the muscles, not of the intelligence, sacrificing movements, and even so were found empty, as the rigidly extended initiative in order, by an incessant repetition, “to develop in the frontal'advance rarely succeeded in pinning down the defenders. soldier the reflexes of obedience." The successive French tactical This defect was plain to European tacticians, and they soon regulations issued during the 40 odd years of peace which sepadopted the obvious remedy—that of reducing the intervals and arated the wars of 1870 and 1914, shed a curious light on the holding the reserves in concentrated formations, instead of way the memory of pain fades—and still more the memory of its cause. Thus it came about that the first regulations of 1875 dispersing them into lines. The real lesson—the surprising fire effect exerted by scattered came nearest to the reality of 1914, whereas the last of the series Boers sitting on distant kopjes—was soon forgotten, most easily was framed for a battlefield on which there were no bullets. Emphasis on Fire Superiotity.—If the German doctrine took by those armies that had not experienced it personally. The British army suffered less than others from the reaction towards hardly more account of the opposing fire, or of the progress in denser formations, because of its experience and because its con- firearms, and was equally addicted towards density of formastant preoccupation with colonial expeditions gave less chance for tions, it laid more emphasis on the need of fire to help the assailthe effects of fire to fade from its memory. Its national bane ants forward. This attitude is well exemplified in the German was that of “lines” themselves, rather than dense ones in particu- regulations of 1906 which defined the offensive as “transporting lar, Lines required long pauses to restore their alignment unless fire towards the enemy, if necessary to his immediate proximity”; they were to dissolve in disorder; the units forming them were the bayonet assault “confirms” it. As for the process of attack, trained to wait for their neighbours and to avoid an exposed the prescriptions may be summarized as follows—every attack fank as a deadly danger; consequently, the pace of the line be- was to begin with deployment into extended order, and the leading came the pace of its slowest unit—with a correspondingly pro- line was to advance as close to the enemy as possible before openlonged exposure of the target. For a line of men, even an “ex- ing fire. In ground offering cover, the firing line should have practended” line, is one of the most visible of targets—a swathe of tically its maximum density at the outset. In open ground, howhuman corn calling the attention of the reaper. Its very sym- ever, units were advanced one after the other till all were im metry makes it a cemetery. position. It was on this position, called the “first fire position” Revival of the Napoleonic Attack.—On the continent the and usually about r,ooo yd. from the enemy, that the full force natural swing of the peace-time pendulum received an artificial of the attack was to be deployed, and from this position, as Impulse from the rehabilitation of the “Napoleonic attack” in simultaneously as possible, it was to open the fight for fire-superithe decade before 1914. In France, particularly, an influential ority. Then, each unit covering the advance of its neighbours, school of military thought had for long devoted itself to a minute the whole line should fight its way by open force to within chargstudy of Napoleon's campaigns and correspondence with the idea ing distance. If at any point a decision was not desired, it was of discovering the secret of his victories. Thereby they hoped deliberately made impossible by employing there such small forces to formulate a remedy by which the debilitated military body as possessed no offensive power. Where the attack was intended of France could recover from its 1870 collapse and gain new to be pushed home, the infantry units employed were to act as strength. Valuable results were attained, but mistakenly they far as possible simultaneously, resolutely and in great force. The sought to apply them to the technical sphere of tactics, instead process, and its underlying conceptions, was very similar in the : adapting the spirit of his principles to the conditions imposed British Army. It was directed to a "gradual building up of the y the introduction of accurate firearms. The progress made in firing line within close range of the position, followed by a final ümed shrapnel suggested the use of concentrations of shrapnel blow with the reserves in the greatest possible strength." In the their shooting combined with the evasive mobility of their move-

ments. Instances were known when 18 Boer marksmen were suficient to repulse several British battalions. So deadly was the Boer fire that in self-preservation the British infantry were forced

INFANTRY

334

French it underwent natural modifications. It was considered (see de Grandmaison, Dressage de Vinfanterie) that a premature and excessive deployment enervated the attack, that cover by ground should be used as long as possible to march “en troupe” and that a firing line should only be formed when it was impossible to progress

without

acting upon

the enemy’s

means

of

resistance. Thereafter each unit, in such order as its chief could keep, should fight its way forward to the assault. “From the moment when a fighting unit is ‘uncoupled,’ its action must be ruled by two conditions, and by those only: the one material, an object to be reached; the other moral, the will to reach the object.”

Problems of Defence.—To the problems of defence no army gave much attention. '"The defence, as it used to be understood, needs no description. To-day in all armies the defence is looked upon not as a means of winning a battle, but as a means of temporizing and avoiding a decision until... the defending party is enabled . . . to take the offensive.” "A firing line, covered and steadied by entrenchments, and restless local reserves ever on the look-out for opportunities of partial counter-strokes, are the instruments of this policy.” As regards entrenchments, in the light of what followed, and what had been foreshadowed in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-5 (q.v.), there is a certain ironical interest in noting this phrase

from the German infantry regulations: “The construction of trenches must never paralyse the desire for the irresistible advance, and above all must not kill the spirit of the ofensive"— a sentiment echoed in the regulations of all the countries. Yet within a few weeks of the opening of the World War (qg.v.) in 1914, the "irresistible advance" was completely paralysed—not by trenches but by the defensive power of modern firearms, especially the machine-gun. The digging of trenches, and their elaboration, was but the sequel and the supplement to this paralysing power. And the spirit of the offensive was drained with the lifeblood of the warring infantries, in their futile obstinacy to recognize this transcendent fact.

Dominance of the Defensive.—In 1914, indeed, this domi-

nance of the defensive was established in spite of the relative scarcity of machine-guns. As far back as the Egyptian campaign of 1884, Colonel Knollys, a military writer of the time, deploring that “machine-guns seem to be undervalued by the military authorities" could foresee that they were “concentrated essence of infantry.” Twenty years later, in the Russo-Japanese War, the power of Hiram Maxim’s invention, then a generation old, threw its ominous shadow over the battlefields of Manchuria— and movement grew stagnant. Yet in 1914 no army averaged more than two machine-guns to the infantry battalion. The legend, eagerly accepted by the French and British in excuse, of masses of German machine-guns, had no foundation in fact. The only difference was that the German machine-guns were “regimented,” and this grouping contributed to their more effective handling, few as they were. The Germans believed similar legends about the British, and here the cause was largely due to the fact that the remarkably high standard of rifle-shooting, and especially of rapid fire, which had been developed with the idea of helping the attack forward, came into play most usefully as an impregnable resistance to the German attacks. For a few weeks of war, movement was kept alive by searching for an open flank when frontal attacks proved futile. Where the frontal attacks broke down, the two sides dug in, powerless to come to grips effectively across the bullet-banned “No Man’s Land.” With the supplementary assistance of trenches and wire entanglements, a modicum of fire-weapons was adequate to hold such fronts, and the surplus was hurried off to the one still open flank—towards the sea. . Thus the experience of Manchurian battlefields was repeated, with emphasis. And this time, numbers were greater, distances less. The sea was soon reached, the front became static, and,

with the collapse of the violent attempts to break this flankless line before it:had crystallized, deadlock set in. The history of the next four, years is of ceaseless renewals of the frontal onslaughts on entrenched lines held in reality by machine-guns, if nominally

[MODERN

by men.

New Róle of Artillery.—Although up to the start of war

cavalry had been trained for shock action, the cavalry charge

except for one or two isolated skirmishes, became a dead letter directly the first shot was fred. Thus, infantry was compelled to assume the rôle of the decisive arm, a rôle for which its relative

immobility even under bulletless conditions had never fitted i;

The hollowness of this assumption was soon proved, if not openly

admitted, and the decisive rôle was tacitly passed over to the artillery. The issue of any attack came to depend almost entirely

on the artillery preparation, later extended by the barrage, and the infantry masses became merely the satellites of the artillery to "confirm" its success by walking forward behind the wall of burst. ing shells in order to occupy the shell-flattened trenches of the enemy. Thus they became once more a “residue.” From mediaeval camp-followers to modern barrage-followers—the wheel had

come full circle.

In this réle of occupying and clearing up—

“mopping up” as it was termed—the ground conquered by the artillery, the rifle was at a discount, the man-handled machine-gun

too immobile to be effective in attack, and infantry, reviving the historic grenade (g.v.), came to use such short-range missiles as their main weapon. The bayonet, as always in modern history was merely a symbol in attack, although used extensively for “nig. sticking” the helpless defenders once they were overpowered, Unhappily, the military authorities still continued—as for another 12 years—to call infantry the decisive arm. Hence they continued for long to’ cherish the delusion of “‘weight of numbers” and to

use infantry in masses—merely adding thereby to the weight of

corpses and of the post-war pensions bill. Failure of Mass Assault.—The lowest level of infantry tactics was probably reached in 1916, where in the Somme offensive (see Somme, BATTLES OF THE) the method was for battalions to advance in four or eight waves, not more, and often less than 1oo yards apart, the men in each almost shoulder to shoulder, in a symmetrical well-dressed alignment, and taught to advance steadily upright at a slow walking pace with their rifles held aslant in front of them, bayonets upwards—so as to catch the eyé of the observant enemy, an excellent imitation of Frederick’s infantry automata, with the difference that they were no longer advancing against muskets of effective range of barely 100 yards. It was hardly remarkable that when darkness fell on the battlefield on July 1, many battalions were barely roo strong. Later in the war the term "storm troops" came into vogue; in 1916 the term "target-troops" would have been apt. A few extracts from the pamphlet which regulated the training of the troops for the Somme offensive are worth quoting to illustrate the ideas then current. *'The leading lines . . . should carry right through to the farthest limits of the objective. The assaulting troops should push forward at a steady pace in successive lines, each line adding fresh impetus to the preceding line. . . . The men in each line should be extended at two or three paces interval." It was not inapt that the only paragraph in this pamphlet thought worthy of the emphasis of italics was that "Finally, i must be remembered that all criticism by subordinates of thew superiors, and of orders received from superior authority, will in the end. recoil on the heads of the critics and undermine their atthority with those below them.” In these long-drawn out battles, the “farthest limits of the ob-

jective” were rarely attained, though even these limits became more and more modest as the method of the “limited objective” —conquest by a progressive series of short bites which enabled the enemy to fortify fresh lines before the attack could reach open

country—was

substituted for the attempt at a rapid “break-

through.” That progress, if costly, and if made at all, was due primarily to the weight of shells poured on the defences, but also in some degree to the revolt of the soldier’s natural instincts from the artificial restraints imposed by official doctrine. For when the enemy machine-guns opened, the thick and stiff waves of the

“assaulting” infantry were quickly thinned, till but a remnant remained on their feet. The rest littered the ground—dead o militarily dormant. Then, human nature and primitive cunning reasserting themselves over the formalism of authorized: tactics,

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INFANTRY

the more enterprising and still uncowed survivors, formed into little groups, usually under some natural leader, and worked their

way, by short dashes and crawling, from shell-hole to shell-hole, “stalking” the opposing machine guns, overcoming them, and often rogressing to a considerable depth with little further loss. In view of the predominant part played by the artillery, it would seem a reasonable deduction that if this limited number of infantry, trained to “stalking” instead of dressing, had been sent forward originally, they would have gained equal ground, while saving the

initial 400 or 500 casualties per battalion which were uselessly sacrificed to such shibboleths as the “weight of the attack” or

“the bayonet assault.”

Tactics of Infiltration.—The experience of 1916 reinforcing

ihose of 1914 and 1915 confronted military science with two alternative remedies. One was to make men bullet-proof while still capable of movement by putting them in armoured vehicles (see TANKS). The other, necessarily more restricted in scope be-

cause of the wide effectiveness of fire on the battlefield, was to teach men to evade bullets by "stalking"—4the skilful use of cover combined with the accurate use of rifles.

While a few individual tacticians in the British Army sought to apply the "human reaction" of 1916 and fit it into an improved tactical method, the Germans were the first to incorporate it officially and practise widely these new tactics of infiltration. Based

on the group instead of the line, the idea was that a widely dispersed chain of little groups should, under cover of the bombard-

ment, probe the enemy's front to discover its weak points and thus penetrate between the posts and machine-gun nests of the

defence, While the leading groups pushed onwards through the

enemy's position, the “islets” of the resistance cut off from help could be outflanked and reduced by fresh troops from the reserves.

Sound economy of force was embodied in the basic principle of these infiltration tactics, that reserves should be used to exploit success instead of to redeem failure—to follow and back up the leading groups wherever a penetration had been made, instead of to reinforce those parts of the front where the attackers had been held up. In Sept. 1917 the German command employed infiltration as part of the new tactics which they tested in the “experimental” attack at Riga, on the Russian front. In November it was tried with fresh success in their counterstroke at Cambrai (g.v.), and in consequence became the basis of the training of their infantry for the great 1918 offensive (see St. QUENTIN, BATTLE oF). Here, greatly aided by-surprise, gas and fog, it achieved astonishing success, and the German troops penetrated to a depth and at a speed which eclipsed all former estimates. By the British also the “group” idea had been accepted in the autumn of 1917, and when somewhat belatedly the training direction of the British Expeditionary Force was centralized—under an Inspector General of Training—after the early disasters of 1918, the training of the infantry was radically re-cast on more

flexible lines with “‘soft-spot” tactics as the pivot.

When the

British, in conjunction with their French and American allies,

retook the initiative and the offensive in the late summer, these new tactics were a contributory factor in purchasing the final victory at an economical price. In the Australians particularly,

ess trammelled by instinct and training than European troops, they found most able exponents. If the tanks, the lavish use of

gas and smoke-shells, the flood of American reinforcements, and the decay of the German morale under the strain of its immense physical casualties, were the outstanding factors in this dramatic turning of the tide, it is unquestionable that the “soft spot” tactics saved thousands of lives in the last phase, and enabled the infantry to make better progress with lighter loss than under any

previous system. Not least of its assets was that its life-saving possibilities did much to. restore the moral of infantry whose conidence. had been steadily undermined by years of unintelligent

misuse, Its handicap was, however, that it had to be applied to

and by,a,yast “residue” who had to absorb it under stress and

Out qualification, whereas it was essentially the method for Licut.-General Sir Ivor Maxse was the officer appointed to this post. ~Editor, | Fa

gae

335

a highly tramed and carefully picked élite—if its inherent advantages were to be exploited to the full. Post-World-War Reactions.—After the war, the customary reaction took place, with even greater rapidity than after 1870. Instead of developing the lessons of 1918 and remodelling military organization in the light of this experience, all the armies of Europe reverted to 1914. Tanks, artillery and aircraft were cut down, and gas the only hope of humane warfare was forsworn; and the post-war armies were patched up again on the sand foundation of masses of infantry. So strictly did military authority adhere to 1914 that it rechristened infantry “the decisive arm," and began to train afresh for a war of mobility. No authority deemed it necessary to explain how an infantry that had so quickly become paralysed in 1914, could nevertheless become mobile when it faced machine-guns four to six times as numerous as formerly. And for each machine-gun there were added four light machine-guns, to multiply the power of fire-defence. The sole condition which enabled infantry in the World War to make a general advance—even for a limited distance—was that

hostile machine-guns be overwhelmed by artillery or tanks. With

artillery the issue turned on whether the concentration was suffciently intense so to plaster the defences with shells that their machine-guns were overwhelmed by a profusion of explosives rather than by deliberate aim. For the machine-gun was so small a target and so easily concealed, that guns rarely succeeded in hitting it except by the “plastering” method. In attacks which attained a limited success, experience showed that a concentration of one gun to every ten yards of front was the minimum necessary, while one gun to five yards became the normal standard in the sectors where a definite result was sought (see ARTILLERY). But with the post-war reduction of artillery, the most that the divisional artillery could provide was a very thin barrage—one gun to every 30 yards of front—on barely one-tenth of the nor-

mal frontage of a division. Even so, on the remaining nine-tenths the infantry would have to advance without support. And as the reserve of medium and heavy artillery under the control of higher formations is now of still more slender proportions, it will be obvious that infantry cannot rely on artillery to help them forward, and may have to sit passively in trenches for the first

year or two of a future war, while the industries of the nation concerned are being converted to war production and the output of munitions is raised to the level of 1917. Even so, such a type of warfare is ruinous. The mere preliminary bombardment before the battle of Ypres, 1917 (g.v.), namely 4,283,550 shells, cost £22,000,000.

Restriction of Tank Strength.—If tanks are a cheaper and more effective means of helping infantry to advance, the possibility of this solution was practically nullified by the reduction of tank strengths which occurred in all armies after the war. For the British army retained only four tank battalions to meet the needs of 136 infantry battalions, although the former were gradually equipped with new and improved machines. The French army, more logical, retained 44 tank battalions, while reducing the infantry by 1928 to 225 battalions, but the machines were of an obsolescent wartime pattern. But apart from the questionable economy of tying modern tanks, which have become several times faster and more widely mobile than their World-War prototypes, to the service of a crawling infantry which in itself contributes little to the essential task of overcoming hostile machine-guns, there is a profounder aspect of this policy. For a survey of military history reveals that in a well-balanced army the cavalry, because of the mobility which enabled it to strike at the enemy’s rear, has been the decisive arm. Its vulnerability in face of modern fire-arms brought about the decay of its former functions, and one of the outstanding lessons of the World War was the need to revive these by the substitution of an armoured mechanical cavalry. In the last few years military opinion has been gradually converted to the view that the true functions of tanks are best fulfilled by employing them as an independent arm, and constituting mobile armoured divisions to replace the cavalry divisions of former days. Progress in thought, although slow, has nevertheless outstripped progress in new equipment, and meantime armies

336

INFANTRY

remain constituted mainly of infantry. In continental countries where conscription is still maintained, this decadent condition is almost inevitable, because all are poor, machines are dear and man-power is cheap in peace-time—if the most expensive instrument under the test of war. As regards Germany, the victorious allies were still sufficiently under the impression of war experience to impose a ban on her equipment with tanks—just as Rome, after Zama, forbade conquered Carthage to retain war-elephants. But for wealthy industrial countries like Great Britain and the United States which have reverted to small professional armies of relatively high cost, it is not easy to understand or justify the continuance of armies which, despite their smallness, are based on a disproportionately large infantry. For the military justification of professional over conscript armies is that the former, by their high training and superior quality can gain quick results, and like Alexander’s Macedonians offset opposing quantity by the swiftness and decisiveness with which they strike. History however shows that warfare has become static wherever the means of defence have acquired a material preponderance over the means of offence. It shows also that even under the most favourable conditions infantry have only a limited power of forcing a decision—because their capacity to transport weapons and to move is limited by the narrow bounds of a man’s muscular strength and endurance. Infantry have been most effective when they have been a complementary arm, composed of picked and highly skilled specialists, capable of forming a pivot of combined stability and destructive power for the action of more mobile arms. Modern infantry are certainly stable, but little else. They have great defensive power, through their machine-guns, but hardly any offensive power. Always limited in strategic mobility, because of the limitations of the human legs, they have to-day lost their tactical mobility, because of the limitations of the human skin as a protection on a bullet-swept battlefield. INFANTRY ORGANIZATION BEFORE, DURING AND SINCE THE WORLD WAR

Up to 1913 the British infantry was organized on a radically different plan from that of other armies, the battalion consisting of eight companies. Then, however, a school of reform! carried the day in spite of much opposition. The old “Eight Company” organisation was exchanged for that of battalions of four companies, each 200 strong. The battalion had also a machine-gun section of two guns. A company consisted of its headquarters and four platoons; a platoon of four sections. A section was commanded by a non-commissioned officer and was a normal fire unit. Four battalions, from various regiments, were grouped into a brigade. In the British Army the regiment is a unit of sentiment and the spring from which esprit de corps arises. It is based on a fixed regimental dépôt which is the common link of battalions scattered over the British Empire. The four-company battalion marked a stepping-stone in the history of the British infantry, because the platoon became the “tactical” unit instead of the company. As a logical consequence the first unit (section) decreased in size and became the command of a junior N.C.O.—a corporal or lance-corporal. Other Armies, 1914.—In the German, French and U.S. armies the regiment consisted of three battalions, and was a tactical as well as an administrative unit. In Germany it was commanded by a colonel with a lieutenant-colonel as his second-in-command. The battalion commanded by a major was divided into four companies, each commanded by a captain. The company was divided into three sections (Züge), each under a subaltern. Every infantry regiment and Jäger battalion was provided with a machine-gun company of six guns, plus one spare. The French company was organized into four sections, commanded in war by three subalterns and one adjutant (superior company sergeant-major). The sections were grouped in pairs to constitute pelotons (platoons) under the senior of the two section leaders. Machine-gun sections were allotted to battalions as in the British Army. In the United States the company was 1Lieut.-General Sir Ivor (then Brigadier-General F. I.) Maxse was the chief advocate and pioneer of this reform.—Editor.

[ORGANIZATION

composed of three officers and 150 rifles, divided into two sections

each of three squads. In the World War, however, the U.S. in. fantry regiment was remodelled on the continental model, havi

also a regimental machine-gun company, a headquarters com. pany and a supply company. Thus before the war the infantry battalion consisted in almost every country of about 1,000 men and was divided into four companies each commanded by a mounted officer. But the British

battalion was the weakest in fighting strength, because its First Line Transport and other services were deducted from its 1,009 rifles, whereas the regimental systems of continental infantry provided these services from a separate establishment. The sub-

alterns were dismounted officers whose commands varied as follows: British 50 men, German 80 men, French 50 men, United States 75 men. But in the British infantry a large proportion of the 50 men borne on the strength of the platoons were absent on other duties. They were signallers, machine-gunners, bandsmen, transport drivers or pioneers—and were in fact everything except fighting infantrymen, and they should never have been on the rolls of the fighting platoons. The British Treasury, however, ordained otherwise and thus made training and fighting difficult for every platoon commander. Changes During 1914-18.—During the progress of the war

the basic organization of the infantry of the belligerent powers was not materially altered. The changes were chiefly in the direction of additional weapons and a multiplication of kit, which reduced the infantry soldier to a beast of burden laden under a weight which destroyed his mobility. In xọr5 the British infantry as compared with the German suffered from a paucity of machine-guns and was slow to make good this defect. At first an increase was made (up to four per battalion), and when manufacturers raised their output these were formed into machine-gun companies. They were gradually divorced from the infantry and formed into a machine-gun corps, firstly as brigade machine-gun companies and finally as divisional battalions. By the time this had been accomplished the lighter Lewis gun had made its appearance and had been allotted to infantry units. The first issue (not long before the battle of Loos, 1915) was only four guns per battalion. The tendency at first was to use this weapon like a heavy machine-gun, but when its characteristics were better understood it took its place as a company weapon in 1916, and as a platoon weapon in Feb. 1917. By March 1918, two sections of the four in the platoon were armed with one Lewis gun each. The allotment of an automatic weapon on such a scale marked an important step in the tactics of infantry. One of these new weapons handled by only two men could deliver a stream of bullets equal to what could formerly be projected by 25 soldiers with rifles. This led to a reduction in the strength of the section—to one leader and six men. Thus the British subaltern officer’s command in battle became 28 fighting men, as compared with 50 in 1914—but the Lewis guns increased the fire-power of the platoon out of all proportion to the number of its men and had also increased the load they carried. The Germans were faced with the man-power problem before any of the other belligerents, and they also appreciated the value of the light machine-gun. In March 1917 they issued three to every company and afterwards raised this allotment to six by giving two guns to each platoon. Finally each German battalion

consisted of a heavy machine-gun company of 12 guns and three infantry companies armed with six light machine-guns each. without counting the special machine-gun companies allotted to divisions for every battle. This tremendous increase in automatic weapons had an inevitable effect on infantry formations. The costly attacks on narrow frontages were abandoned. The suc-

cessive lines or waves of men gave place to open formations. The four sections another and leaders. The creased, and

of a platoon were gradually separated from one compelled to manoeuvre and fight under their own frontages allotted to the leading platoons were min 1918 we find platoons attacking on frontages of

200-300 yd. with very small effectives.

beginning to be understood.

Fire-power was at last

INFANTRY

FUTURE OF]

Special Weapons.—In addition to the Lewis gun, rifle-grenade and hand-grenade the Stokes light mortar proved to be a useful

infantry weapon.

Although it did not form an Integral part of

battalion equipment, the brigade light-mortar batteries drew their rsonnel from the infantry and the mortars were allotted to battalions during operations. The light mortar was the nearest approach to an infantry gun in the British Army and though not an

‘deal weapon rendered great help in reducing enemy machine guns

and strong points. The German mortars in the summer of 1918 were distributed as follows: each regiment had a regimental ^minemwerfer" company, organized in three sections, each with three light minenwerfer, and in addition two or three medium minenwer er. Post-War Organization.—The British infantry battalion was

first reorganized on a basis of a battalion headquarters wing, which included a machine-gun platoon of eight guns, and four companies. Each company consisted of company headquarters and

four platoons, each platoon of headquarters and four sections, two of which were armed with one Lewis gun each. In 1928, however, the British organization came into line with foreign armies, and to a slightly fuller recognition of the power of machine-guns, by replacing one of the four companies with a machine-gun company of 12 and ultimately 16 guns. The light mortar has been abandoned astoo immobile. The Lewis gun is also considered too heavy and its replacement by the Browning is under consideration. In order to increase the manoeuvring power of the platoon various experi-

ments have been tried, such as concentrating the Lewis guns of the

company into one platoon and leaving the others as rifle platoons.

The French battalion comprises a headquarters group, three ordinary companies, a machine-gun company and a section of accompanying weapons (mortar or infantry gun). The company at war strength is composed of a headquarters section and four

combat sections, and the section of three groups.

The fighting

group consisted at first of a team of riflemen and a team of auto-

matic riflemen, each team comprising a corporal and five men. These teams (équipes) have now been merged in the group. In peace or when the strength is lowered by casualties the number of sections in the company or groups in the section may be reduced, but the actual groups are maintained at full strength. The French place their reliance upon the light automatic rather than on the rifle, and their new organization is the outcome. Although their group is stronger than the British section, to which it corresponds, the effort of all its ten men centres round the service and protection of the one fusi-mitrailleur, and the riflemen inevitably lose much of the value of their greater mobility. On the other hand the British organization though possessing somewhat greater freedom and power of manoeuvre, means that the platoon commander has the difficult rôle of combining four sections of which two are radically dissimilar in arms and in action to the other two. The German battalion also consists of three companies and a machine-gun company. A company is organized in three sections;

each section (Zug) is divided into four or five groups (Gruppe) of eight men each—two light machine groups and either two or

three rifle groups.

THE FUTURE OF INFANTRY

If we recognize as we must that infantry as constituted and

trained to-day can make no headway against machine-guns in normal open country, where will be their place on a future battlefield? Should we be content to regard them merely as a human reservoir for supplying machine-gunners to the ranks of a defensive position and the tanks of a mobile force; or, for filling up Conquered territory with a flood of military "police"? Even these two "residuary" róles may be restricted. For military opinlon is gradually coming to realize that it is not economy of force

to employ six vulnerable men to man-handle one machine-gun in

action when, if placed in a light tank, two men can bring it into action and out, switch it quickly to any required sector and mainlam fire while in movement—thus, in Napoleon’s phrase, multi-

plying “force by velocity.” And although even advanced military

Opinion still believes that a crowd of: infantry are necessary to

play the “walking on” part of occupying conquered territory, it

337

is a reasonable suggestion that this might be controlled as effec-

tively and with less provocation, to the inhabitants—by a sprinkling of engineers protected by tanks and aircraft, sitting at the sources of light, heat, power and water supplies. Moreover, unless this vast “residue” is to wait at home until the war is won, they will be moved forward very slowly on their feet. If there is one feature of past wars which air power, even uncombined with gas, has relegated to the lumber room of history, it is that of sluggish marching columns on roads. It is not necessary to assert that they would be destroyed; mere alarms and consequent dispersal might prevent them reaching enemy territory or any battlefield until the enemy's defeat had been accomplished by more mobile instruments. For all these reasons the conversion of the residuary bulk of the infantry to more effective service—or, in the case of conscript armies, to work in which they can swell the production of wealth in peace and munitions in wars—is indicated. The process will doubtless be slow so long as the public are content to pay high premiums for inadequate military insurance, and military authorities remain slow to shed old habits—whether of spending thought, spending lives or spending money. There is however scope for a revived light infantry—a highly trained corps d’élite of small numbers compared with present standards. For although the decisive struggles of history have normally been fought in the plains, theatres of minor war include mountainous, wooded or otherwise difficult country where the man on foot—because of his unique locomobility—must still play an important, even the most important part. Again, while the use of infantry to attack in typically bare or rolling country, such as the greater part of Europe, is merely a homicidal enterprise, these commonly contain areas where fighting men on foot are useful, if not essential. Such areas include woods, broken ground, villages or defiles obstructed by natural or artificial obstacles. Here tanks, even the diminutive machines now being produced, may not be able to pass, and gunfire from a distance may prove ineffective, Thus we see that as tanks were aptly called landships, so the infantry of the future will be land-marines—to act as the landing parties of the armoured “land-fleet” of to-morrow. For such a complementary rôle only a small portion of the infantry strength of to-day would be necessary, and this reduction might be made to enhance their effectiveness, directly and indirectly; directly, by renewing their pride of “arm” through allotting them a specialized, instead of a “general” rôle, and by diminishing their “superfluous” casualties through a real dispersion of the target which they offer. After the war, the new tactics of infiltration and manoeuvre were incorporated in the recast infantry doctrine but, in the tedious process of winning theoretical acceptance, their practical application was whittled away. How can the thousand men of an infantry battalion find room and cover to infiltrate and manoeuvre on a frontage of 800 yards or less, which is all the French doctrine accords, or even on a frontage of 1,000 yards, as is laid down as normal in the British manual? Such conceptions may be heading for another and more fatal Somme. Indirectly, a reduction in numbers would contribute to mobility. For while no army could hope to provide sufficient mechanized transport for its present numbers of infantry, future “landmarines” might be carried in the vehicles of a mobile armoured force. Just as mounted infantry (g.v.) were trained to ride on horseback as well as to fight on foot, so, in this motoring age, there is no reason why men should not be trained both to drive a fighting vehicle and to act on foot as skirmishers, dismounting from their vehicles. With smaller numbers, too, pay can be higher and a higher standard of selection enforced. For in a professional army man-power and its upkeep is the dearest item. Similarly, when infantry work of wider scope and at greater range is needed, an armoured force might be accompanied by armoured infantry carriers. Even in this case we should fulfil the law of economy of force if such infantry were also qualified to form spare crews for fighting vehicles. What infantry might lose in numbers they would gain in status; the mockery of calling them “the decisive arm” will be no compensation for treating them as mere barrage-followers; but to be the picked light infantry of a mechanized army

338

INFANTRY

[FUTURE OF

would constitute a greater distinction than being called the can- | flank if they possess no intervals and no flanks? The opportunity non-fodder mass of past wars. came when the range and deadliness of modern weapons began to The Training of Infantry.—How should the training of in- enforce dispersion. But instead of exploiting it, military ortho. fantry be developed in order to fit them for a new effective rôle? doxy has rather sought to restrict it—as a deplorable evil—ang The answer is simpler, though more difficult of execution, than it clings to pre-war methods. Before the World War lines of infantry in extended order made seems. For the right training was foreshadowed in the methods devised in 1918. Unhappily, instead of being developed, they have rushes and utilized ground; they fired in small bodies and opened been allowed to lapse. No greater error is current to-day than at long ranges; at the decisive points they were gradually thick. that infantry is the most easily trained arm, for none needs more ened up into a crowd. These crowds surged forward at a given care, more skill if it is adequately to play its part. And the rea- signal and assaulted to their front. But the infantry soldier was son why it is a difficult arm to train is because it possesses so few so near his neighbour in these sham battles that he had scarcely sufficient space to load and fire his rifle without hitting one of his concrete elements. It is concerned with tactics and ground. To train infantry to be tactically minded is to exercise an art, friends; the units became so mixed together in the process of whereas to train gunners is to apply a science; the one requires thickening up that neither the corporal nor the subaltern could an artist the other a calculator. The man in the ranks of the ar- exercise control over his own men or any unit; often he could tillery, the tank corps, the air service, is often a mechanic— not find them during the decisive stage of the battle. Fortunately executing a concrete task in a definite manner. Initiative is the province of the officer, but even he in the subordinate ranks of other arms is largely concerned with producing a material effect. But the infantryman’s use of material—his weapons—is only complementary to the use he makes of tactics and ground before he gets to grips with his enemy. Because of the variety of elements with which he has to deal, the infantry commander is apt to confine himself to such parts of the subject as he himself knows best. Hence a tendency to over-emphasize such matters as drill, musketry, bayonet fighting, which can be easily mastered by the intellect of the average officer. Hence also the neglect of tactical training, which demands thought and is difficult to learn and teach because it deals with moral and variable factors and requires a modicum of imagination. The right tactics of infantry must be based on nature and human nature, not on mechanics or geometrical perfection. Yet it is almost incredible how in the past showy evolutions deduced from the parade-ground have persisted on the baitle-field. The future infantry must be permeated by the best doctrine which the war can teach, and this doctrine must be expressed in language so simple and by metaphors and illustration so clear, that it can be as readily grasped by subalterns and corporals as by general officers. Its manual of instructions should be as intelligible to the Australian bushman as it is to the staff college graduate. In 1806-15 the British were capable of a sustained effort in the theory of tactics as originated by Sir John Moore, and there is no reason why infantry should not to-day be trained to as high a pitch of comparative excellence. These tactics would be based on the little group of men following a corporal whom it knows because he has trained it. In the hurly-burly of modern war these little groups retain cohesion because men will follow a leader whom they see close to them, whose voice they can hear and whose presence is familiar. These groups will act by infiltration and manoeuvre, not fearing the isolation due to a wide dispersion of the groups, because they know that in dispersion lies safety, and because the comradeship within the group is a more real

support than that of a continuous line, wherein each man felt

himself a single peg in a long row. For decades the infantries of all countries attempted to produce tactics suitable to new weapons and conditions of war, by multiplying the lines which were successfully used by their forerunners in the days of the musket—with its short-range and slow rate of fire—and of the case shot and solid shot of the artillery. They moved shoulder to shoulder with intervals. The idea of manoeuvre was absent. Even down to the closing stages of the World War the action of: infantry units in battle—as distinct from a skirmish or an affair of outposts—was confined to frontal attacks. Manoeuvre was the weapon of the higher commanders only. In any large action each of the infantry units was allotted only a, fraction of the frontage of the force of which it formed a part. This narrow sector was hedged in on either side by neighbouring units of a corresponding size. How then was it possible for attack or’ defence on the part of infantry units to be aught but straight. to their front? How can they manoeuvre if they have no space to move in? And how can they be expected to move to a

the “cease fire” sounded and re-organization took place; but in 1914-18 there was no “cease fire” and no umpires and the warring

infantries were slow to learn. This was no doubt inevitable, and is a sufficient reason to try now to gather the lessons of 1918, but it must be remarked regretfully that the tactical experiences of

1918 have not been embodied in the tactical handling of units in

1928. Official manuals seem always to lag behind their own age, and in fact human nature did conquer the old line formation be-

fore the groups were officially sanctioned. The more natural because the real opponent—the also a firing “point” rather than a firing “line.” combined with the general dispersion of troops

evolution was the machine-gun—was These two factors, on the battlefield,

served to bring about the articulation of infantry into independently moving “points” each and all capable of manoeuvre. This therefore should be the keynote of future infantry tactics. Infantry must only be used for attack in country which gives them

adequate natural cover for infiltration and manoeuvre. They must be given frontages wide enough for them to find and use cover, and to ensure that their approach is more or less unsuspected. They must avoid stereotyped methods of movement. They must probably revert to individual weapons. The only infantryman of use In modern warfare is one so highly trained in the use of cover that he can stalk machine-guns, and so highly trained as a shot that he can pick off their crews at close ranges. For volume of fire infantry cannot compete with mechanized arms—it is an arresting comparison that even the small and immature Armoured Force formed in 1927, which included but one battalion of tanks, had a greater “fire-pumping” capacity than a whole infantry division had previously. Extreme accuracy of fire is the only justification for the infantryman. In his training, too, the old instinct of alignment must be eradicated and replaced by a sense of direction. This is all the more important because the World War introduced a new element—

smoke (g.v.). Mist or fog has often been a decisive but acci dental factor in battle, but with the introduction of artificial fog which can be projected at the will of the user, the enemy's view is impeded while his own movements take place in daylight until he reaches close quarters. Thus smoke is an invaluable aid to infiltration, and although, like most other inventions it has been much neglected since 1918, it will be indispensable to the infantry of the future. Whereas the slender artillery of to-day can give the infantry no adequate barrage, it could provide an effective

blanket of smoke with the same quantity of shells. Lastly, if

infantry is to possess an adequate agility its weapons and equipment must be lightened. In fact the infantryman of the future must be equipped as an athlete.

The Control of Infantry.—Do these individualistic infiltration tactics involve a complete abandonment of control? By no means. The group itself was a step towards the restoration of

control if only in the lowest grade, Reformed and modernized drill could be the means whereby ‘the scale might be raised. In

recent generations we have seen that armies retain drill move

ments for the parade-ground and throw them aside when they go on active service. As human nature in battle retains its instin tive habits it is scarcely surprising that in moments of crisis dne has seen men advancing, against the deadly fire.of machine-guns,

INFANT

SCHOOLS

339

in close-packed bodies. But if drill were brought up to date on | 1907 the Consultative committee of the Board of Education called the lines of dispersed order and the group, it would constitute an

attention to the gap between the care and advice given at baby

ingrained method of control that could be used to quicken the, clinics and the medical inspection at primary schools, and recommanoeuvre of deployed units and direct them to take advantage | mended the establishment of nursery schools to bridge this gap.

of local situations. Voice control would be out of but so long as signals were few and simple, visual he used particularly if a clearer means of signalling Let anyone with experience of war ask himself

the question, | The Education Act of 1918 empowered education authorities to control could ' supply or aid the supply of schools for children from the age of were devised. | two "whose attendance at such a school is necessary or desirable if there were | for their health, physical or mental development.” The 1923 act

not moments in his recollection when he might, had his men been | in Northern Ireland contained a similar provision.

But the Pre-

drilled in such a system, have saved precious minutes, an oppor- , fatory Memorandum to the I9I8 act deprecates the creation of a

tunity which never returned, by the use ofa signal instead of the | separate caste of nursery school teachers. In 1923 the Joint slow method of sending a message by runner. The old close: Parliamentary Advisory committee reported on the success of order was under control but modern fire has made it impossible. ,these schools, but added that “the cost per capita offers a serious With extended order the battle developed into the chaotic move- | bar to their extension." Sir George Newman, however, in his ments of an uncontrolled mob at the decisive point. An ingrained |!Annual Reports as Medical Officer to the Board of Education, resystem of battle drill might enable a unit when deployed into its ! peatedly urges their value to health and pleads that a stitch in

fractional parts, to be manoeuvred, to be opened or closed in “concertina” fashion according to the ground and local circumsances. Such a system was embodied in the post-war training manuals. But it was made an addition to instead of a substitute

. time saves nine. He urges that they might be amalgamated with | the day nurseries where children whose mothers are out at work !are cared for all day from the age of nine months. On March ' 31, 1926, there were 27 recognised nursery schools, rz under

ground ceremonial, always dominant in practice, have restricted its application. Thus we solemnly inculcate on the parade-ground a set of evolutions which date from the Crimean battlefields, but to-day bear no relation to tactics—as they were first meant to. (See SMALL ARMS; CAVALRY; TANKS; also STRATEGY; TACTICS; War.) (F. I. M.; B. H. L. H.)

| The Handbook of Suggestions for ihe Consideration of Teachers ' (Board of Education, 1927) distinguishes the nursery stage (from . 3 to 5) from the infant stage (from z to 8). In the nursery |stage there are to be no formal lessons in reading, writing and arithmetic; the children are to form wholesome bodily habits, to sleep and play in the open air, and there is to be motor and

for the existing close order drill. Hence the claims of parade- ; local authorities and 15 maintained by voluntary effort.

BruiocraPay.—(a) History: Xenophon, Cyropaedia; Parker, The | Sensory training. In the infant stage reading, writing and arith-

Roman Legions (1928); F. Aussaresses, L’Armée Byzantine & la Fin | metic are not to be forced, but may be begun.

There is to be du VIe siècle (1909); C. Oman, The Art of War in the Middle Ages | “direct contact with things as a means of learning.” The actual

(1924);T. A. Dodge, Gustavus Adolphus (Boston, 1895) ; C. H. Firth, | practice in infant schools differs widely from the rigid formalism ike pure 7 oe) eae Bea r e free z unen of the more old-fashioned schools to the freest use of individual

and Sky Sir John Moore’s System of Training (1925); methods. Centuryti (1925)A and F. Grose, Military Antiquities (1812); J. W. Fortescue, History of the British Army; E. d’Hauterive, L’Armée sous la Révolution : W. von Scherf, The New Tactics of Infantry (trans. 1873); Balck, Tactics, Infantry (trans); E. M. Lloyd, A Review of the History of Infantry (1908). (b) Modern: B. H. Liddell Hart, Science of Infantry Tactics (1923); and the infantry training manuals of the various 874 . national armies.

INFANT SCHOOLS.

The provision in modern times of

systematised training for children of pre-school age may be dated

|

from the village school at Waldbach founded by Jean Frédéric || Oberlin in 1774. James Buchanan started a school for infants in

Robert Owen's mill, New Lanark, 1800. A new direction was given to the movement by Friedrich W. A. Froebel, the creator of the

4-5 . 5-6 . 6-7 >

7-8.

Number of Pupils, 1924-5 Boys

England|

Total

Wales | England

NS

«| 20,41| -| 84195| . | 267,912 | . | 229,220 |

1,929 | 10,381 | 22,440 | 22,585 |

England| |——

18,574 74,566 251,897 221,753

maen

826,033

|a

|e

79,263

784,792 :

——Ó—

158,761|

519,800| 450,973| 442,267|

| saaa

|———M—

Wales |

39,015|

. | 224,265 | 21,928 | 218,002 ee

f.

M

1,610,825

ÁÓÓÁMÀMMM

Y

3,808

20,030

43,845 44,139

43,223 |vaarana ÓÀÁÀ

155,045 —

Other European Countries.—In Austria under the act of 1872 kindergartens were recognized as part of the public educa-

kindergarten (g.v.), where play, nature-study, and -handwork are | tional system. In 1879 the State established a kindergarten pracdirected to the development of the child’s latent powers. Dr. | tising school. From 1889 Vienna began to establish: municipal Maria Montessori (g.v.) marks an epoch in infant training. Her kindergartens. Since 1918 the city has rapidly developed Volksexperiments with mentally defective children showed her the kindergdrten, where working-class parents may leave children educative value of sense and muscle training, and she devised an | between two and six from 7AM.to6P.M.

There are also Normal-

elaborate set of educative toys by which the children learn to kindergarten with shorter hours. Nominal fees are charged, be-

observe sounds and forms and colours, numbers and size. Each sides small sum for breakfast and dinner in the Volkskinderchild chooses his own activities and puzzles out problems as they | gürten,a but these may be remitted or reduced. Montessori and

present themselves to his own mind; there is a minimum of active | Froebelian methods are combined except in one purely Montes-

intervention by the teacher, though her skill in quiet guidance is| sori experimental school. There is frequent medical examination. the key to the whole. Dr. Montessori’s sensory training does ac-| tually lead to the beginnings of reading, writing and numbers.

In Belgium, for children between three and six education is provided in the écoles gardiennes. They are free but not com-

She precludes all learning by rote at this early stage, and so all ' pulsory, are provided by the communes, receive a State grant, recitation. The training of the social sense is secured by common | and are under government inspection. Private schools must condomestic tasks, care of gardens and of pets. The genius of | form to the conditions of the communal schools. The State first Rachel and Margaret McMillan

and Grace Owen has created a | recognized these schools in 1833. In June, 1927, the Ministry type of school (see Nursery Scmoors) which aims at providing | issued a new set of model regulations, which the communes are the children of poor and crowded districts with something ap- | free to adopt or modify. Froebelian and Montessori. occupations proaching the ideal nursery of their more fortunate fellows— | are recommended. Reading, writing and arithmetic are excluded. fresh air, wholesome food and happy activity, with sleep at proper | No time is allowed for sleep. In all schools there is a femme de intervals,

United Kingdom.—Up to rgo

v

it was the general English

service to see to the cleanliness of the children and to their

physical needs.

|

bractice since the Education Act, of 1870 for education authorities In France, the first regular infant school was established in to provide facilities for teaching children between three and five | Paris dt the beginning of the roth century. In 1828 a model school Where the parents desired it. In r9os Article 53 of the Code | was started, followed shortly by similar institutions all over

"powered them to refuse admission to children under five; In | France. State recognitio n and inspection were granted. In 1848

i E GEET] A

340

INFANT

WELFARE—INFINITE

the name école maternelle, which these schools have since borne, was given to them. Every commune must have one of these schools or a classe enfantine, which has now become simply an école maternelle attached to a primary school. Admission is free, but not compulsory, for children between two and six. New regulations were issued in 1921 and 1927. Reading, writing and arithmetic are taught to the older children. Classes are to be from 25 to so in size. All schools must have a femme de service. Kindergartens and day nurseries (Kleinkinderbewahranstalten) for children under six in Germany are maintained voluntarily by local authorities and also by religious and charitable bodies, but they are subject to State inspection. Fees, if charged at all, are very low.

In addition there are private kindergartens and day

nurseries supported by the parents! fees. Froebelian methods are general, but a decree of the Prussian Ministry of Education (1920) makes the study of Montessori methods compulsory in recognized training courses for kindergarten teachers. There are few purely Montessori schools. The age of compulsory attendance is six. Under the Act of 1891 in Hungary, kindergartens (in the larger communes) and day nurseries are established in addition to what is done by voluntary effort. The first efforts to provide infant care and training in Italy were made by Ferrante Aporti, who established asili infantili early in the roth century, and whose ideas in many ways resembled Froebel's In 1907 Dr. Montessori opened a casa det bambini in a tenement house, where she applied to normal infants the ideas formed by her experience in training mental defectives. In the year 1921—22 there were 5,902 asili infantili attended by children between three and six, including kindergartens, casa dei bambini, and sale di custodia (day nurseries), some communal, some private. Some are free, whilst others charge fees. The decree of December, 1923, authorises the establishment of scuole materne by voluntary effort in collaboration with the Ministry; also of training colleges for teachers in these schools; and allocates an annual State grant of five million lire. Pre-school training has so frequently been the outcome of an attempt to cope with the evil effects of industrialism and overcrowding that it is not surprising to find it less developed in Scandinavia than in more highly industrialized countries. Norway has day nurseries and kindergartens in Oslo, both communal and private. A few Montessori trained teachers are at work in and near Oslo. Denmark has Froebelian “public gardens” in Copenhagen for children from three to six; the mothers are allowed to come also and bring their sewing. In Sweden the primary schools have infant departments for children between six and eight, but education is not compulsory before the age of seven. In Switzerland each canton controls its own schools. Generally speaking the larger towns in German Switzerland have communal kindergartens and the smaller ones day nurseries, maintained by voluntary effort with a communal grant. In French Switzerland the écoles enfantines form the lowest division of the primary school under cantonal authority, and there is a more formal syllabus, though Froebelian methods are also practised. (See also KINDERGARTEN, MONTESSORI, MONTESSORI SYSTEM, NURSERY

Scmoors and their bibliographies.)

The United States.—See Nursery SCHOOLS, DAY NURSERIES and KINDERGARTEN. (M. M. G.)

INFANT WELFARE: FARE. INFECTION:

INFECTIOUS

see MATERNITY AND INFANT WEL-

see BACTERIA; DISEASE; PARASITIC DISEASES.

FEVERS.

For these see the articles on

CHICKEN-POX, MEASLES, SCARLET FEVER, WzaoorrNG CoucH and similar diseases.

TypHom,

TYPHUS,

is widely used but with little exactitude of definition, differen writers referring to widely different types of feeling and be. haviour under this term. See A. Adler, The Practice and Theory of Individual Psychology,

INFINITE, a term used in mathematics, philosophy ang theology with various meanings which are apt to cross each other and cause confusion.

It is not possible to do more here than indi-

cate the chief notions associated with the term. Negative and Positive.—Speaking broadly, one may distinguish between the negative meanings of the term and its positive meanings, and also between its use in connection with what is quantitative, and its use in connection with what is not quantitative, but only qualitative. The negative meanings of the term may be expressed variously (according to context) by "indetermi. nate or endless in quantity or extent," etc., and "indefinite or indeterminate in quality." The positive meanings may be expressed by the expressions

“self-determined,” ‘“self-dependent,” “complete” or “perfect,” as the case may be. The negative use of the term is no doubt the older; it is the one most obviously suggested by the form and the etymology of the term (Latin zm, “not,” and finis, "end" or “limit”). The positive meanings were evolved later as the result of philosophical and mathematical reflection on the kind of objects commonly described as infinite. Such reflections have also led to

the introduction of numerous distinctions among “infinites,” such as “internal”

and “external”

infinites,

“finite” and “infinite”

infinites, “absolute” infinite and infinite “of its kind,” “single,” “double” and “treble,” etc., infinite, and, of course, the infinitely

great and the infinitely small (or “infinitesimal”). To explain all these distinctions adequately would take up too much space, but the main points should become clear from what follows. The Infinite and God.—In the history of Western philosophy

the term “infinite” (rd repov) is met with, apparently for the first time, in the teaching of Anaximander (6th cent. m.c.). He used it to describe what he conceived to be the primal matter, “principle,” or origin of all things. His teacher Thales had sug-

gested that it was water; later thinkers identified it with air or fire, etc. What Anaximander probably meant to suggest was that the primal substance must have been something indeterminate or indefinite in quality as compared with such qualitatively definite substances as water, air, fire, etc., which emerged from it in course of time. Whether he conceived his primal substance as indeterminate in quantity as well as in quality is not certain, though highly probable.

At all events the notion of things indeterminate in quantity, or “without end,” must have become familiar fairly early, especially in connection’ with ideas about space, time, number, and the existence and powers of God. Space, even perceived space, seems in a sense to have no boundaries—it seems to fade into alarger space beyond, and the space beyond can only be imagined or conceived as surrounded by more space, and so on indefinitely. Time too seems to have no limits—whatever the period of time or

duration that we live through or imagine or conceive, it is always possible, indeed necessary, to supplement it with more time “before and after.” The series of numerals likewise is endless— by adding and subtracting one can extend it both ends indefinitely. Similarly with ideas about God. Once the stage of limited, local deities was passed, God was gradually conceived to be unlimited in power, of infinite duration, and holding sway over endless space. Curiously enough it was not until recent times that there has been a return to some extent to the conception of a Deity of limited power. Deeply impressed with the reality of evil and suffering in the world, some thinkers have found themselves m

the dilemma of having to choose between the infinite goodness and INFERENCE: see Loctc. the infinite power of God; and they preferred to abandon the sigterm, l INFERIORITY COMPLEX, a psychoanalytica nifying a complex, or pattern of emotionally toned ideas concern- belief in His omnipotence. Whether the dilemma is valid, 1s 2 ing what the subject feels to be his own inferiority. The in- question that need not be discussed here. Some find no serous feriority may actually exist, ar it may be imaginary. The emotions attaching to the ideas of inferiority are supposed to cause the subject to attempt to compensate for his inferiority in various unnecessary ways, such as causeless pugnacity, unprovoked attacks on others, or anti-social behaviour. The general concept

difficulty in reconciling the apparently conflicting alternatives, when due allowanceis made for the implications of human freewill.

The Infinite and Vastness.—Intimately connected with the

earlier conception of the infinite, especially in its application to

INFINITESIMAL

CALCULUS—INFINITY

341

space and time, was the idea of immensity or vastness. This was

primarily because there is something outside it, but because its a perfectly natural combination or fusion of ideas, which still contents are not solely prescribed by the principle of structure clings to the popular use of the term infinite. In a sense the which they embody.” dissociation between “infinite” and “vast” was begun fairly early. For the special uses of the notions “infinite” and “infinitesimal” Zeno’s paradox that motion is impossible, because the moving see articles SERIES, FUNCTION, GEOMETRY and CALCULUS, Infinibody would have to pass through an infinite multiplicity of points tesimal, or positions in order to reach even a near destination, obviously BIBLIOGRAPHY.—C. J. Keyser, Tke Human Work of Rigorous Think-

implies or even asserts that a finite line or distance contains something infinite, namely, an infinite multitude of points or positions.

So that in some way a short finite distance having definite, known limits may still in some way be infinite, that is infinite internally

(ie. infinitely divisible), though not externally (because its limits

ing (1916); J. Royce, The World and the Individual, vol. i. (1901) ; B. Russell, Principles of Mathematics (1903); W. R. Sorley, Moral Values and the Idea of God (1918); Spinoza, Correspondence translated by A. Wolf (1928); A. E. Taylor, Elements of Metaphysics (1903) ; S. Alex4nder, Space, Time and Deity (1928). (A. Wo.)

INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS: see CALCULUS. INFINITESIMAL GEOMETRY: see GEOMETRY. But the paradoxical method of Zeno failed on the whole to INFINITIVE, a form of the verb, properly a verbal noun, bring out the element of truth in his teaching. And the lesson but usually taken as a mood. (See GRAMMAR.) Latin grammahad to be repeated by Spinoza, among others. His favourite rians gave it the name of infinitus or infinitivus modus, as not illustration of the internal, finite infinite (or the infinite within a having definite persons or numbers. The infinitive form of the are fixed).

finite whole) is that of a small circle containing a still smaller circle with which it is not concentric. The space between the two circumferences is finite and small.

The minimum

distance and

the maximum distance between them is known. Yet within this small finite space, and within the limits marked by the minimum and the maximum distance there is an infinite variety of distances between the two circumferences. The space is externally finite, internally infinite. So that the infinite is not necessarily “vast” (hence the poet’s note about holding infinity in the palm of the

hand), nor does it depend on the absence of “limits.” Infinity a Quality.—Infinity is rather some kind of positive character or quality. What this quality or character is, Spinoza does not make quite clear except in the case of the “absolutely infinite” and the “infinite of its kind.” But what he says in this case is very suggestive, and rather like more recent conceptions of the “infinite” as formulated by Dedekind and various con-

temporary mathematicians.

By “the absolutely infinite” Spinoza

meant God as the perfect, complete, self-dependent, self-determined ground of all that is. Extension and Thought, which are “attributes” (that is, aspects of God or the Universe) are each “infinite of its kind,” that is, each complete in its nature, but not, of course, the whole of Nature (or God). Finite things (or finite modes), on the other hand, are characterized by fragmentariness, incompleteness, dependence on other things outside themselves, though they are all ultimately parts of the infinite. Now, this conception of the “infinite” is, from the standpoint of philosophy at all events, the most interesting and essential feature in the newer mathematical conception just referred to. This feature may be stated in the following quotation from A. E. Taylor's Elements of Metaphysics (Book IL, Ch. iii.) :— The infinite must not be confounded with the indefinite or unfinished. Its fundamental property is not the merely negative one of having

no end or ‘last term,’ but the positive one of having an internal

structure which is the harmonious and complete expression of a single self-consistent principle. The finite, again, is finite not primarily merely because it has a "last term,” że., because there is something else outside it, but because its ‘last term’ is arbitrarily

determined, i.¢., determined by something other than the prin-

ciple of its internal structure. In other words, the essential defect

ofthe finite is that it is not solely determined by its own structural principle, We can see this even in the simple case of the familiar

infinite series’ of arithmetic and algebra. Such a series }... is ‘infinite’ not merely because you never Come last term, but because its character is determined from solely by the Principle according to which each term is

English verb consists of the preposition “to” coupled directly with the unaltered verb root as in “to see." When a word is inserted between the preposition and the verb the result is called a “split infinitive,” as “to clearly see,” “to freely give,” etc.; this form is a bugbear of the strict grammarian.

INFINITY, a term employed in common usage for anything

of vast size, but strictly applicable only the immeasurably or innumerably great, of being measured or counted. In the employed in metaphysics and theology

with the implication of or of the impossibility strict sense the term is and mathematics. The

term is from the Latin iz (not) and finis (end) and thus has the

etymological significance of “endless.” The unlimited straight line has length without limit; it cannot be measured off by the repeated application of any unit; it transcends all possibility of measurement, and in this sense it is said to be infinite. A line is also infinite as regards the number of points on it; between any two points on a line there is another, and indeed an infinitude of others; on any line segment there is a smaller line segment, and hence an infinitude of line segments such that each of the segments after the first is included in each of those which precede it. Thus a line exhibits both infinitude of measurement and infinitude of subdivision. Space likewise is infinite in extent and it possesses an infinitude of points, of lines, of planes and of bounded portions of space. Endlessness as regards extent or distance and endlessness as regards subdivision are characteristics of space by which it is seen under the aspect of the infinite. There is a shorter distance than any which we have measured and a longer than any which we can conceive. But boundlessness or endlessness is not equivalent to infinitude. A confusion of the two notions was current in antiquity and has appeared also among modern thinkers, as Hobbes, and Hegel, for instance. A circle, considered in the modern aspect of line is endless, but we would not apply to it the concept of infinitude as regards measurement, though as regards subdivision it exhibits the characteristic quality of infinitude. Space is endless and infinite, the circumference of a circle is endless but finite as regards extent. The Infinite in Metaphysics and Theology—Tracing history back to the earliest possible date, we are forced to postulate an earlier period still and then one preceding that, and so on without end. Looking forward we conceive vast stretches of the future; and beyond any time of which we can think we are forced to postulate a still later time to come. Distances on the earth are small compared with the distance to the sun, and that itself is small compared with the distances of some of the stars; and beyond the furthest reaches of our telescopes we imagine still un-

as 1, 4, to the within, derived from the one before it; that the series has no end is a simple Consequence of this positive property of self-determination. But ending stretches of space. We have never Seen a thing so small Suppose I take s terms of this series and no more, where z is a that we cannot imagine a smaller, or measured a thing so great. specified number, the resulting series is now finite, not primarily that we cannot conceive a greater. But we have never experiCause there are more terms of the same kind outside it, but enced because the number of terms to be taken is not prescribed by the formed the infinitely small or the infinitely great, though we have a notion of them, Infinity is a mental concept. In early

W of formation of the series, but fixed with reference to some

object independent of the principle of the series itself. In other

Words, only the infinite is in the full sense of the words a com-

pletely self-determined whole.

The finite is the imperfect, not

Greek philosophy (see Iontan ScHoot or PHILOSOPHY) it appeared under the aspect of the boundless (70 &zetpov), and as such

it was discussed at great length by both Plato and Aristotle. They gave much thought to the question as to which is the more truly

342

INFLAMMATION

AND

ITS SEQUELS

real, the finite objects of sense or the universal idea of each | gregates have always the same number of elements; the answer thing laid up in the mind of God. They enquired concerning the | is negative. The number of all integers is the same as the num. nature of that unity which underlies the multiplicity of perceived ber of all rational numbers, but is less (in a suitably defined sense objects; and the same problem, in various forms, has engaged of the term) than the number of all real numbers. The number the attention of philosophers throughout the ages. of points on the segment of a line is equal to the number on the In Christian theology God is conceived as infinite in power and whole line and in fact to the number in the whole of space, byt knowledge and justice and goodness, uncreated and immortal. In is less than the aggregate of all functions of a real variable. í some oriental systems, absorption in the infinite is the highest See E. W. Hobson, Theory of Functions of a Real Variable, vol.} end of man, his perfection resting in the breaking down of human 3rd ed. (1927), Camb. Univ. Press; B. Bolzano, Paradoxien des Unend. lichen (Leipzig, 1850); and L. Couturat, De Pinfini mathématique limitations. (1896). (R. D. C4) The metaphysical and theological conception of the infinite is open to the objection that a finite mind cannot form an adequate INFLAMMATION AND ITS SEQUELS. The protean or appropriate conception of such an object of thought and there- character of inflammation is sufficient explanation of the fact that fore cannot form trustworthy judgments concerning it; and the none of the numerous attempts to define the condition has been matter has been extensively debated. Sir William Hamilton’s entirely successful. The term represents the sum of changes locphilosophy of the “unconditioned” and Herbert Spencer’s doc- ally produced in a living tissue by the action of an irritant, and trine of the infinite “unknowable” give evidence of this contro- since the constituents of the tissues and the characters of irritants versy. (See the articles on the thinkers mentioned, and also those vary within enormously wide limits, it follows that the phenomon DESCARTES, MALEBRANCHE, SPINOZA and ZENO.) ena of inflammation vary within wide limits also. Nevertheless, the The Mathematical Infinite-——If the law of variation of a four “cardinal signs” indicated by Celsus (A.D. 34) viz., redness, magnitude x is such that x becomes and remains greater than any swelling, heat, pain, are in varying degrees present in every case pre-assigned magnitude however large, then x is said to become of inflammation, and subsequent centuries only added to these infinite, and this conception of infinity is denoted by œ. If four signs, a fifth, impairment of function. the law of variation of a magnitude x is such that x becomes From a clinical point of view inflammation may be acute, suband remains less than any pre-assigned magnitude, however small, acute or chronic, may be widespread or localized, may produce then x is called an infinitesimal and is said to approach the limit intense destructive changes or little obvious effect, may be relazero. These conceptions of the infinite and the infinitesimal are tively unimportant so far as life is concerned, or may endanger analogous to the metaphysical infinitudes of measurement and of life from the outset. Essentially, however, the phenomena are subdivision; but they differ from the latter in a marked way in the same in kind though individually varying in degree to an that the mathematical concepts are defined entirely in terms of infinite extent. This is true even if the irritant evoking the inflamthat which is finite. The absolutely infinite is in no sense involved. mation be one and the same. The micro-organism known as staWhat is described in each case is a type of variation. These phylococcus aureus, lodged in the cardiac valves, produces valvular conceptions are intimately involved in the articles: FUNCTION, disease of the heart, with the entire chain of events that valvular disease entails; in the subcutaneous tissues, leads to a pustule; Limit, SERIES, NUMBER SEQUENCES, and CALCULUS. Through the doctrine of geometrical continuity (g.v.) and the in the liver, to an abscess; within the skull, to cerebral abscess or application of algebra to geometry arose the important notion of meningitis, in the superficial layers of the skin, to a pustular derinfinity as a localized space-conception, so that mathematicians matitis, to mention but a few examples. Here the different come to speak of points at infinity, lines at infinity, and planes effects depend, in large measure, upon the seat of lodgement of at infinity. It is said, for instance, that two parallel lines inter- the micro-organisms. Other variations depend upon the specific sect in a point at infinity; that all circles in a plane pass through character of the infecting micro-organism. Lesions produced by two fixed points at infinity (the circular points), and that two B. tuberculosis, Treponema pallidum (syphilis), B. diphtheriae, spheres intersect in a fixed circle at infinity. (See GEOMETRY.) B. perfringens (gas-gangrene), B. pestis (plague), V. cholerae The most remarkable mathematical doctrine of the infinite is asiatica, have peculiar characters, so that a cursory examination that which is associated with the conception of infinite aggre- might fail to discover that essential identity of phenomena which gates. In the case of any aggregate it is possible to pair the ele- underlies all of them. Inflammation and Repair.—One of the greatest difficulties ments in such a way that each element in the aggregate is paired with an element of the aggregate. Thus in the set 1, 2, 3, we may in visualizing inflammation lies in the fact that whatever may be take 1 with 2, 2 with 3, 3 with x. In this case the first terms in the effect of the irritant upon the tissues at the focus of its maxithe pairs exhaust the elements in the given set, and so do the mum intensity, that focus is surrounded by concentric zones in second terms. In any way in which all the elements of a finite which the intensity of the irritant action, by degrees, falls of to aggregate are paired uniquely with elements of the aggregate, the zero. In correspondence with this the reaction of the tissues second terms in the pairs (as well as the first) exhaust the aggre- shows concentric zones of variations which, in turn, shade off to gate. This is the distinguishing quality of a finite aggregate as zero. An example will make this clear. If a needle be raised to finite. The opposite quality characterizes infinite aggregates as a dull red heat and the point be applied momentarily to the skin infinite. Thus, in the case of the set of all positive integers, we on the back of the hand, the reaction which ensues will occupy, may pair each integer with its double; the first terms in the pairs say, a circle with a diameter of o-5cm. In the centre there will exhaust the aggregate of positive integers, but the second terms be absolute death of certain epidermal cells, around this there do not, since there is no odd number among them. In general an will be a blistered zone, in its turn surrounded by a zone of redinfinite aggregate is an aggregate such that its elements can all be ness, heat and pain, intense nearest the seat of injury and gradpaired uniquely with a part of its elements. This is the positive ually shading into the normal skin of the periphery as one passes definition of an infinite aggregate, as opposed to the negative away from the centre. These phenomena depend upon the intensity of the heat acting on the tissues in each concentric zone definition which characterizes it as one that is o£ finite. If two aggregates are such that the elements of one may be and the effects of heat on the cells, from the centre outwards, are made to correspond with the elements of the other in such a way immediate death, injury so severe that recovery is impossible, to that each element of either aggregate corresponds to one and just injury sufficiently slight that recovery is possible, stimulation increased normal activity. That increase of normal skin activity established so one element of the other aggregate, the relation is said to be a one-to-one correspondence between the aggregates. may follow on exposure to suitable temperatures is shown by the When a one-to-one correspondence is possible we say that the redness and sweating experienced on a summer day. The peripheral appearances described above do not occur at number of elements in one aggregate is the same as the number moment that the hot needle is applied, but take some time this the aggregates finite of case the In other. the in of elements the agrees with the usual conception of the sameness of number for their production, and disappear in reverse order until That is to Say, of two aggregates. The question arises whether two infinite ag» normal condition of the skin is re-established.

INFLAMMATION

AND

the local inflammation is followed by regeneration and repair.

it is this essential association of reparative or stimulative processes with destructive or inflammatory processes that renders study of inflammation so difficult, but the two types of process must be entirely distinct, for stimulation occurs in the normal processes of life in which inflammation is completely absent, though these

same stimulative processes are responsible for the regeneration and repair that normally follow inflammation. In a word, infammation is essentially degenerative and destructive, but of

ITS SEQUELS

343

the symptoms are produced by relatively low degrees of irritation. Particles of dust that are without effect on the skin or mucous membrane of the mouth may cause profound inflammation of the eye; oil of turpentine which, acting on the skin, merely reddens it, when acting on the secreting cells of the kidney, leads to an intense, possibly a fatal, nephritis. Irritants, Non-organic and Organic.—Hitherto the irritants

that have been mentioned may be regarded as non-living or unorganized, and such irritants are of the widest variety, chemical,

necessity brings regeneration and repair in its train. Recognition physical mechanical; the strong acids and alkalies, the poison of this principle is of fundamental importance in treatment, as it injected by a bee, wasp, or stinging nettle, heat, cold, ultra-violet indicates that before repair can take place at a given spot every and other radiations, bullets, sprains, blows, cuts, are a few source of irritation, 7.e., of inflammation, must be removed.

It

ig intelligible, too, that a tissue on the way to repair may itself fall under irritant action. Then the phenomena of repair and of inflammation are commingled; the result is chronic inflammation.

The Inflammatory Process.—A minute injury like that described above, with the vascular and tissue changes it induces, is an epitome of the phenomena of inflammation in general. Microscopical examination shows that in the inflamed area the

blood vessels and the tissue elements are modified.

The blood

vessels are affected differently in the central and peripheral

regions. Towards the centre of the area they are dilated and the blood therein is stationary, the red blood corpuscles have lost their individual contours and channels and blood may be represented by homogeneous red cylinders. Further out the vessels are dilated also, but the blood flow through them, though retarded, has not ceased, and outside the vessel walls are red corpuscles,

polynuclear leucocytes and fluid that have escaped from within

the lumen. Still further outwards the vessels are dilated and the

examples. There is even some reason for believing that, in hysterical subjects, irritants may be psychological, though all such statements must be received with caution in an individual case. In all the above-mentioned instances the irritant action is momentary, or at all events, limited, and the inflammation is correspondingly limited. It reaches its height, and so soon as the primary and consequential subordinate irritants have ceased to be effective, owing to their actual removal, dilution, neutralization, and so forth, the strictly inflammatory processes come to an end and resolution, regeneration and repair (see below) come into play. But there is another, and in most respects, a far more important variety of irritant that leads to inflammation. The irritant here is living or organized, and the group embraces the whole range of pathogenetic bacteria and animal parasites that affect the solid tissues. The inflammatory phenomena are dominated by the fact that the irritant has the power of living and multiplying within the animal tissues, and though, fundamentally, the tissue reactions towards this type of irritant are identical with those towards non-organized irritants, the scales are weighted from the first in favour of the irritant and against the tissue it invades. To produce a given result a smaller initial injury is sufficient when the irritant is bacterial, because the irritant has in the toxin it produces a weapon that the non-organized irritant has not, has in its power of multiplication a power of escaping from the region where the tissues are opposing it and carrying its injurious action to a distance. And in the course of these activities it occasions such pathological conditions as abscess, ulceration, gangrene, necrosis, sepsis, fever, nervous symptoms; and the train of illeffects extends indefinitely. Whether the patient succeeds in overcoming the primary and secondary irritants, and in repairing the damage they have caused, or succumbs under the attack, is determined by the factors influencing his immunity or susceptibility. | Mode of Operation of Bacterial Irrítants.—It follows from what has been said that, theoretically, the entrance of a single pathogenic micro-organism into the tissues is sufficient, and

rate of blood flow is much increased; this zone gradually merges into the region of normality. The essential cells of the part also share in the reaction, showing modifications varying from complete disintegration to cloudiness of cytoplasm and disruption of nuclei. Thus in every example of inflammation there are vascular changes associated with dilatation of vessels, modifications in rate of local blood flow, exudation of fluid, emigration of leucocytes, extravasation of red corpuscles, and disorganization of the essential tissue elements. Such differences as are introduced by variations in the type of injury and kind of tissue involved are differences of degree, not of kind. But, primarily, it is the local increase of blood flow that accounts for the “redness” and “heat,” the exudation that accounts for the “swelling” and “pain,” the tissue changes that account for the “impairment of function.” Obviously, with a given injury, where the tissues are normally loose, e.g., skin of back of hand, swelling will be relatively great, and pain relatively slight; where the tissues are normally tense, eg, the pulp of the fingers, swelling will be slight and pain great. The lack of distensibility of the teeth, and of the bony sockets actually the mere prick,of an infected needle has in many of the jaw in which the teeth are set, amply explains the acute instances led to severe general illness, sometimes to death. It pain of toothache. ; follows, too, that the sequels of an inflammation caused by an The phenomena associated with inflammation may be distress- organized (bacterial) irritant are more pronounced, last longer, ing to the patient, but of temporary importance; on the other and induce more damage to the tissues than those following the hand, they may be so excessive that they constitute in themselves action of a non-organized irritant of comparable magnitude. sources of irritation to the tissues in which they occur. A blow This truth lies at the bottom of all antiseptic and aseptic surgery. in the neighbourhood of the knee may lead to local inflammation, It also furnishes the main explanation of abscess formation, with so much pain and effusion that the joint is kept immobile ulceration, focal necrosis and gangrene, as pathological sequels sufficiently long for atrophy, from disuse, to occur in the muscles of inflammation. An abscess, pathologically, is merely a collecmoving the joint, and occurrence of adhesions within the joint tion of dead tissue cells, polymorphonuclear leucocytés and itself. Hence the primary irritant may be reinforced by secondary exuded blood plasma which, at first solid, has become liquefied by and subordinate irritants, and in many instances the latter lead the proteolytic action of enzymes. That this destruction of tissue tothe greater degree of disability. Other examples of the dom- cells, migration of leucocytes, exudation of blood plasma, promating influence ‘of these secondary irritants are seen in cases of teolysis, are on so great a scale that a macroscopic abscess rePleural and pericardial adhesions, ascetic collections of fluid, sults, depends upon the bacterial character of the irritant at necrosed bone (sequestra), renal and biliary calculi. In all in- work; pathologically, an identical condition, though of microstances, however, whether it be by way of primary or of sub- scopic proportions occurs preparatory to the healing of every ordinate irritants, the tissue elements involved determine the perfectly aseptic wound. For in both instances the irritant ultimate effects of the inflammation. According as they, are (bacteria or knife) causes death of tissue cells, vascular changes, nervous, muscular, renal, connective tissue, or of other kind, the passage of leucocytes and plasma from within the blood vessels features of the symptoms resulting from the inflammatory lesion to the lymph spaces outside, local coagulation of the exuded are determined, and in proportion as the tissue cells themselves fluid and its subsequent proteolysis. ate relatively vulnerable and predominate in the affected region, Here the danger must be indicated of considering inflammation

344

INFLAMMATION

AND

ITS SEQUELS

as merely a local process, though one at times affecting a large

degree the same is perhaps true oi renal tissue. The stimulus OT

yet it is clear that the increased local blood flow can only be carried out by a re-arrangement of the circulation over the whole body, that the exuded fluid implies a general re-arrangement of the intra- and extra-vascular relations, that the localized collection of leucocytes, often in huge numbers, implies a redistribution of their numbers within the circulating blood, and often an increased output at the seats of their normal production. The experimental evidence for these statements lies in the altered specific gravity of blood and of tissues at distant parts of the body, and the altered corpuscular constitution of the blood (particularly concerning the numbers of polynuclear leucocytes) that accompany local inflammation. So, too, fever, general discomfort, disordered digestion, altered composition of the urine, are often other indications that the entire body shares in the changes. Finally, the production of specific anti-substances to antagonize bacterial irritants is a function of the tissues (see BACTERIA AND Disease), and such anti-substances are conveyed by the blood to the region where they are to act, z.¢., at the focus of inflammation.

muscular, and probably also of mammary, secreting systems, Bu in the latter examples the meaning of regeneration is strained and it is an undoubted fact that when uterus or breast has been subjected to infammatory, as distinguished from physiological action, e.g., when either organ has been incised for surgical purposes, the defect is not filled by muscular or glandular tissue but by scar tissue, z.¢., regeneration does not occur, but repair. Strictly speaking, in higher vertebrates regeneration to fill an art. ficial defect is confined to cells of the epithelial, endothelial and

area.

Granted that the local phenomena attract most attention,

THE SEQUELS The sequels of inflammation are (a) physiological and (5) pathological. To the latter reference has been made repeatedly in the previous section, and it has appeared that they depend upon persistence of irritant action, whether primary or secondary. These pathological sequels do not call for further remark here. The physiological sequels are those which bring about a restoration of the inflamed part to a healthy condition. In some cases this may consist in a return to the normal, but in the majority the tissue is not exactly the same as it was before becoming inflamed, and often the original tissue is finally replaced by tissue of quite a different kind. The processes at work are termed resolution, regeneration and repair. Resolution.—By this is meant that the processes indicated by the irritant, on the cessation of its action, return to normal in the reverse order to that in which they were called forth. The classical example of resolution occurs in acute lobar pneumonia caused by M. pneumoniae. Here the irritant leads to acute congestion of a large part of the lung, and the dilated blood-vessels pour into the air alveoli inflammatory exudation which coagulates and renders the affected part of the lung airless, solid and more voluminous than when normal. Great numbers of polynuclear leucocytes also pass from the blood-vessels and are entangled in the coagulum, together with small numbers of endothelial cells from the walls of the air alveoli. In an uncomplicated case the irritant action of the micrococcus now comes to an end because the body has elaborated the necessary anti-substances. The coagulated exudation is liquefied by proteolytic enzymes supplied by the polynuclear leucocytes, and the resulting fluid, with any dead and desquamated cells is removed by expectoration, drainage by lymphatics, re-absorption into the blood-stream, The normal calibre of the blood-vessels is re-established, defects in endothelium are remedied by division of neighbouring endothelial cells, the air-ways are re-opened and the lung returns to a condition that cannot be distinguished from the normal. Resolution in this complete sense, though the rule in lobar pneumonia, is the exception in other instances, though joints affected with acute rheumatism may also return to the normal. Even when the part apparently returns to normal, microscopic examination shows that this is not absolutely the case, z.¢e., that not resolution alone, but repair also has played a part in the recovery. Regeneration.—The re-formation of tissue in invertebrates is often complete even though a considerable mass has been removed; crustaceans such as the crab or lobster will re-form an entire limb. Amongst the vertebrates such regeneration is much more limited, though an amphibian like the tadpole or newt will re-form a complete tail if it has been removed. In higher vertebrates organs are not regenerated. It is true that if a portion of liver tissue be removed experimentally, the surrounding hepatic cells divide and produce a tissue having certain resemblances to liver tissue, and probably exercising hepatic functions. In some

each successive pregnancy, too, leads to a regeneration of uterine

connective

tissue

systems

and

to blood-vessels.

In all other

systems a defect resulting from irritant action is repaired; the faulty tissue is not regenerated. The regeneration of epithelium implies that certain cells of a

like kind persist in the neighbourhood of the defect, and by their

repeated division are able to re-construct the tissue. Physiologically an example of this occurs in the monthly reconstruction of the tubular glands of the normal endometrium. The bases of these glands reach into the muscular wall of the uterus, and per-

sist when the endometrium, with the greater part of the glands, is cast off in menstruation; it is from these remnants that the entire glands are re-constructed. When a defect occurs in the

superficial squamous epithelium, e.g., at the seat of an ulcer, the intact epithelial cells at the periphery divide, and in time cover the denuded space. At the free edge the cells are but one layer thick, but they soon begin to divide parallel to the surface, until the new skin is stratified and several layers thick. This regenerative property of squamous epithelium is utilized in the surgical operation known as Tiersch grafting. Where a large superficial area is devoid of skin, small grafts are cut from normal parts

reaching

down

to

and

including

the

germinal

layer

(see

EPITHELIUM), and are applied to the granulating surface. Here, when a graft has “taken,” it forms a centre for centrifugal growths of epithelium. In this way the covering-in of a large area left by a superficial burn, for example, is materially shortened. The specialized elements of the true skin and subcutaneous tissue, i.e., papillae, touch corpuscles and other sensory organs, sweat glands, sebaceous glands, hair follicles, are not regenerated. Columnar and spheroidal epithelial cells also regenerate provided that corresponding cells persist from which regeneration can take place. When such cells line gland systems the composite system may or may not be regenerated. If the system be simple, e.g., a tubular gland lined by columnar epithelium, it will probably be re-formed; if compound, e.g., a racemose gland lined by spheroidal epithelium, it will probably not be re-formed. The regeneration of endothelium occurs in one plane only, and it is doubtful whether fibrous tissue cells do not at times replace them in respect of their tegumentary function. 'The chief regenerative function of endothelial cells is represented in the new formation of blood-vessels, whereby the nutrition of the young tissue being formed to fill the defect is carried out. These new blood-vessels arise from pre-existing capillaries by the local formation of a solid endothelial bud, which grows towards the free surface of the wound and gradually becomes canalized. When two such buds from contiguous capillaries have nearly reached the free surface they bend over, their tips meet, fuse and are canalized; hence the two original capillaries are now connected by a newly-formed capillary loop. The tips of these loops ‘can be seen with the naked eye on the floor of a healing ulcer as minute projecting bright red points or “granulations” that bleed on the slightest rough treatment. Should one of these capillaries ultimately become converted into an arteriole or venule the additional coats are formed by extensions from the corresponding coats of pre-existing vessels. This new formation of blood vessels is known as vascularization, and the tissue in which the new capillary loops occur is known as granulation tissue. . Regeneration of members of the connective tissue group 1s one of the most widespread processes following on inflammation. It

accounts for the formation of scar tissue in repair of a detect,

for the production of adhesions in serous cavities, for the repair

of bones after fracture. It also accounts for the increase of

INFLAMMATION

AND

ITS SEQUELS

345

of kidney (“granabrous tissue in conditions like chronic fibrosis

aseptic. Here the irritant is the force that leads to the fracture, and subordinate irritants, consisting of effused blood from rupthe association of such increased fibrous or bony formation, with tured blood-vessels, torn muscles and ligaments, ruptured medulla an antecedent inflammation is doubtful in some cases. The chief of bone, play an important part in respect of their volume, while tissues thus regenerated are fibrous tissue with its variants, fatty movement between the fractured ends of the bone may further and mucoid tissue, neuroglia and bone. In all instances the new enhance these. Nevertheless, coagulation of the effused blood octissue is formed from pre-existing cells, fibroblasts in the case of curs about the ends of the bones and holds them together as a fibrous tissue, neuroglia cells in the case of neuroglia, periosteal preliminary. The essential difference between the processes here and endosteal osteogenetic cells in the case of bone. Cartilage and those obtaining in an aseptic surgical wound consists in the both yellow elastic and white hyaline, is regenerated with far less greater mass of material that has to be removed, the greater space frequency, especially the former variety; their place when de- that has to be bridged by newly-formed capillaries, the greater stroyed is usually taken by white fibrous tissue. When regener- distance the migrated polynuclear cells have to travel, and the ated the new material is formed from pre-existing remnants of fact that the endosteum and periosteum, with their osteogenetic cartilage, but there is reason to believe that in some cases of bone cells, are involved instead of white fibrous tissue. In time the regeneration à cartilaginous stage is interposed between the fibrous blood coagulum around, between and within the fractured ends of and osseous stages, as in the normal formation of bone through the bones, is replaced by a mass of soft bone (temporary callus) cartilage. Usually, however, repair of bone takes place by direct derived from periosteum and endosteum, and of this the greater calcification and ossification without the interposition of a carti- portion is ultimately removed by osteoclastic (i.e., phagocytic) ular kidney") and liver (cirrhosis) and sclerosis of bone, though

laginous stage, thus resembling so-called membranous bone forma-

tion. In all essential details the newly-formed fibrous tissue or bone resembles the normal tissue, but often it ends by being

denser and less regular in its general arrangement. Corresponding with this, cells are more scanty and the inter-cellular substance more pronounced. Calcium salts may be deposited in fibrous tissue formed as a sequel to inflammation, as in the calcareous nodules occurring in pleuritic or pericardial adhesions, or it may become the seat of overgrowth reminiscent of tumour formation

(keloid). In all cases the amount of fibrous tissue formed after

inflammation is excessive, at least at first, but for some reason

action, while between the fractured ends there remains newlyformed bone that becomes denser and unites the fracture (definitive callus). Where the fractured ends are widely separated bony new formation may be impossible and the ends are united, if at all, by fibrous tissue: (5) the fracture is compound and septic. Here the irritant action is increased by the presence of pathogenetic bacteria and their toxins in damaged, dying and dead material resulting from the fracture itself. The pathological sequels of inflammation, suppuration and necrosis, are therefore superposed upon the already important secondary irritants occasioned by the fracture. Even assuming that the bacterial infection does not become generalized and lead to septicaemia or pyaemia (see SEPSIS) the original amount of damage to tissues will be increased by that amount, which is due to the bacterial action as such. When and if these potent adjuvants of the original irritant action have been overcome, and only at those spots at which this occurs, do strictly reparative processes take place, but they are identical with those occurring in an aseptic fracture. In other

thst is not fully clear, inflammatory fibrosis reacts readily to X-radiation, so that redundancy is often treated successfully by this means. In the case of nerves, the term regeneration is often used, but the return of function which may be observed after the severed ends of a nerve have been sutured, is not regeneration in the strict sense. In all the instances described above, regeneration of tissue depends upon re-formation of cells by division of pre-existing words, the first object of the body is to render the condition cells, but nerve cells once destroyed are never re-formed, and the aseptic, and this object the surgeon copies in his treatment of return of function depends merely upon centrifugal growth of the every compound fracture. It can be understood that whereas the axis cylinder from the still intact nerve cell along the scaffolding healing of an aseptic surgical wound with surfaces well apposed is provided by the anatomical nerve, whose continuity has been a matter of days, the healing of a simple, aseptic fracture of bone restored by suture. Experiments that have been regarded by their is a matter of weeks, and the healing of a compound, septic fracauthors as indicating that the functional nerve is restored by ture is one of months. longitudinal apposition of proliferated neuroglial cells, do not (3) A Focus of Pulmonary Tuberculosis—Here the primary carry conviction. irritant is B. tuberculosis, and an apparent difference from the Repair.—The phenomena described above play varying parts processes summarized above lies in the facts that the reaction of in the production of repair, so that the interaction of inflammation the lung tissue to the bacillus is cellular only, and contains soand repair and the essential similarity of processes in clinically called giant cells, and that blood vessels are absent from the dissimilar conditions can best be brought out by tracing them in a minute nodule or tubercle. The caseation so characteristic of few illustrative cases. tuberculosis is dependent upon these differences (see TUBERCU(1) An Aseptic Surgical W ound—The irritant here is the knife, Losis), which are correlated with the relative chronicity of the and subordinate irritants are reduced to a minimum, probably process. But the tubercle when formed, besides replacing a certain being represented by the stitches, a small number of tissue cells amount of lung tissue, is a foreign body, and as such leads to inon the cut surfaces that are injured beyond recovery, and small flammation in the surrounding tissues, often with a degree of conamounts of blood clot. As the result of these local dilatation of gestion that explains the haemoptysis that may accompany early vessels occurs, exudation is poured out in the superficial layers tuberculosis. If it be situated on the surface of the lung the ofthe opposed cut surfaces, and between them and by coagula- tubercle induces inflammation of the pleura, local death of lion, temporarily binds them together. Polynuclear leucocytes endothelial cells, and subsequently the production of fibrous migrate from the blood stream and by phagocytosis (g.v.) remove tissue in the form of a pleural adhesion. Within the lung itself dead tissue and remnants of blood clot, and later the fibrin fila- the tubercle, after undergoing caseation and, perhaps, calcificaments of the coagulum. At the same time newly-formed capil- tion, becomes surrounded by fibrous tissue in the same way, and laries bridge the gap between the two cut surfaces, travelling along by the same local proliferation of fibroblasts, that a fibrous the fibrin filaments in the intervening coagulum. Fibroblasts, capsule is formed around an aseptic bullet lodged in the tissues. derived from pre-existing connective tissue corpuscles, range them- Should the tubercles be numerous and uncomplicated the resultSelves along the new capillaries and build up fibrous tissue whereby ing fibrosis may be irregular and extensive, and should the lesion e two opposed surfaces are definitely united. On the surface, be complicated by access of pyogenetic micro-organisms, suppusquamous epithelial cells divide and fill the skin defect and healing ration and the formation of a phthisical abscess cavity (vomica) S complete. As țhe newly-formed fibrous tissue grows older it are super-added. But even in the latter case, if the primary and Contracts and obliterates the majority of the newly-formed capil- subordinate irritants be overcome, the defect of lung is repaired es, so that the scar tissue, which at first was red and excessive, by newly-formed fibrous tissue, which is as surely scar tissue as Comes dead-white and contracted. in any of the other instances that have been adduced. (2) Fracture of a Long Bone.—(a) the fracture is simple and (4) An Abscess and an Ulcer—These two conditions are ~~

346

INFLATION

AND

bracketed because an ulcer may be regarded as an abscess from which part of the wall restraining the pus is wanting. Hence the pus produced on the floor of an ulcer drains away as it is formed, whereas in the abscess it accumulates within the abscess cavity.

Microscopically, however, the floor of an ulcer and the wall of an abscess are composed of the same elements arranged in the same fashion. When the bacterial irritant has become lodged within a tissue, and has multiplied sufficiently and produced enough toxin to destroy the neighbouring tissue cells, by the ordinary processes of inflammation it produces a hard, hot, painful swelling which consists of coagulated exudation, numbers of polynuclear leucocytes, dead tissue cells, and living and dead bacteria, the central part becoming liquefied later by proteolytic action and constituting the pus. This focus of inflammation is surrounded, as has been said earlier, by a zone in which the irritant action has fallen off in intensity to a level at which it ceases to be an irritant and becomes a stimulus. At some less or greater distance from the focus of inflammation, therefore, the necessary factors for the formation of new capillary blood vessels, the proliferation of connective tissue cells and the production of young fibrous tissue, z.e., the formation of granulation tissue, are present. Obeying hydrostatic laws, the pus within the abscess “points,” and by destruction of superficial layers of tissue, ultimately escapes. Relieved of this subordinate source of irritation the wall of the abscess contracts, and the reparative fibrous tissue constituting the wall goes on to the formation of definite scar tissue instead of breaking down to swell the contents of the abscess. It is at this stage that the abscess and ulcer are identical in composition. In both instances the most superficial layers of the granulation tissue break down into pus, which drains away, and the final healing only takes place when the surrounding epithelium (or in the case of an abscess in an internal organ covered by serous membrane, the endothelium) has regenerated a covering for the newly-formed scar tissue, and has thereby eliminated the possibility of bacterial irritant action. By application of the principles outlined above a rational ex-

DEFLATION

implies in practice that the currency, if linked directly or ing. rectly with a metallic standard, must be released from such de.

pendence. It must be made inconvertible into gold or foreign exchange, and must be freed from any legislative limit restri¢. ing its amount. Business men desire to borrow more whenever they believe that trade prospects are improving. If the currency is linked to gold or some other metal, their borrowing has the effect of imperilling the gold or foreign exchange reserves of the banking system. The consequence is that the banks in their own interests are driven to restrict inflation to the degree cop.

sistent with the maintenance of the standard.

Government re-

lieves, or can relieve the banks of any such limit, and, having freed

the banks, can bring powerful pressure to bear to exploit the freedom conferred. Abolition of Metallic Standards.—To sum up: unlimited inflation involves the abolition of metallic standards. Gover.

ments can achieve this more easily than business men. Hence inflation pursued for the benefit of Governments can be carried to much further lengths than inflation for the benefit of the business classes. And, in fact, experience bears this out. The ten or 15% variation in prices which is associated with the cyclical movements of trade weigh very lightly in the scale com-

pared to the enormous variations in the value of money during

the last ten years. But once an inflationist movement has been begun by Government it may be continued by industry, as happened in r919 to 1920 in the United States.

Deflation to be possible to an unlimited extent also requires a currency system not linked to any metallic standard. But, in contradistinction to inflation, it is not likely to be carried to any considerable extent, even if the technical conditions permit of it. Deflation involves a rise in the value of money and therefore

increases the value of debts. Even if, in the interests of prestige or of social justice, a Government desires to deflate, it will hesi-

tate to do so if the amount of deflation required is considerable: it would prefer to devaluate the currency, that is, to give it a fixed value in terms of gold lower than the value before inflation. planation of most examples of infammation and the phenomena In practice, since inflationary legislation does not repeal the right associated therewith can be obtained. Naturally, factors arise that to obtain currency for gold or foreign exchange but only the are difficult, even impossible in our present state of knowledge, right to obtain gold or foreign exchange for currency, the limit to explain. One of these is the relation of irritative to stimulative to deflation comes when the local currency threatens to become action. According to some authorities, the repair that follows in- more valuable than gold: gold is then presented in exchange for flammation is initiated by hormones produced by the injured local currency and the fall of prices is checked. When deflation tissues. They see in the formative processes following infamma- is enforced by banks in order to restore their reserves of gold tion something akin to the processes which, under other conditions, or foreign exchange after they have been threatened by a busilead to the production of neoplastic tumours. (W. S. L.-B.) ness boom the amount of deflation involved is relatively small INFLATION AND DEFLATION. If we define inflation because the previous degree of inflation has been small also. as an abnormal increase in the quantity of purchasing power, and The pursuit of an inflationary policy by Government necesdeflation as an abnormal decrease in the quantity of purchasing sarily involves an “unbalanced budget,” that is, a budget which power, the first issue which arises is: under what technical con- can only be balanced if the surplus of expenditure over revenue ditions are inflation and deflation respectively possible? This is met by means of inflation, so long as the Government inflates question cannot be answered without taking into account the by means of its own notes. If the inflation takes the form of circumstances which lead to inflation and deflation. Inflation is loans by a bank to those who only borrow for re-lending to Govnecessarily accompanied by a fall in the value of money per unit: ernment, there will be concealed inflation. When a Government deflation is accompanied by a rise in the value of money per proposes to deflate, that is, to reduce its own note circulation, it unit, and these changes in the value of the monetary unit in must ‘necessarily have a surplus: that surplus of income over themselves mainly depend upon the degree of inflation and de- expenditure it applies to wiping out the excess notes. When it has itself borrowed from a bank, it must use the surplus to canflation and on the psychological reactions thereby set up. The object of inflation is not the increase in the volume of cel indebtedness to the bank and the bank must use the proceeds purchasing power for its own sake. Purchasing power is in- to cancel notes. The same is true when the Government has creased for the purpose of increasing the consuming power of a borrowed from third parties, who have themselves borrowed from given social group. In the modern world the two groups of most a bank. The surplus revenue flows from the Government to its importance in this connection are Governments and business men creditors, from these to the lending bank or banks, and is by (including both producers and traders). Governments require them utilised to cancel purchasing power. If the banks were to consuming power at all times, but particularly in periods of war, re-lend the money repaid to them, there would be no deflation. and in this case require it on an unlimited scale. For psychologi- In the case of inflation and deflation originating in connection _ cal reasons that is, "to keep up the war spirit" heavy taxation is with the movements of trade and production, there is of course . unpopular. Borrowing in a form which diminishes spending power no difficulty in understanding how the purchasing power Is issued by the lenders has equally its limits. Governments resort to in- and withdrawn: inflation swells the commercial loans and flation, to an increase in the volume of money, and, since they the liabilities of the banks to their customers: deflation involves can alter legislation if that stands in the way, they proceed to ‘repayment of loans, a reduction of the assets in the shape of dis-

do so. The fundamental condition is that if inflation is to' be

practised the currency must no longer be fixed in amount.

This

counts and overdrafts and ‘a cancellation of deposits ant of z currency.

INFLEXION—INFLORESCENCE

347

Economic Limits.—The technical questions so far discussed

of the position of other classes, for the reason that inflation may

The limit which is set to inflation

Inflation, in so far as it is relatively moderate, will not much

which, as experience has shown, proceeds in the end at a

crease the proportion of the total income (real and nominal) falling to the beneficiaries of inflation. But rising prices act as a stimulus to producers and to this extent invigorate forces tending to mitigate the rise in the price level, whilst at the same time unemployment falls, since real wages lag a little behind prices and the real cost of labour to the employer therefore falls. But if inflation reaches such a stage that the fall in the value of money becomes obvious everyone will try to protect himself against the further fall which is then expected. Goods are bought so far as they are available: everyone will hold real things, if possible, rather than money. The liquid capital, that is, money stocks of employers, diminishes in value: they try to protect their profits by expanding their fixed plant. Traders holding stocks of goods will be reluctant to sell since prices may go up still more. The workers push up money wages and, the time-lag being wiped out, a particular source of profit to employers disappears. The “flight from the currency” withdraws part of the funds available abroad, so that the supply of raw materials, etc., falls off. The constantly rising price level produces “paper profits” and stimulates extravagance. The result of all these factors is that there is a maldistribution of capital between fixed and liquid forms: that the aggregate of all savings declines and that the national income falls off in total amount. In the end no one has benefited from inflation; everyone would have gained from its cessation at an earlier stage. The direct effects of deflation on the relative position of different social classes are the opposite of those of inflation. Deflation involves falling prices; it therefore reduces the money yield of taxation, reduces the profits of business men and of traders, and adds to the real income of all classes of the population whose money incomes are fixed, whilst prices are falling. It has therefore the effect of increasing the weight of all fixed debts: a particularly important matter after a great war when the National Debt stands at a large figure. Since deflation involves falling prices, it increases the volume of unemployment and diminishes the inducement to hold stocks of goods, since these are falling in value. On the other hand, since prices are falling deflation makes saving easier, and since it involves, owing to industrial depression, a slackening in the demand for fresh industrial capital, it is accompanied by falling interest rates, which facilitate conversion operations and thus mitigate the burden of fixed charges. The falling yield of taxation is thus offset in part, by the fall in expenditure on current goods and services, in part by the fall in interest rates. For reasons already set forth, the practical limits of deflation are reached sooner than the practical limits of inflation. Severe though the sufferings imposed by deflation may be (particularly when represented by widespread unemployment) it is not doubtful that the sufferings actually covered by inflation have in Europe been much greater than those imposed by deflation; for the degree to which the value of money has been raised by defla-

throw no light on the two main problems connected with in- reduce the total productivity of society, and is certain to do so fation and deflation: viz., the economic limits to the processes if carried to great lengths. and their social consequences.

is given by the progressive fall in the value of the currency is- affect the willingness to hold money, and operates simply to insued, rate much more rapid than the quantitative increase in the currency itself. The result is that as the quantity rises, the profit to be made out of the issue of further currency diminishes more

than in proportion to the amount of issue. Thus, at the end of 19:9, the aggregate German currency stood at 41i milliards of

marks, which still possessed a gold value of rr milliards of gold

marks, At the end of 1923, the total amount of issue stood at

74,954,803 billions (that is, 12 noughts omitted) and yet this inconceivable amount of currency had a value of only 722 millions of gold marks, on the basis of the dollar exchange. The 56 milliards of roubles in circulation at the end of 19:8, had still a value of some 376 million dollars on the most favourable estimate; by the end of 1922 the 1,479,218 milliards had a value of only 69 million dollars at most. Whilst the net revenue accruing to

the issuer thus ultimately falls almost to vanishing point dis-

astrous results are produced

in the sphere of public finance

generally. For, owing to the fact that an interval of time nec-

essarily elapses between the assessment of a tax and its collection,

the proceeds of taxation do not keep pace with the decline in the

value of money.

The State thus finds itself with only a single

reource available, and that one of diminishing value.

On the

other hand, though the fall in the value of money means a pro-

gressive diminution in the burden of national debts (from this point of view inflation is equivalent to repudiation) its other

expenses mount with the price level. For a time the rise in expenditure can be held down by non-adjustment of salaries and wages: this device cannot be made use of indefinitely. In short, there is a limit to inflation: arising from the progressive fall in

the value of the money issued (and this is a sign of the increasing unwillingness to accept it), and the consequential unprofitableness of trying to issue more of it.

The unwillingness to accept a currency the value of which is constantly falling is part of the very complex economic consequences which flow from inflation, consequences which have been illustrated on a tragic scale in Europe, in particular in the period 1919 to 1925, because the degree of inflation was then far in excess of anything previously known. Economic Consequences.—In discussing economic consequences, a distinction must be drawn between the effects of infla-

tion on particular social classes and on the national economy as a

whole. Particular social classes gain or lose relatively to one

another, according as to whether their income in terms of money

keeps pace with the fall in the value of money or not. The recipents of incomes fixed in amount, whether by law or custom,

suffer in proportion to the rigidity of their income and the rise in the price level. The higher classes of civil servants, teachers,

professional men paid by customary fees, the owners of fixed

interest-bearing investments, pensioners and the like all suffer. On the other hand, individuals whose incomes are adjusted to the changes in the price level need not suffer or gain anything at all, except when. the changes in the price level are so rapid that it tion has never been equal to the degree to which inflation has Is Impossible to keep pace with them. The wage-earning class as in special cases reduced it. (See further, QUANTITY THEORY or à Whole comes into this intermediate category, though the posi- Money; Money; CURRENCY.) (T. E. G.)

Hon of the skilled worker is usually worse than that of the unskilled in respect of the adjustment of wages to price levels, and m all cases there is in the early stages of inflation a time-lag

Which is due to ignorance of what is happening. Lastly come ose classes of the community whose incomes represent residual Bains: ordinary shareholders and business men generally, whose mcomes are derived from the margin between selling prices and expenses. These benefit from inflation, since their costs do not

INFLEXION, the action of bending inwards, or the condi-

tion of being bent or curved (from Lat. inflectere, to bend). In optics, the term “inflexion?” was used by Newton for what is now known as "diffraction of light" (g.v.). For inflexion in geo-

metry see Curve. Inflexion of the voice is a change in tone, pitch or expression. In grammar (g.v.) inflexion denotes the changes

which a word undergoes to bring it into correct relations with the other words with which it is used. In English grammar

nouns, allof them rise as rapidly as the price level rises. The proportion pronouns, adjectives (in their degrees of comparison), verbs and of the total real income of the community which falls to their lot adverbs are inflected. 8965 up in periods of inflation. But, though the relative position INFLORESCENCE, the arrangement of the flowers on the may alter to their advantage, their absolute position may be axis, or the ramification of the floral axis, composed of the rachis,

Worse than it was before, in common with the absolute worsening.

i

EE

£s

`

which forms the stalk supporting the flower or cluster of flowers,

348

INFLUENCE—INFLUENZA

called the peduncle. A flower having no stalk is called sessile. | in October, the second wave suddenly gathered force and swept The floral axis may be shortened, assuming a flattened convex or over the world. St. Helena is said to have escaped. Mauritius too, had a reprieve; and the quarantine measures applied by concave form and bearing numerous flowers as in the artichoke, daisy, etc. There are two distinct types of inflorescence (1) inde- Australia were successful for the moment but this fatal pandemic terminate, indefinite or axillary and (2) determinate, definite or spread throughout Europe, America, Asia and Africa. The upward curve of morbidity was almost precisely similar terminal. A third series of inflorescence is termed mixed. In the compouna indefinite inflorescence the lateral shoots develop cen- to that of the summer and the maximum was reached as quickly tripetally upon a primary axis into a group of racemes or com- as in the previous wave, but the fall was much slower and less regular. The outstanding difference between the two waves was pound racemes. See FLOWER. INFLUENCE, in astrology (g.v.) an ethereal fluid, supposed the marked tendency to pulmonary complications and the high to flow from the stars, which affected the course of events on death-rate of the second. The singularly uniform syndrome of earth and the destiny and character of man. The word is derived the summer epidemic gave place, in the autumn, to several varifrom Lat. influere, to low in. For the law as to "undue influence” eties of clinical picture depending on varying combinations of several factors, amongst which might be reckoned the virulence see CONTRACT. INFLUENCE LINE, in engineering, 2 curve showing, for of the microbic invader, the resistance of the patient, the nature one component part of a beam or truss, the shearing force, bend-

ing moment, stress or deflection for all positions of a moving load. (See Bripces: Construction.)

INFLUENZA.

The term influenza will be used to imply “a

pandemic outburst of disease characterized, clinically, by a rapid course, catarrh of the respiratory tract, pyrexia and some degree of prostration; and epidemiologically, by a tendency to occur in several successive waves at short intervals of time.” This provisional definition is applicable to the visitation of 1918-19, and to other outbreaks of febrile respiratory catarrh more remote ih time and about the distribution of which less is known, but is not applicable to the sporadic cases or even the localized epidemics of respiratory catarrh to which the name influenza has been so often applied, especially in the years following fairly closely upon pandemic outbursts. The Influenza Pandemic of 1918-19.—This pandemic swept over the world in three successive waves, the first appearing quite suddenly in May and June 1918, the second starting at the end of September or early in October and waning in December, and the third wave, less uniform in character, appeared early in March r919. This outbreak, attributed by France to Spain, by Spain to France and by America to eastern Europe, seems to have appeared almost simultaneously amongst the nations on the Western front, and showed the explosive character that is possible only for a highly invasive infection assisted by conditions of swift communication such as obtain in modern war. This first wave made its appearance a little later amongst the Central Powers and their neighbours. Early in July it attained its full proportions in Germany, Austria, Norway, Sweden and Denmark, Holland and Switzerland. In several large areas of the world’s surface, in the South American republics, in Bermuda, the British West Indies, the Azores and in the islands of the Pacific and Australia, the summer of 1918 passed without an influenzal outbreak. In New Zealand, cases are said to have appeared in August, the harbingers, perhaps, of the autumn, rather than the first manifestations of the summer, wave. This first wave passed rapidly, so that a “frequency curve” by weeks, in which the incidence in the worst week is taken as 100%, shows a steep ascent to a maximum, followed by an equally steep and almost symmetrical fall, the whole episode passing within a few weeks. The death-rate was inconsiderable, but there was an ominous tendency to a higher mortality amongst the later cases, just before the wave came to an end, seeming to suggest an increase in virulence. The first batch of cases looked “like a mild attack of measles without a rash.” Respiratory catarrh, congested conjunctivae, headache, lassitude, pyrexia of short duration, a feeling of prostration with the return of temperature to normal, and then a rapid recovery of health; such was the course in the vast majority of the cases during the first wave. Complications were almost unknown. A few cases which developed broncho-pneumonia or haemorrhagic oedema of the lungs towards the end of the wave sent up the case mortality. In all these characters, the first wave closely resembled the outbreak of 1890, except that in 1890 the death-rate was greatest amongst the middle-aged and elderly, while in 1918 the chief sufferers were amongst the “young adult” groups. The Second Wave.—Towards the end of September or early

of the bacterial flora of his respiratory tract, and environmental

conditions such as occupation, wages and housing. As a rule

the attack was ushered in by the catarrhal and pyrexial symptoms noted in May and June.

In many cases, especially where

circumstances permitted of immediate rest and treatment, the

disease took a favourable course towards recovery, although prostration was clearly always a more marked feature than in the summer. In others, the early pyrexial catarrh was sometimes followed by intense toxaemia leading so rapidly to a fatal issue that there was no time for pulmonary complications to develop. But frequently the lungs became severely affected and the patient passed into a state of anoxaemia recalling that due to exposure to the “pulmonary irritants” of gas warfare. But there was a formidable difference between the two conditions. While the “phosgene” patient had to deal with a sterile

exudate, evoked by a chemical irritant and capable of rapid absorption if vitality was maintained, the lungs of the influenza patient were charged with an exudate evoked byaliving virus which had already overcome tissue resistance and could offer to “secondary invaders” conditions of symbiosis favourable to their growth. Here lay the danger. The virus of influenza could open, as it were, the door to the streptococci, pneumococci, staphylococci and other organisms normally held within safe numerical limits upon the respiratory mucous membrane. The fosi-mortem appearances, while tending to have certain basal characters in common, varied considerably with the nature of the "secondary invaders" and other factors. In nearly all cases, there was a haemorrhagic tendency not often seen in other acute lung affections; and this sometimes amounted to a haemorrhagic oedema involving the greater part of both lungs. “Wet lungs,” “dripping lungs,” were expressions frequently heard in the post-mortem room. Areas suggesting haemorrhagic infarcts with their bases extending under the pleura were often noticed. The cut surface of the lungs showed, as a rule, peribronchiolitis and patches of broncho-pneumonia with a general state of oedema throughout the parenchyma of the lung; or a whole lobe might give the appearance of red, or in older cases, grey hepatization (see Major Tytler, R.A.M.C., Special Report Series No. 36, Med. Res. Coun., 1919). The third wave had no distinctive characters. It resembled the first wave rather than the second, though pulmonary complications and fatal cases were fairly numerous. Etiology.—As to the causative organism of influenza we Ie-

main, even now, still in doubt. The view that the Bacillus infuenzae (Pfeiffer) was the cause of the disease, received little support from investigations carried out since 1918. This work was directed, for the most part, to the search for a “filter-passing

virus.” During the second wave of 1918, the researches of C. Nicolle and Lebailly in the French war zone, of H. G. Gibson, F. B. Bowman and J. I. Connor at Abbeville, and of J. A. Wilson

at Etaples, in the zone of the British armies in France, afforded

highly significant evidence in favour of a filterable virus, although the restrictions imposed upon bacteriological work by war com ditions and the transitory nature of the epidemic rendered conclusive findings impossible. In rọrọ, an investigation was

undertaken

. by Zamanoucht,

Sakakami and Iwashrima, in which the filtered and unfiltered

emulsions of sputum from 43 cases of influenza were injected

INFLUENZA into the throats and noses of 24 healthy volunteers, six of whom

had recently suffered from influenza. Of the 18 previously uninfected persons, all developed influenza after an interval of two

or three days, but the six who had had the disease remained in health. Similar results were obtained with the filtered blood of patients. At the same time, the spraying of cultures of Pfeif-

fer’s bacillus, sometimes “pure,” sometimes mixed with other

respiratory bacteria, into the throats of 14 healthy persons failed

to lead to illness of any kind.

P. K. Olitsky and F. L. Gates in the laboratories of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research were able to approach the

subject with much more deliberation and with a much better equipment than was available in France; and their results are proportionally more convincing.

Like Gibson and his co-workers,

they produced in rabbits a condition closely resembling human influenza by means of filtered or unfiltered nasal secretions taken from human patients during the earliest stages of the attack. They provided independent confirmation of the discovery of Gibson and Bowman that "cultures" in Nogouchi medium were capable of transmitting the disease to animals, and showed that the anaerobic and filterable organism thus cultivated retained its activity after long exposure to glycerine and possessed antigenic properties. To the minute organism isolated by them in the course of this inquiry, they gave the name of Bacterium pneumosintes. Their work received speedy confirmation at the hands of Dr.

M. H. Gordon, C.M.G., F.R.S., in the course of an influenzal outbreak among the nursing staff of St. Bartholomew’s hospital, London, in 1922. Still further support for a “filter-passer” as the virus of influenza was later provided by Sir Spenser Lister in

South Africa. These. independent inquiries, leading to similar findings in America, England and South Africa, go far to establish the “case” for a filterable virus as the causative agent of influenza; but caution is still needed in drawing final conclusions until a more precise knowledge is available as to “filter-passers” in

general (see FILTER-PASSING VIRUSES). Epidemiology.—In the absence of final knowledge as to the

causative agent, many points of fundamental importance still remain obscure. The first wave coincided with the arrival of the first drafts of American troops in Europe, who must have brought into common circulation pathogenic strains long dormant in isolated and relatively immunized communities. The crowded troopships afforded just the incubation places that would permit of the maturation of such an infection; and Europe, with its crowded concentration areas and billets, offered an unequalled opportunity for its spread. The last influenzal pandemic had occurred just 28 years before. There might be a few scattered “carriers” and perhaps some residual immunity among the middle-aged and the elderly; but the adolescents and the young adults would in 1918 be “virgin soll.” It was just these lower age-groups that suffered most. How, then, explain the second wave with its greater severity? —and the third? Surely, if immunity played a part, these waves should have been much less extensive, much more benign, and confined to those persons who had previously escaped. These are good, but not final, arguments. The passage of the first wave may have left behind it a virus of exalted virulence, many

carriers” and many

“allergic” subjects whose behaviour to

reinfection might betray the phenomena of hypersensitiveness of the respiratory surfaces and a tendency to inflammatory exudates 0n contact with the air-borne virus. Under such conditions a fresh outbreak would be specially likely to arise in the fall of the year,

t period of rapid fluctuations of temperature when the chill ‘venings drive men into the warmth and close contact of crowded

dug-outs, shelters and billets.

It is impossible to believe that the so-called “influenza” to which deaths were attributed every year between 1892 and 1918 Was the same disease as the fulminating pandemic that followed. : 4t from the extreme contrast in invasive power, the distri-

uon of "influenza" mortality by age-groups emphasizes the

“sential difference between, let us say, the death-rates for 1917 and 1918, the one having a preponderating death-rate amongst the old, the other, amongst the young. Such differences can hard-

349

ly leap into existence within a few months. The known facts of increase and diminution of bacterial virulence do not support the

idea that such a vast alteration is probable or even possible in so short a time.

Acquired Immunity.—Evidence that morbidity and mortal-

ity were less marked, in the second wave, amongst those who had been attacked in the first, when thoroughly analysed (Rep. Min. Health, x918—19), was found to indicate that “these data show a considerable immunizing power in the summer attacks and we conclude, although with natural hesitation, that it is probable, on the average, that an appreciable degree of active immunity was

attained by those who passed through an attack in its first and mildest manifestations.” The evidences for immunity are of varying efficiency in different places, and the populations of many areas show no tendency to acquire resistance to infection as judged by a comparison between the behaviour of those attacked and those missed by the first wave when confronted by the second. We believe these data to be unsound as a basis for comparison. It is highly probable that many persons were infected during the summer and yet failed to show appreciable illness. The vast difference that may exist between the numbers infected and the numbers affected by a bacterial invasion can be judged from what we know of the meningococcus and the diphtheria bacillus. And yet these latent infections may confer active immunity, as we know from the "Schick Reaction" in the case of diphtheria and from other examples. The mere fact of a previous "attack" is not a safe guide in classifying populations for inquiry as to their relative immunities. The best evidence of the acquisition of immunity is to be found in the phenomena of natural recovery of the individual and of the disappearance of pandemic waves from the community. The fact that these groups of pandemics are separated by long and fairly regular intervals, as a rule about 20 years, is not without significance in this connection, since at least this period might be necessary to reduce the residual “immune population” from the last pandemic to an ineffective number. Artificial Immunity.—No vaccine can be entirely satisfactory unless it is known to contain the virus or germ of the disease in question. The vaccine issued by the War Office and afterwards by the Ministry of Health was confessedly of a provisional nature since the causative agent was still uncertain. Its formula was as follows :— Per cu.cm. of vaccine Bacilli influenzae (Pfeiffer)........ ..... 400,000,000 Preumococel. > «.dedesaet saws ...200,000,000 SLICDLOCOCGE udo so peu. RP aetatibus a 60,000,000 Unless Pfeiffer's bacillus be accepted as the causative agent, this vaccine must be described as consisting entirely of the “secondary invaders.” As such, its issue was entirely justifiable and its effects were such as might be expected: satisfactory in diminishing complications and mortality but practically nil in preventing the disease. Vaccine, then, cannot, as a prophylactic, help us much at present; nor can we, in the light of recent experience, hope for great results from general measures of hygiene. Symptoms.—These vary somewhat in different epidemics but in the main they accord with the description given by Dr. Bruce Low from observations made in St. Thomas’s hospital, London, in Jan. 1890:— The invasion is sudden; the patients can generally tell the time when they developed the disease; e.g. acute pains in the back and loins came on quite suddenly while they were at work or walking in the street, or in the case of a medical student, while playing cards, rendering him unable to continue the game. A workman wheeling a barrow had to put it down and leave it; and an omnibus driver was unable to pull up his horses, This sudden onset is often accompanied by vertigo and nausea, and sometimes actual vomiting of bilious matter. There are pains in the limbs and general sense of aching all over; frontal headache of special severity; pains in the eyeballs, increased by the slightest movement of the eyes; shivering; general feeling of misery and weakness, and great depression of spirits, many patients, both men and women, giving way to weeping; nervous restlessness; inability to sleep, and occasionally delirium. In some cases catarrhal symptoms develop, such as running

IN FORMA

350

PAUPERIS—INGEBORG

at the eyes, which are sometimes infected on the second day; sneez- |summonses or warrants. They relate to proceedings of a criminal ing and sore throat; and epistaxis, swelling of the parotid and nature as opposed to complaints which are the initiatory Steps to submaxillary glands, tonsilitis and spitting of bright blood from the | proceedings of a civil nature in these courts. pharynx may occur. There is a hard, dry cough of a paroxysmal Civil informations are of two kinds and are filed on the Revenu kind, worst at night. There is often tenderness of the spleen, which is almost always found enlarged, and this persists aíter the acute side of the King's Bench Division. The Latin information is the

symptoms have passed. disease.

The temperature is high at the onset of the | way in which the Crown recovers money or other chattels, $ and

In the first twenty-four hours its range is from ioo? F. in

mild cases to 105° F. in severe cases.

Several writers have distinguished four main varieties of the disease—namely, (1) nervous, (2) gastro-intestinal, (3) respiratory, (4) febrile, a form chiefly found in children. Clifford Allbutt said, “Influenza simulates other diseases." Many forms are of typhoid or comatose types. Cardiac attacks are common, not from organic disease but from the direct poisoning of the heart muscle by influenza. Perhaps the most marked feature of influenza, and certainly the one which victims have learned to dread most, is the prolonged debility and nervous depression that frequently follow an attack. In the Paris epidemic of 1890 the suicides increased 25%, a large proportion of the excess being attributed to nervous prostration caused by the disease.

Of insanities traceable to influenza, melan-

cholia is twice as frequent as all other forms put together. Other

common after-effects are neuralgia, dyspepsia, insomnia, weakness or loss of the special senses, particularly taste and smell, abdominal pains, sore throat, rheumatism and muscular weakness. The feature most dangerous to life is the special liability of patients to inflammation of the lungs. This affection must be regarded as a complication rather than an integral part of the illness. The deaths directly attributed to influenza vary in different epidemics and at different times in the same epidemic, but on the whole, are few in proportion to the number of cases. In the milder forms it offers hardly any danger to life if reasonable care be taken, but in the severer forms it is a fairly fatal disease. In eight London hospitals the case-mortality among in-patients in the 1890 outbreak was 34-5 per 1,000; among all patients treated it was 1-6 per 1,000. In the army it was rather less. The infectious character of influenza having been recognized, suggestions were made for its administrative control on the familiar lines of notification, isolation and disinfection, but this has not hitherto been found practicable. There is no routine treatment for influenza except bed. In all cases bed is advisable, because of the danger of lung complications, and in mild ones it is sufficient. Severer ones must be treated according to the symptoms. Quinine has been much used. Modern “anti-pyretic” drugs have also been extensively employed, and when applied with discretion they may be useful, but patients are not advised to prescribe them for themselves. BiBLIOGRAPHY.—in addition to the ordinary text-books, see series of articles by experts on different aspects in The Practitioner (London) for January 1907; F. G. Crookshank, Influenza, essays by several authors (bibl) (London, 1922); J. McIntosh, “Studies in the Etiology of Epidemic Influenza" (bibl), Med. Res. Council Spec. Rep. Ser No. 63 (London, 1922) ; W. F. Vaughan, Influenza (bibl.) (Baltimore, 1921); M. C. Winternitz, I. M. Wason and F. P. McNamara, The Pathology of Influenza (bibl) (New Haven, 1920) ; Ministry of Health, Rep. on the Pandemic of Influenza, 1918-19 (London, 1920); Sir A. Newsholme and others, *Discussion on Influenza," Proc. Roy. Soc. Med. (London, 1918-19). (S. L. C.)

these informations are either in rem or in personam. Informa-

tions in rem are used chiefly where the Crown lays a claim to property and are usually resorted to where such property is alleged to have become forfeited under customs or inland revenue stat-

utes. Informations 7m personam are largely used to recover a debt to the Crown whether such debt is payable by penalty or in another way. The other form of civil information is the English information and is generally used to recover corporeal or incorporeal hereditaments and also debts to the Crown where discovery and an account are sought.

In the United States the Federal Constitution (Amendments Art. V.) forbids the use of informations by providing that "no person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on presentment

or indictment

of a grand jury"

with certain exceptions in the land or naval forces and the militia,

Attempts at evasion of the revenue laws and other minor offences are sometimes prosecuted by information in the Federal courts. In a number of States all misdemeanours except misprision of treason may be prosecuted by information. 'This process may also be used in civil cases, such as a proceeding against a corporation for violation of charter.

INFORMER, the term applied to a person who prosecutes in any of the courts of law those who break any law or penal statute,

without any direct injury having been done to himself. Such a person is called a common informer when he furnishes evidence

on criminal trials or prosecutes for breaches of penal laws solely

for the purpose of obtaining the penalty recovered, or a share of it. An action by a common informer is termed a popular or qui

tam action, because it is brought by a person qui iam pro domino rege quam pro se ipso sequitur. A suit by an informer must be brought within a year of the offence, unless a specific time is prescribed by the statute. The term informer is also used of an accomplice in crime who turns what is called “king’s evidence,” or *State's evidence" in the United States (see Accomptice). In Scotland, informer is the term applied to the party who, in criminal proceedings, sets the lord advocate in motion.

INFUSORIA, a name for the group of single-celled animals (Protozoa) usually called Ciliata, and distinguished by numerous. hair-like, protoplasmic processes (so-called cilia), which are used in locomotion and function like oars. The Infusoria are also peculiar in having two different kinds of nuclei (macronuclei and micronuclei), and a peculiar modification of the process of conjugation. (See PROTOZOA.)

INGE, WILLIAM RALPH

(1860-

), English divine,

was born June 6, 1860, at Crayke, Yorks., the son of William Inge, sòmetime provost of Worcester college, Oxford, and was educated at Eton, and at King’s college, Cambridge. From 1884 to 1888 he was a master at Eton, and during the last two years

of that time was fellow of King’s college, Cambridge. From

1889 to 1904 he was fellow of Hertford college, Oxford. Bampton lecturer in 1899, and Paddock lecturer in New York in 1906, from

IN FORMA PAUPERIS: see PRACTICE AND PROCEDURE. 1905 to 1907 he was vicar of All Saints’, Ennismore Gardens, Lon INFORMATION, in English law, a proceeding on behalf of don, and in 1907 was made Lady Margaret professor of divinity at against a subject otherwise than by indictment is either

the crown criminal or civil. Criminal informations are ex officio or by the Master of the Crown office. Àn ex officio information is a proceeding in the King's Bench by the attorney-general without the intervention of a grand jury. The attorney-general, or, in his absence, the solicitor-general, has a right ex officio to file a criminal information in respect of any misdemeanour, but not for treason, felonies or misprision of treason. It is, however, seldom exercised, except in cases which might be described as "enormous misde-

Cambridge. In 1911 he became dean of St. Paul’s, where his ser-

mons attracted great attention owing to their originality, their caustic criticism of the tendencies of modern life and a somewhat

pessimistic tone which earned for him the sobriquet of “the

gloomy dean.”

Among: Inge’s numerous works may be mentioned Society in Rome under the Caesars (1888); Christian Mysticism (1899); Types of Christian Saintliness (1915); Philosophy of Plotinus (1918); spoken Essays (1919, Second Series 1922) ; Personal Religion andt

meanours," such as those peculiarly tending to disturb or endanger

Life of Devotion (1924) ; The Church in the World: Collected Essays

the king’s government, e.g. seditions, obstructing the king's officers in the execution of their duties, etc. There are informations also which are the first step in proceedings in permits of summary jurisdiction leading to the issue of

BURGE, Dan. INGIBJÖRG) (c. 1176—1237 or 1238), queen of diera:

(1928),

INGEBORG

(IxcEBURGE, INGELBURGE,

INGELBORG, Issw-

was the daughter of Valdemar I., king of Denmark.

She. matr:

INGELHEIM—INGLEFIELD

35I

in 1195 Philip II. Augustus, king of France, but on the day after | Illinois. During the Civil War he organized a cavalry regiment, his marriage the king took a sudden aversion to her. The council of which he was colonel, until captured at Lexington (Tenn.), of Compiègne acceded (Nov. 5, 1193) to his demand for a declara- Dec. 18, 1862, by the Confederate cavalry under Gen. N. B. Fortion of nullity, but the popes Celestine ITI. and Innocent III. rest. He was paroled, waited in vain to be exchanged, and in June successively took up the defence of Ingeborg. Philip, having mar- 1863 resigned from the service. He was attorney-general of ried Agnes of Meran in June 1196, was excommunicated, and as Illinois in 1867-69, and in 1876 his speech in the Republican be remained obdurate, the kingdom was placed under an interdict. national convention, naming James G. Blaine for the presidential was finally sent away, but Ingeborg was shut up in the candidate, won him a national reputation as a public speaker. As chateau of Étampes until, in 1213, Philip, hoping perhaps to a lawyer he distinguished himself particularly as counsel for the justify by his wife’s claims his pretensions to England, was rec- defendants in the “‘Star-Route Fraud” trials. He was most widely endled with her. She survived him more than fourteen years, known, however, for his public lectures attacking the Bible, and ing the greater part of the time in the priory of St. Jean at his anti-Christian views were an obstacle to his political advanceCorbeil, which she had founded. ment. Ingersoll was an eloquent rhetorician rather than a logical See Robt. Davidsohn, Philip II. August von Frankreich und Ingeborg reasoner. He died at Dobbs Ferry (N.Y.), July 21, 1899. (Stuttgart, 1888) ; and E. Michael, “Zur Geschichte der Königin Ingelborg” in the Zeitschrift für Katholische Theologie (1890).

INGELHEIM (Ober-Ingelheim and Nieder-Ingelheim), the name of two contiguous market-towns of Germany, in the republic of Hesse, on the Selz, near its confluence with the Rhine, 9 m.

W.S.W. of Mainz on the railway to Coblenz.

Ober-Ingelheim,

formerly an imperial town, is still surrounded by walls. Its chief

industry is the manufacture of red wine.

Nieder-Ingelheim

has in addition

Pop. (1925) 3,680.

to wine, manufactories

of

machinery, chemicals, malt and limestone quarries. Pop. (1925) 8.

*\ieder-Ingelheim is, according to one tradition, the birthplace of Charlemagne, and it possesses the ruins of an old palace built

His principal lectures and speeches were published under the titles: The Gods and Other Lectures (1876); Some Mistakes of Moses (1879); Prose Poems (1884); Great Speeches (1887). His lectures, entitled “The Bible,” “Ghosts,” and “Foundations of F aith,” attracted particular attention. His complete works were published in r2 vols. in New York in 1900.

INGERSOLL, a town and port of entry of Oxford county,

Ontario, Canada, 19 m. E. of London, on the river Thames and the Canadian National and Canadian Pacific railways. Pop. (1931) 5,233. The principal manufactures are agricultural implements,

furniture, pianos and screws. cheese and farm produce.

There is a large export trade in

INGHIRAMI, the name of an Italian noble family of Vol-

terra. The following are its most important members: by that emperor between 768 and 774. Tommaso INGHIRAMI (1470—1516), a humanist, is best known INGELOW, JEAN (1820-1897), English poet and novelist, for his Latin orations, seven of which were published in 1777. was born at Boston, Lincs., on March 17, 1820, and died in His success in the part of Phaedra in a presentation of Seneca’s London on July 20, 1897. Jean Ingelow, who was the daughter Hippolytus (or Phaedra) led to his being generally known as of a Boston banker, is famous for one poem, “High Tide on the Fedra, He received high honours from Alexander VI., Leo X. Coast of Lincolnshire’; many of her ballads and songs were set and Maximilian I. to music in the '7os and had a great vogue. Her works include FRANCESCO ĪNGHIRAMI (1772-1846), a distinguished archaeolPoems (1863); The Story of Doom and other Poems (1867); ogist, fought in the French wars (1799), and afterwards devoted Poems (1885); several novels, of which Sarah de Berenger himself especially to the study of Etruscan antiquities. He (1880) is perhaps the best known, and a number of excellent founded a college at Fiesole and collected a mass of valuable children’s books, including Mopsa the Fairy (1869). material in his Monumenti etrusché (10 vols., 1820-27), Galleria INGEMANN, BERNHARD SEVERIN (1789-1862), america (3 vols., Danish poet and novelist, was born at Torkildstrup, Falster, on etrusco chiusino 829-51), Pitture di vasi fittili (1831-37), Museo (2 vols., 1833), and the incomplete Storia della May 28, 1789. He was educated at the grammar school at SlamE (1841-45). gelse, and entered the University of Copenhagen in 1806. All his Toscana His brother, GriovaNNr INGHIBAMI (1779-1851), was an asearly and unpublished writings were destroyed when the English tronomer of repute. He was professor of astronomy at the Inbumed the town. In 1811 he published his first volume of poems, stitute founded by Ximenes in Florence and published Effemeridi and in 1812 his second, followed in 1813 by a book of lyrics endel? occultazione delle piccole stelle sotto la luna (1809—30); titled Procne and in 1814 the verse romance, The Black Knights. Effemeridi di Venese e Giove all uso de naviganti (1821-24); In 1815 he published two tragedies, Masaniello and Blanca, Tavole astronomichi universali portatili (1811); Base trigonofollowed by The Voice im the Desert, The Shepherd of Tolosa, metrica misurata in Toscana (1818); Carta topografica e geoand other romantic plays. In 1818 he went to Rome, where he wrote The Liberation of Tasso. In 1820 he began to display his metrica della Toscana (1830). INGLEBY, CLEMENT MANSFIELD (1823-1886), real power in a volume of delightful tales. His last comedy, Magnetism in a Barber’s Shop, appeared in 1821. In 1822 the English Shakespearian scholar, was born at Edgbaston, Birmingpoet was nominated lector in Danish language and literature at ham, on Oct. 29, 1823, studied at Trinity college, Cambridge, Soré college, and in 1846 director. Valdemar the Great and his and eventually became partner in the business of his father, a Men, an historical epic, appeared in 1824. The next few years solicitor. But in 1859 he came to London, commenced journalwere occupied with his best and most durdble work, his four ism, and from 1874 devoted himself exclusively to work on great national and historical novels of Valdemar Seier (1826); Shakespeare. Ingleby exposed the manipùlations of J. P. Collier Erik Menved’s Childhood (1828); King Erik (1833); and Prince as early as 1859 in his The Shakespeare Fabrications. He was at Otto of Denmark (1835). He then returned to epic poetry in one time vice-president of the New Shakspere Society, and was one of the original trustees of the “birthplace.” His other Queen Margaret (1836) and in a cycle of romances, Holger works include: Shakespeare Hermeneutics (1875); Shakespeare: Danske (1837). His last publication was The Apple of Gold (1856). Ingemann died on Feb. 24, 1862. During his lifetime he The Man and the Book (1877-81); and Shakespeare’s Bones énjoyed a popularity unapproached even by that of Óhlenschláger. (1882), in which he recommended disinterment and examination Ingemann's works were collected in 4r vols. at Copenhagen

(1843-

1865). His autobiography was edited by Galskjót in 1862; his corre-

Spondence by V. Heise (1879-81) ; and his letters to Grundtvig by S. Grundtvig (1882). See also H. Schwanenfiügel, Ingemanns Liv og

Digining (1886) ; and Georg Brandes, Essays (1889).

INGERSOLL, ROBERT GREEN (1833-1899), American

of Shakespeare’s skull.

INGLEFIELD,

SIR EDWARD

AUGUSTUS

(182o-

1894), British admiral and explorer, was born at Cheltenham, on March 27, 1820, and educated at the Royal Naval College, Portsmouth. The boy went to sea at fourteen, saw service on the Syrian Coast in 1840, and in 1845 was promoted

commander for myer and lecturer, was born in Dresden (N.Y.), Aug. 11, 1833. gallant conduct at, Obligado. In 1854 he was sent out on the 8 lather was a Congregational minister, who removed to Wis- Admiralty's last attempt, to find Sir John Franklin. In the usm in 1843 and to Illinois in 1845. Robert Ingersoll was Crimean War Captain Inglefield took part in the siege of Sevastotted to the bar in 1854, and practised law with success. in pol He was promoted admiral in 1877. Besides being an ex-

INGLE

354

NOOK—INGRAM

cellent marine artist, he invented the hydraulic steering gear and the Inglefield anchor.

He died on Sept. 5, 1894.

INGLE NOOK, originally the corners of a large fire-place, under the main chimney-breast opening, and on either side of the spot where the fire was built. In many Tudor, Jacobean and early American fire-places there is sufficient width and depth to place a wooden bench or settle on each side, within the opening. In modern usage, the term is applied more loosely to any recess or alcove containing a fire-place at the end and usually furnished with settles or seats at the sides.

INGLIS,

ELSIE

MAUD

(1864-1917), British physician

and surgeon, was born at Naini Tal, India, on Aug. 16, 1864. After a childhood spent in India and Australia, in 1878 she settled with her family in Edinburgh. She studied at the school of medicine for women in Edinburgh, and at St. Margaret's college, Glasgow, graduating M.B. and C.M. In 1895 she took up private practice in Edinburgh and was instrumental in establishing 4 second school of medicine for women in that city. Dr. Inglis became one of the most prominent suffrage workers in Scotland. She became in 1892 house-surgeon to the New Hospital for

its charter of civic incorporation before 1255, and later became

the capital of a dukedom which merged in that of Bavaria-~Munich

The fortifications were erected in 1539. In 1800 the F rench, under

General Moreau, took the town, and dismantled the fortifications

They were rebuilt on a much larger scale under King Louis | and after 1870 Ingolstadt ranked as an important fortress, The principal buildings are the old palace of the dukes of Bavaria. Ingolstadt; the remains of the earliest Jesuits’ college in Germany

founded in 1555; the former university buildings, now a school:

and the large Gothic Frauenkirche, founded in 1425, with two massive towers, containing the tomb of Dr. Eck, Luther’s opponent. In 1472 a university was founded in the town by the Bavarian duke, Louis the Rich, which at the end of the r6th century was attended by 4,000 students. In 1800 it was removed io Landshut, whence it was transferred to Munich in 1826. The industries are metal founding and the manufacture of locomotives and machinery.

INGOT, originally a mould for the casting of metals, but now a mass of metal cast in a mould, and particularly the small bars of the precious metals, cast in the shape of an oblong brick

Women, London (afterwards the Elizabeth Garrett-Anderson or wedge with slightly sloping sides, in which form gold and silver hospital), and later on co-surgeon at an Edinburgh dispensary. are handled as bullion at the Bank of England and the Mint. She was one of the founders of the Edinburgh hospice for women Ingots of varying sizes and shapes dre cast of other metals, and (est. 1901), at that time the only maternity training centre in “ingot-steel” and “ingot-iron” are technical terms in the manvScotland managed by women. She began private practice in Edin- facture of iron and steel (see IRON AND STEEL). burgh in 1895. In Aug. 1914, inspired by her, a special comINGRAM, ARTHUR FOLEY WINNINGTON (18:3mittee of the Scottish Federation of Women’s Suffrage Societies, ), English divine, was born m Worcestershire on Jan. 26, aided by the National Union of Women’s Suffrage Societies, 1858, and educated at Marlborough College, and Keble College, undertook the organization of the Scottish women’s hospitals for Oxford. His first curacy was at St. Mary's, Shrewsbury, in 1884; foreign service, and raised £449,000. She first went to Serbia in in 1885 he became private chaplain to the Bishop of Lichfield and April r915 to relieve Dr. Soltau at Kragujevac. In November, in 1889 head of the Oxford House, Bethnal Green, where he during the enemy invasion of Serbia, Dr. Inglis and a few others became much loved for his devoted work among the poor. In 1897 remained behind until Feb. 1916 as prisoners of the enemy to he was appointed suffragan bishop of Stepney, which carried with care for the Serbian wounded. In Aug. 1916 she took a unit to it a canonry in St. Paul's. In 1goz, after the death of Dr. Mandell the Dobruja for service with the newly-formed Serbian division Creighton, he was nominated by the Crown to the see of London. attached to the Russian army. She was seriously enfeebled by The appointment, which had hitherto been reserved for men who the hardships endured, and died (Nov. 26, 1917) the day after had made their mark as scholars and administration rather than in pastoral work, excited much comment; but it was undoubtedly landing in England. popular. As a preacher Dr. Ingram attracted great audiences. See Lady Frances Balfour, Dr. Elsie Inglis (1918) ; and Mrs. Shaw McLaren, Elsie Inglis (1920). During the World War he threw himself into the work of providINGLIS, SIR JOHN EARDLEY WILMOT (:8:4- ing religious instructions for the fighting men, visiting both the 1862), British major-general, son of John Inglis, third bishop of French front and the Grand Fleet. He went on a world tour in Nova Scotia, was born in Nova Scotia on Nov. x5, 1814. In July 1926, returning in May 1927. He visited several Canadian 1833 he joined the 32nd Foot, in which all his regimental service towns and delivered an address at the centenary celebration of the was passed. In 1837 he saw active service in Canada and in the foundation of Ottawa. Dr. Ingram also took a prominent part in Punjab (1848-49), being in command at the storming of Mooltan the discussions on the proposals for the revision of the Prayerand at the battle of Gujarat. In 1857, on the outbreak of the In- book in 1927 and 1928. INGRAM, JAMES (1774-1850), English antiquarian and dian Mutiny, he was in command of his regiment at Lucknow. Sir Henry Lawrence being mortally wounded during the siege of the Anglo-Saxon scholar, was born near Salisbury on Dec. 21, 1774. residency, Inglis continued the defence for 87 days against an From 1803 to 1808 he was professor of Anglo-Saxon at Oxford, overwhelming force. He was promoted to major-general and and in 1824 was made president of Trinity college and D.D. He made K.C.B. He was, in 1860, given command of the British was the pre-eminent Anglo-Saxon scholar of his time. He died troops in the Ionian Islands. He died at Hamburg on Sept. on Sept. 5, 1850. He published an edition of the Saxon Chronicle (1823), Memorials of Oxford (1832-37); and The Church in the 27, 1862. Middle Centuries (1842). INGLIS, SIR WILLIAM (1764-1835), British general, INGRAM, JOHN KELLS (1823-1907), Irish scholar and born in 1764, entered the army in 178z. After ten years in America he served in Flanders, taking part in the capture of economist, was born in Co. Donegal, Ireland, on July 7, 1823, St. Lucia. In 1809 he commanded a brigade in the Peninsula, and educated at Newry school and Trinity college, Dublin. taking part in the battle of Busaco (1810) and the first siege of Elected fellow of his college in 1846, he became successively proBadajoz. At Albuera his regiment, the 57th, occupied a most fessor of oratory and English literature (1852-66), regius proimportant position, exposed to a deadly fire. “Die hard! Fifty- fessor of Greek (1866), and librarian (1879). Always remarkseventh,” cried Inglis, “Die hard!” The regiment's answer has able for his versatility, he made a reputation in the fields of literagone down to history. Out of a total strength of 579, 23 officers ture, philosophy and science, as well as political economy. He and 415 rank and file were killed and wounded. Inglis himself contributed an historical and biographical article on economics was wounded. On recovering, he saw further Peninsular service. to the oth edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica which was translated into many European languages. He died in Dublin He died at Ramsgate on Nov. 29, 1835. INGOLSTADT, a town of Germany, in the republic of on May 18, 1907. His principle works are Greek and Latin EtyBavaria, on the left bank of the Danube at its confluence with the mology in England; The Etymology of Liddell and Scott; The Schutter, 52 m. N. of Munich, at the junction of the main lines Outlines of the History of Religion (1900); Human Nature at of railway, Munich, Bamberg and Regensburg-Augsburg. Pop. Morals According to A. Comte (1901); Practical Morals (1904); (1925) 26,630. Ingolstadt, known as Aureatum or Chrysopols, The Final Transition (1905); and Sonnets and Other Poems was a royal villa in the beginning of the gth century, and received (1900).

INGRES—INGUSHETIA INGRES, JEAN AUGUSTE DOMINIQUE (1780- that of “Bertinainé”

1867), French painter, was born at Montauban, on Aug. 29,

353

(Louvre). From this date up till 1834 the Studio of Ingres was thronged. Whilst he taught with despotic

1780. His father has described himself as sculpteur en plâtre.

authority and admirable wisdom, he steadily worked;

Toulouse—his father at first wished him to take up music. At Toulouse, whither his father had removed from Montauban in

and resentment that he found his work received with the same doubt and indifference as had met his earlier ventures. Ingres gladly availed himself of the opportunity to return to Rome, as director of the Ecole de France, in the room of Horace

and when

In consequence of the son’s talent for music—the lad’s perform- in 1834 he produced his great canvas of the “Martyrdom of Saint ance of a concerto of Viotti’s was applauded at the theatre of Symphorien” (cathedral of Autun), it was with angry disgust 1792, Ingres received lessons from Joseph Roques, from Vigan, fessor at the academy of fine arts, and from Briant, a land-

scape-painter. The sight of a copy of Raphael’s “Madonna della Sedia” came to him as a revelation and confirmed him in his desire to become a painter.

He started for Paris about the close of 1796. He was admitted to the studio of David, for whose lofty standard and severe principles he always retained a profound appreciation. Ingres, after four years of devoted study, during which (1800) he obtained the second place in the yearly competition, finally carried of the Grand Prix (1801). The work thus rewarded—the “Am-~

bessadors of Agamemnon in the Tent of Achilles" (École des Beaux Arts)—was much admired by Flaxman. In 1804 Ingres exhibited “Portrait of the First Consul” (Musée de Liége), and portraits of his father and himself (Musée Ingres and Chantilly):

these were followed in 1806 by "Portrait of the Emperor" (Invalides), and portraits of Mme. and Mlle. Riviére (Louvre). It was not until 1806 that the state of public affairs admitted of the re-establishment of the Academy of France at Rome.

The

first year in Rome Ingres produced the portraits of Granet

(Musée Aix) and of Madame Devaucay (Musée Chantilly), In 1808 followed “Oedipus and the Sphinx” and the “Grande Baig-

neuse” (both in the Louvre). These works were followed by some of his best portraits, that of M. Bochet (Louvre), and that of Mme. la Comtesse de Tournon; in 1811 he finished “Jupiter and Thetis,” an immense canvas now in the Museum of Aix, and

in 1812 “Romulus and Acron” (Ecole des Beaux Arts). “Don Pedro of Toledo Kissing the Sword of Henry IV.” (Collection Deymié; Montauban) was exhibited at the Salon of 1814, together

with the “Chapelle Sistine” (Collection Madame Pougin de la Maisonneuve) and the “Grande Odalisque” (Louvre). In 1813 Ingres executed “Raphael and the Fornarina” (Museum of Riga). During all these years Ingres’s reputation in France did not increase. The interest which his “Chapelle Sistine” had aroused at the Salon of 1814 soon died away; amongst his brother artists

Ingres found scant recognition. The strict classicists looked upon him as a renegade, and strangely enough Delacroix and other pupils of Guérin—the leaders of that romantic movement for which Ingres, throughout his long life, always expressed the deepest abhorrence—alone seem to have been sensible of his merits. The weight of poverty, too, was hard to bear. In 1813 Ingres had married Madeleine Chapelle, who speedily acquired a faith inher husband which enabled her to combat the difficulties which beset their existence, and which were increased by their removal to Florence. The good offices of his friend Bartolini, and of one or two other persons, could only alleviate the miseries of this stay in

a town where Ingres was all but deprived of the means of gaining

daily bread by the making of those small portraits for the execulion

of which, in Rome, his pencil had been constantly in re-

quest. Before his departure he had, however, been commissioned

to paint for de Pastoret the “Entry of Charles V. into Paris,”

and de Pastoret now obtained an order for Ingres from the Administration of Fine Arts; he was directed to treat the “Voeu de Louis XIII.” for the cathedral of Montauban. This work,

Vernet. There he executed "La Vierge à l'Hostie" (Leningrad), "Stratonice" (Mus. Chantilly), *Portrait of Cherubini" (Louvre)

and the "Petite Odalisque" (Coll. Gust. Pereire).

The “Stra-

tonice,” executed for the duke of Orleans, had been exhibited at the Palais Royal for several days after its arrival in France, and the beauty of the composition produced so favourable an impression that, on his return to Paris in 1841, Ingres found himself received with deference. A portrait of the duke of Orleans (Mus. Versailles) was one of the first works executed after his return. In 1845 he painted Madame d’Haussonville (Chateau Coppet), one of his best female portraits; shortly afterwards he began the decorations of the great hall in the Chateau de Dampierre, which were begun with an ardour which gradually slackened, until in 1849 Ingres abandoned all hope of their completion, and the contract with the duc de Luynes was cancelled. Ingres's next considerable undertaking (1853) was the ^ Apotheosis of Napoleon I.’ painted for the ceiling of a hall in the Hôtel de Ville (destroyed): “Jeanne d’Arc” (Louvre) appeared in 1854; and in 1855 Ingres consented to rescind the resolution, more or less strictly kept since 1834, in favour of the International Exhibition, where a room was reserved for his works. Prince Napoleon, president of the jury, proposed an exceptional recompense for their author, and obtained from the emperor Ingres’s nomination as grand officer of the Legion of Honour. With renewed confidence Ingres now took up and completed one of his most charming productions—"La Source" (Louvre). In 1862 Ingres completed "Christ and the Doctors" (Musée Montauban), a Work commissioned many years before by Queen Marie Amélie for the chapel of Bizy. On Jan. 14, 1867, Ingres died in his 88th year, having preserved his faculties in wonderful perfection to the last. In the same year was opened the Musée Ingres at Montauban, which contains the greatest collection of his paintings and drawings and constitutes a fine memorial to the artist. His art was wholly based on form and line. Except in his “Sistine Chapel,” and one or two slighter pieces, Ingres kept himself free from any preoccupation as to depth and force of colour and tone; driven, probably by the excesses of the Romantic movement, into an attitude of stricter protest, “ce que l'on sait" he would repeat, “il faut le savoir l'épée à la main." His admiration for Raphael inspired the remark, "Je suis donc wn conservateur des bonnes doctrines et non un novateur.” His constant and keen study of nature, however, prevented his becoming an eclectic, and we find him at his best whenever he worked from nature. It is not by his wonderful portraiture alone that his art will live, His drawings are cherished by all lovers of art and his picture the “Grande Odalisque” ranks as one of the finest interpretations of the nude. He had many pupils; the most important was Chassériau; but his influence extended beyond his class and is felt in modern painting. He was worshipped by Gauguin, Puvis, Degas; and the cubists claim him as a kindred spirit. See H. Lapauze, Ingres, sa Vie et son Oeuvre (1911).

INGRESS, entrance as opposed

to exit or egress; in astronexhibited at the Salon of 1824, met with universal approbation. omy, the apparent entrance of a smaller body upon the disc of On his return Ingres was received at Montauban with enthusiastic a larger one, as it passes between the latter and the observer; in homage, and found himself celebrated throughout France. this sense it is applied especially to the beginning of a transit of a In the following year (1825) he was elected to the Institute, satellite of Jupiter over the disc of the planet. and his fame was further extended in 1826 by the publication of INGUSHETIA, an autonomous area created in July, 1924, Sudre's lithograph of the “Grande Odalisque," which, having within the North Caucasian Area, occupying 3,199 sq.km. The “scorned by artists and critics alike in 1819, now became watershed of the Caucasus forms its southern boundary, where widely popular. A second commission from the government called Georgia borders it, the Kabardian territory lies to the north, the

orth the “Apotheosis of Homer”

(Louvre), originally meant for Chechen to the east and the North a ceiling decoration. One of the finest portraits of this period is mountain region consists of the peaks, Ossetian to the west. The ridges and deep ravines of

354

INHAMBANE

the main crest of the Caucasus lying east of Kazbek; the lowland |tuberculosis and social diseases have recently been established, is the eastern extension of the Vladikavkaz valley, and merges |The Ingushete language is closely allied to that of the Chechens, into the Kabardian plain. This small lowland area is only 200 and both Ingushetians and Chechens call themselves “nakhchi" metres above sea level, but much of Ingushetia is 4,000 metres, (people). The Ingushetes also call themselves “Lamur,” “Galgaj" with scattered peaks rising even higher. It is drained by the Terek or “Nazranovs.” In physical type they are extremely varied, ang and its tributaries the Armkhi, Sunzha, Kambileyevka; the Ossa dark brown, blue and light grey eyes are common; the prevaili river, a tributary of the Sunzha, is the main stream in the district. hair shades are dark red and black, and a large proportion is The climate varies with the relief; the annual rainfall may be dolichocephalic. In 1926 an Ingushetian Research Institute was founded in 500 to 840 mm., and is greatest from the end of spring to midsummer, with a further fall at the beginning of winter. This type of Vladikavkaz. The district is full of interest because it has pre. rainfall favours the growth of maize, but is bad for wheat. There served its ancient customs to so late a date. Numerous cist are seven meteorological stations in Ingushetia which record burials, associated with Bronze and Iron cultures, have been disaverage January temperature —4.5? to — 5-4? C and July 20-6? covered, some crouched and some extended, but all with the head to 22-2? C. The temperature is rarely higher than 22.6? C. The oriented to the west. Until the middle of the roth century burials north of the valley of the Armkhi, on the Stolovoi slopes, is, how- took place in “kashi,” or two storied chambers, some hut-shaped ever, practically rainless and the hill meadows are parched in | with pyramidal roofs and some cone shaped. The corpses were summer, while the south below the snow-line is covered with |piled up to the ceiling buried in their ordinary garments, and mixed pine and deciduous forest where health resorts could be | with utensils and weapons for use in the next world. These favourably developed. Near Kabardia the climate approximates | sepulchres were built of stone cemented with clay or lime and to the dry continental type of the North Caucasian Area, and the | were whitewashed on the outside; the window was to the east and soil is a transition type between chestnut coloured and black earth | the roof of the lower chamber vaulted, with a window in the (see Russta, Soils); typical steppe vegetation is found here. On | north leading to the upper chamber. Owing to the dryness of the the southern slopes of the hills are forests of ash, lime, oak, wild | atmosphere, the corpses became partially mummified. A marked cherry and a great variety of shrubs; on the northern are birch |feature of Ingushete “auls” or mountain villages from the rsth and willow. In the Black mountain region, beech occupies 70% century to modern times is the erection of military and resi of the forest, the rest being lime, hazel, oak, apple and pear. On dential turrets, mostly square at the base and tapering towards the higher slopes are pine forests and alpine and sub-alpine mead- the top: the military turrets are often 70 ft. high with 4 or ; ows. Agriculture is the chief occupation; there are no settlements storeys. They are an indication of the state of perpetual tribal large enough to be called towns, the administrative offices are in warfare existing in the region. In the 11th century the Ingushetes Vladikavkaz. The cultivation of maize occupies the first place in were dependent on Georgia, but in the early 15th century the the local economy; in 1926, of 50,800 hectares of cultivated land Kabardians conquered them and exacted tribute so oppressively 97-4% were under maize. Livestock breeding, mainly of a nomad that the Ingushetes placed themselves under Russian protection type relying on pasturage, supplemented in the winter by maize in 1770. The Kabardians resented this and a Russian regiment forage, comes next. In 1926 there were roughly 55,000 sheep, under General Medemom was sent to pacify the district. From 52,000 working cattle, 21,600 horses and 5,500 goats, i.e., about that time onwards sporadic outbreaks of unrest continued, in 75% of the number in 1913. Potatoes, vegetables, fruit, melons which religious fanaticism played its part. The Ingushetes are and cucumbers are grown and could be profitably developed for Mohammedans of the Sunni sect, and joined the rebellion under

the market if transport facilities were provided.

Shamil (q.v.). The building of the Georgian military road, the

Beekeeping

establishment of Cossack military outposts and finally the building of the railway to Vladikavkaz gradually pacified the district, but the bands of Ingushete highway robbers, retreating to their inaccessible mountain fastnesses, have been a thorn in the side

forms a supplementary occupation. The tiny scattered hamlets in the higher valleys rely almost exclusively on their flocks of sheep, goats and chamois which provide them with wool for homespun and with leather, meat and milk. The Ingushetes in these regions are wild and lawless; the blood feud is common and

of settled government.

See N. Yakovlev, Ingushi (Moscow, 1925).

trade is of an exchange and barter type. Their homes are smoky, windowless hovels, and eye diseases are common. The valley Ingushetes are settled cultivators and their easier contact with

INHAMBANE, a seaport of Portuguese East Africa, in 23° 50’ S., 35° 25’ E., 280 m. from Beira and 248 from Delagoa bay. It is situated on a river of the same name which enters Inhambane bay. In 1921 the maximum temperature was 9o? and the minimum 58°. The town dates from the middle of the 16th century. The principal church is built with stone and marble brought from Portugal. A water supply and the electric light have recently been installed. Trade was formerly mostly in ivory and slaves. In 1834 Inhambane was taken by a Zulu horde under

their Russian neighbours has considerably modified their customs. The absence of transport facilities is marked, roads are nonexistent in many places, and the hill streams are impossible for navigation. Only 7 km. of the westward railway from Groznyi comes into the area, with Nazran as its stopping place. Until communications have improved, the timber wealth of the region will remain unexploited; at present it has not been surveyed

Manukosi (see GAZALAND). It was not until towards the close of the roth century that the trade of the town revived. In 1926, 160

completely. Nor, as yet, has a geological survey been completed. A westward extension of the Groznyi naphtha beds exists in the Achalukov region, in which also copper and sulphur pyrites are known to exist, but they are not worked. It is estimated that there must also be layers of copper, asbestos, coal and saltpetre in other regions. Mineral springs exist, and those at Achaluk are much resorted to by the native tribes. At present, the only mining activity is carried on by peasant artels working salt, lime and

tons of mafurra, 200 tons of copra, and 490 tons of sugar were exported among other products. Cotton goods and cheap wines

ochre. There are two factories which export products outside Ingushetia, one a brandy distillery, and the other a starch factory. According to the 1926 census the population was roughly .75,200, of whom more than 90% were Ingushetes. The literacy rate is about 6% for men and less than 1% for women. Education in a hill community with poor communications and a slender budget presents great difficulties; the number of primary schools in 1925—6 was 22, and there were 1,260 scholars; it is evident that in such circumstances the rate of literacy cannot increase rapidly. Health services are poor; there is one hospital, with 20 beds, for the whole area. Government stations for dealing with malaria,

(for consumption by natives) are the principal imports. The harbour is about 9 m. long by 5 wide. The bar and channels are marked by illuminated buoys. The depth of water over the bar varies from 17 to 28 ft. The port has a ferro-concrete wharf, 379 ft. long, at which large steamers can berth. The depth at low spring tides is 23 ft. In 1925-6, 103 ships left the port with 352,280 tons of cargo. Goods landed amounted to 71,138 tons.

Inhambane is the natural port for the extensive and fertile

district between the Limpopo and Sabie rivers. This region 5 the best recruiting ground for labourers in the Rand gold mines.

Mineral oils have been found within a short distance of the port The town has official primary schools. Trade schools have been

established in nearly all the circumscriptions of the district. There is a wireless station with a range of 300 miles. 2i ' See Delagoa Bay Directory (1927).

nea ——" m e ae eaaa a aae oN e

-

INHERITANCE INHERITANCE.

355

In English law the heir is simply the happen in certain eventualities), the younger of the elder brothers

person on Whom the real property of the deceased devolved by is preferred. ration of

law if he died intestate (see Herrs). Until 1926 | The position of the father, after the brothers and sisters the the devolution of an inheritance in, England was regulated by | deceased, will be noticed as an important point of difference offrom

the rules of descent, as altered by the Inheritance Act 1833, |the English axioms; so also is the total exclusion of the mother amended by the Law of Property Amendment Act 1859. and the maternal line. As between brothers and sisters the halfy. The first rule was that inheritance shall descend to the issue blood only succeeds after the full blood. Half-blood is either of the last "purchaser." A purchaser in law means one who consanguinean, as between children by the same father, or uterine, acquires an estate otherwise than by descent, e.g by will, by as between children having the same mother. The half-blood uteruitous gift or by purchase in the ordinary meaning of the ine is excluded altogether. Half-blood consanguinean succeeds word. Under the earlier law descent was traced from the last thus: if the issue is by a former marriage, the youngest brother person who had “seisin” or feudal possession. 2. The male (being nearest to the deceased of the consanguinean) succeeds was admitted before the female. 3. Among males of equal degree first; if by a later marriage than that from which the deceased has in consanguinity to the purchaser, the elder excluded the younger; sprung, the eldest succeeds first. but females of the same degree took together as “coparceners.” In many of the British dominions and colonies the English 4. Lineal descendants took the place of their ancestor. 5. If there law of inheritance has been greatly modified by legislation. were no lineal descendants of the purchaser, the next to inherit CW. A. B.) was his nearest lineal ancestor. 6. The sixth rule was thus exUnited States—American law borrowed its rules of descent pressed by Joshua Williams in his treatise on The Law of Real of real estate considerably more from the civil law than the comProperty :— mon law. “The 118 novel of Justinian has a striking resemblance The father and all the male paternal ancestors of the purchaser to American law in giving the succession of estates to all legitiand their descendants shall be admitted before any of the female mate children without distinction and disregarding all considerpaternal ancestors or their heirs; all the female paternal ancestors and ations of primogenit ure. There is one particular in which the their heirs before the mother or any of the maternal ancestors or her or their descendants; and the mother and all the male maternal ances- American law differs from that of Justinian, that while generally tors and her and their descendants before any of the female maternal in the United States lineal descendants if they stand in an equal j ancestors or their heirs. degree from the common ancestor share equally per capita; under 7. Kinsmen of the half-blood might be heirs; such kinsmen shall the Roman law regard was had to the right of representation, each inherit next after a kinsman in the same degree of the whole lineal branch of descendants taking only the portion which their blood, and after the issue of such kinsman where the common parent would have taken had he been living, and the division being ancestor is a male and next after the common ancestor where such per stirpes and not per capita. But in some of the states the rule ancestor is a female. 8. In the admission of female paternal an- of the Roman law in this respect has been adopted and retained.” cestors, the mother of the more remote male paternal ancestor and When such lineal descendants stand in unequal degrees of conher heirs were preferred to the mother of the less remote male sanguinity the inheritance is per stirpes and not per capita (In re paternal ancestor and her heirs; and, in the case of female ma- Prote, 1907; 104 N.Y. Supplement 58r). This is the rule in ternal ancestors, the mother of the more remote male maternal an- practically all the States. cestor was preferred to the mother of a less remote male maternal The entire subject of descent has, substantially, become statancestor. Failing heirs of all kinds, the lands of an intestate pur- utory. The principal changes have been in uniformity of rules chaser, not alienated by him, would revert by “escheat” (g.v.) to as between real and personal property and a more substantial the next immediate lord of the fee, who would generally be the provision for the wife. An important feature at common law— crown. "the blood of the ancestor"—is no longer of importance. By s. 45 of the Administration of Estates Act 1925, all existing But as in no two States are the rules of descent identical, the modes, rules and canons of descent were abolished and new rules only safe guides are the statutes and decisions of the particular were substituted. (See INTESTACY.) ; State in which the property to be inherited is situated. In 41 Scotland.—In Scotland the rules of descent differ from the States the rules for the descent of real and personal property are above in several particulars. Descent is traced, as in England the same, in seven States they still before the Inheritance Act, to the person last seized. The first to geniture as understood in England differ. The law of primois abolished throughout the succeed are the lineal descendants .of the deceased, and the rules United States, and male and female relatives inherit equally. of primogeniture, preference of males to females, equal succession The distinction between relatives of the whole and half blood of females (heirs-portioners), and representation of ancestors are is not ordinarily in force. In a few States it is abolished by generally the same as in English law. Next to the lineal descend- statute. In three States those of full blood are preferred. ants, and failing them, come the brothers and sisters, and their The English rule that natural children not subsequently legitiissue as collaterals. Failing collaterals, the inheritance ascends to mated have no inheritable blood has been greatly modifed. In the father and his relations, to the entire exclusion of the mother several States inheritable blood exists between a natural child and her relations. Even when the estate has descended from and its mother. In Pennsylvania, this is extended to its maternal mother to son, it can never revert to the maternal line. As to grandparen ts. In Arizona there is no distinction. In some States, succession of brothers, a distinction must be taken between an a subsequent marriage removes the bar as does recognition by the estate of heritage and an estate of conquest. Conquest is where father in some States. Common law dowers have been largely the deceased has acquired the land otherwise than as heir, and regulated by statutes which give certain rights to the surviving corresponds to the English term purchase in the technical sense wife in lieu thereof—usually more favourable to her than her explained. Heritage is land acquired by deceased as heir. The common law dower. In several States she takes a third interest in distinction is important only in the case when the heir of the fee in land alienated by her husband in his lifetime without joining deceased is to be sought among his brothers; when the descent is her in the deed— usually one-third; in Kansas one-half lineal, conquest. and heritage go to the same person. And when fee. Curtesy has likewise been very generally abolishedinterest in and certhebrothers are younger than the deceased, both conquest ‘and tain statutory rights given to a surviving husband tage go to the brother (or his issue) next ‘in order of age. But States which came in through the Spanish or Frenchinstead. In the titles, dower When the deceased leaves an elder and a younger brother (or their and curtesy had no place. issues), the elder brother takes the conquest, the younger takes the In default of issue and subject the share of the spouse, the tage. Again, when there are several elder brothers, the one parents usually take, and failingtoparents, collaterals take. A next In age to the deceased takes the conquest before the more usual form of statute gives the wife one-half where there is but mote and when there are several younger brothers, the one one child; if there be more than one child, the wife takes a child's next to the deceased takes the heritage before the more remote. share. enheritage of the deceased goes to an elder brother (as might Degrees of kindred in the United States generally are com-

INHERITANCE

350

puted according to the civil law, z.e., by adding together the number of degrees between each of the two persons whose relationship

is to be ascertained and the common ancestor. Thus, relationship between two brothers is in the second degree; between uncle and nephew in the third degree; between cousins, in the fourth, etc. In a few States such degrees are computed according to the common law, ż.e., by counting from the common ancestor to the more remote descendant of the two from him—thus, brothers would be related in the first degree, uncle and nephew in the second, etc. In most States representation amongst collaterals is restricted—in some to the descendants of brothers and sisters, in others to their children only.

In eight States (California, Louisiana, Texas, Arizona, Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico and Washington) the law of "community property" of husband and wife prevails. This is derived from the French and Spanish law existing in the territories out of which those States were formed as the result of the Spanish and French occupation. The foundation idea is an equal division at the death of either party of all property acquired during their marriage except by gift, devise or descent. In general the husband has the control and management thereof during the marriage, and the survivor has the administration of the moiety of the one de-

ceased.

INHERITANCE:

(F. R.)

ECONOMIC

ASPECTS.

There are

no ideas of inheritance which can be shown to be “natural” or absolute, as may well be seen by comparing the ideas prevailing in different countries at the same time, or in the same country at different times. It has been well said “Most Englishmen who have not studied comparative law, will think it natural that the ownership of their property after their death should be governed by their last will and testament. Most Frenchmen, in like case, will think it natural that the operation of their will should be subject to the law of the légitime. But many Indians, far from thinking the disposition of property by will to be natural, will find great difficulty in understanding what the mere idea of a will signifies and implies. Indeed, Maine has pointed out that to the vast majority of mankind throughout recorded history the idea would be quite incomprehensible” (H. Dalton, Inequality of

ever limited and controlled, are essential to the full economic ad. vantage of property as a social institution, and the precise de gree is a matter relative to the stage of social development. The philosophical theory that the “mixing” of labour with material, in whatever proportions, constituted a natural right in the material, however valid for the lifetime of the worker, gave little guidance as to the rights of heirs who had not worked upon

it, and failed to provide a self-evident principle. Locke thought that liberty of bequest was obvious or natural. The fact that three distinct systems prevailed, even in England, for intestacy, could only be accounted for by assuming that a law of nature had been modified by State-made law, based upon the social contract. But as Hastings Rashdall points out, the obligation to keep the con tract rests upon a principle of natural law, and these principles

seem to be in conflict. Any system which supports the right of primogeniture must prove to be illogical on a Lockian basis. Right of Bequest.—Some right of inheritance in practice, but never unconditional rights, are found in the earliest times. In

England the laws of inheritance have tended to give way to the

absolute right of bequest. The power to dispose of lands by will dates from Henry VIII., and there is now an unlimited power of disposition except for entailed estates, so that there are no rights of wife or children which cannot be set aside. Where the will of the owner has not been actually expressed by him, the rights have differed widely up to 1926 according to whether the property was real or personal estate. The widow had a life interest in one-

third, the husband, if there were children, had a life interest in the whole. But under Kentish gavelkind custom, their interests were one-half each, the wife’s continuing until remarriage. Under “Borough English” the younger son took preference. The somewhat arbitrary character of succession to land illustrates the absence of “natural” law. Males are preferred to females. Where two or more males with equal relationship are in question, the eldest inherits, but if they are females they take equally. The father, his issue, and his ancestors, however distant, take priority over the mother and her ancestors. “A more remote male ancestor and his issue are excluded by a nearer male ancestor and his issue, but the mother of a more remote male ancestor and her issue are preferred to the mother of a nearer male ancestor and Incomes). issue. Thus land goes to remote relations on the father’s side her confused. The rights of Inheritance and Bequest are commonly it can go to even the mother on the mother’s side. before freedom the meant is bequest of right absolute an by general, In be hard to justify the continuance of such rules in a would “Tt an whereas pleases, one as to leave one’s possessions exactly country, and it is only the complete freedom civilized modern absolute right of inheritance is actually an inalienable right to has prevented them from being found intolwhich making will of commends that rule a to according left has possess what someone erable” (Geldart). that finding itself to our sense of natural fitness. An Englishman, In personalty, the husband took all his intestate wife’s property, his parents have left their wealth to some stranger, may be parthe wife could take only one-third (or one-half if there were but FrenchA inheritance. of doned for emphasizing moral rights Even if he had no ascertainable relatives the wife was issue). no man, finding that a substantial part of his hardly accumulated forhalf, the rest went to the Crown. Bya recent legisto restricted his by has, who son a to not, or it likes he tune must go, whether the old rules of intestate succession are repealed, (1926) lation discussing ' for conduct, no moral claim upon it, may be excused has been to distribute property much more in the right of bequest. One in either nation who has neither wealth and the principle most deceased persons would have adopted if what with accord questions he when pardoned to leave nor to receive, may well be Now the husband (or wife) takes all perwill. a made had they the social utility of any system which acts as a conduit pipe for £1,000 free of death duty, the whole absolutely, chattels sonal claim. no has he where areas into much current production or one-half if there are. The children, no are there if residue the of Family Inheritance and Incentive to Work.—Much benefit now goes no further to entitled philosophy of bequest and inheritance is bound up in the philos- degree of relationship their issue, and the residue goes to the and cousins first than the in individuality as ophy of private property, and in so far | production, as well as the spending and direction of wealth, is Crown. the power to will property m on s restriction general are There an is argued, be may it bequest, of for the social good, the right for property may not be left to waste, or accumulate perimportant attribute of private ownership. But the right to make England, can a succession of owners be prescribed beyond 4 family bequest and the right to make bequest in any direction are petually; nor after the death of persons alive at his own years 21 of period incenthe that very different in social importance. It Is probable the claims of the nearest kin can be almost otherwise But tive to work and to save would be very seriously impaired if fam- death. extend to the dominions and most of ideas British The ignored. the in restrictions whereas ily inheritance were not allowable, the United States a widow is gem in though States, United the wider right of general bequest might well exist without untoward the personalty, and a life interest of one-third erally entitled to : social effects. on the continent of Europe the But realty. her of one-third in the “The permanence of the family has a social value which are secured by definite relatives near when right of inheritance helps to maintain.” Similarly “the practice légitime prevails, extends only toa fracbequest free of right the France, In rights. by recognition the to of charitable bequest led at an early date asettled rule. followed has property the of one-half Italy, In law that there are certain purposes which may well be made more tion. regime, Napoleonic the through narrowed, has form French The them.” serve who individuals the permanent than the lives of whereas attached) still is Quebec which (to form earlier an It is fairly generally agreed that some rights of inheritance, how- from

INHERITANCE England (as distinct from Scotland) broadened from narrower s upon Limitations of Rights.—]f unlimited freedom

of inheritance and of bequest are not natural rights, it at once becomes an important question how they may be limited, and in general the test applied is that of “social desirability.” But the definition of what is socially desirable has proceeded in the past too much upon distinctions as to abstract Justice or fairness, and very little examination has been made, or estimate attempted, of the effects upon production of different practices. Although diffusion of wealth and “better” distribution of wealth have been ysed as reasons for limitation and legal direction, the economic

consequences are not clearly known or distinguished. Thus Jeremy

Bentham (1795) wished to abolish intestacy, passing all property to the State, and where wills were made, to limit the powers of those who had no direct heirs. In any case, the State was to have half share of sums going under a will to grandparents, uncles, nephews, and also a reversionary interest in what went to childless heirs. Bentham had the ideas of just taxation most in mind,

based on the absence of any natural right of inheritance, and the

fact that extensive privileges to collateral relatives were only defensible to a limited extent. Graduation of such a tax according to degree of relationship was a corollary. J. S. Mill thought the right to make bequest was inherent in the idea of property, but the right to inherit was not. His pleas for limitation of bequest were mostly on ethical grounds, but he

was not blind to economic considerations, for he recognized: (a)

an economic disadvantage in the past, in letting family property be broken up, and a little commonwealth dispersed, and this created an inherent right in children to the possessions of their ancestors; (b) that the advantages of the incentive to be found in family fortunes were outweighed by the mischiefs to society of perpetuities; (c) the value of the French, system in breaking down the tendency of primogeniture to aggregate property in

masses; (d) the economic value of having a section of society relieved from immediate pressure. Heavy taxation of bequest through death duties has been advocated on lines which are intended: (a) to produce a maximum revenue without hurting the subject of assessment; (b) to correct the natural anomalies of the bequest system; (c) to redistribute

wealth; (d) to socialize or nationalize wealth.

The most modern and most considered scheme for virtual abolition of continuous inheritance is the Rignano proposal for death duties of a special type, progressive in point of time by the number of successions. When a man dies, under this system a large tax would be laid upon all wealth acquired by ‘him through inheritance, and only a small one upon wealth saved by him in his own lifetime. As a result a certain corpus of wealth passes to his heir, and to that heir it is all inherited wealth, so that on his death in turn it would be very heavily taxed. It is claimed that every one would have to work and save hard, for it would only be from such self made wealth that the children could benefit. There are several Rignano schemes, varying in severity, from a mere modification of existing death duties, to the maximum profit which passes any given block of property into the hands of the State

m two generations. The Colwyn Committee on Taxation and the n Debt reported against the Rignano plam as a scheme of axation.

Economie Consequences of Inheritance.—The precise effects of a system of inheritance have never yet been worked out, $0 far as influence upon production, total savings and total national wealth is concerned. It is not known, for example, ther the European system of compulsory family division, or the British System of primogeniture combined with free bequest,

have like effects. It is generally considered that primogeniture has concentrated landed estates, whereas the Jégitime has unduly spersed them but it is not known whether the ¢ofal economic product of the one can be said to be greater than the other. The

small experience of a complete absence of rights of inheritance g the short period when this obtained in Russia, is too con-

used with other influences for any lesson to be drawn as to rela-

üve total productivity of the economic organism with or without

TAX

357

the inheritance system. In so far as the right to found a family and to make free bequests respectively—two quite different economic motives—are influences in the accumulation of capital, the British system may be said to be an influence in favour of maximum production. On the other hand, in so far as a number of capable individuals in society are enabled to draw to themselves a substantial portion of the annual national production without making any contribution to it, and in so far as the sight of this has a depressing influence on the producers, then important in- . fluences are at work restricting total production. Obviously these are questions of degree, and if the numbers of the idle rich are very great and the sentiment of resentment is proportionately strong, then the economic restriction through the system will be great enough to be an important offset to the psychology of saving. With the invention of modern finance and joint stock enterprise, large aggregations of wealth can be secured for production in a way that was formerly only possible with inherited aggregations. To this extent we are less dependent upon concentration of wealth through inheritance. Moreover, the importance of continuity of family management in private business is becoming rapidly less with the growth of a salaried managing class. It may be said, therefore, that the advantages of a system of inheritance from the point of view of national production rest almost entirely in its psychological influence upon saving, and not upon objective forms of production made possible only by the system. Relation to Distribution of Wealth.—The more important economic considerations relate, however, to the distribution of wealth rather than to total wealth, especially as men are so constituted that they prefer to have a large share of an aggregate they do not realize is small, than a small share of an aggregate that would be much greater. In other words, it is the comparative share of wealth rather than the absolute amount that affects many people’s economic contentment and their economic motives. It is often held that inherited wealth is the main determining factor in the extremely unfair distribution of wealth; but while it is undoubtedly contributory, the question as to the extent to which unevenly distributed wealth is an economic, as distinct from a moral, evil remains unsolved, and whether inheritance is really the predominant factor, is also undetermined. Some doubt is thrown upon the assumption that a very large portion of existing estates has not actually been amassed in the lifetime of the deceased, when one bears in mind that the total national wealth of one or two generations ago is only a small proportion of the present total. Moreover, real property, to which aggregation through primogeniture formerly applied to a marked extent, is a decreasing portion of the total national wealth. The actual average destination of a given fortune, z.¢., whether it tends to form part of a larger aggregate higher up the scale of distribution, or to split into small fragments amongst a number of holders lower down the scale, is by no means certain. There are indications, moreover, that the number of people holding large inherited fortunes, who are capable of contributing to the national income, is popularly over-estimated, when one eliminates children, old people and those who render important public services for no direct payment. The economic effects, in general, of inheritance are much less clearly known than is assumed in popular discussion. A Committee of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Section *F," has recently been appointed to endeavour to obtain more exact knowledge upon the subject. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—R. T. Ely, Property and Contract in Relation to the Distribution of Wealth (1914); H. Dalton, Inequality of Income (1920) ; E. Rignano and J. Stamp, Social Significance of Death Duties (1925); J. Stamp, Economic Factors (1929) ; Report of Committee on Taxation and the National Debt (1927). à S.

INHERITANCE TAX, the name given, in the United States, to a tax or charge upon property as it passes to heirs or legatees from a deceased person; known in Great Britain as death duties. Such a tax was levied by the Federal government at the time of the American ‘Civil War and again from the time of the World War on. All but a few of the States also levy inheritance taxes, the amount varying greatly according to the State, the amount of the estate, the relationship of receiver to the decedent,

INHIBITION—INJUNCTION

358

etc. The amount allowed as exemption also varies greatly from |setts have passed laws providing for the distribution of pamphlet, State to State. : to the voters concerning the questions to be voted upon. The

INHIBITION, an act of restraint or prohibition, an English |rado act remains inoperative because of the failure to repeal =e

legal term, particularly used in ecclesiastical law, for a writ from a superior to an inferior court, suspending proceedings in a case

under appeal. It applies also to the suspension of jurisdiction of a

bishop’s court on the visitation of an archbishop, and for that of an archdeacon on the visitation of a bishop. It is more particularly applied to a form of ecclesiastical censure, suspending an offending clergyman from the performance of any service of the Church, or other spiritual duty, for the purpose of enforcing obedience to a monition or order of the bishop or judge.

INIA (inia geoffrensis), the fresh-water dolphin of the Ama-

zon basin, reaching 8 ft. in length and pink, or black and pink

in colour.

(See CETACEA.)

INISFAIL, a poetical name for Ireland. It is derived from

inis "island" and Lia-fáil, the celebrated stone, identified in Irish legend with the stone on which the patriarch Jacob slept when he dreamed of the heavenly ladder. The Lia-fáil was supposed to have been brought to Ireland by the Dedannans and set up at Tara as the "inauguration stone" of the Irish kings; it was subsequently removed to Scone where it became the coronation stone of the Scottish kings, until it was taken by Edward I of England to Westminster and placed under the coronation chair in the Abbey, where it has since remained. Inisfail was thus the island of the Fail, the island whose monarchs were crowned at Tara on the sacred inauguration stone.

INITIALS, the first letters of names. In English law it has

been held that it is sufficient if a person affixes to a document the usual form in which he signs his name, with the intent that it shall be treated as his signature. So, signature by initials is a good signature within the Statute of Frauds (Phillimore v. Barry, 1818, r Camp. 513), and also under the Wills Act 1837 (In re Blewitt, 1880, 5 P.D. 116). (See SIGNATURE; AUTOGRAPH.)

INITIATIVE.

The initiative is the form of direct legisla-

tion which enables the voters popularly to frame or direct a legislative body to enact a certain law. It is the companion popular agency to the referendum, which is the reference to the voters of an act of the legislature for approval or disapproval. The referendum may be either compulsory or optional, the difference being that if the former, it is inoperative until approved by the voters.

In the United States the first initiative and referendum law was passed by South Dakota in 1898. Utah followed in 1900, Oregon in 1902, Nevada in 1904, Montana in 1906, Oklahoma in 1907, Maine, Missouri and Michigan in 1908, Arkansas and Colorado in rg9ro, California and Arizona in rgrr, Idaho, Ohio, Nebraska and Washington in 1912, Mississippi and North Dakota in 1914 and Massachusetts in 1918. New Mexico passed a referendum law in 1911 and Maryland in r9grs. The New Mexico and Utah laws have never been used because of difficult requirements for the petitions. The Mississippi law was declared unconstitutional. Many cities in other States under the commission and managerial forms of government have adopted the initiative and referendum. Petitions must be circulated and signed by a requisite number of voters before a matter may be initiated before the legislature, or an act already passed may be submitted in referendum to the voters. The legislature may, by its own volition, submit an act to a referendum. The Federal constitutionality of the initiative and referendum were tested in 1906, when the Oregon law was attacked as in violation of the guarantee to each State of a republican form of government as provided by s. 4 of Article IV. of the Constitution. The Supreme Court held in Pacific States Telephone Co., etc., v. Oregon, 223 U.S. 118, that it was a political rather than a judicial case, thus dismissing it. The initiative and referendum are used principally in acts and proposed acts involving the direct primary, State prohibition enforcement, regulation of public utilities, education and taxation. Oregon, Montana, Oklahoma, California, Arizona, Colorado, Nebraska, Ohio, Washington, Utah, North Dakota and Massachu-

conflicting provision in the State Constitution. BisLI0GRAPHY.—C. A. Beard and B. E. Schultz, Documents on the

State-Wide Initiative, Referendum and Recall (1912); W. B. Munro,

ed., The Initiative, Referendum and Recall (1912) ; Judson King, The Initiative and Referendum (1929). (S.Lx.)

INJECTOR, an induced current apparatus which by means of a jet of steam feeds water to a boiler. The invention of Henri Giffard, its introduction in 1859 created great interest, because it seemed impossible that a jet of steam from a boiler could force

itself and the water back into the boiler. Yet not only this was

done, but later researches proved that exhaust steam at atmos. pheric pressure could be utilized, and it is possible now to deliver against a pressure of 150 Ib. per sq. in. The Davies and Metcalfe exhaust injector will do this, and with the help of a small supplementary jet of live steam it will feed against a pressure of 250 Ib, per sq. in. Exhaust steam has no velocity in the atmosphere, but if issued into a vacuum it acquires a very high velocity; hence by condensing the steam by contact with the feed water such a vacuum is produced, the velocity of the steam, imparted to the water, giving sufficient force to carry the latter into the boiler.

(See also EJECTOR; STEAM, GENERATION OF.)

INJUNCTION,

in English law, the name for a judicial

command whereby a party is required to refrain from doing a particular thing according to the exigency of the writ. Formerly it was a remedy peculiar to the court of chancery, but under the

present constitution of the judicature, the injunction is now equally available in all the. divisions of the high court of justice, and it can no longer be used to prevent an action in any of them from proceeding in the ordinary course. Although an injunction is properly a restraining order, there

are instances in which, under the form of a prohibition, a positive

order to do something is virtually expressed by what is known as a "mandatory" injunction. The injunction was used to stay proceedings in other courts “wherever a party by fraud, accident, mistake or otherwise had obtained an advantage in proceeding in a court of ordinary jurisdiction, which must necessarily make that court an instrument of injustice.” As the injunction operates personally on the defendant, it may be used to prevent applications to foreign judicatures; but it is not used to prevent applications to parliament, or to the legislature of any foreign country, unless such applications be in breach of some agreement, and

relate to matters of private interest. The jurisdiction of the court

to prevent breaches of' contract has been described as supplemental to its power of compelling specific performance; thus, e.g., in the case of an agreement of a singer to perform at the plaintiff’s theatre and at no other, the court, although it could not compel her to sing, could by injunction prevent her from singing elsewhere in breach of her agreement. An injunction may as a general rule be obtained to prevent acts which are violations of legal rights, except when the same may be adequately remedied by an action for damages at law. Thus the court will interfere by injunction to prevent waste, or the destruction by a limited owner, such as a tenant for life, of things forming part of the inheritance. Injunctions may also be obtained to prevent the continuance of nuisances, public or private, the infringement of patents, copyrights and trade marks. Trespass might also in certain cases be prevented by injunction. Purely temporary injunctions may be obtained ex parte but others only on notice to the other side. An injunction obtained on interlocutory application during the

progress of an action is called an “interim” injunction, which 1s superseded by the trial. It may be continued either provisionally or permanently.

(See MANDAMUS.)

For the analogous practice in Scots law see IxrERDICT.

|

(X.)

United States.—Despite the administration of law and equity by a single court, as is true of most American States, the remedy by injunction

retains its essentially

equitable

character.

Its

issuance is governed, in the main, by the accepted precedents of

equity. A recent extension of the injunction on the principle of

INJUNCTION itable jurisdiction over nuisances is the use of the remedy to aid in the enforcement of criminal laws. The fact that the proceedings relating to the issuance and enforcement of injunctions are conducted before a judge alone, eliminates the inevitable

discretion that under the common law system is vested in a jury.

359

tinued unabated. Practice.—The propriety of equitable relief in labour controversies has been sustained upon the grounds of actual or imminent

injury to the complainant’s property rights, inadequacy of the remedy at law, the financial irresponsibility of the individual de-

Consequently, when the enforcement of a particular law becomes

fendants and the desirability of avoiding a multiplicity of actions

difficult because of the opposition of a particular community as manifested in the tendency of juries to acquit in criminal prosecutions, resort has been made to this head of equity jurisdiction.

at law. Injunctions are of three general classes: (1) the temporary re-

Federal courts enjoining proceedings in State courts and vice

cretion is “of the broadest and is seldom interfered with”; (3) the permanent injunction which issues after extended hearings and final decision on the merits. The case is given a formal hearing before a judge and with-

straining order or injunction ad interim, which issues upon the filing of the bill of complaint, without notice to the opposing side National Prohibition Act, which results in prohibiting for a period or opportunity to be heard, on the ground that irreparable damage of time any use of the premises in which liquor has been sold, is might be inflicted before a hearing could be had;.(2) the temporary the most marked example of this type. Its effectiveness is at- injunction or injunction pendente lite, which issues after notice tested to by the adoption of similar remedies by the numerous and opportunity of the defence to be heard upon its countervailState prohibition acts. ing affidavits. This hearing is only full enough to enable the judge Peculiar to the American federalist system is the problem of to decide upon the probabilities of the situation. The court’s dis-

The popularly termed “padlock injunction” established by the

versa. The general principle is that'no such injunctions shall issue; but being courts of concurrent jurisdiction either court that first obtains jurisdiction of the subject matters regards itself

as entitled to retain that jurisdiction to the exclusion of the other court and employs the injunction in aid of this purpose. The friction that might result from a liberal use of the injunction was foreseen at an early date, and in 1793 Congress prohibited the use of the injunction by the Federal courts for this purpose save in bankruptcy cases. The Federal, courts have, however, by a

series of judicial decisions established numerous

exceptions to

this broad statutory provision among which is that noted above and the principle that the injunction will issue in aid of the exclusive jurisdiction of the Federal courts. A second ground of irritation concerned the use of the injunction by the Federal courts to restrain the enforcement of State statutes on the ground of their constitutionality. An appeal from such action lay to the US. Supreme Court, but during the interim a single Federal

judge was able to set at naught the entire administrative authority of a State. The incongruity of this result led Congress by a series of statutes beginning in 1910 to prohibit the issuance of such injunctions before a court consisting of less than three judges, one of whom should be a circuit judge, and to provide for expediting an appeal therefrom to the Supreme Court. Limitatis have also been imposed upon the power of Federal judges to issue ex parte restraining orders pending an application for a temporary injunction. (J. M. La.) Injunctions in Labour Disputes.—The devices to induce the employer to yield to demands of organized labour through economic and social pressure are, broadly, the strike, the picket

line, the boycott. The application of these instruments is illegal

in all jurisdictions when accompanied by violence, intimidation or physical coercion; but is permissible in many States when free from those vices if the end sought to be achieved thereby be

deemed a justification for the immediate damage inflicted upon

the complainant. The Anglo-Saxon legal system provides three remedies for acts that cause damage unjustifiably: an action at

law for damages, criminal proceedings if the infliction of damage

amounts to a crime, and the equitable action for an injunction to restrain the commencement or continuance of damaging acts threatened or begun. The English case of Springhead Spinning Co.

v. Rily (1868) L.R. 6 Eq. 551, in approving injunctive relief

out a jury; facts are generally ascertained through sworn written Statements or affidavits rather than through testimony in open court tested by cross-examination. A violation of the injunction, at any of its stages, whether or not the act is independently a crime, is a contempt of court. The alleged contemnor is tried before the judge who granted the injunction and (in the absence of contrary legislation) without a jury; the normal mode of proof is by affidavit, though some courts in recent years have summoned witnesses to establish the facts; the punishment of those adjudged guilty is in the discretion of the court and in fact has ranged from

a small fine to imprisonment for days and months. The injunction issues against the parties defendant who have been subjected to the court's jurisdiction. Frequently, especially in the Federal courts, an omnibus clause is added in order to extend the prohibitions of the decree to "all persons combining and conspiring with the defendants and all other persons whomsoever” (e.g., In re Debs, 158 U.S. 564); then the persons served with the decree and “all persons generally” who have actual knowledge thereof are bound to its obedience at the peril of being cited for contempt of court (Ex parte Lennon, 166 U.S. 546). The restraining clauses of the injunction, intended to embrace whatever conduct the court deems illegal, have become more and more elaborate, owing in large degree to the fact that the decree is customarily approved as prepared by counsel for the complainant. The proscriptions have included not only acts of violence, intimidation and threats, but also the display of “unfair” banners and placards, “unlawful persuasion” of employees to quit work or of customers to withhold patronage, the payment of strike benefits and, at times, the calling of a strike or its conduct by trade union officers. They have included restrictions upon speech— "abusive language," "bad language,” “opprobrious epithets,” “jeers, entreaties, argument, persuasion, taunts.” They have incorporated omnibus interdictions by restraining damage “in any way,” “in any way whatsoever,” “in any manner directly or indirectly.”

(See text of re-

straining clauses of two Federal injunctions in 37 Harvard Law Rev. rror.) More recently, however, appellate courts have modified decrees

whose phrasing barred lawful acts with the unlawful; they have

against the publishing of, placards of an intimidating nature in the ! even given affirmative suggestions as to what acts remained percourse of a labour dispute, supplied the precedent for the earliest missible and have defined them in detail. American cases in the decade following 1884. The Debs case in Criticism.—Criticism, with more or less virulence, has been 1895 (158 U.S. 564), which granted an injunction at the suit of continuous since the Debs case. It has been said that equity rethenational Government, gave final sanction to the propriety of places the enforcing agencies of the criminal law by a summary equitable relief in labour controversies. Within the next decade procedure lacking the traditional safeguards for the accused. Obinstances of labour injunctions multiplied so extensively as to servation has been made that injunctions have abridged the conevoke, in the words of a Supreme Court justice, a “controversy stitutional guaranties over the remedy (that) overshadowed in bitterness the question of assembly; that they areof free speech, free press and peaceful of broad scope and vague terminology, € relative substantive rights of the parties" (Truax v. Corrigan, encircling the obviously lawful activities with undefined fringes 257 US. 312, 366). In the period prior to the enactment of cor- that make of the whole merely “sweeping injunctions to obey the rective legislation in 1914, there issued from American courts well law”; that, as a result, the persons affected are paralyzed even in over $00 injunctions; and after r914, despite the' Federal legis- the exercise of conceded rights, for they are left guideless in the lation, duplicated in many States, the number of injunctions con- determination of what conduct remains permitted them in the

260

INK

carrying on of the struggle, any effective activity inviting prosecution for contempt. In later years, much of the resentment has centred upon the temporary restraining order which is granted without substantial proof, and upon the temporary injunction. ‘The crucial issues are preponderantly controversies of fact. But courts often resolve them from diametrically contradictory affidavits, by granting the decree on the theory that only illegal conduct is restrained thereby and that possible errors will be corrected upon the final hearing. It has been pointed out that the temporary injunction is for all practical purposes the final stage in the litigation; owing to the termination of the strike meanwhile, lack of funds, or a consciousness of futility, the defendants infrequently carry on the contest. On the other hand, the injunction in labour disputes has been defended as the most efficient device to stay the cen damage to persons and property frequently incidental to a strike. Legislation.—The serious criticism of the propriety of the injunctions in labour disputes provoked State legislatures and Congress to efforts at corrective measures. Arizona in 1913 enacted legislation forbidding the issue of injunctions in labour disputes “unless necessary to prevent irreparable injury to property" and denying the power of courts of equity to restrain “any person or persons from terminating any relation of employment or from ceasing to perform any work or labour or from recommending, advising, or persuading others by peaceful means so to do; or from attending at or near a house or place where any person resides or works, or carries on business, or happens to be for the purpose of peacefully obtaining or communicating information, or of peacefully persuading any person to work or to abstain from working; or from ceasing to patronize or to employ any party to such dispute; or from recommending, advising, or persuading others by peaceful means so to do. . . .” The Supreme Court of the United

ough Rapid Transit Co. v. Lavin (1928) 247 N.Y. 65; Vegelahm y Guniner (1896), 167 Mass. 92; Pierce v. Stablemen’s Union (1009). 156 Cal. 70; Greenfield v. Central Labor Council (1922), 104 Oregon

236; Keuffel and Esser v. Int. Assoc. Machinisw (1922), 93 NJ. Eq

429;

Jefferson and Indiana

Coal Co. v. Marks,

et al. (1926).

287 Pa. 171. ’ The most important collection of source authorities is Sayre, Cases ox Labor Law (1922). The leading legal discussions of the subject are:—

W. H. Dunbar, “Government by Injunction” (1897), 13 Law Quarterly

Review 347; E. E. Witte, “Value of Injunctions in Labor Disputes” (1924), 32 Journal of Pol. Econ., and “Results of Injunctions in Labor Disputes” (1922), 12 Amer. Labor Legisl. Rev.; G. W. Pepper “Injunctions in Labor Disputes” (1924), 49 Rep. of the Amer. Bar Assn. 174; Frankfurter and Greene, "The Use of the Injunction in American Labor Controversies" (1928), 44 Law Quart. Review 164 353; T. R. Powell, “The Supreme Court’s Control over the Issue of Injunctions in Labor Disputes,” 13 Proceedings of the Academy of Political Science (June, 1928) ; Mason, Organized Labor and The Lavy (1925); Commons and Andrews, Principals of Labor Legislation (1920) ; Annotations in 34 Harv. L. Rev. 884, 40 Harv. L. Rev. 886, a1 Harv. L. Rev. 908. Testimony taken in the course of Congressional hearings is valuable The references to ror4 are collected by Mr. Justice Brandeis in his dis-

senting opinion to Truax v. Corrigan (1921), 257 U.S. 312, 354, 369-

370. Add Senate hearings on S. 1482, 7oth Cong. 1st Sess, (Feb.-March

1928), limiting scope of injunctions in labor disputes.

(N. G.)

INK, in its widest signification, a substance employed for pro-

ducing graphic tracings, inscriptions, or impressions on paper or similar materials. The term includes two distinct conditions of pigment or colouring matter; the one fluid, and prepared for use with a pen or brush, as writing ink; the other a glutinous adhesive mass, printing ink, used for transferring to paper impressions from types, engraved plates and similar surfaces. Writing Inks.—Writing inks are fluid substances which contain colouring matter either in solution or in suspension, and commonly partly in both conditions. They may be prepared in all shades of colour, and contain almost every pigment which can be States (four justices dissenting) held the statute to entail a dep- dissolved or suspended in a suitable medium. The most important rivation of property without due process of law, a denial of the of all varieties is black ink, after which red and blue are most equal protection of the laws and, therefore, a contravention of the commonly employed. Apart from colour there are special quali14th amendment to the Constitution of the United States (Truax ties which recommend certain inks for limited applications, such v. Corrigan, 1921, 257 U.S. 312). as marking inks, ineradicable ink, sympathetic ink, etc. À good The Clayton Act passed by Congress in 1914 used language writing ink for ordinary purposes should continue limpid, and flow (s. 20) essentially similar to that of the Arizona statute but was freely and uniformly from the pen; it should not throw down a construed by the U.S. Supreme Court as “merely declaratory of thick, sludgy deposit on exposure to the air; nor should a coating what had always been the law and the best practice in equity"; the of mould form on its surface. It should yield distinctly legible injunction might still issue against picketing deemed unlawful by characters immediately on writing, not fading with age; and the the court (American Steel Foundries v. Tri-City Trade Council, fluid ought to penetrate into the paper without spreading, so that 1921, 257 U.S. 184) and against the secondary boycott (Bedford the characters will neither wash out nor be readily removed by Cut Stone Co. v. Journeymen Stonecutters’ Assoc., 1927, 274 U.S. erasure. Further, it is desirable that ink should be non-poison37). Subsequent State legislation, following s. 20 of the Clayton ous, that it should as little as possible corrode steel pens, that Act, received a corresponding construction (Gevas v. Greek Res- characters traced in it should dry readily on. the application of taurant Workers’ Club, et al., 1926, 99 N.J. Eq. 770). blotting paper without smearing, and that the writing should not Section 22 of the Clayton Act granted the right of jury trial in present a glossy, varnished appearance. proceedings for indirect contempt, where the act alleged to conTannin inks are prepared from galls, or other sources of tanstitute the contempt is also a crime. This provision survived an nin, and a salt of iron, with the addition of some agglutinant in the attack based upon the doctrine that the power of a court of equity case of the so-called oxidized inks, or a colouring matter in the could not be restricted because inherent and derived from the con- case of unoxidized inks. Such mixtures form the staple black stitutional grant of judicial power (Michaelson v. United States, inks of commerce; they are essentially an insoluble iron gallate 1924, 266 U.S. 42). In Massachusetts, the doctrine of separation in extremely fine division held in suspension in water or a soluble of powers prevailed (Walton Lunch Co. v. Kearney, 1920, 236 compound dissolved in water. On long exposure to air, as in inkMass. 310). Section 17 of the Clayton Act restricted the issue of stands or otherwise, tannin inks gradually become thick and ropy, temporary restraining orders without notice and required a hear- depositing a slimy sediment. ; ing to be held within ten days after issue of such order; s. 19 Ordinary Black Ink.—The essential ingredients of ordinary required the injunction to be specific in terms. In the 7oth Con- black ink are—first, tannin-yielding bodies, for which Aleppo ot gress (Dec., 1927), new legislation was introduced, further re- Chinese galls are the most eligible materials; second, a salt of iron, stricting the use of injunctions in labour disputes in the Federal ferrous sulphate (green vitriol) being alone employed; and third, | courts. a gummy or mucilaginous agent to keep in suspension the inBIBLIOGRAPHY. —The decisions of most importance and interest in soluble tinctorial matter of the ink. For ink-making the tannm

has first to be transformed into gallic acid. In the case of Aleppo galls this change takes place by fermentation when the solution of the galls is exposed to the air, the tannin splitting up into gallic not contain the ferment neces US. 443; U.S. v. Ry. Employees’ Dept. of American Fed. of Labor, et acid and sugar. Chinese galls do

the U.S. Supreme Court and in the lower Federal courts in addition to those mentioned above are: Gompers v. Bucks Stove and -Range Co. (1911) 221 U.S. 418; Hitchman: Coal and Coke Co. v. Mitchell (1917) 245 US. 229; Duplex Printing Press,Co. v. Deering, et al. (1920) 254

al. (D.C. N.D. Ill. 1922) 283 Fed. 479, 286 Fed. 228, 290 Fed. 978; Great Northern Ry. Co. v. Brosseau (D.C.N. Dak. 1923) 286 Fed. 414. Decisions in State Courts are Bossert v. Dhuy (1917) 221 N.Y. 342; Auburn Draying Co. v. Wardell (1919) 227 N.Y. 1; Exchange Bakery and Restaurant, Inc. v. Rifkin, et al. (1927) 245 N.Y. 260; Interbor-

sary for inducing this change; and to induce the process yeast

must be added to their solution. To prepare a solution of Aleppo and intigalls for ink-making, the galls are coarsely powdered,

mately mixed with chopped straw. This mixture is thrown into 4

INK narrow, deep oak vat, provided with a perforated false bottom,

and having a tap at the bottom for drawing off liquid. Over the mixture is poured lukewarm water, which, percolating down, ex-

tracts and carries with it the tannin of the galls. The solution is drawn off and repeatedly run through the mixture to extract the xhole of the tannin, the water used being in such proportion to the galls as will produce as nearly as possible. a solution having

s% of tannin. The object of using straw in the extraction process i to maintain the porosity of the mixture, as powdered galls treated alone become

so slimy with mucilaginous extract that

liquid fails to percolate the mass. For each litre of the 5% solution about 45 grams of the iron salt are used, or about 100 parts

of tannin for 90 parts of crystallized green vitriol. These ingredients when first mixed form a clear solution, but

on their exposure to the air oxidation occurs, and an insoluble

blue-black ferrosoferric gallate in extremely fine division, suspended in a coloured solution of ferrous gallate, is formed. To keep the insoluble portion suspended, a mucilaginous agent is employed, and those most available are gum senegal and gum arabic.

An ink so prepared develops its intensity of colour only after some exposure; and after it has partly sunk into the paper it becomes oxidized there, and so mordanted into the fibre. As the first faintness of the characters is a disadvantage, it is a common practice to add some adventitious colouring matter to give immediate distinctness, and for that purpose either extract of logwood or a solution of indigo is used.

When

logwood extract is em-

ployed, a smaller proportion of extract of galls is required, logwood itself containing a large percentage of tannin. For making an unoxidized or blue-black ink indigo is dissolved’ in strong sulphuric acid, and the ferrous sulphate, instead of being used direct, is prepared by placing in this indigo solution a proper quantity

of scrap iron. To free the solution from excess of uncombined acid, chalk or powdered limestone is added, whereby the free acid is fixed and a deposit of sulphate of lime formed. A solution so prepared, mixed with a tannin solution, yields a very limpid seagreen writing fluid, and as all the constituents remain in solution no gum or other suspending medium is necessary. In consequence the ink flows freely, is easily dried and is free from the glossy appearance which arises through the use of gum. Chinese Ink.—China ink or Indian ink is the form in which ink was earliest prepared, and in which it is still used in China and Japan for writing with small brushes instead of pens. It is extensively used by architects, engineers and artists generally, and for various special uses. China ink is prepared in the form of sticks and cakes, which are rubbed down in water for use. It

consists essentially of lamp-black in very fine condition, baked

up with a glutinous substance; and the finer oriental kinds are delicately perfumed.

Logwood Ink.—Under the name of chrome ink.a black ink was discovered by Runge, which held out the promise of cheapness combined with many excellent qualities. It is prepared by dissolving 15 parts of extract of logwood in goo parts of water, to

which four parts of crystallized sodium carbonate are added. A further solution of one part of potassium chromate (not bichromate) in roo parts of water is prepared, and is added very

gradually to the other solution with constant agitation. The ink

$0 obtained possesses an intense blue-black colour, flows freely and dries readily, is neutral in reaction and hence does not cor-

rode steel pens, and adheres to and sinks into paper so that manu-

sripts written with it may be freely washed with a sponge without danger of smearing or spreading. It forms a good copying

ink, and it possesses all the qualities. essential to the best ink; but 08 exposure to air it very readily undergoes decomposition, the colouring matter separating in broad flakes, which swim in aclear

menstruum, It is affirmed by Viedt that this drawback may be overcome by the use of soda, a method first suggested by Bóttger.

. Logwood forms the principal ingredient in various other black used especially as copying ink. A very strong decoction of gwood or a strong solution of the extract with ammonium-alum Yields a violet ink which darkens slowly on exposure. Such an ink Is costly, on. account of the concentrated condition in which the gwood must be used. If, however, a metallic salt is introduced,

361

a serviceable ink is obtained with the expenditure of much less logwood. Either sulphate of copper or sulphate of iron may be used, but the former, which produces a pleasing blue-black colour, is to be-preferred. Aniline Inks.—Solutions of aniline dyestuffs in water are widely used as inks, especially coloured varieties. They are usually fugitive. Nigrosine is a black ink, which, although not producing a black so intense as common ink, possesses various advantages. Being perfectly neutral, it does not attack pens; it can easily be kept of a proper consistency by making up with water; and its colour is not injuriously affected by the action of acids. Its ready flow from stylographic pens led to the name “stylographic ink.” Other aniline inks are mentioned below. Ink which yields by means of pressure an impression, on a sheet of damped tissue paper, of characters written in it is called copying ink. Any ink soluble in water, or which retains a certain degree of solubility, may be used as copying ink. Runge’s chrome ink, being a soluble compound, is, therefore, so available; and the other logwood inks as well as the ordinary ferrous gallate inks contain also soluble constituents, and are essentially soluble till they are oxidized in and on the paper after exposure to the air. To render these available as copying inks it is necessary to add to them a substance which will retard the oxidizing effect of the air for some time. For this purpose the bodies most serviceable are gum arabic or senegal, with glycerin, dextrin or sugar, which last, however, renders the ink sticky. These substances act by forming a kind of glaze or varnish over the surface of the ink which excludes the air. At the same time when the damp sheet of tissue paper is applied to the writing, they dissolve and allow a portion of the yet soluble ink to be absorbed by the moistened tissue. As copying ink has to yield two or more impressions, it is necessary that it should be made stronger, 7.e., that it should contain more pigment or body than common ink. It, therefore, is prepared with from 30 to 40% less of water than non-copying kinds; but otherwise, except in the presence of the ingredients above mentioned, the inks are the same. Copying ink pencils consist of a base of graphite and kaolin impregnated with a very strong solution of an aniline colour, pressed into sticks and dried. Red and Blue Inks.—The pigment most commonly employed as the basis of red ink is Brazil-wood. Such an ink is prepared by adding to a strong decoction of the wood a proportion of stannous chloride (tin spirits), and thickening the resulting fluid with gum arabic. In some instances alum and cream of tartar are used instead of the stannous chloride. Cochineal is also employed as the tinctorial basis of red ink; but, while the resulting fluid is much more brilliant than that obtained from Brazil-wood, it is not so permanent. A very brilliant red ink may be prepared by dissolving carmine in a solution of ammonia, but this preparation must be kept in closely stoppered bottles. A useful red ink may also be made by dissolving the rosein of Brook, Simpson and Spiller in water, in the proportion of one to from 150 to 200 parts.. For the production of blue ink the pigment principally used is Prussian blue. It is first digested for two or three days with either strong hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid or nitric acid, the digested mass is next very largely diluted with water, and after settling the supernatant liquid is siphoned away from the sediment. This sediment is repeatedly washed, till all traces of iron and free acid disappear from the water used, after which it is dried and mixed with oxalic acid in the proportion of eight parts of Prussian blue to one of the acid, and in this condition the material is ready for dissolving in water to the degree of colour intensity necessary. An aniline blue ink may be prepared by dissolving one part of bleu de Paris in from 200 to 250 parts of water. Marking Ink.—The ink so called, used principally for marking linen, is composed of a salt of silver, usually the nitrate, dissolved in water and ammonia, with a little provisional colouring matter and gum for thickening. The colour resulting from the silver salt is developed by heat and light; and the stain it makes, although exceedingly obstinate, gradually becomes a faint brownish-yellow. Many vegetable juices, e.g., of Coriaria thymifolia, Semecarpus anacardium, Anacardium. occidentale (Cashew), are inks of this type.

362

INKBERRY—INKERMAN

Gold and silver inks are writing fluids in which gold and silver, or imitations of these metals, are suspended in a state of fine division. In place of gold, Dutch leaf or mosaic gold is frequently substituted, and bronze powders are used for preparing a similar kind of ink. The metallic foil is first carefully triturated into a fine paste with honey, after which it is boiled in water containing a little alkali, and then repeatedly washed in hot water and dried at a gentle heat. A solution is prepared consisting of one part of pure gum arabic and one part of soluble potash glass in four parts of distilled water, into which the requisite quantity of the metallic powder prepared is introduced. Owing to the superior covering nature of pure gold, less of the metal is required than is necessary in the case of silver and other foils. In general one part of foil to three or four parts of solution is sufficient. The metallic lustre of writing done with this solution may be greatly heightened by gently polishing with a burnishing point. Another gold ink depends upon the formation of purple of Cassius; the linen is mordanted with stannous chloride, and the gold applied as a gummy solution of the chloride. Indelible or incorrodible ink is the name given to various combinations of lamp-black or other carbonaceous material with resinous substances used for writing which is exposed to the weather or to the action of strong acids or alkaline solutions. An ink having great resisting powers may be conveniently prepared by rubbing down Indian ink in common ink till the mixture flows easily from the pen. Other combinations have more the character of coloured varnishes.

Sympathetic inks are preparations used for forming charac-

ters which only become visible on the application of heat or of some chemical reagent. Many chemicals which form in themselves colourless solutions, but which develop colour under the influence of reagents, may be used as sympathetic ink, but they are of little practical utility. Characters written in a weak solution of galls develop a dark colour on being treated with a solution of copperas; or, vice versa, the writing may be done in copperas and developed by the galls solution. Writing done in various preparations develops colour on heating which fades as the paper cools. Among such substances are solutions of the chlorides of cobalt and of nickel. Very dilute solutions of the mineral acids and of common salt and a solution of equal parts of sulphate of copper and salammoniac act similarly. Writing with rice water and developing with iodine was a device much used during the Indian Mutiny. Printing Inks.—Printing inks are essentially mixtures of a pigment and a varnish. The varnish is prepared from linseed oil, rosin and soap; the oil must be as old as possible; the rosin may be black or amber; and the soap, which is indispensable since it causes the ink to adhere uniformly to the type and also to leave the type clean after taking an impression, is yellow, or turpentine soap for dark inks, and curd soap for light inks. The varnish is prepared as follows: The oil is carefully heated until it "strings" properly, i.e; a drop removed from the vessel on a rod, when placed upon a plate and the rod drawn away, forms a thread about jin. long. The rosin is carefully and slowly added and the mixture well stirred. The soap is then stirred in. The ink is prepared by mixing the varnish with the pigment, and grinding the mass to impalpable fineness either in a levigating mill or by a stone and rouller. For black ink, lamp-black mixed with a little indigo or Prussian blue is the pigment employed; for wood engravings it may be mixed with ivory black, and for copper plates with ivory or Frankfurt black; for lithographic reproductions Paris black is used. Red inks are made with carmine or cochineal; red lead is used in cheap inks, but it rapidly blackens. Blue inks are made with indigo or Prussian blue; yellow with lead chromate or yellow ochre; green is made by mixing yellow and blue; and purple by mixing red and blue.

INKBERRY

(Ilex glabra), a North American shrub of the

holly genus (family Aquifoliaceae), known also as evergreen winter-berry and Appalachian tea, native to sandy soil from Nova Scotia to Florida and west to Louisiana, mostly near the coast. It is a small shrub, 2 ft. to 6 ft. high, with leathery, evergreen, oblong, usually slightly toothed leaves; small white flowers, solitary or sometimes two or three together, borne on short slender

stalks in the axils of the leaves, and black berry-like (drupe), about i in. in diameter, ripening in autumn. Among other plants called ink-berry are the West Indian indigo-berry (Randia aculeata) and

the widely distributed poke-berry (Phytolacca decandra). The Australian or Queensland ink-berry is Mollinedia macrophylla,

a plant of the family Monimiaceae. (See Hotty; Poxz-Bzssy.) INKERMAN, BATTLE OF, fought on Nov. s, 1854 n tweer a portion of the allied British and French army besieging Sevastopol and a Russian army under Prince Menshikov (see CRIMEAN War).

This battle derives its name from a ruin on the

northern bank of the river Tchernaya near its mouth, but it was

fought some distance away, on a nameless ridge (styled Mt. Inkerman after the event) between the Tchernaya and the Careenage Ravine, which latter marked the right of the siege-works directed against Sevastopol itself. Part of this ridge was occypied by the British, while farther to the south a French corps under General Bosquet was posted to cover the rear of the besiegers. The Russians arranged for a combined attack on the ridge by part of Menshikov’s army (16,000) and a corps (19,000) that was to issue from Sevastopol. This attack was to have, beside its own field artillery, the support of 54 heavy guns, and the Russian left wing on the Balaklava battleground was to keep Bosquet occupied. If successful, the attack on the ridge was to be the signal for a general attack all along the line. It was apparently

intended by Menshikov that the column from the field army

should attack the position from the north, and that the Sevas-

topol column should advance along the west side of the Careenage

Ravine. But he only appointed a commander to take charge of both columns at the last moment, and the want of a clear under-

standing as to what was to be done militated against success from the first. Soimonov, with the Sevastopol column, assembling his troops before dawn, led them on to the upland east of Careenage Ravine, while the field army column, under Pavlov, crossed the Tchernaya near its mouth, almost at right angles to Soimonov’s line of advance. The British troops on or near the ground were the 2nd Division, 3,000, encamped on the ridge; Codrington’s brigade of the Light Division, 1,400, on the slopes west of the Careenage Ravine; and the Guards Brigade, 1,350, about $m. in rear of the 2nd Division camp. No other forces, French or British, were within 2m. except another part of Sir George Brown’s Light Division. A mist overhung the field and the hillsides were slippery with mud Soimonov, with his whole force deployed in a normal attack formation (three lines of battalion columns covered by a few hun-

dred skirmishers) pushed for-

ward along the ridge (6 a™) without waiting for Pavlov or for Dannenberg, the officer appointed to command the whole force. Shell Hill, guarded only by a picquet, was seized at once. The heavy guns that had been brought from the fortress were placed in position on this hill, and opened fire (7 A.M.) on the knoll, 1,400 yds. to the south, behind which the 2nd Division was encamped. The Russian infantry halted for the guns to prepare the way, and the heavy projectiles both swept the crest of the British knoll . and destroyed the camp in rear.

But already General Pennefather, commanding the division, had pushed forward one body of his infantry after another down the forward slope, near the foot of which they encountered the Russians in great force. On his side, Soimonov had been compelled to break up his regular lines of columns at the narrowest part of the ridge and to push his battalions forward a few at a time. This and the broken character of the ground made the battle

even in the beginning a mélée: The.mist, which had at first allowed the big battalions to approach unobserved, now favoured

the weaker side. Soimonov. himself, however, formed" up.some

INLAND ooo men, who drove back the British left wing—for the whole

of Pennefather’s force at the time was no more than 3,600 men.

But the right wing, not as yet attacked, either by Soimonov or

by Pavlov, held on to its positions on the forward slope, and a column of Russian sailors and marines, who had been placed under

Spimonov's command and had moved up the Careenage Ravine

to turn the British left, were caught, just as they emerged on to

REVENUE

363

sailants, though no longer more than slightly superior in numbers, carried not only the sangar, but part of the crest line of the allied position. But they were driven back into the Quarry Ravine, and, relieving the exhausted British, the French took up the defence along the edge of the ravine, which, though still not without severe fighting, they maintained till the close of the battle. Inkerman,

however,

was not a drawn

battle.

The allied field

the plateau in rear of Pennefather’s line, between two bodies of artillery, reinforced by two long 18-pr. guns of the British siege British troops hurrying to the scene of action. On the front, too,

train and assisted by the bold advance of two French horseartillery batteries which galloped down the forward slope and overcrowded battalions jostled one another and dissolved on the engaged the Russians at close range, gained the upper hand. Last narrow and broken plateau. Soimonov himself was killed, and the of all, the dominant guns on Shell Hill thus silenced, the resolute disciplined confidence and steady volleys of the defenders domi- advance of a handful of British infantry decided the day, and the nated the chaotic élan of the Russians. Thus 3,300 defenders Russians retreated. The final shots were fired about 1.30 P.M. The total British force engaged was 8,500, of whom 2,357 were were able to repulse and even to “expunge from the battlefield” the whole of the Sevastopol column, except that portion of it killed and wounded. The French lost 939 out of about 7,000 who which drifted away to its left and joined Pavlov. This stage of came on to the field, though not all these were engaged. The the battle had lasted about 40 minutes. But, brilliant as was this Russians are said to have lost 11,000 out of about 42,000 presthe Russian attack came to a standstill and ebbed, for Soimonov’s

overture, it is the second stage of the battle that gives it its ent. The percentage (27-7) of loss sustained by the British is sufficient evidence of the intensity of the conflict, and provides a convincing answer to certain writers who have represented the parts of Soimonov’s corps, was relatively slight, but General Dan- battle as chiefly a French affair. On the other hand, the reproaches nenberg now arrived on the field, and arranged for an assault on addressed by some British writers to General Bosquet for not the British centre and right, to be delivered by 10,000 men (half promptly supporting the troops at Inkerman with his whole his intact forces) chiefly by way of the Quarry Ravine, the strength are equally unjustifiable, for apparently Sir George Brown attack to be prepared by the guns of Shell Hill. Pennefather and Sir George Cathcart both declined his first offers of support, had been reinforced by’the Guards Brigade and a few smaller and he had Prince Gorchakov with at least 20,000 Russians in units; Not the least extraordinary feature of the battle that fol- his own immediate front. He would therefore have risked the lowed is the part played by a sangar of stones at the head of failure of his own mission in order to take part in a battle where Qua.ry Ravine and a small battery, called the Sandbag Battery, his intervention was not, so far as he could tell, of vital impormade as a temporary emplacement for two heavy guns a few tance. When Lord Raglan definitely asked him for support, he days before. The guns had done their work and been sent back gave it willingly and eagerly, sending his troops up at the double, whence they came. Nevertheless, these two insignificant works, as and it must be remembered that several British divisions took no points to hold and lines to defend on an otherwise featureless part in the action for the same reason that actuated Bosquet. But, in spite of the seemingly inevitable controversies attendant on an battlefield, became the centres of gravity of the battle. The sangar at first fell into the hands of the Russians, but they "allied" battle, it is now generally admitted that, as a "soldiers! were soon ejected, and small British detachments reoccupied and battle," Inkerman is scarcely to be surpassed in modern history. held it, while the various Russian attacks flowed up and past it INLAND REVENUE, BOARD OF. The period followand ebbed back into the Quarry Ravine. Possession of the Sand- ing the English Revolution of 1688 is on many accounts notable bag Battery was far more fiercely contested. The right wing was in the history of British public finance. Taxation, in particular, defended by some 7oo men of the 2nd Division, who were re- under the pressure of war with France, was reorganized in extent mforced by 1,300 of the Guards. The line of defence adjacent and character. In 1689 the Excise Board was reconstituted. to the battery looked downhill for about 3ooyd., giving a clear Stamp duties were imposed and a Board of Stamps formed in field of fire for the new Enfield rifle the British carried; but a 1694. A new tax on the yearly value of property, first imposed in sharp break in the slope beyond that range gave the assailants 1692, was continued from 1697 by annual acts. For this, the plenty of "dead ground" on which to form up. For a time, there- ancient machinery for a time sufficed under which commissioners fore, the battle was a series of attacks, delivered with great fierce- for divisions of every country had raised “aids” voted by parlianess by the main body of Pavlov's corps, the repulse of each be- ment. A Board of Taxes was appointed in 1718. In 1797 Great ing followed by the disappearance of the assailants. But the Britain and Ireland were covered by six boards, of excise, stamps arrival of part of the British 4th Division under Sir George and taxes severally. Three excise boards were united in 1823. Cathcart gave the impulse for a counter-attack. Most of the divi- Ten years later stamps and taxes passed under joint administrasion indeed had to be used to patch up the weaker parts of the line, tion. Finally, in 1849, the first Board of Inland Revenue embut Cathcart himself with about 400 men worked his way along braced excise, stamps and taxes. In rgo9 the excise passed to the the lower and steeper part of the eastern slope so as to take the Board of Customs, the Board of Inland Revenue retaining its title. The board is constituted by letters patent, and consists of a assailants of the battery in flank. : He had not proceeded far, however, when a body of Russians chairman, a deputy chairman and three commissioners who are moving higher up descended upon the small British corps and secretaries of the department and commissioners ex officio. The scattered it, Cathcart himself being killed. Other counter-strokes office is at Somerset House, London. Scope and Functions.—The following are the sources of inthat his arrival had inspired were at the same time made from different parts of the defensive front, and had the-effect of break- land revenue :— r. Stamp Duties. On documents of various kinds, which are ing up what was a solid line into a number of disconnected bands, each fighting for its life in the midst of the enemy. The crest inadmissible in evidence unless duly stamped. ofthe position was laid open and parts of the Russian right wing 2. The “Death Duties.” These are stamp duties on documents seized it. But'they were flung back to the lower slopes of the connected with the administration of estates by executors and Quarry Ravine by the leading French regiment sent by Bosquet. next of kin, or the receipt of property by beneficiaries. They This regiment was quickly followed by others. The last great comprise the estate duty, which is a tax on the capital value of assault was delivered with more precision, if with less fury than property passing upon death, together with the legacy and sucthe others, and had Dannenberg chosen to employ the 9,000 cession duties. hayonets of his reserve, who stood idle throughout the day, to 3. Income Tax and Super Tax. The former is a flat-rate tax Support the 6,000 half-spent troops who made the attack, it would upon annual income or profits, as such. The latter is a surtax at Probably have been successful. rates graduated by reference to total income of the individual As it was, supported by the heavy guns on Shell Hill, the as- where this exceeds a certain sum. The surtax on the more affluent, epic interest.

The first attack made by Pavlov’s advanced guard, aided by

364 INLAND

REVENUE

DUTIES—INLAND

WATER

TRANSPORT

and a system of personal allowances and reliefs which effectively INLAND REVENUE DUTIES. These duties are de. reduce the burden on smaller incomes, form the means of adjust- scribed under the headings ESTATE DUTIES; Income TAx: DEATH ing the incidence upon individuals. Other taxes included in inland Duties; Stamp Duties; LAND TAXES, etc.; see also the relevant revenue are comparatively insignificant. sections of the articles GREAT BRITAIN and UNITED STATES. In relation to income tax and the super tax, or surtax, the func- | INLAND WATER TRANSPORT. Transport by navitions of the department extend to Great Britain and Northern | gable waterways in the last years before the World War reached Ireland; otherwise, to Great Britain alone. very high figures indeed. In 1875, 10,400,000 tons were carried Organization and Methods.—Stamp duties on documents by water in Germany; in 1910, 64,750,000 tons. The bulk of the requiring assessment are ascertained in the branch of the con- increase was on the large rivers and canals; the less important troller of stamps, at Somerset House. In commercial practice, the waterways showed no advance, and in some cases actually a falling. proper duty is often clear, and in such cases the document is off. In the Netherlands and Belgium the ports of Rotterdam, normally drawn on stamped material. The stamps are for the Amsterdam and Antwerp benefited by the great development of most part impressed by means of dies, but adhesive stamps may Rhenish industry in Germany, the Rhine being admirably suited be employed in certain cases. The death duties are assessed in for carrying both ores and coal. In the riparian states of the the estate duty office at Somerset House. Danube the movement of industrial products downstream and of Income Tax Methods.—Income tax is assessed locally. The cereals and oil upstream has produced a similar increase in waterincome tax when imposed in 1842 was a lineal successor of the borne traffic. See also UNITED STATES, Inland Water Ways. annual property tax of 1697. Local assessment was an inherited This general development of trafüc by navigable waterways feature of the tax, which was, and still is, assessed by honorary everywhere led to the undertaking of important hydraulic work commissioners for divisions of each county, with a surveyor of in the construction of new waterways and the improvement of taxes intervening to safeguard the Crown. Appeals against assess- existing ones. Steps were taken to regulate and canalize rivers; ments are also determined by these commissioners, and their canals were cut to link up important rivers; existing canals were functions in this respect constitute the most valuable and respon- enlarged so as to be navigable by vessels of larger tonnage; and sible part of their duties. Modern conditions have rendered the gradually a whole network of navigable waterways has spread ascertainment of taxable profits often highly intricate, and liability over central and western Europe. The total length of the naviis wherever possible, agreed by the surveyor (now the inspector) gable waterways in France before the war was more than 11,000 of taxes, before assessment. The tax inspectorate, organized in kilometres. In Germany it exceeded 10,000. The capacity of the district offices, forms a branch under the direction of the chief German waterways was on the whole greater than that of the inspector of taxes at Somerset House. French, since many of the canals in France were navigable only The district inspectors are also concerned in the reduction by for vessels of 300 tons or less. the local commissioners where necessary, of income tax assessEffects of the War.—The World War interrupted the developments, in carrying out the allowances and reliefs due to individual ment of inland navigation, and its termination was followed by taxpayers, and in repayments. Income tax upon profits, being a transport crisis due mainly to the disorganization of the railcharged upon the business by which the profits are earned, is ways through the wear and tear of rolling stock and rails, and the

deducted from interest and dividends before receipt by the taxpayer (collection “at the source") who therefore in numerous cases requires repayment. Certain income tax assessments and all super tax, or surtax, assessments are made by the special commissioners of income tax, a body appointed by the Treasury. The basis of liability for super tax is income tax liability already determined, and the inspector of taxes therefore does not intervene. The special commissioners also determine appeals against assessments, and exercise their most important functions in this judicial capacity. As a judicial body the special commissioners, like the local commissioners, are independent of the Board of Inland Revenue. In addition to the system of income tax and super tax appeals, there exists appropriate machinery for determination of all cases of disputed liability to revenue duties. The procedure issues ultimately in reference, where and so far as necessary, to the law

Courts. A legal branch is maintained under the solicitor of inland revenue. Payment of duties other than income tax is made direct to the department. Income tax is largely gathered by collectors, appointed locally. The accountant-general at Somerset House receives and makes payments, keeps necessary accounts and controls repayments and all expenditure. A valuation office is employed to value lands, tenements and hereditaments upon which death duties are payable. The branch of the director of stamping at Somerset House is responsible for the mechanical work of producing revenue stamps, and constitutes a factory of moderate size. A central office at Edinburgh, under the comptroller of stamps and taxes, Scotland, performs duties corresponding to those of the executive and accounting branches in London. A report made by the board is annually laid before parliament All accounts are audited by the comptroller and auditor-general, who is independent both of the department and of the Treasury. The total cost of inland revenue services represents some 1-7% of the gross receipts. (See Estate Duties; INcoME Tax.) BreriocrapHy.—Reports of the Commissioners of Inland Revenue (1857 and annually); Report and Minutes of Evidence of Royal Commission on Income Tax (1920). (W. V. Br.)

destruction of considerable portions of tracks and railway installations. Normal currents of traffic had to be re-established, and demobilization raised a difficult transport problem. Even the full use of navigable waterways was insufficient to meet immediate requirements. The destruction of many waterways with their

works (bridges, locks, etc.) and of many vessels used in inland navigation, helped to make matters more difficult. But repairs were fairly quickly effected and in 1920—21, indeed, when the railway crisis was still acute in consequence of a shortage of rolling stock, there was a surplus of inland navigation tonnage owing to the considerable increase in freights due to the rise in the cost of living. Governments avoided or took measures to prevent any great increase in railway rates until the existence of large deficits showed that it was necessary to adapt rates to the increased expenditure. Navigation, on the other hand, being entirely in the hands of private individuals, had to adapt itself immediately to the increased working expenses. Furthermore, governments in some cases used the railways to establish new currents of transport, which had become desirable in consequence of altered frontiers, or to help national seaports to compete with foreign seaports. Sometimes, too, by instituting competitive rates on the railways, governments tried to obtain larger receipts which would enable them to meet the deficit of the railway budget. Another factor which unfavourably affected the financial results of inland navigation concerns was the absence of proper upkeep of the waterways during the years 1914-18. Rivers which require constant attention suffered to a large extent in this respect, and it proved impossible to employ the rivercraft to their full capacity.

But the main cause of the bad conditions of inland navigation after the war was that financial and economic crises, the instability of the exchanges, and general impoverishment did not allow the resumption of transport which had been expected. Nevertheless, general improvement gradually took place.

In France the total amount of goods carried on rivers and

canals, which was 41,896,754 tons in 1913, was only 21,500,000 I1

1920. In 1924 the figure had risen to 36,758,000 tons, traflic assuming large dimensions in the north of France, especially

INLAND rd to the port of Strasbourg.

WATER

TRANSPORT

365

The following figures for the

canal, as was provided for in the Dutch-Belgian Treaty, which was, however, rejected by the First Chamber of the Dutch Parliament. Fresh negotiations have been entered into by the parties concerned and will undoubtedly permit of a satisfactory solution. It seems indicated that the new communication between Antwerp tons, had fallen in 1918 to 2 5,608,609. tons and by 1923 as low as and the Rhine should be navigable for the large Rhine barges, that 16,608,609 tons. In that year—a quite abnormal one, certainly, is to say for vessels up to 3,000 tons. owing to the Ruhr occupation—traffic through the port of DuisMeuse Canalization.—In the Netherlands the most important burg-Rubrort, which in 1913 was about 26,000,000 tons, and which scheme now being carried out is the canalization of the Meuse on was still 14,000,000 tons in 1922, fell to 3,980,412 tons. Dutch territory, which further involves a junction canal between The situation is exactly the same as regards traffic across the the Meuse and the Waal and the Juliana canal from Maasbracht Cerman-Dutch frontier near Lobith. Over 37,000,000 tons in southwards, the latter intended to link up the mining centre with port of Paris may be noted: in 1913, 4,786,649 tons were loaded and 11,709,824 tons unloaded; the figures for 1924 were respectively 2,769,166 tons and 10,221,228 tons. The total traffic for the Rhine, which in 1913 was 54,562,574

1913, it fell in 1918 to scarcely 5,000,000 tons, but by 1924 had risen again to 23,000,000 and in 1925 to about 40,000,000 tons. In 1926 (year of British coal strike) the traffic amounted to 32,000,000 tons of which nearly 38,000,000 was downstream. On the Danube, in 1911, the total movement of goods was 6,802,639 tons and, in 1924, 3,757,010 tons. The year 1925 showed a considerable increase in traffic. The same effects are observable in Russia, although, in this

the navigable waterways of the country. The canalized Meuse will be navigable for boats of 2,000 tons. Locks 260 metres long will be able to take a tug and two barges of 2,000 tons each. The Meuse-Waal canal will be navigable for boats of the same tonnage. Completion of Rhine-Vistula System.—In Germany two large Schemes are being carried out. The Mittelland canal, which will connect Hanover with the Elbe near Magdeburg, will establish an uninterrupted navigable waterway between the Rhine and the case, it is necessary to take account of the great disturbance Vistula. This canal will form the last section of the waterway caused by the collapse of the Tsarist régime in 1917 and the begun with the construction of the Dortmund-Ems canal between ensuing civil war, and the famine which ravaged the Volga basin 1889 and 1899, followed by the Rhine-Herne canal, opened in in 1921. In 1913 the total weight of goods carried by water 1914, and the Bevergern-Misburg canal constructed during the amounted to 2,281,900,000 pouds (approx. 38,000,000 tons), of War. The last-mentioned canal, which is 172km. long, is without which corn accounted for 229,000,000 pouds. In 1920 the total locks. The total length without locks, including certain parts of figure had fallen to 665,500,000 pouds. The corresponding figure adjacent canals, is no less than 213 kilometres. The Mittelland for corn is negligible. For 1925 the total figure was, according to canal will be navigable for boats of 1,000 tons. It will cross the oficial statements, 1,405,200,000 pouds. Elbe by a bridge, the plans for which have been submitted for the approval of the International Elbe Commission. IMPROVEMENT SCHEMES Rhine-Main-Danube Connection—The second important The question in relation to the improvement of navigable water- scheme in process of execution is the junction between the Rhine, ways was resumed after the war and, although many big schemes the Main and the Danube. The idea of linking up the Rhine and can hardly be expected to materialize, it is none the less true that the Danube is a very old one. Charlemagne conceived the idea of a large number of far-reaching plans are already in course of being constructing a canal, traces of which can still be seen. The Ludrealized, or are ripe for execution. wig canal, opened in 1846, was only navigable by small boats up Rhéne-Rhine Navigatton—The navigable waterway which the to 120 tons and has never been much used. It is anticipated that canalization of the Rhóne would establish from Marseilles through the area tapped by the Rhine-Main-Danube navigable waterway Lyons and Geneva (if the French and Swiss governments agreed will exceed that of any other European river and canal system. about the régime for the Lake of Geneva), might be of first-class The scheme involves the canalization of the Main, the construcimportance for traffic to Switzerland, and the eventual continua- tion of lateral canals and of a junction canal between the Main and tion of this waterway through Switzerland by the canal known as the Danube, joining up with the latter near Kelheim. It also Entreroches (a scheme warmly supported by the Swiss Assn. for necessitates the regulation of the Danube between Regensburg Rhóne-Rhine Navigation), would increase its importance. This and Hofkirchen, and between Passau and the frontier and in scheme for a navigable waterway between the Rhéne and the addition its canalization over the stretch between Hofkirchen and Rhine through Switzerland seems still immature. Passau, that is to say, in the Bavarian Kachlet. The waterway Rhine Navigation—The second large scheme prepared by the will be navigable for canal barges of 1,200 tons and for Rhine French Government is for the great Alsace canal between Hun- barges up to 1,500 tons. The scheme also provides for the utilizaingue and Strasbourg. This canal, which will serye both for navi- tion of hydraulic power; in fact, it is the production of electric gation and the supply of water-power, is to follow a course nearly power that has made the scheme practicable. parallel to the Rhine over a distance of about 114 kilometres. Other German Schemes.—Among the other plans for the conThe plan involves the erection of a weir across the Rhine bed. struction of canals in Germany, such as the Hansa canal, the canal Further, eight power stations will be constructed on the canal and from the Weser to the Main, the Kuesten-Kanal and the junction two locks placed at each station. The dimensions of this water- canal between Neckar and Danube, only the last deserves serious way would allow barges of 1,200 tons, normal type on the Upper consideration at present. The canalization of the Neckar might Rhine above Mannheim. The scheme for this canal required the be of considerable value for the development of navigation and

approval of the Central Commission for Rhine Navigation. After

giving its consent to the construction of the first reach of the canal in 1922, the commission in April 1925 approved the scheme for the seven other reaches subject to certain conditions.

for the port of Mannheim. At one time it seemed that, mainly for political reasons, opinion in Germany was in favour of construct-

ing the Weser-Main canal (the Weser being the only important

river which has escaped internationalization) in order to direct Switzerland has prepared a scheme for the regulation of the part of the traffic from the Danube to Bremen, after the conRhine between Strasbourg and Basel. This scheme has also been struction of the Main-Danube canal. The Weser could also carry conditionally approved by the Central Rhine Commission, and the some of the traffic normally carried by the Rhine and the Elbe. work may therefore shortly be put in hand (see RHINE), But the changed political situation makes it improbable that this Communication from the Rhine to Antwerp—A clause in the scheme will be put into effect at any early date. Treaty of Versailles provides for the possible construction of a Italian W aterways.—lIn Italy a canal has been constructed from

deep-draught canal from Antwerp to the Meuse and the Rhine, the Po to Brondolo on the Lagoon of Venice. A canal is also in ending in the neighbourhood of Ruhrort. The early execution of course of construction from Milan to the confluence of the Adda this scheme is unlikely because of the considerable expenditure Involved, and also owing to the fact that the consent, of Holland

'5 necessary. The right solution for the improvement of the

Sunmunication with Antwerp seems to be an Antwerp-Moerdijk

and the Po, whereby Milan will be linked by waterway to Venice. Czechoslovakian W aterways—In Czechoslovakia, besides canalization work on the Elbe and the Moldau and the regulation of the Danube, the Government has carefully considered two canal

366

INLAND

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TRANSPORT

schemes, an Elbe-Danube canal and an Elbe-Oder canal navigable : river-craft having a given loading capacity is less than that of tor vessels of 1,200 tons. The length of the Elbe-Danube canal railway rolling stock having the same capacity. Further, the would be about 300 kilometres. Its course would follow as far as haulage power of a locomotive is only a small fraction of that of possible the line of the most important towns. Financial considera- a tug. This argument remains true even if a proper use of a tions are retarding the execution of these schemes. waterway involves the execution of improvement works. More. Polish Waterways.—At the request of the Polish Government over, the economic development of the area served by the river the League of Nations Committee for Communications and Tran- leads to a considerable increase in passenger and parcels traffic

sit appointed three engineers (Case, United States, Nijhoff, Netherlands, Watier, France), to study the plan for a coal canal between the mining district of Upper Silesia and the mouth of the Vistula, and also the general problem of the development of the

for which the railway is necessarily more suitable than the water. way, so that we always find railway lines alongside the river connecting up the various important centres situated thereon. The argument that a river can compete with a railway holds good even

Polish navigable waterways considered as a whole, in particular the best technical methods for regulating the Vistula and for the construction of the East to West canal. The Committee of

if the traffic does not, strictly speaking, consist of heavy goods such as ores or coal. The Danube is a case in point; before the

Engineers did not recommend the immediate construction of a coal canal, but urged the complete improvement of the Vistula, including a lateral canal from the coal basin to the Cracow district, prolonged by canalization of the river to the confluence of the San, and then, by regulation of the remainder of the river

7,000,000 tons.

to its mouth. It was further recommended that work should be started on the Warta-Lake Goplo canal and on the great waterway Bug-Pripet. The entire East to West Branch will consist of the canalized Notec, the Bydgoszcz canal, the Brda, the Vistula up to Modlin, the Bug-Narev, the canalized Muchawiec, the improved Royal canal and the regulated Pripet. The latter would link up this waterway with the great navigable system of Russia through the Dnieper. The Russian System.—The Russian rivers which are naturally navigable have suffered but little from the lack of upkeep in the course of the last ro years. The proposal to construct the Rostov canal to unite the Volga and the Don may be carried into effect, though there are great technical difficulties in the way of this scheme. Its completion would reduce the cost of transport of oil from Baku, fish from Astrakhan, corn from the valleys of the Volga and the Kama, coal from the Donetz and merchandise from Persia. The importance of the proposed canal is obvious, as the immense system of the Volga, which is navigable for more than r6,000km., will thus be linked up with the Black sea, and the Baltic, Black and Caspian seas will be connected by navigable waterways. 'There is already a service between Leningrad via the Mariinsky system and the Volga to Astrakhan and thence to the Persian port of Enzeli. The immense territory of Russia may become of capital importance in the future from the point of view of inland waterway communications. The system of waterways is more than 200,000km. in length, of which at present some 40,000 are navigable. The Asiatic Russian system from the ObYenesei mouths to Central Asia and Lake Baikal lies outside the scope of this article.

World War the volume of traffic on that river amounted to nearly The case is different, however, if it is an artificial navigable waterway, że., a canal, which has to be built. As a rule such a work is not justified from the economic point of view unless the prospective traffic in heavy goods (ores, coal, building material, cereals and certain other agricultural products) is to amount to several million tons per annum. In order to determine the cost price of transport by canal we have to allow for possible profits

and advantages derived from the exploitation of hydraulic power, and accordingly we have to make a distinction between a canal crossing flat country and a canal built in mountainous districts. Many projects for artificial waterways have been rendered feasible by the utilization of water power. Wherever the configuration of the ground has permitted, recent schemes have combined the construction of a navigable waterway with the exploitation of hydroelectric power. The question therefore whether, in any given case, it is preferable from the economic point of view to construct a canal rather than a railway cannot be answered so readily as when

the alternatives are a railway and a river; the answer depends upon

a very large number of factors. International Rivers.—A special category of waterways is constituted by those which come under the scope of the Convention on the Régime of Navigable Waterways of Internationsl

Concern concluded at Barcelona on April 20, 1921. The criteria adopted at Barcelona were the fact of crossing or separating a

number of countries, and natural navigability to and from the sea. In addition to the obligations which devolve upon riparian states, particularly in connection with works of upkeep, the Barcelona Convention lays down the principle of freedom of navigation and equality of treatment for all flags. The objection has sometimes been raised that two différent ideas have been confused, namely, the territorial idea and the idea of international traffic. It is clear that if it is in the interest of international traffic that there should be no flag discrimination, this principle applies wherever international navigation is carried VALUE OF WATERWAYS on, independent of whether the navigable waterway crosses or Economic considerations will play a part in decisions that may separates several States or not. On the other hand it is only natural that, as regards interbe taken for the improvement of existing waterways or the construction of new ones. The question will inevitably arise whether national rivers, there was a desire to impose certain strict obligaa railway would not prove more serviceable than a waterway. tions on riparian States in connection with the hydraulic works to The preference will clearly go to whichever mode of transport is be carried out; these obligations, however, should rather be cheaper. In comparing the advantages of waterways and rail- regarded as reciprocal obligations between riparian States. It ways, we must distinguish between rivers and canals; and we would seem not impossible by drawing a clear distinction between must further discriminate between canals built across flat country the territorial idea and the idea of international traffic to lay dowa, and those constructed across land where there are marked for all navigable waterways on which international traffic can be

differences in level.

Rivers not naturally navigable may generally be rendered navigable by regulation works, such as spur dikes or longitudinal dikes, or by canalization works such as the construction of dams across

the bed of the river and locks to enable boats to pass.

The

forming of large reservoirs in the upper courses of waterways belonging to the basin of a large river may also constitute an excellent means of improving navigability by regulating the flow of water. In this way a greater minimum depth is obtained and the period of navigability during the year is lengthened. In most cases the, cost of building a railway having the same carrying capacity as a river is appreciably higher than the cost of making the river sufficiently navigable. Moreover, the cost of

carried on, contractual provisions similar to those which have been drawn up for maritime ports. In the application of the Barcelona Statute, the following are declared to be navigable waterways of international concern:

I. All parts which are naturally navigable to and from the sea of a waterway which in its course, naturally navigable to and from the sea, separates or traverses different States, and also any part of any other waterway naturally navigable to and from the sea, which connects with the sea a waterway naturally navigable which separates or traverses different States. It is understood that: (a) Trans-shipment from one vessel to another is not excluded by the words “navigable to and from the sea”; . (b) Any natural waterway or part of a natural waterway istermed “naturally navigable” if now used for ordinary commercial navigation,

INLAYING—INMAN

307

ble by reason of its natural conditions of being so used; b !coloured powder which passes through the perforations and marks a commercial navigation" is to be understood navigation hich, in view of the economic condition of the riparian countries, |the design faintly on the paper underneath. The pieces of paper | are then cut up and stuck on to several pieces of wood which form ©commercial and normally practicable; |the design, one whole print being reserved to paste complete on (c) Tributaries are to be considered as separate waterways; (d) Lateral canals constructed in order to remedy the defects of | to the ground or field. Each piece may be cut separately, but a waterway of international concern, including its tributaries of they are all bound to fit into the complete pattern when this is international concern, are deemed to be “riparian States,” 2, Waterways, or parts of waterways, whether natural or artificial, cut out of the ground, because all are cut from the same prints. expressly declared to be placed under the régime of the General Con- In true inlay the pieces to be inserted are cut out of wood } to yention regarding navigable waterways of international concern either iin. thick. The surface into which these separate designs are to in unilateral acts or the States under whose sovereignty or authority be set is carved out the required depth with wood-carver's tools, these waterways or parts of waterways are situated, or in agreements and the pieces making the design are driven in. made with the consent, in particular, of such States. In marquetry two panels are sometimes made of the reverse Inquiry into Existing Conditions.—In accordance with a colourings by sawing through the ground and the veneer at the resolution of the Economific Conference of Genoa, which was same time. At one time it was quite a common occurrence to approved by the Council and Assembly of the League of ‘Nations; produce two pieces of furniture in which one was brass inlaid the Organization for Communications and Transit decided in 1924 in the black, and in the other case the pattern was black inlaid to make inquiries of the various European governments concerned in the brass, thus utilizing what would otherwise have been very regarding the present

situation of inland navigation in their

respective territories, For inland water transport in America see

costly waste material

Although this method of cutting through

the Barge Canal (New York, 1922); Zeitschrift für Binnenschiffahrt

two or more.pieces of wood clamped together, and simply dropping one piece into the opening made by the other, is not generally considered as fine work, many excellent inlayers like Boulle in the time of Louis XIV., did their inlay work, or marquetry, in just that way. When all the parts have been cut and fitted together face downwards, paper is glued over them to keep them in place, and the ground and the veneer are carefully levelled. The ground is then wetted with glue at a high temperature and the surfaces squeezed between the frames called “cauls” until the glue is hard. History and Development.—Probably the earliest examples of inlay were found in the Venetian work of the r4th century, ; When wood was inlaid on ivory boxes. Other materials were used |ai an early date. One of the most beautiful forms of inlay ex-

INLAYING, a method of ornamentation by inserting in one

wood. In the 16th century the Italians made inlays of marble in

the articles UNITED STATES, Inland Water Ways; Great Laxgs,

Tue; and MississipPr River; CANALS AND CANALIZED RIvers. BrstiocraPpHy.—A. L. Sympher,

Wasserwirtschaftliche

Vorarbeiten

(Leipzig, 1901); Report of the Royal Commission Appointed to Enquire Into and to Report On the Canals and Inland Navigations of the United Kingdom. Cd. 3183 (1909) ; E. R. Johnson, Ocean and Inland

Waier Transportation (1906); Cauer and W. Rathenau, M. assengüterbaknen (Berlin, 1909); H. G. Moulton, Waterways versus Railways (Cambridge, Mass., 1912); O. Teubert, Die Binnenschiffahrt

(Leip-

zig, 1912); G. v. Hauffstengel, Die Forderung von Massengiitern (1921); A. L. Sympher, Die Wasserwirtschaft Deutschlands und ihre

zukünftige Aufgaben (Berlin, 1921); B. Schultz, Die Volkswirtneuen Bedeutung der Eisenbahnen (Jena, 1922); N. E. Whitford, History of

1900-26 (Duisburg).

(J. M. F. R)

material a substance differing therefrom in colour or composition. The art is practised in the fabrication of furniture and artistic objects in all varieties of wood, metal, shell, ivory, coloured and hard stone, and in compound substances. Forms of inlay include: Niello (q.v.), is an ancient and much-practised method of inlaying silver and gold with various metals, Demascening is the inlaying of gold wire in iron or steel. Mosaic (q.v.) is generally applied to inlay work in hard stone, marble and glass, but the most important class of mosaics—those which consist of innumerable small separate pieces—do not properly come under the head of inlaying. Pietra dura is a fine variety of inlaid mosaic in which hard and

expensive stones—agate, cornelian, amethyst and the like—are

used in relief.

ecuted by the Italians was with ivory upon walnut wood or black

various colours, and in the 17th century a combination of tortoiseshell and metal was not uncommon. Most of the examples found in England are importations, either from Holland or France. The reputation of the Dutch marqueteurs Was so great that Colbert engaged two, Pierre Gale and Vordt, for the Gobelins at the beginning of the 17th century. Jean Macé of Blois, the first Frenchman known to have practised the art, who was at work in Paris from 1644 (when he was lodged in the Louvre) or earlier, till 1672, as a sculptor and painter, learned marquetry in the Netherlands. His daughter married Pierre Boulle, and the greatest of the family, André Charles Boulle, succeeded to his lodging in the Louvre on his death in 1672. The members of this family are perhaps the best

| known of the French marqueteurs. Their greatest triumphs were Intarsia was originally a true inlay of one or more colours of gained in the marquetry of metal and tortoise-shell combined wood upon a darker or lighter ground, and it is from this form with beautifully chiselled ormolu mountings. It is thought by

of inlaying that marquetry and other wood inlays were developed.

many that Boulle carried the work of inlaying too far. The 18th

Inlay and Marquetry.—Inlay is more often confined to century commode of late Louis XIV. period, of tortoise-shell, woodwork, and the art of decorating the surfaces of furniture mother-of-pearl and coloured ivories inlaid in brass, an example or wall panelling with small pieces of wood, ivory, tortoise-shell,

of which may be seen at South Kensington, is characteristic. The Stuart period produced a good deal of marquetry in Engthe surface. The term “inlay” is often confused with and some- land, often pieces of real excellence. Long-case clocks, cabinets, limes used for the word “marquetry.” Marquetry is composed of chests of drawers and various other pieces of furniture were subpieces of very thin wood, or other material of equal thickness, jected to this kind of decoration. A shallower form of marquetry d down upon a matrix with glue. Thus marquetry is a veneer and some solid inlay work were also extensively used in the latter Process, while true inlay is what the term implies—"a laying in” part of the 18th century. With the increase in luxury and display of one Material into another material called the “ground.” Mar- in the. 17th and 18th centuries in France and Germany, cabinets quetry is a later development of the ornamental inlays of wood and desks became objects upon which extraordinary talent and known by the name of Intarsia, which, although a true inlay as expenditure were lavished. Perhaps the most beautiful examples opposed to the thin veneer of marquetry, furnishes many exam- of the art in Italy are the panels of choir stalls or sacristy cupples wherein the process follows that of marquetry. For boards, though marriage coffers were also often sumptuously example in the cathedral of Ferrara, Italy, the backs of the stalls decorated in this manner. (F. L. D.) ow the perspective lines of some of the subjects traced upon INMAN, HENRY (1801-1846), American painter, was born theground where the marquetry has fallen off, but none of the in Utica (N.V.), on Oct. 20, 18or. Apprenticed to the painter Sinkings” would be there if the panels had been executed as true John W. Jarvis at the age of r4, he left him after seven years ys Instead of veneers. and set up for himself, painting protraits, genre and landscape. "a |

ec, that are cut into various designs and set into the body of

, -0CeSS.—' The design for a panel is drawn on paper, the lines He was one of the organizers of the National Academy of Debeing pricked through to underlying sheets to make the necessary sign in New York and its first vice-president (from 1826-32). namber of copies, or the pricked sheet is dusted over with a| As a portrait painter he was highly successful both in New York

368

INN—INNOCENT

and Philadelphia, and going to England in 1844, he had for sitters

the lord chancellor (Cottenham), the poet Wordsworth, Doctor Chalmers, Lord Macaulay and others. His American sitters included President Van Buren and Chief Justice Marshall. He died in New York city on Jan. 17, 1846.

burn, are Purvis hill terraces, a remarkable series of earthen

banks, the origin and purpose of which are unknown. Traquair house, or palace, on the right bank of the Tweed, is one of the oldest inhabited houses in Scotland, the most ancient portion dat. ing from the roth century, and including a remnant of the castle INNES, JAMES DICKSON (1887-1914), English land. INN, a right bank tributary of the Danube. It rises in a small lake under Piz Longhino, in the Swiss canton of the Grisons. scape painter was born at Llanelly (Carmarthen), on Feb. 2After flowing for 55 m. through the Engadine, it enters Austria 1887. His mother was of Catalonian descent. He studied art di at Martinsbruck, and continues as a swift mountain stream along the Slade school (1905-08) and exhibited for the first time at the the Inn Thal as far as Innsbruck where it enters the broader Unter New English Art club in 1907. He travelled in France and Spain Inn Thal. At Rosenheim it leaves the limestone zone of north and exhibited his work at the Chenil gallery in 1910. He then Tirol and enters the plateau of Upper Bavaria, across which it worked with his friend, Augustus John, in Wales. In 1913 he flows to join the Danube at Passau. Its chief tributary is the went to Morocco. He died at Swanley on Aug. 22, 1914. His early Salzach:on which stands the town of Salzburg. (See DANUBE.) work was influenced by W. Sickert and Wilson Steer. Later he INNATE IDEAS, ideas or intellectual functions which are became a follower of the post-Impressionists, while his last water. supposed to be inborn in, or native to, the human mind, as dis- colours are in the spirit of J. S. Cotman. The Tate gallery has tinguished from those which are “acquired” in the course of a number of his water-colours. INNESS, GEORGE (1825-1894), American landscape experience, or are constructed by the mind on the analogy of experienced objects. The existence of innate ideas formed the painter, was born near Newburgh (N.Y.), on May 1, 1825, subject of acute controversy in the 17th century. Herbert of Before he was five years of age his parents had moved to New York and afterwards to Newark (N.J.), in which city his boyCherbury maintained the innate character of certain “common notions,” such as substance, equality, etc., and axioms or “eternal hood was passed. He would not “take education” at the town truths” like “things equal to the same thing are equal to one academy, nor was he a success as a greengrocer’s boy. He hada another.” Descartes likewise upheld the innate status of such strong bent towards art, and his parents finally placed him with ideas as those of God, substance, unity, equality, etc., and of vari- a drawing-master named Barker. At 16 he went to New York te ous axioms of geometry, etc. Locke, on the other hand, denies study engraving, but soon returned to Newark, where he conthe existence of innate ideas, and expressed his adhesion to the tinued sketching and painting after his own initiative. In 1843 Aristotelian principle that all ideas are derived, directly or indi- he was again in New York, and is said to have passed a month rectly, from sense-experience—nihil est in intellectu quod non in Gignoux’s studio. But he was too impetuous, too independent prius fuerit in sensu. He tried to refute Descartes by contend- in thought, to accept teaching; and, besides, the knowledge of his ing, as he well might, that there is no evidence for the existence teachers must have been limited. Practically he was self taught, of any full-fledged ideas in the minds of new-born infants, and and always remained a student. In 1851 he went to Europe, and that even savages are deficient in many of the ideas which Des- in Italy got his first glimpse of real art. He was there two years, cartes considered to be innate in the human mind. Locke, how- and imbibed some traditions of the classic landscape. In 1854 he ever, had really misunderstood Descartes, who did not maintain went to France, and there studied the Barbizon painters, whom he that innate ideas are explicit in the human mind from birth, but greatly admired, especially Daubigny and Rousseau. After his only that there are in man certain tendencies to construct and return to America he opened a studio in New York, then went to Medfield (Mass.}, where he resided for five years. A pastoral apply certain ideas when occasion arises. Man, as Leibnitz urged against Locke, is after all endowed from landscape near this town inspired the characteristic painting “The birth with an intellect so constituted as to function in certain Medfield Meadows.” Again he went abroad and spent six years ways in due course—zmzhil est in intellectu . . . excipe misi ipse in Europe. He came back to New York in 1876, and lived there, intellectus. Nobody now shares Locke's view that the human or near there, until the year of his death, which took place at mind at birth is a tabula rasa, a blank tablet waiting passively Bridge of Alian on Aug. 3, 1894, while he was travelling in Scotto receive the impressions of the senses. All admit nowadays, in- land. He was a National Academician, a member of the Society deed emphasize, the existence of certain native tendencies and of American Artists, and had received many honours at home and endowments in the individual mind from birth or even sooner. abroad. He was married twice, his son, George Inness (b. 1854), But the views about their nature or previous history are various. being also a painter. Inness was emphatically a man of temperConfining ourselves to such fundamental ideas as the so-called ament, of moods, enthusiasms, convictions. He was fond of categories (substance, attribute, cause, effect, etc.) there is, on speculation and experiment in metaphysics and religion, as in the one hand, the a priori view usually associated with the name poetry and art. Swedenborgianism, symbolism, Socialism, apof Kant (really much older), namely, that they are functionaily pealed to him as they might to a mystic or an idealist. He aspired inherent in the very structure of the mind, and are not derived to the perfect unities, and was impatient of structural foundations. from experience, because experience itself would be impossible This was his attitude towards painting. He sought the sentiment, without them: On the other hand, there is the empirical, evolu- the light, air, and colour of nature, but was put out by natures

tionary view put forward by H. Spencer, that although such ideas could not have evolved in the limited life-time of an individual, but are hereditary and so native in a sense, yet.they may have

been acquired from experience in the course of the vast period of the evolution of the human race. (See CATEGORIES, DESCARTES, (A. Wo.) tng KANT, LEIBNITZ.) resort health and parish burgh; police a THEN, INNERLEI of Peeblesshire,

Scotland, on Leithen Water, near its junction

with the Tweed, 61 m. S.E. of Peebles by the L.N.E. railway.

Pop. (1931) 2,359. It seems once to have been known as Horne-

huntersland, and to have been mentioned as early as 1159. Its chief industry is the manufacture of tweeds and other woollen

goods, which, together with the fame of its medicinal springs, brought the burgh into prominence towards the end of the 18th

forms. How to subordinate form without causing weakness was his problem, as it was Corot’s. His early education gave him no great technical facility, so that he never was satisfied with his achievement.

His was an original—a distinctly American—mind

in art. Most of his American subjects were taken from New York

state, New Jersey and New England. His point of view. was his own. At his best he was often excellent in poetic sentiment, and

superb in light, air and colour. He had several styles: at first he

was somewhat grandiloquent in Roman scenes, but sombre in colour; then under French influence his brush grew looser, as in the

“Grey Lowering Day”; finally he broke out in full colour and light, as in the “Niagara” and the last “Delaware Water-Gap. Some of his pictures are in American museums, but most of them (J. C. vax D.) are in private hands.

INNOCENT (Innocentivs), the name of 13 popes and one

century. The spa, alleged to be the St. Ronan’s well of Scott’s novel of that name, has a pump-room, well-house, etc. The town

anti-pope.

by that of the Pirn. Farther east, close to the village of Walker-

Anastasius I. During his papacy the siege of Rome by Alanic

is flanked on the west by the hill fort of Caerlee and on the east

Innocent I., pope from 402 to 417, was the son of Pope

INNOCENT (408) took place; the pope was, however, absent from Rome on

a mission to Honorius at Ravenna at the time of the sack in 410. He maintained and extended the authority of the Roman see as the ultimate resort for the settlement of all disputes; his still

extant communications

to Victricius

of Rouen,

Exuperius

of

369

logna he studied canon and civil law. On his return to Rome he became a canon of St. Peter’s; he was made subdeacon of the Roman Church by Gregory VIIL; and in 1190 his uncle, Pope Clement ITI, created him cardinal-deacon of Santi Sergio e Baccho. The election of Celestine III. in the following year with-

Toulouse, Alexander of Antioch and others, as well as his action drew Lotario for a while from the active work of the Curia, the on the appeal made to him by Chrysostom against Theophilus of new pope belonging to the family of the Orsini, who were at feud Alexandria, are examples of his intervention. He took a decided with the Scotti. Lotario, however, employed his leisure in writ-

view on the Pelagian controversy, confirming the decisions of the ing several works: Mysteriorum evengelicae legis ac sacramenti od of the province of pro-consular Africa held in Carthage in eucharistiae libri VI., De contemtu mundi, sive de miseria hu416, which had been sent to him. He wrote in the same year manae conditions, and De quadrapartita specie nuptiarum. Of ina similar sense to the fathers of the Numidian synod of Mileve these only the two first are extant; they show a profound erudiwho, Augustine being one of their number, had addressed him. tion. Yet Lotario was destined to be above all things a man of He died on March 12, 417, and in the Roman Church is com- action, and Innocent III. is remembered, not as a great theologian,

memorated as a confessor with Saints Nazarius, Celsus and Victor,

martyrs, on July 28. His successor was Zosimus. Innocent II. (Gregorio Paparesci dei Guidoni), pope froni 1130 t0 1143, was originally a Benedictine monk. His ability, pure life and political connections raised him rapidly to power. Made cardinal deacon of Sant Angelo in Pescheria by Paschal IT. he was employed in various diplomatic missions. Calixtus II. appointed him one of the ambassadors who made peace with the empire and drew up the Concordat of Worms (1122), and in 1123, with his later enemy Cardinal Peter Pierleoni, he was papal legate in France. On Feb. 13, 1130, Honorius II. died, and on

that night a minority of the Sacred College elected Paparesci, who took the name of Innocent II. After a hasty consecration he took refuge with a friendly noble from the supporters of Pier-

loni, who was elected pope under the name of Anacletus II.

by a majority of the cardinals. Innocent refused to recognize the choice; by June, however, he was obliged to flee to France. Here his title was recognized by a synod called by Bernard of Clair-

vaux at Étampes.

Similar action was taken in Germany by the synod of Würzburg. In Jan. 1131 Innocent met King Henry I. of England at

Chartres, and in March, at Liége, the German King Lothair,

whom he induced to undertake a campaign against Anacletus. The German army invaded Italy in Aug. 1132, and occupied all Rome except St. Peter's church and the castle of St. Angelo. Lothair was crowned emperor at the Lateran in June 1133, and Innocent

gave him the territories of the Countess Mathilda as a fief, but refused to surrender the right of investiture. Left io himself Innocent again had to flee, this time to Pisa. Here he called a comcil which condemned Anacletus. A second expedition of Lothair expelled Roger of Sicily (to whom Anacletus had given

the title of king in return for his support) from southern Italy,

but a quarrel with Innocent prevented the emperor attacking Rome. At this crisis, in Jan. 1138, Anacletus died, and a successor dected by his faction, as Victor IV., resigned after two months. TheLateran council of 1139 restored peace to the church, excommuntating Roger of Sicily, against whom Innocent undertook an unsuccessful expedition. The pope supported Bernard of Clairvauz m his prosecution of Abelard and Arnold of Brescia, whom he condemned as heretics. The remaining years of Innocent’s life were taken up by a quarrel with the Roman commune, which had set up an independent senate, and one with King Louis VII. of

France, about an appointment. France was threatened with the

mterdict, but before matters came to a head Innocent died on : 22, 1143, and was succeeded by Celestinus II.

See Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopáüdie, “Innocenz IL," with full referfaces. Gregorovius, History of Rome in the Middle Ages, trans. by

Hamilton (1896), vol. iv. part ii. pp. 420—453.

Innocent III. (Lando da Sezza), anti-pope (1179-80), sprang

from a noble Lombard family. Opponents of Alexander IIL. tried

to make him pope in Sept. 1179. Alexander, however, bribed his

parlisans to give him up, and imprisoned him in the cloister of Cava in Jan. 1180.

but as a great ruler and man of affairs. On Jan. 8, 1198, Celestine III. died, and on the same day Lotario, though not even a priest, was unanimously elected pope by the assembled cardinals. He took the name of Innocent III. On Feb. 21 he was ordained priest, and next day was consecrated bishop. His first acts were to restore the prestige of the Holy See in Italy, where it had been overshadowed by the power of

the emperor Henry VI. The early death of Henry VI. (Sept. 1197) had left Germany divided between rival candidates for the crown, Sicily torn by warring factions of native and German barons. It was, then, easy for Innocent to depose the imperial

prefect in Rome itself and to oust the German feudatories who

held the great Italian fiefs for the empire. Spoleto fell; Perugia surrendered; Tuscany acknowledged the leadership of the pope; papal rectores once more governed the patrimony of St. Peter. Finally, Henry’s widow, Constance, in despair, acknowledged the pope as overlord of the two Sicilies, and on her death (Nov. 27, 1193) appointed him guardian of her infant son Frederick. Thus in the first year of his pontificate Innocent had consolidated in the peninsula a secure basis on which to build up his worldpower. The effective assertion of this world-power is the characteristic feature of Innocent’s pontificate. Other popes before him—from Gregory VII. onwards—had upheld the theory of the supremacy of the spiritual over the temporal authority; it was reserved for Innocent to make it a reality. In Germany his support of Otto IV. against Philip of Swabia, then of Philip against Otto and finally, after Philip’s murder (June 21, 1208), of the young Frederick II. against Otto, effectually prevented the imperial power, during his pontificate, from again becoming a danger to that of the papacy in Italy. Concessions at the cost of the empire ‘in Italy were in every case the price of his support. (See GERMANY: History.) : In his relations with the German emperors Innocent acted partly as pope, partly as an Italian prince; his victories over other potentates he won wholly in his spiritual capacity. He forced Philip Augustus of France to put away Agnes of Meran and take back his Danish wife Ingeborg, whom he had wrongfully divorced; compelled Peter of Aragon to forgo his intended marriage with Bianca of Navarre and ultimately (1204) to receive back his kingdom as a fief of the Holy See, and caused Alphonso IX. of Leon to put away his wife Berengaria of Castile, who was related to him within the prohibited degrees, though he pronounced their children legitimate. Sancho of Portugal was compelled to pay the tribute promised by his father to Rome, and Ladislaus of Poland to cease from infringing the rights of the church. The archbishop of Trondhjem was called to order for removing the ban of excommunication from the repentant King Haakon IV., as an infringement of the exclusive right-of the pope to impose or remove the ban of the church in the case of sovereigns. Kaloyan, prince of Bulgaria, submitted to Rome, and, in Nov. 1204 received the insignia of royalty from the hands of the papal legates as the vassal of the Holy See.

Innocent IIT. (Lotario de’ Conti di Segni), pope from 1198 to Meanwhile Innocent promoted the crusade which ultimately, i216, son of Trasimondo, count of Segni, and of Claricia, a under the Doge Dandolo, led to the Latin occupation of Constanan lady of the noble family of Scotti, was born at Anagni r ut 1160, At the University of Paris he laid:the foundations

a his profound knowledge of the scholastic philosophy; at Bo-

tinople. (See Crusapes.) This diversion from its original object was at first severely censured by Innocent; but an event which seemed to put an end to the schism of East and West came to

370

INNOCENT

wear a different aspect; he was the first pope to nominate a patriarch of Constantinople, and he expressed the hope that henceforth the church would be “one fold under one shepherd.” By a bull of Oct. 12, 1204, moreover, Innocent proclaimed the same

|apostle’s admonition to obey “the king as supreme was addressed

13, 14, to the contrary, he replied in perfect good faith that the

to lay folk and not to the clergy.” The more intelligent laymen

of the time were not convinced even when coerced.

Even gg

indulgences for a crusade to Livonia as the Holy Land. The re- plous a Catholic as the minnesinger Walther von der Vogelweide sult was the “conversion” of the Livonians (1206) and the Letts giving voice to the indignation of German laymen, ascribed Inno. (1208) by the crusaders headed by the knights of the Teutonic cent’s claims, not to soundness of his scholastic logic, but to the Order. The organization of the new provinces thus won for the fact that he was “too young” (owé der babest ist ze junc). church Innocent kept in his own hands, instituting the new archThe literature on Innocent IIT. is very extensive; a carefully analysed bishopric of Riga and defining the respective jurisdictions of the bibliography wil be found in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopüdie (3rd archbishops and the Teutonic Knights. Another crusade was that ed., 1901) s. “Innocenz ITI.” In A. Potthast, Bibliotheca kist. med. aem (2nd ed., Berlin, 1896), p. 650, is a bibliography of the literature om proclaimed by Innocent in 1207 against the Albigenses. All that Innocent’s writings. In the Corpus zurts canonici, ed. Aemilius Fried. can be said in his favour is that he acted from supreme conviction; berg (Leipzig, 1881), vol. ii., pp. xiv—xvii., are lists of the official docu. and that he did not use force until for ten years he had tried all ments of Innocent III. excerpted in the Decretales Gregorii IX. The

the arts of persuasion in vain. (See ALBIGENSES.)

Of all Innocent’s triumphs the greatest was his victory over King John of England. The quarrel arose out of a dispute as to the election to the vacant see of Canterbury, which Innocent

had settled by nominating Stephen Langton (g.v.) over the heads of both candidates. John refusing to submit, Innocent imposed an interdict on the kingdom and threatened him with a crusade; and John was compelled to recognize Langton and to hold Eng-

land and Ireland as fiefs of the Holy See, subject to an annual tribute (May 1213). For years the pope virtually ruled England through his legates. (See EnctisH History and Joun, king of England.) So great had the secular power of the papacy become that a Byzantine visitor to Rome declared Innocent to be “the

successor not of Peter but of Constantine.” Innocent’s authority within the church itself exceeded that of his predecessors. The centralization of the ecclesiastical administration at Rome received a great impulse, and the independent jurisdiction of metropolitans and bishops was curtailed. He introduced a system of provisions and reservations, by which he brought the patronage of sees and benefices into his own hands— a system which led later to intolerable abuses. The 12th ecumenical council assembled at the Lateran under his presidency in 1215. It was attended by the plenipotentiaries of the emperor, of kings and of princes, and by some 1,500 archbishops, bishops, abbots and other dignitaries. The business before it, the disciplining of heretics and Jews, and the proclamation of a new crusade, etc., vitally concerned the States represented; yet the function of the great assembly was little more than to listen to and endorse the decretals read by the pope. (See Lateran Councits.) The great pope died on July 16, 1216, at Perugia, and was succeeded by Honorius III. : Whatever judgment posterity may have passed on. Innocent's aims, opinion is united as to the purity of the motives that inspired them and the tireless self-devotion with which they were pursued. “I have no leisure,” Innocent once sighed, “to meditate on supermundane things; scarce I can breathe. Yea, so much must I live for others, that almost I am a stranger to myself.” His views on the papal supremacy are best explained in his own words. Writing to the patriarch of Constantinople (Inn. III., lib. ii. ep. 200) he says: “The Lord left to Peter the governance not of the church only but of the whole world”; and again in his letter to King John of England (Iib. xvi. ep. 131): "The King of Kings . . . so established the kingship and the priesthood in the church, that the kingship should be priestly, and the priesthood royal (ut sacerdotale sit regnum et sacerdotium sit regale), as is evident from the epistle of Peter and the law of Moses, setting one over all, whom he appointed his vicar on earth." In his answer to the ambassadors of Philip Augustus he states the premises from which this stupendous claim is logically developed :— "To princes power is given on earth, but to priests it is attributed also in heaven; to the former only over bodies, to the latter also over souls. Whence it follows that by so much as the soul is superior to the body, the priesthood is superior to the kingship. . . . Single rulers have

single provinces, and single kings single kingdoms; but Peter, as in the plenitude, so in the extent of his power is pre-eminent over all, since he is the Vicar of Him whose is the earth and the fullness thereof, the whole wide world and all that dwell therein.

most important later works on Innocent III. are Achille Luchaire’s Innocent III., Rome et PItalie (1904), Innocent III., la croisade des Albigeois (ib. 1905), Innocent III., la papauté et l'empire (ib. 19o6) Innocent IIL., la question d'orient (ib. 1906) ; Innocent I., les royautés vassales du Saint-Siège (ib. 1908) ; and Innocent III., le concile de latran et la réforme de l'église (1908) ; Baethgen, Die Regenschaft Paps Innozenz III. im Kónigreich Sizilien (1914) ; E. W. Meyer, Staaisikeorien Papst Innozenz III. (1919). Innocent the Great, by C. H. C. Pirie-Gordon (1907), contains some useful documents. See also H. H, Milman, History of Latin Christianity (1855, etc.), vol. v.; F. Greg-

orovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, translated by A. Hamilton (1896), vol. v. pp. 5-110; J. C. L. Gieseler, Ecclesiastical Hist., trans. by J. W. Hull vol. ii. (1853), which contains numerous excerpts from his letters, etc. Innocent's works are found in Migne, Patrologiae Cursus Comfpletus, Series Latina, vols. ccxiv.-ccxvii. For a translation of Innocent's answer to King John on the interdict, and John's surrender of England and Ireland to Innocent, see Gee and Hardy, Documenis illustrative of Church History (1896), pp. 73 et seq.

Innocent IV. (Sinibaldo Fiesco), pope 1243-54, belonged to the noble Genoese family of the counts of Lavagna. Born at Genoa, he was educated under the care of his uncle Opizo, bishop of Parma. After taking orders at Parma, when he was made canon of the cathedral, he studied jurisprudence at Bologna. His first recorded appearance in political affairs was in 1218-19, when he was associated with Cardinal Hugolinus (afterwards Gregory IX.) in negotiating a peace between Genoa and Pisa. In 1223 Pope Honorius III. gave him a benefice in Parma, and in 1226 he was established at the curia as auditor contradictarum literarum oí the pope, a post he held also under Gregory IX., until promoted (1227) to be vice-chancellor of the Roman Church. In September of the same year he was created cardinal priest of San Lorenz in Lucina. He was papal rector (governor) of the March of Ancona from 1235 to 1240. On June 25, 1243, he was elected pope by the cardinals assembled at Anagni. When Innocent was raised to the Holy See the emperor Frederick II. lay under excommunication. Frederick hoped great things from the elevation of a member of an imperialist family; but it was soon clear that Innocent intended to pursue the traditions of his predecessors. Embassies and courtesies were, indeed, interchanged, and on March 31, 1244, a treaty was signed at Rome, whereby the emperor undertook to satisfy the pope’s claims in return for his own absolution from the ban. Neither side, however,

was prepared to begin to carry out the agreement, and Innocent began to feel unsafe in Rome, where the imperial partisans had the ascendancy. He left Rome, ostensibly to meet the emperor, and from Sutri fled by night on horseback, pursued by the emperor’s cavalry, to Civitavecchia, whence he took ship for Genoa and proceeded to Lyons, at that time a merely nominal dependence of the empire. Thence he wrote to Louis IX., asking for an asylum in France; but this Louis cautiously refused. From Lyons Inno cent issued a summons to a general council, before which hecited Frederick to appear in person, or by deputy. The council, which met on June 5, 1245, was attended only by partisans of the pope; and though Frederick condescended to be represented by his justiciar, Thaddeus of Suessa, the judgment was a foregone conclusion. On July 17, Innocent formally renewed the sentence of excommunication on the emperor, and declared him deposed from the

imperial throne and that of Naples. Frederick retorted by a nouncing his intention of reducing “the clergy, especially |

To the emperor of Constantinople, who quoted 1 Peter ii. highest,.to a state of apostolic poverty,” and by ordaining

INNOCENT ments for those priests who

37%

should obey the papal sentence.

work De exceptionibus was probably written before he became Innocent proclaimed a crusade against the emperor and armed his pope; but the Apparatus in quinque libros decretalium, which ts, the F ranciscan and Dominican friars, with special indul-

es for those who should take up the cross against the imperial heretic. At the same time he sought to undermine Frederick’s

displays practical sense and a mastery of the materials, was written at Lyons immediately after the council. His Apologeticus, a defence of the papal claims against the empire, has been lost. In-

authority in Germany and Italy. In Naples he fomented a coniracy among the feudal lords; in Germany, at his instigation, the archbishops with a few of the secular nobles in 1246 elected Henry , landgrave of Thuringia, German king; but the “priests’ king” died in the following year, William IL, count of Holland,

ander of Hales to write his Summa universae theologiae, did much for the universities, notably the Sorbonne, and founded law schools at Rome and Piacenza.

being after some delay, elected by the papal party in his stead.

Innocent's relentless war against Frederick was not supported by the lay opinion of his time. It wrought havoc and misery in Germany, where it increased the already bitter resentment against the priests. The pope's legate was driven from England by threats of personal violence and not even the saintly King Louis IX. of

France, though he made several vain attempts to mediate, ap-

the pope's attitude. The failure of the crusade which, in 1248, he led against the Muslims in Egypt, was ascribed

to the deflection of money and arms from this purpose to the war against the emperor. Even the clergy were by no means altogether on Innocent's side; the council of Lyons was attended by but 150 bishops, mainly French and Spanish, and the deputation from England, headed by Robert Grossetéte of Lincoln and

Roger Bigod, came mainly in order to obtain the canonization of

Edmund of Canterbury and to protest against papal exactions. Yet Innocent triumphed. His financial position was from the out-

set strong, for not only had he the revenue from the accustomed papal dues but he received large sums from the powerful religious orders. At first the war went in Frederick’s favour; but the capture of Parma by papal partisans (June 16, 1247) turned the scale. Frederick’s camp before Parma (the temporary town of Vittoria) was taken and sacked, the imperial insignia being captured. From this blow the emperor never recovered; he died on Dec. 13, 1250.

Innocent left Lyons for Italy in April 1251. He continued the struggle with Frederick's son and successor, Conrad IV., who in

nocent was also a notable patron of learning; he encouraged Alex-

Innocent's letters, the chief source for his life, are collected by E. Berger in Les Registres d'Innocent IV. (3 vols., 1884-87). For English readers the account in Milman’s Latin Christianity, vol. vi. (3rd ed.,

1864) is still useful. Full references will be found in Herzog-Hauck,

Realencyklopädie, vol. ix. (1901).

INNOCENT V. (Pierre de Champagni or de Tarentaise), pope from Jan. 21 to June 22, 1276, was born about 1225 in Savoy and

entered the Dominican order at an early age. He studied theology under Thomas Aquinas, Albertus Magnus and Bonaventura, in 1262 was elected provincial of his order in France. He made archbishop of Lyons in 1271; cardinal-bishop of Ostia Velletri, and grand penitentiary in 1275; and, partly through

and was and the influence of Charles of Anjou, was elected to succeed Gregory X. As pope he established peace between the republics of Lucca and Pisa, and confirmed Charles of Anjou in his office of imperial vicar of Tuscany. He was seeking to carry out the Lyons agreement with the Eastern Church when he died. His successor was Adrian V. Innocent V., before he became pope, prepared, in conjunction with Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, a rule of studies for his order, which was accepted in Jume 1259, and was the author of several works in philosophy, theology and canon law. He is sometimes referred to as famosissimus doctor. *

See F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 5, trans. by Mrs. G. W. Hamilton (1900—02) ; A. Potthast, Regesta pontif. Roman. vol. ii. (Berlin, 1875); E. Bourgeois de Bienheur eux Innocent V. (1899) ; J. E. Borel, Notice biogr. sur Pierre de Tarentaise (Chambéry, 1890) ; P. J. Béthaz, Pierre des Cours de la Salle, pape sous le nom Innocent V. n 1891); L. Carboni, De Innocentio V. Romano pontifice 1894).

Innocent VI. (Etienne Aubert), pope from Dec. 18, 1352, to

1252 descended into Italy, reduced the rebellious cities and claimed Sept. 12, 1362, was born at Mons in Limousin. He became prothe imperial crown. Innocent now offered the crown of Sicily in fessor of civil law at Toulouse and subsequently chief judge of tum to Richard of Cornwall, Charles of Anjou, and Henry III. the city. Having taken orders, he was raised to the see of Noyon of England, the last of whom accepted the doubtful gift for his and translated in 1340 to Clermont. In 1342 he was made cardinalson Edmund. After Conrad’s capture of Naples Innocent feared priest of Sti Giovanni e Paolo, and ten years later cardinal-bishop that Rome itself might fall into the hands of the German king. of Ostia and Velletri, grand penitentiary, and administrator of the Bat Conrad died on May. 20, 1254, leaving his infant son Con- bishopric of Avignon. Innocent revoked the reservations and radin under the pope’s guardianship.: Innocent posed as the commendations of his predecessor and prohibited pluralities; diampion of the infant king. He held,'indeed, to his bargain with urged upon the higher clergy the duty of residence in their sees, Henry IIT. and exercised his rights over the Sicilian kingdom by and diminished the luxury of the papal court. Largely through the nominating his own relations to its most important offices. Finally, influence of Petrarch, whom he called to Avignon, he released when Manfred, who by Frederick’s ‘will had been charged with Cola di Rienzo, who had been sent a prisoner in Aug. 1352 from the government of the two Sicilies, felt obliged to acknowledge Prague to Avignon, and used the latter to assist Cardinal Albornoz, the pope’s suzerainty, Innocent threw off the mask, ignored Con- vicar-general of the States of the Church, in tranquillizing Italy radin’s claims, and on Oct. 24 formally asserted his own claims and restoring the papal power at Rome.

to Calabria and Sicily. He entered Naples on the 27th; but meanInnocent caused Charles IV. to be crowned emperor at Rome while Manfred had fled and had raised a considerable force; the in 1355, but protested against the “Golden Bull” of the following news of his initial successes reached Innocent as he lay sick, and year, which prohibited papal interference in German royal elechastened his end. He died on Dec. 7, 1254, and’ was succeeded by tions. He renewed the ban against Peter the Cruel of Castile, and Alexander IV. E | ' m interfered in vain against Peter IV. of Aragon. He ‘made peace Innocent IV. is comparable to his greater predecessor Innocent between Venice and Genoa, and in 1360 arranged the treaty of IIL mainly in the extreme assertion of.the papal claims. In some Bretigny between France and England. In the last years of his respects he carried on the high traditions of his great predecessors. pontihcate he was busied with preparations for a crusade and He admonished Sancho II. of Portugal to turn from: his evil for the reunion of Christendom, and sent to Constantinople the courses and, when the king disobeyed, absolved the Portuguese celebrated Carmelite Peter Thomas, to negotiate with the from their allegiance, bestowing the crown on his brother Alphonso. claimants to the Greekmonk, throne. He instituted in 1354 the festival

He established an ecclesiastical ‘organization in the newly con-

verted provinces of Prussia, which ‘he divided into four dioceses: his attempt to govern the Baltic countries through a legate On the opposition of the Teutonic Order, whose rights in à he had confirmed. Ds x g It was Innocent IV. who, at the council of Lyons, first bestowed ted hat on the Roman. cardinals, as a symbol of: their readiness

of the Holy Lance. He was succeeded by Urban V.

The chief sources for the life of Innocent VI. are in Baluzius, Vitae Pap. Auenion. vol. i. (Paris, 1693) : Magnum bullarium Romanum, vol.

iv. (Turin, 1859) ; E. Werunsky, Excerpta ex registris Clementis VI. et Innocenti VI, (Innsbruck, 1885). See also L. Pastor, History of the Papes, vol. i., trans. by F. I. Antrobus (1899) ; F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 6, trans. by Mrs,.G. W. Hamilton (1900-02) ; D. Cerri, Innocenzo Papa VI. (Turin, 1873) ; J. B. Christophe, Histoire

to shed their blood in the cause of the church. . = i la bàpauté pendant le XIV* siecle, vol. 2 (1853) ; M. Souchon, Die nocent was a‘canon lawyer of sóme.eminence. His small de Papsiwahlen (Brunswick, 1888) ;" G. Daumet, Innocent VI. et Blanche

374

INNOCENT

de Bourbon (1899) ; E. Werunsky, Gesch. Kaiser Karls IV. (Innsbruck, 1892). There is an excellent article by M. Naumann in Hauck’s Realencyklopüdie, 3rd ed.

Innocent died |ent VIII.

on Dec. 30, 1591, and was succeeded by Clem-

See Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae summorum, Pontif. Rom. (1601.

o2); Cicarella, continuator of Platina, De Vitis Pontiff. Rom. (both Innocent VII. (Cosimo dei Migliorati), pope from Oct. 17, | contemporaries of Innocent) ; Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin, 1845 (T. F.C) ` 1404, to Nov. 6, 1406, was born at Sulmona in the Abruzzi in 1339. | etc.), ii. 233 seg. (all brief accounts). He was made papal vice-chamberlain and archbishop of Ravenna Innocent X. (Giovanni Battista Pamfili) was born in Rome of priest by Urban VL, and appointed by Boniface IX. cardinal as auditor of the Rota, nuncio successively served 1574, 6, legate May on papal and Bologna, of bishop mme, Gerusale in Sta. Croce made cardinal in 1627 to England. He was unanimously chosen to succeed Boniface. to Naples, legate apostolic to Spain, wasSept. 15, 1644. Through. pope on The election was opposed at Rome by a considerable party, but and succeeded Urban VIII. as dominated by his completely was Innocent pontificate his out return in Naples, of Ladislaus of aid the by peace was maintained herself thormade who Maidalchini, Olimpia Donna sister-in-law, antithe with for which Innocent agreed not to come to terms oughly detested for her inordinate ambition and rapacity. Urban recognize should he that condition on except XIII., Benedict pope but the papacy now the claims of Ladislaus to Naples. Innocent issued at the close VIII had been French in his sympathies;

of 1404 a summons for a general council to heal the schism, but

the council never assembled, for the Romans rose in arms to secure an extension of their liberties, and finally maddened by the murder of some of their leaders by the pope’s nephew, Ludovico dei Migliorati, they compelled Innocent to take refuge at Viterbo (Aug. 6, 1405). The Romans, recognizing later the pope’s innocence of the outrage, made their submission to him in Jan. 1406. He returned to Rome in March, and, by bull of Sept. 1, restored the city’s decayed university. He died on Nov. 6, 1406, and was succeeded by Gregory XII. See L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. i., trans. by F. I. Antrobus (1899) ; M. Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. i. (1899) ; N. Valois, La France et le grand schisme d’occident (1896-1902) ; Louis Gayet, Le Grand Schisme d'occident (1898) ; J. Loserth, Geschichie des spüteren Mittelalters (1903); Theodorici de Nyem, De schismate libri ires, ed. by G. Erler (Leipzig, 1890); K. J. von Hefele, Conciliengeschichte

(3855-74), Bd. 6, 2nd ed.; J. von Haller, Papsttum u. Kirchenreform

* (1903).

Innocent VIII. (Giovanni Battista Cibo), pope from Aug. 29,

1484, to July 25, 1492, successor of Sixtus IV., was born at Genoa (1432), the son of Arano Cibo, who under Calixtus III. had been a senator of Rome. Through the favour of Cardinal Calandrini, half-brother of Nicholas V., he obtained from Paul II. the bishopric of Savona. Sixtus IV. translated him to the see of Molfetta, and in 1473 created him cardinal-priest of Sta. Balbina, subsequently of Sta. Cecilia. As pope he addressed a fruitless summons to Christendom to unite in a crusade against the infidels, and concluded in 1489 a treaty with Bayezid IL., agreeing in consideration of an annual payment of 40,000 ducats and the gift of the Holy Lance to detain the sultan’s fugitive brother Jem in close confinement in the Vatican. Innocent excommunicated and deposed Ferdinand, king of Naples, by bull of Sept. irr, 1489, for refusal to pay the papal dues, and gave his kingdom to Charles VIII. of France, but in 1492 restored Ferdinand to favour. In the bull Summis desiderantes (Dec. 5, 1484) he instigated very severe measures against magicians and witches in Germany; he prohibited (1486) on pain of excommunication the reading of the propositions of Pico della Mirandola; he appointed (1487) T. Torquemada to be grand inquisitor of Spain; and he offered plenary indulgence to all who would engage in a crusade against the Waldenses. He sent missionaries under:Portuguese auspices to the Congo. An important event of his pontificate was the capture of Granada (Jan. 2, 1492), for which Innocent gave to Ferdinand

shifted to the side of the Habsburgs, and there remained for nearly 50 years. Evidences of the change were numerous: Innocent pro-

moted pro-Spanish cardinals; attacked the Barberini, protégés

of Mazarin, and sequestered their possessions; aided in quieting

an insurrection in Naples, fomented by the duke of Guise; and refused to recognize the independence of Portugal, then at war with Spain. As a reward he obtained from Spain and Naples the recognition of ecclesiastical immunity. In 1649 Castro, which Urban VIII. had failed to take, was wrested from the Farnese and annexed to the Papal States. The most worthy efforts of

Innocent were directed to the reform of monastic discipline (1652). His condemnation of Jansenism (1653) was met with the denial of papal infallibility in matters of fact, and the con-

troversy entered upon a new phase. (See JANSENISM.) Innocent died on Jan. 7, 1655, and was succeeded by Alexander VII. For contemporary lives of Innocent see Oldoin, continuator of Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae summorum Pontiff. Rom.; and Palazzi, Gesta Pontif. Rom. (Venice, 1687-88) iv. 570 sqq.; Ciampi's Innoc. X. Pamfi, et la sua Corte (1878) gives a very full account of the period. Gualdus’ (pseud. of Gregorio Leti) Vita de Donna Olimpia Maidalchina (1666) is gossipy and untrustworthy ; Capranica’s Donna Olympia Pamfili (Milan, 1875, 3rd ed.) is fanciful and historically of no value. See also Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin, 1840, etc.), ili. 40

sqq.; v. Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom. (1867—70), iii. 2, p. 623 sqq.; Brosch, Gesch. des Kirchenstaates (1880) i. 409 sqq.; and the extended bibliography in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopádie, s.v. "Innocenz x”

INNocENT XI. (Benedetto Odescalchi), pope from 1676 to 1689, was born at Como on May 16, 1611. He studied law in Rome and Naples, entered the Curia under Urban VIIL, and became successively protonotary, president of the Apostolic Chamber, governor of Macerate and commissary of Ancona. Innocent X. made him a cardinal (1647), legate to Ferrara, and, in 1650, bishop of Novara. He was chosen to succeed Clement X. on Sept. 21, 1676. He at once applied himself with great thoroughness to moral and administrative reform. The moral teaching of the Jesuits incurred his condemnation (1679) (see LicUvoRr), an act which the society never forgave, and which it partially revenged by forcing, through the Inquisition, the: condemnation of the quietistic doctrines of Molinos (1687), for which Innocent enter-

tained some sympathy.

(See MortzNos.)

Innocent’s protest against Louis XIV.’s extended claim to regalian rights called forth the famous Declaration of Gallican Liberties by a subservient French synod under the lead of Bossuet (1682), which the pope met by refusing to confirm Louis’ cleriof Aragon the title of Catholic Majesty.” Innocent died on July cal appointments. His determination to restrict the ambassadorial 25, 1492, and was succeeded by Alexander VI. right of asylum, which had been grossly abused, was resented by The sources for the life of Innocent VIII. are to be found in L. Mura- Louis, who defied him in his own capital, seized the papal territori, Rerum Italicarum Scriptores (1723-51), vol. 3, and in Raynaldus, tory of Avignon, and talked loudly of a schism, without, however, a. 1484-92. See also L. Pastor, History of the Popes, vol. 5, trans. by shaking the pope in his resolution. Innocent opposed Louis’ canF. I. Antrobus (1898); M. Creighton, History of the Papacy, vol. 4 approved the League (xgor) ; F. Gregorovius, Rome in the Middle Ages, vol. 7, trans. by Mrs. didate for the electorate of Cologne (1688), G. W. Hamilton (1900—02) ; T. Hagen, Die Papstwahlen von 1484 u. of Augsburg, acquiesced in the designs of the Protestant William 1492 (Brizen, 1885); S. Riezler, Die Hexenprozesse (1896); G. Viani, of Orange, even in his supplanting James II, whom, although a Memorie della famiglia Cybo (Pisa, 1808) ; F. Serdonati, Vita e fatti d'Innocenzo VIII. (Milan, 1829).

INNOCENT IX. (Giovanni Antonio Fachinetti) was born in 1519. He filled the offices of apostolic vicar of Avignon, legate at the council of Trent, nuncio to Venice, and president of the Inquisition. He became cardinal in 1583; and under the invalid Gregory XIV. assumed almost the cntire conduct of affairs. His election’ to the papacy, on Oct. 29, 1591, was brought about by Philip II.

Roman Catholic, he distrusted as a tool of, Louis., The great object of Innocent’s desire was the repulse of the Turks, and his

efforts to that end entitled him to share in the glory of relieving Vienna (1683).

Innocent died on Aug. 12, 1689, and was suc

ceeded by Alexander VIII. The Life of Innocent has been frequently written. See Guarnacd,

Vitae et res gestae. Pontif. Rom. (1751), i. xog sqd.; Palazzi, Gest

Pontiff. Rom. (Venice,.1690) ; also the lives by Albrizzi (1695), Buona-

INNOCENTS’?

DAY—INNS

mid (1776), and Immich (1900) ] Particular phases of Innocent's activ-

AND

INNKEEPERS

INNS AND INNKEEPERS.

373

An inn is a hostelry, hotel or

iy have been treated by Michaud, Lowis XIV. et Innoc. XI. (1882

public house kept for reward, for the lodging and entertainment of

(seeRev. des quest. hist. lxxv. [19041 602 sqq.) ; and Gerin, in Rev. des guest. hist., 1876, 1878, 1886. For correspondence of Innocent see

travellers or of any who need temporary accommodation. The name is also given, in a specialized sense, to the institutions set apart for the study and practice of the law. (See INNS oF COURT.) Inn signs are thought by Sir Thomas Browne to be of pagan origin, the sun and moon so frequently represented showing a dedication to Apollo or Diana. Later on hagiology superseded the pantheon and the saints in the calendar swung on sign-boards, interspersed with the arms of various noble personages, who having been well treated as they passed that way, allowed the inn-

$99 4 vols.) ; Dubruel, La Correspond.

. . . du Card. Carlo Pio, etc.

Colombo, Notizie biogr. e lettere di P. Innoc. XI. (Turin, 1878) ; and Berthier, Znnoc. PP. XI. Epp. ad Principes (1890 sqq.). An extended

bibliography may be found in Herzog-Hauck, Realencykiopidie, s.v. “Innocenz XI.

Innocent XII. (Antonio Pignatelli), pope from 1691 to 1700 in succession to Alexander VIII., was born in Naples on March 13, 1615, Was educated at the Jesuit college in Rome; entered upon his official career at the age of 20, and became vice-legate

keeper to display their escutcheons over his portal. The hanging of Urbino, governor of Perugia, and nuncio to Tuscany, to of an ivy bush above the inn door is of immemorial antiquity and Poland and to Austria. He was made cardinal and archbishop of bas not entirely fallen into disuse at the present day. The chequers Naples by Innocent XI., whose pontificate he took as a model for so frequently displayed as an ale house sign was common among his own, which began on July 12, 1691. His reforms were many the Romans and is depicted in a Pompeian street view presented and salutary. Among other things he struck at the root of by Sir William Hamilton to the Society of Antiquaries. As to nepotism in a bull of 1692 ordaining that thenceforth no pope this sign, a writer in the Gentleman's Magazine for 1794 (p. 797) should grant estates, offices or revenues to any relative. Innocent states: "The great Earl Warrenne . . . had an exclusive power of an end to the’ strained relations that had existed between granting licenses to sell beer. That his agent might collect the tax France and the Holy See for nearly 5o years. He obtained from more readily, the door posts were painted in checquers, such being the French bishops the virtual repudiation of the Declaration of the arms of Warren." Gallican Liberties. He confirmed the bull of Alexander VIII. Law Relating to Innkeepers—The term inn includes both against Jansenism (1696); and, in 1699, under pressure from as regards privileges and liabilities any house of public entertainLouis XIV., condemned certain of Fénelon’s doctrines which ment where beds, food, etc., are furnished to all persons paying Bossuet had denounced as quietistic. (See FÉNELON.) Innocent for the same, although it may be called a hotel, tavern, public died June 27, 1700, and was succeeded by Clement XI. house, temperance hotel or coffee house. Apparently, however, See Guarnacci, Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom. (1751), i. 389 sqq.; a lodging or boarding house is not an inn. An innkeeper “being in Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin, 1840, et¢.), iii. 186 sqq.; v. Reumont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom. (1867-70), iii. 2, p. 640 sqg., and the some sort a public servant” has no right to select his guests, or insist on knowing the traveller’s name and address, or refuse Bullarium Innoc. XII. (1697). shelter at any hour of the day or night, provided he has vacant INNocENT XIII. (Michele Angelo Conti), pope from r72r to accommodation and the traveller is not obviously objectionable. 1724, the son of the duke of Poli, and a member of a family But an innkeeper is not bound permanently to entertain a guest. that had produced several popes, among them Innocent III, By the common law of England an innkeeper is responsible for was born in Rome on May 13, 1655, served as nuncio in Switzerthe personal property of a traveller so long as the relationship of land and Portugal, was made cardinal and bishop of Osimo and landlord and guest continues between the parties, unless the goods Viterbo by Clement XI., whom he succeeded on May 8, 1721. are destroyed by the act of God or the kings enemies, which latter One of his first acts was to invest the emperor Charles VI. with term does not include damage by riot or rebellion. No special conNaples (1722); he protested in vain against the imperial investitract or agreement is necessary in order to raise this obligation, ture of Don Carlos with Parma and Piacenza. He recognized the and the loss of the goods is prima facie evidence of the innkeeper's Pretender, “James III.,” and promised him subsidies conditional negligence. This liability is possibly a survival of a very necessary upon the re-establishment of Roman Catholicism in England. precaution in the days when it was no uncommon thing for highMoved by deep-seated distrust of ‘the Jesuits and by their conwaymen and innkeepers to be in league together. But contributory tinued practice of "Accommodation," despite express papal pronegligence on the part of the guest may relieve the landlord from hibition (see CLEMENT XI.), Innocent forbade the Order to rehis legal liability in case of loss. ceive new members in China, and was said to have meditated its This common law liability of an innkeeper (except as regards suppression. This encouraged the French Jansenist bishops to horses, harness and carriages which term includes motor cars) press for the revocation of the bull Unigenitus; but the pope comfor the safe custody of the goods of a guest is, however, limited by manded its unreserved acceptance. Innocent died on March 7, the Innkeepers Liability Act, 1863, which provides that an inn1724, and was succeeded by Benedict XIII. see Guarnacci, Vitae et res gestae Pontiff. Rom. (1751), ii. 137 sqq., keeper shall not be liable to a greater amount than £30 for loss of 381 sqg.; Sandini, Vitae Pontif. Rom. (Padua, 1739); M. v. Mayer, goods, unless the loss is caused by the default or neglect of himself Die Papstwahl Innocenz’ XIII. (1874) ; Michaud, “La Fin du Clement or his servants. But this limitation of liability is conterminous

XI. et le commencement du pontificat d'Innocent XIII.” in the Inter"tài. T heol. Zeitschr. v. 42 sqq., 304 sqq.

INNOCENTS’ DAY or Cumpermas, a festival celebrated

in the Latin church

on the

28th

of December,

only with an exhibit of the first section of the act in a prominent

position in the hall or entrance to the inn; and if the innkeeper refuse to receive for safe custody any goods of his guest, he is

and in the’ liable for the loss as at common law. But an innkeeper is not an insurer of the persons or wearing apparel of his guests—when the

Greek church on the 29th (O.S.) in memory of the massacre of the children by Herod. The Church early regarded these little ones as the first martyrs. It is uncertain when the day was first kept as a saint's day. At first it seems to have been absorbed into the celebration of the Epiphany, but by the sth century it was kept as a separate festival. In Rome it was a day of fasting and mournIng. The boy-bishop (q.v.), whose tenure of office lasted till Childermas, had his last exercise of authority then, the day being one of the series of days which were known as the Feast of Fools. Parents temporarily abdicated authority, and in nunneries and

monasteries the youngest nun and monk were for the twenty-four

hours allowed to masquerade as abbess and abbot. These mockeries of religion were condemned by.the Council of Basel (1431). The day is still observed as a feast day and merrymaking for en inCatholic countries. Innocent's Day was ever accounted unlucky, and Louis XI. used to prohibit any State business.

clothing is in actual use—although he must take reasonable pre-

cautions for the safety of travellers using his house. In return for these liabilities the law gives him a lien over his guest’s goods for the amount of his bill. This is a particular and not a general lien, and attaches only to the actual goods brought by the guest to the inn and housed by the innkeeper with him. When several guests

of one party leave together, the lien extends to the goods of all. ‘The innkeeper is only beund to take ordinary care of goods thus held, but he cannot use them or charge for their storage. By the Innkeepers Act, 1878, if goods have been kept for six weeks they may, after advertisement in one London and one local newspaper, be sold on expiry of one month from the date of such advertisement. Apparently this act applies to Scotland in spite of the provision for advertisement in a London paper (Green’s Encyclopaedia of Scots Law, 2nd ed. vi. p. 571).

xo

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In Scotland the law is in all material particulars the same as in England except that accidental fire is considered. damnum

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CHANCERY

ished in the city in the 12th and 13th centuries. There was accord-

ing to tradition a legal institution in Newgate, called Johnstone's inn; another in Pewter lane and a third in Paternoster row. There bound r moreove is He liable. not is er fatale for which the innkeep was the cathedral school of St. Paul's and St. George's inn in : personal than to receive and house the goods of a traveller, other lane, near the Old Bailey, and there was in all probabilSeacole effects, provided they are not very exceptional or dangerous. of some sort attached to the church of St. Mary-le. school a ity , England of that follows law In the United States the common Throughout the 12th century men learned Cheapside. in Bow the hed and laws of the various States of the Union have diminis

in the civil and canon law—mostly churchmen—swarmed across liability of the innkeeper in much the same manner as in England. the channel for the express purpose of teaching and practising P.) W. W. Wr.; (F. the law. In the reign of Stephen we hear of Roger of Bec lecturINNSBRUCK, the capital of the Austrian province of Tirol, is a beautiful town situated at a height of 1,880 ft. In a wide Sill plain formed by the Inn and its right bank tributary the nded Surrou . streams these n betwee la peninsu the on and mainly

by lofty mountains that seem to overbang the town it occupies

junca site both strategically and commercially important at the r Brenne the over Italy to ny Germa from y tion of the highwa pass with the great thoroughfare from western Europe to Vienna , this and the east over the Arlberg pass. As the name implies time Roman in d guarde Inn the of place g is a famous crossin by the station of Veldidena, which was succeeded by the Premon its by ed record first is town The Wilten. of abbey sian straten present name in 1187 and in 1233-1235 it was fortified. About 1420 the Archduke Frederick IV. built a new castle here and the town replaced Meran as the capital of Tirol. Its history has been generally uneventful and it always manifested a strong loyalty to the ruling house of Austria, particularly during the revolution of 1848. Within the town there is a striking contrast between old and new. The narrow arcaded streets of the old town, with fine old frescoed houses of the 17th and 18th centuries, give place to the regularly built blocks and open spaces of the more modern accretions, yet without disturbing the sense of unity. One of the finest of the older buildings is the Franciscan or Court church (1553-1563), mainly in Italian Renaissance style. Within is the remarkable cenotaph of the emperor Maximilian I. (d. 1519), count of the Tirol from 1490 onwards, a gigantic marble sarcophagus with 28 bronze statues of his ancestors and favourite heroes and 24 marble reliefs depicting scenes from his life. The church contains also a number of other tombs of notable historic figures. The university of Innsbruck, formally founded in 1677, suspended during 1782-1792 and 1810-1826, was refounded in 1826

ing on the sister laws in the city, a proceeding which the citizens

induced the king to prohibit. This is the first hint we get of the struggle between the common lawyers and the church. The civilian lawyers had speedily made themselves masters of the common law. as witness the display of knowledge of English law by Lanfranc in bis suit with Odo of Bayeux heard before the Conqueror. Henry IL's judges, although churchmen, were faithful to the common law in his struggle with the church, and those

practising before them were also churchmen, many of whom, says Coke, "that I may use the words of the record, kept schools of law in the city of London and taught such as resorted to them the laws of the realm, taking their foundation of Magna Carta and Carta de Foresta." In 1164, however, the clergy were forbidden to lecture on natural philosophy and municipal law outside their monasteries, and in 1217 clerks and priests were enjoined not to appear as advocates in the secular courts. In 1234 Henry III by his writ addressed to the mayor and sheriffs of the city ordered "the suppression of the schools of the laws in the city.” What

"the laws" were we dd not know. The term leges was used to mean the civil and canon law, and also the laws of the realm. It was probably used here to mean the latter, since as part of the policy of the church to attract all judicial business into the ecclesiastical courts, the clergy were, by a bull of Innocent IV. in 1254, prohibited from teaching the common law at all. What immediate effect Henry's order had we do not know, but we do

know that from 1234 to the accession of his son, the profession

of the law was thrown into confusion. Unqualified and unsuitable persons were practising the law, with the result that even the judges became tainted. These judicial scandals culminated in a commission of inquiry instituted in 1289 by Edward I. on his return from the Holy Land, and the punishment of many of the judges and officials of the courts. This was followed up by a second commission empowered to reform the legal profession, which and d Well-staffe life. intellectual of centre a town the and makes that students apt and eager” should be brought up from directed vol400,000 nearly of equipped with fine buildings and a library in proximity to the courts of law situate umes, the university influence spreads far beyond the borders the provinces and placed statute De Attornatis et Apprenticis the by And Westminster. at courses, its attend students 1,500 than More of Tirol and Austria. pleas and his fellow judges were common the of justice chief the Austria of 39% coming from the Tirol, 27% from other parts certain number of serjeants and barristers a provide to directed United the from 2% including countries foreign from 34% and who should attend the courts States of America. There is also a well-stocked museum, the (to use the modern equivalents) exclusive audience therein. have and be might they wherever Ferdinandeum, with rich collections, some illustrative of the a case in the Year Book of from assume confidently may We Tirolean life. existed in the city some society Other interesting and historic buildings and monuments com- 1292 that prior to 1289 there students for the legal profeseducating of duty bine with the surrounding scenic and climatic attractions to make charged with the them to plead in the entitled which degrees granting and the sion as functions its whereby Innsbruck a centre for tourists, or some similiar society this that assume also may We courts. regional capital and market are strengthened. Practically two since in the reign of Henry II. earlier, century even'a existed body their and annually for catered are visitors thousand hundred a title which survives in the needs form the basis of a large trade in foodstuffs and other we hear of lawyers styled ‘masters,’ court. This society then, or of inn an of bench the of necessities of daily life. Improved facilities for travel have masters law faculty, and the practisthe was societies, of group is perhaps that fact a century, 2oth the in traffic tourist swelled this just as in any other reflected in the growth of the town since rgoo when its population ing lawyers were the masters of the faculty, chancery, like the colnumbered 26,866. By the census of March, 1923, it showed 56,365 mediaeval gild. For the inns of court and are children of the gild. and is estimated in 1928 as approaching 70,000, mainly German- leges and halls of Oxford and Cambridge, master unless he had a become could one no system this Under speaking and Romanists. master and until by actual qualified duly some of feet the at sat Gebirgsstadt, Eine Innsbruck, Bobek, H. and Tirol See also under

performance of the duties of his profession he had proved to the The inns of satisfaction of the masters of the faculty assembled in public his

ihr Lebensraum und ihre Erscheinung (Stuttgart, 1928).

INNS OF COURT

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CHANCERY.

court seated in London, Lincoln’s inn, Gray’s inn, the Inner and Middle Temple, are voluntary societies, unchartered, unincorporated and unendowed. Their early history is very obscure and the date of their respective foundations cannot be precisely determined. It is quite clear, however, that they were the successors, if not the direct descendants of the early law schools which flour-

right to be included among them. Fhus, just as in the universities students would flock round a well-known professor in some faculty and form part of his household, so in London law students became apprentices of a master of the law faculty—a judge, a serjeanthis at-law, or it may be only an apprentice-at-law—and live in

private house or inn, together with his officials and clerks. When

INNS OF COURT the exodus of the lawyers from the city took place we do not

know, but we do know that Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, one ef Edward's most trusted ministers, purchased a house in Shoe lane from the Black Friars in 1286. He sat as a royal justice for the trials of the judges and other officials in 1289-92, and apart from these duties transacted a vast amount of other legal business, which, after his death in 1311, continued to be conducted in this house by his son-in-law, the earl of Lancaster. The latter died on the scaffold in 1322 and upon the marriage of his widow with

Lestrange, the property passed to her husband’s family.

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375

He became autumn reader in 1489. The chief butler at this period acted rather as clerk to the council than as butler in the modern sense. He was clearly an educated man. The bishop of Chichester's palace and the chapels of Our Lady and of St. Richard sufficed for the needs of the society for nearly a century. The Bishop's Hall was pulled down in 1491 and the present Old Hall erected in its place in 1506. This has recently been restored to its former state. When this proved insufficient for the growing membership the present New Hall was built in 1843. The present chapel, constructed by Inigo Jones, was completed in 1623.

Lincoln’s Inn.—According to Dugdale there was a tradition Thavie’s inn was sold by the benchers in 1769 and thus erased current amongst the ancient of Lincoln’s inn that the earl of as a legal institution. The other inn of chancery attached to LinLincoln, “about the beginning of Edward II's reign, being a coln's inn, Furnival’s inn, dates from about 1406. In 1817, with rson well affected to the knowledge of the law, first brought in

the professors of that honourable and necessary study to settle in this place,” z.e., in the present Lincoln’s inn. This, however, was at that time the town house of the bishop of Chichester, and continued to be occupied by the bishops of that see until 1442.

the exception of the hall, it was rebuilt. This building, abutting upon Holborn, has since been pulled down, and upon its site arose the present office of the Prudential Insurance Society, the ancient

hall being again preserved. Here Charles Dickens was living when the Pickwick Papers were published. Williams thinks that the earl’s house in Shoe lane constituted the Gray’s Inn.—The site of Gray’s inn formed part of the manor original Lincoln’s inn, whilst Baildon maintains that de Lacy of Portpoole, which became the property of Richard de Chygwell brought his company of lawyers to settle in Thavie’s inn on the in 1280. This site passed in 1294 to the dean and chapter of opposite side of the lane, west of St. Andrew’s church. This house St. Paul’s, who let it to Reginald de Grey, chief justice of Chester became the property of John Davy, a chancery clerk, a man of and first Lord Grey of Wilton. There is little doubt that the judge some prominence in Holborn from 1350 till his death in 1387. It lived here with his clerks and other officers of his court and law is this property which became an inn of chancery and was pur- students. The Greys had for a century been connected as officials chased by Lincoln’s inn in 1550. This house has been confused with both the court of exchequer and the chancery. Gray’s inn with one adjoining, belonging to another John Davy, an armourer, continued in the de Grey family till the conveyance of the manor upon whose death it was sold in 1350 to Sir John de Houton, a of Portpoole by Lord Grey of Wilton to Hugh Denys and Mary baron of the Exchequer, and again in 1366 to two clerks in the his wife and other feoffees, who in 1503 sold the manor to the

chancery, which suggests that this house also became a legal hostel.

Whether any or which of these houses was the original Lincoln's inn it is impossible to say, but it has been established by G. T. Turnerand Williams that the second Lincoln's inn was situated east of Chancery lane. Between the years 1331 and 1334, Thomas de Lincoln, the king's serjeant, son of Thomas de Lincoln, acquired there properties lying between Staple inn and the Rolls, which after

passing through other hands—evidently acting as trustees—became the property of the abbot and convent of Malmesbury.

In

letters patent dated Oct. 6, 1380, it is described as totum hospictum vocatum Lyncolns Ynne, and in 1399 the convent was receiving £8 a year rent which, early in the 15th century, was reduced te 40s. on account of the ruinous condition of the premises. This accounts for the removal of the society after the death of Bishop Read in 1415 to'his mansion on the other side of the lane. The earliest records of Lincoln's inn, the Black Books, commence in 1422. The item under date 1437-38 of 4os. for the rent of “Lyncollysyn”.is obviously for the old premises of Thomas de Lincoln. The rent of the new premises to the bishop of Chichester at this period was ten marks, which sum continued to be

paid until the freehold was conveyed to Richard Kingsmill and lis fellow benchers by Edward Suliard in 1580 for the sum of £520. By this time the title of "hospicium" had been dropped and the title was now once more "the society of Lincoln inn.” All were "fellows" (soci?) of the "fellowship" (societas), although the term "company" was also used to describe the whole body.

The control of the society was vested in the council, which con-

sisted of the masters of the bench. Next in rank came the utter-

barristers, those who had been called to the bar, and the innerbarristers or students, so called because at the moots held in

the hall of the inn the former sat on the outermost part of the fom which represented the bar of the court, and the latter sat inside and between them. Formerly attorneys and solicitors also

might be members of the inn. The chief officials were the four

governors, who ceased to be elected in 1574 and whose place Was taken by the treasurer. ‘The other officers were: the autumn and Lent readers, the dean of the chapel, the keeper of the Black Books, the marshal, the pensioner, originally the chief official,

the butler’ for Christmas, the steward for Christmas, thé master of the revels, the chief: butler, the escheator, the chaplain and the “rvants, the chief of whom. was the' manciple, mentioned in the atyarchives Of 1417. It is interesting to note that Sir Thomas More’s grandfather was chief :butler prior to his call in 1470.

prior and convent of the charter house at Sheen, from whom the benchers held the inn until the dissolution of the monasteries in 1539 when the rent became due to the Crown. In 1733 the benchers acquired the freehold. The existing records of the inn

only commence with the year 1569, but from other evidence there is every reason to believe that so far from Gray’s inn being the youngest member of the four inns of court, it is at least of equal antiquity to that ‘of any other inn. In 1370 it was described as hospicium, from which we are justified in assuming that prior to this date it was in the occupation of a legal society. We have a list of readers commencing with John Markham 1391 and, out of chronological order, William Skipwith 1355, who was already a serjeant. From a Year Book of Edward III. we learn that “Ingleby having taken an exception at bar, Willby and Skipwith answered that that was never an exception taken in that place, though they had often heard it entre les apprentices en hostelles.” This would mean that Gray’s inn was in existence as a legal society at least as early as-1330 and it is highly probable that the description in the Harleian ms. of Ralph Andrew as a bencher of “Grayes Inne” in 1311 is correct. The constitution and officers of the inn are similar to thosé of the other inns. When the records open governors had ceased to be elected. The control of the inn was vested in the masters of the bench. The office of pensioner was abolished in 1630, but the name survives in the Pension Book of Gray’s Inn and in the old and new pension chambers, where the masters of the bench meet for the discussion and transaction of the business of the society and for relaxation. Of the servants of the inn the chief were, in 1570, the steward, the master butler, the priest ‘and the mastercook. After the Reformation, the priest gave way to the chaplain, and in 1631 the order of precedence was “the preacher, the chaplain, the steward, the master butler, the master cook, to be allowed such commons as gentlemen: the second butler, the third butler, the fourth butler, the second cooke, the preacher’s man, the steward’s man, one washpot, two turne broches to be allowed such commons as yeomen are.” In addition were the chapel ‘clerk, the laundress, the gardener and the cleaners of the sewers and courts. Whether any of the old hall of the de Greys remains cannot be determined. We know that it was rebuilt or re-edifyed under the supervision: of Nicholas Bacon and Gilbert Gerard in 1556. Restored in recent years to its original state it is'a particularly fine specimen of Tudor: architecture and may be compared with the Middle Temple. hall, which it much resembles, although on a smaller scale. The oak screen is said

37

INNS OF COURT

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CHANCERY

| parliament chamber, i a hall, y in , The Inner Temple,> Ccomprehending to have been presented by Elizabeth. The chapel was certainl of the ancient mans site the s, occupie building other and library ! for on ce prior to 1315, when John de Grey made provisi

existen and finally sion of the Knights Templars, which has from time to time been a chaplain. It was reconstructed or re-edifyed in 1615 housed more or less rebuilt and extended, the present handsome range of was It 1555. restored in 1893. We hear first of the library in square, over buildings, including a new dining hall, being completed in 1870. in a chamber on the first floor of No. 1 Gray's inn allowed The library owes its existence to William Petyt, keeper of the was lor, chancel lord rds which Francis Bacon, afterwa moved Tower Records in the time of Queen Anne, who was also a benewas to extend his adjoining chambers. In 1788 the library 8 South factor to the library of the Middle Temple. The greatest addition to the old duchy office, east of the hall, and in 1834 No. for by gift was made by the Baron F. Maseres in 1825. Of the inns away swept was rs, square, where Macaulay once had chambe of chancery belonging to the Inner Temple Cliford's inn was anhas 7 an extension. To make room for a further extension No. ciently the town residence of the Barons Clifford, and was demised those are inn the in rs chambe oldest now disappeared also. The in 1345 to a body of students of the law. It was the most imporerected in Gray's inn place in 1696. and tant of the inns of chancery, and numbered among its members The inns of chancery affiliated to Gray's inn were Staple inn Coke and Selden. At its dinners a table was specially set aside for reign the in y chancer of inn an Barnard's inn. The former was the “Kentish Mess,” though it is not clear what connection there was here of Henry V., and is probably of far earlier date, since was between the inn and the county of Kent. It was governed by ks. woolsac on sat judges the where Staple, the of held the court a principal and r2 rulers. Clements inn was an inn of chancery The inn is now the property of the Actuaries Society. Barnard’s of before the reign of Edward IV., taking its name from the parish inn, named after Lionel Barnard who leased it from the dean church of St. Clement Danes, to which it had formerly belonged. Lincoln, became an inn of chancery at least before 1451, when Clement’s inn was the inn of Shakespeare’s Master Shallow, and the to-night we are told by Stow that as a result of “a tumult the Shepherd’s inn of Thackeray’s Pendennis. The buildings was gentlemen of the inns of court and chancery and the citizens of Cliford’s inn survive (1928), but of Clement’s inn there are Barand inn s urnival’ F inn, s ... the principals of Clifford' left but a few fragments. nard’s inn were sent prisoners to Hartford castle.” Its hall was The Middle Temple possesses in its hall one of the most stately of y propert the now is inn The date. this at e already in existenc existing Elizabethan buildings. Commenced in 1562, under the of the Mercer’s company and used as a school. of Edmund Plowden, then.treasurer, it was not completed auspices The Inner and Middle Temples, so far as their history can be until 1572, the richly carved screen at the east end in the style of of mention first The societies. separate traced, have always been being erected in 1575. The hall, which has been Renaissance the dated will a in the Middle Temple as a distinct society occurs unaltered, has been the scene of numerous historic incipreserved Letters, Paston the in court of inn an as Temple the of 1404, and notably the entertainments given within its walls to regal where, under date Nov. 1440, the Inner Temple is spoken of dents, personages from Queen Elizabeth downwards. The other and The as a college, as is also subsequently the Middle Temple. contains about 70,000 volumes, dates from 1641, which library, on Templars, Knights the of England in seat the Temple had been a member of the society, bequeathed his colAshley, Robert when possessions their of whose suppression in 1312 it passed with other classes of literature to the inn, together with all in books of lection to the Crown, and after an interval of some years to the Knights other benefactors were Ashmole (the anmoney; of sum large a 13 that appears now It Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem. (a benefactor of the Inner Temple) and Petyt William tiquary), in houses built by Roger Blom, formerly nuncius of the Templars, From 1711 to 1826 the library was greatly negStowell. Lord professors certain to let were church, the of north the churchyard, many of the most scarce and valuable books were lost. of the common law not later than 1326. Notwithstanding the de- lected; and handsome library building, which stands apart from present The struction of the muniments of the Temple by fire or by popular completed in 1861, the prince of Wales (afterwards was hall, the the in that show to attainable is commotion, sufficient testimony attending the inauguration ceremony on Oct. 31 VII.) Edward the reigns of Edward III. and Richard IL. the Temple had become and becoming a member and bencher of the society year, that of maintained since have which s communitie legal the of residence He afterwards held the office of treasurer (1882). there a permanent footing. The two societies continued as tenants on the occasion. are few and of no special value. In civil, collection the in mss. The to the Knights Hospitallers of St. John until the dissolution of the as also in divinity and ecclesiastical law, international and canon so and Crown, the of lessees the became then order in 1539; they it contains also some curious rich; very is library the history, patent remained until 1609, when James I. made a grant by letters demonology. There was but one inn of of the premises in perpetuity to the benchers of the respective works on witchcraft and with the Middle Temple, that of New sna, societies on a yearly payment by each of £10, a payment bought chancery connected was formed by a society of students Dugdale, to according which, up in the reign of Charles II. In this grant the two inns are deinn, situated near 5t. Sepulchre's George's St. at settled previously Temple,” New or Temple Middle the and Inner “the scribed as date of this transfer is not the but Newgate; without church of famous most and as “being two out of those four colleges the pulled down. been now have buildings The all Europe” for the study of the law. Excepting the church and known. school in Ireland, correlegal the Dublin, Inns, King’s The the of remains nothing hall, the of end the priests’ hall at the west and is in many respects court, of inns English the to closely sponds edifices belonging to the Knights Templars, the present buildings with regard to the admission regulations its in them with unison in ElizaQueen of reign the since erected wholly almost been having the degree of barrister-at-law, beth or since the Great Fire, in which the major part of the Inner of students into the society, and to s enforced. Formerly it was examination the of scope Temple perished. The church has been in the joint occupation of as also in the the Inner and Middle Temple from time immemorial—the former necessary to keep a number of terms at one of the inns in LonVIII. taking the southern and the latter the northern half. The round don—the stipulation dating as far back as 1542 (33 Henry the pursued at portion of the church was consecrated in 1185, the nave or choir c. 3). Down to 1866 the course of education in that candiin 1240. It is the largest and most complete of the four remaining King's inns differed from the English inns of court and soliciattorneys as profession legal the to round churches in England, and is built on the plan of the church dates for admission the higher of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. Narrowly escaping the ravages tors carried on their studies with those studying for of the fire of 1666, this beautiful building is one of the most per- grade of the bar in the same building under a professor specially anciently fect specimens of early Gothic architecture in England. In former appointed for this purpose—herein following the usage arrangement This in.London. chancery of inns the in prevailing times the lawyers awaited their clients for consultation in the round church, as similarly the serjeants-at-law were accustomed was put an end to by the Attorneys and Solicitors Act (Ireland) of to resort to St. Paul’s cathedral, where each serjeant had a pillar 1866. The origin of the King’s inns may be traced to the reign estabwas inn Collett's designated society legal a when I., assigned him. The constitution of both societies is similar to Edward by an insur those of the other inns, but the meetings of the benchers are in lished without the walls of the city; it was destroyed Preston, Robert Sir III. Edward of reign the In band. rectionary both styled a. “parliament,” which is further evidence of their chief baron of the Exchequer; gave up.his residence. within the aty antiquity.

INNUENDO— INQUISITION

377

to the legal body, which then took the name of Preston’s inn. In request complied with, but a British frigate was detailed to carry 1542 the land and buildings known as Preston S Inn were restored

to the family of the original donor, and in the same year Henry VIII. granted the monastery of Friars Preachers for the use of

the two men to Shimonoseki, and, pending her departure, the British legation assisted them to lie perdu. Their mission proved

futile, however, and Inouye was subsequently waylaid by a party of conservative samurai, who left him covered with wounds. This the new site, and thenceforward were known by the name of the experience did not modify his liberal views, and, by the time of King's inns. Possession of this property having been resumed by the Restoration in 1867, he had earned a high reputation as a she Government in 1742, and the present Four Courts erected leader of progress and an able statesman. thereon, a plot of ground at the top of Henrietta street was purAs foreign minister Inouye had the conduct of the long and chased by the society, and the existing hall built in the year 1800. abortive negotiations for treaty revision between 1883 and 1886, The library, numbering over 50,000 volumes, with a few mss., is and in 1885 he was raised to the peerage with the title of count, housed in buildings specially provided in the year 1831, and is being one of the first group of Meiji statesmen whose services were open, not only to the members of the society, but also to strangers. thus rewarded. Prior to his permanent retirement from office in The collection comprises all kinds of literature. It is based prin- 1898, he held the portfolios of foreign affairs, finance, home affairs dpally upon à purchase made in 1787 of the large and valuable and agriculture and commerce, and throughout the war with library of Justice Robinson, and is maintained chiefly by an Russia he attended all important state councils, by order of the annual payment made from the Central Fund of the Irish Free emperor, being also specially designated adviser to the minister State in substitution for the annual payment formerly made from of finance. In 1907 he was raised to the rank of marquess. His the Consolidated Fund to the society in.lieu of the right to receive name will go down in his country’s history as one of the five ight works which was conferred by an Act of 1801, but Meiji statesmen, namely, Princes Ito and Yamagata, Marquesses abrogated in 1836. Inouye and Matsukata and Count Okuma. He died on Sept. In discipline and professional etiquette the members of the bar I, IQIS.

the professors of the law in Ireland. The legal body removed to

in Ireland differ little from their English brethren. The same style ef costume is enforced, the same gradations of rank—attorneygeneral, solicitor-general, king’s counsel and ordinary barristers— being found. There are also serjeants-at-law limited, however, to three in number, and designated 1st, 2nd and 3rd serjeant. The

King's inns do not provide chambers for business purposes; there

is consequently no aggregation of counsel in certain localities, as is the case in London in the inns of court and their immediate vicinity. The corporation known as the Faculty of Advocates in Edin-

INOWRACLAW

(Hohensalza), town of Poland, 21 m. S.W.

of Thorn. Pop. (1921) 24,277. It is situated on rising ground above a fertile district and has an agricultural trade. Iron-founding and the manufacture of machinery and chemicals are important. In the vicinity are important salt works and a sulphur mine. Inowraclaw is mentioned as early as 1185, and in 1772 it passed to Prussia. It passed to Poland after the war of 1914-18. INQUEST: see Coroner.

INQUISITION, THE.

The name given to the ecclesiastit

cal jurisdiction dealing both in the middle ages and in later burgh corresponds with the inns of court in London and the King's times with the detection and punishment of heretics and all perinnsin Dublin (see ADVOCATES, FACULTY OF). sons guilty of any offence against Catholic orthodoxy. (Lat. BrsrrocRAPRY.—W. Dugdale, Origines juridicales (3rd ed., 1684) and inquisitio, an inquiry.) It is incorrect to say that the Inquisition History and Antiquities of the Four Inns of Court, etc. (2nd ed., made its appearance in the 13th century complete in all its prin1780); W. Downing, Constitution, Customs and Usages of the Middle Temple (1739, printed 1896); Stow, Survey of London and West- ciples and organs. It was the result of, or rather one step in, a minster, by Strype (1754-55); J. Nichols, Progresses of Elizabeth and process of evolution, the beginnings of which are to be traced James I. (4 vols., 1788-1821); Herbert, Antiquities of the Inns of back to the fourth century at least.

a

Court (1804); Lane, Student's Guide through Lincoln’s Inn (2nd ed., 1805); Duhigg, History of the King’s Inns in Ireland (1806); Fortescue, De laudibus legum Angliae, by A. Amos (1825) ; Foss, Judges of England (9 vols., 1848-64) ; Pearce, History of the Inns of Court (1848); Report of the Commissioners appointed to inquire into the Inns of Court and Chancery, 1855; Spilsbury, Lincolns Inn, witk an Account of the Library (2nd ed., 1873) ; Mackay, Practice of the Court of Session (1879) ; Douthwaite, Gray’s Inn, its History and Associations (1886);4 Calendar of Inner Temple Records, ed. F. A. Inderwick (3 vols., 1896 etc.) ; The Records of Lincoln’s Inn, ed. T. Douglas Walker (4 vols, 1897-1902); Fletcher, The Pension Book of Gray’s Inn (1901); H. H. L. Bellot, The Inner and Middle Temple (1902), The

Opinions of the Fathers.—During the first three centuries of the Church there is no trace of any official persecution, and the earlier Fathers, especially Origen and Lactantius, reject the idea of it. Constantine, by the edict of Milan (313), inaugurated an era of official tolerance, but from the time of Valentinian I. and Theodosius I. onwards, laws against heretics began to appear, and increased with astonishing regularity and rapidity. Heretics are subjected to exile or confiscation, disqualified from inheriting property, and even, in the case of a few groups of Manichaeans and Donatists, condemned to death; but it should be noticed that Temple (3rd ed., 1925), Gray’s Inn and Lincoln’s Inn (1928) ; Middle these penalties apply only to the outward manifestations of heresy, Temple Records, ed. C. H. Hopwood (3 vols., 1904-05) ; E. Williams, Staple Inn (1906), Early Holborn and the Legal Quarter of London (2 and not, as in the middle ages, to crimes of conscience. Within the Church, St. Optatus alone (De schismate Donatistarum, lib. vols, 1927) ; A. R. Ingpen, Master Worsley’s Book (1gxo), The Middle Temple Bench Book (1912) ; J. B. Williamson, History of the Temple lii. cap. iii.) approved of this violent repression of the Donatist (1924). | (J. C. Wz.; H. H. L. B.) heresy; St. Augustine only admitted a temperata severitas, such INNUENDO: see LIBEL AND SLANDER. as scourging, fines or exile, and at the end of the 4th century the INOUYE, KAORU, Marquess (1835-1915), Japanese condemnation of the Spanish heretic Priscillian, who was put to statesman, was born in 1835, a samurai of the Choshü fief. He was death in 385 by order of the emperor Maximus, gave rise to a à friend of his fellow-clansman Prince Ito, and they visited Eng- keen controversy. St. Martin of Tours, St. Ambrose and St. Leo land together in 1863, serving as common sailors during the vigorously attacked the Spanish bishops who had obtained the Voyage. At that time all travel abroad was forbidden on pain condemnation of Priscilian. St. John Chrysostom considered of death, but the veto did not prove deterrent in the face of a that a heretic should be deprived of the liberty of speech and that rapidly growing conviction that, as a matter of self-protection, assemblies organized by heretics should be dissolved, but declared apan must assimilate the essentials of Western civilization. that “to put a heretic to death would be to introduce upon earth Shortly after the departure of Inouye and Ito, the Choshii fief, an inexpiable crime.” The Middle Ages.—From the 6th to the oth century the ving fired upon foreign vessels passing the strait of Shimonoseki, Was menaced by war with the Yedo government or with the in- heterodox, with the exception of the Manichaean sects in cersulted powers, and Inouye and Ito, on receipt of this news, tain places, were hardly subjected to persecution. They were, hastened home hoping to avert the catastrophe. They repaired moreover, rare and generally isolated, for groups of sectaries only. to the British legation in Yedo and begged that the allied squad- began to appear to any extent at the time of the earliest appearton, then about to sail for Shimonoseki to call Choshü to account, ances of Catharism. But from the latter part of the roth century should be delayed that they might have an opportunity of ad- until the beginnings of the 12th there were numerous executions

sing the fief to make timely submission.

Not only was this

of heretics, either by burning or strangling, in France, Italy,

INQUISITION

a

9/

[BEGINNINGS

the Empire and England; and during this period it 1s not easy Dominican Alberic went round Lombardy with the title of Znquj;. to determine what part was taken by the Church and its bishops |itor haereticae pravitatis. In 1231 a similar commission wa and doctors in this series of executions. In many cases the people, given to the Dominicans of Friesach and to the terrible Conrad supported by the crown, were responsible for the death of the of Marburg, whose zeal in Germany even exceeded the pope's heretics; the historians give only the faintest indications of any wishes. In 1233 Gregory IX. addressed a letter to the bishons direct intervention of the clergy, except perhaps for the examina- in the south of France, in which he announced his intention of tion of doctrine. The theory in these matters was at first as employing the preaching friars for the discovery and repression uncertain as the practice; in the 11th century one bishop only, |of heresy. The inquisition was now regularly instituted, but its Theodwin of Liége (d. 1075), affirms the necessity for the punish- |jurisprudence was elaborated by successive additions or limita.

(1050). His predecessor,, tions by the force of custom and the detailed prescriptions added by the papal constitutions. The pope's commissioners "in the any capital punishment and advised the bishop of Chalons to matter of heresy” at first travelled from place to place. Ox resort to peaceful conversion. In the 12th century Peter the Can- arriving in a district they addressed its inhabitants, called upom tor! protested against the death penalty, admitting at the most them to confess, if they were heretics, or to denounce those whom imprisonment; and in dealing with the heretics of Cologne, they knew to be heretics: a “time of grace” was opened, during St. Bernard, who cannot be accused of leniency where heterodoxy which those who freely confessed were dispensed from all penalwas concerned, recommended pacific refutation, followed by ties, or only given a light penance; while those whose heresy had excommunication or prison, but never the death penalty (see been openly manifested were exempted from the penalties of death and perpetual imprisonment. But this time could not excead BERNARD, ST., OF CLAIRVAUX). But it must be noticed that from the opening years of the 12th one month. After that began the inquisition. As soon as their century date the beginnings of a decided evolution in the canon mission was at an end, and heresy was considered to be stamped law, continuing up to the time of Innocent III., which substi- out, the inquisitors left the country. Later, inquisitorial districts tuted for arbitrary decisions according to circumstances an organ- were formed. The seat of the Inquisition in each district was the ized and particularized legislation, in which judgment was given monastery of the order (Dominican or Franciscan) to which secundum canonicas et legitimas sanctiones, Anselm of Lucca and the inquisitors for that part belonged. There was never any special the Panormia attributed to Ivo of Chartres reproduced word for court or prison: the murus (prison) was lent to the Inquisition by word under the rubric De edicto imperatorum in damnationem the ecclesiastical or secular authorities. The maintenance of the hoereticorum, law s of the title De hereticis of Justinian's code, prisoners and the duty of providing the prison fell in principle which pronounces the sentence of death against the Manichaeans; upon the bishops (council of Toulouse, 1229), but they tried to and we should remember that the Cathari, and in general all evade it. The kings of France, and in particular Louis VIII, heretics in the West in the 11th and 12th centuries were con- granted subsidies to the inquisitors. For each district the inquis sidered by contemporary theologians as Manichaeans. Gratian tors were chosen by the provincials of their order, approved in the Decretum proclaims the views of St. Augustine (exile and or rejected by the pope, and removable by him only. Their disfines). From the beginning of the 12th century the death penalty cretionary powers were absolute. They conducted their interroga ment of heretics by the secular arm

Wazo, bishop of Liége (1041-44), had expressly condemned

for impenitent heretics was frequently demanded in influential quarters. In 1184 Pope Lucius IH. and the emperor Frederick Barbarossa agreed on the penalties of exile, confiscation, demolition of their houses, izfamia, and loss of civil rights. The usage, then, was already quite clear; but the death penalty had not as yet been inflicted. It was probably Peter IL of Aragon who was the first to decree, in 1197, the punishment of death by burning against the heretics who should not have left his kingdom within a given time. But it was Innocent III. who gave the most powerful impetus to the anti-heretical movement in the secular world by his frequent exhortations (beginning in 1198) to the secular princes (letters of March 25, 1199, and Sept. 22, 1207).

tions before two persons (laymen or ecclesiastics) and only pro-

nounced their sentence after consultation with leading men in the district. This was the only protection for the accused. It was in vain that the civil lawyers tried to prove that the secular authorities had a right to see the documents bearing on the case; the Inquisition always succeeded in setting aside these claims. The share taken in the proceedings by the bishops, the accused or their representatives, though admitted in principle, was as a rule merely illusory.

Procedure of the Inquisition.—Bernard

Guy (Bernardus

Guidonis), Dominican, 1261-1331, one of the earliest and most

complete exponents

of the theory of the Inquisition, admits

distinctly that in its procedure multa sunt specialia. The proclear that the Inquisition did not arise out of, and at the'time of, cedure was secret and in the highest degree arbitrary, proceeding the crusade against the Albigenses. These executions en masse sine strepitu et figura judicii, its object being to ascertain not so certainly created a definitive precedent for violent repression, much particular offences as tendencies: the murderers of the but there was still no regular organization: the council of Tou- inquisitor Peter Martyr (Dominican, d. 1252) were tried, not as louse, held in Nov. 1229 by the Roman legate after the treaty assassins, but as guilty of heresy and adversaries of the Inquof peace, attempted to organize one, and constituted itself the sition; and on the other hand, external acts of piety and verbal tribunal. But the procedure was still uncertain. The emperor professions of faith were held of no value. Moreover, the InquiFrederick II. defined his jurisprudence more clearly: from 1220 sition was not bound by the ordinary rules of procedure in its to 1239, supported by Pope Honorius IIL, and above all by inquiries: the accused was surprised by a sudden summons, and Gregory IX., he established against the heretics of the Empire as a rule imprisoned on suspicion. All the accused were pre in.general a legislation in which the penalties of death, banish- sumed to be guilty, the judge being at the same time the accuser. ment and confiscation of property were formulated so clearly Absence was naturally ‘considered as contumacy, and only as to be henceforth incontestable. Gregory IX. felt his influence, increased the presumption of guilt by seeming to admit it. The and also that of the Dominican Guala, bishop of Brescia, who accused had the right to demand a written account of the offences had subjected his episcopal town to the full rigour of the imperial attributed to him, but the names of the witnesses were withlaws. The pope no longer hesitated as to the principle or the held from him (Innocent IV.; bulls Cum negocium. and Licet degree of repression; but introduced new methods of inquiry sicut accepimus), he did not know who had denounced him, nor and judgment: he created out of the material fürnished by the what weight was attached by the judges to the denunciations mendicant orders, and especially the Dominicans, the monastic against him: The utmost that was allowed him was the unsattsinquisition, which was more elastic, more constant in its activities factory privilege of the recusationes divinatrices, i.e., at his first and: more: numerous than the inquisition by legate, and ‘better examination he was asked for the names of any enemies of whom Beginnings of the Inquisition.—From the foregoing it is

he’ knew, and the causes of their enmity. Heretics or persons deprived of civil rights (infames) were’ admitted as witnesses m APierre, de Beauyoisis (?), choir-master (grand-chantre) of the children ór slaves could be witnesses university of Paris (1184), bishop of Tournai (rr9r), of Paris (1196); cases of heresy. Women, and cases are eve

disciplined than the episcopal inquisition. In' Nov. died as a Cistercian in 1197. He was

ified.

x.

ose

1232 the

for the prosecution, but not for the defence,

CONFISCATION]

INQUISITION

379

io be found in which the witnesses were only ten years of age.

if they did not consent, they were handed over to the secular

postile evidence should be punished for false witness, but that his

agents of the secular power were recommended to punish him debita animadversione, and the form of recommending him to

Langhino Ugolini states that a witness who should retract his arm. When the heretic was handed over to the secular arm the

evidence should be retained, and have its full effect on the sentence. No witness might refuse to give evidence, under pain of being considered guilty of heresy. The prosecution went on in the utmost secrecy. The accused swore that he would tell the whole truth, and was bound to denounce all those who were partners of

mercy was gone through. In effect, handing over to the secular arm was equivalent to a sentence of death, and of death by fire. Jacob Sprenger, Dominican provincial in Germany (1494) and inquisitor, does not hesitate to speak of the victims quas incinerari fecimus ("whom we [the inquisitors] caused to be burnt to

fessed, and denounced his accomplices, relatives or friends, he was “reconciled” with the Church, and had to suffer only the humiliating penalties prescribed by the canon law. If further examination proved necessary, it was continued by various methods. Bernardus Guidonis enumerates many ways of obtaining confessions, sometimes by means of moral subterfuges, but sometimes by a process of weakening the physical strength. And

ashes"). But we must accept the conclusions of H. C. Lea and Vacandard that comparatively few people suffered at the stake in

his heresy, or whom he knew or suspected to beheretics. If he con-

as a last expedient torture was resorted to. The Church was

originally opposed to torture, and the canon law did not admit confessions extorted by that means; but by the bull Ad extir-

ponda (1252) Innocent IV. approved its use for the discovery

of heresy, and Urban IV. confirmed this usage, which had its origin in secular legislation (cf. the Veronese Code of 1228, and Sicilian Constitution of Frederick II. in 1231). In 1312 excessive cruelty had to be suppressed by the council of Vienna. The next step was the torture of witnesses, a practice which was left to the discretion of the inquisitors. Moreover, all confessions or depositions extorted in the torture-chamber had subsequently to be “freely” confirmed. The procedure was of course not litigious; any lawyer defending the accused would have been held guilty of heresy. The inquiry

might last a long time, for it was interrupted or resumed according to the discretion of the judges, who disposed matters so as to obtain as many confessions or denunciations as possible. After the different phases of the examination, the accused were divided into two categories: (1) those who had confessed and abjured,

(2) those who had not confessed and were convicted of heresy. There was a third class, by no means the least numerous, namely, those who having previously confessed and abjured had relapsed into error. Next came the moment of the sentence: “there was never any case of an acquittal pure and simple” (H. C. Lea). The formula for full and complete acquittal given by Bernardus Guidonis in his Practica, should, he says, never or very rarely be employed. The sentences were solemnly pronounced on a Sunday, in a church or public place, in the presence of the inquisitors, their auxiliaries, the bishops, the secular magistrates and the people. This was the sermo generalis. The accused who had confessed were reconciled, and the penalties were then pronounced; these were, in order of severity, penances, fasting, prayers, pilgrimages, public scourging, the compulsory wearing on the breast or back of crosses of yellow felt sewn on to the clothes or sometimes of tongues of red, letters, etc. The inquisitors eventually acquired the right of inflicting fines at discretion. In 1244 and 1251 Innocent IV. reproved them for their exactions. All these minor penalties could be commuted for payments in money in the same way as absolution from the crusader’s vow, and the council of Vienna tried to put an end to these extortions. Beyond these minor penalties came the severer ones of imprisonment for a period of time, perpetual imprisonment and imprisonment of various degrees of severity (murus largus, murus strictus vel sirictissimus). The murus strictus consisted in the deepest dun-

geon, with single or double fetters, and “the bread and water of affliction”; but the severity of the prison régime varied very much. The murus largus, especially for a rich prisoner, amounted to a fairly mild imprisonment, but the mortality among those confined in the murus strictus became so high that Clement V. ordered an inquiry to be made into the prison régime in Languedoc, in spite of Bernard Guy's protest against the investiga-

ton as likely to diminish the prestige of the inquisitors. After

the mediaeval Inquisition.

Between 1308 and 1323, Bernard Guy,

who cannot be accused of inactivity, only handed over to the secular arm 42 persons, out of 930 who were convicted of heresy. Punishment by Confiscation of Goods.—From the point of view of jurisprudence of the Inquisition, the confiscation of the condemned man's property by the ecclesiastical and secular powers is only the accompaniment to the more severe penalties of perpetual imprisonment or death; but from the point of view of its economic history the importance of the confiscation is supreme. The practice originated in the Roman law, and all secular princes had already, in their own interest, recognized it as lawful (Frederick Barbarossa, Decree of Verona; Louis VIII., ordinances of 1226, 1229; Louis IX., ordinance of 1234; Raymond VII. of Toulouse, etc.). In the kingdom of France there was a special official, the procureur des encours (confiscation in the matter of heresy), whose duty it was to collect the personal property of the heretics, and to incorporate their landed estates in the royal domain; in Languedoc crying abuses arose, especially under Alphonse of Poitiers. Soon the papacy managed to gain a share of the spoils, even outside the states of the Church, as is shown by the bulls ad extirpanda of Innocent IV. and Alexander IV., and henceforward the inquisitors had, in varying proportions, a direct interest in these spoliations. In Spain this division only applied to the property of the clergy and vassals of the Church, but in France, Italy and Germany, the property of all heretics was shared between the lay and ecclesiastical authorities. Venice alone decided that all the receipts of the Holy Office should be handed over in full to the state. Clement V., in his attempted reform and regularization of inquisitorial procedure, endeavoured te reduce the confiscations to a fairly reasonable minimum, and in 3337-38 a series of papal inquiries was held into this financial aspect of the matter. The Assize of Clarendon, the Constitutions of Frederick II. (1232) and of Count Raymond of Toulouse (1234) had also come to a joint decision with the councils on this question. Charles V. of France prevailed upon the papacy to abolish this regulation (1378). Confiscation was, indeed, most profitable to the secular princes, and there is no doubt that the hope of considerable gain was what induced many princes to uphold the inquisitorial administration, especially in the days of the decay of faith. The resistance of the south of France to the Capetian monarchs was to a large extent broken owing to the decimation of the bourgeoisie by the Inquisition and their impoverishment by the extortions of the encours. The same was the case in certain of the Italian republics; while in districts such as the north of France, where heretics were both poor and few, the Inquisition did not easily take root, nor did it prove very profitable. These confiscations, the importance of which in the political and economic history of the middle ages was first shown fully by H. C. Lea, were a constant source of uncertainty in transactions of all kinds; there was, for instance, always a risk in entering into a contract in a place where the existence of heretics was suspected, since any contract entered into with a heretic was void. Nor was there any more security in the transmission of inheritances for posthumous trials were frequent; the Liber sententiarum inquisitionis of Bernardus Guidonis (1307—23) records sentences pronounced after death against 89 persons during a period of 15 years. But not only was their

tke sentences had been pronounced, the obstinate heretics and property confiscated and their heirs disinherited; they were

renegades were for the last time called upon to submit and to confess-and. abjure. If they consented, they were received as

penitents, and condemned on the spot to perpetual imprisonment;

subject to still further penalties. Frederick II. extended to heresy the application of the Roman law disqualifying from holding office, and even included under its operation the children and

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[HERESY

grandchildren of the guilty man. Alexander IV. and Boniface , a branch of the Franciscans, and were remote disciples of Joachim, VIII. lightened the severity of this law, and removed certain abbot of Floris (g.v.), and whom their rigid rule of absolute disqualifications, notably in the case of ecclesiastical offices and poverty led, by a reaction against the cupidity of the ordinary property.

The sphere of action of the Inquisition was gradually extended by the theologians and casuists until sorcery and magic ranked with doctrinal heresy (see Hansen, Inquisition, Hexenwahn, u.

ecclesiastics, to repudiate the papal hierarchy. On Feb. 17, ; 317 John XXII. condemned all these irregular followers of St. Francis and the Inquisition of Languedoc was at once set against them

Four spirituales were burnt at Marseilles in 1318, and soon the

Hexenverfolgung, 1900). With regard to Jews, they might profess their religion and observe its rites without being in a state of heresy; they were only heretic when they attacked the Christian faith or community, made proselytes, or returned to Judaism after being converted. But those who practised usury were “suspected of not holding orthodox doctrine as to theft” (Vacandard),

persecution was extended to the Franciscan beguins or tertiary

and on this account the Inquisition gained a hold on them (the special case of Spain is described on page 381).

very intermittent; for there were fewer heretics there than in the

TREATMENT

OF HERESY

England.—The Inquisition was primarily the instrument for the repression of all kinds of breaches of orthodoxy. Its work in this capacity we will now outline for each of the great countries of mediaeval Christendom. England, whether before or after the establishment of the Inquisition, had few trials for heresy and, particularist in this as in all her religious activity, judged them according to her own discipline, without asking Rome for laws or special judges. But orthodoxy remained almost unimpaired until the time of Wycliffe. Apparently neither the Catharist, Waldensian nor pantheistic heresies gained any footing in Great Britain. The affair of the Templars in France, which was quite political, was repeated in England: Clement V. having ordered their arrest, Edward IL, after much hesitation, gave orders to the sheriffs to execute it and then decided that the ecclesiastical law should be applied. The papal inquisitors sent to England met with a bad reception, and the pope was obliged to forbid them to use torture, which was contrary to the laws of the kingdom. It was found impossible to establish the Templars’ guilt and only canonical penalties were inflicted on them. The rising of the Lollards having alarmed both the church and the state, the article De haeretico comburendo was established by statute in 1401, and gained a melancholy notoriety during the religious struggles of the 16th century; it seems to have been not so much a measure for the safeguarding of dogma as a violent assertion of the secular absolutism. It was not till 1676 that Charles IT. caused it to be abrogated, and obtained a decision that in cases of atheism, blasphemy, heresy, schism and other religious offences, the ecclesiastical courts should be confined to the penalties of excommunication, removal from office, degradation and other ecclesiastical means of censure, to the exclusion of the death penalty. Scotland was much later than England in giving up persecution and bloodshed; and so late as 1696 a student of medicine aged eighteen named Aikenhead was accused of heresy and hanged in Edinburgh. ‘France.—The activities of the monastic Inquisition in France lay chiefly in the south. The repression of the Albigensian heresy went on even when its importance had disappeared. The chronicle of the inquisitor Guilhem Pelhisso (d. 1268) shows us the most tragic episodes of the reign of terror which wasted Languedoc for a century. Guillaume Arnaud, Peter Cella, Bernard of Caux, Jean de St. Pierre, Nicholas of Abbeville, Foulques de St. Georges, were the chief of the inquisitors who played the part of absolute dictators, burning at the stake, attacking both the living and the dead, confiscating their property and land, and enclosing the inhabitants both of the towns and the country in a network of suspicion and denunciation. The secular authorities were of the utmost assistance to them in this task; owing to the confiscations, the crown had too direct an interest in the success of the inquisitorial trials not to connive at all their abuses. There were frequent attempts at retaliation, directed for the most part against the inquisitors, and isolated attacks were made on Dominicans; but the work of repression culminated under Bernard Guy, and completed the destruction of Catharism, the appearances of which after the middle of the r4th century are rare. Afterwards the efforts of the Inquisition were directed against the Spirituals, who were

many being burnt about 1320. The Waldenses (q.v.) were more dificult to destroy: originally less dangerous to the church than

the Cathari, they resisted longer, and their dispersal in scattered communities aided their long resistance.

In the north of France the workings of the Inquisition were

south, and as they were poorer, there was less zeal on the part of the secular arm to persecute them. At its outset, however, the Inquisition in the north of France was marked byaseries of melancholy events: the inquisitor Robert le Bougre, formerly a

Catharist, spent six years (1233-39) in going through the Niver. nais, Burgundy, Flanders and Champagne, burning at the stake in every place unfortunates whom he condemned without a judgment, supported as he was by the ecclesiastical authorities and by princes such as Theobald of Champagne. The pope was forced to put a check on his zeal, and, after an inquiry, condemned

him to imprisonment for life. We know that there were inquisitors settled in fle de France, Orléanais, Touraine, Lorraine and Bur.

gundy during the 12th century, but we know next to nothing of what they did. In the 14th century, the Flemish and German heresies of the Free Spirit made their appearance in France, and some executions resulted. But in the 15th century, with the ex.

ception of a few condemnations aimed against the Hussites, the Inquisition acted but feebly. From the middle of the 14th century onward, the parlement had taken upon itself the right of hearing appeals from persons sentenced by the Inquisition. And the University again, by its faculty of theology, escaped the jurisdiction of the Inquisition. These two great bodies at the time of the Reformation took the place of the Inquisition in dealing with heresy. Italy.—In Italy heresy not infrequently took on a social or political character; it was sometimes almost indistinguishable from

the opposition of the Ghibellines or the communalist spirit of independence. Lombardy, besides a number of Cathari, contained a certain number of vaguely-defined sects against whom the efforts of the Apostolic Visitors sent by Innocent ITI. were not of much effect. From the very earliest days of the Inquisition, John of Vicenza, Roland of Cremona and Rassiero Sacchoni directed their persecutions against Lombardy, and especially against Milan. St. Peter Martyr, who was conspicuous for his violence, was assassinated in 1252. On March 20, 1256 Alexander IV. ordered the provincial of the friar preachers of Lombardy to increase the number of inquisitors in that province from four to eight. At Florence both heresy and Ghibellinism were alike crushed by the severities of Fra Ruggieri, and indulgences were promised to all who should aid in the extinction of heresy in Tuscany.

Certain

districts revolted against this violence, which threatened to devastate Italy as it had devastated Provence; in 1277 Fra Corrado

Pagano was killed on an expedition against the heretics of the Vattelline, and two years after the people of Parma rose against the inquisitors. Besides, this reign of terror only raised to 4 furious pitch the passionate and independent piety of the Italian peoples. The Inquisition had a hard struggle against the successes of Gerard Legarelli, and especially Dolcino (see APpOSTOLIC!), which only came to an end after a long and difficult trial of the

adepts of the Messianist sect of Guglielma, some of whom be-

longed to the noble families of Lombardy.

Up till the beginning

of the r4th century, however, the power of the Inquisittoa steadily increased, and at this period Zanghino Ugolini appea as the most skilful exponent of its theory and procedure. About the same time Charles of Anjou introduced the Inquisition into the Two Sicilies, but it could rarely effect anything there; the religious cohesion of the country was weak, and refugees wer sure'of safe hiding, both Waldenses and Fraticelli being frequently

INQUISITION

HERESY]

harboured there. Venice always preserved its autonomy as regards the repression of heresy; she was perfectly orthodox, but remained independent ef Rome; Innocent IV. sent inquisitors there, but the heretics

continued actually to be subject to the secular tribunals. In 1288

a compromise was arrived at, and the papal Inquisition was admitted into the republic, but only on condition that it should remain under the secular power ; thus there was established a mixed régime which survived till the last days of the Venetian state. In Savoy the Inquisition constantly carried on severe measures against the Waldenses of the Alps. During the 14th and 15th centuries there was an. uninterrupted succession of trials, As regards the papal states, "it was in the nature of things that, by a confusion of the two personages, the pope should consider

381

Bohemia. But from this date till 1335 inquisitorial missions succeeded one another without effecting any sensible diminution in the material and moral strength of the heresy. The Waldenses had been joined by other sectaries, the Luciferani, and especially the Brethren of the Free Spirit. It was in vain that the bishops of Bohemia and Silesia carried on during the second half of the I4th century an active campaign against heresy; the spirit of criticism which had arisen with regard to the morals, and even to the dogmas of the Church, was already preparing the way for Hussitism.

The Balkan States.—In the regions east of the Adriatic, Catharism, the first communities of which had very probably settled here, was supreme in the time of Innocent III. and Honorius III. The first Dominicans who established themselves all opposition to him qua Italian prince as resistance offered to in these parts had much to suffer from the aggression of those the head of the church, ze., to the church” (Langlois). The very heretics whom they had come to convert. Gregory XI, Colonna had a personal animosity against the Gaetani; therefore implacable in his persecution of Catharism, preached a crusade Boniface VIII., a Gaetano, declared the Colonna to be heretics. against them in 1234, and Bosnia was laid waste by fre and Rienzi was accused of heresy for having questioned the temporal sword. But in spite of these violent measures Catharism only sovereignty of the pope at Rome. The Venetians, who in 1309 gained strength in the churches of Bulgaria, Rumania, Slavonia opposed the annexation of Ferrara by Clement V. to the detriment and Dalmatia. In 1298 Boniface VIII. tried to organize the Inof the house of Este, were proclaimed heretics and placed under quisition there, but the project remained fruitless. The attempt the ban of Christendom. Savonarola was attacked because he was revived in 1323 by John XXIL with doubtful success. The

interfered with the policy of Alexander VI. at Florence. It was

this same desire for the hegemony of Italy which inspired the

attitude of the popes throughout the middle ages, causing them to excommunicate, apparently without reason so far as doctrine was concerned, the Visconti of Milan, the Della Scala of Verona, the Maffredi of Faenza, etc., and prompting them to lay under an

interdict or preach a crusade against certain rebellious great

towns (Clement V. against Venice, John XXII. against Milan). Germany.—In Germany heresies, especially of a mystical character, were numerous; some of them affected the people, and led to religious and social movements of no little importance. The repression of heresy went on by fits and starts, and the Inquisition was never exercised so regularly in the Germanic as in certain of the Latin countries. At the outset of the r3th century persecutions of the Waldenses and Ortlibarii (followers of Ortlieb of Strassburg, c. 1200) took place at Strasbourg; measures were taken locally, until, in 1231, Gregory IX. issued definite instructions to the German prelates with a view to a regular repression of heresy, and gave to Conrad of Marburg full powers to execute them. In Feb. 1234 the Diet of Frankfort decided, in spite of the pope's Injunctions, that the destruction of heresy should be entrusted to

the ordinary magistrates.

Moreover, owing to the struggle be-

tween the Empire and the papacy, the German prelates always limited the prerogatives of the papal Inquisition. Marsilius of Padua, the theoretical exponent of the imperial rights, attributes to the secular judge the right and obligation to punish heresy,’ the priest’s réle being merely advisory. In 1353 Innocent VI. tried to implant the papal Inquisition in Germany once for all; its success was but short, and Urban Vs attempt in 1362 succeeded little better, in spite of the fact that Charles IV. (edicts of Lucca,

June 1369) gave him the support of the secular power. Towards

1372, however, Gregory XI. succeeded in regularizing the exercise of the powers of the papal inquisitors on German soil; and the latter, notably Kerlinger, Hetstede, etc., set to work to destroy

thecommunities of the Beghards (who had developed with extraordinary rapidity), to burn their books, to close those beguinages

Which were under suspicion, and to check mystical epidemics such as those of the “flagellants,” “dancers,” etc. But these measures provoked protests from the people, the secular magistrates and

even the bishops, so that Gregory XT, perceiving that he was

faceto face with the popular party, invited the bishops to control theInquiries of his 6wn envoys. At the end of the 1 5th century e two Inquisitions were acting concurrently.

ohemia.—In Bohemia and the provinces subject

Waldenses had found their chosen country, and by the to it the middle of I3th century their propaganda was very flourishing.: In 1245 ocent IV. ordered the bishops to prosecute them with the aid of the secular arm, and in 1257, at the request of King Premysl tokar IT, Alexander IV. introduced the Inquisition into

persecutions undertaken in the r4th and rsth centuries merely resulted in binding the Cathari to the invading Turks, with whom they found more tolerance than with the Slav princes converted to Roman orthodoxy. Spain.—tIn Spain the papal Inquisition only very slowly gained a footing. Spain had been, in turn or simultaneously, Arian under the Visigoths, Catholic under the Hispano-Romans, Mohammedan by conquest, and under a régime of religious peace Judaism had

developed there. After the reconquest its heresies had been of minor importance. At the end of the 12th century Alphonso II. and Peter IL. had on principle promulgated cruel edicts against heresy, but the persecution seemed to be dormant. By the bull Declinante of May 26, 1232 inquisitors were sent to Aragon by Gregory IX. on the request of Raymond of Penaforte, and by 1237-38 the Inquisition was practically founded. But as early as 1233 King James I. had promulgated an edict against the heretics which quite openly put the Inquisition in a subaltern position, and secularized a great part of its activities. The people, moreover, showed great hostility towards it. In Castile Alphonso the Wise had, by establishing in his Fuero Real and his Siete Partidas an entirely independent secular legislation with regard to heretics (1255), removed his kingdom from all papal interference. At the opening of the 14th century Castile and Portugal had still no Inquisition. It was not against heresy that the church had to direct its vigilance. A mutual tolerance between the different religions had in fact sprung up, even after the conquest; and for a long time past both the decisions of councils and papal briefs had proclaimed their surprise and indignation at this ominous indifference. Sporadic cases of violent measures against Jews and Mohammedans occurred during the 13th century and increased in frequency and severity during the r4th and rsth centuries. Massacres en masse and forced baptisms were carried out, instigated by the clergy. A class of “converted” Mohammedans and Jews arose, and increased after the conquest of the kingdom of Granada and the completion of the conquest by Ferdinand and Isabella, and after the pacification of the kingdoms of Aragon and Valencia by Charles V. The Mahommedans and Jews in these parts were given the choice between conversion and exile. Being of an active nature, and desiring some immediate powers as a recompense for their moral sufferings, the Jewish or Mohammedan Conversos soon became rich and powerful. In addition to the hatred of the church, hatred and jealousy arose also among laymen and especially in the rich and noble classes. Limpieza, i.e., purity of blood, and the fact of being an “old Christian” were made the conditions of holding offices. And a combination of secular jealousy, national pride, and religious bigotry led to'the foundation of an essentially national Inquisition, directed against local heretics, and founded without the help of the papacy. It was created in 1480 by Ferdinand and Isabella.

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Sixtus IV. had wished the papal Inquisition to be established after the form of the middle ages; but Ferdinand, in his desire for centralization wished to establish an inquisition which should be entirely Spanish, and entirely royal. Rome resisted, but at last gave way. Sixtus IV., Alexander VI, Innocent VIII, Julius II. and after them all the popes of the 16th century, saw in this secular attempt a great power in favour of orthodoxy, and approved it when established. The Inquisition took advantage of this to claim an almost complete autonomy. The decisions of the Roman Congregation of the Index were only valid for Spain if the Holy Office of Madrid thought good to countersign them; consequently there were some books approved at Rome and proscribed in the peninsula, and some which were forbidden at Rome and approved in the peninsula. The Spanish Holy Office perceived long before Rome the dangers of mysticism, and already persecuted the mystics, especially the Alumbrados and afterwards the Molinists, while Rome still favoured them. There was even a financial dispute between the Inquisition and the papacy. The Roman Penitentiary sold exemptions from penalties (involving loss of civil rights), such as prison, the galleys and wearing the sanbenito, and dispensations from the crime of Marrania (secret Judaism). The inquisitors tried to gain control of this sale, and at a much higher price, and were seconded in this by the kings of Spain, who saw that it was to their own interest. The struggle continued throughout the first half of the 16th century, the Curia finally triumphing, thanks to the energy of Paul III. Since, however, the Inquisition continued to threaten the holders of papal dispensations, most of them found it prudent to demand a definite rehabilitation, in return for payments both to the king and the Inquisition. As a national institution the Inquisition had first of all the advantage of a very strong centralization and very rapid procedure, consisting as it did of an organization of local tribunals (established in all parts of the country) with a supreme council at Madrid, the Suprema. The grand inquisitor was ex officio president for life of the royal council of the Inquisition. _ From the very beginning the papacy strengthened the organization by depriving the Spanish metropolitans, by the bull of Sept. 25, 1487, of the right of receiving appeals from the decisions given jointly by the bishops of the various dioceses, their sufragans and the apostolic inquisitors and by investing the inquisitor-general with this right. And, more than this, Torquemada actually took proceedings against bishops; for example, the accusation of heresy against Don Pedro Aranda, bishop of Calahorra (1498); while the inquisitor Lucero prosecuted the first archbishop of Granada, Don Ferdinando de Talavera. Further, when once the Inquisition was closely allied to the crown, no Spaniard, whether clerk or layman, could escape its power. Even the Jesuits, though not till after 1660, were put under the authority of the Suprema. But the descendants of Moors and Jews, though they were good Christians, or even nobles, were most held in suspicion. A family into which a forced conversion or a mixed marriage had introduced Moorish or Jewish blood was almost entirely deprived of any chance of public office, and was bound, in order to disarm suspicion to furnish agents or spies to the Holy Office. The Spaniards were very quick to accept the Inquisition to such an extent as to look upon heresy as a national scourge to be destroyed at all costs, and they consequently considered it as a powerful and indispensable agent of public protection. As had happened among the Albigenses, commerce and industry were rapidly paralysed in Spain by this odious régime of suspicion, especially as the Conversos, who inherited the industrial and commercial capacity of the Moors and Jews, represented one of the most active elements of the population. Besides, this system of wholesale confiscations might reduce a family to beggary in a

single day, so that all transactions were liable to extraordinary risks. It was in vain that the counsellors of Charles V., and on several occasions the Cortes, demanded that the inquisitors and their countless agents should be appointed on a fixed system by the state; the state, and above all the Inquisition, refused to make any such ‘change: The Inquisition preferred to draw its revenues from heresy, and this is not surprising if we think of the economic aspect of the Albigensian Inquisition.

[HERESY

The political aspect of the work and character of the Inquisition had been very diversely estimated; it is a serious error to attribute to it, as has too often been done, extreme ideas of equality, or

even to represent it as having favoured centralization and aroyal absolutism to the same extent as the Inquisition of the 13th and r4th centuries in Languedoc.

“It was a mere coincidence,” says

H. C. Lea, “that the Inquisition and absolutism developed side by side in Spain.” The Suprema did not attack all nobles as nobles; it attacked certain of them as Conversos, and the Spanish feudal nobles were sure enough of their limpieza to have nothing to fear from it. But it is undeniable that it frequently tended to constitute a state within the state. At the time of their greatest power, the inquisitors paid no taxes, and gave no account of the confiscations effected; they claimed for themselves and their agents the right of bearing arms, and it is well known that their declared

adversaries, or even those who blamed them in some respects

were without fail prosecuted for heresy. It was, however, onlythe

Bourbons, who had imbibed Gallican ideas, who by dint of perse verance managed to make the Inquisition subservient to the Crown, and Charles ITI., “the philosopher king,” openly set limits to the privileges of the inquisitors. Napoleon, on his entry into Madrid (Dec. 1808), at once suppressed the Inquisition, and the extraordinary general Cortes on Feb. 12, 1813 declared it to be incompatible with the constitution, in spite of the protests of Rome. Ferdinand VII. restored it (July 21, 1814) on his return from exile, but it was impoverished and almost powerless. It was

again abolished as a result of the Liberal revolution of 1820, was

restored temporarily in 1823 after the French military intervention under the duc d’Angouléme, and finally disappeared on July 15, 1834, when Queen Christina allied herself with the Liberals. It was not, however, till May 8, 1869 that the principle of religious liberty was proclaimed in the peninsula; and even since then it has been limited by the constitution of 1876, which forbids the

public celebration of dissident religions (S. Reinach). In 1816 the pope abolished torture in all the tribunals of the Inquisition. It is a too frequent practice to represent as peculiar to the Spanish Inquisition modes of procedure in use for a long time in the inquisitorial tribunals of the rest of Europe. There are no special manuals, or practica, for the inquisitorial procedure in Spain; but the few distinctive characteristics of this procedure may be mentioned. The Suprema allowed the accused an advocate chosen from among the members or familiars of the Holy Office; this privilege was obviously illusory, for the advocate was chosen and paid by the tribunal, and could only interview the accused in presence of an inquisitor and a secretary. The theological examination was a minute proceeding; the “‘qualificators of the Holy Office,” special functionaries, whose equivalent can, however, easily be found in the mediaeval Inquisition, charged those books or speeches which had incurred “theological censures,” with “slight, severe or violent” suspicion. There was no challenging of witnesses. The torture, to the practice of which the Spanish Inquisition certainly added new .Yefinements, was originally very much objected to by the Spaniards, and Alphonso X. prohibited it in Aragon; later, especially in the rsth, 16th and 17th centuries it was applied quite shamelessly.

But by the end of the 18th century, according to Llorente, it had not been employed for a long time; the fiscal, however, habitually demanded it, and the accused always went in dread of it. The punishment of death by burning was much more often employed by the Spanish than by the mediaeval Inquisition. With the extension of the Spanish colonial empire the Inquisition spread throughout it almost contemporaneously with the Catholic faith. Ferdinand IV. decreed the establishment of the Inquisition in America, and Jimenes in 1516 appointed Juan Quevedo, bishop of Cuba, inquisitor-general delegate with discretionary powers. Excesses having been committed by the agents of tbe

Holy Office, Charles V. decreed (Oct. 15, 1538) that only the European colonists should be subject to the jurisdiction of the

Inquisition; but Philip II. increased the powers of the inquisitors delegate and, in 1541 established on a permanent basis three new

provinces of the Inquisition at Lima, Mexico and Cartagena. The first auto-da-fé took place at Mexico in 1574; the year in which Hernando Cortez died.. The Inquisition of Portugal was noes

INSANITY careful to ensure the orthodoxy of the Portuguese colonies. An

Inquisition of the East Indies was established at Goa, with jurisdiction over all the dominions of the king of Portugal beyond the Cape of Good Hope. Finally Philip IT. even wished to establish an itinerant Inquisition, and at his request the pope created, by a

brief of July 21, 1571, the “Inquisition of the galleys,” or “of feets and armies." During the 16th and 17th centuries the Inquisition in Spain was directed again Protestantism. The inquisitor-general, Fernando de Valdés, archbishop of Seville, asked the pope to condemn the

Lutherans to be burnt even if they were not backsliders, or wished

to be reconciled, while in 1560 three foreign Protestants, two Eng-

383

library or bookshop and confiscate prohibited books. In 1558 the penalty of death and confiscation of property was decreed against any bookseller or individual who should keep in his possession con-

demned books. The censure of books was abolished in 1812. BIBLioGRAPHY.—A

critical bibliography was drawn up by P. translation (xg00) of H. C. Lea's important work: History of the Inquisition in the Middle Ages (3 vols., 1888). See also J. Havet, L’Hérésie et le bras séculier au moyen âge jusqwau XIIIe siècle in the Oeuvres complètes, vol. ii. Fredericq in the preface to the French

(1896); Ch. V. Langlois, L'Inquisition d'après des travaux récents (1901);

Douais, L'Inquisition (1907); E. Vacandard, L'Imquisition (1907) ; Douais, Documents pour servir à l'histoire de l'inquisition dans le Languedoc (2 vols., 1900); Dollinger, Beitrüge zur Sektengeschichte des Mittelalters (2 vols, Munich, 1800; vol. 2 is composed of docu-

lishmen and a Frenchman were burnt in defiance of international ments) ; Molinier, L'Inquisition dans le midi de la France au XIIIe et hw. But the Reformation never had enough supporters in Spain au XIVe siècle. Etude sur les sources de son histoire (1880) ; P. Fredto occupy the attention of the Inquisition for long. After the ericq, Corpus documentorum inquisitionis haereticae pravitatis neerlandicae (1205~1525) (4 vols., 1889-1900); Tanon, Histoire des Marranes the mystics of all kinds furnished the greatest number tribunaux de l'inquisition enGhent, France (1893); Hansen, Inquisition, of victims. Here again we should not lose sight of the tradition of Hexenwahn und H exenverfolgung (Munich, 1900); Llorente, Histoire the mediaeval Inquisition; the mysticism of the Beghards, the critique de Vinquisition d'Espagne (4 vols., 1818) ; H. C. Lea, History of the Inquisit ion of Spain (s vols., 1905-08); S. Reinach, articles on Brethren of the Free Spirit and the innumerable pantheist sects Lea’s

had been pitilessly persecuted by the inquisitors of Germany and France during the 14th and rsth centuries. The Illuminati (alum-

brados), who were very much akin to the mediaeval sectaries, and the mystics of Castile and Aragon were ruthlessly examined, judged and executed.

Not even the most famous persons could

escape the suspicious zeal of the inquisitors Valdés and Melchior Cano. St. Ignatius de Loyola was twice imprisoned at the beginning of his career; St. Theresa was accused of misconduct, and several times denounced; one of her works, Conceptos del amor divino, was prohibited by the Inquisition, and she was only saved by the influence of Philip II. Countless numbers of obscure visionaries were accused of Illuminism and perished. From its ear-

liest appearance Molinism was persecuted with almost equal rigour. Molinos himself was arrested and condemned to perpetual imprisonment (1685-87), and during the 18th century, till 178r, several Molinists were burnt. The Inquisition also attacked Jansenism, freemasonry (from 1738 onwards; cf. the bull In emisenii) and “philosophism,” the learned naturalist José Clavigo y Faxarcho (1730-1806), the mathematician Benito Bails (173097), the poet Tomas de Iriarte, the ministers Clavigo Ricla, Aranda and others being prosecuted as “philosophers.” Subject also to the tribunal of the Holy Office were bigamists, blasphemers, usurers, sodomites, priests who had married or broken the secrecy of the confessional, laymen who assumed ecclesiastical cos-

tume, etc.

History of the Inquisition of Spain in the Revue critique (1906-08) ; A. S. Turberville, Mediaeval History and the Inquisition

(1920); H. Nickerson, The Inquisition (1923).

INSANITY.

(P. Ar.; X)

This term ordinarily connotes more or less

severe unsoundness of mind. Though its loose usage is almost synonymous with mental disease, scientifically the term should only be applied to the mental condition of an individual who, through socially inefficient conduct, has to be placed under supervision and control. The mind is the mechanism by means

of which we adapt adequately to our environment and when,

through its derangement, conduct is exhibited which the community looks upon as evidence of disease and as implying irresponsibility, the individual concerned is said to be insane and the law steps in to certify him as such. Strictly speaking, then, insanity is really a social and legal term and not medical. Mental illness is a broad concept which may include very efficient members of society. No satisfactory definition can therefore be arrived at, since it would be necessary to define what we mean

by sanity, which would involve us in equal difficulties. It is unnecessary to dwell upon the mystical conceptions of insanity which were held in the middle ages, and it will be suf-

ficient to note that it was only towards the close of the 18th century that this sphere of mental disorder was scientifically

studied.

This was a period in which materialism flourished and

research devoted to the anatomy and physiology of the brain Two features of the Spanish Inquisition are especially note- gave the workers reason to believe that the nature and causes of worthy: the prosecutions for “‘speeches suspected of heresy” and insanity would before long be discovered, since the advance of the censure of. books. The great scholar Pedro de Lerma, who knowledge in the structure and functioning of the central nervous after fifty years at Paris (where he was dean of the faculty of system was progressing at a rapid rate. A school of thought theretheology) had returned to Spain as abbot of Compluto, was called fore held sway which founded insanity upon a physiological basis upon in 1537 to abjure eleven “Erasmian” propositions, and was and endeavoured to base all pathology in terms of organic change forced to return to Paris to die. Juan de Vergara and his brother in the brain. Although the great value of this method cannot be were summoned before the Inquisition for favouring Erasmus and gainsaid, there is ample evidence that other aspects of approachhis writings, and detained several years before they were acquitted. ing the problem of insanity are essentially necessary. Of late years Fray Alonso de Virues, chaplain to Charles V., was imprisoned on another school has advanced the belief that the majority of cases anabsurd charge of depreciating the monastic state, and was only of insanity are psychogenic in origin and that even where gross teleased by the pope at the instance of the emperor. Mateo Pas- physical disease has been the exciting factor, that the symptoms cual, professor of theology at Alcala, who had ina public lecture can only be adequately understood at the psychological level. expressed a doubt as to purgatory, suffered imprisonment and the Others, again, prefer to take a wider view-point still and regard inconfiscation of his goods. The censure of books was established in sanity in the light of biological or psycho-biologi cal reactions. 1502 by Ferdinand and Isabella as a state institution. All books Modern psychological knowledge would lead us to believe that the had to pass through the hands of the bishops; in 1521 the Inqui- understanding of much of the subject is made clearer when we resion took upon itself the examination of books suspected of gard it in the light of instinctive forces conflicting with environLutheran heresy. In 15 54 Charles V. divided the responsibility ment and resulting in a failure of adjustment. The mental sympfor the censorship between the Royal Council, whose duty it was toms cannot be rightly spoken of as a disease but as types of reaclogrant or refuse the imprimatur to manuscripts and the Inquisi- tion through the effort on the part of the individual to meet conn, which retained the yight of prohibiting books which it judged ditions. For the detailed theories of such a conception, the writto be pernicious; but after 1527 it also gave the licence to print. ings of Freud, Jung, Adler and Adolf Meyer should be consulted.

In 1547 the Suprema -produced an Index of prohibited books,

,

The researches of Freud in this direction are of paramount im-

awn up in 1546 by the university of Louvain; it was completed

portance and have largely revolutionized many of our ideas on

revisores de libros might Present themselves in the name of the Holy Office in any private

in many states of insanity no observable structural changes are found, they exist all the same, only they are such that our im-

Specially as regards Spanish books, in 1551, and several later edi- psycho-pathology. The materialistic school would hold that though Were published. Moreover, the

384

INSANITY

perfect methods cannot detect them, and in time they will be discovered. At present we have insane conditions divided into: those that are regarded as functional and those that are organic. In the former. we have mania, melancholia and paranoia, and some would include dementia praecox. The psychogenic school would argue that though mental disease may arise secondarily to physical disorder, the symptoms are psychological reverberations of that disorder and the body of an individual must be regarded as environmental to the ego. In an integrated organism, though the basis of the wrong functioning lies in the physical sphere, some of the effects are manifested at the psychological level. The symptoms, then, are expressions of the personality, and however much we may stress the bodily aspect, that can in no way explain the content of a delusion or an hallucination. The fact that some individuals may take alcohol to the extent of producing severe physical disease without affecting the mind, and others will fall victims to insanity through its use, proves that psychic factors cannot be left out of calculation. The many structural changes which are found in certain forms of insanity should be reviewed as probably secondary to a perverted mentality. The bodily effects of emotion are well known and it can easily be surmised that long continued emotional stress should in time be followed by organic change. During the World War we had ample evidence of this. Mental reactions must be looked upon as reactions of the whole integrated organism which cannot be the expression of any one part of it. As McDougall says, mind has a nature and a structure and functions of its own which cannot be fully and adequately described in terms of structure of the brain and its processes. If this be true, as he thinks, it does not seem logically impossible that the nature of the mind itself may be disordered or impaired or defective. It seems, then, that we must steer clear of belonging to one or other of the extreme camps when we view the nature of insanity, but take a very wide vista which will embrace the study of the individual, his personal and racial history, his environment, and his physical and mental structure.

The causes of insanity will be predisposing and exciting. The former will be those conditions resident within the individual which will render him liable to suffer thus when certain factors are super-added, and the latter are those circumstances which precipitate the mental disturbance. Predisposing Causes.—(1). Heredity. It has to be admitted that few scientific data are before us to establish on any firm basis our knowledge of the inheritance of mental instability. Though there is no doubt as to the enormous importance of this factor, it is certain that in the past the use of this influence has often been a cloak for ignorance and that the effects of early environment and faulty education of the instincts and emotions have not been adequately valuated. Most of the statistical work on the subject is of little worth. Human families do not easily lend themselves to genetic study and much is founded on hearsay. Fallacies have arisen because no differentiation has been made between the different varieties of insanity, and the results have been taken as absolute, and are not compared with similar investigations with the family history of normal people. The chief investigations in which these fallacies have been avoided would bring us to the following conclusions: A hereditary taint is present in the relatives of 70% of mentally sound people; of 77% of insane. Of these it affects the distant relatives of the former more than of the latter, but the parents of the latter more than those of the former. Insanity is present in the parent once out of every 30 healthy people, once out of every five insane. Senile dementia, apoplexy, drug habits are all rarer in the parents of insane persons than in those of healthy, while dipsomania and character anomalies are twice as common in the parents of the former. So that hereditary taint is far commoner in normal people than is usually supposed, and an insanity taint is of importance only when present in the parents. It seems that the absence of an hereditary taint makes the occurrence of insanity much less probable than the presence of it makes the occurrence probable. In some cases of insanity heredity is of special importance, e.g., paranoia, manic-depressive insanity, while in others

[CAUSES

it is of little or no importance, e.g., general paresis, toxic insanities, etc. Direct heredity is usually pure, that is an epileptic parent tends to have an epileptic child. Transformation is rela. tively rare. It is not thought that consanguinity or inbreeding has any ill-effects unless the stock is already tainted; then, of course the chances of transmission are correspondingly increased. Studies

on heredity on Mendelian lines (see MENDELISM) are inconchy.

sive, but there is some amount of evidence of interest concer feeblemindedness, epilepsy, manic-depressive insanity and demen. tia praecox. In all such studies there is lacking some method of determining what are the fundamental units that can be trans. mitted by heredity. It is probable that these will be found to

be not actual diseases, or even definite predispositions to such but factors that can develop into either insanity or other cop.

ditions (character anomalies, criminality, genius, etc.) according to the interaction of environmental influences. (2). Civilization. It is amongst the most highly civilized that insanity is most prevalent. In the process of evolution, life ip general becomes more complex, adaptation more difficult, mental conflict more in evidence. The insane, too, are found with greater frequency in the congested centres of population where the struggle for existence is at its greatest height. The percentage of insanity is greater among the unmarried than the married. (3). Sex and Age. The total incidence of insanity differs but slightly in the two sexes. In the male the effects of alcohol, and syphilis, and general stress tend to balance the special strains of pregnancy, and the change of life in women. The greatest liability

to such mental disorder exists between the ages of 30 and 4o, but it must be realized that there are more people living in the general community of this age. Considering the number of insane in each decade compared to the total population of the same age, it will be found that the liability practically progressively increases from 20 to 8o years of age. (4). Climate. The only effect of climate is mainly that of supplying conditions which make exhaustion and infection more liable. Malaria, enteric fever and dysentery are responsible for most of the insanity attributed to climatic conditions. (5). Physiological Epochs. At the periods of puberty, adolescence, child-bearing, the climacteric in women and the senium in man, there are special chemical, bodily and mental changes which render the individual more prone. Exciting Causes.—(1i). Toxic Poisons—Exogenous or iniroduced from without. Alcohol in the past has been said to be responsible for much insanity, but recent and more careful investigation would tend to show that this causation has been grossly exaggerated and that really only a small proportion are due directly to this agent. The taking of this drug is very often more a symptom of mental disease than its cause, and, if in any way causative, it is often only so in a contributory way. Alcohol is a narcotic, and by lessening inhibition over the higher centres of judgment and control, any psychopathic tendency is released and appears on the surface. It is, therefore, this tendency to be psychopathic which is the important factor in determining whether or not a person will become insane, and not especially the amount of alcoholism. That the mental factor underlying alcoholism is of great significance has been shown by Bevan Levis, who found that the least intemperate communities had the highest rate of pauperism and insanity, while the most intemperate communities had the lowest rate.

That is, when prosperity was greatest and

funds for intemperance were available, poverty and mental stress were least and insanity was less prevalent. F. Mott pointed out that insanity does not keep pace with the incidence of alcohol, and in his large experience he found cirrhosis of the liver very rare in asylums; so that we may infer that most individuals will

tolerate any amount of alcohol up to extensive physical disease,

without becoming insane and that this only occurs where there are other important factors present. Other exogenous chemical poisons which may be productive of insanity are opium (morphine), cocaine, and metallic salts [E mercury, lead and arsenic. Much more important are those towns due to bacterial infection. Syphilis stands out in this respect prominently. When inherited, its effects may severely retard mer

INSANITY

SYMPTOMS]

tal development, and when acquired, it may bring about general ysis, which constitutes 5% to 15% of the total admissions to our mental hospitals. Indirectly, too, it may contribute to the inception of other forms of insanity. Almost any infection may

produce insanity in a predisposed individual. The mental reactions

occurring in the acute stage of infection are most commonly of a

delirious nature, but the subsequent form of Insanity will vary according to the personality. Tuberculosis, enteric fever, malaria,

and influenza are frequently responsible. Of late years some investigators have laid great stress on infected foci somewhere in the hody being causative of different insane states. With this idea in their mind, careful search for such are made in the teeth, tonsils, nasal sinuses, stomach, bowel, genito-urinary passages; and

in women, the womb with its appendages. The teeth and tonsils are said to be the commonest sites, and in the hands of the more enthusiastic advocates

of this conception,

wonderful

recovery

results are claimed when these infective foci are eliminated. Research of others has not confirmed these findings, and there is

(6) Toxic insanity

(7) General paralysis of the|

385 Diseases of the brain invariably

insane or mostly accompanied by (8) Organic brain disease mental symptoms. (9) Epileptic insanity (Since we are dealing only with insane states and not mental disorder the neuroses and psycho-neuroses such as neurasthenia [q.v.], anxiety and compulsion neuroses and hysteria are not included.)

General Symptoms of Insanity.—It must be borne in mind that any of the symptoms enumerated, taken by themselves, are not necessarily evidence of an insane condition, but that they only have such an indication when taken in conjunction with each other, when studied in their individual setting and in comparison

with the previous expressions of the personality. Again, it must be stressed that though they may indicate mental disorder, it is the

factor of conduct that renders the case insane or not. Certain symptoms are more or less particularly associated with special forms of insanity.

General Behaviour—Some change in this direction

is usually grave reason for doubting that any such one factor, and that a the earliest indication noted by friends and relations. This may physical one, can be alone responsible for such a complex mental state as that of insanity. The great importance, however, of removing possible sources of general infection is always to be borne in mind. Endogenous chemical poisons or auto-intoxication have

also been presumed to be causative factors, and those of most

consequence were thought to originate from the gastro-intestinal tract and as a result of chronic kidney disease.

Though in some

cases such agents may contribute a causative share, there is no reason for thinking they have any specific value.

(2). Injuries. Direct injuries to the head may cause structural lesions of the brain and be the immediate cause of some form of

insanity, while falls, may also (3). Bodily sanity through

more indirect injuries, such as concussion from be the starting point of a mental disorder. diseases may play a part in the production of inthe interference they bring about in nutrition,

circulation and fatigue.

(4). Exhaustion or overwork has been commonly supposed to be a cause, and during the World War a certain type of insanity developed by soldiers on active service was officially designated as “exhaustion psychosis.” Though prolonged mental or physical strain often seems to be the precursor of a severe mental breakdown, it is probable that exhaustion per se without other and more important adjuvant factors will seldom originate an insane state. The excessive fatigue is frequently a symptom, and if in any way contributory, it must be regarded as one link inaseries. (3). Mental. Any severe mental stress may excite insanity when the predisposition exists. Commonly, the mental factor involves some situation which the individual cannot face, and it may be said that in this difficulty he takes refuge in a world of unreality. Domestic trouble, financial worries, deaths of those who are near and dear, sexual problems, are the usual sources of stress met with. Sudden and horrible shocks may act similarly. This

relate predominantly to the habits, moods, activities or content of speech. The capacity to work, the ability to adapt to circumstances, and the usual respect for the conventions of society, may likely be affected. Alcohol may be unduly indulged in, personal cleanliness and general care of the self neglected, while the char-

acter as a whole may undergo transformation.

We may have a

general over-activity, which commonly is not directed consistently towards a definite goal, and when severe may lead to violence and destructiveness. This is a prominent symptom of mania. On the other hand there may be great difficulty and slowness of voluntary movement, which is specially evinced in melancholia. Movements may be stereotyped and oft-repeated, automatic, just opposite to

what we should expect, or impulsive.

Curious postures may be

taken up, and bizarre mannerisms shown. The stream of speech may be affected similarly. This may be greatly voluble, slow and difficult, or there may be mutism, irrelevance, incoherence. Disorder of the emotions will be mainly evidenced by an exag-

gerated sense of well-being, elation or exaltation on the one hand or the reverse picture of gloom and severe depression. The morbidity of these states will accrue from the fact that they are not warranted by the condition of the individual or his surroundings.

These extreme emotions are mostly noted in one or other of the phases of manic-depressive insanity. Emotional deterioration, or apathy, is particularly seen in dementia praecox. Anxiety, morbid anger, suspicion, and general instability of the emotions are other frequent abnormalities in this sphere. Disorders of the content of thought are usually prominent, and a delusion is regarded as specially important by the law and laity as evidence of insanity. Such false beliefs may be sane or insane. We may regard them as insane when three characteristics concerning them are found. First, they are evidently untrue, highly improbable, or manifestly impossible. Second, they cannot be corpsychogenic aspect of insanity has been much studied of late rected by any appeal to reason. Thirdly, they are out of harmony years, and holds a wide field to-day which strenuously opposes the with the individual’s education and environment . Nevertheless, views of the materialistic school. sometimes a false belief may be an insane delusion without showClassification of Insanity.—Though it is true that different ing any of these characteristics. Delusions may be very varied, symptoms of insanity tend to arrange themselves into groups, but those of persecution and grandeur are perhaps the most we must bear in mind that the clinical pictures described under frequent. They may be fixed or changeable; they may or may not their special headings are not by any means clear-cut entities; affect conduct. they are not diseases in the strict sense of the term, but types The process of thinking itself may be greatly modified. There of reaction. Yet, for descriptive purposes, some classification is is difficulty in thinking; much pre-occupation with one idea ; ueeded, and though no classification is entirely satisfactory, the thoughts seem stolen; they are obsessive; or everything in the following will best meet our requirements: environment is taken personally (ideas of reference). Disorders of perception may affect any sense. They may be Characterized by psychical in the form of illusions which are inaccurate perceptions of some(1) Manic-depressive insanity symptoms. No constant 2 Dementia praecox thing really and actually perceived, or hallucinations which have changes in brain yet estabno sensory foundation in the environment, and are created by (Schizophrenia) lished. Best understood by

(3) Paranoia group

(4) Imbecility and idiocy (5) Senile dementia

employment of psychological conception

Characterized by qualitative defect of mental functions. Generally accompanied by observable defect or changes in the brain

perverted functioning of the mind.

On rare occasions hallucina-

tions occur in normal people. Many can be explained on a purely mental basis, while others have an organic interpretation and are based on physiological disturbances such as toxic states. Auditory hallucinations are the most common, and usually are of the nature of voices. Their content is of great importance in the study of the

INSANITY

386

[FORMS

patient, and generally are in consonance with the delusions entertained. Most frequently the voices are derogatory and accusa-

lack of cause. Usually, however, some difficulty in the individual’, life is found as a precipitating factor.

tory. Visual hallucinations are mostly noted in toxic forms of insanity. Those affecting smell, taste and touch are of much less frequent occurrence. Psychic or pseudo-hallucinations seem to

elation, flight of ideas and general hyperactivity of mind ang

occupy a position midway between imagination and the fully developed form of hallucination. There is not the same conviction of their external reality, and yet it is believed by the patient that they are brought about by some external agency. Hypnagogic hallucinations are those which occur in the state between sleeping and waking, and these have not the same morbid value. The sensations from the muscles, joints and internal organs may be

affected and give rise to curious delusional ideas. Disorders of orientation imply a lack of appreciation of three aspects of the environment, either simply or together—that of time, space and personal relations. These are not infrequent in severe forms of insanity, and are commonly noted in the confusional conditions of delirium and toxic states. Disorders of memory will either be complete or partial absence of memory (amnesia) which may only concern past events or be progressive and continuous; false recollections (paramnesia), when the insane patient relates with conviction and detail events which never took place; and excessive retention of memories (hyperamnesia), which occurs in certain insane states. Disorders of attention may involve the inability to fix the attention for any length of time in one direction (distractability), as seen typically in mania. Where this is in excess there is liable to arise an insufficiency of perception so that orientation is rendered defective. Enfeeblement of the power of voluntary attention is one of the most characteristic signs of dementia (a gradual weakening of the intellectual faculties). In other insane states there may be complete absorption of attention on one or more groups of ideas, which render the individual so self-absorbed that the surroundings are not attended to, and often not seen at all. Various disturbances of consciousness may be manifested. Sleep may be abolished, lessened or increased. The last named is uncommon and is usually associated with brain disease or some general toxaemia. In certain insane patients such as maniacs there exists a marvellous capacity to withstand more or less prolonged sleep deprivation. Trance-like sleep may be noted in other types. In stupor the patient makes little or no response to any stimulus, and such a condition may, when severe, last for lengthy periods. Lastly, we may have symptoms pointing to definite disorders of the personality. There may be depersonalization when the individual feels that he is no longer himself, or that he no longer exists, or there is the last uncommon condition in which a patient believes himself to be some other person and may act on that belief. In certain severe insane states there may be a gradual disintegration of the personality, which leaves the victim without any of the acquired cultural traits, and only possessing his primitive functions. We can now give some description of the various types of insane conditions met with according to the classification already set forth. Manic-depressive

Insanity.—These

disorders

which

were

previously known as mania and melancholia were embraced by Kraepelin under this one heading, as he believed that they were both symptomatic of one morbid process. There is always the liability to the recurrence of attacks, and in these either the manic or the melancholic phase may manifest itself. Kretschmer, of late, in his study of morphological types has concluded that his *pyknic" type, which is characterized by middle height, rounded figure, a short, broad face on a short, massive neck, and a fat paunch protruding from a deep vaulted chest, is the type of in-

dividual who would tend to develop this particular form of insanity, if any. Certainly there is a type of personal disposition which is more apt to be thus attacked than others, and one refers to, the person who is inordinately optimistic and bright, or, on

The manic-phase manifests itself by three main symptoms— body. In the mildest type (hypomania) we note these symptoms in slight degree, but the efficiency of the individual js greatly reduced and alcoholic indulgence and delinquent conduct is Often

seen. In acute mania the symptoms are severe, speech may be so flighty as to be incoherent, and some disorientation js likely to be present. Delusions often occur, but are changeable and ridiculous in character. In the main they will be grandiose ip type, but false ideas of persecution may be evinced. Activity of mind and body is constant, little if any sleep is indulged in, food not attended to, so that signs of exhaustion and loss of flesh be. come marked. Such a patient may be boisterous, destructive and violent. The feeling of exaltation is extreme, and irritation and anger are easily aroused when thwarted. Simple and evanescent

hallucinations are often noted. In its most extreme degree this manic phase may be delirious in its severity, and complicated by a septic blood state, brought about by physical injuries. In the depressive phase we note exactly the opposite symptoms of great depression, difficulty in thinking and under-activity of mind and body. Here again we may speak of three grades of severity. In the mildest the individual often realizes his in. validism. He moves and speaks slowly, seems incapable of effort, and sees everything as through a glass darkly. In acute melancholia the symptoms are much more pronounced. The depression is profound and delusions of self-accusation referring to sin,

poverty and being “lost” are in evidence. Hypochondriacal ideas, such as their bowels being stopped up or their brains decayed, are frequent. The personality may seem to the patient to be transformed, and hallucinations consonant with their delusions also occur. In the severest type there is stupor, and the patient

lies in bed inert, with much clouding of consciousness, the victim of horrible delusions and hallucinations.

Manic-depressive

insanity may last a variable period, but,

though recovery is usually the rule, a recurrence of attacks is highly likely. The interval between such attacks may progressively lessen. Certain cases may remain chronic. Any patient with any state of melancholia must be regarded as a potential suicide, and cared for accordingly. There is a form of insanity termed involutional melancholia which is closely related to manic-depressive insanity, but which occurs at the period of involution, i.e., about 50 years of age. The symptoms are mainly similar to those in the depressive phase of manic-depressive insanity, but there is a greater tendency for the delusions to be hypochondriacal, and there is usually more or less restlessness and anxiety. Hence the old term “agitated melancholia.” Fifty per cent make a satisfactory recovery. Dementia-praecox.—This (more lately termed schizophrenia) is a form of insanity which most usually appears about puberty and adolescence in which heredity seems to play a marked róle. Recent studies would tend to show that a type of personality, the “shut-in” character (shy and seclusive), is more liable than others to develop this mental disorder. Kretschmer isolates special physical types which he regards as predisposed in this direction. The cause of the condition is highly debatable. It is thought by some to have its root in auto-intoxication, and Mott

related it to endocrine disorder especially affecting the sex glands. Focal sepsis is regarded as the most important factor by Cotton of America. Other psychiatrists view the origin from a purely psychological or biological point of view. Bleuler looks upon the disease as a splitting of the personality, while Adolf Meyer believes that it is not a disease but forms of reaction which are the outcome of progressive mal-adaptations of the individual to his environment. Jung draws attention to buried complexes. Whichever view is taken, there seems to be a mental or physical lack

Manic-

of potentiality for development, and the individual is “stranded

depressive insanity is, therefore, constitutional, and can best be understood from a psycho-pathological standpoint. The deepseated constitutional origin is marked by its hereditary taint, and by the fact that the attacks are frequently noted for their apparent

on the rock of puberty.” An exciting factor is often apparently absent, or physical or mental worries or shocks may be à preapr

the other hand, is gloomy and worries over trivialities.

tating cause. Though the onset may be acute, in the majority 0

instances it develops insidiously over a long period of months of

FORMS]

|

INSANITY

387

even years. Peculiarities of thought and action finally blossom | on others being engendered until definite delusions of a persecuting into insanity. The symptoms seem highly unnatural, and an ob- nature appear. Such delusions become systematized until the server feels quite out of touch with a dementia praecox patient. Person is convinced that certain people or bodies of people are The most prominent symptom is that of apathy and indifference, |plotting his downfall. The delusions, however, appear to be

and there is a great lack of co-ordination between feeling and in-

tellect which indicates a deep-seated mental change. The patient

is fully oriented, his memory is good, but there is a dreamy attitude, with lack of attention and interest. Sudden silly, and seem-

ing causeless outbursts of laughter are frequent. The personality

changes so that the habits get slovenly, untidy and dirty. Ideas

of reference, illusions, delusions and hallucinations are always

present. All sorts of oddities of manner, attitude and speech may

be noted, while the judgment becomes so deteriorated that there is no conception by the patient of the seriousness of his disorder or position. Four forms of dementia praecox are ordinarily described; simple dementia, hebephrenia, catatonia and a paranoid

form. In the simple type the development is insidious for years. Early on we note dreaminess, or falling off of interest, and an impoverishment of the personality. The individual becomes moody, un-

social, irritable and less and less able to undertake any respon-

sibility or apply himself to anything but a simple task. Many tramps and ne’er-do-wells come into this category. In hebephrema after a period of ill-health there is often an abrupt onset of confusion and depression, with disagreeable delusions of persecution and hallucinations. With the subsidence of

the acute symptoms the fundamental defect becomes apparent with the symptoms mentioned above—the most prominent being bizarre conduct, incoherent thought and vivid auditory hallucinations. Catatonia tends, after a depressive phase, to manifest itself by a state of stupor or excitement, which irregularly alternate. In the former we see constrained, fixed attitudes with much muscular tension, and any attempt to move the patient is met with marked resistance (negativism). A state like that of catalepsy is often maintained with curious grimaces and mutism. There may be ' shown the opposite condition of negativism, z.e., a great suggestibility in which all commands are mechanically obeyed. In the exdted phase there is a manic-like condition, with much talking, shouting and general physical activity. The actions are, however, absurd, stereotyped and tend to be oft repeated. Violent impulses are given way to, and much violence is frequently manifested, which may involve homicide and suicide. Delusions and hallucinations are in evidence, and the excited period may quickly abate. The paranoid form often appears somewhat later in life than the others, and is specially differentiated by the presence of somewhat systematized delusions of persecution and grandeur, which are usually absurd and fantastic, with hallucinations of hearing. In the large majority of cases dementia praecox is a serious, chronic condition, which leads to a progressive dementia. Yet it must nat be considered hopeless, for some sufferers seem to recover entirely and others may reach a stage of betterment which permits of some adjustment to life outside a mental hospital.

To prognosticate the future in any individual is a very difficult

problem. The paranoid form has the worst outlook. Paranoia.—Tn its true form this is uncommon, and has been tegarded as, perhaps, more a morbid unfolding of a peculia r personality than an actual disease. Exaggerated suspicion and con-

logical to a large extent, and not contradictory, though in time a normal person will recognize the weakness of their premises and the exaggerated absurdity of the inferred deductions. Apart from

the delusions the paranoiac is apparently sound in his train of

ideas, hence the old term “monomania.”

According to the form

of the delusion paranoiacs are commonly described in four types.

The persecutory is the commonest: the grandiose have delusions of self-importance and may regard themselves of royal lineage; the erotic, who believe they are beloved and desired in marriage by some unattainable individual; and the querulous, who think

themselves delusionally the victims of injustice, and who conse-

quently are appealing to law tribunals for redress of their wrongs. True paranoia is looked upon as incurable. Paranoid symptoms and paranoid states, akin in some respects to paranoia, may be met with as part of the clinical picture in many types of insanity, such as dementia praecox, general paresis, toxic insanities and manic-depressive insanity. Imbecility and Idiocy.—These are the severer forms of

feeble-mindedness which arise from some developmental defect

before birth as a result of injury, or after birth through injury or disease. The feeble-minded are defined as "persons in whose case there exists before birth, or from an early age, mental defectiveness not amounting to imbecility, yet so pronounced that they require care, supervision and control for their own protection or for the protection of others." Their mental defect is slight, and capable of much improvement by educational methods. Ultimately they may be able to take a place in the world, and under favourable circumstances be self-supporting. An imbecile can be materially improved by training, but not sufficiently to take a place in the world. The intelligence does not exceed that of a normal child of about seven years. Idiocy is a state of profound mental defectiveness, The lower grades are unteachable, while the higher may be educated slightly in such ways as attending to the calls of nature. The mental development does not exceed that of a normal child of two years. Physical deformities of various kinds are common, the minor defects being usually referred to as “the stigmata of degeneration.” The causes of their failure in development are varied. Heredity has an influence, while accidents and injuries connected with pregnancy and child-birth are common causes. Acute infection and especially syphilis involving the brain, often contribute. General diseases of the mother and her pelvic organs may, under certain conditions, bring about brain malformation. There are several well recognized types: 1. Amaurotic family idiocy occurs mainly, if not entirely, in the Jewish race. There is blindness, from atrophy of the optic nerve, and the idiocy is accompanied by paralysis of all four limbs. The child invariably dies before the age of two years. 2. Cretinism, due to an inborn deficiency in secretion from the thyroid gland. The effect of treatment with thyroid gland produces marvellous results. 3. Mongolism, so called because of the resemblance of the physical characteristics to those belonging to the Mongolian race. Certain features connected with the skull, tongue and eyes are diagnostic. 4. Hydrocephalus, commonly known as “water on the brain.” The brain is unduly pressed upon and impaired by the excessive

cet seem to be its emotional groundwork. According to Kraepelin t is characterized by “the furtive development, resulti ng mner causes, of a lasting, immovable, delusional system from that is quantity of cerebro-spinal fluid which accumulates within the *ompanied by the complete retention of clearness and

order in ventricles.

g, willing and acting.” It is because of this seeming intellectual soundness that the condition may escape recognition,

and few such cases find their way into mental hospitals. Early m lfe a paranoiac character may evince itself and the individual

tends to be quiet, reserved, self-conscious and lacking in confi-

dence, though at the same time ambitious, selfish, proud, with unsual Intelligence. There is an increasing tendency to find fault With the environment, and irritability and aggressivene ss show

themselves, Later disappointments lead to suspicion and blame

5. Microcephaly. The skull is abnormally small, being less than I7in. in circumference. 6. Sensory-deprivation Types. Here there is no structural defect of the brain, but owing to the child being deprived of two or more of the principal senses, such as sight and hearing, upon which mental development depends, a state of severe mental defect is established. Special training, however, and the utilization of other sensory organs, may have excellent results. 7. Other types are known as inflammatory (due to brain in-

388

INSANITY

[FORMS

flammation); paralytic (associated with paralysis); epileptic (as- . people temporarily insane. Under the influence of variable quan. sociated with epilepsy). (See FEEBLE-MINDEDNESS.) | tities of alcohol an individual may evince maniacal frenzy, dely.

Senile Forms of Insanity.—These may appear after 60 years ' sions and hallucinations, and may indulge in such anti-social cop. of age. Accompanying physical decay there may only be a gen- | duct that the law has to step in to restrain him. Subsequent to eral mental deterioriation or dementia, which is characterized |such attacks there is usually a complete blank in the memory of by general reduction in intellectual capacities, memory defect, | such episodes. 'The only true toxic types of alcoholic insanity involving recent events, a narrowing of interests, more or less are delirium tremens, alcoholic dementia and a peculiar form irritability, suspiciousness and restlessness, especially at night. known as Korsakow’s psychosis. Upon this background of senile dementia various insane sympDelirium Tremens. This condition of temporary insanity js toms may be ingrafted. There may be a certain amount of con- too short-lived to be seen within the walls of mental hospitals fusion, which may be very marked, and memory defects may be though abnormal states may follow which necessitate supervision associated with all sorts of fabrications (presbyophrenia). Spe- and control. It usually originates in a chronic alcoholic, after a cially depressed or agitated types may be in evidence, and a para- severe drunken bout, but may also occur in an alcoholic who y; noid condition with delusions of persecution and hallucinations the victim of acute disease or some gross injury. That sudden of hearing are at times met with. The abnormal state may be com- abstinence is provocative, as has been thought, is exceedingly plicated by physical symptoms due to senile morbid brain changes. doubtful. Most commonly, before the special symptoms manifest The course of senile dementia is progressive until death. Such themselves, there is a period of a few days in which the sufferer patients finally become completely demented in every respect. is nervous, sleepless, restless, shaky and has no appetite. The deAfter death the brain shows signs of atrophy and there are definite lirium more or less suddenly appears. The patient is quite conorganic changes in its substance, membranes and blood vessels. fused as to time and place and has the most vivid hallucinations, Toxic Insanity.—A type due to poisonous substances formed

which are predominantly visual. These characteristically take on

within the body or introduced from without. The former are known as endogenous and the latter exogenous. Many of these are

the form of small animals, such as rats, snakes and insects, but they may be of larger type in all kinds of fantastic shapes. Auditory hallucinations causing apprehension are sometimes present,

short-lived and therefore do not necessitate commitment to a mental hospital. The amount of a toxin which can be tolerated without inducing insanity is an index of the nervous and mental stability of an individual. The endogenous mainly arise from such infective conditions as influenza, pneumonia, malaria, smallpox, rheumatic or typhoid fever. Though the toxic substances differ in nature, they may result in exactly similar symptoms or, on the other hand, the same poison may excite an outbreak of different forms of insanity depending upon the special morbid potentialities of the personality attacked. Mental symptoms are mainly noted during the febrile period, and a delirious state is the commonest condition. There is first confusion, and this is followed by disorientation for time and place, with restlessness, anxiety and hallucinations of sight and hearing. Excitement may be intense and resemble mania. Speech tends to become incoherent, and drowsiness may give way later to a stuporose state. When the fever is over there is frequently a severe depression, in which suicide has to be thought of. It is at this period, too, that symptoms of manic-depressive insanity or dementia praecox may ‘ supervene in an individual so predisposed. The great majority of toxic cases completely recover but a certain number may suffer a lasting mental impairment. A similar state of insanity may be brought about, though rarely, by exhaustion, occurring from haemorrhage, starvation, or excessive physical or mental overwork. In

and all sorts of delusional experiences may be passed through. The emotion is that of great fear of meeting some awful fate and conduct is not only extremely restless, but is apt to show impulsive offence and defence. The delirium may be occupational in char-

acter, and the patient is constantly busy carrying out his usual

duties in a make-believe world. Speech is incoherent, and mostly

in touch with his hallucinatory

experiences.

Tremor is well-

marked, and is mostly noted in the small muscles of the hand, tongue and face. The condition lasts only a few days and terminates in a long sleep. Some, however, die from exhaustion. Alcoholic dementia is liable to result from the chronic toxic effect of long years of excessive alcoholic indulgence. Insidiously there is a progressive enfeeblement of the intellect, a blunting of judgment, memory, control and morality. Untruthfulness is prominent, and attitudes of jealousy and a feeling of persecution, which are common, are apt to develop into definite delusions. Finally the mental deterioration is extreme, and attended by organic disorders resulting from alcohol. In some cases both the mental and physical signs resemble those seen in general paralysis of the insane.

The third form of a true alcoholic insanity is called after the psychiatrist who first described the condition, and known as Korsakow’s psychosis. Though the commonest causative toxin some cases the factors of exhaustion and infection are causative | is alcohol, other poisons are sometimes responsible. It is comparatogether. tively rarely seen before the age of 50, and is noted more in the The commonest exogenous toxin productive of insanity is alco- female sex. It may result immediately from an attack of delirium hol. As was indicated when the general causes of insanity were tremens and has been looked upon as a chronic alcoholic delirium. being considered, the relation of alcohol to insanity has hitherto The characteristic symptom is a peculiar falsification of memory. been viewed in a much too superficial light. Alcohol, patently, There is a marked defect in the recording of the events of the can bring about acute and chronic insanity through its toxic present and past for a variable period, but long distant experiences effect, but there are several forms which the more modern psychi- are well recollected. The memory gaps are unconsciously comatrists look upon as other forms of mental disease, merely col- pensated for by being filled by all sorts of fabrications, which oured by the added factor of alcoholism, or which may be viewed are recounted in great detail and have every appearance of truth. as psychopathic reactions which alcohol has allowed to come to The converse seems clear and intelligent, though it is highly conthe surface. Though these types of so-called alcoholic insanity fused as to time and place. Hallucinations both of sight and hearwill be mentioned here, under their several headings, it will be ing are usually present. The mood is mostly happy and the patient pointed out that, strictly speaking, they should come under a has no insight into his condition. In the physical sphere there 1s different classification. Alcohol is, undoubtedly, in its effects an neuritis of many of the peripheral nerves, with perhaps some local indication of the nervous and mental stability of an individual. paralysis. Besides, various other structures of the nervous system In vino veritas is a very true maxim, for it is when the influ- may be involved. As a rule the outlook is not good, and even ence of wine is at work that the true personality is manifested. where much betterment ensues, the memory is left defective. There are two other forms of insanity which are usually cla The veneer of conscious control is removed, and those who, through head injury or disease, have already a diminution of as alcoholic in origin, but since the symptoms are not really due cerebral control, will the more easily reacy to its effects. The de- to its toxic effect, but to the fact that the alcohol has relea fect in inhibitions which are so liable to accompany the incidence morbid potentialities, they should not scientifically be brought of certain forms of insanity may easily lead to alcoholic habits, under such a heading. There are so-called alcoholic hallucinoss these then being mistaken as causative of the disorder. and alcoholic paranoia. : Ordinary drunkenness may be pathological, and render unstable In alcoholic hallucinosis the symptoms mainly in evidence ar

HOSPITAL TREATMENT]

INSANITY

auditory hallucinations of an unpleasant nature, with delusions

389

Organic Brain Diseases.—Among the organic brain diseases

of persecution, in which thesexual element tends to be predom-

in which insanity not infrequently manifests itself, arteriosclerosis

harm. The fact that be may identify those around him as his rsecutors is liable to render him dangerous and homicidal On the other hand, suicide as a refuge may be attempted, As a rule, recovery to sanity comes about, but the condition may become onic. paranoia there is a paranoid state in which halluaaah cinations, if present, are of secondary importance, the character-

brain, are productive of the morbid mental symptoms. The patient gradually shows defects in efficiency and memory, with emotional instability and irritability, The mind is apt to get confused at times and delusions of a hypochondriacal, persecutory or jealous nature may appear. The personality is often well-preserved for a prolonged period and insight is good at first, but in time there is a progressive mental deterioration and more or less complete disorganization of the mind ensues. Physically, there will likely be organic nervous signs, with perhaps local paralysis and epileptiform fits. Other organic brain diseases which may be complicated with symptoms of insanity are disseminated sclerosis, locomotor ataxy and epidemic encephalitis, Epileptic Insanity.—In a certain proportion of cases, if epilepsy begins in early life, it may lead to condition of feeblemindedness, imbecility or idiocy. In relation with epileptic seizures, or in place of them, various abnormal mental states are liable to arise in some victims, which necessitate their commitment. to a mental hospital. In these conditions there may be severe depression, excitement, state of ecstasy or confusion. Epileptic insane patients are apt to be morose, irritable, suspicious and querulous. Any chronic state of insanity will probably be paranoid in nature, with delusions and hallucinations. As a class they are dangerous. According to the report of the United States Department of Commerce, the number of insane persons in 16r of the 16 5 State and Federal hospitals for mental disease on Jan. 1, 1927 (exclusive of the State psychopathic hospitals, and the Federal hospitals operated by the Veterans! Bureau, the Public Health Service, the Army and the Navy), was 250,890, as compared with a total of 229,664 in 1923. In the country as a whole the number of mental patients under institutional care shows a steady increase.

inant. The patient hears voices accusing him of all sorts of im- is a common condition, and may be intimately connected with semoral practices, and concerning these he is gibed at and threat- nile dementia. Here the changes in the arteries and consequent inened, He is naturally anxious, depressed and apprehensive of terference with the cerebral circulation, with some softening of the

istic symptom being delusions of jealousy and marital infidelity.

These alcoholic delusions of jealousy tend to fluctuate with the amount of alcohol drunk, and commonly disappear quickly when abstinence is enforced in an institution. Very rarely the insanity becomes chronic. Other toxic agents such as opium, cocaine and

miscellaneous intoxicants may cause insanity, but are too uncommon and unimportant to need mention.

General Paralysis of the Insane (general paresis, dementia

paralytica). This type may be grouped under forms of insanity due to infection, or to those associated with organic brain disease. For simplicity’s sake it is spoken of separately. It is due essentially to syphilitic infection of the grey matter of the brain, and the syphilitic virus (treponema pallidum) can be microscopically seen there. It is characterized by a progressive and rapid mental

deterioration. Five to 15% of the admissions to mental hospitals

are of this disease, which affects males much more than females. It develops between the ages of 30 and 5o, but there is a juvenile

form which may attack the young who are the victims of con-

genital syphilis. The disorder has a long incubation period and does not show itself usually until ro or 15 years after infection.

The onset is commonly insidious, and manifests itself in a change of character. Former ideals and standards of living are replaced

by recklessness, neglect of appearance, gross indulgence, bad moral

habits, loss of sense of obligation to family and others. There is a general dulling of comprehension, deficiency of memory, judgment and self-control. There is no insight into these factors, which are often accompanied by a special sense of well-being and ideas of great wealth and power, Sometimes a convulsive attack ushers in the disease, The patient gradually deteriorates mentally and physically and there is an increasing inability to adapt to ife. Very bizarre, grandiose delusions are constantly noted but on the other hand there may be depression, with grotesquely absurd delusions consonant with this mood, In the course of time the downhill mental involvement is so profound that the patient may be said to live a purely vegetative existence, and become as helpless as a new-born babe. Atypical cases of course are often met with, Since this form of insanity is due to organic brain discase we must expect definite physical signs to be present, and it is upon these that the diagnosis must be founded, Appearing at some stage of the disease we shall note inequality of the pupils, which react to accommodation but not to light (Argyll-Robertson pupil), changes in tendon reflexes, muscular weakness, tremor, especially of the hands, tongue and face muscles, slurring of speech, and perhaps apoplectic or epileptiform seizures. The bload, when tested, will demonstrate the syphilitic infection (Wasseman reaction) and the cerebrospinal fluid, both chemically and

microscopically, will show definite changes. After death the post-mortem findings in the brain are very typical. The outlook very bad, since a fatal ending as a rule comes about in two tofve years, Curious remissions may occur in which for some tme the disease process is’ seemingly stayed or bettered for a varying period, but subsequent to which the patients rapidly go down-hill. Of late years new methods of treatment have raised hopes that a cure might he realized, but so far with only indefinite

results. The latest consists of the artificial induction of malaria,

‘2 In many cases has temporarily brought great improvement, Time will show whether these efforts, combined with anti-syph-

Uitic treatment, brings success. Other forms of insanity may be asoclated with cerebral syphilis, which are much more amenable

to treatment, and consequently have a better prognosis.

BrisriocraPHy.—Eugen Bleuter, Text-book of Psychiairy (1923); D. K. Henderson and R. D. Gillespie, A Text-book of Psychiatry (1927); E. Kretschmer, Physique and Character (1925); George W. Henry, Essentials of Psychiatry (1925); W. A. White and S. E Jeliffe, Nervous and Mental Diseases (1919); A. Meyerson, The Inheritance of Mental Diseases (1925); A. F. Tredgold, Mental Deficiency (1922); Bernard Hart, The Psychology of Insanity (1916); C. Stanford Read, The Struggles of Male Adolescence (1928); W, C. Sullivan, Crime and Insanity (1924); John F. MacCurdy, Problems in Dynamic Psychology (1923). American Journal of Insanity (18441921), superseded by the American Journal of Psychiatry o i

HOSPITAL TREATMENT OF INSANITY The era of real hospitals for the insane may be said to have begun in the rgth century, although there had been established here and there in different parts of the world certain asylums or places of restraint before this period. The prevailing idea of the pathology of insanity in Europe during the middle ages was that of demoniacal possession. The insane were not sick, but possessed of devils, and these devils were only to be exorcised by moral and spiritual agencies. Mediaeval therapeutics in insanity adapted itself to the etiology indicated. Torture and the cruellest forms of punishment were employed. The insane were regarded with abhorrence, and were frequently cast into chains and dungeons. Until as late as the middle of the 18th century, mildly insane persons were cared for at shrines, or wandered homeless about the country. Such as were deemed a menace to the community were sent to ordinary prisons or chained in dungeons. Thus large numbers of lunatics accumulated in the prisons, and slowly there grew up a sort of distinction between them and criminals, which at length resulted in a separation of the two classes. In time many of the insane were sent to cloisters and monasteries, especially after these began to be abandoned by their former occupants.

Thus

“Bedlam”

(Bethlehem

Royal

hospital)

was originally

founded in 1247 as a priory for the brethren and sisters of the

Order of the Star of Bethlehem, and was rebuilt as an asylum for the insane in 1676. Pinel, in 1792, struck the chains from the lunatics huddled in

399

INSANITY

the Salpétriere and Bicétre of Paris, and called upon the world to realize the horrible injustice done to this wretched and suffering class of humanity; but 25 years later, the insane, everywhere in

Europe, were still treated brutally, and it was not until 1838 that| in France they were all transferred from small houses of detention, workhouses and prisons, to asylums specially constructed for this

[UNITED STATES

conjoint board of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons

Opportunities for research in the pathological laboratory are

aíforded to suitable applicants by the committee.

The Maudsley hospital, being a rate-aided hospital, is primarily intended for those who have a London settlement, and the charge

purpose. No great advance in the humane and scientific care of the insane

made varies according to the means of the patient. All inmate of the hospital are voluntary and uncertified. This allays the fear of the patients that they may be made permanent inmates, and

was made till towards the middle of the 19th century. Only then

inspires them with confidence in their treatment.

did the actual metamorphosis of asylums for detention into hos-

pitals for treatment begin to take place. Hand in hand with this

Out-patients

are thereby encouraged to attend the hospital, and in this way a more favourable prognosis is secured, for mental disorders and diseases are thus observed and treated in their incipient stages, In most London general hospitals special out-patient departments exist for mental diseases, and there is an attempt being

progress there has grown, and still is growing, a tendency to subdivision and specialization of hospitals for this purpose. There are now hospitals for the acutely insane, others for the chronic insane, asylums for the criminal insane, institutions for the feeble-minded made to link up the general hospitals and mental institutions, A and idiots, and colonies for epileptics. There are public institu- few actually admit in-patients with mental illnesses of a type contions for the poor, and well-appointed private retreats and homes sidered suitable to be treated in such an environment. for the rich. All these are presided over by properly qualified BIBLiocRaPHY.—D. K. Anderson and others, “Occupational Therapy,” medical authorities, supervised by unsalaried boards of trustees Jn. Ment. Sci. lxxi. 59 (1925); J. Macarthur, Mental Hospital Manual (1921); A. M. Barrett, “The State Psychopathic Hospital,” Amer. Jn, or managers, and inspected by Government lunacy commissioners, Insanity, lxxvii. 309 (1920—21); Sir J. Crichton-Browne, “The First or boards of charities. Maudsley Lecture,” Jn. Ment. Sci, lxvi. 199 (1920); J. V. May, It may be said indeed that the modern hospital for the insane “Functions of the Psychopathic Hospital,” Amer. Jn. Insan., Ixxvi. 21 does credit to latter-day civilization. Physical restraint is no longer (1919-20); J. P. H. Murphy, "Therapeutic Use of Occupation in the (X) practised. The day of chains—even of wristlets, covered cribs and Treatment of the Insane,” Internat. Clin. (1918). The United States.—Most of the intensive work in treating strait-jackets—is past. Neat dormitories, cosy single rooms, and sitting- and dining-rooms please the eye, and improved methods insanity is naturally done in special hospitals, but more and of treatment are adopted in the way of sleep-producing and more is being done in schools and even in the pre-school period, alleviating drugs, dietetics, physical culture, hydrotherapy and in habit and child guidance clinics, in outpatient departments, in the like. There are few asylums now without pathological and mental hygiene organizations, in private practice, in general clinical laboratories. hospitals, in nursing homes and sanatoria. There is much demand Germany approaches nearest to an ideal standard of provision for a greater variety of provisions in harmony with the needs of for the insane. The highest and best idea which has yet been a great variety of patients. The theory and practice of psychiatry attained is that of small hospitals for the acutely insane in all (g.v.) to-day include all conditions in the treatment of which cities of more than 50,000 inhabitants, and of colonies for the familiarity with personality development and personality problems chronic insane in the rural districts adjacent to centres of popu- and with disorders and diseases of personality is required. lation. The best of these colonies are constructed on the principle For the treatment of mental disorders the United States show of a farming hamlet, without barracks, corridored buildings, or a wide range of unusually inadequate and many unusually modern pavilions, being similar in most respects to any agricultural com- provisions. In some regions the gaol is still an intermediary stamunity. At the same time all the inhabitants are under medical tion between home and State hospital (some State laws making supervision, and a laboratory for scientific researches forms a the sheriff and juries and the gaol the agency for first aid). In highly important part of the equipment. Such a colony is not only a few States, as in New York, the health officer has to prolooked upon indeed as a refuge for the incurable; it is rather a vide intermediate help pending admission to the State institution. hospital for the sick where treatment is carried on under the most As intermediate stations, there are creditable reception hospitals humane and most suitable conditions, and wherein the percentage in a number of cities. of recoveries will certainly be larger than in asylums and hospitals As the ideal for treatment there should be reception and treatas now conducted. ment hospitals not too far from the homes, either detached or as But that the tendency in the direction of the more humane and special divisions in general community hospitals, with country scientific treatment of the insane is a general and a growing one annexes and colonies for cases that would do better outside of is manifested in all countries by the steadily increasing abandon- Cities, and various types of colony provisions for protracted care. ment of the former huge cloister-like abodes for the detention of A most important task will always be the service in the comsuch sufferers. munity, outside of institutions—the “extra-~mural psychiatry.” During the World War the British public insisted that no soldier Unfortunately, to maintain adequate hospitals and hospital orshould be sent to an asylum unless proved to be suffering from an ganization in small as well as in large communities appears to call incurable mental disease, or until, after a probation of 12 months, for too great an expenditure for disorders which the general medithe disease was regarded as incurable; and the success of this cal profession and the public—up to but a few decades ago and method of dealing with mental disease in the army led the board in many places up to the present—have largely left to charity of control to reconsider the question of the early treatment of and moral advice and exhortation and to the “asylums” now insanity. called hospitals. The first really reasonably well supported hospitals in the Through the munificence of Dr. Henry Maudsley, the London County Council has built the Maudsley hospital for the study and United States for mental cases were a few private institutions treatment of mental diseases in the early and curable stage; and (New York hospital, Massachusetts General, Pennsylvania and here a real effort has been made to deal with insanity on modern similar hospitals) or special foundations (the Hartford Retreat, Butler hospital, Sheppard and Enoch Pratt hospital). For the rational lines. It has an out-patients’ department, and 150 beds for males and rank and file, increasingly well-conducted State institutions and females, together with a qualified staff of medical officers. The State care acts have helped to replace the makeshifts provided Maudsley hospital is a recognized school of the London Univer- by the counties and certain townships, by no means wholly sity, and a course of lectures, together with practical instruction, supplanted. Much care should be taken lest the dependence on is given to medical men who are desirous of qualifying for the private philanthropy might have a retarding effect on the educadiploma of psychological medicine. The London County Council tion of the tax-paying public. give study leave to their medical officers of asylums, and now Psychiatric institutes, clinics and training schools, research require officers who apply for senior appointments to possess a centres and especially the National Committee for Mental Hyuniversity diploma of psychological medicine or a diploma of the giene, are doing valiant work for progress. Better training of the

INSANITY

IN LAW

391

average physician, education of the public by child guidance clin- even during a lucid interval. He may, however, make a valid will ics and community service and examples of organization of local during a lucid interval, and even at other times his will is valid

and State work are marking the present trend in many States and in Canada.

mE

(AD. M.)

See H. M. Hurd, ed. Instttutzonal Care of the Insane in the United Stetes and Canada (4 vol., 1916-17); H. M. Pollock and E. M.

Furbush, Comparative Statistics of State Hospitals for mental diseases

22); J. A. Goldberg, Social Aspects of the Treatment of the Insane E. 1) J. V. May, Mental Diseases, a public health problem (1922),

7 reports of the various State departments which have the State

institutions under their care.

INSANITY IN LAW. It would be difficult to find a more satisfactory term for unsoundness of mind than the old phrase hallowed by usage non compos mentis and it is interesting to note in the legislation of Saskatchewan the phrases mentally incompe-

ieni person and mentally incompetent for lunatic and insane (No. 6s of 1921). Serving a less useful purpose perhaps are various euphemisms whereby lunacy, insanity, lunatic and lunatic asylum

are called mental disorder or defect, patient and mental hospital respectively (South Africa, no. 38 of 1916). It is to be noted that even countries under the civil law (Z.e., countries whose law is rather code law than case law) shrink from definitions of insanity and prefer as we have done to judge of the alleged unsound-

ness of mind with regard to the circumstances of any particular

case. One distinction, however, is practically universal, viZ., between idzot and lunatic; idiocy is considered to be natural and lmacy acquired. The Idiots Act of 1886 has, however, been re-

pealed by the Mental Deficiency Acts of 1913 and 1927 and certain definitions attempted. The latter acts introduce the new terms menial defective and defective. For all legal purposes these can be dealt with under the act of 1890 as persons of unsound mind. The Mental Deficiency Acts provide for the segregation of per-

sons if defective, with a separate code for their benefit. MENTAL DEFICIENCY.) .

(See

When a man becomes unable to manage himself or his affairs, society, to protect herself and the lunatic, changes his status by taking the management of his. person or of his property, or of both, out of his hands. But, since rights and. obligations are co-relative, the civil incapacity resulting from the changed status carries with it a certain freedom from responsibility which forms the subject matter of the substantive law of lunacy. Of these the most dramatic is the criminal irresponsibility of the insane. Other

examples of irresponsibility are the avoiding of certain contracts, including, under certain circumstances, marriage and the. setting aside of wills. ; S e No person of unsound mind can, in Great Britain, be. detained, hor can the management of his property pass into the hands of another, except. by due process of law, and we: shall consider how

this is done.and what safeguards besides. the writ-of habeas corpus (g.v.) there are against improper detention. The adjective law of insanity is codified in the Lunacy Acts, 1890-1922. In the middle ages the wardship of idiots and lunatics was in the king, who. under the Statute De Prerogativa Regis enjoyed an idiot's property, subject to the obligation to provide him with necessaries, but was a strict trustee for a lunatic. Idiots and lunatics were so found on inquisitions under the writs De Idiota Inquirendo and De Lunatico I nquirendo; but as juries

avoided finding a verdict of idiocy the former writ fell into desue-

tude. The latter, however, exists to this day and is described in

part 3 of the Lunacy Act of 1890. Certain important legal disünctions exist between the status of a “lunatic so found” (4.¢., under the inquisition) and a “lunatic not so found”; the latter lem meaning a person whose unsoundness of mind has been legally established by another procedure than inquisition as, e.g., certification. On an inquisition the issue is whether the person is of unsound

mnd so as to be incapable of managing himself or his affairs.

(1)A lunatic so found is looked after by a committee.

mittee of the person and the committee of the propertyThe comare not necessarily one and. the same person (L.A. 1890, pt. 4). In some Cases a lunatic so found is allowed his liberty but not the management of his property (L.A. 1890, s. 98 [2]). The contracts entered

nto by a lunatic so found are void ab initio as also ismarriage

if it appears that he was of a “disposing mind." (2) The person and property of lunatics not so found are governed by other rules. The property of the average lunatic is so soon swallowed up in the arrangements for his care that it is not his property that

interests the State, but the absence of it. (See Poor Law.)

A

lunatic may be detained in any one of seven ways: (1) On an

urgency order signed byarelative or other interested person and accompanied by one medical certificate. The judicial authority does not intervene in this order, which lasts only seven days. (2) On a petition by relatives; two medical certificates (L.A.

1890, s. 4); the usual procedure. (3) On the information of a constable, etc., that a lunatic, not a pauper, is not under proper care and control or is cruelly treated or neglected by any relative, etc.; two medical certificates (s. 13). (4) On the information of a constable, etc., that any person, whether pauper or not, is “wandering at large” and deemed to be a lunatic; one medical certificate. (5) Under s. 23 two commissioners in lunacy may, with one medical certificate, send a pauper lunatic or alleged Junatic to an asylum. (6) On the information of a parish officer, with one medical certificate, pauper lunatics may be dealt with (s. 14). Methods 2 and 3 require the intervention of the judicial authority defined in ss. g and ro. The judicial authority may act in

cases 4 and 6, but a justice of the peace will suffice.

(7) The

committee of the person or a master in lunacy may, of course, without medical certificates, sign a reception order after a lunatic has been formally so found and a committee of the person may sign in case r. Elaborate safeguards against improper detention are provided by the Lunacy Act, 1890. The powers and duties of the commissioners in lunacy are transferred by the Mental Deficiency Act, 1913, to a board of control (s. 65,1). Two or more commissioners, one of whom must be a doctor and one a barrister, must visit every asylum at least once a year (s. 187). In addition, two members at least of the visiting committee appointed by the local authority (s. 188) must inspect every two months every part of an asylum and see every patient therein, so that they may have an opportunity of making complaints. There are also provisions for visiting hospitals, licensed houses and single patients (ss. 191200). Lunatics so found are visited by “chancery visitors” (ss. 163-68). . The Royal Commission on Lunacy, 1926, was unable to find (p. 39) that any of the alleged cases of improper detention could be supported on the evidence. This royal commission was appointed in 1924 to enquire, as regards England and Wales, into the law and procedure relating to the certification, detention and care of persons of unsound mind; and to consider what provision should be made-for the treatment of such persons without certification. As a result of this, the Mental Treatment Act of 1930 was passed which makes certain amendments of the Lunacy Act 1890 for the reception of “voluntary patients” into mental institutions (ss. 1-4) and for the “temporary treatment without certification” of patients “incapable of expressing themselves as willing or unwilling to receive treatment” (s. 5). Before this Act, such cases could not be received without the intervention of the judicial authority; now two medical certificates suffice for the latter class, one preferably from the patient’s usual medical attendant and the other from a practitioner approved by the Board of Control. The two doctors may see the patient together (contrast the procedure for full certification, L.A.1890 s. 29, 2). As to the former class, a patient under 16 can be received only on the application of his parent or guardian plus a medical certificate; over 16, the patient’s own application suffices. S. 330 of the principal Act, purporting to protect those giving certificates under the Act by a stay of action if the High Court or a Judge thereof is satisfied that there is no reason for alleging want of good faith or reasonable care, is amended by providing, inter alia, (s. 16 [2]), that no such action shall be brought unless the High Court is satisfied that there is substantial] ground for the contention that the person against whom it is sought to bring the

proceedings has acted in bad faith or without reasonable care.

INSANITY

394

By s. 20 of the Act of 1930, the use of the words asylum, pauper and lunatic is discontinued; asylum becomes hospital; pauper becomes rate-aided patient or person; while lunatic becomes patient or person of unsound mind or simply person or patient. ‘The term criminal lunatic is retained. In actions at common law the issue is: Was the alleged lunatic at the date in question capable of understanding the nature of the act he was performing. The contract of a lunatic not so found is voidable but not void ab initio (contrast case of a lunatic so found) and it must be shown that the other was aware of the lunatic’s condition. A lunatic not so found may therefore make a valid contract in a lucid interval, nor need he have fully recovered (ex parte Hoyland [1805] 11 Ves. 10). Marriage (g.v.) is more than a contract involving, as it does, a change of status. By the Marriage of Lunatics Act, 1811, the “marriage” of a lunatic so found, even during a lucid interval, is void. The marriage of a lunatic not so found is voidable if insanity of a pronounced type can be shown to have existed at the time of the ceremony. In probate actions (actions on wills) the issue is: was the testator of a sound and disposing mind. In particular he must be able to recall the several persons who may be fitting objects of his bounty and understand the relation of the various beneficiaries to himself and their respective claims upon his bounty. A medical man who attests a will ¿bso facto certifies that, in his opinion, the testator is of a sound disposing mind as regards that particular will. In the criminal law the question for the jury, if insanity is pleaded, is: Was the person at the time of committing the act labouring from such a defect of reason, from disease of the mind, as not to know the quality of the act he was doing; or, if he did know it, did he know that what he was doing was wrong. This issue is a summary of the famous McNaughten rules. In 1843 one McNaughten, under the delusion that he was being persecuted by Sir Robert Peel, killed that statesman’s secretary. Insanity was pleaded on the ground that the delusion deprived the prisoner of any control over acts connected with the delusion, and the prisoner was found not guilty on the ground of insanity. The case gave rise to a good deal of discussion and led to the unusual step of putting a hypothetical case to the law lords; unusual, because in English law judges give judgment after hearing the argument in an actual case. The answers of the judges on this occasion are called the McNaughten rules. Not having been decided in an actual trial, they are technically not authority, but in practice their authority is great. Writing in The Law Relating io Lunacy, Theobald says (1924 at p. 242). “The more recent charges given by the judges in trials for murder shows that, though the rules in McNaughten’s case are relied on, yet being abstract and general in their terms the judges are careful to adapt and apply them to the circumstances of each case."

In July 1922 the then lord chancellor (Lord Birkenhead) appointed a committee to consider what changes, if any, were desirable in the existing law practice and procedure relating to criminal trials in which the plea of insanity as a defence is raised, and whether any, and if so what, changes shall be made in the existing law and practice in respect of cases falling within the provisions of s. 2(4) of the Criminal Lunatics Act, 1884. The committee’s recommendation (xz. rir. 1923), among others, that a modified recognition should be given to the doctrine of irre-

sistible impulse was referred to r2 high court judges in 1924; ten advised against it. Insanity is seldom pleaded except in murder trials, but it must be remembered (as pointed out by Lord Birkenhead, Times, 26. V. 1924) that any alteration in the law will be far-reaching and affect all crimes. All that we are entitled to say about an irresistible impulse is that in fact it has not been resisted. (F. T. G.) BrsniocRaPHY.—See N. A. Heywood and A. S. Massey, Lunacy Practice (1st ed., 1900, 5th ed., 1920) ; C. A. Mercier, A Text-book of Insanity (1902; 2nd ed. rewritten, 1914); H. S. Theobald, The Lew relating to Lunacy (1924).

United

States.—In

America

the law does not follow either

IN LAW medicine or metaphysics in its conception or definition of jp. | sanity. The whole American system of criminal law Postulates |moral responsibility, and persistently refuses to accept any other

standard. Hence, the law will not entangle itself in the ancient controversy between metaphysicians

as to the freedom of the

| will. For the purpose of accountability for crime, it holds that ! the deliberate acts of sound minds involve discrimination and are not necessitated. So, likewise, it holds that such accountability is | not nullifed by mere mental or psychiatric derangement, how. ever extreme in itself. Hence, while medical knowledge may be necessary rightly to apply the law's definition of insanity, the

prevailing legal definition has an ethical and not a medical or psychological content. This prevailing definition, though variously worded by different courts and legislatures, is, in essence, that given in Sect. 1,120 of the Penal Law of the State of New York, to wit that:— A person is not excused from criminal liability as an idiot, imbecile lunatic, or insane

person,

except upon

proof that, at the time oí

committing the alleged criminal act, he was laboring under such à defect of reason as not to know the nature and quality of the act he was doing, or not to know. that the act was wrong.

This statutory definition is taken, almost verbatim, from the answer of the 15 judges of England to the questions propounded to them by the House of Lords in 1843 in M’Naughten’s case (10 Cl. and F. 200). It draws no distinction, in point of criminal responsibility, between insanity or idiocy or imbecility; and it measures such responsibility by the depravation of understanding as to the particular act rather than in general. Under this defi nition, knowledge of the nature and quality of the act has reference to its physical nature and quality, and knowledge that

the act is wrong refers to its moral, rather than its legal side, although knowledge of its illegality may imply knowledge of its immorality, since obedience to the law is a moral duty. Hence, where an insane delusion produces a conflict between moral

duty and a known man-made law, the defence of insanity is still available. (People v. Schmidt, 216 N. Y. 324, 338.) Implicit in this definition of legal insanity, is the subsidiary principle declared by many American courts that a sufferer from insane delusions must be judged as to his knowledge of the nature, quality and morality of his act by the supposed facts presented by the delusion. In a few States the legal definition of insanity has been so enlarged as to include irresistible impulse. This test assumes that. even though there may be full realization of the nature, quality and immorality of the act, nevertheless, through mental or psychic disease the defendant may have lost all power to refrain, and hence can be held to no legal responsibility. But this additional definition is rejected in most States as involving the law too deeply in metaphysics and as not affording a safe basis of legal adjudication. Hence, capacity to distinguish between right and wrong, without power of choosing between them, is not recognized. except in the law of a very few States. According to the great weight of authority, where the accused relies on insanity, he has the burden of proof upon that issue. A person while insane cannot be required to plead or to undergo trial or sentence. The manner of determining insanity at the time of the offence or at the time of trial or sentence is usually regulated by statutes which differ widely as between the various States. Throughout the United States there is a growing tendency to

test the issue of insanity in advance of trial and by more scientific means than a battle of hired experts. There is also a growing

appreciation of the fact that habitual criminality may in itself

be a symptom of mental derangement.

Both these new trends

of thought manifested themselves in a statute (ch. 415) passed

by the State of Massachusetts in 1921 which provided that an indicted person, accused of or known to have been previously convicted of a felony or previously indicted more than once, sha

be examined by the State department of mental diseases as to any mental condition or defect which would affect his criminal responsibility. The official report is accessible to the court a to both sides, and is admissible as evidence, although not com clusive. If the prisoner is found insane he is committed immediately to a State hospital. This law has almost completely

INSCRIPTIONS

FORM]

393

eliminated in Massachusetts the trial of a plea of insanity and | flat tablets of this were often made for affixing to the walls of the familiar duel of hired experts. Under it, accused persons temples and other buildings. Occasionally such tablets were made

mentally irresponsible are speedily placed in hospitals and treated medically rather than punitively.

In civil matters, the law is relieved of the question of guilty responsibility, and hence adopts various definitions of insanity, nding upon the nature of the acts involved. A person medically insane may, nevertheless, legally make a contract, or

appoint an agent, or convey property, if he is able to comprehend, ina reasonable manner, the nature and effect of his act. He may

of silver or gold; and inscriptions were often incised on vessels made of any of these metals. Inscriptions on metal were nearly always incised, not cast. An important class of inscriptions are the legends on coins; these were struck from the die. (See Num{isMATICS.) Clay was very extensively used for inscriptions in Mesopotamia and in Crete. In this case the symbols were incised or impressed on specially prepared tablets when the clay was soft, and it was subsequently hardened by fire. In Greece, many inscriptions on vases were painted before firing, in that case often having reference to the scenes represented, or incised after firing; potsherds (osiraka) were often used as a cheap writing material. Inscriptions were also often impressed from a mould upon wet

make a Will if he has sufficient mind and memory reasonably to understand the nature of the business in which he is engaged, to comprehend the character and extent of his estate, and to recollect the natural objects of his bounty. An insane person is liable for his tortious acts or negligence, except where actual intent is clay before firing, in the case of tiles, amphora handles, etc., and an essential element of the wrong, as, for example, in the case in these cases often supply valuable information as to the buildof such defamation as is actionable only when uttered with ings to which they belong or the place from which they took their conscious malice. (C. H. Tur.) origin. Set. A. M. Hamilton, A System of Legal Medicine (2nd ed., 2 vol., The zools used for making inscriptions varied with the material; 1900); S. S. Glueck, Mental Disorder and the Criminal Law (with most of them were some kind of chisel, usually with a square ndix of state legislation and interpretative decisions, 1925); J. Koren, Summaries of Laws Relating to the Commitment and Care of blade; early inscriptions were sometimes made on hard rock by successive blows with a punch or pointed hammer. Sometimes a the Insane in the United States (1912). INSCRIPTIONS, documents incised on some hard or per- circular punch was used for O or a letter of which O formed a

manent material in the form of letters or other conventional

signs, for the purpose of conveying some information or preserving arecord. They are, therefore, to be distinguished on the one hand

from manuscripts, or documents written on papyrus, parchment, paper or other more or less smooth surfaces, by means of a brush, reed or pen and some coloured fluid (see PaAraEocmAPHY and PapyroLocy); and on the other hand from pictures or reliefs intended to convey information or to record events

(see Picro-

craPHY), though inscriptions were often combined with such pictures or reliefs, especially in primitive times. There are also some classes of documents which are intermediate between inscriptions and manuscripts, such as writing incised with a stylus or sharp

pointed instrument upon tablets covered with a thin coating of wax, or scratched upon pottery or other hard materials (ostraka). But as the forms of the letters and the character of the writing in both these cases approximate to what is found in manuscripts, they are usually considered to belong to that class of document; but grafiti, or casual scratching on walls, rocks or fragments of pottery, are sometimes included in the study of inscriptions, because they often fill gaps in our knowledge, and, in early times at last, do not differ in form or character from ordinary inscriptions. A good example is offered by the names and other records scratched by Greek mercenaries at the time of Psammetichus on the legs of the colossal statues at Abu Simbel in Egypt. As one of the earliest examples of the use of the Greek alphabet, these find their place in the history of inscriptions. Where, on the other hand, we find casual notes, as well as receipts, accounts, etc.,

scratched upon potsherds or ostraka, we realize that these are merely a cheap substitute for more expensive material such as papyrus, and that the study of such ostraka cannot be separated from that of manuscripts on papyrus, and really forms a branch of palaeography rather than of epigraphy. A. FORM

1. Materials and Technique.—Materials.

Inscriptions were

commonly incised on stone or marble, on metal, or on wood (though this last material has hardly ever survived, except in

Egypt), or on terra-cotta.

In Egypt and Mesopotamia hard

stones were frequently used for the purpose, and the inscriptions are therefore well preserved and easy to read. In Greece the favounte material, especially in Athens, was white marble, which takes an admirably clear lettering, but is liable to weathering of the surface if exposed, and to wear if rebuilt into pavements or sim-

ilar structures, Many other kinds of stone, both hard and soft, were often used, especially crystalline limestones, which do not easily take a smooth surface, and which, therefore, are often difuh R decipher, owing to accidental marks or roughness of the erial.

The metal most commonly used for inscriptions was bronze;

part.

Styles of Cutting. Early inscriptions, which are often amateur work, are frequently very irregular in their cutting. But in almost all examples of later work, the inscriptions are evidently cut by professionals, and there are definite styles and methods belonging to various places and periods. In Egypt, for instance, the hieroglyphs (g.v.) are carefully and delicately cut in early times, and in later periods become more careless and conventional. In Greece, the best work was done in the sth and ath centuries B.c. in Athens; the letters were all exact and regular in shape, with no adventitious ornaments, and were, especially in the sth century, usually exactly aligned with the letters above and below, as well as those on each side. The result is a beauty and simplicity of effect that has never been surpassed. At that time all the strokes were made of equal thickness, but in the 4th century s.c. and later there came in the custom of holding the chisel obliquely to the surface, thus producing a wedge-shaped stroke. A similar custom in Mesopotamia gave rise to the so-called cuneiform system (q.v.). On metal inscriptions in Greece this same effect appears earlier than on stone or marble. In the 3rd century and later it becomes common to introduce apices or ornamental ends to the strokes, a custom which prevails to the present day in our ordinary capital letters. The custom of making different strokes and different parts of curves of varying thickness became common in Roman inscriptions, which developed a monumental style of their own, varying from period to period. Inscriptions can often be approximately dated by the style of the cutting as well as by the shapes of the letters; skill in doing this can only be acquired by a careful and minute study of originals and facsimiles. Inscriptions vary greatly in size according to the position where they were intended to be read, their purpose, and the skill of the cutter. Some inscriptions are of great length, the longest, a statement of accounts of the temple at Delos, under Athenian administration, being nearly half as long as a book of Thucydides; and many other inscriptions approach this in length. 2. Symbols and Forms of Writing.—The origin of writing and the evolution of the alphabet are discussed in the special articles upon those subjects. For the present purpose it is sufficient to note that most of the forms of writing known to us originated in some system of picture-writing, which developed into a hieroglyphic system. Such systems appear to have originated independently in different parts of the world—in Egypt, Mesopotamia, Crete, among the Hittites and in China and America. The evidence for all of these is mainly to be found in inscriptions. The development from Ideographs (or direct representation of an object or idea) to symbols of phonetic value, and so to syllabaries or alphabets, took place in many different systems to various degrees. But the first people to invent a completely alphabetic system of writing were the Phoenicians, from whom the Greeks bor-

394

INSCRIPTIONS

|

[FORM

rowed it with certain modifications and improvements. From the indeterminate, or in a wandering or curved line, or left to right Greek was derived the Latin, and from the two all the alphabets and right to left alternately (boustrophedon, or as an ox jp of European peoples. It is still a matter of dispute whether the | ploughing) Most Semitic alphabets, including Phoenician Phoenician was derived from the Egyptian. from right to left; and the earliest Greek inscriptions follow e The hieroglyphic symbols naturally tended to be conventional- same direction. But the direction from left to right became ized and simplified for convenience of cutting, in accordance with regular in Greece after the 6th century B.c., and consequently js the materials and tools employed. In many cases they developed adopted by the Romans and in all European systems. The indi. from a pictorial to a linear form. It is possible that some of these vidual letters or symbols usually face in the same direction as linear forms may not be derived from hieroglyphs, but from the writing, as a whole. 3. The Position or Place of inscriptions depends greatly purely conventional geometrical forms, such as were widely used at all periods and places as owners’ or masons’ marks. The tend- upon their purpose or intention. When they have a direct relation ency of linear forms to become wedge-shaped is most conspicu- to the sculptures, reliefs or paintings with which they are associous in cuneiform, but as has been noticed, the same tendency oc- ated, they often form a kind of pattern to fill the background or curs in Greek inscriptions of the 3rd and 2nd centuries B.C. and vacant spaces between the figures; but sometimes, especially in earlier in inscriptions incised on bronze. Mesopotamian statues or reliefs, they are cut right across the In the north of Europe the Ogham (g.v.) inscriptions are al- figures without any regard to the artistic effect. In late Greek or phabetic, and are apparently an independent invention on arbi- Roman work it is usual to cut any inscription relative to a statue trary lines, like the Morse code; but Runes, which were exten- or relief upon the basis on which this is mounted; but short insively used in the same region, are derived from the Greek or the scriptions such as dedications or artists’ signatures are often Latin alphabets. placed in some inconspicuous position upon the work itself. In In most alphabetic systems there are also found in inscriptions the case of painted vases, the inscriptions relative to the subject certain symbols which are not strictly alphabetic or phonetic in represented are usually painted; but dedications and other incharacter. The commonest of these are the various systems of scriptions are often incised after the vase has been fired. numerals that are used in different times and places. It is imIn Egypt, inscriptions were often inscribed or painted upon possible here to give any full description of these different sys- the inner walls of tombs, whether they referred to religious belief tems; but a brief account may be given of the principles under- or ritual, or to the honours and possessions of the deceased; they lying them. Most of them are based upon a decimal system, were intended for his benefit and convenience rather than for the doubtless owing to the habit of counting on the fingers. In some information of others, so as to perpetuate his familiar surroundcases the symbols are simple and obvious, as in the Cretan script, ings, not to make him live in the memory of his successors. The where circles (or rhombi), dots and lines are used for hundreds, information which we derive from such inscriptions is invaluable tens and units, each being repeated as often as necessary; and a to us; but such was not the intention with which they were made. similar system for the lower denominations is used at Epidaurus On the other hand, inscriptions which were intended to be seen in the 4th century B.c. In Athens the usual system was to indicate by the public and to perpetuate a record of events, or to supply each denomination by its initial, M for Mópio (10,000), X for useful information, were usually placed in places of common XiXot (1,000), H. for Hexardv (100), A for 8&xa (10) 7 for mevre resort, above all in temples and sacred precincts. Sometimes they (5) and I for units. The other Greek system followed that were cut on convenient rock faces, sometimes upon the walls of derived from the Phoenícians, using the letters of the alphabet in temples or other buildings. Most frequently the slabs of marble their conventional order from one to nine, 1o to 9o and roo to (stelae), stone, metal or other material upon which the inscrip900; in this arrangement obsolete letters were retained in their tions were incised were set up in convenient positions to be read, original places so as to give the requisite number of 27 symbols. in any places of public resort. This was the method of publication The Roman system of numerals—M, D, C, L, X, V, I (for 1,ooo, of all laws, decrees and official notices, of treaties and contracts, 500, IOO, 50, IO, 5 and r) is generally supposed to have arisen of honours to officials or private citizens, of religious dedications from the adaptation of those symbols in the Greek alphabet and prescriptions of ritual. Inscribed tombstones were set up which the Romans did not want; an alternative theory is that it over graves, which were usually placed along the chief roads is simplified from a series of ideographs representing the spread leading out of a town, the most familiar example being the sacred hand, the fingers and so on. way from Athens to Eleusis. Inscriptions commemorative of vicApart from numerals, the use of initials in the place of com- tories or other great events were only in exceptional cases erected plete words was not common in early times. It became, however, upon the spot; more often such memorials were set up in some very frequent in Roman inscriptions, which sometimes are made great religious centre such as Delphi or Olympia. But boundary up almost entirely of such abbreviations and can only be under- stones were necessarily placed on the line which they defined. Chief Periods and Nationalities.—The study of inscripstood by those familiar with the formulae. A list of the commonest of these will be found under ABBREVIATION. Compendia tions supplies an important contribution to the history of many or monograms also occur in later Greek and Roman times, and lands and peoples. In some.cases, as in Egypt and Mesopotamia, become very common and very difficult to interpret in early it forms almost the only source of information in the absence of literary records; in others, as in Greece and Rome, it offers a Christian and Byzantine inscriptions. Some kind of punctuation is often found in inscriptions of all most valuable supplement and comment to what is otherwise rekinds. In Greek inscriptions a vertical line or a dot, or dots, corded. sometimes indicates the separation between sentences or words, Both Egyptian and Mesopotamian inscriptions go back to an but words are seldom separated by spaces as in modem printing, extremely early date; it is at present uncertain which is the earlier, so that the text is continuous and no division of words exists. but both show, before 3500 B.C. and possibly much earlier, a comThis is particularly the case with Greek inscriptions of the best plete, organized system of writing which implies many centuries period. In Roman inscriptions it was usual to separate the words of development behind it. The Egyptian hieroglyphic system, as by dots. In certain inscriptions a cross (-]-) was used to indicate used in inscriptions, continued without any essential change of the beginning of an inscription, especially when its direction was character until Roman times, though various systems of hieratic erratic. Christian inscriptions sometimes begin with a cross, modification were used at different times. On the famous Rosetta which doubtless had a symbolic meaning; and a leaf or other stone, in the British Museum, which first gave the clue to the device was often placed at the end. interpretation of Egyptian writing, hieroglyphic, hieratic and "The direction of the writing varies greatly in different places Greek versions of the same decree are given side by side. Its and: times. The letters or symbols may be arranged vertically date is 195 B.c. The Mesopotamian linear symbols developed below. one another, and read from top to bottom, or horizontally, mainly for technical reasons, into a wedge-shaped or cuneiform either fron right to left or left to right; they may also be ar- system, which was adopted in modified forms and applied to difranged im.à4 kind of pattern—in which case their order may be| ferent languages through some thousands of years, Sumerian, i

i

INSCRIPTIONS

CONTENT]

Babylonian, Assyrian and Persian, until it was superseded, after

395

hiero-

on which it was inscribed, or at any rate had a direct relation to that object—for example, the name of the owner or the record of

existed in Crete during the Middle and Late Minoan periods,

dedication to a god—and those in which the inscription existed independently for its own sake, or for the sake of the information

the conquests of Alexander, by Greek.

An independent

gyphic system, which also developed into various linear scripts, from about 3000, probably, to the fall of Cnossus, about 1560 s.c.

The Hittite hieroglyphs correspond to the period of the Hittite empire in North Syria and Asia Minor from about 2000 to 800

3c.; from it, according to one theory, arose the Cypriote syllabary,

ghich continued in use until the 4th century B.c. or later. The earliest Phoenician inscriptions known date from about the roth century B.C., and the alphabet remained in use down to the 3rd century B.C. It was modified and adopted by the

which it recorded, and the object on which it was inscribed was either made for the purpose, as a slab of marble or plate of bronze, or was made use of, as in the case of a convenient wall or the surface of a rock, or even a potsherd. The walls of buildings are often covered with such inscriptions, especially if they are in a conspicuous or convenient position, and so offer an

obvious means of publicity. For us, accustomed as we are to a vast mass of books, newsCreeks at an uncertain date; the earliest Greek inscriptions are papers and other printed documents, it is difficult to realize the generally dated in the 7th century B.c. extensive use and great convenience assigned to inscriptions in In early times each Greek State had its own alphabet; but in ancient times. Not only were public announcements of all sorts, the year 403 B.C. (the archonship of Eucleides) the Ionian alpha- such as we should make known by advertisements or posters, het, which is the one used now for Greek capital letters, was thus placed before the public, but all kinds of records and enactoficially adopted by Athens, and soon became universal in ments—codes of law and political decrees; regulations for all Greece. From the various Greek alphabets the different local matters, civil and religious; accounts and contracts, public and Italian alphabets, including the Etruscan, were derived with private; treaties between states; records of public and private various modifications. The Roman alphabet was among these, benefactions and dedications, and all matters of administration; being based on the alphabet of Caere, a Chalcidian colony. There honours to the living and to the memory of the dead. Many of are a few very early Roman inscriptions; but they do not become these were intended to preserve for all time the records which common until the 3rd century B.c.; from that time the letters they contained; but others must have been of only temporary took much the same forms as they preserve to the present day. interest. It seems, therefore, the more remarkable that they The custom of putting inscriptions in Greek and in Latin on should have been incised on permanent material such as bronze, buildings and other monuments continued through mediaeval marble or stone—and incised in the first instance, with a care times, and is still customary, classical forms being frequently and perfection of technique which have led to their survival to imitated. The latest dated inscription in the Greek Corpus records the present day, so as to preserve for us invaluable evidence as the building of a bridge in Sicily in A.D. 1121. The series of to the life and institutions of the people who made them. TemByzantine inscriptions continues practically without interruption porary and permanent value are thus often combined in the same to the present day; and Latin retains its use as a universal lan- inscription. For instance, an Athenian citizen, visiting the Acroguage in religious, public and private inscriptions. polis or the Market Place, could satisfy himself at first hand as Methods of Dating.—It is often possible to date an in- to treaties or decrees of the people, public accounts or state &ription approximately by the style of the lettering, or even by income and expenditure. And at the same time these documents the alphabet used. Thus at Athens the Ionic alphabet was adopted preserved for all time much history, both social and political. inplace of the early Attic alphabet in the archonship of Eucleides, Relative Inscriptions.—Inscriptions having a direct relation 403 B.C., according to a decree proposed by Archinus. But the to the object, or representation, on which they are inscribed, vary change was already in process in private inscriptions, and even greatly in their contents. Those relating to picture or relief in oficial documents Ionic forms are sometimes found earlier. chronicles of the victories or exploits of kings, as in Egypt and Inscriptions are dated in various ways, mostly by giving the Mesopotamia, serve as a record of the events, and help to intermame of a king, magistrate or priest. In the case of kings, they pret the scenes. Such inscriptions are not common in Greek or only give an approximate date, unless the year of his reign is Roman work; but frequently, especially in early Greek times, given also. But in the case of most independent cities, the date and on vases, the names of persons and even of objects are written isgiven by the name of an annual magistrate, and thus the year beside them for the purpose of identification, and sometimes a precisely indicated. At Athens, the name used was that of the speech issues from the mouth of a figure. On the carved wooden Eponymous Archon, and as an almost complete list of these has chest of Cypselus, of about 600 s.c. hexameter verses were been drawn up from inscriptions and other sources, this means written, curving about among the figures, and giving a description ofdating is quite satisfactory. The custom of dating by Olym- of each scene. The bases of statues and reliefs often had inscrippads, which is familiar to us from later Greek and Roman tions cut upon them for identification and record. This was parWiters, was rarely used in early Greece, except in connection ticularly the case with honorary statues and tombstones. In other with athletic victories. Many inscriptions are dated from various cases, where there is an evident relation between the artistic relocaleras, often based upon historical events, such as the founda- presentation and the inscription, the figures are subordinate and üon of a town or festival, the organization of a province, or seem merely to illustrate the text, as when a treaty between even the visit of an emperor. The number of these eras in later Athens and Samos has a relief at its head representing the godmes, especially in Asia Minor, becomes very bewildering. In desses Athena and Hera clasping hands, as representatives of ttc décrees, and some others, it was also usual to give the day their respective cities. In other cases, the arms or device of a of the month. city is carved on an inscription, almost like a seal on a document. In Greek inscriptions of the Roman period the year of the In all these cases the figures and the inscription are part of a anperor is defined by the number of hbis consulate, or other indi- common design, whether carried out by the same hand or not. Güons or titles, as in the corresponding Latin inscriptions. In But in the case of owners! marks or names cut on vases or other ler times, the dating is commonly by “Indiction”; but as this objects, or of the dedication of such objects, the inscription is aly gives the number of the year within the 15-year period, but not necessarily contemporary; it may indeed be misleading, as ves that period undefined, such dating is very inconvenient in the case, mentioned with disapproval by Cicero, of using again xcept for merely temporary use. In the Eastern empire the date old Greek statues and placing new dedicatory inscriptions on them

m the creation of the world (5509 B.C.) is sometimes given; the date of the Christian era is hardly ever used. B. CONTENT

Purpose of Inscriptions.—Inscriptions, ‘as above defined,

Ray beroughly divided into two main classes: those in which the

"scription was subservient to'the use or purpose of the object

in Roman times; for instance, one of the statues of Athenian knights of the sth century s.c. placed at the entrance of the

Acropolis, had a later inscription cut on its base to make it serve as an equestrian statue of Germanicus, probably in 18 A.D. when he visited Athens. In Egypt and Mesopotamia also it is not unusual to find the name of a later king or official cut upon an earlier work.

INSCRIPTIONS

396

Independent Inscriptions—The majority of inscriptions are of independent value and interest, the object on which they are cut being either provided for the purpose or utilized as convenient and suitable. Such inscriptions may be classified as (a) Religious and (b) Political and Social. The distinction between the two is not always easy to draw; for in almost all ancient civilizations religion was a part of the established service of the State, and was under public control, or at least was closely bound up with political administration. It follows that many inscriptions relating to religious matters take the form of political decrees or state documents, and therefore might, especially as far as form is concerned, be included in either category; but it is usually possible to classify them according to their contents and intention. GREEK

INSCRIPTIONS

(a) Religious.—:. Temples, Their Foundation and Adminis-

[GREEK

the treasurers and administrators, who were usually lay officials appointed for the purpose, either by election or by lot. The duties and privileges of priests are recorded in many inscriptions

and vary considerably from place to place. It is recorded, for

instance, what portions of a victim at any sacrifice were to be received by the priest. In any important temple this must evidently have been far more than the priest or his family could consume, and accordingly it must have been sold, and so con-

stituted a considerable source of income. Consequently a priest. hood was an office well paid and much sought after: and we

actually find in later Greek times, especially in Asia Minor, that priesthoods were frequently sold, under proper guarantees and with due sureties as to the duties being carried out. Sometimes a fee to the priest had to be paid in cash; in some cases a priest or priestess was allowed to take up a collection on certain days. On the other hand, the duties of a priest are often recorded; he

tration.—A temple was often a kind of religious corporation under had to see to the cleaning and care of the temple and its conthe control of the State; and its accounts and details of adminis- tents, to provide flowers and garlands for decorations and to tration were made public at frequent intervals, usually annually, supply the regular daily service. Sacrifices on great occasions by means of inscriptions, exhibited to public view in its precinct. were usually provided by the State, as also were important reMany such inscriptions have been found, and supply a great deal pairs; but in some cases a priest undertook these on his own of information that can be obtained from no other source. Some account, and was honoured accordingly—for instance, by being great temples, such as that of Apollo on the island of Delos, held allowed to inscribe his name in the restored temple. great amounts of property, both real and portable, the latter Besides priests, we find many other officials of various ranks taking the form either of more or less precious offerings dedicated attached to temples and recorded in inscriptions. Some of these, in the temple and its surrounding buildings, or of coined money. especially those who were concerned with buildings or construcThe inscriptions accordingly record gifts and acquisitions of tions, or with the inventories of temple treasures and the accounts landed property, leases and assignments, payments of rent and of administration, were lay officials appointed by the State, as fines for default, loans and interest and many other business trans- in the case of political officers. But many others had specialized actions suitable to a great landed proprietor or to a bank. They sacerdotal functions; for instance, in many places there were therefore throw much light upon the social and economic condi- manteis or prophets, often of special families with hereditary tions of ancient life, such as are nowhere else recorded. Again, skill in divination; at Eleusis we find records of the hierophant, the lists of offerings dedicated in the temple and other buildings the torch-bearer, and others who took part in the celebration of enable us to realize almost visually the appearance of their con- the mysteries. At Olympia, in later Greek times, we find a retents. These are described as being on the floor, on the walls, on markable list of officials, viz.: three priests, three libation pourers, shelves or in cases; they consisted of vases and other objects suit- two prophets, three custodians (of keys), a flute-player, an interable for use in the temple service; ornaments and jewels; preter, a priest for the daily sacrifice, a secretary, a wine-pourer, statuettes, mostly in gold and silver; weapons and tools; coined three dancers at libations, a woodman (to supply wood for the money; and bullion, mostly melted down from old offerings. The sacrifices), and a steward and cook—the last no sinecure, in view detailed care that was taken in this last case, to ensure that the of the numerous sacrificial feasts. full weight of these objects was preserved, whether made into a There were also many more menial offices in the service of new vessel or not, is recorded in other inscriptions. These temples which were carried out by slaves. Such slaves were often elaborate inventories were checked and revised by each successive presented to the temple or acquired in some other way. There is board of administrators, and gave the best possible security a whole class of inscriptions, found on many sites, in which against any robbery or peculation. In addition to such general the sale of slaves to a temple or to the god of a temple is relists, there are also innumerable records of various gifts and corded. It is often difficult to know whether such slaves were acquisitions, whether of land and houses, or of movable property intended for the service of a temple, or, on the other hand, such of all sorts. Buildings and repairs are also recorded, sometimes service was either purely formal or was not required at all, the by the State, sometimes by individuals, whose piety and generosity sale to the temple being intended as fictitious, so as to enable a are suitably honoured. In form, these are often hardly to be slave to acquire his own freedom and at the same time to secure distinguished from public works of a secular character, which the protection of the god in his free status. must be mentioned later. 3. Ritual.—The ritual appropriate to different divinities and The inscriptions on or belonging to special dedications are temples varied greatly from place to place; and it was, therefore, often of great historical interest—there need only be quoted the necessary or desirable to set up notices in all public places of inscription on the famous snake column, once at Delphi and now worship for the information and guidance of worshippers. The in the Hippodrome at Constantinople, with the list of the commonest and most essential act of worship was sacrifice; an Greek States which took part in the Persian war; and that relat- example of the simplest form of prescription is to be seen in the ing to the Roman arms dedicated by Pyrrhus of Epirus at Dodona inscription on the relief from Thasos in the Louvre:—"To the after his victories. Most of the great temples being of immemorial Nymphs and to Apollo the leader of the Nymphs, the worshipper sanctity, it is hardly to be expected that any records of their may, if he so choose, sacrifice a male and a female victim. lt is foundation should be found in Inscriptions. But on the other not permissible to offer a sheep or a pig. No paean is sung. To hand we have many accounts of the dedication of new temples, the Graces it is not permissible to offer a goat or a pig.” . either by states or communities or by private individuals. In It is to be noticed that this order of service contains a proalmost all such cases it was necessary to obtain sanction for the hibition as well as a prescription. Such prohibitions are frequent, foundation from the State; thus the inscription often takes the and often relate to the need of ceremonial purity in all worform of a decree of the people authorizing the foundation of the shippers entering a sacred precinct. They must for a certam temple, and often giving some privileges to the founder or time have abstained from certain prescribed means of pollution, founders. varying from place to place. The officials are sometimes ordered 2. Priests and Other Officials.—Inscriptions give much informa- to erect notices giving information on this point; for instance, at tion as to priests and other religious officials. There are in the the precinct of Alectrona at Ialysus, it was prescribed that “no

first place lists of priests, some of them covering long periods and even going back to mythical times; there are also lists of

horse, ass, mule, nor any other animal with a bushy tail should enter, and that nobody should bring such animals in or weat

GREEK]

INSCRIPTIONS

shoes or any article produced from pigs. There is also a fine for driving in sheep.” Other precincts were protected in a more manner from any invasion or violation. It was prohibited to cut wood or to remove earth and stones, or to drive any beasts into some precincts; the right of erecting booths was either re-

stricted or denied altogether. Sometimes more detailed prescrip-

tions are given for the whole organization of a festival; thus, at

Andania, in Messenia, the arrangements for the celebration of the jocal Eleusinia, the dress of the participants, the officials and policing, are very fully described.

Similarly, in the hall of the

Jobacchi, at Athens, the order of proceedings, the officers and

the characters in the sacred play, and various administrative

397

in Crete. Here an inscription of great length is incised on the Slabs of a theatre-shaped structure in 12 columns of so lines each; it is mainly concerned with the law of inheritance, adoption, etc. Doubtless similar inscriptions were set up in many places in Greece. An interesting series of inscriptions deals with the conditions under which colonists were sent out from various cities, and the measures that were taken to secure their rights as citizens. A bronze tablet records in some detail the arrangements

of this sort made when the Locrians established a colony in Naupactus; another inscription relates to the Athenian colonization of Salamis, in the 6th century s.c.

2. Decrees of People and Rulers, later of Kings and Emperors. —A very large number of inscriptions are in the form of decrees When there is any doubt about any ritual or procedure, div- of various cities and peoples, even when their subject matter sugination is often resorted to, and the results of such divination gests that they should be classified under other headings. Almost are recorded in inscriptions as a guidance for the future; it was all legislative and many administrative measures take this form; also a common practice to consult Delphi or some other oracle often a decree prescribes how and where the inscription should in doubtful or difficult cases; there the exact method of procedure be set up. The formulae and preambles of such decrees vary conig sometimes recorded, as well as the response of the oracle. siderably from place to place, and from period to period. Those Forms of worship are often prescribed or recorded, especially of Athens are by far the most exactly known, owing to the imhymns, which are sometimes inscribed together with their musical mense number that have been discovered; and they are so strictly notation. The performance of songs or hymns and dances are stereotyped that they can be classified with the precision of also matters of constant reference, especially in connection with algebraical formulae, and often dated to within a few years by lyrical or musical contests; the victorious band or performer this test alone. Very full lists for this purpose have been. drawn often dedicated the prize in honour of the god. A special form up by Prof. W. Larfeld, in his work on the subject. It is usual of contest was that in dramatic performances, of which many to record the year (by the name of the eponymus archon), the day records have survived, both from Athens and from many other of the month and of the prytany (or presiding commission acparts of the Greek world. The regulation of athletic festivals, cording to tribes), various secretaries, the presiding officials and and the records of victors in their contests, also form a numerous the proposer of the decree. It is also stated whether the resolution dass of inscriptions. As regards mysteries, though there are is passed by the senate (Boule) or the assembly of the people numerous regulations affecting the arrangement of celebrations (Ecclesia), or both. The circumstances or the reason of the and the conduct of those participating, there is, as was to be ex- resolution are then given, and finally the decision itself. Some pected, very little concerning the actual performances. other cities followed Athens in the form of their decrees, with Another interesting phase of Greek religion known to us mainly such local variations as were required; others were more indefrom inscriptions is offered by the shrines of healing. The most pendent in their development, and different magistracies or forms notable of these is the precinct of Asclepius at Epidaurus. Here of government had various results. In the Hellenistic age, and have been found, on large slabs of inscription, compiled, in all later, the forms of independent government were, to a great exprobability, from earlier documents; lists of the cures effected by tent, kept up, though little real power remained with the people. Apollo and Asclepius. The cures are of the most varied kinds, On the other hand it is a common thing to find letters from kings, from painful diseases or surgical cases to a lost boy and a broken and later from Roman emperors, inscribed and set up in public cup. The formula is in almost all cases the same: the consultant places. comes to Epidaurus, sleeps in the abaton, has dreams or sees 3. Public Accounts, Treasure Lists, Building Inscriptions —It visions, and comes out whole. In later times, when such faith- was customary to inscribe on stone all records of the receipt, healing had probably become less efficacious, elaborate prescrip- custody and expenditure of public money or treasure, so that tions of diet and hygiene are recorded. any citizen could verify for himself the safety and due control A special form of prayer consists of curses, which were often of the State in all financial matters. As in the case of temple buried in the ground, probably with the intent to reach the in- accounts, it was usual for each temporary board of officials to femal gods. Such curses often give the reason for their being render to their successors an account of their stewardship, and made, usually some injury done to the author of the curse; some- of the resources and treasures which they handed over. In all times they devote the offender to the infernal gods. cases of public works, the expenditure was ordered by the State, 4. Private Associations for Religious Purboses.—Another ele- and detailed reports were drawn up and inscribed on stone at ment in Greek religion which is known to us almost exclusively intervals while the work was being carried out. In many cases by means of inscriptions, is to be found in the religious associa- there is a detailed specification of building work which makes it tons that existed in many Greek cities, apart from the organ- possible, not only to realize all the technical details and processes wation of state religion, though sometimes recognized by it. employed, but also the whole plan and structure of a building. A These associations had each its own regulations, which were duly notable instance is the arsenal of Philon at the Peiraeeus which recorded in inscriptions; they varied greatly both in purpose and has been completely reconstructed on paper by architects from in character. Many of them had a definitely religious purpose, the building specification. In the case of the Erechtheum, we n the Worship of certain gods; sometimes an alien community have not only a detailed report on the unfinished state of the Was given special permission to worship its own god or gods in building in 409 B.c., but also accounts of expenditure and payts own way. Other associations were more social in character ments to the workmen employed in finishing it. Similar accounts and served as clubs, or as burial societies. A remarkable feature have been preserved aboutsuch associations is that the lists of members of many of 15 years; in the case of the building of the Parthenon, spread over of both the Parthenon and the Erechtheum, them Include the names of women and of slaves, thus contrasting there are included the payments made to those who made the with the civic basis of established religion in Greece, and antici- sculptures. pating a religion in which “there is neither Jew nor Greek, there Naval and military expenditure is also very fully accounted for; 8 neither bond nor free, there is neither male nor female.” among other information there are records of the galley-slips at (b) Political and Social.—:. Codes of Law and Regulations. the different harbours of the Peiraeeus, and of the ships of the Clent writers state that the earliest laws of Athens were in- Athenian navy, with their names and condition. In short, there &tibed upon tablets of wood, put together in a pyramidal shape. is no department of state economy and financial administration ese, owing to their material, have perished; but we have some that is not abundantly illustrated by the record of inscriptions. wy early codes of law preserved on stone, notably at Gortyna Tribute Lists.—A set of records of high historical value are the

details are ordered.

—

*

398

INSCRIPTIONS

tribute lists, recording the quota paid to Athens by her subject allies during the sth century &.c. These throw much light on her

relations with them at various periods.

(See DELIAN LEAGUE.)

4. Ephebic Inscriptions —An institution as to which our know-

ledge is mainly derived from inscriptions is the ephebic system at Athens. There are not only records of lists of ephebi and of their guardians and instructors, but also decrees in honour of their services, especially in taking their due part in religious and other ceremonies, and resolutions of the ephebi themselves in honour of their officials. It is possible to trace in the inscriptions, which range over several centuries, how what was originally a system of physical and military training for Athenian youths from the age of 18 to 20, with outpost and police duties, was gradually transformed. In later times there were added to the instructors in military exercises others who gave lectures on what we should now call arts and science subjects; so that in the Hellenistic and Roman times, when youths from all parts of the civilized world flocked to Athens as an intellectual centre, the ephebic system became a kind of cosmopolitan university. 5. Treaties and Political and Commercial Agreements; Arbitra-

tion, etc-—In addition to inscriptions which are concerned with the internal affairs of various cities, there are many others recording treaties or other agreements of an international character between various cities and states. These were incised on bronze or stone, and set up in places of public resort in the cities concerned, or in common religious centres such as Olympia and Delphi. The simplest form of treaty is merely an alliance for a certain term of years, usually with some penalty for any breach of the conditions. Often an oath was prescribed; to be taken by representatives on each side; it was also not unusual to appeal to the god in whose temple the treaty was exhibited. In other cases a list of gods by whom the two parties must swear is prescribed. Commercial clauses were sometimes added to treaties of alliance, and commercial treaties are also found, agreeing as to the export and import of merchandise and other things. In later days, especially in the time of the Hellenistic kings, treaties tend to become more complicated and detailed in their provisions. Another series of records of great historical interest is con-

cerned with arbitration between various states on various ques-

tions, mainly concerned with frontiers. In cases of dispute it was not uncommon*for the two disputants to appoint a third party

as arbitrator. Sometimes this third party was another State, sometimes a specified number of individuals. Thus, in a frontier dispute between Corinth and Epidaurus, 151 citizens of Megara were appointed by name to arbitrate, and when the decision was disputed, 31 from among them revised or confirmed it. In all such cases it was the custom for a full record to be preserved on stone and set up in the places concerned. In this case the initiative in referring the matter to arbitration came from the Achaean League.

6. Proxenia Decrees.—A. very large class of inscriptions deals with the institution of proxenia. According to this a citizen of any State might be appointed proxenos of another State; his duties would then be to offer help and hospitality to any citizen of that other State who might be visiting his city, and to assist him in any dispute or in securing his legal rights. The office has been compared to the modern appointment of consuls, with the essential difference that the proxenos is always a citizen of the

state in which he resides, not of that whose citizens and interests he assists. The decrees upon this matter frequently record the

[LATIN

sculptor Cresilas. Later it became usual to give, in some detail the reasons for the honours awarded; and in Hellenistic and

Roman times, these became more and more detailed and fulsome

in laudatory detail.

8. Signatures of Artists ——These inscriptions are of special interest as throwing much light upon the history of art. The artist's name was usually, especially in earlier times, carved upon the

base or pedestal of a statue, and consequently was easily separated from it if the statue was carried off or destroyed. A case

where both the Victory, Occasionally, signature was

statue and pedestal are preserved is offered by signed on its pedestal by Paeonius at Olympia, and more frequently in later times, the artist's carved upon some portion of the statue itself. But

in later copies of well-known works, it has to be considered whether the name is that of the original artist or of the copyist

who reproduced his work.

A special class of artists’ signatures is offered by the names

signed by Attic and other vase painters upon their vases. These have been made the basis of a minute historical and Stylistic study of the work of these painters, and unsigned vases also have been grouped with the signed ones, so as to make an exact and detailed record of this branch of Greek artistic production, 9. Historical Records.—The great majority of these fall into one of the classes already referred to. But there are some instances in which an inscription is set up merely as a record. For instance, a victor in athletic or other contests may set Upa list of his victories. The most famous historical record is the auto-

biographical account of the deeds and administration of Augustus,

which was reproduced and set up in many places; it is generally known as the Monumentum Ancyranum, because the most complete copy of it was found at Ancyra. The Marmor Parium at Oxford, found in Paros, is a chronological record of Greek history, probably made for educational purposes, and valuable as giving the traditional dates of events from the earliest time down. 10. Tombs and Epitaphs.—Tlhis is by far the most numerous class of inscriptions, both Greek and Latin. In early times there is often no record beyond the name of the deceased in Athens, often with the name of his father and his deme. Sometimes a

word or two of conventional praise is added, such as “a good and wise man." Occasionally the circumstances of death are alluded to, especially if it took place in battle or at sea. Such epitaphs were frequently in metrical form, usually either hexameters or elegiacs. Many of them have been collected, and they form an interesting addition to the Greek anthology. In later times it becomes usual to give more elaborate praise of the deceased; but this is hardly ever so detailed and fulsome as on more modern

tombstones.

The age and other facts about the deceased are oc-

casionally given, but not nearly so often as on Latin tombstones, which offer valuable statistical information in this respect. "LATIN INSCRIPTIONS Latin inscriptions may be classified on much the same lines as Greek; but certain broad distinctions may be drawn at the outset. They are generally more standardized as to form and as to content, not only in Rome and Italy, but also throughout the provinces of the Roman empire. One of the chief difficulties in deciphering Latin inscriptions lies in the very extensive use of initials and abbreviations. These are of great number and variety, and while some of them can be easily interpreted as belonging to well-known formulae, others offer considerable difficulty, espe-

cially to the inexperienced student. A mere list of such initials

appointment of a proxenos, and the conferring on him of certain benefits and privileges in return for his services; they also contain resolutions of thanks from the city served by the proxenos, and record honours consequently conferred upon him. 7. Honours and. Privileges Gtven to Individuals —This class of inscription is in form not unlike the last, except that the honours recorded are given for all sorts of services, private and public, to the State and to individuals. A frequent addition is an invita-

ABBREVIATION. Often the same initial may have many different meanings according to the context. Some common formulae such

Acropolis held nothing but the names of Pericles himself and of the

Most of what has been said about Greek inscriptions applies

tion to dine in the Prytaneum at Athens. Some are inscribed on the bases of statues set up to the recipient. In early times these inscriptions are usually brief and simple. The bust of Pericles on the

and abbreviations occupies 68 pages in R. Cagnat's Cours d'Efrgraphie Latine: a selection is given in this work in the article

as V.S.L.M. (votum solvit libens merito), or H.M.H.N.S. (hoc monumentum. heredem. non sequetur) offer little difficulty, but

there are many which are not so obvious and leave room for conjecture. Often the only way to determine the meaning is to search through a list of initials, such as those given by Cagnat, until a formula is found which fits the context. .

LATIN]

INSCRIPTIONS

to Roman also. The commonest materials in this case also are

stone, marble and bronze; but a more extensive use is made of stamped bricks and tiles, which are often of historical value as identifying and dating a building Or other construction. The same applies to leaden water pipes which frequently bear dates and names of officials. Terra-cotta lamps also frequently have

their makers’ names and other information stamped upon them.

Arms, and especially shields, sometimes bear the name and corps

of their owners. Leaden discs were also used, to serve the same

se as modern identification discs. Inscriptions are also found on sling bullets—Roman as well as Greek; there are also

numerous Classes of tesserae or tickets of admission to theatres or other shows. As regards the contents of inscriptions, there must evidently be a considerable difference between the records of a number of independent city states and an empire including almost all the

civilized world; but municipalities maintained much of their independent traditions in Roman times, and consequently their inscriptions often follow the old formulae. The classification of Roman inscriptions may, therefore, follow

the same lines as the Greek, except that certain categories are absent, and that some others, not found in Greek, are of considerable importance.

(a) Religious.—1. Dedications and Foundations of Temples, eic—These are very numerous; and the custom of placing the

name of the dedicator in a conspicuous place on the building was

prevalent, especially in the case of dedications by emperors or oficials, or by public bodies. Restoration or repair was often

recorded in the same manner. In the case of small objects the dedication is usually simple in form; it usually contains the name

of the god or other recipient and of the donor, and a common formula is D.D. (dedit, donavit), often with additions such as

399

2. Laws and Plebiscites, Senatus Consulta, Decrees of Magistrates or later of Emperors.—A certain number of these dating from republican times, are of considerable interest. One of the

earliest relates to the prohibition of Bacchanalian orgies in Italy;

it takes the form of a message from the magistrates, stating the authority on which they acted. Laws all follow a fixed formula, according to the body which has passed them. First there is a statement that the legislative body was consulted by the appropriate magistrate in due form; then follows the text of the law; and finally the sanction, the statement that the law was passed. In decrees of the Senate the formula differed somewhat.

They began with a preamble giving the names of the consulting magistrates, the place and conditions of the meeting; then came the subject submitted for decision, ending with the formula QDERFP (quid de ea re fieri placeret); then came the decision of the Senate, opening with DERIC (de ea re ita censuerunt). C. is added at the end, to indicate that the decree was passed. In imperial times, the emperor sometimes addressed a speech to the Senate, advising them to pass certain resolutions, or else,

especially in later times, gave orders or instructions directly,

either on his own initiative or in response to questions or references. The number and variety of such orders is such that no classification of them can be given here. One of the most famous is the edict of Diocletian, fixing the prices of all commodities. Copies of this in Greek as well as in Latin, have been found in various parts of the Roman empire. 3. Records of Building, etc—A very large number of inscriptions record the building or repair of public buildings by private individuals, by magistrates, Roman or provincial, and by emperors. In addition to the dedication of temples, we find inscriptions recording the construction of aqueducts, roads, especially on milestones, baths, basilicas, porticos and many other works of public utility. In inscriptions of early period, often nothing is given but the name of the person who built or restored the edifice, and a statement that he had done so. But later it was usual to give more detail as to the motive of the building, the name of the emperor'or a magistrate giving the date, the authority

LM. (libens merito). Such dedications are often the result of a vow, and V.S. (votum solvit) is therefore often added. Bequests made under the wills of rich citizens are frequently recorded by inscriptions; these might either be for religious or for social purposes. i 2. Priests and Oficials.—A priesthood was frequently a political for the building, and the names and distinctions of the builders; office, and consequently is mentioned along with political honours then follows a description of the building, the source of the exin the list of a man’s distinctions. The priesthoods that a man penditure (e.g. S.P., sua pecunia), and finally the appropriate verb

had held are usually mentioned first in inscriptions, before his for the work done, whether building, restoring, enlarging or othercvil offices and distinctions. Religious offices, as well as civil, wise improving. Other details are sometimes added, such as the were restricted to certain classes, the highest to those of senatorial name of the man under whose direction the work was done. rank, the next to those of equestrian status; many minor offices,

4. Military Documenis.—These vary greatly in content, and are among the most important documents concerning the administration of the Roman empire. "They are numerous and of 3. Regulations as to Religion and Cult.—Among the most inter- all sorts—tombstones of every degree, lists of soldiers’ burial esting of these is the ancient song and accompanying dance per- clubs, certificates of discharge from service, schedules of timeformed by the priests known as the Arval Brothers. This is, expired men, dedications however, not in.the form ofa ritual prescription, but a detailed neering works accomplish of altars, records of building or of engied. The facts directly commemorated record of the due performance of the rite. An important class of are rarely important. " But when the information from hundreds documents is the series of calendars that have been found in of such inscription s is collected together, “you can trace the whole Rome and in various Italian towns. These give notice of religious policy of the imperial Government in the matter of recruiting, festivals and anniversaries, and also of the days available for to what extent and till what date legionaries were raised in Italy; various purposes. what contingents for various branches of the service were drawn 4. Colleges.—The various colleges for religious purposes were from the. provinces, and which provinces provided most; how verynumerous. Many of them, both in Rome and Italy, and in far provincials garrisoned their own countries, and which of them, provincial municipalities, were of the nature of priesthoods. Some like the British recruits, were sent as a measure of precaution Were regarded as offices of high distinction, and were open only to to serve elsewhere; or, finally, at what epoch the empire grew men of senatorial rank; among these were the Augurs, the Fetiales, weak enough to require the enlistment of barbarians from beyond te Sali also

is in Rome and in the provinces, are enumerated in their due order.

the Sodales Divorum Augustorum in imperial ümes. The records of these colleges sometimes give no informaüon beyond the names of members, but these are often of conRr interest. Haruspices and Luperci were of equestrian (b) Political and Social.—i. Codes of Law and Regulations.

—Our information as to these is not mainly drawn from inscriptons and, therefore, they need not here be considered. On the

ther hand the word lex (law) is usually applied to all decrees of

Senate or other bodies, whether of legislative or of adminis-

ve character. It is, therefore, best to consider all together mder the heading of public decrees.

its frontiers.”

314.),

(F. Haverfield, in Authority and Archaeology, p.

5. Treaties and. Agreements .—There were many treaties between Rome and other states in republican times; but we do not, as a rule, owe our knowledge of these to inscriptions, which are very rare in this earlier period. In imperial times, to which most Latin inscriptions belong, international relations were sub ject to the universal domination of Rome, and consequently the documents relating to them are concerned with reference to the central authority, and often take the form of orders from the Emperor. 6. The custom of proxeny belonged to Greece. What most nearly corresponded to it in Roman times was the adoption of

400

INSECT

BITES AND

some distinguished Roman as its patron, by a city or state. The relation was then recorded, usually on a bronze tablet placed in some conspicuous position in the town concerned. The patron probably also kept a copy in his house, or had a portable tablet which would ensure his recognition and reception. 7. Honorary.—Honorary inscriptions are extremely common in all parts of the Roman world. Sometimes they are placed on the bases of statues, sometimes in documents set up to record some particular benefaction or the construction of some public work. The offices held by the person commemorated, and the distinctions conferred upon him are enumerated in a regularly established

order (cursus honorum), either beginning with the lower and proceeding step by step to the higher, or in reverse order with the highest first. Religious and priestly offices are usually mentioned before civil and political ones. These might be exercised either in Rome itself, or in the various municipalities of the empire. There was also a distinction drawn between offices that might be held only by persons of senatorial rank, those that were assigned to persons of equestrian rank, and those-of a less distinguished kind. It follows that when only a portion of an inscription has been found, it is often possible to restore the whole in accordance with the accepted order. 8. Signatures of Artists-——-When these are attached to statues, it is sometimes doubtful whether the name is that of the man who actually made the statue, or of the master whose work it reproduces. Thus there are two well-known copies of a statue of Hercules by Lysippus, of which one is said to be the work of Lysippus, and the other states that it was made by Glycon. Another kind of artist’s or artificer’s signature that is commoner in Roman times is to be found in the signatures of potters upon lamps and various kinds of vessels; they are usually impressed on the mould and stand out in relief on the terra-cotta or other material. These are of interest as giving much information as to the commercial spread of various kinds of handicrafts, and also as to-the conditions under which they were manufactured.

9. Historical Records.—Many of these inscriptions might well be assigned to one of the categories already considered. But there are some which were expressly made to commemorate an important event, or to preserve a record. Among the most interesting is the inscription of the Columna Rostrata in Rome, which records the great naval victory of Duilius over the Carthaginians; this, however, is not the original, but a later and somewhat modified version. A document of high importance is a summary of the life and achievements of Augustus, already mentioned, and known as the Monumentum Ancyranum. The various sets of Fasti constituted a record of the names of consuls, and other magistrates or high officials, and also of the triumphs accorded to conquering generals. 10. Inscriptions on Tombs-——These are probably the most numerous of all classes of inscriptions; and though many of them are of no great individual interest, they convey, when taken collectively, much valuable information as to the distribution and transference of population, as to trades and professions, as to health and longevity, and as to many other conditions of ancient life. The most interesting early series is that on the tombs of the Scipios at Rome, recording, mostly in Saturnian metre, the exploits and distinctions of the various members of that family. About the end of the republic and the beginning of the empire, it became customary to head a tombstone with the letters D.M. or D.M.S. (Dis Manibus sacrum), thus consecrating the tomb to the deceased as having become members of the body of ghosts or spirits of the dead. These are followed by the name of the deceased, usually with his father's name and his tribe, by his honours and distinctions, sometimes by a record of his age. The inscription often concludes with H.I. (Hic iacet), or some similar formula, and also, frequently, with a statement of boundaries and a prohibition of violation or further use—for instance, H.M.H.N.S. (hoc monumentum heredem non sequetur, this monument is not to pass to the heir). The person who has erected the monument and his relation to the deceased are often stated; or if a man has prepared the tomb in his lifetime, this also may be stated, V.S.F. (vivus sibi fecit). But it is obvious that there is an

STINGS

immense variety in the information that either a man himself or

his friends may wish to record. 11. Afilestones and Boundaries.—Milestones

(miliaria) have already been referred to, and may be regarded as records of the

building of roads. Boundary stones (termini) are frequently found, both of public and private property. A well-known instance is offered by those set up by the commissioners called IIT. viri A.LA. (agris iudicandis adsignandis) in the time of the Gracchi, THE

STUDY

OF INSCRIPTIONS

Inscriptions were studied and quoted by authors in ancient times, by orators and by historians—notably by Thucydides and Polybius—as records of political, economic and social interest

they also contributed to the history of art, and Polemon had the nick-name of stelokopas given him for his studies of such docs. ments. His work is now lost. Some of the great scholars of the Renaissance were interested both in Greek and Roman inscriptions. But the gigantic task of collecting together all known Greek inscriptions was first attempted by A. Boeckh, in the Corpus In. scriptionum. Graecarum. (4 vols., 1825-40). This has been superseded by Inscriptiones Graecae (Berlin) in x4 volumes and many parts, arranged geographically. This great work is still in progress, Inscriptions prior to 403 B.C. are collected in Roehl, Inscriptiones Graecae Antiquissimae.

Convenient selections are W. Dittenber-

ger, Sylloge Inscriptionum. Graecarum.

(4 vols. 3rd ed., 1924),

and Orientis Graeca Inscriptiones selectae (2 vols. 1904-05):

Michel, Recueil d'Inscriptions Grecques (1900); Hicks and Hill. Greek Historical Inscriptions (and ed. 1901); Inscriptiones Graecae ad Res Romanas pertinentes (Paris, Académie; 4 vols. 18911927); Sammlung der Griechischen Dialekt-Inschrifien (Géttingen, 1884); Dureste and others, Recueil des Inscriptions Juridiques Grecques (1891); Kaibel, Epigrammata Graeca et Lapidibus Collecta. (1878). For formal introduction to the study, S. Reinach, Traité d'Epigraphie Grecque (1885; the introductory chapters translated from C. T. Newton, Essays in Art and Archaeology, 1880); E. S. Roberts, Introduction to Greek Epigraphy (vol. 1, 1887. vol. 2, with E. A. Gardner, The Inscriptions of Attica, 1905); W. Larfeld, Griechische Epigraphie (1892); Handbuch der Griechischen Epigraphie (1898); O. Kern, Inscriptiones Graecae (1913, photographic facsimiles). In addition there are many publications of the inscriptions of special sites or localities, notably those from great excavations like those of Olympia and Delphi, or in museums, such as the British Museum Inscriptions. For Latin inscriptions, the chief publication is the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (Berlin—in progress); the volumes are arranged geographically; supplements are issued as Ephemeris Epigraphica. Convenient selections are those of Wilmanns, Ez-

empia Inscriptionum Latinarum (1872), and of Dessau, Znscriptzones Latinae (3 vols. 1892—1916). An introduction to the study is R. Cagnat, Cours d'Epigraphie Latine (1890), having useful tables of initials, abbreviations and formulae. ^ (E. GR)

INSECT BITES AND STINGS.

Insects may be the cause

of disease or of morbid conditions in man in several different ways: (1) by living oz his skin or hair, as in the case of three varieties

of pediculi or lice (the head-louse, the body-louse, the crablouse) ; or im his skin, as with the itch-insect (though this is strict-

ly not an insect at all but a spider-like parasite), or with the tropical chigger, jigger or sand flea; (2) by depositing their eggs on the skin or mucous membrane, or on wounds, whence the larvae find their way below the surface, usually by boring or burrowing, as is the case with several tropical flies; (3) by being the instrument of transferring a bacterial infection to man from some

other animal, as is the case with the rat flea in plague, or by

taking part as host in the life-cycle of a spirochaete or a protozoon and passing the parasite on to man, as is done by certain mos-

quitoes in yellow fever or in malaria: (4) by the direct and immediate effects of their bite or sting. It is with this last method only that the present article is concerned. In Great Britain and the United States, as in most other countries, such bites and stings are exceedingly common, the most frequent biting insects being the common flea, the bed-bug, gnats

INSECTICIDES—INSECTIVORA and mosquitoes, and the most frequent stinging insects being the wasp, the bee, the hornet and the ant. It should be realized, too, that the effects of the louse are due not merely to its presence,

as mentioned above, but to its actual bite.

The consequences of these bites and stings are well known, very

few persons escaping some personal experience thereof, though susceptibility varies widely in different persons. Local irritation

may be extreme, and the skin lesion produced may vary from a

small reddened or erythematous patch or a tiny papule, to large wrticarial or nettle-rash wheals, or even to a spreading cellulitis or inflammation of the tissues under the skin. These effects,

usually pass off completely in a few hours or at most a day or two.

Occasionally, however, dangerous developments occur. The conditions most likely to lead to such developments are: (1) a very large number of stings, as when a swarm of angry bees settles on the body; (2) the lesion being on a mucous surface such as the tongue, the palate or the pharynx; (3) the supervention of

some local complication such as erysipelatous or other strepto-

coccal infection, or the direct transmission of some form of septic

poisoning as by the bite of a fly which has been feeding on putrid material. In all such cases skilled surgical aid should at once be

sought, as in extreme instances death has occasionally resulted

and urgent measures may be necessary to deal with the situation.

Treatment.—The poison injected with an insect sting is, at least in many species, formed by a mixture of the secretions of

two glands, one of which is acid (formic acid) and the other of which is alkaline. In most cases the acid predominates: hence weak alkaline solutions (soda or ammonia) are commonly effec-

tive in allaying the irritation. In some cases, however, especially,

it is said, with the sting of some wasps, the alkaline element is

predominant and in such instances a weak acid lotion (such as diluted vinegar) gives most relief. The most convenient substance to use to relieve the irritation of mosquito bites is moist toilet soap. Late experience shows that the so-called “chigger bites” or the irritation caused by the entrance of any larval mites into the skin are best treated with a phenol-camphor mixture known in medicine as camphora carbolisata. ` As preventive measures when insects are prevalent, camphor, menthol, lavender and oil of eucalyptus appear to have some virtue; and skilful and assiduous campaigns against flies, mosquitoes and wasps have of late added greatly to the amenities of a number of localities. A good preventive lotion against mosquitoes is composed of one part oil of citronella, one part spirits of camphor and one-half part oil of cedar. (See BACTERIOLOGY; Kata-Azar; PARASITOLOGY.) (H. B. B.)

INSECTICIDES, chemicals used for destroying insect pests.

When employed to protect plants they may be applied in the form

of wet sprays or as dusts; those most commonly used for this purpose include various arsenicals, nicotine, oil emulsions, soaps, caustic alkalis, etc. When it is desired to kill insects that may

be present in a room, fumigation (q.v.) or the filling of the room

with poisonous gases or vapours is resorted to. This method may also be used for plants by enclosing them in tents. Hydrogen cyanide, carbon disulphide and carbon tetrachloride are some ex-

amples of the chemicals employed in fumigation. (See ENTOMOLocx, Economic: Control Measures; Physico-chemical Methods.)

INSECTIVORA, an order of placental mammals of small

size, with a dentition adapted to an insect-diet. N early all members of this order are nocturnal and terrestrial, many, however, are fossorial or arboreal, and a few are aquatic. There are gen-

erally five toes, each terminating in a claw; the first toe is never opposable to the others in either the fore or hind limb. A full series of teeth, including temporary, or deciduous milk-molars

s developed, and the cheek-teeth are crowned with sharp cusps 8s a rule. The typical number of teeth is 44, arranged as shown

m the formula i.3, c.4, p.4, m.8; occasionally there is a fourth

par of molars, while the incisors may be reduced to two pairs above and one pair below. The skull is of a primitive type, with a

snall brain-case, tympanic bone generally ring-like instead of

forming a bulla and vacuities are frequently present in the

Palate. With the exception of the African Potamogale, collar-

401

bones are always present, and a central bone is usually present in the carpus. The uterus is two-horned, the placenta, so far as is known, is deciduate and discoidal; the testes are abdominal or inguinal, and the teats usually numerous. Representatives of this order are found throughout the temperate and tropical parts of both hemispheres, with the exception of South America (where only a few shrews have penetrated) and Australia. The stomach is a simple, thin-walled sac; sometimes as in Centetes, the pyloric and oesophageal openings are close together.

In the arboreal forms, which probably feed on vegetables as well as insects, most of the species possess a caecum. Varieties of the Order.—All the members of the order appear to be highly prolific, the number of young varying from two to eight in the hedgehog, and from twelve to twenty-one in the Tenrec. Scent-glands exist in many species. In most shrews they occur on the sides of the body at a short distance behind the axilla, and their exudation is probably protective, as very few

carnivorous animals will touch them. In both species of Gymnura

and in Potamogale large pouches are situated on each side of the rectum, and discharge their secretions by ducts, opening in the first named genus in front of and in the latter within the margin of the vent. In the Tenrec similarly situated glands discharge by pores, opening at the bottom of deep pits. If Galeopithecus and Galeopterus are accepted as members of the Insectivora then the order may be split into two suborders, the Dermoptera and the Insectivora vera. The former contains only the two genera Galeopithecus and Galeopterus. For further information on these two interesting genera see the articles GALEOPITHECUS and GALEOPTERUS. Insectivora Vera.—The Insectivora vera may be divided into nine families, which fall into two groups. The first of these, containing the families Tupaiidae and Macroscelididae, is characterised by the full development of the union between the two halves of the pelvis. The orbit is either surrounded by bone (Tupaiidae) or is separated from the hinder part of the skull by a post-orbital process (Macroscelididae). Some authors regard the Tupaiidae as lowly organized members of the order Primates, but the present writer is quite unable to consider the genus Tupaia and its near relations Anathana, Dendrogale, Urogale, Tana and Ptilocercus, as representing anything more than a group of Insectivores. The Tupaiidae, which are confined to the Oriental region, are, however, in addition to the bony ring surrounding the orbit, distinguished by the large size of the brain. The dental formula is 1.4, C.4, P.3,M.3. The Tupaias or Tree-Shrews are in many ways very like squirrels; they are, however, distinguished by their pointed insectivorous faces and light coloured shoulder stripes. The typical genus contains a great number of species and subspecies. T. ferruginea, from the Malay Peninsula and Islands, is bright chestnut-brown in colour with an olive-brown face and tail; the majority of the members of this genus do not exceed 350 mm. in total length. 7. pictus, of Borneo, is a very handsomely coloured Tree-Shrew, chestnut and olive above, with buff shoulder stripes and a black dorsal stripe. From the Rhio Archipelago comes a deep chestnut coloured form known as T. castanea. T. minor is a very small species from Borneo, with a hind-foot of only 28 mm., and a total length of about 280 mm. The closely allied genus, Anathana, is distinguished from Tupaia by the inner sides of the ears being more hairy, the larger size of the lower lobe of the ear, and the coarser nasal reticulations. The species come from India and Borneo. The genus Urogale, allied to Tupaia and Anathana, contains but a single species U. cylindura from the Philippine Islands, in general dimensions and appearance about as in the smaller Tupaias, the total length being 250 mm. A number of handsomely coloured Tree-Shrews has recently been placed in the genus Tana. Included in this genus is a very brightly coloured species from Borneo and Sumatra, 7. tana. T. dorsalis, from Borneo, is a smaller species, with a well-marked black dorsal stripe extending from the crown of the head to the base of the tail. The smallest members of this family are included in the genus Dendrogale, the total length not exceeding

e

INSECTIVORA

402 235 mm.

These pigmy Tree-Shrews come from Annam, Cochin

China, Cambodia and Siam. The asiatic Pentailed Tree-Shrew (Ptilocercus lowi) is usually included in this family, although it differs very markedly from all the other genera. The tail is very long, with the proximal twothirds naked, and the remaining third furnished with a featherlike fringe. This species, the only representative of the genus, is found in Borneo, Sumatra and parts of the Malay Archipelago. THE MACROSCELIDIDAE

In Africa the T'upaias are represented by the Jumping and Elephant Shrews constituting the family Macroscelididae, distinguished from the Tupaiidae by the absence of the bony rings around the orbits, the latter being separated from the hinder part of the skull merely by the post-orbital processes of the frontal bones. Further, the tarsus is markedly elongated and the lower ends of tibia and fibula are joined. Dental formula 1.8, c.4, p.4,

m.z24. The members of this family leap like gerbils or jerboas. The Macroscelididae may be considered to contain seven genera:—(1) Macroscelides, or Jumping Shrews, containing two South African species M. proboscideus from Cape Colony and the Orange Free State, and M. melanotis from Namaqualand; in this genus the lower molars are two in number and the auditory bullae much enlarged. (2) Elephantulus containing the Jumping Shrews of North, East and South Africa in which the lower molars are two in number, but the auditory bullae are normal, not enlarged. In size about equal to the foregoing genus. The various species extend from Morocco and Algeria (E. rozeti) southwards to Somaliland, East and South Africa. (3) Nasilio, or the ShortNosed Jumping Shrews, with three lower molars and normal auditory bullae. Like the two allied genera, Macroscelides and Elephantulus, these Jumping Shrews are diurnal. The genus extends as far north as Angola in the west and Kenya Colony in the

are the Moles, constituting the family Talpidae, in which the lower ends of the tibia and fibula are united, there is a descent of

the testes, the tympanum forms a bladder-like bulla, the

matic or cheek-arch, although slender, is complete, there js no pelvic symphysis, the upper molars are five, and the first upper incisor is simple and the lower vertical. Most of the Species are burrowing, but a few are aquatic; they have an exclusively animal diet. They are confined to temperate Europe, Asia and

North America. Throughout the family the eyes are very small and in some of the forms are covered with skin; the ears are short, and the fore-limbs are generally more or less modified for digging. The true Moles of the genus Talpa are the typical members of the first subfamily, the Talpinae, in which the clavicle and humerus are very short and broad, while there is an additional sickle-like bone on the inner side of the fore-foot which is very

broad. The dental formula of the genus Talpa is 13,cip4 m.g. T. europea, the Common European Mole, is widely dis. tributed over Europe and western and central Asia; the eastem limits of its range are not known. Parascaptor is a closely related genus containing one species, P. leucurus, from Assam and the adjacent country; it is a small mole with a very short tail and long snout. The genus Scaptochirus is considered to contain three species from China; these moles possess very large fore-feet and short tails.

Another closely allied genus is Mogera, which

includes a few species of short-haired moles with short tails:

dental formula i.$, c.4, p4,m.%. These moles come from the Far East; M. wogera, from Japan, is a large, pale vandyke-brown coloured species.

There remain four North American genera of Talpinae:—(i)

Scalops, a genus with very large fore-feet and webbed toes; tail very short, slender and nearly naked, and ears and eyes quite small. S. aguaticus, the common mole of the eastern United States and of considerable importance as a fur-bearing animal, east. (4) Petrodromus, the 4-Toed Jumping Shrews, are dis- is found from Massachusetts to Minnesota and Colorado and tinguished from the foregoing genera in having only 4 instead of southward to Florida and Texas. It is a pale sepia-coloured or 5 toes to each front foot; the dimensions are considerably larger slate-coloured mole, often tinged with brown, varying in length and the coat quite different in colour, being pale olive-green on in the different sub-species, of which some ro are recognized, the flanks and rufous on the back (P. tetradactylus, South from barely 54 in. to 8 in. and in colour from light drab to Africa). The tail is long and clothed in short normal hairs. (5) dark sepia and brown, (ii.) Scapanus, a genus with very broad Mesoctenus, closely allied to Petrodromus, but distinguished by hands, but with toes lacking webs; the tail is rather longer, thick the hairs on the underside of the tail being slightly bulbous at and scantily haired, and the general colour of the body is darker, their ends; this genus includes two species M. rovumae (Rovuma) varying in winter in some forms to black. There are several and M. nigriseta from East Africa. (6) Cercoctenus, in which the species, all natives of the Pacific slope where they take the place bulbous, or club-shaped hairs on the underside of the tail are of the common mole (Scalops) of the eastern United States, still more developed, two species are recognized. C. sultan from which they strongly resemble in their habits. S. townsendi, the Zanzibar, Tanganyika Territory, and Kenya Colony, and C. best known of the group, comes from northern California, schwanni from Portuguese East Africa. (7) Rhynchocyon, the Oregon and Washington, where it is common between the Long Nosed Elephant Shrews, in which the reduction in the Cascades and the Coast ranges. It is a large mole, 9 in. long number of toes is carried stil further, there being only four and blackish in colour, with a plump body anda tail 14 in. long, toes to each foot. In this genus the snout is much longer, the S. orarius, about 7 in. long, with the body blackish or greyish in size of the body considerably greater, and the tarsus still more colour, occurs from northern California through Oregon and elongated. The dental formula is i+¥*c4, p.4, mz. It has Washington to British Columbia. S. latimanus, similar or slightly been proposed to divide the genus into two subgenera, the typical larger in size but varying in colour from grey or drab to brown one containing the chess-board patterned species (AR. cirmei, and black, is found from southern California to central Oregon; reichardi, claudi and stulhmanni) and Rhinonax including R. a larger grey form, var. alpinus, 74 in. long, occurs at Crater chrysopygus and R. petersi and its allies. Some of these Elephant Lake. (iii) Parascalops, is a smaller. genus, with one species, Shrews are very handsomely coloured, R. cirnet from Nyasaland, P. breweri, the Hairy-tailed Mole, found in dry sandy soil from has the posterior part of its back marked with rows of alternate New Brunswick to Georgia and westward to Ohio; the body is dark and light blotches, giving a chess-board effect. The apical blackish, often with brownish gloss; the tail is short, thick, portion of the tail is always white. In the subgenus Rhinonax compressed at the base, and very hairy; the toes are not webbed. equally bright colouring occurs; R. (R) petersi comes from East (iv.) Condylura, the Star-nosed Mole, which is distinguished by Africa and Zanzibar. R. (R.) chrysopygus (East Africa) has the the possession of a fringe of fleshy appendages around the exbody, flanks and limbs deep maroon, and the rump bright orange- tremity of the snout, rı appendages on each side. Its general bodily size is about that of the common European mole, but the yellow coloured. tail is much longer. The star-nosed mole is blackish in colour and i: des SECOND GROUP OF FAMILIES about 74 in. long; the tail, which is about 24 in. long, is covered -oTa the second group of families, which contains all the remain- with coarse hair; and the toes are not webbed. One species only ing: Inséctivora, the pelvic symphysis is either lacking or formed is recognized, C. cristata, the type locality of which is Pennsyl-

imerely:-by the epiphyses of the pubes; and the orbit and tem-

vania; it occurs, but rather infrequently, in wet meadows an

poral region of the skull are confluent.. With the exception of the Talpidae (true Moles) and Chrysochloridae (golden Moles) the tympanim is ring-like. The first representatives of this group

marshes from southern Labrador to south-eastern Manitoba south-

t

ward to Georgia and Indiana, often leaving its burrows running about on the surface.

| git

ty

i

403

INSECTIVORA

m.$). The genus Blarinella, from Western China, is closely allied to the American Blarina; the tail is not quite so short and the

second Subfamily.—The second subfamily is the Desmaninae including à series of animals rather intermediate between Moles and Shrews, known as the Mole-Shrews.

ear not so rudimentary as in the latter genus. The teeth are all heavily pigmented. B. quadraticauda:—head and body 69 mm.; tail 43 mm.; B. griselda, from Tao-chou, is smaller and has a shorter tail; dimensions:—head and body 68 mm.; tail 33 mm.; hind-foot rx mm. Neomys is an aquatic genus of Shrews found over a large area of the Palaertic region north of the Mediterranean from Spain and England to the Caucasus and Asia Minor,

A number of genera has

been described, the most important of which are the following :— (i) Uroirichus, small shrew-like animals with long snouts, and

hairy, almost bushy tails; fore-feet not markedly enlarged, but more so than in the Shrews. U. talpoides comes from Japan,

from where a number of races have been described (head and

body go mm., tail 25 mm.). (ii.) Neurotrichus contains a small shrew-like species, N. gibbst, with large hands and a short hairy

northwards as far as Scandinavia.

tail (bead and body iio mm., tail 36 mm.). (iii) Scaptonys, allied to Neurotrichus, with a more hairy tail and smaller forefeet; the genus is restricted to China.

(iv.) Dymecodon, con-

rains but a single species, D. pélérostris from Japan; it is smaller

than Urotrichus and has a proportionally longer, but less hairy tail (head and body 78 mm.; tail 40 mm.). (v.) Uropsilus a long-

nosed, long-tailed genus, with small hands and feet; the tail is chort-haired; U. soricipes hails from China. (vi) RAynchonax, contains a single species from Sze-Chuan, China, smaller than Uropsilas and darker in colour. (vii.) Galemys contains the Water Mole or Western Desman, from south-western France and the Italian Peninsula. This and the following species show marked adaptation fo an aquatic life the toes being webbed and the tail

long and flattened laterally. The snout is of considerable length,

as also is the soft body fur which is otter-brown above, and

yellowish-grey below.

Dimensions of the species (G. pyrenai-

cus) :—head and body 131 mm., tail 145 mm., hind-foot 38. The

last genus (9) Desmana, the Russian Desman (D. moschata) is very similar in form to Galemys, but much larger and more

massive (total length 16 inches); it inhabits the streams and lakes of South-east Russia. The Soricidae—The next family, the Soricidae or Shrew-

Mice, is closely related to the Moles, with which it is connected by some of the subfamily Desmaninae. The species are, how-

ever, distinguished by the ring-like tympanic, incompleteness of

tinguished by its very short tail (head and body 92 mm.; tail

ihe zygomatic arch, and the forward direction of the first lower incisors. The majority are There are no lower canines, each side of the lower jaw; occurs. In the typical genus

terrestrial, but a. few are aquatic. and always six functional teeth on in some species an additional tooth Sorex the dental formula is as fol-

lows:—ig, c.4, p.2, m.g; in this genus and its allies the teeth are tipped with brownish-red, in the Croci-durine section the

Dental formula, i $,cd,p.i

m.&. The fur is very soft and dark slatey-grey in colour; feet and tail fringed. In the United States the Soricidae are represented by six genera. Sorex, with 20 species, includes S. personatus, the Common American Shrew, 4 in. long, found from New England to Tennessee and Alaska; S. fumens, the Smoky Shrew, of the north-eastern States, and S. vagrans, the Western Shrew, abundant from the Rocky Mountains westward. Neosorex, with 4 species, includes N. albibarbis, the Marsh Shrew, of eastern North America. Microsorex, with 2 species, includes M. winnemana, of Virginia, only 3 in. long, the smallest American mammal. Blarina, with 2 species, includes B. brevicaudata, the Mole-shrew, of the central and eastern states; Crypotis contains 2 species, natives to the southern states, and Notiosorex, a single species found in the south-west. The Shrews with white teeth are found in Europe, Asia and Africa. The short-haired, long-tailed Shrews of Africa with four upper unicuspids are grouped together in the genus Sylvisorex, in some the tail is much longer than the body (head and body 60 mm.; tail 85); in others, as in S. lunaris from Ruwenzori, the tail is about equal in length to the head and body. In the allied genus Myosorex, also from Africa, the tail is long and the fur soft and thick; the openings of the generative organs and vent, although close together, are distinct. Surdisorex is another whitetoothed genus containing one or two species; S. norae is dis-

20 mm.; hind-foot 15 mm.), very soft, deep chocolate-coloured coat, and large fore-feet. It inhabits Kenya Colony. The typical genus of this group, Crocidura, or Musk Shrews, is found over nearly the whole of Africa and the warmer parts of Europe and Asia; a species has recently been described from the Scilly Isles. Dentition i£, c.4, p.4, mg, The generative openings form a

EE ee pe eaea n

teeth are wholly white. The members of the genus Sorex are widely spread over Europe, Asia (north of the Himalayas) and North America. The ears are well developed, the tail long and evenly haired, without the long hairs so characteristic of Crocidura, The typical species S. araneus is the Common ShrewMouse of Europe; it is distributed over the northern portions of Europe and Asia from England and Scotland eastward; southwards it reaches central Spain and Italy. As with so many

short cloaca with the anal orifice. Tail long, with a number of

long, rather bristly hairs in addition to the shorter normal hairs. Some of the largest and smallest members of this genus are found in Africa; the smallest Musk Shrew, probably the smallest mammal, is C. pasha, from the Sudan. The Crocidurine Shrews with an extra premolar (dentition, i2, c.-, p.g, m.g)are considered to represent a distinct genus, Pachyura, which is found over Africa, the warmer parts of Asia, and Mediterranean region. British mammals it is absent from Ireland. (Head and body The members of this group all have the typical Crocidurine tails, 6: to 80 mm.; tail 20-35 mm.; hind-foot 11-14.5 mm.). S. with the long bristle-like hairs. Praesorex goliath is a giant minutus, the Pygmy Shrew Mouse, is considerably smaller, meas- shrew from the Cameroons (head and body 170 mm.; tail 102 uring only about 52 mm. in length (head and body); found over mm.; hindfoot 25 mm.) related to the Crocidura but distinguished the northern part of Eurasia from Ireland eastward and south by its longer and harsher coat. In Solisorex pearsont, another as far as the Pyrenees and southern Italy. Over sixty species large form, the tail is shorter (66 mm.) and the fur softer and and subspecies of this genus have been described. In the genus greyer. Scutisorex includes the “Tin-hatted Shrews” from Soriculus the openings of the male and female generative organs Uganda and the Eastern Congo. The skull of this species has form with the anal orifice a shallow cloaca; in Sorex they are enormously developed lambdoid crests which extend backwards separate; dentition i.&, c.l, p.25 m.$. The longest tailed and are continuous with a posterior extension of the lateral temSoriculus is S. irene, from Sze-Chuan, in which the tail measures poral crests (head and body 143 mm.; tail 77 mm.; hind-foot 87 mm.; and the head and body 62 mm. in length. Closely allied 20 mm.). Anourosorex.—Anourosorex is an allied genus containing bu to Soriculus is a group of small Chinese Shrews belonging to the genus Chodsigoa, some species having a long tail (63 mm.) while a single species, A. squamipes, a small mole-coloured shrew with others (C. Jamula) have a fairly short tail (head and body 67 mm. ; a very short tail (head and body 83 mm.; tail 16 mm.; hind-foot

tail 54 mm.). Notiosorex (dentition if, c.4, pt, m.g) contains

a small species, N. crawfordi from New Mexico (head and body

85 mm.; tail 26 mm.; hind-foot 12 mm.); and Blarina is another

short-tailed genus of American Shrews, some members of which

are found in South and Central America; in size they are about equal to the Common European Shrew, but have a much shorter

tal (B. brevicauda: —tail 26 mm.;

rs mm.).

This genus, which inhabits Sze-chuan and Tibet, is

distinguished from the closely related genus Diplomesodon, from the Kirghiz Steppes, by the soles of the hindfeet being scaly, not hairy. The latter genus, which also contains only one species, D. pulchellus, is further distinguished by its longer tail Lastly

there are two Asiatic mountain

aquatic genera:—(i.)

Chim-

dentition i*22, c., p.$; arrogale from Kashmir, Sikkim, and country around Darjeeling,

INSECTIVOROUS

404

PLANTS

Tenrec, (C. ecaudatus), a large, tailles distinguished by its long tail with an inferior fringe of elongated |tetinae (i.) Centetes, the hair; the young ones are stri spiny harsh, with animal, | ary integument same the into open hairs; the generative organs Hemicentetes, the Lesser Tenrec (ii.) m.$. p.$, c.; i.g, Dentition ring as the anal orifice; the dental formula is i. $, €., p.im.$, | 1

striped throughout life. (ii.) Nectogale, very similar in appearance to the foregoing genus, | smaller than the Tenrec, and more spiny; the Hedgehog Ten. Ericulus, (iii.) m4. p.3, c.4, i.$, Dentition | in the “feathering” of the feet and tail being more developed; setosus), Hedgehog-like animals hay. recs (E. nigrescens and E.

colour about like a mole, whitish below.

Erinaceidae.—The Hedgehogs and Gymnuras, or Rat-Shrews,

ing the whole

dorsal surface covered with spines.

Dentitiog

nae. (i.) Microgale, small shrew-like forming the family Erinaceidae, differ from the shrews in having | i2, c.1, p.$, m.g. Orysoricti (head and body 60 mm.; tail 140 mm), tails long with species | the and arch, zygomatic complete a ring, a broader tympanic m.&. (ii.) Nesogale, larger than Microgale presence of a short public symphysis; the family is, at the present | Dentition, i.g, c.4, D.$,ately shorter tail. (iti.) Oryzorictes, dis. proportion a with but | subtypical The World. Old the to confined exclusively day, (47 mm.); the species are fossorial tail shorter its by tinguished | by recognized easily is family, the Erinaceinae, or hedgehogs, the spiny nature of the coat, the rudimentary tail, broad pelvis,

(iv.) Limnogale, a large aquatic form (L. mergulus) with webbed

a long laterally compressed tail (head and body 150 mm. and the presence of palatal vacuities; the members of this group | toes and mm., hind-foot 15 mm.). 140 tail Asia. of part large a and are distributed over Europe, Africa Solenodontidoe, p.$, m.g. The Hedgehogs are divided into | Closely allied to the Centetidae is the family

Dentition i$, cj,

five genera:—(i.) Erimaceus, containing the common European species and about x2 other forms from Europe, Asia and the

which contains but a single genus, Solenodon, and two species S. paradoxus and S. cubanus, the former from Hayti, and the latter

The family is distinguished by the skull being conCanary Islands, ranging from Spain to China. In this genus the | from Cuba. the orbits, the descent of the testes into the peribehind stricted | divided crown the on pterygoids and bullae are normal, the spines the teats postinguinal. Solenodons, which having in and into two groups by a median parting which is narrow and in- | neum, have the same dental formula as Microgale; conspicuous, a hallux is present, and the third incisor normally | look like huge rats, their bodies are clothed

one-rooted.

(ii.) Aethechinus, found in Africa and Southern | they have long snouts and tails, and

Europe, has the coronal parting broad and the third incisor two-

with long, coarse hair. The tail is naked, the whiskers very long,

and the ears large. rooted. Some of the forms (4 or 5 in number) are smaller and | The Chrysochloridae.—The last family of Insectivora is the darker than in Erinaceus, Aethechinus frontalis, from South ridae or Golden Moles. The skull is conical and not Chrysochlo | below. black usually and above, rown Africa, being dark blackish-b arch and auditory bullae

zygomatic (iii.) Atelerix, from Northern and East Africa, differs from the | constricted between the orbits; absent. Upper molars triprocess orbital post developed, well | hedgethese absent; being hallux the in genera mentioned above ears are small and the

hogs are small in size and light buff or brownish in colour.

A. | tubercular, with very tall crowns.

The

the skin; the teats are both pectoral and albiventris, from the Sudan, is a very pale coloured species, while | eyes concealed beneath are specialized for burrowing, the two forefeet The inguinal. | a s, Hemiechinu (iv.) form. brown a is Nigeria, A. spinifex, from being very powerful. All the species manus the of claws middle | and Southern genus containing a number of forms from the and confined to south, east and central Africa. They fossorial are | and Egypt in occur species some Region; Palaeartic Eastern of brown or grey with a brilliant metallic Northern India. In these hedgehogs there is a median parting on | are usually some shade een to golden bronze. Four genera peacock-gr from varying lustre, | the crown. H. collaris is a black form from India; another Indian , the Giant Golden Mole of Bematiscus :—(i.) recognized are | in Lastly, megalotis. H. Hedgehog, d Long-Eare species is the (ii.) Chrysospalax, the Natal Transvaal. the and Pondoland | partcoronal a and (v.) Paraechinus, the pterygoids are inflated, Bematiscus. (iii.) Amblythan smaller rather Moles, ing is present; found in South Eastern Europe, and from Egypt | Golden and Central Africa; South-east of Moles Golden the somus, | and (head species coloured black large a to India. P. amir is body 115 mm; tail and (head genera foregoing the than smaller | on prickles the body 240 mm.), and P. dorsalis from Arabia has sepia brown or chocolate with bronze or pinkish usually mm.), 13 | marking. dorsal brown dark a with coloured buff bright the back in number owing to the absence of The Second Subfamily.—The second subfamily Gymmnurinae, | metallic lustre. Teeth only 36

is distinguished by the absence of spines and palatal cavities, the long tail, and narrow pelvis.

The species of the typical genus,

the last pair of molars.

(iv.) Chrysochloris, the typical genus,

with 40 teeth, from South and Central Africa;

about equal m

is a grey Gymnura, inhabit Tenasserim, the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, size to Amblysomus; C. asiatica, from Cape Town, face. white a has congicus, C. while sheen, bluish a with animal | hinder the has gymnura G. islands. adjacent few a Borneo and of the Insectivora

Monograph part of the body and limbs black, and the head, shoulders and | BresrrocmAPgy —G. E. Dobson, Rod. = dE ee E ORT median part of the anterior back white. G. rafflesi#, or alba is CE, p of Proceedings dad History Natural of quaking M and Annals entirely white or pale buff. These Rat Shrews are of considerable | in the Guy Dollman, “Monograph p.4,m.3. | the Zoological Society by Oldfield Thomas; size (head and body about 420 mm.). Dentition i$,c.3, Annals and Magazine of Natural History, The Lesser Rat Shrews, of the genus Hylomys, are easily dis- | of the African Crocidura,”

(J. G. D.) tinguished by their much smaller size, very short tail (head and Vols. V. to VII., 1915-16. or, as they ous Insectivor TS. PLAN S body 140 mm.; tail 23 mm.), and dark vole-like coloration. | INSECTIVOROU are,like plants s carnivorou termed, correctly more sometimés are | Siam, Annam, Borneo, from described races have been Four

a physiological Sumatra and Tonking. A closely allied genus is the Sze-Chuan | the parasites, the climbers or the succulents, natural orders. They distinct of number a to belonging assemblage | length le considerab of is tail the which in s Neotetracu and Yunnan ary habit of adding to the supplies of

and the feet large (head and body 120 mm.; tail 63 mm.; hind- | agree in the extraordin plants foot 26-5 mm.). In the Philippines the group is represented by | nitrogenous material, afforded them in common with other n of by the soil and atmosphere, by the capture and consumptio Podogymnura truet, in which the hindfoot is greatly elongated. me The Potamogalidae.—The |next family, the Potamogalidae, insects and other small animals. The curious and varied is represented by a single species, Potamogale velox, the Otter | chanical arrangements by which these supplies of animal food r to the rivers of the are obtained and utilized are described under the headings of the Shrew, an aquatic insectivore confined and this Congo. Gaboon In the zygomatic arch more important plants. genus Cameroons, ] ^ : The best known and most important family of insectivorous is wanting; the animal measures two feet in about L total length, c ? Droseraceae—includes six genera: Byblis, Roridula, plants— | Denlength. this half about the laterally compressed tail occupies

tition i.$, c.1, p.$,: m.$.

Drosera, Drosophyllum, Aldrovanda and Dionaea, of which the

Family Centetidae agrees with the Potamogalidae in the ab- | last three are monotypic, że., include only one species. The sence of zygomatic arch, but the upper molars have narrower | Sarraceniaceae contain the genera Sarracenia, Darlingtona, H crowns. Teats are present on both the breast and abdomen, and | amphora, while the true pitcher plants or Nepenthaceae consis These three families art some forms are as spiny as aS hedgehogs; the group is confined to of the single large genus Nepenthes. Madagascar. The subfamilies and genera are as follows:—Cen- | closely allied and form the series Sarraceniales of the free-petallec

INSECTIVOROUS

PLANTS

d.

LAE

E M IU 4

E

"E

ET T

PAINTED FOR

THE

ENCYCLOPADIA

BRITANNICA

BY

ISABEL

COO°ER

MAHAFFIE

INSECTIVOROUS Certain plants, as sundews, butterworts, bladderworts and pitcherplants, supplement their food supply by capturing and consuming insects and other small animals, being provided with special struc-

l. Trumpets like leaves. n

(Sarracenia flava); 1A. Pitcher2. California Pitcher-plant (Dar-

uimptonia californica); 2A. Young pitchers. 3. orthern Pitcher-plant

(Sarracenia

purpurea); t

3A. Pitcher-like leaves,

PLANTS

tures for entrapping and digesting their prey. Venus's fly-trap, for example, has hinged leaves which suddenly close upon insects that alight thereon. For details see articles on the plants illustrated

4. Parrot-headed Pitcher-

7. Sundew

(Drosera intermedia).

8. Mindoroan

plant (Sarracenia psittacina); 4A. Pitcher-like leaves. 5. Red Trumpet-leaf (Sarracenia rubra);

Pitcher-plant (Nepenthes Burkei), Is.; SA. Leaf pitchers. 9. Yellow

5A Leaves of the plant. 6. Venus’s Fly-trap (Dionaea muscipula); 6A. Fly-catching leaves.

(Pinguicula

lutea);

9A.

Philippine Butterwort Viscid leaves

405

INSECT PESTS—INSECTS

larger than the smallest Vertesection (Choripetalae) of Dicotyledons. The curious pitcher- the largest Protozoa and others are t, Cephalotus follicularis, comprises a separate family, Ceph- brata. If size be gauged by bulk combined with body-length, the alotaceae, closely allied to the Saxifragaceae. Finally the genera | beetle Macrodontia cervicornis, which ranges up to 1somm. (6in.)

Pinguicula, Utricularia, Genhsea and Polypompholix belong to| long, is to be regarded as one of the giants, while a length of 33cm. the gamopetalous family Lentibulariaceae. While the large genus Drosera has an all but world-wide distribution, its congeners are restricted to well-defined and usually comparatively small areas. Thus Drosophyllum occurs only in Portugal and Morocco, Byblis in tropical Australia, and, although

Aldrovanda is found in Queensland, in Bengal and in Europe, a

wide distribution explained by its aquatic habit, Dionaea is re-

stricted to a few localities in North and South Carolina.

(1ain.) is reached by some of the greatly attenuated stick-insects FRONTAL GANGLION

ANTENNARY NERVE

OCELLI

Ceph-

dofus occurs only near Albany in Western Australia, Heliam-

phora on the Roraima Mountains in Venezuela, Darlingtonia on the Sierra Nevada of California, and these three genera too are

as yet monotypic; of Sarracenia, however, there are seven known species scattered over eastern North America but mostly in the south-eastern United States. The 60 species of Nepenthes are

mostly natives of the hotter parts of the Indian Archipelago, but

END OF

PHARYNX

OPTIC LOBE

SALIVARY

CERVICUM

DucT

a few range into Ceylon, Bengal, Cochin China, and some even

SUB. ' OESOPHAGEAL GANGLION

occur in tropical Australia on the one hand, and in the Seychelles

and Madagascar on the other. Pinguicula is abundant in the north temperate zone, and ranges down the Andes as far as Patagonia; the 210 species of Utricularia are mostly aquatic, and some are found in all save polar regions; their unimportant congeners, Genlisea and Polypompholix, occur in tropical America and southwestern Australia respectively. It is remarkable that all the in-

sectivorous plants agree in inhabiting damp heaths, bogs, marshes and similar situations where water is abundant, but where they are not brought into contact with the plenteous, supply of inorganic food as are the roots of most terrestrial plants. INSECT PESTS: see Entomo.ocy, Economic.

N onosieExe GANGLION

BRAIN

ABDOMEN

SEI LAND

STOMACH

MALPIGHIAN TUBE

INSECTS, the ordinary name used for those animals placed

by zoologists in the class Insecta (or Hexapoda) of the phylum ARTHROPODA (g.v.) and whose scientific study forms that branch of zoology termed ENtomotocy (q.v.). In former times the word insect had a much wider and looser significance than to-day and

the class Insecta of Linnaeus (1735) included those animals which

form the whole of the Arthropoda of modern zoologists. Linnaeus’s term Insecta was first used in a restricted sense by M. J. Brisson (1756), whose application of the word has since been generally adopted. In 1825 P. A. Latreille applied the term Hexapoda to the insects and, since it expresses a very characteristic feature of those animals, it is employed by some authorities. A true insect has its body divided into three distinct regions— head, thorax and abdomen—each composed of a definite number of segments (fig. 1). The head bears a single pair of feelers or antennae, a pair of mandibles and two pairs of accessory jaws or maxillae. The thorax carries three pairs of legs (hence the term Hexapoda) and usually two pairs, more rarely one pair, of wings. The abdomen is devoid of walking limbs and the genital opening is situated near the anal extremity of the body. Respiration takes

GONODUCT

HEARTwe

HIND INTESTINE

1, 2,3, THORACIC GANGLIA

ONOPORE

FROM IMMS, “GENERAL TEXT BOOK OF ENTOMOLOGY” (METHUEN & CO.) FIG. 1.—DIAGRAM SHOWING THE STRUCTURE OF A PRIMITIVE INSECT

(g.v.). spread though wing.

WINGED

In wing expanse alone the moth Erebus agrippina with a of 280mm. (r11in.) is unsurpassed among living insects alcertain fossil dragon-flies measure over 2ft. from wing to At the other end of the scale there are beetles which do TERGUM

DORSAL VESSEL OR HEART

place by means of internal air-tubes or tracheae which communicate with the exterior by a variable number of paired openings

DORSAL DIAPHRAGM

or spiracles. After hatching from the egg the further development is rarely direct and a metamorphosis is usually undergone. Insects probably outnumber in species all the rest of the animal kingdom, and their great numerical predominance is to be as-

TRACHEAL BRANCHES

cribed to their extraordinary adaptability to live under the most diverse conditions, and to the possession of wings. Insects represent the highest grade of evolution among invertebrate animals not only as regards complexity of structure, but also in psychic development as expressed in instinct. They have a world-wide range, species even occurring in the polar regions, on snow-clad mountains and glaciers, in all types of fresh water and in salt

lakes; a few have invaded the sea while others have established themselves in hot springs, in deep wells and in caves where light

never penetrates. It is, however, in the Tropics that insect life exhibits its greatest wealth of species and diversity of form and coloration, In point of size insects present a wide range of differences: as

J.W. Folsom has well expressed it, some insects are smaller than

BODY-CAVITY

NERVOUS SYSTEM

STERNUM

FIG. 2.—SCHEMATIC

VIEW TAKEN

ACROSS

THE THORAX

OF WOOD

WASP

not exceed a length of imm. and some minute wasp-like parasites are even smaller. Apart from the interest that the structure habits and transformations of insects afford to the nature student the whole class is of very great importance in its relations to man. Many species are a direct menace to his food supply, some attack raw materials and others act as vectors of the pathogenic agents of disease both

406

INSECTS

in man and in domestic animals. and Medical.)

(See ENTOMOLOGY: Economic

Colouration.—Many of the colours of insects are due to nis.

ments which occur in the cuticle, or below the cuticle in the

hypodermis, or in the blood. Pigmentary colours are Mostly reds, yellows, browns and blacks, but very rarely blues, and are proSkeleton and Segmentation.—The skeleton of an insect is duced as the result of chemical changes that go on in the the hard part which resists decay after death and forms the dried of the insect. The experiments of F. Merrifiel d and others have specimens kept in collections, and also those parts of insects shown that they are often greatly influence d by heat or cold and EXTERNAL

ANATOMY

found as fossils. The skeleton is mainly external and is the hardEPICRANIAL SUTURE

CLAVATE (BUTTERFLY)

COMPOUND EYE

FILIFORM (GROUND BEETLE}

TW

ADAPTED FROM MIALL AND DENNY, ** YHE COCKROACH"

MIALL & DENNY, “THE COCKROACH” (LOVELL, REEVE & CO.), BY COURTESY OF DR. STEPHEN MIALL FIG. 3,—FRONT VIEW OF HEAD OF COCKROACH

SETACEOUS (COCKROACH)

ened cuticle or outermost layer of the integument or body-wall. It is composed of a substance termed chitin and is produced by

the hypodermis or cellular layer of the integument. The skeleton remains membranous and unchitinized at the joints or other places where movement occurs, but over the rest of the body it is composed of separate areas or sclerites which meet along definite lines or sutures: in cases where adjacent sclerites are fused the sutures are obliterated. Like other Arthropods, insects are seg-

MONILIFORM (TERMITE) 1

:

CAPITATE (BURYING BEETLE)

MANDIBLE LIGULA

ELBOWED (CHALCID WASP)

MENTUM ANTENNA

COMPOUND EYE ee

GULAR SUTURE

— ————-PLUMOSE

(MALE MosauiTo)

P

GENA

we

ies

MAXILLARY PALP

LAMELLATE (COCKCHAFER)

LABIAL PALF

/

kT

j4

e

Vj ic |

E

A P ZA

J Y

MAXILLA

—

:

MANDIBLE

E

LIGULA MENTUM

————————À——Ó GENA

GULAR SUTURE FIG. 4.—UNDER SURFACES OF HEADS OF TWO MEMBERS FAMILY. ABOVE, WEEVIL; BELOW, GROUND BEETLE

OF

Frou IMUS " QEYERAL TEXTBOOK 0F ENTONOLOGY "

FIG. 5.— TYPES OF ANTENNAE

other means. Some pigments are excretory products and, in the cabbage white butterflies, the white scale colour is due to uric acid and certain yellows, reds and possibly greens, of other butterflies and moths and derivatives of this same substance. The yellows, greens and reds of many caterpillars are derived from the chlorophyll of the food, which enters the blood and the colora-

GULA

tion is due to their visibility through the integument.

BEETLE

blacks and browns are of the nature of melanins and are induced by an oxidase. It is noteworthy that the pigments of many

Certain

butterflies and moths are brilliantly fluorescent when subjected to

mented animals and a segment consists normally of a dorsal re- ultra-violet light in a completely darkened room. gion or tergum, a lateral region or pleuron on each side, and a Other colours are the result of structural features that bring ventral region or sternum—each region being composed of one about interference; in a number of cases fine parallel ridges or or more sclerites. Typically, a segment bears a pair of jointed ap- striae on the scales produce iridescent colours. In some instances, pendages or limbs attached on either side between the sternum as in Lycaenid or blue butterflies, little or no pigment be and the pleuron (fig. 2); these appendages are modified according present, while the metallic greens, blues and coppers ofmayother to the various functions they perform and are absent from most insects are produced by scale-structure in combination with & of the abdominal segments. In addition to forming the skeletal backing of pigment. Very often this pigment is black, but the covering, the integument also produces the hairs, scales, spines emerald green of an Ornithoptera butterfly has been shown to and other external structures. be due to scale structure combined with yellow pigment in the

407

INSECTS

which shows galls of the scales. The golden iridescence of Cassida beetles is the mentum and the latter carries the pre-mentum pre-mentum when com-

The pletely developed carries paired lobes on either side; these lobes

structure. uced by a film of moisture beneath the surface cuticle and is indications of a paired

quickly lost after death.

Head.—The head (figs. 3 and 4) is composed of six segments which are So intimately fused together that evidence of its segmental structure is chiefly derived from the presence of appendages. On the upper surface of the head of a cockroach or other neralized insect a Y-shaped epicranial suture is present, the sclerite between the arms of the Y being the frons, while behind

the frons the rest of the head is termed the epicranium. Anterior to the frons is the clypeus, which is often fused with it, and in front of the clypeus is a movable upper lip or labrum; the inner

sensory lining of the labrum is termed the epipharynx, which, along with the labrum, is often greatly developed in sucking insects. Paired compound eyes are almost always present on the epicra-

nium and below the eyes are the genae or cheeks: three simple

eyes or ocelli are also frequently evident. The head is attached to the thorax by a neck and the region of attachment is indicated

by the large occipital foramen: on the floor of the head in front of this foramen there is sometimes present a median chin sclerite ges— or gula (fig. 4). The head bears four pairs of appenda antennae, mandibles, first maxillae and second maxillae. The an-

tennae or feelers are composed of a variable number of joints or segments and are very diverse in form: they bear sense organs MAXILLARY PALP

are the paraglossae and glossae which are homologous with the galeae and laciniae of the first maxillae. Collectively they form the ligula, but often one or both pairs of these lobes are wanting

or fused.

Jointed labial palpi arise on either side from the

outer border of the pre-mentum. On the floor of the mouthcavity, above the base of the labium, is the tongue or hypopharynx, which receives the opening of the salivary duct; in the more primitive insects and some larsupervae, paired lobes—the linguae (maxillulae)—are present in relation with the hypopharynx. The mouth parts of insects present many modifications of form in accordance with the uses FROM SNODGRASS, “ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY to which they are subjected. OF THE HONEY BEE” (U.S. DEPT. OF AGRIThus, in insects which feed by CULTURE) FIG. 7.—TERGUM OF THE MESO- sucking, the galeae of the maxilTHORAX OF CRANE-FLY lae are prolonged into a proboscis, and in piercing insects the mandibles, maxillae and other organs are developed into needle-like stylets. These and other modifications are dealt with under the separate groups concerned. Thorax.—Three segments make up the*thorax which is the locomotory centre of the body: they are termed the prothorax, Ist ABDOMINAL SEGMENTS

METANOTUM

SCUTELLUM

__2ND ABDOMINAL SEGMENTS

SCUTUM.

; === SPIRACLE

PRONOTUM ÉPIMERON

EPISTERNUM COXAE OF LEFT LEG

CoxAE' OF LEFT LEG

FIG. 8.—DIAGRAMMATIC VIEW OF THORAX OF WOOD WASP mesothorax and metathorax. 'The tergum of the prothorax is formed by the pronotum, and although large in cockroaches, plant bugs and beetles is usually reduced in other winged insects. In the mesothorax and metathorax the tergum is made up of a LABIAL PALP

PULVILLUS

TARSUS TIBIA

FEMUR TROCHANTER

COXA FIG.

6.—PRINCIPAL

MOUTH

PARTS

OF

A COCKROACH

of smell and touch and are often more conspicuously developed

in the male than in the female (fig. 5). The mandibles (figs. 3 and 6) are the principal jaws and are used for seizing and crushing

the food. The first maxillae are accessory jaws; each maxilla con-

sists of two basal pieces, cardo and stipes, the latter bearing an

outer lobe or galea and an inner toothed lobe or Jacinta. Exter-

FIG. 9.—SIDE VIEW OF A TYPICAL LEG OF AN INSECT

series of sclerites, one behind the other; viz., frescutum, scutum, scutellum and post-scutellum (fig. 7)—of these the scutellum of the mesothorax is often especially prominent. Laterally each pleuron is composed of an anterior sclerite or episternum and a

posterior sclerite of epimeron (fig. 8). On the ventral side, each

sternum is composed of variable numbers of sclerites in differi organs of special sense. The second maxillae form the lower lip ent groups. Legs.—A pair of legs is borne on each thoracic segment. A leg or labium and are composed of a pair of partially fused append-

nally the maxilla carries a jointed maxillary palp which bears

ages. Its large basal plate or sub-mentum is joined in front with

is formed of five parts (fig. 9); viz., a broad subglobular coxa

4.08

INSECTS

which articulates with the thorax; a small trochanter; a stout | forms its anterior boundary. Flight.—During flight the wings of an insect have an up-andelongate femur; a slender tibia; and a tarsus consisting typically of five segments or joints. The last tarsal segment bears a pair down motion combined with movement in the backward and forof claws, more rarely a single claw, and beneath the claws there ward directions. This results in the path or trajectory made by is a pair of adhesive pads or pulvilli which aid in walking over the apex of the wing taking the form of a continuous series of steep or smooth surfaces. Legs vary greatly in form according double loops resembling the figure 8. These movements are efto whether they are used for running, burrowing, grasping, etc. fected by two sets of muscles—indirect muscles and direct musLocomotion.—While walking an insect usually moves its legs in such a way that the fore and hind legs of one side, and the middle leg of the other side, progress forward almost at the same moment, the body being supported, as it were, on a tripod formed by the remaining three legs. The anterior leg pulls the body PLEURAL WING Process! i forward and the hind leg chiefly pushes in the same direction, while the middle leg steadies the body and helps to raise or VERTICAL (Dorso ' VENTRAL)MUSCLES lower it. Wings.—Wings are lateral outgrowths of the integument of TERGUN the tergum of the meso- and metathorax and commence to de| velop in the larva or nymph as the case may be. They exhibit LONGITUDINAL MUSCLES great variety of form and structure in different groups of insects and may be wanting altogether: some insects, such as bristlePLEURAL WING = tails and spring-tails, have never acquired wings, while others such as lice, fleas, worker ants, etc., although wingless, are beVERTICAL (Dorso lieved to have been derived from winged ancestors. A wing is VENTRAL)MUSCLES | composed of an upper and a lower membrane and between these two layers it is strengthened by a framework of chitinous tubes known as veins. The latter develop very largely in relation with BY COURTESY OF UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE the air-tubes or tracheae which enter the developing wing when FIG. 11.—ACTION OF THE INDIRECT WING MUSCLES DURING FLIGHT it is little more than®a bud-like outgrowth. The venation, or ar- cles (fig. 11). The indirect muscles are the largest in the body i

and are attached to the thorax and not to the wing-bases. They

consist of two groups of muscles: (1) a pair of dorso-ventral muscles, by whose contraction the dorsal wall of the thorax is MAIN STEM OF depressed, with the result that the wings are forced upward, owist BRANCH OF RADIAL MEDIAN VEIN ing to the peculiar nature of their articulation with the thorax; (2) a pair of longitudinal muscles, by whose contraction the dorsal RADIAL 2ND BRANCH OF wall of the thorax becomes arched upwards, and the wings conseMEDIAN. VEIN quently forced downwards. The rapid alternate contraction of MEDIAL these two groups of muscles, therefore, raises and lowers the 3RD BRANCH OF wings by their action upon the dorsal wall of the thorax. The RADIO-MEDIAL wee MEDIAN VEIN direct muscles arise in the thorax but are inserted on the bases [^ of the wings: they are smaller and more numerous than the inMEDIO-CUBITAL 4TH BRANCH OF MEDIAN VEIN direct muscles, and in the blow-fly they amount to ten pairs; they function in turning the wings backwards and forwards ina RADIAL SECTOR horizontal direction as well as aiding in steering. In most insects CROSS-VEINS MEDIAN the important flight muscles are the indirect muscles, but in dragon-flies the chief muscles are inserted directly on to the bases 2ND CUBITAL SUBCOSTAL of the wings. The wings are capable of very rapid motion: it has been found ist ANAL VEIN HUMERAL that the house-fly makes 330 strokes per second, a bee 190, a dragon-fly 28 and a butterfly nine strokes per second. This has RADIAL 1ST CUBITAL been determined by using captive insects in such a manner that the tip of the wing comes in contact with a revolving drum cov| COSTAL 2ND ANAL VEIN ered with smoked paper. The least contact of the wing removes a minute area of the coating and exposes the white paper beneath. Comparison of such a record with one made in a similar manner CUBITAL SRD ANAL VEIN by means of a tuning fork, of an ascertained frequency of vibraFIG. 10.—HYPOTHETICAL TYPE OF WING VENATION tion, enables the rapidity of wing movement to be accurately rangement of the wing-veins, is of great importance in classifi- determined. cation and the homologies of the veins are largely determined by Abdomen.—The abdomen (fig. 12) is usually composed of ten studying the wings of fossil insects, and the pre-existing tracheae segments, but since modification in the wing-buds of the nymphs and pupae of living insects; in has taken place both anteriorly the more primitive insects each principal vein is preceded by the and posteriorly, it is often difütrachea from which it takes its name. cult to determine their limits 1n The wing-vein nomenclature largely used to-day is known as the these two regions, Vestiges of an Comstock-Needham system. It is based upon the conclusion IIth segment are present in à that all orders of winged insects have a venation derived from a few orders and in the Protura common primitive type and that there are eight principal veins. there are 12 segments: in all cases These veins and their recognized symbols are shown in fig. ro. FIG. 12.—MALE AND A FEMALE the anus is placed on the last segCOCKROACH The actual venation, it must be understood, departs by a greater ment. The latter region in gem or lesser degree from this primitive plan and either reduction or eralized insects also frequently bears a pair of jointed tail-feelers multiplication of the veins and their branches is the rule. Be- or cerci, as in bristle-tails and may-flies, while the eighth and tween the veins are cross-veins which divide the wing into closed ninth segments carry ventral appendages known as gonopophyses. areas or cells, each cell taking its name from the vein which In the female they form two pairs of valves borne on the ninth BR

H QF

RADIAL SECTOR

BRANCH

OF

RADIAL SECTOR

409

INSECTS nt and enclosed in a pair of broader blades borne on the

th segment, the whole forming an egg-laying organ or ovi-

ically both kinds of eyes occur in adult insects and often in nymphs, but in larvae lateral ocelli only are usually present.

A

compound eye consists of a large number of separate visual or ommatidia and is covered externally by a transparent elements ants many in different groups of insects; in bees, wasps and it is modified to form a sting: in saw-flies it is used for sawing cornea which is divided into hexagonal lenses or facets equal in niches in plant tissues for placing the eggs: in wood-wasps it number to the ommatidia beneath (fig. 15). In the ocelli the di-

s (fig. 13). This structure is adapted to perform different

drills holes for placing the eggs deep in wood, while in many ich-

neumon flies and their allies it is used for piercing other insects

CORNEA, DIVIDED INTO FACTS

di

TR ss HA TTL das patil |TP WWW pst

INNER VALVES

Ls

v YZ | |

VENTRAL VALVE OF OVIPOSITOR

LA

CPS A

fi aes

BASEMENT MEMBRANE

OUTER FIBRILLAR BODY OF Optic LOBE

OUTER CHIASMA

Optic LOBE

MIDDLE FIBRILLAR BODY OF OPTIC LOBE AFTER: SNODGRASS, U.S. BuR. ENTOM. TECH. SER, 18 INNER CHIASMA

FIG. 13.—APEX OF ABDOMEN WITH OVIPOSITOR OF GRASSHOPPER In some insects there is no

in whose bodies the eggs are laid.

INNER FIBRILLAR BODY OF OPTIC LOBE

ovipositor, while in many beetles and flies the terminal segments of the body are developed in a telescopic manner, thus functioning as an egg-laying organ.

FROM SNOOGRASS, AFTER PHILLIPS

In male insects the gono-

FIG. 15.—SECTION THROUGH THE EYE AND OPTIC LOBE OF BRAIN OF pophyses function as external organs of reproduction: they comWORKER HIVE BEE introthe with d prise a pair of small valves or parameres associate | vided cornea is replaced by a single biconvex lens which overa pair of large valves or claspers used for

mittent organ, and

grasping the female—both pairs of organs belonging to the ninth segment.

ee

BRAIN

INTERNAL

ANATOMY

The internal organs of an insect, like those of other Arthropods, lie ina common body-cavity or haemocoele which contains blood and is in free communication with and forms part of the general circulatory system. Nervous System and Sense

Organs—The

SUB-OESOPHAGEAL GANGLION

THORACIC GANGLIA

NERVES TO LEGS

central nervous

THORACIC GANGIIA

OCELLAR NERVE TO BRAIN

1ST ABDOMINAL GANGLIA

fused ganglia which inthe antennae and visual The first ganglion of the cord is the suboesophThe

VISUAL ELEMENTS OR RETINULAE

NERVES TO LEGS

just above the gullet and consists

Innervates the mouth-parts.

INTEGUMENT

THORACIC GANGLIA

14). The brain lies in the head

ageal ganglion which lies in the head just below the gullet and

lies the visual elements (fig. 16). Vision by means of compound eyes is explained by the mosaic theory which maintains that only those rays of light entering a facet which are parallel with the long axes of the ommatidia, reach the retina where they register a minute part of the whole field of vision, oblique rays being absorbed by the surrounding pigment. The entire image will consequently be a mosaic made up of as many units as there are

NERVES To LEGS

system consists typically of a ventral nerve cord with a pair of nerve centres or ganglia in each segment of the body: it is joined by a connective on either side of the gullet with the brain (fig.

of three nervate organs. ventral

ANTENNARY NERVE

TERMINAL ABDOMINAL GANGLIA

AFTER luus’ “GENERAL TEXTBOOK

OF Exrouo.oey ”

FIG. 14.—NERVOUS SYSTEM OF AN

next three ganglia are situated FARWIS

one in each of the thoracic segments and innervate the wings and legs, while the remaining ganglia of the ventral cord belong to

the abdomen. In the more specialized insects a variable number

of the ganglia undergo fusion and as in the house-fly, all the thoracic and abdominal ganglia are merged into a common centre.

Connected with the nervous system are the organs of special

sense, Visual organs consist of compound eyes and ocelli: typ-

From iums, AFTER LINK

FIG.

16.—SECTION

THROUGH

AN

OCELLUS

OF A CUCKOO

SPIT

INSECT

facets to the cornea. The compound eye appears to be an organ especially adapted for perceiving moving objects quickly, while the ocelli distinguish very near objects and varying intensities of light. Auditory organs in their simplest form consist of fine rods

suspended between two points of the integument and connected with nerve-fibres: in such a condition they are present in many insects and larvae. In other cases more elaborate organs are developed, and in grasshoppers (Acridiidae) there is a tympanic membrane on either side of the first abdominal segment which

is in contact with a delicate sac containing fluid and receiving

410

INSECTS

nerve-endings (fig. 17). In long-horned grasshoppers and crickets a small swelling below the knee joint bears two narrow slits which lead into chambers whose delicate walls are in contact with airtubes and bear nerve-endings. In both these examples sound waves impinge on an auditory membrane whose vibrations are transmitted by nerve fibres to the central nervous system. Sense perception of other kinds takes place by means of modified hairs

voluntary and involuntary muscles of insects are cross-striated.

In the thorax and abdomen the muscles are arranged in (i)a

longitudinal series, both tergal and sternal muscles being present, (2) a dorso-ventral series and (3) a pleural series. In the thorax

there are also other special muscles connected with the move-

ments of the legs and wings. The head contains numerous mucles which comprise the abductor and adductor muscles of the mouth-parts and cervical muscles controlling the movements of the head. Respiratory System.—T h e respiratory organs consist of a much branched system of airtubes or £racheae (fig. 21), which are kept distended by spirally

arranged

thickenings of their chitinous lining (fig. 20). The small tracheae end in fine capil-

4 PE Se All N i i

laries or tracheoles which pass to

|a

heiedvouslateralorzneopeningsof theorbodysore || aa MRAN LUND

Air

enters

the tracheae

|) lli P

through

paired lateral openings or spiracles: each spiracle is surrounded by a chitinous rim and is generally provided with a closing apparatus and often special devices to exclude foreign matter. The typical number of spir-

M

QUE

ARM

|

Pp] E

~ HORN-SHAPED PROCESSES acles is ten

AUDITORY NERVE

DENKSCHRIFTEN DER KAISERLICHEN AKADEMIE AKADEMIE DER WISSENSCHAFTEN, VIENNA

FIG. 17.—LATERAL

DER

WISSENSCHAFT,

BY

PERMISSION

OF

THE

VIEW OF A LOCUST

covered by a very delicate cuticle and in direct connection with a nerve fibre. Included in this category are tactile organs which closely resemble ordinary hairs and are widely distributed over PLATE-LIKE SENSE ORGAN

pairs

on

MIALL

AND

DENNY,

“THE

COCKROACH”

reeve « co.) sy courtesy oF n Pa

abdomen, but this number isoften FiG. 19.—VENTRAL reduced,

AFTER GRABER

pairs—two

the thorax and eight pairs on the especially

in

larvae.

NERVE

CORD

OF THE

MUSCLES AND COCKROACH

Respiratory movements on the part of the insect facilitate the entry of air into the tracheae whence it passes by diffusion into the tracheoles, where it finally gives up its oxygen to the tissues. Carbon dioxide is got rid of partly by diffusion through membranous areas of the integument and partly by passage through the tracheae, it being finally expelled through the spiracles by the contraction of the tergosternal muscles which compress the body. Many aquatic insects breathe by means of tracheal gills. In other insects, which have no tracheae, respiration is cutaneous.

Circulatory System.—The heart in an insect is represented by a tubular contractile dorsal vessel which is composed of successive chambers and runs along the middle line of the back, just

PEG-LIKE SENSE ORGAN

below the integument

(fig. 1). It lies in the pericardial sinus

CUTICLE COVERING ANTENNA

NERVE

TRACHEAL BRANCHES ENDING IN | TRACHEOLES ON MUSCLE FIBRES (AFTER SNODGRASS, “ANATOMY AHO

PuyeioLoey oF THE Howey BEE"

ENSORY CELLS

FiG. 20.—PORTION OF A TRACHEAL TUBE AND BRANCHES

whose floor is formed by the pericardial diaphragm, and there

is usually a ventral diaphragm, enclosing a peri-neural sinus surrounding the nerve cord (fig. 8). The dorsal vessel pumps the FIG. 18.—SENSE ORGANS FROM ANTENNA OF THE HORNET blood forward, through its anterior prolongation or aorta, into the body and appendages: olfactory organs (fig. 18) which are | the body-cavity: here it bathes the various organs and flows more variable and modified in form and are present in large through the appendages. The pulsations of the two diaphragms numbers on the antennae, especially of male insects: and gusta- keep the blood in circulation and it is eventually returned to the tery organs whose taste function is presumed from their loca- pericardial sinus through openings in the diaphragm. Here it tion on parts near or connected with the mouth-cavity. makes its way back to the dorsal vessel, entering the latter organ Muscular System (&g. 19).—Unlike those of vertebrates the through paired valvular inlets placed at the constrictions between ADAPTED FROM NAGEL

AII

INSECTS

adjacent chambers. The blood is composed of a fluid or plasma| singly or in groups: enclosed in capsules or oothecae, as in cock-

amoeba-like corpuscles, somewhat resembling the| roaches, etc., or enveloped in a gelatinous mucilage as in some leucocytes of mammalian blood. Although it plays a part in res- | midges and caddis flies, which lay them in water. Early Development.—After maturition and fertilization of function is the circulation of nutrient material pra ation, on, its chief E the egg have taken place, develamong the various organs of the body. opment commences by the divipigestive System.—The digestive canal (fig. 22) is divided sion of the segmentation nucleus into fore-gut, mid-gut or stomach and hind-gut: the first and SALIVARY GLANDS third regions are formed as tubuwhich results in the formation of lar inpushings of the integument a number of cleavage nuclei. and are lined with thin cuticle, These pass to the periphery of the while the mid-gut is developed as egg where they arrange themCRoP (THE GIZZARD a separate chamber. The foreselves in a single layer or blastoBELOW It) gut consists of a narrow gullet, a derm (fig. 25) which encloses the sac-like crop and often a gizzard: yolk. In many insects a group of Y) in Lepidoptera and many flies cells appears at the hind pole of ALT) CON CAECAL TUBES e ASy the crop is a separate food-reserTE the egg: these cells are derived < (BELOW THEM : WY.S mn THE STOMACH) voir connected by a canal with the from the segmentation nucleus bk YM A gullet (fig. 23). On either side of but take no part in blastoderm o X 7 the fore-gut are the salivary formation, and are the primitive -— [N glands which open into the germ cells (figs. 25 and 26) which mouth-cavity. 'The mid-gut is ultimately give rise to the future short, and often provided with ova or spermatozoa as the case outgrowths or caeca, while the may be. At a later stage they behind-gut consists of a tubular income enclosed in the mesoderm testine and an end-chamber or which forms the sexual organs. rectum. Arising from the hindEarly in development the blastogut, near its junction with the midderm becomes thickened on the gut is a variable number of slenfuture ventral surface forming the der Malpighian tubes. The food germ band or ventral plate (fig. during mastication is mixed with MIALL AND DENNY, “THE COCKROACH” (LOVELL 25). Along this band a pair of saliva whose enzymes act upon longitudinal folds arise which the starchy matter. The secre- FIG. 22.—FOOD CANAL OF A COCK- grow and meet, thus converting tions of the mid-gut deal chiefly ROACH the one-layered rudiment into with proteids and fats and resem- two layers—the outer layer being the ectoderm and the inner ble those of the pancreas of verte- layer the mesoderm (fig. 26). This stage, known as the gastrula, brates. Digestion often takes which is an important phase in the development of all animals, place largely in the crop while the is subject to several variations in insects. Formation of the Embryo (fig. 27).—Early on, the germ mid-gut is the seat of absorption and the hind-gut conducts waste band becomes divided by transverse furrows into a series of segNIALL AND DENNY, “THE COCKROACH” (LOVELL REEYE & CO.) BY COURTESY OF DR. S. MIALL products to the exterior. containing

PR

RT

AAS

Ji

F

REEVE

FIG. 21.—VENTRAL PORTION OF AIR TUBES IN A COCKROACH

Excretory

&

CO.)

BY

COURTESY

OF

DR.

S.

MIALL

System.—The

Malpighian tubes function as kidneys and eliminate urates and other waste products from the blood, discharging them into the hind intestine (figs. 22 and 23). In many insects the fat-body, or irregular tissue found in the body-cavity, also functions in an excretory capacity, but it mainly stores up nutrient reserves to be drawn upon during metamor-

PRO-VENTRICULUS

Foop DUCT

MID-GUT OR STOMACH

phosis.

Reproductive System.—In the female (fig. 24) the ovaries

are paired organs each formed of a variable number of egg-tubes

FOOD-RESERVOIR AND ITS DUCT

or ovarioles which contain the developing ova. The latter as they ripen pass down the oviducts to enter a median passage or vagina

MALPIGHIAN TUSE

and are discharged through the female genital pore which is usually placed between the sterna of the eighth and ninth abdominal segments. There are also generally a spermat£heca for storing the sperms and paired accessory glands. In the male (fig. 24) the testes are likewise paired and are formed of seminal tubes which produce the sperms. The sperms are discharged into paired ducts orvasa deferentia, and finally into a median ejaculatory duct opening in the aedeagus or intromittent organ, which is placed between

77 MALPIGHIAN TUBE HiND GUT WITH RECTUM

RECTUM

theninth and tenth abdominal sterna. Sometimes-the vasa deferentia are locally enlarged as seminal vesicles for storing the sperms and accessory glands may also be present. Fertilization of the ova

RECTUM AND ITS PAPILLAE

depends upon the union of the sexes, which, in some insects, may

Rl emale.

FIG. 23.— DIGESTIVE

EMBRYOLOGY

The Egg.—The eggs are usually rich in yolk for nourishing the growing embryos: many eggs are elongate-oval in shape, others are spherical, and some are flattened or flask-shaped: the outer

coat (chorion) is often elaborately sculptured. Eggs may be laid

1 A,

ihe

hy Aes i

FROM IMMS "GENERAL TEXTBOOK OF ENTOMOLOGY,” AFTER LoWNE

'times in the life of the individual, either male or CANAL

OF A MUSCID

FLY

ments of which six form the future head, three form the thorax and rri or 12 form the abdomen: at.this stage the germ band may be referred to as the embryo. On each segment, except the first and last, pairs of bud-like appendages appear. These, in all insects, form the future antennae, mouth-parts and legs, while the remain-

412

INSECTS

der, with certain exceptions, usually disappear before the embryo is fully developed. The transient appendages are the small second pair, behind the antennae, and those borne on the abdomen. Among Apterygota certain of the abdominal appendages form those of the adult and in caterpillars they develop into abdominal feet. In other insects cerci, when present, are formed from the last pair, but the rest of the abdominal appendages disappear. The

sects either the amnion or serosa ruptures over the region of the

embryo to allow of its growth, but in Lepidoptera these mem. branes remain intact, and the amniotic cavity follows the growth of the embryo around the yolk.

EJACULATORY DucT

AFTER [umd “GENERAL TEXTBOOK

OF ENTOMOLÓGY"*

FIG.

24.—REPRODUCTIVE

ORGANS

OF WINGED

TERMITE

gonapophyses are believed to be derived from abdominal appendages of the eighth and ninth segments, but direct proof is wanting. Along either side of the middle line of the ectoderm a pair of ridges develop which are the fundaments of the nervous system. They become segmented into paired swellings or neuromeres, one neuromere lying in each embryonic segment. The first three neuromeres give rise to the brain, the next three form the suboesophageal ganglion and the remainder form the ganglia of the thorax and abdomen. At a later stage pits appear on the outer side of the last two thoracic and the first eight or nine abdominal appendages, these being the rudiments of the spiracles. Embryonic Membranes (fig. 28)—In some insects such as beetles the embryo remains at the surface of the yolk, but_it subsequently becomes covered by folds which arise along its edges. These folds grow towards one another and fuse, and in this way enclose the embryo in an amniotic cavity which is covered by an outer membrane or serosa and an inner membrane or amnion

(fig. 28). In some other insects such as butterflies and dragonflies the embryo becomes sunk into the yolk and a portion of the non-embryonic part of the blastoderm becomes necessarily carried

OTT RTT Np: LL QE ERR de v

ANTERIOR POLE

7

"7Ed

YOLK CELLS dAJ p

DORSAL OR NON-EMBRYONIC PART OF BLASTODERM

EC ne

OU AALO

YOLK THICKENED BLASTODERM OR VENTRAL PLATE

GERM CELLS

FIG. 25.—STAGES SECTION

DEVELOPMENT

IN

THE

EGGS

OF

A BEETLE,

IN

Integument and Tracheal System.—When the dorsal closure is completed the embryo is surrounded by ectoderm which

forms, in addition to the organs previously mentioned, the whole

in with it, forming the amnion. In a moth or butterfly the embryo sinks into the yolk without change of orientation, but in dragonflies it moves through an arc until its position is completely reversed on the dorsal side of the yolk. Here it rests for a while and again passes through the same arc to its original ventral position. Digestive System (fig. 29).—In the positions of the future mouth and anus the ectoderm becomes inpushed to form the rudiments of the fore-gut and hind-gut respectively. The method of origin of the mid-gut is much disputed: by some embryologists it is believed to arise partly from the mesoderm and partly from cells budded off from the previously mentioned gut-rudiments—

others claim its origin from the latter source only. 'The Malpighian tubes develop as outgrowths from the hind-gut when the latter is little more than a pit, and subsequently become carried inwards as the gut-rudiment deepens. ‘Dorsal Closure (fig. 30).—As development proceeds the embryo broadens out and gradually grows around the yolk until its sides finally meet and fuse along the dorsal region. In many in-

OF

LONGITUDINAL FOLDS `

AFTER NELSON,

EE

FIG.

11 EMBRYOLOGY OF THE Honey BEE

A

E

26.—TRANSVERSE

SECTION

OF

THE

EGG

OF THE

HIVE

BEE

integument of the body and its appendages together with the

tracheal system and salivary glands. The tracheae arise from the original spiracular pits which deepen into tubes and become freely branched as development proceeds. Mesoderm

and

Organs

Derived

from

It (fig. 30) —The

413

INSECTS rm or inner layer of the germ band undergoes segmentaing with that of the ectoderm. Coelomic cavities correspond tion tly break

r in these mesoderm segments, but they subsequen

down and take little part in the iormation of the permanent body-

cavity as happens In so many animals. The mesoderm gives rise to the dorsal vessel, fat-body, muscles and the sexual organs and their paired ducts, but the vagina and the ejaculatory duct respec-

tively are derived as inpushings of the ectoderm. The body-cavity

is chiefly formed from a space

of the yolk from the mesoderm i the mid-ventral region: this

tinued growth and structural dif-

moth Hadena oleracea lays over 800 eggs, and the house-fly may

deposit over 2,000 eggs during its life. The maximum fecundity is reached among termites whose queens are often little more than huge inert egg-laying machines producing upwards of 4,000 eggs every 24 hours, and 1,000,000 eggs a year during a life of perhaps six to nine years. Viviparity.—In some insects embryonic development takes place while the eggs are still within the body of the female and living young are consequently produced. This is a very general phenomenon

that is produced by the separation

ce extends laterally with the ard growth of the embryo ill the complete body-cavity is formed. Later Development and Eclosion.—Once the fundaments of the various organs are laid down the final stages of development largely consist in their con-

mussel scale in England lays on an average less than 4o eggs; the

LABIUM OR SECOND MAXILLA OPENING OF DEVELOPING SILK GLAND

KEEN LA

t

a4

throughout the summer

in all true aphides.

Vivi-

parity is also not rare among certain flies and is occasionally found in some beetles. Among flies there are species which produce large numbers of eggs whose larvae are "born" as soon as they issue from the eggs, while there are others such as the tsetse flies and sheep ked, which produce a very small number of eggs and the larvae are retained in the body of the female and nourished till fully grown. 'They are then "born" and turn to pupae almost immediately afterwards. Parthenogenesis.—Parthenogenesis, or reproduction without the act of fertilization, exhibits a multiplicity of phases among insects. In some species it is a rare, occasional phenomenon: in others it is the constant and normal method of reproduction, or

ferentiation. When fully devel-

oped the embryo becomes the S 1ST ABDOMINAL Eri vM ol APPENDAGE young insect and its method of one Ye hatching or eclosion from the egg SPIRACLES varies in different groups. Some y NEURAL RIDGES ) simpl illars caterp insects (e.g., eat their way out through the eggLAST shell, others rupture it by body ABDOMINAL APPENDAGE nt, moveme or there may be a lid or operculum which is pushed ADAPTED FROM TOYAMA apart from the rest of the shell by the insect in its efforts to emerge. In some plant-bugs and FIG. 27.—EMBRYO OF A SILKWORM other insects a hatching spine or egg-burster is present on the head and after eclosion is effected this structure is left behind. -

Cau.

AEn

15

t

SU D Vo -

TÉ"

.

REPRODUCTION

Insects exhibit a diversity of reproductive phenomena unparalleled in other animals. Nowhere else do we find parthenogenesis both sporadic and cyclic, viviparity, paedogenesis and polyembryony all within the limits of a single group of the animal kingdom. Normally reproduction is dependent upon the meeting of the sexes which leads to the fertilization of the ova preparatory to

egg-laying. Mating.—In some insects mating takes place only once and death supervenes soon afterwards, as in may-flies. In the hive bee the queen has a life of several years, but a single act of mating is sufücient for fertilizing the eggs during that long period, and the male perishes soon after pairing. In other insects a male may pair freely with several females and in many beetles repeated mating takes place in the life of both sexes. Burgess found that in the ground beetle Calosoma sycophanta the female required several matings or a large proportion of the eggs would be infertile.

Oviposition and Fecundity.—Egg-laying or oviposition takes place in various ways as already mentioned and the eggs are deposited in situations expressly adapted for the immediate needs of

the future offspring. In some cases the female simply drops the eggs at random while flying low, as happens in certain moths

whose larvae feed on grasses or their roots. Very commonly the

SNODGRASS, “SMITHSONIAN REPORT” (U.S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE) FIG. 28.—PROTECTION OF THE INSECT EMBRYO WITHIN

THE EGG

ess are laid singly or in masses on the food-plant of the future it may be cyclic—alternating with sexual reproduction. Partheno: or they may be inserted into plant tissues, as in some genesis may, therefore, be classed under three headings: (1) Spograsshoppers. When inserted more deeply excrescences or galls radic, which happens especially among moths and is more frequent may arise as in saw-flies, gall-wasps and gall-midges. Other insects in some species than in others: both males and females may be hy their eggs beneath the soil, while parasitic species lay them on produced from the unfertilized eggs; (2) Constant: in social bees E the bodies of the hosts which support their future off- and wasps the males are regularly produced from the unfertilized The number of eggs laid by the female greatly varies among erent species. In the Phylloxera of the vine and the woolly » the winter females lay but a single large egg apiece; the

eggs, and the same happens in many of the Chalcids. In some of the stick-insects females only are produced and the males are very rare: again, m certain gall-wasps and saw-flies males are unknown and sexual reproduction is consequently absent. (3) Cyclic: in

414

INSECTS

many gall-wasps and almost all aphides one or more partheno- | lular covering and, when mature, they separate and become fre, genetic generations alternate with a sexual generation. In the gall- | in the body of their host. The resultant insects may be female Or wasps the individuals of the two generations are often very dif- | male, according to whether the original egg was fertilized or not ferent in form and produce dissimilar galls. The spring genera- | As many as 3,000 larvae are known to issue from a single Cater.

tion consists of females which give rise to a summer generation of| pillar of the Silver Y moth in which several of these chains of both sexes which mate and produce the spring females of the next | embryos were present. year. In aphides generation after generation of virgin females are GROWTH AND METAMORPHOSIS After hatching or birth, insects undergo a process of growth and change till they become adult. Every insect during its growth

"

sheds its cuticle several times, this process being known as moult ing or ecdysis, the cast skirt being the exuvia. The form assumed

CE X

EEPITITSEDXPERLINEELTEA AE S Eielel

MEE iie erteilen

RUDIMENTS OF SEXUAL

À

WITH GERN, CELLS | RUDIMENTS OF SEXUAL ORGAN WITH GERM CELIS |

——M T Ore EIeEBIeEREE Ed

a

a

TEES... pT

Ds

e Er

* Orfeo

* a? Cig 29 sapit ge

Je

.

bsg ^ we

SUTARTIES

A.

as

ad p en 2t

s

assorat,

es

SREP

ME [HIT

SNODGRASS,

“SMITHSONIAN

FIG. 29.—STAGES INSECT EGG

REPORT”

(U.S.

DEPT.

IN THE DEVELOPMENT

OF AGRICULTURE)

OF THE ‘DIGESTIVE CANAL OF AN

produced viviparously till finally they give rise to true sexual individuals which pair and lay normal eggs. Paedogenesis.—In a few insects larvae or pupae are capable of parthenogenetic reproduction, and this process, which involves the production of offspring by the immature animal, is termed paedogenesis. Thus, the pupae of an aquatic fly (family Chironomidae) have been known to produce eggs which duly hatched into larvae. In the gall-midge Miastor, the larvae regularly produce daughter larvae which eat their way out of the body of the parent and reproduce in a similar manner on their own account. After several generations of this type, male and female flies are usually produced which pair and their progeny gives rise to the paedogenetic cycle over again. Polyembryony.—This consists in the production of two or more embryos from a single egg by a process of budding (fig. 31). It is only found in certain of those Hymenoptera whose larvae

°af&

~zs EH en OD GLG

COIDA Led :

AN zh

ex

TOE D

RUDIMENTS OF SEXUAL ORGAN WITH GERM CELLS

Till EA

{

į

FAT-BODY |

lili

NS:

NERVOUS SYSTEM

OUS C

pss

TS mm

|

BEGINNING OF PERMANENT

Bopy CAVITY

AFTER HEYMONE, Zéirs. Wiss. Zool, 58. 1

live as parasites in the blood and tissues of other insects. The sim- | FIG. 30.—SECTIONS THROUGH THE ABDOMEN OF AN EMBRYO COCKROACH plest case is found in a minute creature Platygaster hiemalis which | by an insect between successive moults is termed an instar: thus,

is a parasite of the Hessian fly. Some of the eggs of this parasite | when it issues from the egg it is in its first instar and after thesec-

develop normally into larvae, while others develop up to a point | ond ecdysis it is in its third instar, and so on. The final instars

when the embryo divides so as to produce two larvae within the | the fully mature insect or imago.

Rs

T

same 'egg-covering. In other species ten or t2 larvae may arise} Metamorphosis.—Most insects issue from the egg in a differfrom a single egg, while in some chalcid wasps which parasitize | ent form from that assumed in the imago and in order.to reach the caterpillars, roo or more larvae may be produced from a single| latter condition, they have to pass through changes that are collecembryo. These develop in a continuous chain enveloped in a cel- | tively termed metamorphosis, A small number of insects emerge

PLATE

IN SECTS

an

r

i

p

cee NCYCLOPADIA

BRITANNICA

BY

HELEN

DAMROSCH

TEE-VAN

FROM

e

t

ni em : spat

ze

SPECIMENS

ER IN THE

COMMON FORMS 1» Locust (Cicada pruinosa latifasciata). 2. Leaf Insect (Phyllium sicciA ium). 3. Large Dragon Fly (Anax junius). 4. Walking Stick (Diaphe-

PE femorata). ragon Fly

5. Ant Lion Fly (Dendroleon obsoletus).

(Calopteryx

maculata).

‘7. May

Flies

(Hexagenia

6. Small

rigida).

: Lantern Fly (Fulgora lanternaria). 9 Weevil (Cyphus placidus). 10. UPrestid Beetle (Chalcophora georgiana). 11. Locust or long horned

Bg

AMERICAN

E ERR MUSEUM

OF NATURAL

Bin

m SE "EM onde aisi »

ne eR

HISTORY

13. Grasshopper

Beetle (Calosoma sycophanta). 16.

Mole

carolina).

Cricket

"

p:

OF INSECT LIFE Grasshopper (Neoconocephalus phorus palmi).

re

(Gryllotalpa

robustus).

12. Palm Weevil

(Hippiscus phoenicopterus).

(Rhynco-

14. Carabus

15. Cricket (Gryllus pennsylvanicus).

hexadactyla).

17.

18. Rhinoceros Beetle (Dynastes tityrus)

Copris

Beetle

(Copris

INSECTS from the egg in their completed form and therefore do not undergo

hosis. Such insects are often termed Ametabola, spring-

and bristle-tails being familiar examples. Certain other inwhich have lost their wings in their remote ancestry, have their transformations so reduced that they no longer merit the term metamorphosis. Such examples are consequently secondarily

smetabolous and they exhibit only trivial differences between the and adults: examples of this kind are found among stick-

415

tegument is well chitinized and the antennae, legs and cerci are prominently developed. In conformity with their active life, eyes and other sense organs are evident. Larvae of this type hatch late from the egg after the loss of the embryonic abdominal appendages. In many respects they resemble the nymphs of insects with incomplete metamorphosis, but are less advanced in their development. Campodeiform larvae are characteristic of ground beetles and Neuroptera; (4) Vermiform larvae (fig. 36): these are very

insects, lice, worker termites and other insects. The majority of isects, however, pass through a metamorphosis and may be termed Metabola. In the strict zoological sense the young of all animals undergoing metamorphosis are called larvae. Among insects it is convenient and customary to distinguish two types of immature individuals, viz., nymphs and larvae. A nymph (fig. 32) is an immature insect which quits the egg in a relatively advanced stage and mainly differs from the imago in that the wings and gonapophyses, when present, are in a relatively rudimentary condition. The AFTER MALLY, mouth-parts resemble those of U.S. Enron. Butt. 24 the adult and compound eyes are FIG. 33.—OWLET MOTH present. Growth from the nymph to the imago is gradual and un- varied in form and are worm-like or maggot-like with only vestiges accompanied by a pupal instar. of legs and antennae, or entirely legless. They are believed to be AFTER LEIBY, A larva (figs. 36 and 37) is an derived from the campodeiform type by degeneration induced by JoURN, AGRIC, RES. 28, No. 8 immature insect which leaves the the presence of abundant food supply, which renders locomotory egg in a form very different from and sense organs of little value to the insect. Vermiform larvae Fis. 3t.—PLATYGASTER VERNALIS. SECTION THROUGH AN EGG OF that of the imago. It is struc- occur in all flies, some beetles and in most Hymenoptera. PARASITIC HYMENOPTERON turally less advanced than a In addition to the foregoing there are many larvae that are of nymph, it never bears external rudiments of wings, and compound an intermediate character. Such larvae in general facies are campodeiform but in other characters incline towards the eruciform eyes are wanting. Types of Metamorphosis.—From the foregoing remarks it or, more usually, the. vermiform type. Ecdysis.—Since the cuticle is ill-adapted to accommodate itself vill be noted that metamorphosis is of two types. In cases where the young insects are nymphs and there is no pupa, the change to the increase in size of an insect consequent upon growth it is to the imago is direct and gradual, and metamorphosis is said to periodically shed. During each act of ecdysis not only the general be incomplete (fig. 35). When the young insects are larvae which cuticle covering the body and appendages is cast off, but also the ultimately transform into pupae, metamorphosis is of an indirect cuticular lining of the tracheae, fore-gut and hind-gut. All these and complex character and is said to be complete (fig. 33). parts together with hairs, spines and similar structures are reTypes of Latvae.—Larvae issue from the egg in different stages newed by the activity of the hypodermal cells beneath them. Beof development which partly depend upon the amount of yolk fore moulting actually takes place special glands secrete a fluid that was available for their growth: generally, the less yolk there FEELER OF LARVA is the more immature are the larvae when they hatch. Larvae may be grouped under four types: (1) Embryonic larvae: these occur among some of the parasitic Hymenoptera whose eggs contain little or no yolk. They are so immature that they are little more than prematurely hatched embryos with an unsegmented abdomen and no appendages behind those of the thorax: the digestive and nervous systems are as yet rudimentary and the tracheal system is undeveloped. Such larvae live as parasites in FROM HOWARD, “INSECT LIFE” (U.S. DEPT. the blood or other tissues of OF AGRICULTURE) LARVA, MAGNIFIED various insects and are thus surFIG. 32.—NYMPH OF LOCUST CHITTENDON, “BULLETIN OF ENTOMOLOGY” (U.S. DEPT OF AGRICULTURE) rounded by a highly nutritious SCHISTOCERA AMERICANA FIG. 34.—SAW-TOOTHED GRAIN-BEETLE food; (2) Eruciform larvae: ' these emerge from the egg at a much later stage when segmenta- which penetrates between the old and new layers of cuticle and ton iscomplete and the internal organs are fully formed. Their facilitates the final separation and rupture of the old skin. Springspecial feature is the retention of a variable number of the embry- tails are the only insects that regularly undergo ecdysis after beaic abdominal appendages which are transformed into feet. (fig. coming adult, while may-flies undergo a moult on attaining the 33). Such.larvae are known as „caterpillars and are found in saw- winged state, but before they are fully mature. In all other infies,butterflies and moths; (3) Campodeiform larvae (fig. 34): sects moulting is confined to the larvae and nymphs. Among the Hyae which bear this name are hatched in a form bearing a gen- larvae of many flies and Neuroptera two ecdyses are very constant: malresemblance to.Campodea and other bristle-tails. They are in caterpillars moulting is variable, some may have nine ecdyses Smivorous creatures that, wander. in search of. their prey:, the in- while in others it may be as low as three. In the may-fly Chloeon

416

INSECTS

23 ecdyses have been observed. shadows that of the imago. The pre-pupa is loosely enclosed į Growth.—The larval and nymphal periods are pre-eminently the old larval skin, and after the latter is moulted the true : ones of growth and the increase in weight that is undergone in a condition is assumed. Since the pre-pupal and pupal instars am short interval of time is remarkable. Among the influences that particularly vulnerable, either protection or concealment is neces. affect growth most profoundly are nutrition and temperature. In- sary. It is only rarely that pupae are quite exposed as happens i. sufficient food, or food of the wrong nutrient composition, retards those of many butterflies, but, in this case, protection isaff growth and consequently delays metamorphosis, and much the by their colouration, which often closely assimilates with the same effect is observable if insects be subjected to too low a natural surroundings. The larvae of many moths and beetles hyp. row in the ground when about to pupate, and then transform within earthen cells composed of soil particles, held together by an Numerous adhesive secretion. Other insects cocoons construct F ie NEWLY HATCHED NYMPH of various extraneous materials woven together with a warp of ys Š

4

[um d,url

UU

S

WING-RUDIMENTS

silk, while in many moths the cocoons are formed entirely of silk: some of the most elaborate cocoons are those constructed by

the great silkworm moths of the family Saturniidae. Among true flies there is seldom a cocoon and in those with a coarctate pupa, the latter is protected by being concealed below the soil, in refuse or other situations where the larval life was passed. The term pupa is applied to the resting, passive stage in the life of insects with a complete meta-

FROM PETHERBRIDGE AND HUSAIN FROM

PETHERBRIDGE

AND

HUSAIN,

“ANNALS

OF

APPLIED

BIOLOGY”

(CAMBRIDGE

FROM

PEREZ,

“ETUDE

DES

METAWORPHOSES*

(presse UNIVERSITAIRE DE FRANCE)

morphosis, and during this instar § FiG. 37.—PRE-PUPAL STAGES it is incapable of feeding. The pupa is an acquired transitional phase during which the developing wings, legs and other append-

UNIVERSITY

PRESS)

FIG. 35.—METAMORPHOSES OF CAPSID BUG

temperature. Under normal conditions of food and temperature a silkworm weighs, when fully grown, up to 10,500 times its weight when just hatched, and the caterpillars of the goat moth during a life of three years are stated to increase 72,000 times in weight in that period. Hypermetamorphosis.—When an insect passes through two or more markedly different larval instars it is said to undergo hypermetamorphosis. This phenomenon is accompanied by a marked change in the life of the larva concerned. In most cases where this happens, the first larval instar is active and campodeiform, and in this condition the insect seeks its food. Having dis-

AFTER Faew AFTER

FREW

FIG. 36.—-LARVA OF GOUT FLY

covered its pabulum it undergoes changes of form which adapt it to its subsequent mode of life. Hypermetamorphosis is evident in some beetles (see COLEOPTERA), in certain flies, in most of the groups of parasitic Hymenoptera (g.v.) and in some other insects. Pupa.—Near the end of the larval period the insect prepares

IMAGINAL BUD OF IsT Lec

PROTHORACIC SPIRACLE

IMAGINAL BUD OF FORE LEG

IMAGINAL Bubp OF Hind LEs

From FoLSOM'S ENTONDLOOY, AFTER GONIN

“RECHERCHES SUR LA METAMORPHOSES DES LEPIDOPTERES” FIG. 38.—FULLY GROWN CATERPILLAR OF WHITE BUTTERFLY DISSECTED

ages of the future insect appear outside the body. Three types of pupae are generally recognized. In the free pupa (figs. 34 and 37) the wings and legs are free from any secondary attachment to

the body, and such pupae have considerable capacity for move-

ment. In mosquitoes and midges the pupae are aquatic, and are Itself for transformation into the pupa, usually constructing a active swimmers: in certain other insects they are able to work cocoon or other type of protection. A preliminary period of their way above ground to facilitate the emergence of the perfect quiescence then follows when the insect is in a condition termed insects. The objected pupa (fig. 33) has the wings and legs glued the pre-pupa (fig. 37). In this stage the wings and appendages down to the body and there is but little freedom of movement: first become evident outside the body, and its general form fore- this type is characteristic of most moths. The coarctate pups

417

INSECTS (fg. 36) is found in all the higher groups of flies. In these insects ds larval skin is not cast off but remains outside the pupa as hardened shell forming a capsule or puparium. :Emergence from the Pupa.-—As the time approaches for the

‘on

of the perfect insect the pupa noticeably darkens, and in

either perform a less important part in the process, or take no part at all, and that physiological changes induce the organs concerned to degenerate and break down. CLASSIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION

many butterfly pupae, the colours of the contained insect are disThe number of described species of insects exceeds 450,006 ünctly observable at this time. During the act of emergence the and though several thousand new ones are discovered yearly, it is sect usually ruptures the pupal cuticle in a longitudinal fracture believed that the unknown species remain an enormous majority.

down the back of the thorax, and draws itself out. It then crawls the nearest available support and rests with its miniature wings ois downwards. By the influx of blood from the body the

vings assume their full size and, after a period of rest when all the parts become hardened, the insect is able to make its first flight. When a cocoon is present the insect often has to bite its way through the walls by means oí its jaws as in Coleoptera and Hymenoptera, but in caddis-flies and Neuroptera, the pupa bears mandibles for this purpose; various other methods of emergence from the cocoon are mentioned in the article LEPIDOPTERA.

The classification of this vast assemblage of forms has undergone many changes since Linnaeus’ time, though five of his orders are recognized to-day. Most of the classificatory schemes that have been proposed are based primarily upon characters afforded by the mouth-parts, wings and metamorphosis. As many as 37 different orders are adopted by some authorities, but the most generally accepted systems are more conservative in this respect. The classification here adopted includes the following 23 orders (an asterisk indicates a separate article on the subject).

Development of the Perfect Insect.—The culminating point of metamorphosis is the actual formation of the imago. In insects

with incomplete metamorphosis this is accomplished by a gradual process Of growth changes, both

internal and external, during suc-

cessive nymphal instars till the adult condition is attained. In mects with complete metamor-

phosis, it has been seen that a ] stage has been intercalated in the life-cycle, and it is during this instar that profound change occurs. Outwardly inac-

CLASS:

Primitively wingless insects with no true metamorphosis. Abdominal appendages present other than gonopophyses and cerci. Order I. Thysanura.—Small insects with long, many jointed antennae: abdomen of ten segments and bearing prominent cerci. Includes the bristle-tails. Order IL. Protura.—Very minute insects without antennae: abdomen of 12 segments, cerci wanting. Order III. Collembola.—Very small insects with four-jointed antennae: abdomen of six segments, sometimes fused together,

the first with a sucker-like ventral tube and the fourth usually with a forked springing organ. Includes the spring-tails.

tive, the pupa is in reality the

sat of intense activity within.

Sub-class: PTERYGOTA

The formation of the imago be- |^:4:5 gis in the larva and is initiated | zw.

Winged insecis (sometimes wingless through loss of fight or-

gans): metamorphosis more or less evident. No abdominal appendages other than genitalia and cerci.

by the development of new sowths termed imaginal buds, which gradually build up all the parts that require reconstruction to serve the needs of the future

Division I.: EXOPTERYGOTA

Wings developed outside the body: metamorphosis incomplete or scarcely evident in the wingless species. Order IV. Orthoptera*—Fore-wings leathery, hind-wings membranous with posterior lobe folded up fan-wise. Prothorax large: mouth-parts for biting, with four-lobed ligula: cerci present. Includes cockroaches, grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, stickinsects and leaf-insects: some forms are wingless. Order V. Dermaptera.—Fore-wings small leathery flaps, tilii i pic fi wj rt iig hind-wings large, membranous, complexly folded up. Mouthparts for biting, with two-lobed ligula: tarsi three-jointed: the body terminated by forceps. Includes the earwigs (g.v.), many of which are wingless: also Hemimerus and Arixenia which are rare wingless forms, without forceps, living on mammals. Order VI. Plecoptera* (Perlaria).—Soft-bodied insects with long thread-like antennae; wings membranous, folded flat over the back in repose; the hind pair usually largest and with a posterior lobe folded up fan-wise. Mouth-parts for biting, tarsi threejointed: cerci often elongate. Nymphs aquatic, often with tufted gills. Includes the stone-flies.

insect, as well as forming all or-

gans unrepresented in the larva. Imaginal buds which form the legs, wings, mouth-parts and wher external organs, are derived from the hypodermis and some of them can be seen by careful dissection of a fully grown caterpillar (fig. 38). The buds which fem the internal organs arise from nests of cells in special loations within the existing larval organs, and by their growth and

sat vt os, lees waa n

CNacuta c

extension build up the new parts | orner Tissue

necessary. In some insects such | Maene as beetles and Neuroptera the in-

temal changes are often relatively

simple, but in ants, bees and many flies they are extremely com-

per. It is during the pupa that the unwanted Jarval organs have

INSECTA

Sub-class: APTERYGOTA*

FROM PEREZ, “METAMORPHOSE (LIBRAIRIE H. DE SOUDIER)

DES

MUSCIDES"

FIG. 39.—DESTRUCTION OF LARVAL MUSCLE BY PHAGOCYTES IN PUPA OF BLOW FLY

to be broken down and replaced Rew growths, and the amount of reconstruction required deupon how far the structur e and functions of the imago

differ from those of the antecedent larva. In the blow-fly, for ex-

Order VII. Ephemeroptera

(Plectoptera).—Soft-bodied in-

sects with atrophied mouth-parts and minute antennae, Wings membranous, net-veined, hind pair much the smaller: tarsi oneto five-jointed: cerci long, many-jointed and often accompanied by a median tail-flament. Nymphs aquatic with tracheal gills. Includes the may-flies (q.v.).

Order VIII.

Odonata

(Paraneuroptera).—Large

insects

mple, practically all the larval organs are broken down in thé with very elongate bodies, large eyes and minute antennae. Two pa, and their residue, as it were, serves as nutriment for develPg new growths. The actual method of destruction of the larval S has given rise to much discussion, but most authorities

maintain that wandering blood cells, or phagocytes, play an active

part, and in fig. 39 are seen certain of the phagocytes destroying muscle.

In other insects it is believed that phagocytes

pairs of equal, membranous, net-veined, glassy wings. Mouthparts for biting: farsi three-jointed: cerci small, one-jointed. Nymphs aquatic, labium modified into a hinged prehensile or-

gan. Includes the dragon-flies (q.v.). Order IX. Isoptera.—Social insects living in large nests: soft-bodied and generally pale coloured:

either with two pairs

418

INSECTS

of elongate similar wings which are soon shed, or without wings. | posterior lobe. Mouth-parts imperfect, mandibles wanting. Lar. Mouth-parts for biting: tarsi almost always four-jointed: cerci | vae aquatic, more or less eruciform, living in cases: pupae free very short. Wingless forms with rudimentary eyes or none at all | with strong mandibles. Includes the caddis flies (q.v.). and usually of two types; viz., soldiers with large heads and jaws Order XX. Lepidoptera*.—Smal to Very large i or a pointed rostrum, and workers with normal heads and jaws. | usually densely clothed with flat scales. Mouth-parts suctorial: — the termites (g.v.) or white ants. (See also Soctat In- first maxillae usually modified into a spirally coiled proboscis: SECTS. mandibles almost always absent. Larvae terrestrial, erucif : Order X. Embioptera.—Soft-bodied insects with two pairs with several pairs of abdominal feet: pupae obtected or parti of elongate, smoky wings of equal size and with degenerate veins. free, usually in a cocoon. Includes the butterflies and moths, Mouth-parts for biting: tarsi three-jointed, first joint of foreOrder XXI. Diptera*.—Insects with a single pair of menpair greatly swollen: cerci, short two-jointed. Females almost branous wings: hind pair modifed into minute knobbed Organs always wingless. A small group of insects often living gregariously or halteres: rarely wingless. Mouth-parts for sucking or fg in silken web-like tunnels and inhabiting warm countries. (See piercing also, and elongated to form a proboscis. Larvae vermiSOCIAL INSECTS.) form: terrestrial, or parasitic or more rarely aquatic: pupae free Order XI. Psocoptera (Corrodentia).—Very small soft- or coarctate. Includes the true flies (q.v.). bodied insects, winged or wingless: wings membranous with few Order XXII. Siphonaptera. (Aphaniptera) —Very small veins, anterior pair the larger with extensive stigma. Mouth- wingless insects, laterally flattened, with tough integument. parts for biting: tarsi two- or three-jointed: cerci wanting. In- Mouth-parts for piercing and sucking. Blood-sucking parasites cludes the book-lice and their allies. The small recently discov- living on warm-blooded animals. Larvae vermiform: pupae free ered group Zoraptera are sometimes included here. in a silken cocoon. Includes the fleas (g.v.). Order XII. Anoplura.—Very small tough-bodied, flattened, Order XXIII. Hymenoptera*.—Wings tough and membrawingless insects living on mammals or birds, with short three- to nous: hind pair the smaller and connected with fore pair by a five-jointed antennae: eyes reduced or wanting. Mouth-parts series of minute hooks. Mouth-parts for biting and licking: lab. highly modified either for biting or piercing: tarsi one- or two- ium usually modified into a tongue of variable length. Prothorar jointed: cerci wanting. Includes the true lice or Siphunculata small and ring-like: abdomen usually basally constricted to form and the bird-lice or Mallophaga. (See Louss.) a waist, its first segment fused with the thorax: a sawing or piercOrder XIII. Thysanoptera*.—Minute and very slender in- ing ovipositor present. Larvae eruciform or vermiform but somesects with short six- to nine-jointed antennae and very narrow times embryonic: pupae usually in a cocoon. Includes the sawwings with long hair-fringes: mouth-parts stylet-like, for pierc- flies, ants, bees, wasps and ichneumon flies and their allies (qq.s.): ing: tarsi very short, one- or two-jointed, terminated by a small see also SOCIAL INSECTS. Geographical Distribution.—The class Insecta as a whole, bladder-like organ: cerci wanting. Metamorphosis with a rudimentary pupal stage. Includes the thrips. is cosmopolitan as are almost all its individual orders. The range Order XIV. Hemiptera*.—Mouth-parts for piercing and of any great group of animals is governed by many factors, whose sucking with mandibles and first maxillae stylet-like and lying in a individual effects are difficult to evaluate separately. In the case jointed, grooved rostrum formed by the labium. Wings very of insects the possession of wings is a feature of supreme imvariably developed, with but few veins, and often wanting. Pro- portance, since it imparts to its possessors a capacity for dispersal thorax large: tarsi with rarely more than three joints: cerci ab- lacking in other terrestrial animals not so endowed. The power to sent. An incipient pupal stage present in some cases. Includes disperse freely allows a species to escape from intense competithe plant-bugs, cicadas (g.v.), leaf-hoppers, frog-hoppers, aphides tion, and the effects of rigid selection which results from over(g.v.) and scale insects. crowding within limited areas. Habits and food-supply are clearly also highly important: aquatic insects cannot exist where there is Division II.: ENDboPTERYGOTA no water and bark beetles are not to be found on steppes or plains Wings developed inside the body until the pupal stage, meta- devoid of all trees. Yet, on the other hand, many insects have a morphosis complete. distribution much more restricted than their available food, cli Order XV. Neuroptera*.—Small to rather large soft-bodied matic and other barriers precluding their spread. High mountain insects with two pairs of usually sub-equal, membranous, net- ranges may present insuperable obstacles by way of climate and veined wings which are closed roof-like over the body when at changed vegetation, while deserts and oceans are even more powrest: hind-wings without a plicated posterior lobe. Mouth-parts erful barriers to the dispersal of almost all insects., Many facts of for biting: tarsi five-jointed: cerci absent. Larvae campodeiform, distribution, however, cannot be interpreted under present conditerrestrial or aquatic: pupae free, usually in a silken cocoon. In- tions of the earth’s topography and climates, and recourse has cludes the alder-flies (g.v.), ant-lion flies (g.v.), mantis flies, lace often to be made to a study of geological changes. The close simiwings and mealy wings. larity of the insects of Europe and North America, for example, is Order XVI. Coleoptera*.—Fore-wings modified into horny explained on the basis of a former more favourable climate in the elytra which meet in a straight line down the back, the hind- Arctic region, when it did not interpose as a barrier to dispersal as wings (where present) membranous and folded beneath them. happens under the frigid conditions of to-day. The presence of Prothorax large: mouth-parts for biting: cerci absent. Larvae allied spring-tails in New Zealand and Chile suggests a former er of various types: pupae free, rarely in a cocoon. Includes the tension of the Antarctic continent between them, since such defbeetles. Order XVII.

Strepsiptera.—Minute insects: the males with branched antennae and degenerate biting mouth-parts. Forewings minute club-like scales: hind-wings very large, membranous and plicately folded. The females inert degenerate sac-like parasites living in the bodies of other insects includes the stylops

cate insects can scarcely be credited to have attained their present

distribution by other means. There are again insects which exhibit a wide but discontinuous distribution, such groups often appearing to be scattered remnants of forms which once enjoyed an extensive, continuous range, but now widely separated by climatic

or topographic changes. Moths of the family Uranidae and butterflies of the genus Erebia exhibit a distribution of this character. Some individual insects are almost cosmopolitan and possess

(g.v.) and its allies. Order XVIII. Mecoptera.—Soft-bodied insects with two pairs of similar membranous wings folded flat over the back in great capacity for migration and of adaptation to changed condirepose. Head generally prolonged into a beak: mouth-parts for tions. Examples of such species include the hawk-moth Celene biting: short cerci present. Larvae eruciform: pupae free, not in lineata, and the butterflies Pyrameis cardui and Anosia plexibpus.

a cocoon.

Includes the scorpion flies- (g.v.) and their allies.

Order XIX. Trichoptera*.—Moth-like insects with two pairs of membranous hair-covered wings, with predominantly. -longitudinal venation: hind pair usually the larger with a: plicate

The extensive distribution of the spring-tail H-ypogastrura orale has been accounted for on the basis of former land-conngctons

between certain of the great continents, as already alluded i@ Other cosmopolitan insects such as the house-fly and many beetles

419

INSECTS ting grain and other stored products have attained their wide through human agencies. The spring-tails have the widest range of any group of insects and have adapted themselves to the greatest diversity of sursoundings, while ants approach them very closely in these two cts, Ants, as W. M. Wheeler remarks, are found “from the Arctic regions to the Tropics, from timber line on the loftiest

mountains to the shifting sands of the dunes and sea-shores, and from the dampest forests to the driest deserts.”

More detailed

facts relative to insect distribution are given in the separate arti-

des devoted to the principal orders.

Geological Distribution.—lInsects are relatively scarce as fossils and are only found in certain geological formations especally favourable for their preservation. Most of the specimens bly originally got drowned, and were quickly covered with sit or other deposits before they had time to decay; consequently the richest remains occur in vegetable deposits such as coal, lig-

nite and peat, and in ancient fresh-water basins. A great many

also occur in amber where they became entangled in the resin, which quickly enveloped them, thus securely sealing them up in a wonderful condition of preservation.

Among the most famous

localities for fossil insects are the Carboniferous rocks of Commentry, France, the Permian beds of Kansas and of New South Wales, the Triassic beds of Queensland, the lithographic limestones of Jurassic age In Bavaria, the Oligocene shales of Florissant in Colorado, the Miocene beds of Oeningen in Bavaria and Baltic amber of the same period.

hibernate as eggs, the White Admiral, Fritillaries, etc., overwinter as larvae, the garden whites and others as pupae and the Brimstone, Peacock and Tortoiseshells pass the winter as perfect in-

sects, sheltering in old byildings, hollow trees and other likely situations. Some insects such as the Cotton Boll Weevil may pass through as many as eight generations in the year, while on the other hand, the click beetle (Agriotes obscurus) requires about five years to complete a single generation, most of that period being spent as a larva. The house-fly under favourable conditions of food, temperature and moisture can complete its life-cycle in ten days, but the shortest cycle is found in some minute Chalcid wasps whose larvae live as parasites in the eggs of other insects, and require only seven days from when their eggs are laid till the perfect Insects appear.

Plant-relations.—A vast number of insects only exist in association with vegetation and every kind of phanerogamic plant, and every part of the plant may serve as food for one or other species of insect. Larvae of moths, saw-flies and many beetles feed openly and devour the foliage, and other larvae live concealed within the leaves, stems, roots or the solid wood. Thrips, aphides and other plant-bugs pierce the plant-tissues and extract the sap. There are also insects which confine themselves to devouring the flowers, seeds or even the pollen, while bees and many moths and flies imbibe nectar. There are again other insects which, instead of

destroying plants, modify them in such a way as to produce abnormal growths, or galls, which serve as food and shelter for their The study of fossilized remains indicates that no undisputed in- larvae. Most galls are produced by gall-wasps (Cynipidae), gallsect has been found earlier than Upper Carboniferous times and midges (Cecidomyidae) and certain saw-flies while a few are proeven these very ancient insects were already highly evolved, af- duced by beetles, aphides and other insects. The actual cause of ferding little information as to the ancestry of the class as a whole. gall-formation has been much discussed and these growths are due The oldest known insects are all Exopterygota and comprise to the activity of the meristem under the influence of a definite totally extinct orders, some of which are allied to the existing stimulus. In some cases gall-formation follows immediately after Orthoptera and others (Palaeodictyoptera) exhibit the combined the insect has laid its eggs in the plant-tissues and in these incharacters of several of the most generalized living orders; in- stances it is believed to be due to a secretion injected into the plant duded among these fossils are also ancestral dragon-flies of at the time of egg-laying, since the gall develops after the egg has gigantic size. (The only still existing insects represented in Car- been killed by puncturing with a needle. In other cases it is inboniferous times are the cockroaches, which have persisted with duced by the presence of the larva, the gall not developing till relatively little modification through the intervening ages to the after the insect has issued from the egg. present day. In Lower Permian times the first true dragon-flies The relationship between insects and flowers is mutually beneappear, with Ephemeroptera, Hemiptera and some anomalous ficial: insects obtain nectar and pollen and in return ensure crossinsects (Protohymenoptera), which are regarded as the far-off an- pollination by transferring the pollen from the stamens of one cestors of the Hymenoptera. In rocks of this age there are also flower to the stigma of another. Flower-haunting insects often exfound the earliest remains of the Endopterygota which are repre- hibit special structural modifications enabling them to suck nectar sented by some small species of Mecoptera. In the Upper Permian from deeply seated nectaries, and bees are provided with organs are found the first recorded Coleoptera and Neuroptera together for pollen-collecting. Flowers in their turn are coloured or otherwith some remarkable insects (Paramecoptera) which are held to wise ornamented to attract insect-visitors and their scents are bebe the ancestors of Lepidoptera, Trichoptera and Diptera. It is lieved to serve the same purpose. Most flowers are also so connot until Jurassic times that true Diptera and Trichoptera appear, structed that insects inevitably pollinate them, and many such as while Hymenoptera are first found in the Cretaceous and the orchids, iris, yucca, etc., are formed so that pollination is effected oldest Lepidoptera are of Oligocene age. In rocks of later date the in a particular manner. : insect remains are very like those of living forms and those found Among the lower plants affected by insects, fungi of variou m Baltic amber even belong to existing genera. kinds afford sustenance and shelter to many small beetles and A survey of fossil insects shows that the Exopterygota appeared their larvae, along with those of fungus-midges and other flies. frst and though no remains of the most primitive insects (Thysa- Certain of the primitive fungi are pathogenic to insects, entering

nura) have been found till Tertiary times, it is probable that their

delicate organization has not favoured their preservation through the great periods of timé when they presumably were existing. Although the Endopterygota are of great antiquity, those orders

which are most specialized and exhibit the greatest differences

between the larva and the imago were the last to appear. Further

details respecting fossil insects will be found in separate articles with the principal orders. | NATURAL HISTORY TheLife-cycle.—In temperate and cold regions the life-cycle ofmost insects involves a period of dormancy or hibernation dur-

mg the winter months, whereas in the uniform hot and moist climate of the, Tropics, hibernating does not exist and one generation

Scceeds‘the other without any such dormant period. Hiberna-,

and spreading within their bodies and ultimately killing them. Mention needs also to be made of species of ‘ants and termites which cultivate fungi within special recesses of their nests where they serve to feed the brood. Lichens are fed upon by various moth larvae, but liverworts, mosses and ferns support comparatively few insects. | Scavengers.—Not only living plants afford food and shelter for insects, but decaying vegetable matter is also resorted to by a vast number of beetles and flies, together with certain of the spring-tails. Dung affords sustenancé for many insects as well as decomposing carcasses and animal remains of all kinds. In a large degree the activities of scavenger insects are beneficial in facilitating the rapid decomposition of all kinds of decaying material. Aquatic

Insects.—A

considerable

number

of insects

are

mMmay take place in any stage in the life-cycle in different in- aquatic and are found in fresh water, while a few occur in saline Among British butterflies, for example, the Hairstreaks waters and in the sea. Among fresh-water insects some are aquatic

4.20

INSECTS

throughout their life, notably beetles of the family Dytiscidae, which live habitually submerged, and water-bugs or pond-skaters

(Hydrometridae) which are surface dwellers. The Whirligig beetles (Gyrinidae) live submerged as larvae, but the adult beetles congregate in companies on the surface. A far greater number of insects are aquatic only in their immature stages, the adults being aerial: familiar examples are midges, mosquitoes, stone-flies, mayflies, caddis-flies and dragon-flies. All aquatic insects are believed

Tachinid flies live within the bodies of other insects which

finally kill. Some very minute Hymenoptera are endoparasites of the eggs of various insects, finding therein sufficient nutrimen: to complete their transformations: other parasites attack only lar. vae or pupae and a few confine themselves to adult insects A parasite may, in its turn, be parasitized by smaller insects of similar behaviour which are termed secondary parasites or hyper parag-

sites; tertiary or even quaternary parasites are also known and provide the most complex examples of hyperparasitism.

Parasitic insects exhibit varying degrees of adaptation tg their to have been derived from terrestrial ancestors and have become mode of life: some ectoparasites are very little modified ex adapted in diverse ways to their that their claws are specially developed for clinging to their hosts and wings are totally absent. Among endoparasites all traces of special mode of life: these adaplimbs and sense organs are wanting, these degenerative cha tations mainly concern locomotion and respiration. Among being adaptations to a life in which the necessity to seek out food beetles and water-bugs the swimis no longer present. The tracheal system is often totally absent ming legs are flattened and oarbut, on the other hand, the integument is unusually thin so as to allow of the passage of oxygen contained in the blood of the host, like, often fringed with closely set at whose expense such parasites feed and respire. During most of hairs, and form efficient paddles. their life endoparasites avoid the vital organs of their hosts and Respiratory modifications are feed largely upon the blood and fat-body, since their own death numerous and in pond-skaters the body is clothed with a dense velwould speedily follow that of the insects they parasitize: for the FRON MIALL AND DENNY. THE vety pile which renders them insame reason such parasites do not void the contents of the gut till COCKROACH, AFTER VAYSSIÈRE the last moult. One of the most advanced types of parasitism is capable of being wetted, and also serves to retain a coating of air FROM VAYSSIERE, “ANNALES DES SCIENCES found in the stylops and its allies where the female, after issuing around the insect when sub- NATURELLES” (G. MASSON) (COPR. BONNAIRE) from the egg, spends its whole life as an endoparasite in the body of FIG. 40.—NYMPH OF MAY-FLY merged: in this manner a supply a bee or a leafhopper. The adult is a degenerate sac-like creature of oxygen is provided for breathing and the insect can remain im- | specially adapted for this mode of life. The male stylops is a paramersed till it is used up. Some beetles carry a supply of air be- | site only as a larva and finally emerges as an active winged insect. Inquilines.—Certain insects instead of devouring others feed neath the elytra when submerged, while others descend with a bubble of air at the apex of the abdomen. Water-scorpions are at their expense and are termed inquilines. The latter are numerprovided with a kind of caudal respiratory tube and, when neces- ous in the nests of social insects and a well-known example is the sary, protrude the apex of this siphon through the surface film: wax-moth whose larvae live in bee-hives and destroy the comb.

air passes down this channel to enter a pair of spiracles situated at its base. Mosquito larvae breathe by means of a caudal siphon of a different character: it bears a pair of spiracles at its apex and air enters the tracheal system directly, when the siphon breaks the surface film. Many other insects breathe the oxygen dissolved in the water: such insects either possess gills or respire cutaneously. Gills are outgrowths of the integument containing tracheae or more rarely only blood. In may-fly nymphs (fig. 40) they are commonly in the form of lamellae attached to the sides of the abdomen, while in many dragon-fly nymphs they lie within the terminal chamber of the gut, water being inhaled and exhaled through the anus. The so-called bloodworms or larvae of certain midges (Chironomidae) are remarkable in that the blood contains haemoglobin and respiration takes place through the skin. The open sea is almost devoid of insect life excepting for a few midge larvae that have been dredged from tolerably deep water and the Hemipterous genus Halobates which frequents the surface of warm oceans often far from land. Between tide levels the shore is mhabited by the spring-tail Anurida maritima, a few beetles and their larvae and certain flies. These insects, or at least their larvae, are immersed during each tide when they retreat under stones or in the sand, while some midge larvae remain continuously submerged. Those of the European genus Clunio occur in rock pools

RUDIMENTARY LABRUM AND CLYPEUS

THICKENING AT HINDER MARGIN OF MOUTH

MouTH

DEUTERENCEPHALON

PROTENCEPHALON

T M

AN SECOND MAXILLA OR LABRUM

APPENDAGE OF FIRST THORACIC SEGMENT

TRITENCEPHALON

STIGMATA 1

a>

oN= goð p

APPENDAGE OF FIRST ABDOMINAL SEGMENT

APPENDAGE OF ELEVENTH ABDOMINAL SEGMENT

along with the curious wingless females, while the males, which are ANAL PIECE, TELSON, OR. winged, skim over the water surface. Loss of wings is a common 12TH ABDOMINAL SEGMENT feature of marine insects and it has been explained as an advantage which prevents such insects being blown out to sea. FROM HEYMONS, “ZEITSCHRIFT FÖR WISSENSCHAFTLICHE ZOOLOGIE" (AKADEMISCHE VERLAGSGESELLSCHAFT) Predators and Parasites.—There are diverse groups of insects FIG. 41.—MORPHOLOGY OF AN INSECT that have adopted close relations with respect to food and shelter not only with other insects, but also with vertebrate animals. Larvae of the hover flies (Volucella) live in the nests of bumbleMany insects such as ground beetles and their larvae are predators bees and wasps, where they feed on waste organic material, The which seek out and devour other insects as food: or the relations curious bristle-tail Atełura occurs in ants’ nests and is stated to live may be of & closer nature and the prey becomes the host, as hap- by imbibing the food which is being actually regurgitated from one pens in the case of parasites. Some parasitic insects live externally ant to another. There are again other insects which benefit their on their hósts and are termed ectoparasites, while others—endo- hosts in return for their keep. Thus, certain beetles obtain food parasites—live within the bodies of their hosts. Fleas and lice, for and shelter in ants’ nests and provide the ants in return with example, are éctopatasites of warm-blooded animals from whose „cutaneous secretions that are much sought after by their hosts. Jn bodies they extract blood as their food. The grubs of warble flies extreme cases the association is even more intimate, the guest are endoparasites of mammals, while those of Ichneumon flies and beetles being actually fed by the ants in return for the secretions

INSECTS

421

provided, thus affording an example of symbiosis or mutual benefit. | the fashion of parachutes in insects which possessed a tendency to SociaL INSECTS.)

13egariotsness and

Social

Life.—Although

the vast ma-

leap. At a later stage they acquired direct articulation with the thorax, became supplied with tracheae and developed the power

‘rity of insects are solitary in habit, individuals of certain species | of independent motion. By others it is contended that wings were

associate together collectively and are said to be gregarious.

Whirligig beetles, for example, associate in companies on the surfare of the water: locusts and some butterflies become gregarious wben migrating and ladybirds at times congregate in masses. Some caterpillars are gregarious and members of a brood live in a com-

mon web spun over the food-plant: such companies usually dis-

perse, as the food becomes used up, and its members live inde-

derived from plate-like thoracic tracheal gills which had lost their original function and became adapted for purposes of flight. Such gills, it is maintained, resemble those found in many may-fly nymphs, and the theory implies that the ancestors of winged insects became temporarily aquatic and thus acquired gills, which developed into wings when their possessors resorted to the land for

a second time. Relationships of the Orders of Insects.—The most generalized orders of winged insects are all included in the division Exyoung brood. A solitary bee of the genus Halictus constructs its opterygota, but among this assemblage of forms several divergent cells in à group around a common entrance tunnel in the ground: lines of evolution are evident. The Orthoptera are the most primithese cells are provisioned and guarded by the parent, who may tive living winged insects and were probably more or less directly even survive till the daughter bees emerge. Examples of this kind derived from Thysanuran ancestors. The Dermaptera, Isoptera where the parent guards and tends the offspring, at least during and Embioptera are all more closely related to the Orthoptera than their early life, foreshadow the beginnings of social life. The lat- to any other order of insects. The Plecoptera exhibit many primiter exhibits its own peculiar features in different groups of insects tive features allying them with the Orthoptera, but their immawhich have developed the social habit, but in all cases each society ture stages are aquatic as are those of the Odonata and Ephemerois a family consisting of two parent insects, or at least the fecun- ptera. The two latter orders exhibit certain mutual relationships dated female, and the offspring, and the members of the two gen- and are to be regarded as rather isolated developments from origierations live together in a common abode or nest in mutual co-op- nal Orthopteran ancestors. The Hemiptera and Thysanoptera eration. True social insects include several groups of wasps and have much in common: both orders are highly specialized with bees, together with the ants and termites. In the highest grades piercing mouth-parts and although originally descended from inof social life specialization of certain individuals to perform sects with jaws of the normal biting type, they have left little trace specific functions for the common good is attained and a system of their original lines of evolution. The Anoplura are degenerate which exhibits striking parallels in behaviour with human society parasites which are perhaps related through the Psocoptera with has been developed. (See Socrar INsECTS.) Orthopteroid ancestors. The Endopterygota are more closely related to each other than to any of the Exopterygota and no conPHYLOGENY Ancestry of Insects.—It is conceded that the most primitive necting links between the two divisions have so far been discovinsects are the bristle-tails (Thysanura) and these lowly creatures ered. It is true that an incipient pupal stage is present among

ently. There are again other insects such as the earwig and the mole cricket in which the female guards the eggs and the

Termites and in some of the Hemiptera, and even among certain members of the latter order the wings develop internally, but these instances appear to be rather nature’s experiments towards an just behind the antennae and those borne on the abdominal seg- endopterygote condition than evidence of lines of descent of any ments in generalized insect embryos, indicate that the ancestors of the true endopterygote orders. The fossil order Paramecoptera of insects carried five pairs of head appendages and had a body of appears to be the forerunner of almost all the higher orders of in15 segments, all of which except the last bore limbs. Those car- sects and the direct ancestors of the existing Mecoptera. The latried on the first three body segments (legs of insects) and on the ter, along with the Neuroptera, Lepidoptera, Trichoptera and Dip14th segment (cerci) were evidently more important than the in- tera, form an interrelated complex, which attains its highest spetervening pairs, of which traces only remain in some larvae and in cialization in the last-mentioned order. The Hymenoptera lie the Apterygota. It seems clear, therefore, that the ancestors of outside this complex but there appears to be evidence that the fosmsects were many-legged animals and the nearest approach to sil order Protohymenoptera is the far-off progenitor of the group, such progenitors is to be found in certain small, white creatures and possibly serves to connect them with a Paramecopteran stock. living in moist earth and represented by Scolopendrella and its The Coleoptera and the related Strepsiptera exhibit little or no allies; They form the class Symphyla which is related to the indications of their affinities: the campodeiform larvae of many Chilopoda (centipedes) and Diplopoda (millipedes). Structurally beetles are primitive in type and'not unlike those of Neuroptera the Symphyla have so many features in common with such bristle- and it is probable that the order arose as an early offshoot in the lails as Campodea and Anajapyx as to justify affinity between the endopterygote series. The Siphonoptera or fleas likewise leave two groups. Other Thysanura, such as Machilis and its allies, show little trace of their descent, but in their metamorphoses they come features in common with the higher crustacea particularly with nearer to the Diptera than to any other order and they are acregard to the mouth-parts. It must also be remembered that the corded a position next to the Diptera in the more generally small evanescent appendages found behind the antennae in some accepted recent systems of classification. insect embryos, are to be regarded as relics of the second pair of See the articles COLEOPTERA; DIPTERA; HEMIPTERA; HYMENfeelers only found in Crustacea. The foregoing remarks indicate OPTERA; LEPIDOPTERA; NEUROPTERA; ORTHOPTERA; PLECOPTERA; very briefly that it is probable that the ancestors of insects had THYSANURA; TRICHOPTERA.

betray certain characters which are to be regarded as inheritances

from an ancestral stock. The embryonic development of insects also reveals primordial characters: the evanescent appendages

features in common with the Symphyla and through them with the

opoda and Diplopoda, but at the same time, these ancestors were derived from a stock from which the Crustacea also arose. The Arachnida, or spiders and scorpions, are only very remotely telated to insects and evidently diverged very early in their evolu-

ton from the primordial arthropod stock. (See also ARTHROPODA.)

_ Origin of Wings—The Thysanura are eminently terrestrial msecis, devoid of wings, and undergo no metamorphosis. Since

BYBLIOGRAPHY.-~The literature on insects has assumed enormous proportions and at least 2,000 scientific books, memoirs and separate articles appear each year in various languages, apart from writings of a popular character. General Text-books—Among the best elementary manuals to be found on the subject are: J. W. Folsom, Entomology with special reference to its Ecological Aspects (1923); G. H. Carpenter, Insects: their Structure and. Life (1924) ; W. H. Wellhouse, How Insects Live

(1926).

For a larger book, D. Sharp, "Insects" in the Cambridge

History (vols. v., vi., 1895, 1898) is important. they are the most primitive known insects and the majority of Natural General text-books of a more advanced character

that class are Winged creatures, the derivation of the latter from

the Thysanura is largely involved in the origin of wings. Many

authorities believe that wings first arose as small lateral expansions

ofthe tergal region of the thoracic segments. During their evolu-

these expansions became sufficiently large to function after

include:

L. F.

Henneguy, Les Insectes (1904); the great work of A. Berlese, Gli Insetti (Milan, 1909-25); C. Schróder, Handbuch der Entomologie (Jena, 1912-28); J. H. Comstock, Introduction to Entomology

(1920); Á. D. Imms, General Text-book of Entomology 1928); ail

these works contain copious bibliographies.

:

There are also a number of books which, although containing general

4.22

INSEIN—INSPIRATION

information, deal more especially with the insects of a specific country or region. The most important are V. L. Kellogg, North American Insects (1905); H. M. Lefroy, Indian Insect Life (Calcutta, 1909); T. B. Fletcher, South Indian Insects (Madras, 1914); R. J. Tillyard,

Insects of Australia and New Zealand (Sydney, 1926); E. O. Essig, Insects of Western North America (1926). Palaeontology.—For fossil insects, G. Brongniart, Recherches pour servir à lHistoire

Etienne, I908)

1894)

and

are standard

des Insectes

Fossiles

A. Handlirsch,

works.

des

Temps

primaires

Die Fossilen Insekten

Reference

should

also be made

(St.

(Leipzig,

to the

last-mentioned author's article on the subject in the text-book of Schróder (loc. cit.), and to numerous papers by R. J. Tilyard in Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales and in American Journal of Science. Embryology—The most accessible works on this subject are E. Korsshelt and K. Heider, Text-book of the Embryology of Invertebrates, vol. iii. (1899; English trans. by Bernard and Woodward); E. W. MacBride, Text-book of Embryology, vol. i. (1914); J. H. Nelson, Tke Embryology of the H oney Bee (Princeton, N.J., 1915), which contains a full bibliography. Biology, etc.—Works on the metamorphoses, habits and behaviour of insects are numerous and mention needs to be made of J. H. Fabre, Souvenirs Entomologiques (1879-1905; English trans. of many); A. Forel, The Senses of Insects (1908; English trans. by Yearsley); G. H. Carpenter, Insect Transformation (1922); the various parts of the Biologie der Tiere Deutschlands, ed. by P. Schultze (Jena, 1922-27) are excellent and well ilustrated; E. L. Bouvier, The Psychic Life of Insecis (1922; English trans. by L. O. Howard) ; W. M. Wheeler, Social Life among the Insects (1923). Among books dealing with certain of the more specialized aspects of insect life, those of an ecological nature include V. E. Shelford, Animal Communities in Temperate America (Chicago, 1913) ; G. D. H. Carpenter, A Naturalist on Lake Victoria (1920); P. A. Buxton,

Animal Life in Deserts (1923); R. N. Chapman, Animal Ecology with special Reference to Insects (Minneapolis, 1926). Works on aquatic insects include various parts of the SZsswasserfauna Deutschlands, ed. by Brauer (Jena, 1909) ; L. C. Miall, Natural Hzstory of Aquatic Insects (1912); F. Brocher, L’Aquarium de Chambre (1913), which is a most interesting book; H. B. Ward and G. C. Whipple, American Freshwater Biology (1918); E. Rousseau, Les Larves et Nymphs aquatiques (1921). For insects in relation to plants see E. Houard, Les Zoocécides des Plantes d'Europe (1908—:3); E. T. Connold, Plant-Galls of Great Britain (1909) ; F. Knoll, Insekten und Blumen (1921-26) ; M. Hering,

Die Gkologie der blatiminieren Insektenlarven (1926).

For the various aspects of parasitism and symbiosis the best introduction is M. Caullery, Le Parasitisme ei la Symbiose (1922). For luminous insects see E. N. Harvey, The Nature of Animal Light (Philadelphia, 1920), and for cave insects consult R. Jeanmel, Faune Cavernicole de la France (1926). Periodical Literature——Periodicals devoted to the study of insects are exceedingly numerous and are published in many languages Some of the more important are mentioned in the article AAnM . A. D. I)-

INSEIN, a town and district of Lower Burma in the Pegu

division, lying immediately to the

north of Rangoon.

Area 1904

sq.m.; pop. (1921) 293,083. The district includes a large tract

of the Irrawaddy delta on either

side of the Hlaing or Rangoon river and on the east of the Irrawaddy itself. In the west the district includes a portion of i the southern end of the Pegu Yomas, there, clothed with dense evergreen forest which, in spite SS of its nearness to Rangoon, is still the haunt of wild elephants. The Rangoon-Prome line of the Burma railways runs through the district.

INsEIN, the chief town, lies ro N.W. of Rangoon, of which

vao

it is now almost a suburb. It has

Burma

m.

exact physiology of normal sleep. Three varieties of insomnia may be roughly distinguished: the

inability to fall asleep at the onset for a variable period: th.

frequent awakening with incapacity to resume Sleep for sam time; the waking up at an unduly early hour with no su sleep. Every individual case must be investigated carefully on its own merits, and the physician is frequently taxed to the utmog

to combat the symptom on rational and not empirical lines, The responsible causes may have a bodily basis or must be sought ia

the mind. Among the former must be enumerated the evi factors of pain or discomfort from any cause: shortness of b cough, frequency of urination, itching, palpitation. Febrile condi. tions, high blood-pressure and other circulatory disturbances, toxic states and organic disease of the brain are also liable to b. responsible. In many forms of mental derangement insomnia is à frequent symptom and often heralds its inception. This is specially so in anxiety conditions, where unpleasant dreams may exaggera te the

sleeplessness, and here the sufferer may fear to lose Consciousness

because of these experiences which he cannot control. In neuras-

thenia and many hysterical states insomnia is likely to be prominent. In such psychoses as manic-depressive insanity, dementia

praecox, confusional insanity and general paresis, such a symptom is generally part of the clinical picture.

The advent of insomnia should never be regarded lightly but means should at once be taken to trace its root if possible. The

appropriate treatment will depend upon the physical or mental origin. Attacking the symptom only is highly unscientific. Though indiscriminate sedative drugging must be deprecated, the possible

harm from the medical administration of hypnotics is much exag-

gerated. Good sleep thus brought about may cut short a mental illness. In mild cases simple measures may do much while severe insomnia may be highly intractable. The use of suggestion or hypnosis is occasionally beneficial. (C. S. R.)

INSPIRATION is strictly the act of drawing physical breath

into the lungs as opposed to “expiration.” Metaphorically the term is used generally of analogous mental phenomena; thus we speak of a sudden spontaneous idea as an “inspiration.” The term is specially used in theology for the condition of being directly under the divine influence, as the equivalent of the Greek deorveveria (2

Timothy iii. 16). Similar in meaning is évfovoracyds, enthusiasm (from évfovotatw from čvðeos). Possession by the divine spirit (r»eÜua) was regarded as necessarily accompanied by intense stimulation of the emotions. The Doctrine of Communion.—The possibility of a human

being becoming the habitation and organ of a divinity is generally assumed in the lower religions. In the popular religion of China some of the priests, the Wu, claim to be able to take up into their body a god or a spirit, and thereby to give oracles. The Maoris at the initiation of the young men into the tribal mysteries sing a song, called “breath” to the mystic wind by which they believe their god makes his presence known. An Australian woman claimed to have heard the descent of the god as a rushing wind. In some savage tribes blood is drunk to induce the frenzy of inspiration; music and dancing are widely employed for the same purpose. Dionysus, the god of wine in Greece, was also the god of inspiration; and in their orgies the worshippers believed themselves to enter into real union with the deity. In Delphi the

Pythia, the priestess who delivered the oracles, was intoxicated

by the vapour which rose from a well, through a small hole in the

OF THE

; NORTHERN

BAPTIST

CON-

SCHOOL-GIRLS AT INSEIN

a population (1921) of 14,308, ACADEMY, WEARING NATIVE DRESS

has railway workshops, a Government engineering school and a large gaol?) +

INSOMNIA, or the inability to sleep adequately, is a com-

mon enoügh symptom in modern life and varies greatly in degree. Our understanding of its underlying causes is often rendered the more difficult because of our lack of knowledge concerning the

ground. As the oracles were often enigmatic, they were interpreted by a prophet. In Rome the inspiration of Numa was derived from the nymph Egeria; and great value was attached to

the books of the Cumaean Sibyl. In Arabia the kahin (priest)

was recognised as the channel of divine communication. Inspiration may mean only possession by the deity, or it may mean further that the person so possessed becomes the channel through

which the deity reveals his word and will. (See J..A. Macculloch's

Comparative Theology, chap. xv., 1902.) 3 Prophecy in the Old Testament in its beginnings is similar te the phenomenon in other religions (x Sam. ix. 8, x. 10-1 1).

prophesying in which Saul took part probably included violent

INSPIRATION

423

movements of the body, inarticulate cries, a state of ecstasy or |estimate the worth of inspiration by the higher and not the lower even frenzy. The phrase “holy spirit” in Acts, as applied to the | Stages, by the vision of an Isaiah or the consecration of a Paul; Apostolic Church, probably indicates a similar state of religious but at the same time we must be prepared to recognise its lowly exaltation; it was accompanied by speaking with tongues, inarticu- beginnings. late utterances which needed interpretation (1 Cor. xiv. 27), In In dealing with the inspiration of the Bible, to which the use of every religious revival, when the emotions are deeply stirred, simi-

the term has in the Christian Church been largely restricted, it is

lar phenomena are met with. Such a movement was Montanism in the 3rd century. At the Reformation, while Luther was at the

important to remember that inspiration is primarily personal; and that it assumes varied forms and allows varying degrees. Other religions besides Christianity possess their sacred scriptures and the claim of inspiration is advanced for some of them, as by Hinduism for the S’ruti (hearing) writings as distiriguished from the Smriti (recollection), Zoroastrianism for the Zend-

Wartburg, fanaticism broke out, and spread from Wittenberg; prophets went about declaring the revelations which they had

received. The Evangelical revival in the 18th century also had its

abnormal religious features. The Revival in Scotland in 1860 was marked by one curious feature—the Gospel dance—when in their

excitement men and women got up and spun round and round till they were exhausted.

Spontaneous praise and prayer marked the

revival in Wales in 1905—06.

Prophecy, as represented by the writings of the prophets, arose

out. of this state of religious exaltation, but left behind many of its features. The function of the prophets was to interpret the course of history as the divine providence for the chosen people

Israel, so as to communicate God's Word and Will in judgment or in mercy. They were divinely endowed for this function by their inspiration. While these prophets seem to have continued in the exercise of all their normal faculties, which were stimulated and not suppressed, yet they do claim a distinctive divine activity in their consciousness,

and distinguish with confidence their own

thoughts from the revealed word. That abnormal psychic states, such as visions and voices, were sometimes experienced is not

improbable

(see Theodore

H. Robinson,

Prophecy

and the

Prophets), but the usual prophetic state seems to have been one

of withdrawal of attention from the outer world, absorption of interest in the inner life, devout communion and intercession with God, and the divine response in a moral or a spiritual intuition

rather than an intellectual ratiocination. Possession by the Spirit in its external manifestations is ascribed to Gideon, Jephthah, Samson, Saul, Elijah; but even when the same language is used of the later prophets, it is probably such an inward state as has just been described which is to be assumed. A feature inseparable from this later phase of prophecy is preéiciton, For the warning or the encouragement of the people the

prophet as Jehovah’s messenger declares what He is about to do. Thus the fall of Samaria in 722 B.C., the deliverance of Jerusalem

Avesta, Islam for the Koran.

But Buddhism advances no such

claim for its Tripitaka (three baskets), nor Confucianism for its classics. Exegesis.—The Pentateuch was accepted as authoritative law by the Jewish Church in 444 &.c. About two centuries later the Prophets (including the histories as well as the prophetic writings proper) were also acknowledged as sacred scriptures, although of inferior authority to the Law. In the century before the Christian era the Writings, including Psalms and Proverbs, were included in the Canon. Palestinian and Hellenistic Judaism disagreed about the recognition of the books now known as the Apocrypha. The writers of the New Testament use the Old Testament as holy scriptures, as an authoritative declaration of the mind and will of God; but the inaccuracy of many of the quotations, together with the use of the Greek translation as well as the original Hebrew, forbid our ascribing to them any theory of verbal inspiration. By the middle of the and century the four Gospels were probably accepted as trustworthy records of the life of Jesus. The Epistles were accepted as authoritative in virtue of apostolic authorship. By the end of the 3rd century the use and approval of the churches had established the present canon. The doctrine of the inspiration of these writings in the Jewish and Christian Church now claims attention. Inspiration is first of all ascribed to persons to account for abnormal states, or exceptional powers and gifts; in this doctrine it is transferred to writings, and its effects in securing for these inerrancy, authority, etc., are discussed with little regard for the psychic state of the writers. The New Testament affirms the inspirations of the Old Testa-

ment (Matt. i. 22, xv. 4, Mark xii. 36, Acts i. 16, Romans iii. 2, ix.

25, Heb. i. 1, 1 Peter iv. 11). The term is used in regard to the Scriptures in 2 Timothy iii. 16. The Spirit of Christ is said to have been in the prophets (1r Peter i. 11) ; and it is affirmed that "no prophecy ever came by the will of man; but men spake from God, being moved by the Holy Spirit? (2 Peter i. 21). The con: abnormal phenomena of inspiration, the presence and operation stant use of the Old Testament in the New confirms this doctrine of the Holy Spirit, in the Apostolic Church, have already been | of inspiration. "e noticed, . Contemporary Jewish thought, as expressed by Philo, Josephus, The New Testament.—While Paul does not deny nor depre- and the Talmud according to Weber, was in agreement with this date these charisms, as tongues, miracles, etc., he commends as view of the Old Testament. But the nature of this inspiration the more excellent way the Christian life in faith, hope and love must be more closely defined, and hence have arisen a number ( Cor. xii. 31). The New Testament represents the Christian theories of inspiration which can be only briefly mentioned, Theof life as an inspired life. It is living communion with Christ, and theory of verbal inspiration, which was held by Plato, Philo, the therefore constant possession of the Holy Spirit. Every Christian, Apologists, the Fathers, and the Protestant Scholastics, ignores the m the measure in which he has become a new creature in Christ, data which the Bible itself offers, The theory of dynamic influsa prophet, because he knows by the enlightening of God's Spirit ence or degrees of inspiration recognises that the human personal“what is the good and acceptable and perfect will of God” (Ro- ity is not entirely suppressed by the diréction and control of the mans xi. 2). An occasional state of divine possession in the other Spirit; but it does not offer us any sure guidance in discriminating ons becomes in the prophets of Israel a permanent endow- the human and the divine factor, and in estimating the value of ment for a few select agents of God’s revelation; but when that the contents of the Bible. The theory of essential inspiration in revelation is consummated in Christ, inspiration becomes the claiming inspiration only in matters of doctrine and conduct universal privilege of all believers. (anticipated in Aquinas’ distinction of direct and indirect inspira_ Apologetics.—While there is much superstition in the view of tion, and favoured by Erasmus, Hugo Grotius, Baxter, Paley, etc.) inspiration found in many religions, and much imposture in the betrays’ a too intellectualist standpoint in the emphasis it lays to the possession of it, yet it would be illogical to conclude on correctness in theology and ethics, and ignores the progressive

in 7o1, the overthrow of the kingdom of Judah in 586, the return irom exile in 537 were all heralded by prophecy. This prediction was no shrewd political conjecture, but an application to existing conditions of the permanent laws of God’s government. The

——

itat this feature of religion is altogether human error and not at character of revelation. divine truth. Man’s knowledge of God is conditional, and fore limited by his knowledge of the world and himself, and Saccordingly the same imperfection. The reality of a divine

raununion and communication with man is not to be denied cause its nature has been imperfectly apprehended. We must

_ Protestantism.—The theory of the Reformers (though not of their successors, the Protestant scholastics)—might be called that of vital inspiration, as its emphasis is on religious and moral life rather than on knowledge. While giving to the Scriptures supreme authority in all matters of faith and doctrine, the Reformers laid

424

INSTALLATION—INSTALMENT

stress on the use of the Bible for edification; it was for them primarily a means of grace for awakening and nourishing the new life in the hearts of God’s people. By the enlightening work of the Spirit of God the Word of God is discovered in the Scriptures: it is the testimonium Spiritus Sancti in the soul of the Christian that makes the Bible the power and wisdom of God unto salvation. By thus laying stress on this redemptive purpose of the divine revelation, the Reformers were delivered from the bondage of the letter of Scripture, and could face questions of date and authorship of the writings frankly and boldly. Hence a pioneer of the higher criticism in Great Britain, W. Robertson Smith, was able to appeal to this Reformation doctrine (quoted in Denney’s Studies in Theology, p. 205). The Reformers’ application of this theory to the Bible was necessarily conditioned by the knowledge of their age; but it is a theory wide enough to leave room for our growing modern knowledge of the Bible.

Résumé.—Briefly stated, these are the conclusions which our

modern knowledge allows. (1) Inspiration, or the presence and influence of the Divine Spirit in the soul of man, cannot be limited to the writers of the Scriptures; but, comparing the Bible with the other sacred literature of the world, its religious and moral superlority cannot be denied, and we may, therefore, claim for it as a whole a fuller inspiration. (2) As different writings in the Bible have more or less important functions in the progressive divine revelation, we may distinguish degrees of inspiration. (3) This inspiration is primarily personal, an inward enlightening and quickening, both religious and moral, of the writer, finding an expression conditioned by his individual characteristics in his writing. (4) The purpose of inspiration is practical; the inspired men are used of God to give guidance in belief and duty by declaring the word and will of God as bearing on human life. (5) As revelation is progressive, inspiration does not exclude defects in doctrine and practice in the earlier stages and their correction in the later stages of development. (6) As the progressive revelation culminates in Christ, so He possesses fullest inspiration; and it varies in others according to the closeness of their contact, and intimacy of their communion with Him. (7) As the primary function of Christ is redemptive, so the inspiration of the Bible is directed to make men "wise unto salvation." (8) It is the presence and influence in the souls of men of the same Spirit of God as inspired the Scriptures which makes the Bible effective as a means of grace; and only those who yield themselves to the Spirit of God have the witness in themselves that the Bible conveys to them the truth and the grace of God.

PURCHASE

possession of the goods. Such agreements, therefore, do not

the property in the goods, until all the instalments have been paid. But the terms of the agreement may sometimes purposely obscure

the nature of the transaction between the parties, where, for

example, the instalment purchase is merely to create a security for

money.

In such a case a judge will look to the true nature of the

transaction. If it is not a real letting and hiring, the agreement will require registration under the Bills of Sale acts. If the

ment contains words to the effect that a person has "bought or

agreed to buy" goods, the transaction comes under the Factors Act, 1889, and the person in possession of the goods may dispose of

them and give a good title (see Factor). The doctrine of reputed ownership, by which a bankrupt is deemed the reputed owner of goods in his apparent possession, has been somewhat modified by trade customs, in accordance with which property is frequently let out on the instalment system (see BANKRUPTCY). In the principal British dominions, such as Canada and Australia, real property is frequently sold for payment on the Instal-

ment system, usually during three years, some particulars of which will be found in Burge’s Foreign and Colonial Laws, vol. iy. ii. Instalment purchase is also the system followed by the building societies (g.v.), under which their members buy houses for themselves.

See also INSTALMENT SELLING.

(W. A.B.)

United States.—Instalment purchase in the United States takes either the form already described above, and knowm as the conditional sale, or the form of a sale outright with chattel mortgage (see Birt or SALE) for the unpaid portion of the price. Au apparent lease which in substance amounts to a conditional sale is almost universally treated as the latter, regardless of its form. The fact that the goods are in full use of the buyer and hence appear to be his, opens the possibility of his creditors being misled by his apparent ownership, and even more the possibility that bona fide purchasers of the goods from him may be misled, if the secret rights of the seller are given full force. These considerations have led in more than half the States to legislation under which a contract of conditional sale fails to preserve the seller's rights as against bona fide purchasers from the buyer, or as against described classes of the buyer's creditors (including his

trustee in bankruptcy) unless the contract is publicly filed or

recorded in much the same manner everywhere required fot a chattel mortgage. Where such filing is not required, sellers commonly use the conditional sale in the instalment purchase, to save the expense of filing, as also to avoid the publicity of filing, which BrBLií0GRAPEY.—In addition to the books mentioned above, see: generally is objectionable to the buyer as reflecting on his A. B. Bruce, The Chief End af Revelation (188x); C. A. Briggs, The credit. On the other hand, wherever such filing is required— Bible, the Church, and the Reason (1892); W. N. Clarke, The Use of except in the nine States which have adopted the Uniform Condithe Scriptures in Theology (1906); H. E. Ryle, The Canon of the Old Testament (1892); B. F. Westcott, A General Survey of the History tional Sales Act—there is much to be said in favour of using the of the Canon of the New Testament (7th ed., 1896) ; W. Sanday, Inspi- chattel mortgage back as the lender’s security. For there are ration (3rd ed. 1896); A. B. Davidson, article “Prophecy” in disadvantages in the conditional sale when it comes to realization Hastings’s Bible Dictionary, iv.; A. E. Garvie, “Revelation” in Hastings’s Bible Dictionary (extra volume). (A. E. G.)

INSTALLATION,

the action of installing or formally

placing some one in occupation of an office or place. The word is used of the ceremonial induction of an ecclesiastic, such as a canon or prebendary, to his stall in his cathedral choir. Similarly knights of an order of chivalry are ceremonially led to their stalls in the chapel of their order.

INSTALMENT

PURCHASE, in thè law of contract, a

form of purchase of goods on a system of extended credit. Originally applied to the sale of the more expensive kinds of goods, such as pianos and articles of furniture, the instalment system has now been extended to almost every description. The agreement is usually in writing, with a stipulation that the payments to purchase shall be by weekly, monthly or other instalments. The agreement is Virtually one to purchase, but in order that the vendor may be able to recover the goods at any time on non-payment of an instal-

ment, it is treated as an agreentent to let and hire, With à provision

on the security. If a chattel mortgagee retakes the goods and

forecloses on default, he is still entitled to recover at law any dif-

ference between the amount of the unpaid debt and the value of

the goods, or the amount for which they sell on foreclosure. But, except under the Uniform Act, a conditional seller must elect between retaking the goods and recovering the unpaid portion of the price; both he cannot do, and the retaking of used goods often results in a loss to him. On the other hand, under the conditional Sale the seller may in a very favourable case stand to win, since

he can keep as forfeited all that has been paid, even though his re-

sale of recaptured goods should result in a profit. In the case of a chattel mortgage, he would then have to pay over the difference to the defaulting buyer (mortgagor): and such is the vastly preferable rule for the conditional sale, as well, as evidenced by the

Uniform Act. In the case of street cars and railroad rolling stock, instalment

purchase has been introduced to permit specific new financing to companies whose credit standing has somewhat suffered, amd

that when the last instalment has been paid the goods shall become whose properties were already covered by a blanket mortgage the property of the hirer. A clause provides that in case of default framed to include after-acquired chattels. The buyer-company’s of any instalment, or breach of any part of the agreement, all Interest, and hence the blanket mortgagee’s, is held to be subprevious payments shall be forfeited to the lender, who can take ordinate to that of the instalment seller, whether the form be cot

INSTALMENT ditional sale, purchase money mortgage, or the peculiar Pennsyl-

vania "bailment-lease." Hence "equipment trust" securities can be marketed by a company whose new mortgage bonds cannot; since, too, the equipment in case of default can be removed and «old irrespective of the possible unprofitable location or condition ef the road itself.

,

Land and houses, especially in the case of subdivision development, are often sold on an instalment basis. In that situation radi-

SELLING

425

of instalment sales is $4,500,000,000 out of a total annual sale of $38,000,000,000. The mainspring of the mechanism of instalment selling is the finance company of which there are two types: the independent company and the subsidiary company which is organized by the parent company for the sole purpose of financing sales of its products. An example of the first type is the Commercial Credit company of Baltimore,incorporated in 1910, while the General Motors

cally different rules of law apply; there is no possibility, for in- Acceptance Corporation is the outstanding example of a substance, of resale by the buyer to a bona fide purchaser; forfeiture sidiary. The independent companies finance sales of a variety of on default of what the buyer has paid in is almost universal, yet

commodities, and are divided into a number of different depart-

eften subject to mitigating periods of grace by virtue of liberal

ments which handle the financing of particular groups of commodities. As a rule, the independent companies use what is termed

construction of the contract. See Bogert’s Commentaries on Conditional Sales (1924); W. A.

Estrich, Law of Instalment Sales of Goods (1926) ; K. Duncan, Equip-

went Obligation (1924) ; E. R. A. Seligman, The Economics of Instalment Selling (1927). (K. N. L.)

INSTALMENT

SELLING,

a system of retail trading

which is in essence an extension of credit to purchasers, under some form of contract by which the purchaser agrees to make partial payments at stated intervals over a period of weeks, months or even years. In this article a résumé of American

developments will be given first. I. IN THE UNITED

(X.) STATES

In the United States real estate instalment selling is handled mainly through building and loan associations. High-grade furniture houses were the first business houses to make use of instalment selling in the United States. They introduced it early in the ith century. Soon this method was extended to the marketing of many commodities, among the most important being books, sewing machines, pianos, gramophones, stoves, washing machines, automobiles, vacuum cleaners, clothing, jewellery and radios.

the non-recourse plan, while the subsidiaries use the recourse plan. Under the recourse plan the dealer signs the instalment paper and thus assumes a liahility for the failure of the customer to live up to

the terms of the contract. In case of default by the customer, the

dealer resumes possession of the article and must again dispose of it to recover the remainder of money still owed to him. Under the non-recourse plan the dealer does not assume any obligation, and in case of default the finance company repossesses the article and offers it for sale. Both types of finance companies furnish credit for wholesale as well as retail sales. As the most important part of instalment selling is devoted to automobiles, this feature of the development should be considered in more detail. Instalment selling of automobiles did not come into existence until after 1910. It was about that time that dealers in California are said to have originated it. Growth was slow in the industry for the first few years, and the sales were financed by the dealers themselves without assistance from finance companies. There were a few scattered examples of firms which purchased automobile paper beginning about 1913, but this was uncommon. Rapid growth started after the World War. The amount paid at the time of purchase varies fram about 25% to 40% of the pur-

Although instalment selling was first confined to the marketing of high-grade commodities, it is af present used by merchants who chase price of the car. The length of time covered by the subsell practically all classes of goods. A certain social stigma came sequent payments is usually between 6 and 18 months. Ordito be attached to the purchase of goods on the instalment plan, narily, a larger down payment and a shorter elapsed time is used especially when it came into use by firms who handled low-grade in the case of second-hand cars. In the sale of new cars the best goods and used questionable methods of marketing their products. practice calls for a minimum down payment of one-third the purFurthermore, there has always been a prejudice against the use of chase price and the length of time for subsequent payments to be bank credit to finance consumers’ purchases. The belief, which spread over a period of not more than r2 rmionths. However, these has been fostered by economists, has been that bank credit should terms are not followed closely, and there are many exceptions. Jt is be confined to the promotion of production, where there would be found that the number of repossessions necessary and the losses an increased value created as a result of the extension of this of finance companies increase alarmingly when the terms are credit. If a person did not have sufficient funds to purchase com- made more lenient. The terms of all instalment paper should be modities for consumption, the feeling was that he should go with- drawn up so as to give the purchaser sufficient equity in the comout them until such time as he could afford to purchase them out modity to make it his interest to keep up the remaining payments. of accumulated savings. This antipathy was probably one of the Fire and theft insurance is paid by the purchaser, and the rate causes of the various refinements in names which have been given is usually high enough so that it will cover the risk of conversion, to instalment selling, such as “deferred payment plan,” “purchas- that is, the chance that the purchaser may steal the car before all Ing out of income” and “budgeting plan.” his payments are made. | A distinction should be made between two broad classes of The most widely used form of contract in instalment selling is goods which are sold under instalment plans: consumption and pro- the conditional sale, which is signed by the purchaser. It contains duction goods. In many cases it is difficult to determine into three distinctive features: (x) title remains in the seller, (2) poswhich class a sale falls, but the main point is that there is little or session is generally held by the purchaser, and (3) title passes to no criticism heard of selling production goods on instalment plans, the purchaser on complying with the conditions of the sale. 1f

while there is much criticism and discussion as to the justification of the application of these same methads of marketing to consumption goods. Purchases of railway equipment through the use ofrailway equipment bonds has been an accepted method of financing the acquisition of producers’ capital. Payments are

made on these bonds over a period of ten years under the same

type of plan and contract as is used in instalment sales of con-

sumers’ goods. These goods are considered a sound investment

and in many cases have shown themselves more secure than mortgege bonds. , |

Larger growth of instalment selling has taken place in the mar-

eting of consumption goods and the increase is primarily the

result of the development of the use of this form of eredit in the automobile industry. Conservative estimates show that about

10% of all autømobiles sold since 1925 have been financed through mstalment plans. The most recent estimate made of the amount

the buyer fails to meet his payments the seller may repossess, and the seller is not compelled to refund any of the payments already made unless there is legislation to this effect in the State where the sale is made. In event of such legislation, the seller may be required to return to the purchaser any amount he receives on resale of the article above the amount which remains due from the purchaser and his costs. In those States where a conditional sale is not legal, a lease plan or chattel mortgage is used to finance instalment sales. In this case, the purchaser is considered to have leased the article and pays rent for the length of time covered by

his payments (see infra). There is no fundamental difference to the purchaser in the cost of these various plans. It is difficult to estimate the pure interest rate which the purchaser pays for the money he borrows in instalment buying, because of the fact that the costs of financing are included in the payments made, in addition to the insurance charge, and the loan

—

4.26

INSTALMENT

SELLING

is amortized in the periodic payments. In general the cost of the One is often asked the question: by how much will ins credit varies between ro and 3092. selling increase sales? The answer depends on the nature of the In order to secure funds to finance this paper, finance companies article, the type of public appealed to, the terms Offered, the resort to the sale of short-term paper to banks. They keep a cer- state of competition and other factors. A specific case vill tain amount of instalment paper in a selected bank under a deed illustrate the possibilities of the method. of trust, and against this collateral, they issue short-term paper The Remington Typewriter Company offered their Portable which is offered to banks for short-term investments. The losses typewriters on the instalment system in April 1925, their terms of finance companies have been relatively small, some reporting being an initial payment of £2 2s., followed by 1: monthly pay. losses through repossessions of about 4 of 1%. Large losses have, ments of £1 1s. Taking the sales for the six months preceding this however, occurred where the terms or the credit departments offer at the index figure of 100 per month, it was found that the have become too lax. index of sales had increased in Oct. 1925 to 210, in November ta Undoubtedly, the volume of production of certain groups of 269, and in December to 325. In eight months instalment selling articles has been increased through the development of instal- had increased the sale of portable typewriters by over 200%, ment selling. This increase has brought about lower costs, so that while the newspaper advertising for the eight months was only in many cases the consumer has benefited. But against the gain about 5% above that for the preceding six months. Tempting the Consumer.—The question has been raised we must consider the cost of the necessary credit to the consumer. It is probable that production of goods which have not lent them- whether the consumer may be tempted by instalme nt selling to selves so readily to instalment has suffered in consequence, with buy beyond his means. There are undoubtedly instances inWhich the result that the articles which go to make up the various stand- working-class families become indebted for furniture, a gramoards of living have changed in nature and quantity. One of the phone, clothing, etc., at one and the same time. In such cases main drawbacks to the consumer is that he has not been able to the instalment payments due on a given date may exceed the budget his income properly. He does not know from experience wages available. Is not this the genesis of a grave social evil? what margin of safety he should keep. For this reason it is imThe answer to that question is that experience shows that the perative that there should be improvements in the credit investi- percentage of bad debts incurred in instalment selling in Great gation departments of finance companies. Britain is astonishingly small. The members of the Hire Py. Instalment selling has undoubtedly come to stay, and may be chase Traders’ association have for many years past kept their expected to improve in the future with further experience. At the bad debts below 2%; many concerns keep them well below 1%. present time, the United States has abundant credit which is availThe social reformer is apt to assume that the temptation to able at a low rate of interest. Should the interest rate go up with reckless buying is greatest to the poorest, It may be so, but the an increased demand for credit in other fields, the cost of instal- fact remains that the ability to budget expenditure—and here ment financing would have to increase. At the same time another lies the crux of the question—seems to vary in proportion to the fact should be noted; the country has not been through a severe shallowness, and not the depth, of the housewife’s purse. The crisis since instalment selling has become so important. It re- Frenchwoman buys more carefully and expertly than the Engmains to be seen whether it is possible for the consumer to resume lishwoman, while the latter makes money go farther than the his buying as soon after a crisis as has been the case in the past. American housewife. It is probable that the danger of instalment If his return to the market is delayed because of obligations which selling to the working-classes in Great Britain has been exaggerhe has assumed already and which must be met before he can be- ated. come part of the effective demand for new goods, then the recovOn the other hand, it cannot be too clearly recognized that ery of business after a crisis will certainly be delayed. with instalment selling a new situation has arisen. The balance (B. G.) of power as between salesman and customer has been upset. Il, INSTALMENT SELLING IN GREAT BRITAIN

Instalment selling has proved an invaluable aid to certain young and some old British industries since the World War. It is unlikely that the motor, wireless, electrical equipment, pianoforte or furniture industries would be in their present healthy state, had not instalment selling come to their assistance. For long years past, the British building societies have fostered the wise plan of buying houses on the instalment system and their growth has been remarkable. (See BurrprNc SocrETIEES.) Estimates of Extent.—How far instalment selling is respon-

While Mrs. Brown may be quite competent to deal with her local

shopkeeper, she may not have the skill to cope successfully with the travelling salesman or with the salesman of a department store. A superior technique of salesmanship may be opposed to an inferior technique of buying. In such circumstances, there may be cases in which the housewife is tempted to purchase beyond her means. Until 1928, instalment selling was managed on a more conservative basis in Great Britain than in America. While the American banks only attempted to set standards of practice in 1925, the long experience of British business and the conservative policy of the British banks have secured a cautious policy; factors of safety have been operative. At the same time, it has to be admitted that one or two British industries are now leaving these standards of practice behind them. Certain firms for instance are now working on the “no deposit, long term agreement” system. As most of the companies concerned are large and possess corresponding financial resources,

sible for sales in the wide range of industries it serves, no one can estimate. British industries collect few data for such a computation. The Hire Purchase Traders’ association has estimated that 4,000,000 instalment agreements are entered into annually, and that 16,000,000 such agreements were in 1928 in force. The association also estimates that instalment agreements account for 50% of motor-car sales; for 50% of furniture sales; and for 10% of jewellery sales in Great Britain. These figures are given with reserve; they are rough estimates and nothing more. It is clear, there need be no need for anxiety in their interests. Inevitably however, that a large percentage of the farm implement, factory both they and their customers must pay a little more for the equipment, office machinery, bicycle trades and a small percentfacilities offered: how much, is a matter of accountancy. age of the clothing, bible and bookselling trades is done on the Facilities for Instalment Trade.—There are now several instalment basis. British financing companies ready to take over the small trader's Certain other services seem to be suited to the instalment accounts and to give his customers instalment credit. This method of selling. One of these is insurance, which has been sold accommodation will enable the small retailer increasingly to comto the British working classes by weekly payments for half a pete with the large concerns. In some cases these financing century or more. One company is selling life policies to the companies allow the retailer himself to collect accounts, so that middle classes on the monthly payment system, while another he does not lose contact with his customers.

has announced its intention of following suit. Travel is being

sold in the:same way. One of the British railway groups is to sell holiday tickets on instalments, collecting sixpence or a shilling weekly. The British income tax is collected in instalments.

In 1928 the facilities available for the small trader to give his

customers instalment terms were multiplying in other directions

A.number of manufacturers were prepared to finance the instal: ment sales of their dealers on a reasonable basis; a few whole-

INSTERBURG—INSTINCT salers in certain lines offered the same facilities; and the banks themselves ceased to protest that they would not finance instalment sales. This change of attitude was sponsored by the Midland

Bank in its Bulletin (Feb.-March 1928) in the following terms:— The banks, in the ordinary course of providing direct accommoda-

tion to their own customers, probably provide a considerable part of the funds required for carrying on hire-purchase business. This

does not imply that the banks. actually lend specifically for hiretrade, but in the ordinary course of operation of their

t facilities, substantial sums, though unidentifiable in detail, are probably lent for this purpose. Similarly, the banks are called

from time to time to lend large amounts to finance the operations of manufacturers, some of whom may be producing partly or

wholy to meet the hire-purchase demand. In these cases again the banks are indirectly financing this particular type of business. Conse-

IN MAN

427

two parties in this controversy are, on the one side, those who adhere more or less firmly to the original meaning of the word “instinct” as “natural impulse” or “urge,” and, on the other side, those who, taking their departure from the complex types of instinctive behaviour characteristic of some of the lower forms of life, take the word as meaning “congenitally organized patterns of behaviour.” On the whole the line of division between these opposing views corresponds in psychology to the line between the introspectionist and the behaviourist, and in general philosophy to the line between the finalist and the mechanist. The controversy has largely centred round the problem of the relation of Instinct to Intelligence or to Habit. As far as the

science of psychology is concerned the opposing standpoints can be reconciled. If we define psychology as the science which not hold themselves out to participate in exactly the same way as in studies the behaviour of the living organism, and seeks to understand and interpret that behaviour in terms of the inner life of How much does instalment credit cost? The financing company thought and feeling, it is possible to preserve the traditional sense may charge 5% to 8% on each transaction for 12 months’ accom- both of “psychology” and of “instinct,” and at the same time to modation. Obviously, the actual rate of interest paid is 10% to cover the new fields in both cases. There is no opposition between 16%, since the average amount on loan is only half of the total. Instinct and Intelligence, provided we consider both at the same itmust be remembered, too, that the retailer is normally charging level in the animal scale. Low down the scale there is almost comhis customer from 5% to 8% for the credit given so that the net plete provision in the structure of the organism at birth for all cost to the retailer is trifling. It will be clear, however, that the actions necessary to preserve its own life, and to secure the coninstalment method of selling entails the use of greater capital in tinuance of the species. The part left for intelligence to play is insignificant, and we have no evidence of the presence of any relation to turnover than cash selling. high degree of intelligence. Higher up the scale the congenital See also TALLYMAN AND TALLY System. (C. Cz.) INSTERBURG, a town in the province of East Prussia, at provision for necessary actions is incomplete, and a special supplethe point where Angerapp and Inster join to form the Pregel, 57 menting through individual learning is required. Intelligence has m. E. of Kónigsberg by the railway to Eydtkuhnen, and at the a more important réle to play, and the evidence for the possession junction of lines to Memel and Allenstein. Pop. (1925) 39,390. of the necessary intelligence begins to accumulate. At the top of Interburg, the "burg" on the Inster, was founded in the r4th the animal scale the congenital provision in the structure of the century by the knights of the Teutonic order. Having passed to the organism for those actions which are necessary to maintain life margraves of Brandenburg, the village which had sprung up round is incomplete and fragmentary in the highest degree, so much so the castle received civic privileges in 1583. During the next cen- that there may well be doubts in some cases whether it exists at tury it prospered greatly, partly owing to the settlement in it of all. At this level the part which intelligence must play becomes several Scottish trading families. In 1679 it was besieged by the very important, and the evidence for a high degree of intelligence Swedes; in 1690 it suffered severely from a fire; and in 1710-11 becomes overwhelming. From the bottom to the top of the scale, from pestilence. The town church is celebrated for its fine wood however, there is evidence of the presence of a powerful impulsion carvings. Besides flax-spinning and iron-founding, Insterburg has from within, urging the organism towards actions, guided by such manufactures of machinery, cement, leather and beer, along with intelligence as there is, which tend to serve great biological ends. a considerable trade in cereals and wood, while horse-breeding is It was this impulsion, to which the name “instinct” was originally given, and it is this irapulsion upon which we must concentrate extensively carried on in the neighbourhood. ` INSTINCT: see Antmat Bewaviour; PsycHotocy; Com- attention, if we would understand human instinct. Instinct and Emotion.—The chief human instincts—regardPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY. INSTINCT IN MAN. The current views regarding human ing instincts from this “impulsion” point of view—are those asinstinct at the beginning of the modern period are very well repre- sociated with fundamental human emotions, like fear, anger, sex sented in Lord Herbert of Cherbury's De Veritate ("On Truth"), love, parental love, etc. The relation of.Emotion to Instinct has published in 1625. In enumerating the human faculties Lord been another fruitful source of controversy. Early and modem Herbert starts with “Natural Instinct.” This has two aspects. writers are both agreed that there is some close relation. By the On the’ one hand, it is the source of the motives which urge both early writers the relation was more or less tacitly assumed. William meri and animals irrationally to seek to preserve their lives and James, on the other hand, in more recent times, explicitly asserted to secure happiness. On the other hand, it furnishes certain in- it. It was left to William McDougall, however, to define the renate principles of knowledge—“common notions,” Lord Herbert lation more precisely, and the controversies have centred mainly called them. The prevailing usage of the word “instinct” up to round McDougall's work. According to his view each instinct has the middle of the roth century is fairly well represented by Lord associated with it a characteristic emotion, which is always the Herbert’s Instinctus Naturalis. In the discussion of human in- stable and peculiar mark of the activity of that instinct. This stact, however, the first aspect was moré and more emphasized. view has been challenged by A. F. Shand, who maintains that ‘Natural propensity,” or “natural inclination” was essentially McDougall has reversed the actual relationship, and that the themeaning of the word, when applied to the human being. activity of an instinct is rather to be regarded as a constituent New Meaning ‘of Instinct.—During the 19th century, and element in the activity of an emotional system. J. Drever has epecially after Darwin, the problem of instinct began to be ap- also criticized McDougall on the ground that he has over-simplified proached from a new standpoint. The direction of approach was the situation, and that emotional excitement always exhibits a binow from the side-of anima] behaviour, in place of human con- polarity characteristic of the whole life of feeling, so that, even t. The word “instinct” was taken as designating forms of be- if we admit that emotional excitement always accompanies inaviour which were not acquired by an animal through experience stinctive activity, we must assume that two emotions of opposite quently it would

be wrong

to say that the banks do not grant

accommodation for hire-purchase business, merely because they do

andlearning, but provided for congenitally in the animal’s struc-

; ànd manifested on the first occasion of performance, if not perfectly, at least adequately to secure the survival of the inand the continuance of the species. When this meaning «s carried over to the case of the human being, the stage was Stor tke acute controversy “regarding Instinct in Man, which characterized the first three decades of the 2oth century. The

polarities—"joy" and "sorrow" emotions—are involved in the case of each of the instincts. Drever, however, refuses to admit that all instinctive activity necessarily involves emotional excite-

ment, holding that emotion is experienced only when the instinctive impulse is facilitated or impeded in the attainment of its end, and that some instincts, like imitation and play, have no characteristic

emotion at all associated with them. Larguier des Bancels, again,

4.28

INSTITUTE—INSTRUMENTATION

holds that emotional excitement represents in essence a disorder of instinct. Enumeration and Classification of Human Instincts.— McDougall’s teaching in its general features has been widely accepted, more particularly as regards the enumeration of the human instincts. His list includes: the instincts of fright or escape, pugnacity, repulsion, curiosity, self-display, submission, sex, acquisitiveness, the parental instinct, the gregarious instinct, the hunting instinct. To these must be added: imitation, play, certain simple instincts showing themselves in early childhood, the natural appetites, and possibly the wandering instinct. This enumeration is based on the view of Instinct as natural impulse. Writers who approach Instinct from the behaviour side, like Thorndike, for example, enumerate many more, while the psycho-analysts, though making extensive use of the notion of Instinct, rarely attempt any enumeration at all. S. Freud, the leader of the psycho-analysts, employs the term “wish” in a sense which is practically equivalent to “impulse” or “instinct.” The classification of human instincts presents considerable difficulty. The most popular classification is probably into ego instincts, sex instincts, and herd instincts. This classification is based on the Freudian psychology, but it is unfortunately biological rather than psychological. At least two psychological classifications have been suggested: into instincts of attraction, repulsion and aggression, and, harking back to Plato, into appetitive and reactive instincts, and under each head into general and specific. W. H. R. Rivers, who may be said to mediate between the views of the psycho-analysts and those of McDougall, has suggested a classification of an entirely new basis. He contends that the activity of some instincts shows an “all-or-none” character, a want of control and discrimination, while in other cases there is a grading of intensity of action, and a delicate adjustment of activity to end. The two types might therefore be called “protopathic” and “epicritic,” respectively. This distinction seems

instruments and voices. The treatment of the orchestra has for the last hundred years been the most popular branch of the art

Hence the vogue of the narrow term “orchestration.” The collo. quial word “scoring” is the only adequate name for an art that

ought to include all other aspects of timbre and performance

such as chamber-music

registration.

(g.v.), pianoforte

writing and organ

Method of Study.—The first requisite for good scoring is aa

imagination exercised by training. Rules are not enough: and

neither is mere practical experience. Schumann’s Scoring grew worse as experience discouraged him; and a student who masters

good rules without training his imagination merely protects himself from learning by experience. Many musicians who ought to know better are doing serious mischief by denying the posi-

bility of arm-chair score-reading. Exaggerated claims are harmless for they are nearer to the truth of what an accumulation of

study can achieve. The common-sense of the matter is obvi

this: the arm-chair reader can vividly imagine effects that he has

heard; he can recognise similar effects when he sees them in a score that is new to him; and so with effort and practice he can realise the effect of known sounds in new combinations. The complexity of the combinations has, in reason, little to do with the difficulties of imagination; and familiarity with the type of music is always a paramount factor. William Wallace, in The Threshold of Music, seems to believe that modern progress in orchestration has produced new cerebral powers. This is a fallacy: listeners or conductors who have hecome

familiar with Richard Strauss’s orchestration will vividly imagine `

the sounds of a page of the master’s latest and fullest scoring

long before scrutiny has shown more than the main entries and the general type of colouring. But such readers may get nothing

but abstract grammatical propositions from a page of Palestrina if they have never heard pure polyphony sung without accompani-

ment in a vaulted building. The music of each great period has equivalent to a distinction between presence and absence of its own proper scoring which sounds well under its proper conemotion. ditions. The student should take opportunities of hearing each kind of music well produced; and he should multiply his experience by For instinct in animals see ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—W. McDougall, An Introduction to Social Psy. reading the scores of all periods, besides those of his own day. cholagy (1908); E. L. Thorndike, Educational Psychology (1912-14, An imagination thus trained is obviously useful to conductors. bibl.) ; A. F. Shand, The Foundations of Character (1914); Trotter, It is not less useful to composers, for it is no mere antiquarian The Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War (1916); J. Drever, Instinct in Man (1917, bibl); W. H. R. Rivers, Instinc and the lore but a widely generalised capacity to imagine correctly all Unconscious (1920); L. L. Bernard, Instinct: A Study in Social kinds of significant musical sounds. Its possessor will never proPsychology (1924); S. Freud, The Ego and the It (1927).

(J. Dr.)

INSTITUTE OF THE CHRISTIAN BROTHERS, or, more fully, “Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools,” a religious fraternity founded at Reims in 1680, and formally organized in 1683, by the priest, Jean Baptiste de la Salle, for the purpose of affording a free education, especially in religion, to the children of the poor. Though not officially connected with the Jesuits, their organization and discipline are very similar; and their work is now carried on in all parts of the world. See J. B. Blain, La vie du vénérable J. B. de la Salle (1887) ; and P. Joseph, art. “Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools” in the Catholic Encyclopaedia (with many references).

INSTRUMENT, that which can be used as a means to an end, hence a mechanical contrivance, implement or tool; the word

is more particularly applied to the implements of applied science, in mathematics, surgery, surveying, etc., while those of the handicrafts are generally known as “tools.” A specific use of the term is for the various contrivances used to produce musical sounds, “musical instruments.” In law an “instrument” is any formal or written document by which expression is given to a legal act or agreement. This is a classical use of the Lat. instrumentum, a document, record. The

duce the woolly scoring of the unimaginative composer who goes

by rule; and if he makes errors of calculation these will be remediable as errors of imagination are not.

Rules are useful in preventing errors of calculation. The only

extant treatise on instrumentation that gives correct rules is the posthumous work of Rimsky-Korsakov. Starting with the proposition that good scoring is good part-writing, this brilliant and fantastic Russian composer lays down surprisingly severe rules for combining good part-writing with well-balanced orchestral values. At first it seems incredible that any free art could live on such terms; yet the marvellous purity of Mozart’s orchestration supports Rimsky-Korsakov’s system in an art a century earlier

and far more complex. For there is less wonder that Rimsky-

Korsakov’s colouring should be pure since his ideas never overlap, and his hundreds of illustrations from his own works consist

(except for a few scraps of recitative) exclusively of 2-bar or 4-

bar phrases that repeat themselves. We shall not learn Mozart's

art from this, and rules will not endow us with Rimsky-Korsakov's imagination. Nor was that imagination equal to distinguishing

blunders from subtleties in the score of his friend Moussorgsky’s

Boris Godounov. Much less, then, is it to be trusted when he dismisses Beethoven's orchestration with the remark that the executerm may be used in a wide sense, as a mere writing, meant only tion of Beethoven's ideas is far inferior to their conception, This

to form a record, or in a particular sense with reference to certain statutes. For example, the Stamp Act 1891 defines an instrument as an expression including every written document; for the purposes of the Forgery Act 186r a post-office telegram accepting a wager has been defined as an instrument.

really means that the narrow cross-section of Beethoven's ideas

that comes within the aesthetic range of Russian ballet-music

could have been scored more easily and brilliantly by a Russian

composer in 1890. Apart from this, Beethoven is doubtless not infallible. But perkiness starves the imagination. Pure 16th Century Polyphony.—In the article HARMONY INSTRUMENTATION is the aspect of music which deals with timbre, and with the technical possibilities and characters of (g.v.) the grammar of pure polyphony is shown to be equivalent

INSTRUMENTATION to the art of vocal scoring. A modern choir soon learns the truth of the 16th century rules when it faces the task of unaccompanied

429

shelves the problem of how to keep subordinate parts in their

places. The continuo player represents an army of slaves upholding an aristocratic civilisation. they also leave the composer’s imagination free for many subtleBesides gaining a capacity to attack discords boldly, the vocal tes. Our stereotyped full chorus of soprano, alto, tenor and bass is chorus has undergone a radical change in the treatment of the roughly that of the 16th century, though we have forgotten the bass voice when supported by instruments. When the tenor is low ways of the genuine boy-alto who delights in manly growls down but still interior to the harmony, the bass is no longer obliged to D and becomes shy above A in the next octave. The 16th to go lower, but is free to sing in its upper register, crossing freely century knew no other alto, and Palestrina has 17 ways of group- above the tenor but relying on instruments which double it an jag 4 parts and 12 different ways for 3 parts, besides equally 8ve lower as the true bass. Bach and Handel never once cross various 5-part and 6-part grouping. In 8-part works for double the bass over the tenor in any other way; the tenor in such places

rehearsal. The old rules secure singability as well as euphony. But

choir the two choirs are often contrasted, as in Palestrina’s motet md mass Hodie Christus natus est, where the second choir, led by the altos, makes a terrestrial antiphony to a choir of angels. The infinite subtleties of 16th century part-writing are beyond

the scope of this article and very remote from the experiences

never gives the true bass. And Bach's so-called unaccompanied

motets thus show in every line that they were conceived as supported by at least an instrumental bass. In fact, unaccompanied choral writing practically disappears from classical music between

Palestrina

and Schubert.

It appears

modestly

in part-songs,

gf any instrumental music. But every conductor and every com- and is first taken fully seriously by Brahms; though some older poser may learn much from Palestrina’s and Lasso’s devices of conductors of choral societies honourably kept up its tradition. ucing by part-crossing beautiful progressions that would be

The basis of the continuo orchestra was, as now, the string band, an instrumental chorus of first and second violins, violas and violoncellos, supported an 8ve lower by double-basses which are never independent. Wind instruments did not form a complete rs more obviously in the rule formulated by the first com- mass of harmony but stood out against the strings in double or posers for double and triple choirs, viz., that the harmony of.each triple threads of each timbre, except when (as often in Handel) choir must be complete even when all are singing together. Lasso they doubled the strings. Flutes were used much more in their disregards this rule, but its common-sense becomes evident when lower registers than we think fit in modern orchestration. In the the choirs are on opposite sides of the building. organ-loft of a vaulted building low flutes are more effective than Archaic Instrumentation.—At the end of the r6th century in ordinary concert-rooms. The ordinary flute is called traverso. monody arose. It was the art of non-polyphonic vocal declamation The term flauto, with the use of the treble clef on the bottom line, with an instrumental accompaniment. With characteristic acumen indicates the flute-à-bec, a kind of flageolet, with rather a higher the Italian rnonodists promptly recognised that voices and instru- range. Bach uses pairs of each kind in the Matthew Passion but ments will not meet on the same plane of tone. Not all composers not in the same movements. waderstood the new problems. The habit, in private performance, Oboes are also used in threes or pairs, and the ordinary oboe of using viols to replace missing voices in madrigals had gone alternates with a variety a 3rd lower, the oboe d’amore, with the far to make composers incautious in dealing with more penetrating bell (and therefore the tone) of a cor anglais. Strauss has revived instruments. The flat-backed viols with their husky and reedy it. The real cor anglais figures in Bach’s orchestra as the oboe da , tone (nowadays still noticeable in the double-bass) were already caccia or the taille. Some authorities tell us that one or other of giving place to the royal family of the violin in all its sizes; these was not an alto cboe but a tenor bassoon. It is easier to this family was no longer on singing terms with voices; yet many relabel a museum specimen than to rewrite the whole of Bach’s composers at first saw no difficulty in using any instrument as oboe da caccia music. equivalent to any other instrument or voice at the same pitch. Bassoons hardly ever emerge from doubling the bass. The Schütz (1585-1672) writes for triple and quadruple choirs of Quoniam of Bach’s B minor Mass is a bass solo accompanied by a voices mixed with instruments. He writes the words under the horn, two bassoons and continuo. It would be delicious if we could instruments as well as under the voices; he often merely designates find proper acoustic conditions for it and could handle the conè part Vox instrumentalis; but he also takes the trouble to sug- tinuo discreetly enough. A great moment is the rising of the spirit gst Tromba o flauto, as if these instruments, in low register, of Samuel in Handel’s Saul, where the bassoons are as ghostly and had the same weight! Beauty often emerges from the chaos— awesome as the prophet’s message. In large enough numbers they associated with some practical suggestion that leaves us in doubt would also astonish us in Handel’s scoring of the “thick darkness" whether the composer knew what he achieved; as when Schiitz in Israel in Egypt. Handel, whose oratorio performances were on proposes that his wonderful Lamentatio Davidi, a perfectly scored a large scale, must have had more reed-tone than string-tone in masterpiece for bass voice, 4 trombones and organ, should be his orchestra; for he often had 20 oboes and 20 bassoons. Multiplayed with two violins an 8vo higher as a substitute for the plication greatly mellows the tone of an instrument; and we, who irs two trombones! seldom hear more than 4 oboes in unison, even in Mahler’s 8th Continuo Instrumentation—By the time of Bach and symphony, must not hastily judge our ancestors on this point. Handel instrumentation had become a mature art; but an art Trumpets and horns, not being provided with modern valves, depending on conditions no longer familiar to us. When these con- could produce only the natural harmonic series of the key to which ditions are restored the resulting aesthetic system completely justi- their length of tube was set. That series does not close up into Bes itself. It recognises that no group of instruments can make anything like a scale until the 8th harmonic. Accordingly trumpethomogeneous harmony like a vocal chorus, but that all instru- ers devoted themselves to acquiring extraordinary command of mental scoring consists normally of a top, a bottom, and a tertium the delicate distinctions of high lip-pressures (embouchures) beguid that completes the harmony but remains in the background. tween the 8th and 20th harmonics. A long mouthpiece, with a little Bass instruments support the bass; all other instruments, what- play in its adjustment, enabled the trumpeter to correct the out-ofever their pitch, are aesthetically top parts, and their most elab- tune 11th, 13th and r4th harmonics, (This secret was already aate counterpoint does not, profess to make their tones blend. forgotten by 1785, so that Burney, describing the Handel CenThey are woven into patterns of coloured threads, not blended like tenary Festival, tells us that whenever the G and Gt, alternately the colours of a landscape. The tertium quid is provided by an represented by the 11th harmonic, were heard in “The trumpet gan or a harpsichord; and it obeys the normal grammar of shall sound” displeasure was seen on every countenance.) Humarmony. Only a keyboard instrument can provide such bler players called themselves Principal-blüser and produced the ony ready-made on one plane of tone. At the present day lower notes to which the tight-lipped clarino-player could not one

crade if the planes of tone were not kept distinct. In all later iods the distinction of planes of tone is a fundamental principle. in the 16th century it enters into these delicate intricacies, and

of the commonest faults of unimaginative scoring is the habit descend. Horn-players developed a similar hazardous technique of Continuo orches- high notes. In modern performances special training and special tation shows the true principle with drastic clearness, but. it instruments are required for early 18th century trumpet and horn

of treating the orchestra like a 4-part chorus.

430 music.

INSTRUMENTATION A modern tendency to strain all instruments up to high

notes has facilitated this revival. Trombones, when they occasionally appear in continuo orchestration, are treated exactly like

choral voices, and are, indeed, mainly used in unison with the chorus. A soprano trombone at first completed the group but Bach already had to replace it by some kind of slide-trumpet (corno da tirarsi). Bach's full orchestra consists, then, of the string band (preferably larger than he ever had) oboes (ordinary or d'amore) in pairs or threes, flutes or flutes-à-bec in pairs or threes, bassoons (taken for granted) in unison with the basses, three trumpets (two clarini and one principal) three horns (not often used together with the trumpets) and a pair of kettle-drums. If the string band is large the wind parts, other than the trumpets, should be doubled, trebled, or (in festival performances) multiplied. The organ supplies the continuo in choruses, and the harpsichord supplies it in solo movements. The pianoforte is really (as Philipp Emanuel Bach already urged) better than the harpsichord, if only the player will avoid a self-assertive touch. The orchestral combinations of solo movements range from Handel’s perfunctory tutti unisoni to Bach’s and Handel’s richest schemes. Instruments obsolescent from incompatibility or feebleness live awhile in the arias and recitatives, protected from competition with the orchestra; and so we learn from Bach’s Passions and Trauer Ode the use of the lute and viola da gamba, and from Handel’s Alexander Balus the use of the theorbo, a large doublenecked lute. Each movement has its own scheme of instrumentation as a set pattern which cannot change while the movement lasts. The scheme of a chorus with independent full orchestra is in three planes of tone. These planes do not interfere with each other, and each plane has variants of the same harmonic scheme which would produce appalling collisions if all were projected on to a single plane (say, in an arrangement for two pianofortes). The principal plane is that of the voices. Above it, mostly higher in pitch, all the instruments that are not doubling the bass flourish with more rapid detail than the voices. Behind, and supporting the whole, is the continuo which moves more slowly than the chorus. The bass is common to all the planes, though it is enlivened by instrumental details. The results of this scheme, realised by competent execution under scholarly guidance, are as true in our age as they were when Bach and Handel wrote. Scholarship must show us the right conditions for performance, but it need not recover too precisely the actual original conditions. An old man who had been a chorister under Bach at Leipzig once told Wagner's teacher, Weinlig, how Bach's cantatas were performed. His account was, "It went atrociously and we always got

a flogging afterwards." Symphonic Orchestration.—Gluck (g.v.) laid down one of

the cardinal principles of symphonic as well as dramatic orchestration when he said that instruments ought to be used according to dramatic vicissitudes. This means that for Gluck it is neither sufficient nor often possible to use them according to a set pattern. Another cardinal principle results from the disappearance of the continuo.’ This first happened merely by neglect, as the severe training needed for it repelled a genération of musicians excited by non-polyphonic styles. But mere neglect soon passed into a disposition to make the orchestra provide its own continuo. If old music sounded hollow without a continuo, why should not new music contrive better? This at once put many instruments into categories unrealized by Bach and only sporadically realized by the eclectic Handel. An instrument could now have two values: one, the old cantabile function; the other a capacity to provide unobtrusive notes for the background. Holding-notes for the horns revealed a wonderful beauty and usefulness in this way, with all a singer’s power to swell and diminish the sound. Fhe bassoons became the hardest worked wind instruments in the early symphonic orchestra, for they could do everything required of centinuo-work, from doubling the bass to supplying the many notes the natural horns could not reach. Their tone, so beautifully if unwittingly described in The Hunting of the Snark as “meagre and hollow but crisp, like a coat that is rather too

tight in the waist, with a flavour of will-o’-the-wisp” had a useful capacity for vanishing; and “too tight in the waist” isa very apt description of instruments which, like the bassoon and the viola, show in their half-veiled tones the results of a compromise between the dimensions proper to their pitch and the prac-

ticable stretch of human hands. The viola had at first a curious position in the early symphonic style. That style was so unpolyphonic that the viola could fora long time find nothing to do but to double the violoncello in the upper octaves as the basses double them in the lower. The resuk is so good that in early symphonies it is carried out mechani

even where it takes the violas above the second violins, By

Mozart uses this primitive device with full imaginative insight ig mature works where he hardly less often divides the violas inte two independent parts. The trumpets of the symphonic orchestra have become degraded to the fanfares and signallings of the Principal-blüser. The clarine player was finally ousted by players of a cheap substitute called

the clarinet, which could play high trumpet parts with ease, if with

rather a vinegar tone. But the clarinet had a wide compass; these trumpet-sounds

are its worst.

Below

them it had a trick con

tabile octave, and below that a few rather dull notes; these a coldly mysterious and reedy lowest octave, the register. The dull middle notes proved astonishingly continuo purposes; they are higher than the bassoon

and below chalumeay useful for can attain without self-assertion, and they are not limited like the horn noies. Gluck uses the clarinet only in this neutral region; and even

Mozart gives the instrument nothing better when the orchestra is in the key of D. This primitive treatment survives as late as Beethoven’s 2nd Symphony, and revived by him in quitea late work, the fugal overture, Zur Weihe des Hauses (op. 124). But when Mozart uses clarinets in the keys of A major, E major, E flat and B flat he reveals the clarinet as richer and more resourceful than any other wind instrument. The chalumeau octave is deliciously nutty in arpeggios, and dramatically hollow in sustained notes. The cantabile octave is magnificent (see the trio of the minuet of the great E flat symphony, for its contrast with echoes on the flute and with low arpeggios on the second clarinet).

The military high notes (or “fife sounds”) Mozart does not care for. Beethoven’s view of the clarinet is less sympathetic than Mozart’s, his idea of its cantabile register being just a tone toa high. Schubert understands it perfectly.

The oboe can never efface itself. Run through the individual wind-parts of some such encyclopaedic score as Wagner’s Meistersinger and you will be astonished at the unfailing beauty of the oboe parts and at the large tracts of drudgery in the excellent, uncomplaining clarinets. i . The flute has no power in its lower octave and blends with other instruments in none, except, paradoxically, with extremely high Bach-like trumpet notes (if the experiment were ever tried). Bat

In its top octave (from A to A) it is a very adequate and euphonious treble to the wind-band, and gains greatly by doubling. Haydn hardly ever writes his orchestral flutes high enough and: often seems to expect low notes to be heard under conditions that would not have satisfied Bach. It is possible that his long period of experiment at Esterhazy did him less good than he or historians have thought. His Esterhazy symphonies show that he had a prim-

itive. orchestra diversified by astonishing solo players. He was able at Esterhazy to produce horn-passages that would astonish

Bach. But in the world outside he found that orchestras, though

better in the rank and file, were seldom troubled by virtuoso members. In his last symphony the theme of the finale is a typical and

easy horn tune, but he dare not give it to the first horn of Salomon’s London orchestra except: under cover of a tutti! All his mature scoring is full of strokes of genius but deeply marked with signs of disillusion. -

‘Beethoven’s

|

Instrumentation.—Beethoven enlarged the

range of orchestral thought more than any composer between Gluck and Wagner.

The circumstance of his deafness made hin

the victim of some miscalculations; and pedantic views of orchestration lead many critics to exaggerate these into grounds for a worse perkiness than Rimsky-Korsakov’s damaging patronage of

431

INSTRUMENTATION Beethoven's scoring. Two things must be learnt by everybody who | Wagner of Bayreuth is contented with eight.

wishes 10 understand Beethoven; first, that errors of calculation | À great stimulus was given to all orchestration by the inven-

are not the same thing as errors of imagination; secondly, that a | tion of ventil trumpets and ventil homs. When these instruments symphony is not an opera. Beethoven’s errors of calculation are |thereby acquired a complete scale the aesthetics of all brass inno greater than those of any composer who has not been able to

struments needed reconsideration.

Unimaginative composers of

hear a rehearsal of his own orchestral work. Their correction, as

course saw no difficulty. A trumpet penetrates everything else like

shown by Weingartner (Ratschläge), is equivalent to any pianoforte player’s control of his own touch, and would amount to little more than a conductor’s ordinary exercise of his skill were they

a red-hot poker, so why not give it the melody in every tutti? Wagner thought otherwise; he felt that brass tone was coarse unless it was used in large harmonic masses, and he accordingly invented new brass instruments to make the masses complete and coherent. Meanwhile he took his wind instruments in threes instead of twos. Already in the comparatively simple scores of Der Fliegende Hollander and Lohengrin this greatly clarified the colour-scheme. Half the art of scoring for wind instruments in the classical symphonies consists in making the best of the fact that

twice as extensive. Errors of imagination do not exist in Beethoven’s art; and only a school of criticism by rule of thumb would suppose that they did. Compared with Mozart’s, Beethoven’s scoring is rough, redundant and capricious. But Beethoven’s ideas are not Mozart’s and can be expressed neither in Mozart’s nor in Wagner’s scoring.

When critics tell us that bars 5-8 of the first movement of Beethoven’s 8th Symphony are badly scored, all they mean is that io let two oboes and a flute crowd in upon a quiet phrase in the clarinet is not a proper way to score the first fateful appearance of a Wagnerian Jeit-motif, which may not be heard again for an hour. But it is an admirably dramatic and symphonic way to score

a formal phrase which is going to be shouted at the top of the full orchestra immediately afterwards. The conductor need only say four words to the oboes, “Let the clarinet through,” and the

passage becomes perfectly clear. But it is already intelligible without any such precaution, and only bad playing can spoil it.

The symphonic orchestra which suffices for Beethoven, and for Brahms two generafions later, consists of strings, pairs of flutes, oboes, clarinets, and bassoons, one or two pairs of horns, a pair of trumpets and kettledrums. Trombones, reserved for climaxes, are used in spacious 3-part harmony, and Beethoven requires them in three sizes, alto, tenor and bass. For lack of the alto trombone many of Beethoven’s top notes must nowadays be low-

ered; and then our smart young orchestrators blame Beethoven

for his ill-balanced chords. The full wind tone is extended upwards by the dangerously shril piccolo, and downwards by the contrafagotto which gives the bass a richness without asserting itself. The big drum, cymbals and triangle are called “Turkish music” and, when used at all by Beethoven, are used according to Viennese ideas of Turkishness. Beethoven’s intentions, whatever we may think of their execution, cover the whole field of symphonic art; and it is to dramatic orchestration that we must look fer any addition to his range of thought.

Dramatic

Orchestration.—The

change

from

continuo-

orchestration to the symphonic style. was, as we have seen, essentially a change towards drama. Hence the dramatic and symphonic styles do not become separated at once; and with Mozart, who was equally happy in both, they are not easy to distinguish. The

distinction is, even in Mozart, a paradox to people who think that opera is the most dramatic form of music. Sonatas and symphonies, even by Mozart, turn out to be far too dramatic for the stage. The fight at the beginning of Don Giovanni is perfectly ade-

quately represented iti musical sequences which would be too cold

for any but his earliest symphonies. Theatre music will no more T : symphonic environment than stage scenery will stand yilgnt.

?

$n

And yet there is no limit to the refinement of dramatic orchestration whether in Mozart

or Wagner.

The gradations that

a symphonic composer uses in 20 bars must, be spread over a hundred in any continuous part of an opera, even on Mozart's scale. Here we already have a reason why opera should encourage very delicate gradations. Wagner's scale is given by the three minutes of the chord of E flat at the beginning of Das Rheingold; but still more significant is his management of a tensely emotional quarter

ofan hour with no more orchestra than strings and two horns, without double-basses, in the first act of Die Walküre. His enlarge-

ments of the orchestra all have an ultimate effect of purifying the ümbre and so removing complications from the method of scor-

ing, There was nothing new in large orchestras: both Mozart and

thoven had rejoiced in performances with double wind; and in agner's early Dresden days Spontini requisitioned “douze belles contrebasses” for the performance of his operas. The experienced

instruments

of contrasted

tones

will not make

homogeneous

triads when taken in couples. In Tristan und Isolde the threefold arrangement (two oboes and cor anglais; two clarinets and bass clarinet) adds its advantages to the maturest Wagnerian harmony, with a polyphony as profound as that of Beethoven’s last quartets. In the tetralogy of Der Ring des Nibelungen Wagner .takes his wind groups in fours, and introduces his new brass instruments. They originated in the bass-tuba which had come to replace the grotesque ophicleide and the still more primitive serpent as a bass to the trombones. These makeshifts had served Mendelssohn’s purpose and failed to serve Berlioz’s. The tuba could put an imposing bass below the trombones. Its tone is fat and puffy whereas that of the trombone is red-hot. A sensitive ear may notice, and a wise ear may refuse to notice, that the tuba is putting a black line below the red. But Wagner saw the possibility of a new aesthetic value here; and so in his tetralogy five tubas rang-

ing from contrabass to high tenor show as clear a contrast from trombones as oboes from clarinets (Rimsky-Korsakov utterly fails to grasp this point). The composers, having learnt new powers from such enlargements, can henceforth use these powers without extra apparatus. The orchestration of Die Meistersinger is the most complex in all Wagner, just because it is written for Beethoven’s orchestra plus one tuba and a harp, and, of course, the now ubiquitous ventil horns, the most perfect of all continuo-players. In Parsifal the extra tubas are abandoned but the remaining contrabass-tuba has permanently won its independence of the trombones. It seems paradoxical to leave Berlioz out of account in a history of instrumentation. Yet, short of a detailed appreciation of his individual strokes of genius, all that can be said of him is that he drew attention to'the subject in an epoch-making but capricious treatise, and that he achieved all that was possible to a highly imaginative musician who happened to hate polyphony. And that is more than some critics might expect. But it cannot have much

direct influence on more ordinary musicians. Post-Wagnerian Instrumentation.—A great many loudly proclaimed “new” tendencies in órchestration are nothing but the discovery of some single elementary principle. It would be quite easy to write a history of post-Wagnerian scoring in which single characteristics from each of the historic schools here described were assigned haphazard, one to each living composer; and quite impossible to argue against its results. The silliest a priori theories seem incontrovertible if we forget how music is actually made. If, for example, we believe that music is made for instruments in-

stead of instruments being built to make the best music they can, we may come to believe in the theory ascribed to Stravinsky, that each instrument should produce no passages that are not peculiar to its own timbre and inappropriate to any other. This is as if no

gentleman should ever say anything that could be said by a lady; and vice versa. When we have dismissed all such precious nonsense, several real phenomena remain. New harmonic ideas, such as multiplanar harmony, depend inextricably on instrumentation as surely as did the classical grammar of counterpoint. Less important is what Richard Strauss has called al fresco orchestration. This means a perception that there is not only safety in numbers, but a high aesthetic value in the average result of sixteen wild-cat attacks at

432

INSTRUMENT

OF GOVERNMENT—INSTRUMENTS

a passage that no individual can play properly. It is doubtful | ment whether that is the real reason of the splendour of such passages. | effect For one thing, the splendour is enhanced by rehearsal, and in the | three best orchestras the players eventually learn such passages fairly three accurately.

Mahler made a systematic study of the possibilities of very large orchestras; almost a quarter of the size of that of our Crystal Palace Handel festivals, but with music specially written for them. His 8th Symphony is a choral symphony requiring at least 750 performers, and going much more satisfactorily with 1,000. Berlioz never really contemplated anything larger. Such propositions are not decadent; they are severely disciplinary and require an imagination of the highest efficiency. On a large scale most orchestral colours fade; especially horns, which must be greatly multiplied if they are to tell. More fascinating to most artists, and more practical in the present lean years, are the aesthetics of small groups and chamber-orchestras. But this is a subject which cannot be pursued here. It is as much as a young composer’s prospects are worth to come before modern critics without a new aesthetic system of his own

invention. But a general article cannot deal with such private affairs. (D. F. T.) INSTRUMENT OF GOVERNMENT, the name given to the decree, or written constitution, under which Oliver Cromwell as “lord protector of the commonwealth” governed England, Scotland, and Ireland from Dec. 1653 to May 1687. The Long Parliament was expelled in April 1653 and the council of state dissolved; the Little, or Nominated, parliament which followed ended its existence by abdication; and Cromwell, officially lord general of the army, with a new council of state, remained the only recognized authority in the country. It was in these circumstances that the Instrument of Government, drawn

up by some officers in the army, prominent among whom was John Lambert, was brought forward, and after certain emendations accepted by Cromwell on Dec. 16. Consisting of 42 articles, the Instrument placed the legislative power in the hands of “one person, and the people assembled in parliament”; the executive power was left to the lord protector, whose office was to be elective and not hereditary, and a council of state numbering from 13 to 2% members. The councillors were appointed for life; 15 were named in the Instrument itself, and Cromwell and the council were empowered to add six. To fill vacancies parliament must name six persons, of whom the council would select two, the choice between these two being left to the protector. A parliament was to meet on Sept. 3, 1654, and until that date the

protector with the consent of the council could make ordinances which would have the force of laws. After the meeting of parliament, however, he had no power of legislation, nor had he any veto upon its acts, the utmost he could do being to delay new legislation for 20 days. A new parliament must be calfed “once in every third year,” elaborate arrangements being made to prevent any failure in this respect, and for five months it could not be dissolved save with its own consent. The parliament, composed of a single chamber, was to consist of 460 members—4oo for England and Wales, and 30 eách for Scotland and Ireland— and the representative system was entirely remodelled, growing towns sending members for the first time, and many small boroughs being disfranchised. A large majority of the English members, 265 out of 400, were to be elected by the counties, where voters must possess land or personal property of the value of £200, while in the boroughs the franchise remained unaltered. In Scotland and Ireland the arrangement of the representation was left to the protector and the council. Roman Catholics and all concerned in the Irish rebellion were permanently disfranchised and declared incapable of sitting in parliament, and those who had taken part in the war against the parliament were condemned to a simular disability during the first four parliaments. The protector was empowered to raise a revenue of £200,000 in addition to a sum sufficient to maintain the navy and an army of 30,000 men, and religious liberty was granted “provided this liberty be not extended to Popery or Prelacy.” The chief officers of state were to be chosen with the consent of parliament, and a parlia-

must be summoned at once in case of war. The practical of the Instrument was to entrust the government of the countries to the parliament for five months out of ey years, and to the protector and the council for the re.

mainder of the time. Although the Instrument bristled with possibilities of difference between parliament and protector, “it

is impossible,” as Gardiner says, “not to be struck with the ability of its framers.”

Cromwell governed according to the Instrument unti] the meeting of parliament on Sept. 3, when he endeavoured to obtain parliamentary sanction for the Instrument. Prolonged disputes followed and he dissolved the parliament on Jan. 22, 1655, with-

out obtaining his object. Regarding the Instrument as still in force, the protector sought for a time to rule in accordance with

its provisions; but new difficulties and growing discontent forced

him to govern in a more arbitrary fashion. A second parliament met in Sept. 1656, and in the following May Cromwell assented to the Humble Petition and Advice, which supplanted the Instrument of Government.

The text of the Instrument is printed in S. R. Gardiner's Constitytional Documents of the Puritan Revolution. See also S. R. Gardiner, History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, vols. ii. and ii. (1897-1901); L. von Ranke, Englische Geschichte (1859-68); and T. Carlyle, Cromweil*s Letters and Speeches (1897-1901).

INSTRUMENTS, ELECTRICAL. On account of the great extension of electrical power supply, cable and radio teleg-

raphy and telephony, and research, electrical measuring instruments have become extremely numerous of recent years: and it is therefore desirable to preface a description of the leading types by a short summary and classification of their principles. In order that an electric current should flow through a com ductor, there must be a potential difference, or P.D., usually expressed in volts, between its ends. The resulting current expressed in amperes always produces two effects: (a) an external magnetic field encircling the conductor and proportional to the current, and (b) an internal heating of the conductor due to agitation of its molecules which is proportional to the square of the current. If the conductor is a liquid compound or electrolyte, the passage of the current also produces a separation of its constituents or electrolysis, causing a liberation of gas or deposition of metal, the amount of which is proportional to the cutrent and to the time for which it passes. All these three effects of the current have been employed as bases for its measurement. Conversely, the introduction of a magnetic field into a circuit (dynamo or transformer), or the heating of the junction of two conductors (thermopile), or chemical action (voltaic cell) causes an electromotive force to be set up, and electrical instruments based on these effects are in use. In addition when a difference of potential exists between two conductors there is an electrostatic attraction between them which can be used as a method. of measuring the P.D.; and when electrified particles or electrons are projected across a vacuous space as in a valve tube they can be deflected either by electrostatic attraction or a magnetic field.

The steady current in a metallic conductor in amperes is equal to the P.D. in volts between its terminals divided by its resistance in ohms; and resistance measuring devices form a very important section of electrical instruments, with which are associated

potentiometers for P.D. and current measurement. The power taken from or imparted to a circuit in Watts at any instant is obtained by multiplying the P.D. in volts by the current in amperes at that instant, and wattmeters enable this power to be directly indicated; while the energy consumed, generally meas-

ured in kilowatt hours or Board af Trade units (B.T.U.), is obtained by multiplying the power in kilowatts (1,000 watts) by the time in hours it is utilized, and is registered by energy meters; but if the supply P.D. is constant the product of the current and

time or quantity of electricity is suffictent and is indicated by quantity meters,

:

Inductance and capacity are two electrical quantities which are of great importance in electrical circuits especially with high frequency alternating currents, The former is the magnetic field which is linked with the circuit whenever a current flows through

INSTRUMENTS

433

à, and therefore produces an e.m.f. whenever the current is that the true ampere should deposit -oo1rz828 gram per second.

"essing or diminishing, just as a mass resists acceleration or The best primary standard instrument for the determination e of its velocity. The unit of inductance is termed the of the ohm is that originally due to Lorenz in 1873. Essentially Henry (after the American physicist Joseph Henry, q.v.) and is it consists of a metal disc (fig. 3) rotated steadily in the magnetic such that it requires I volt to increase the current in it at the field of a coaxial cylindrical coil through which a current is passed. rate of 1 ampere per second. Capacity on the other hand has The arrangement is therefore equivalent to a “Faraday disc” in the opposite effect to inductance, as it offers infinite resistance to which the magnet is replaced by the current carrying coil, and a steady motion or current, but allows alternating current to pass. an e.m.f. is induced between the centre and edge of the disc. If M It is the analogue of a spring which yields to changes of force, is the coefficient of mutual inductance between the coil and disc (the magnetic flux through the disc for unit current in the coil), but remains stationary for a steady force. Electrical and magnetic measurements are so closely related ? the current in the coil, and n the number of revolutions per that they must be considered together, and we have to deal with second of the disc, any radius of the disc cuts across the whole ic force corresponding to electrostatic force, and magnetic flux M; in each revolution or Mi lines of force or Maxwells per fux corresponding to electric current. second. This is, by definition, the em.f., E between the centre The classification of electrical measuring instruments may be and edge of the disc. The current passing through the coil is set out in the following table:— also led through the resistance R to be tested producing a P.D. : E ws

pi

Definition of unit

|

Ea

| Current

Ampere

Resistance Ohm | , Electromotive force | Volt |

(p.d.)

Quantity Energy Inductance

cating

eA

Watt

Coulomb

Laboratory

Galvanometers

106-300 centimetres of mercury 1 sq.mm. sec- | Ohmmeters tion (14-4521 grams) at o^ C Applied to resistance of 1 ohm produces a cur- | Voltmeters

Wheatstone bridges Resistance standards Electrometers or poten-

1 Volt-ampere

1 Ampere-second .

B.T.U. Henry

Z instruments

0.00111800 grams of silver deposited persecond | Ammeters

rent of r ampere

(emf)or Potential difference

Power

ee UE e

Measuring

LT

i Kilowatt-hour I Volt for increase of current at r ampere per

Wattmeters

Quantity meters Energy meters

second

and vol-

tameters

tiometers and standard cells

Voltameters

or ballistic

galvanometers

Inductance and capacity bridges

Standard inductances

Capacity Magnetic force Magnetic flux

Farad Gauss Maxwell I, STANDARD

Variometers

I Coulomb for x volt

INSTRUMENTS

Permeameters Fluxmeters

Standard. condensers

Magnetometers Ballistic galvanometers

V — Ri, and the ends of this resistance are connected through a galvanometer G to two contacts at the centre and edge of the and resistance (ohm). From these can be derived the unit of disc. On varying the speed of the disc a speed can be found for potential difference (volt) and any one of these three can be which the galvanometer remains at zero, indicating no current in deduced by Ohm’s law from-the remaining two. Standard instru- which case V=£, or Ri=Mni, so that R=Mn. The mutual ments are divided into two classes (a) primary, and (b) derived inductance M is a constant of the apparatus which can be calor practical; the first, demanding extreme care and accuracy in culated from the dimensions and number of turns of the coil and design and construction, are being confined to the standardizing the diameter of the disc, so that when balance is obtained the laboratory, the second being convenient: portable devices for resistance R can be determined by multiplying this constant by reproducing the standard. the speed, which is easily measured with accuracy. The two primary standard instruments employed at GovernThe most recent form of Lorenz apparatus as designed and ment standardizing institutions such as the National Physical used at the National Physical Laboratory differs from the original Laboratory are the current balance for determining the ampere, form principally in having two discs and four coils wound on and the Lorenz apparatus for determining the ehm, The former marble cylinders so arranged (a) that the system is astatic or (fg. 1) is a highly accurate form of Kelvin current balance unaffected by uniform external magnetic fields such as that of (gv.) in which both the fixed and moving coils are wound in the earth, and (5) that the magnetic field of the coils at the edge screw threads cut on marble cylinders of accurately measured of the disc is very low so that small errors in the dimensions have dimensions, and the force on the moving coils due to. current less effect. As the e.m.f.’s in the two discs are in opposite direccirculating through the whole system is measured by an accurate tions two contacts only on their edges suffice. The convenience balance. This instrument is generally connected to a silver of this apparatus enables standard resistance coils to be standardvoltameter, consisting of a platinum bowl containing a solution ized directly, and this appears preferable and likely to be ofpure silver nitrate and a plate of pure silver held horizontally adopted in the future; but at present the practical derived standin the liquid. On passing current from the silver anode plate to ard is the mercury ohm consisting of a glass tube having a bore the platinum bowl, silver is deposited on the latter, and the of x square millimetre in cross section and a length of 106-300 amount of the deposit can be found by weighing the bowl before centimetres filled with mercury and at a temperature of o? C. and after the deposition. Such a silver voltameter constitutes the As the cross section of the tube is always determined by filling derived practical standard of current, and can be set up in any it with mercury and weighing the latter, the practical definition laboratory. The “International ampere” was defined by the Inter- of the ohm has been modified, and the International ohm is now national Conference on Electrical Units.and Standards in 1908 defined as “the resistance offered to an unvarying electric current as “the unvarying electric current, which, when passed through by a column of mercury at the temperature of melting ice, a solution of nitrate of silver in water, in accordance with specifi- 14-4521 grams mass of a constant cross-sectional area and of a tation IT. attached to these resolutions, deposits silver atthe rate length of 196-300 centimetres.” of o-oor11800 of a gram per second.” The more recent work of The mercury standard ohm is constructed by employing a glass Dr. F, E. Smith at the National Physical Laboratory indicates tube having a perfectly uniform bore of 1 square millimetre cross The two primary electrical units are those of current (ampere),

INSTRUMENTS

4:34

section (1-129 mm. diameter) which is carefully calibrated for

As in the other cases a practical standard is desirable, and this

uniformity of cross section along its length by measuring the is provided by a standard cell, of which the best and DOW umi. length of a known small volume of mercury as it is displaced to versally used example is the cadmium cell first devised by Dr different positions along the tube. The tube is then cut and care- Weston in 1892. This cell as now made consists of a small fully ground to the required length and two additional short vessel of H form (fig. 2) having platinum wires sealed into the lengths of it have bulbs blown on their ends and are cemented bottoms of the main tubes. At the bottom of one of them a small in exact line on to the ends of the main tube, with very thin sheets quantity of mercury is placed, and in the other some 10% (by of platinum foil between. The foil is then perforated so as to weight) cadmium amalgam. make a continuous uniform tube with contacts at the exact length Above the mercury there is a apart. This tube is filled with pure redistilled mercury and cur- layer of mercurous sulphate and cadmium sulphate pastes, and above the amalgam, a layer of cadmium sulphate crystals. Some cadmium sulphate crystals are also placed over the above pastes, See --—i e and the remaining space in the fy two main tubes and the connectCUE x ‘ ah: = ing tube is partly filed withDIU 2) aae saturated acidic cadmium sulphate solution, the upper ends of the main tubes being hermetically sealed. In order to make the cell more portable by reducing the risk of displacing the contents, Dr. F. E. Smith introduced constrictions at the BY PERMISSION OF CAMBRIDGE INSTRUMENT e lower part of the tubes, these co. -— fiS. #-— constrictions preventing movements of the solid chemicals. The "ESTON NORMAL CELL utmost care must be taken over the purity of the materials and cleanliness of the glass vessel and seals, and when the cell is made to the specification its e.m.f. is 1-0183 International volts at 20° C with a temperature coefficient of —o-004% per 1° C. The e.m.f. at any temperature t° C is given by the formula E, — E»9— 0-000,0406 (t— 20) —0-000,000,95(t — 20)?40-000,000,01 (t— 20)? The standard cadmium cell properly made up is the most r1 Les

a

TR

SS

a ee

EREnee r

ROE

E

Parentage

Ei mc manm

c4

= —

A

|

d

eel

*

accurate and convenient of all practical electrical standards, and

measurements of any P.D. can be conveniently made with it, in

conjunction with a potentiometer (g.v.). Another standard cell is the Clark cell. In this cell the cadmium of the Weston cell is replaced by zinc. The negative pole of a Clark cell consists of

FROM AYRTON, SOCIETY)

MATHER

AND SMITH,

“PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS"

FIG. 1.—CURRENT

(COUNCIL OF THE ROYAL : ef

BALANCE

`

rent is passed through it from bulb tọ bulb, while the P.D. bètween

the platium contacts can be balanced by'a potentiometer and standard cell, thus giving the e.mf. of the latter in terms of the ampere and ohm. Comparisons between the standard mercury

ohm, and a standard resistance coil can also be effected by a Kelvin

double bridge. Whenever the mercury ohm is in use it is laid horizontally in a trough filled with melting ice. The testing cur-

rent must be only a small fraction of an ampere to avoid heating

the mercury, on account of its somewhat high temperature coeffi-

cient of resistance (0-090% per 1° C).

B

e

The mercury standard ohm is, however, far too difficult ‘to

construct to be of practical use, and consequently the standard

resistances which are generally employed are in the form of FROM GLAZEBROOK, “DICTIONARY OF APPLIED PHYSICS” (MACMILLAN) FIG. 3.—LORENZ APPARATUS platinum-silver or manganin coils carefully annealed and adjusted and standardized against the mercury standard at a standardizing an amalgam containing 10% of Zinc; a positive pole, a pure laboratory. Many standard resistance coils have been devised, mercury drop, covered with a mercurous sulphate paste; the

such as the original B.A. standard having a platinum-silvet coil electrolyte is 2 solution. of zinc sulphate with excess crystals. In all embedded in paraffin wax, the manganin standards of the Reichsan- other respects the construction jof the Clark cell is. similar to the

Weston cell. The e.m.f. of the Clark: cell at a temperature t? C is : Having defined the ampere and ohm, the International volt is given by Watson as ....^ "4 E. 14326— 1319X 105 (t— 15) —o-7X 10 9(t—15)*. therefore defined as “that electrical pressure whith, when steadily applied to a conductor whose resistance is one International ohm, . H. CURRENT MEASURING INSTRUMENTS hous . g i F ms UN. TO d d Port will produce a current of one International ampere.” These can be ‘divided into two chief classes: (a) Galvanometers Stalt and the more open forms of Fleming Burstall and Drysdale.

i

$

?

*

4

INSTRUMENTS or

435

sensitive laboratory instruments for measuring very small cur- | gave a deflection of about 8,000 mm. per microamp. on a scale

rents, and (b) ammeters or indicating pointer instruments for

at 1 metre distance.

gretched straight over a pivoted tic needle and parallel to it, the needle tends to turn at right angles to the conductor

to the Kelvin four coil instrument above described, but the magnet system has been made still smaller and of the recently discovered cobalt magnet steel (steel with 3595 cobalt) which has a much greater intensity of magnetization and permanence than any previous form of permanent magnet steel, while the mirror has been reduced to the smallest and thinnest dimensions compatible with optical efficiency. The needle system weighs only 0.0045 grams and is suspended by a fine quartz fibre. The coils are also made much smaller so as to obtain the maximum magnetic field for a given resistance. The great obstacle to the general use of the moving magnet galvanometer has been its disturbance by stray variable magnetic fields such as those produced by electrical machines or tramways in the vicinity, as no system can be made sufficiently perfectly astatic as to prevent such disturbance, and attempts have been made to shield the galvanometer against such disturbances by enclosing it in heavy bells of soft iron, but with only partial success. Within the last few years however a new nickel-iron alloy (78 nickel to 22 iron) known as Permalloy or Mumetal has been introduced, which has a remarkably high permeability in weak magnetic fields, and it was suggested by Drysdale that this would enable an effective magnetic shield to be constructed with only a small thickness of this alloy. Acting on this suggestion Prof. Hill and Mr. Downing made a cylindrical mumetal case for their new type of galvanometer and found that the shielding was so perfect that the galvanometer was unaffected by the starting and stopping of a motor within a few yards of it. This important improvement has enabled the full sensitiveness of the galvanometer to be utilized without difficulty, and a 1 ohm galvanometer of this type with a periodic time of ro sec. has given a deflection equivalent to 50,000 mm. per microamp. on a scale at a metre distance, or about soo times the equivalent sensitivity of the Kelvin galvanometer. 'This achievement may lead to the renewed popularity of the moving needle galvanometer which has been discarded in favour of the moving coil form owing to the freedom of the latter from magnetic disturbance. Standard Galvanometers.—The instruments so far described have been designed to obtain the highest possible sensitivity, but before the advent of accurate direct-reading ammeters, the tangent and sine galvanometer, devised by Pouillet in 1837, was in very general use for current measurement. In its simplest form this galvanometer consisted of a short pivoted magnetic needle provided with a long light aa cross pointer moving over a scale of degrees, and mounted at the centre of a large vertical coil through which the current could be passed. This galvanometer was set up and rotated until the magnetic needle was in the plane

Improvements were made in the magnet system by Broca and electromagnetic principle, while the latter are very diverse in Paschen and great improvement in sensitiveness and definiteness and may be either electromagnetic or thermal, of zero was secured by employing the quartz fibres invented by Galvanometers.—These can again be divided into two types, Prof. C. V. Boys in 189o, but the most remarkable advance has mown as the moving needle and moving coil forms respectively. been made quite recently by Prof. A. V. Hill and Mr. Downing The frst are derived from the original discovery of Oersted in at University college in conjunction with Dr. Daynes of the Cambridge Instrument company. Their galvanometer is similar i820 that if a conductor is currents.

The former are practically exclusively on the

when current is flowing through the latter. If the current is reversed the needle turns in the ite direction. The same re-

yersal effect is produced by moving the conductor to the under side of the needle, so that if the conductor is wound into a flat coil encircling the needle, all parts of it tend to deflect the needle in the same direction and the effect is enhanced. This was put into

practical form as the first gal-

vanometer by Schweigger in 1820. Since the deflecting force or torque due to the coil is re-

BY PERMISSION BAIRD

OF

KELVIN,

FIG. 4.—KELVIN GALVANOMETER

BOTTOMLEY

AND —

ASTATIC

MIRROR

sisted by the controlling torque of.the earth's magnetic field,

it was obvious that the sensitiveness would 'be increased by reducing the latter or its effect, and Nobili in 1825 therefore introduced the “‘astatic” needle system in which two equal magnetic needles were mounted with opposite polarities on the same vertical stem, one being inside and the other outside the coil. The system was suspended by a silk thread and provided with a light pointer. It was left, however, for Lord Kelvin in 1858 to produce the highly sensitive reflecting type of galvanometer (fig. 4) which has persisted with minor modifications to this day. He employed an astatic system like Nobili’s but with each of the needles inside a coil, the currents in two coils being in opposite directions, so that the deflectional torque was doubled while preserving the small control of the astatic system. The needle system was composed of a thin vertical aluminium wire across which two sets each of three or four short pieces of hardened watch spring were cemented; the two sets being magnetized in opposite directions by being placed between the poles af a powerful electromagnet. Midway between the magnet systems, a light concave mirror was cemented to the aluminium stem (sometimes with a thin mica disc behind it to assist in damping the instrument), and the whole system was suspended by a single fibre of cocoon silk cemented to the top of the stem, from the upper bar of a frame. Each of the coils was made in

two halves in ebonite cases hinged to the side of this frame so that they could be closed together like a book with, the needles in the small space between, and the instrument was therefore generally known as the four coil galvanometer. The mirror was

usually exposed through a small space between the upper and

lower coil systems. The whole instrument was enclosed in a brass

case and glass case on an ebonite base provided with levels and levelling screws, which enabled the base to be accurately levelled

and the needles to swing freely in the small space between the coils. On the top of the case was a vertical brass rod on which Was mounted a curved permanent magnet on a sleeve which permitted of its being raised or lowered or turned, and a tangent screw on the rod allowed the final turning to be effected gradually und accurately. This magnet being nearer to the upper than the needle system exercised a resultant ‘control on it which

could be varied to any extent by raising or lowering the magnet, and the zero could be adjusted by .the. tangent screw. A-good

ometer of this type wound with, coils :having a resistance Of 6,000 ohms, when adjusted to have a periodic time of 20 sec.

(AN

of the coil when no current was FIG. 5.—-HELMHOLTZ TANGENT GAL- passing. On making the circuit a

VANOMETER magnetic field was produced in the coil perpendicular to the earth’s magnetic field and combining with it to produce a resultant field to which the needle deflected. The magnetic field at the centre of a coil of mean radius r and number of turns ~ when traversed by a current of z amperes is H =0.2 rni/r, and if H is ‘the horizontal

component

of the

earth’s magnetic field the resultant field will be inclined to it by

ani angle @ such that r

‘

tanl = Es o-2mni/rH from whichi = H

LE - tané, 2TA

436

INSTRUMENTS

If the dimensions of the coil and the horizontal intensity of the | are made as undamped as possible by having somewhat hea earth’s field are known, therefore, the tangent galvanometer serves cylindrical magnets to offer the smallest air resistance. InOther as an ammeter. ‘The value of H in London may be taken as 0.18 respect s they are similar to other galvanometers. but it is Hable to variation owing to the proximity of iron objects, Moving Coil Galvanometers.—The moving coil galvanom. so that for accurate work it should be determined in situ. eter arose from the discovery by Ampere, in 1820, that a conductor The accuracy of the tangent galvanometer depends on the uni- carrying an electri c current tended to move transversely across formity of the magnetic field of the coil in the neighbourhood of a magnetic field. (See Etecrricity.) The first application of this the needle, and this is only the case over a very small area. For this reason the magnetic needle should be as short as possible, but this is in itself insufficient, and a great improvement was made by Helmholtz who used two equal and parallel coils, separated by a

distance equal to the radius of either (fig. 5). With this arrangement and large coils very perfect uniformity of the field is secured and the tangent law is very accurately followed. By a slight addition to the tangent galvanometer it can be used for the measurement of current in another way which has certain advantages. The addition consists of mounting the coils and compass box on a rotatable vertical axis and providing them with a pointer which travels over a scale fixed on the base and divided in degrees. The galvanometer is first set up and turned till its needle is at zero (4.¢., in the plane parallel to the coils and to the earth’s field, as before) but when the current is switched on and the needle deflects, the whole system is turned round the vertical axis to follow the needle, until the zero of the compass box catches up with it. In this case the field E" of the coils rotates with, and is always perpendicular to them, so that when the zero catches up with the needle the galvanometer has been turned through an angle œ such that B sin@ 0-27 for a single central coil. For this reason the galvanometer so used is termed a sine galvanometer, and the method has some advantages as the needle is always in the same position as regards the field of the coils when reading, and the angle of rotation can be more accurately read on the fixed scale used for the coils. Although good tangent galvanometers can usually be used in either manner, the tangent principle has been more generally employed. Ballistic Galvanometers.—The foregoing galvanometers are used for the detection or measurement of very small steady currents, and are therefore preferably damped so as to attain their steady deflection as quickly as possible without oscillating about it. There is another class of galvanometers, however, which are employed for measuring the extremely sudden charging or discharging of a condenser or inductance, etc., and are termed ballistic gelvanometers as being equivalent to the ballistic pendulum for measuring mechanical impulses. If J is the moment of inertia of the magnet system, K the controlling torque per unit angle, T E total torque and a the deflecting torque.per unit current we ave sing = H" b

H

and

Q?0

z-— *

Izp +-K9 =

and if the system is at zero

ag Ip

. =at

so that

:

" at,

.

806 Iu

gt

=In=af idt=a9

where wo is the initial angular velocity of deflection and Q the

quantity of electricity which has passed through the coil, provide d

BY PERMISSION OF ELLIOTT BROTHERS FIG. 6.—MOVABLE

COIL GALVANOMETER

principle to galvanometers was by Sturgeon in 1836, followed, in 1867, by the Siphon recorder of Lord Kelvin; but this was used for recording cable signals, and d’Arsonval in 1882 introduced the first reflecting moving coil galvanometer. It consisted of a light rectangular coil of fine wire suspended by the thinnest possible wires between terminals as shown in fig. 6 between the poles of a vertical horseshoe magnet. In order to intensify the magnetic field, a soft iron cylinder was mounted inside the coil without touching it. On passing a current round the coil through the suspensions the coil turned and its movements were indicated by

a concave mirror on the coil reflecting a beam of light on to a scale. This type of galvanometer still persists, but Ayrton and Mather improved it in 1890 by making the coil very narrow and discarding the iron core. Various minor improvements have since been introduced, notably by Moll, who employs an electromagnet for his field. A good standard Ayrton-Mather type of moving coil galvanometer has a sensitivity of 800 mm. per microampere at a metre for a resistance of 400 ohms and periodic time of 6 sec., and the Moll galvanometer gives 200 mm. per microampere for a resistance of so ohms and periodic time of 1-3 sec. These sensitivities are far below those of the corresponding moving needle types, but the moving coil galvanometer has the

great advantage of being undisturbed by outside ‘magnetic fields,

and of having constant sensitivity. On the other hand it has the that it has passed before the system moves appreciably from its disadvantage of being heavily overdamped on short circuit, and zero position. The initial kinetic energy of the system is 11 o and of being less suitable for very low P.D. measurements such as the system will swing until this is converted into potential energy those on thermocouples, owing to the high resistance of its sus8 pensions. Up till recently the advantages in most cases heavily against the control

which = fTd0=K [ 6d0=4K@, so that

LI

I

a I :9|/ x7

0

ü 79. The maximum deflection or

first swing of the galvanometer therefore measures the quantity which has passed, provided that it has all been converted to potential energy against the control and not dissipated in. air resistance or damping. For this reason ballistic galvanometers

outweighed

the disadvantages

and

moving

coil galvanometers

have consequently been in universal use for all but exceptional cases, but the introduction of the nickel iron magnetic screening by Prof. Hill and Mr. Downing may restore the moving

instrument to favor.

Duddell

Thermo-galvanometer.—Neither

of the above

types of galvanometer is of any use for alternating currents, a

the great need for a sensitive alternating current galvanometer

INSTRUMENTS

437

cially for radio measurements, led Duddell in 1904 to adopt ! been devised by Prof. Moll. All such instruments are extremely This instrument con- | sharp in their tuning, and therefore require the frequency of the gists in principle of a moving coil galvanometer consisting of | supply to be kept constant to within about o-1% for their satis1 single loop of thin copper wire hung up by a quartz fibre factory use. between the poles of a magnet. The lower ends of this loop are Oscillographs and String Galvanometers.—The extensive soldered to two small vertical bars of bismuth and antimony employment of alternating currents of all frequencies from 25 to lower thousands or millions of cycles per second has caused a great which are soldered together to a small copper disc at their ends to complete the loop and form a thermo-junction. When heat demand for instruments which will give a record of the variation radiation falls on this junction a current flows through the loop or wave-form of such currents, just as the steam or gas engine and deflects it, and Prof. Boys has used this instrument to meas- indicator records the variations of pressure in the cylinder, and ure the heat received from stars. Duddell utilized this instrument these instruments are known as oscillographs. Prior to their introby fixing a “heater” consisting of a small length of Wollaston duction, such wave forms were somewhat laboriously determined wire just under the junction, and the passage of a current through by an instantaneous contact method originally devised by Joubert, this heater warms the junction and deflects the coil. and the Hospitalier *Ondograph" based on this principle enables Shunis.—The very high sensitiveness of reflecting galvanometers the form of the wave to be automatically traced on paper by a pen. renders it frequently desirable to be able to reduce it by definite But such methods can only deal with currents which vary in the fractions so as to be able to measure larger currents, and this is same manner over some seconds or minutes of time, while the effected by shunting the galvanometer. If a resistance of one- true oscillographs will deal with transient currents which may last ninth of that of the galvanometer is connected across the ter- only a few hundredths of a second. minals, 5; of the total current passes through the resistance and Oscillographs are, therefore, galvanometers capable of following only 4, through the galvanometer, and if the resistance is 4i, rapid fluctuations in the current, and may be either of the moving org], that of the galvanometer, rcg or 15.55 respectively of the needle or moving coil type. The inertia of their moving systems total current passes through it. Shunt boxes in which the requi- must be as low as possible, their natural frequency of oscillation site resistances can be converted by plugs are therefore often very high, and their damping as nearly as possible critical. For employed, but must be made for the particular galvanometers these reasons, the moving system must be as small and light as posthey are to be used with. In 1894, however, Profs. Ayrton and sible. Blondel in 1891 devised the first oscillograph on the moving Mather devised a “universal” shunt box which could be used with coil principle, and was closely followed by Duddell who in 1893 galvanometers of a fairly wide range of resistances, and thesé produced the form of oscillograph which has since been most universal shunts are now most commonly employed. largely used in this country. In order to diminish the inertia of Vibration Galvanometers.—The great extension of bridge the coil to a minimum it was reduced to a single loop of fine or null methods of testing inductance and capacity, etc., has cre- phosphor bronze strip, and as with even this small inertia a large ated a demand for highly sensitive galvanometers for alternating control was found necessary to obtain the high natural vibracurrents, comparable with those used for direct-current measure- tion frequency aimed at (10,000~ per sec.), the two upper ends ments. None of the alternating current instruments so far de- of this loop were attached to the terminals and the lower portion scribed in any way meet this requirement, and such measure- passed over a small ivory pulley which was pulled downward by a ments have generally been made with telephones as detectors. 'This, spring, so that both sides of the loop were equally strained nearly however, confines the measurements to audible frequencies, and up to their elastic limit. The loop with its pulley and terminals there are other objections to their use, so that vibration gal- was mounted on a brass plate and could be mounted between the vanometers have come into favour. Such galvanometers are in poles of a powerful electromagnet, taking the place of the permaprinciple direct current galvanometers of high and variable natural nent magnet of the d’Arsonval moving coil galvanometer (q.v.). frequency and capable of being “tuned” into resonance with the In order to obtain the strongest possible magnetic field iron piecés supply, in which case they produce a vibrating streak of light on were fixed on both sides of and between the strips, and for observthe scale and are exceedingly sensitive. ing the deflections a very small thin rectangular mirror was ceThe first practical form of vibration galvanometers was that mented across the two strips at their centre. Damping was of Rubens (about 1895), which consisted of a vertical stretched secured by closing the front by a glass plate and filling the space wire carrying a magnet and mirror system and two coils like that with oil. On passing current round the loop, one strip moved ef a moving needle galvanometer (g.v.) but non-astatic. By alter- transversely forward and the other backward in the gaps, so that ing the tension on the wire and its length by two bridges like the mirror was tilted sideways and deflected a beam of light prothese of a monochord, the natural frequency of this system jected on to it by an arc lamp. By suitable optical arrangements could be brought into unison or resonance with the alternating the reflected beam was focussed on to a photographic plate or current in the coils, whereupon the spot of light on the scale film which could be dropped or driven vertically downwards, and broadened out into a long streak. This type was somewhat difficult the variations of current in the loop were then recorded as a wave to “tune.” Duddell followed in 1910 by a vibration galvanometer on the film. on the lines of his oscillograph (g.v.), but with two long strips, In order to enable the wave form of a constantly alternating atension pulley, and two bridges which could be moved by a right current to be seen-er projected on a screen, Duddell also introand left handed screw. This instrument was remarkably sensitive duced a second mitror caused to oscillate in a direction perpendicand covered a frequency range from about 25 to 2,000~ per ular to that of the first mirror, by a cam driven by a synchronous second, but was liable to respond to harmonics on the wave form. motor from the alternating supply mains. The reflected beam from the Boys radio-micrometer for this purpose.

In 1911 Drysdale, with the help of Tinsley, devised a vibration galvanometer, primarily for use with his A.C. potentiometer (g.v.), inwhich the moving system was like that of Rubens, but mounted ona sik fibre. The control was exercised by a large horizontal permanent magnet, the strength of which could be varied by varying the distance between its pole pieces and by sliding an armature or “magnetic shunt” along it, so that tuning could be effected

without touching the moving system. In 1920 he substituted an

electromagnet controlled from outside by a battery and rheostat,

the oscillograph mirror was caused to fall on this second mirror

and then on to the screen, causing the wave form of the current to be exhibited as a continuous picture, owing to the persistence of vision. In nearly all alternating current investigations it is desirable to have simultaneous traces of the variation of the current and the P.D. and for this purpose Duddell employed two loops side by side in the same magnetic field with an iron plate between them

to keep the field as strong as possible. One of these loops carried

and this form has since been independently conceived and con- the current to be recorded or was connected across a low resiststructed by the Cambridge -Instrument company. Moving coil ance so as to shunt a fraction of the current when it was too large variable bifilar suspension vibration galvanometers of great sensi- for the strip; while the other was connected, in series with a large tivity have been introduced by Campbell, Gall and others, while

Most ingenious single fibre unbalanced instrument has recently

non-inductive resistance, across the circuit so that the current through it was proportional to the P.D. at each instant. Each of

438

INSTRUMENTS

the loops was provided with mirrors and a third “zero mirror” was arranged between them, so that when the light from the arc fell on them three beams were reflected, giving the P.D. and current waves and the zero axis respectively. Portable oscillographs on this principle have recently been introduced by the Westinghouse company in America and the Cambridge Instrument company in England, the vibrators being made up as separate elements each with its own permanent magnet, and the illumination being produced by a metallic filament lamp which is temporarily overrun during exposure of the film. For high voltages the electrostatic vibrator of Ho and Kato is often substituted for one or more of the vibrators in the outfit. An ingenious oscillograph on the hot wire principle was devised by J. T. Irwin in 1907, but has not come into general use. In France, M. Dubois has recently devised an oscillograph of the soft iron type in which a tongue of soft iron is caused to vibrate between the poles of a permanent magnet, and communicates its motions to the mirror througha strip and pulley.

String Galvanometers.—In 1901 Prof. Einthoven introduced

a form of galvanometer which has proved of great value for a large variety of work. It is similar in principle to the moving coil oscillograph but is much more sensitive, although incapable of working at such high frequencies. Instead of the loop a single straight fibre usually of silvered or gilded quartz is employed. This fibre is mounted in the narrow gap between the poles of an electromagnet as in the oscillograph, and moves transversely across this gap. As there is no second fibre to which to attach a mirror, the poles of the magnet are bored through so that a small portion of the centre of the fibre can be seen, and a compound microscope with a scale in its eyepiece is mounted in one of these holes and a condenser in the other. The movements of the fibre can therefore be observed and measured through the microscope, or the ' fibre and scale can be projected on to a screen by an arc lantern directed on to the condenser. The Einthoven galvanometer is, unfortunately, very costly, owing to the difficult construction of its poles and optical observing arrangements, and an ingenious attempt at securing its advantages with the ordinary simple reflecting mirror device has recently been made by Mijnheer van Dyck of Leyden in his “Torsion String” galvanometer. In this galvanometer the fibre is of the finest silicon bronze wire, and a second thin wire of hard drawn copper lies close to and parallel to it over the portion between the magnet poles and is soldered to it at its top and bottom, As the copper wire is of much lower resistance than the central bronze wire, the bulk of the current flowing down the latter is shunted into the copper wire which, therefore, becomes a moving coil with half a turn, and tends to rotate round the central wire, being controlled by the torsion of the latter. As the system is unsymmetrical and therefore unbalanced, a strip of aluminium

foil is cemented across the two wires at their centre and a small

silvered mirror'is cemented on this strip on the opposite side so as to balance: the loop; a cleft being made in the corresponding

magnet pole to allow of its free rotation. This galvanometer can be used with the ordinary lamp and scale, and with a resistance of ro ohms and periodic time of o-02 sec. is stated to give a deflection of 3 mm. per microampere at x metre, which ís nearly equivalent to the sensitivity of the Einthoven galvanometer. Cathode-ray Oscillographs.—For frequencies higher than about 2,000 — per second, all the above types of oscillograph are unsuitable, and for higher frequencies up to those employed in radio work the cathode-ray oscillograph has come into use. If a high P.D. is applied between two plates in a very perfectly evacuated tube, negatively electrified particles or electrons are ejected from the negative plate and travel in straight lines with high velocity across the tube. Such a stream is known as a beam of cathode rays, and when it falls on a phosphorescent screen a bril-

liant illumination js produced. (See ErECTRICITY: Conduction o f in Gases.) A filament may be substituted for the negative plate and gives out electrons when heated by passing a current through it, especially when it is coated with lime or thorium oxide as in "dull emitter" valves. If such a heated filament is enclosed in an evacuated bülb'near to two plates each perforated by a fine hole,

and a high P.D. is applied between the filament and a ring near the plates, the electrons are driven towards the

with high velocity, and some of them pass through the holes forming a very narrow pencil of cathode rays. When such a peril passes between two plates and a P.D. is applied between them the electrons are attracted towards the positive plate and the beam is

deflected in that direction; while if the plates are the poles of a

magnet the electrons tend to move transversely between them like a conductor carrying a current and a deflection in the perpen-

dicular direction is produced. The most simple oscillograph on this principle is known as the “Braun tube,” having been invented

by Braun in 1897, and a tube of this kind is now manufactured by the Western Electric company. It is composed of a conical highly evacuated glass bulb having the larger end coated inside with a layer of zinc sulphide or other luminescent material, and a thoriated filament at the smaller end, with a disc with fine per-

foration as anode. The fine cathode pencil passing through the

pinhole, travels between two sets of plates at right angles, so that if two alternating P.D.’s from different parts of a circuit are con-

nected to them, a trace in the form of a Lissajous figure isgen-

erally obtained. It is possible to show the hysteresis loop of an iron specimen directly in this manner. The above type of oscillograph has the advantage of being permanently evacuated, but it is only suitable for the observation of certain cyclic phenomena, and does not permit of the photographic recording of intermittent or transient ones. Prof. Dufour in France and Dr. A. B. Wood in England, have therefore produced cathode ray oscillographs in which photographic plates can

be inserted, and by using a cold cathode with a P.D. of 50,000

volts the former has obtained records of the wave form of radio transmitters up to over 1,000,000 ~ per second. Such oscillographs require to be evacuated after the removal of the camera or photographic plate, and not being hermetically sealed, are kept continuously evacuated during use. " Ammeters and Voltmetets.—As their names imply these instruments are respectively intended for directly measuring electric currents in amperes, and potential differences in volts, and they may conveniently be considered together as they are often similar in construction. For the majority of purposes these instruments are of the electromagnetic type, but thermal or “hot wire” instruments are used for alternating currents especially for those of high frequency such as are employed in radio working. The electromagnetic instruments are however of very diverse types. There are first (a) the moving magnet and (5) moving coil types corresponding to galvanometers; but in addition there are moving soft-iron dynamometer, and induction instruments, all of which can be used with alternating currents, the last being for alternating currents only.

Electromagnetic Instruments. (a) Moving Magnet Type— The first direct reading ammeters and voltmeters introduced by

Ayrton and Perry in 1879 were of this type. It consisted of a small magnetic needle on a short spindle between two pivots, and provided with an aluminium pointer. A small coil encircled the

needle, and the whole system was fixed between the poles of a

powerful permanent magnet, so that extraneous fields had little influence.

The instrument has some

similarity to the tangent

galvanometer in principle, but the coil is small, and the earth’s field is replaced ‘by that of the horseshoe magnet. The large control given by such a magnet is an advantage in this case where sensitivity is ample, as it increases the rapidity of the readings.

An interesting feature of this type of instrument was the winding of the coil with ten separate insulated strands which could be connected in series or parallel thus giving two ranges of a tenfold ratio of cürrent. The same type of instrument could be used as a voltmeter by winding the coil with fine copper wire and connecting it in series with a high resistance coil of German silver

and other wire of low temperature coefficient so that its total resistance was sensibly constant, and the current flowing through it was proportional to the P.D. applied to the terminals of the

instrument. This device can be employed with almost any type of ammeter. The moving magnet type of ammeter has gone out of use for mahy' years owing to its cost, but it has recently been

INSTRUMENTS

439

revised in an interesting form by the Westinghouse company, who | the iron and any metal parts close to it. All these errors have milisubstitute à second horseshoe of nickel iron with its poles at |tated against the adoption of this type as a universal instrument. «ht angles to those of the permanent magnet. This horseshoe |although A.C. ammeters and voltmeters for a single frequency

projects through the back of the case, and the conductor carrying | have been largely employed. the current is simply threaded through it, so that the conductor Within the last few years, however, a great advance has been

need not be divided and the instrument has no terminals.

(b) Moving Coil Permanent-magnet Indicating Instruments were introduced by Dr. Weston in 1888 and were similar to the

made notably by the substitution of Permalloy or Mumetal for the moving iron, which has resulted in the practical elimination

d'Arsonval galvanometer, except that the coil was pivoted and controlled by spiral springs carrying the current, and a pointer was substituted for the mirror. This type has been developed into

the most accurate of all direct current indicating instruments in the Weston and other laboratory standards, and has assumed many diferent forms, notably the “Cirscale” instruments of Messrs. Record, in which the poles are so arranged that the coil and

pointer can rotate through nearly 270°. As the thin control springs can only carry a very small current (75 milliamperes is the usual maximum) the instrument can be used as a voltmeter by connecting a. high resistance in series with the coil, but if it is to be employed for measuring larger currents, “shunts” are provided

BY COURTESY OF EDGCUMBE AND OCKENDON (INSTITUTION OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS)

FIG. 7.—PRECISION MOVING IRON INSTRUMENT consisting of manganin or constantan strips having two terminals through which the current is passed, and two’ other terminals to of wave form and hysteresis errors, and by making the coil as which the instrument is connected, so that it acts as a low reading

voltmeter measuring the current.by the P.D. across the shunt.

A single moving coil instrument with a set of series resistances

and shunts will therefore serve for a very wide range of P.D. and current measurements, and portable “test sets” are commonly

made covering the range from about o-1 to 600 or more volts or amperes. Moving Soft-iron Instruments.—These are the most simple and inexpensive ammeters and voltmeters and can be used both

small and flat as possible so as to allow of a thin plate of this alloy to be attracted into it, thus greatly reducing the inductance and eddy-current errors. It was pointed out by Drysdale in 1924 that since the electromagnetic energy in an inductive coil E=iL? where L is its inductance and 2 the current passing through it, ðE ll „ôL the torque T= TAT: » $0 that the instrument always oper-

ated by the increase of its inductance from Leo at zero to Lemar at for direct and alternating current measurements. If a current is its highest reading; and he proposed the term “electromagnetic passed through a coil, a piece of soft iron will be sucked into it, efficiency” for the fraction (Lmax—Lo)/Imex. On examination of and if a suitably shaped piece of soft iron is pivoted and provided existing instruments it was found that this efficiency was only 1 or with a pointer a very useful form of ammeter can be made. If 2% or less, so that of the total inductance about 99% was useless the coil is wound with fine wire and a series resistance added the and noxious, and only about 1% useful in deflecting the instruinstrument becomes a voltmeter. The first instruments of this ment. Acting on this principle Col. Edgcumbe and Mr. Ockenden type were introduced by Ayrton and Perry in 1884 and others by devised an ammeter on the lines above indicated (fig. 7), with Lord Kelvin, Schukert, Siemens, Nalder, Weston, etc. The last the result of obtaining practically negligible hysteresis and eddy two are on what is called the repulsion principle, having two soft current errors and of increasing the electromagnetic efficiency to iron rods lying parallel to one another and to the axis of the coil. about 30%, and the current range to 15 or 20 fold. This has When the current flows these two rods are magnetized with the enabled it to be employed with shunts or series resistances like the same polarities and consequently repel one another like the pith moving coil instruments, either for direct current or with alterballs of an electroscope, so that if one is fixed and the other at- nating currents up to 200 periods per second. It is claimed, and tached to a pivoted arm provided with a pointer, a deflection is with apparent justice, that such instruments need not be inferior produced. This last construction has some advantages over the in accuracy to moving coil or other high-grade instruments. By others, as the two pieces of iron lie close together when the cur- using one ‘ixed and two independently moving irons, Record has rent is small, and are farther apart for large currents. For a produced a moving iron instrument having a scale covering about given distance apart the force between the irons is proportional 270°. to the square of the current, so that it is very small for small Dynamometer Instruments.—These form an important currents, but this is partially compensated by their greater prox- class of current measuring instruments as they are equally suitable imity, and the torque is consequently much more nearly propor- for direct or alternating currents, and can be made either as tonal to the current and the instrument has a larger useful range standard, sub-standard or deflectional indicating instruments. than the single iron form. The same result may be obtained in They depend fundamentally on the attraction forms by shaping the iron, but this requires careful Ampére's discovery (1820) that experiment. i parallel conductors carrying cur-

The moving soft-iron instruments are of great value in principle

asthey are not only simple in construction but are equally suitable

for direct or alternating currents, as they obviously indicate the square root of mean square (R.M.S., or effective) current; while

the moving coil permanent magnet instruments will only read on continuous current. Until quite recently, however, this valuable

Property was not taken full advantage of, owing to certain appar-

ently inherent defects in the type. The first is the want of pro-

portionality of magnetization in the iron to the current, and the esis in the iron, which causes the instrument to read higher

ot a certain current when it has-fallen from a higher value, than waen ithas risen from a lower one.. In addition there is the high Bductance of the coil with its iron cores, which causes a volt-

meter of this type to read lower for the same P.D. as the fre@ency is increased and prevents the use of shunts for ammeters;

lastly, the demagnetizing effect of induced eddy currents in *

rents attract each other if the currents are in the same direction or repel each other if they are BY PERMISSION OF KELVIN, BOTTOMLEY AND in opposite directions. In 1843 BAIRD Weber produced a simple form FIG. 8.—CONNECTIONS OF KELVIN .of “electrodynamometer” on this AMPERE BALANCE principle, but the first practical measuring instruments appeared in 1883, when Kelvin and Joule devised the standard current weigher or balance, and Siemens the EE substandard dynamometer. The principle of the Kelvin balance is shown in fig. 8. "The instrument consists essentially of six horizontal coils, four of which are fixed (F) and two movable (M), and the current to be measured traverses the whole of the coils in series. In order to allow the two movable coils to swing freely between the fixed ones, they are suspended by a large number of straight fine wires

440

INSTRUMENTS

forming straight straps or ligaments. The current passes round | these can be connected in series with the moving coil. the coils as shown by the arrows, and it will be seen that on the Both of the above instruments are of the standard ; right hand side the current in the centre moving coil is in the same which it is necessary always to bring the coils into the in direction as that in the upper and in the opposite direction to that position, in order that the theoretical square law shall be followed

in the lower of the fixed coils. The moving coil is therefore

attracted to the upper and repelled from the lower coil and tends to move upwards, while the left hand moving coil in which the current circulates in the opposite direction tends to move downwards. The whole moving coil system therefore cants upwards at its right hand end, and can be brought back to the level or zero position by a weight hung at that end. To simplify the measurement the moving coils are mounted in a light frame having a long bar and scale in front, along which a weight can slide as in a steelyard balance and this is operated by a silk cord passing through the ends of the cover and provided with a device for freeing the cord from the weight when the latter is in position. Each balance has four weights for obtaining different ranges. The electromagnetic potential energy of two circuits traversed by currents 7, and #2 and having a coefficient of mutual inductance M with one another is Miz, so that the torque developed is dite

. 00

- In the Kelvin balance the two circuits are in series so

that 2; —42577, and the torque is 7?

But deflectional direct indicating instruments can be made simply providing the moving coil with a pointer and control spring

in which case they are equivalent to permanent magnet moving coil instruments in which the magnet is replaced by the fixed coil

In 1890 the first instrument of this type was introduced by Dy Weston as a dynamometer voltmeter, the fixed and moving coils being circular, wound with fine wire, and connected in series through the spiral springs which provided the control A hi non-inductive resistance was connected in series with the combination and the instrument was graduated as a direct reading volt. meter. Additional ranges were provided by extra series resistances,

Dynamometer ammeters have also been constructed by making

the fixed coil of thicker wire and connecting the moving coil in series with a small non-inductive resistance across the terminak

of the fixed coil or an additional shunt, but it is difficult to elimi. nate inductive errors sufficiently in such instruments. The most valuable application of the dynamometer principle is to standard and deflectional wattmeters, and to energy meters, which will be described later.

Induction Instruments,—These instruments may be de. » Oris proportional to the 06 scribed as dynamometer instruments in which current is led into square of the current, so that the instrument serves equally for the moving system by induction or transformer action instead direct or alternating current measurements. Various sizes of of by conduction through springs or ligaments, and they can these balances, "Centiampere," *Ampere," ‘“Deka-Ampere,” therefore only be used for alternating currents. They were initi-

‘‘Hector-Ampere,” and “Kilo-Ampere” have been constructed,

but the latter, on account of their large conductors, are not accurate for high frequency currents owing to eddy currents, although the conductors are stranded or laminated. The Siemens dynamometer (fig. 9) was for many years the most useful form of substandard instrument for both direct and alternating current testing. It consists essentially of two coils at right angles, the inner (F) having a large number of turns and being fixed with its axis horizontal on a wooden frame, and the outer (D) in the form of a loop encircling the fixed coil and suspended by a silk thread, with its two ends brought out at the bottom to dip into two mercury cups MM. On the top of the frame a circular scale is fixed, with a torsion head T and pointer,

ated by Prof. Ferraris, the pioneer of polyphase working, in 188s,

but have assumed many different forms, and have been adapted for many different measurements. Induction instruments may be divided into three main classes.

(a) repulsion, (b) shaded pole and (c) double pole instruments The first depend upon the repulsion effect first discovered by Prof. Elihu Thomson, that a metal disc or ring is repelled from an electromagnet excited by alternating current. The explanation

is that the magnet induces an e.m.f. in the disc or ring in quadrature with the magnetic field, which consequently produces eddy currents in it. If these currents were in phase with the induced e.m.f. they would also be in quadrature with the magnetic field and there would be no resultant force, but owing to the inductance and low resistance of the disc they lag behind the e.m.f. and become somewhat in antiphase with the magnetic field, producing a resultant repulsion. The simplest application of this principle to ammeters is that of the Westinghouse company, in which the moving element con-

sists simply of a thin aluminium or copper dis on a pivoted

spindle perpendicular to its plane. The edge of this disc is however cut in the form of a cam and can turn in the gap of a laminated electromagnet through the coil of which the alternating current to be measured is passed. A control spring and pointer is attached to the spindle and when the system is at zero the whole of the pole face is covered by the disc. When the current is passed the repulsion effect causes the disc to turn so that less of

the pole face is covered by the disc, and by suitably shaping the

LUI

AT

BY

PERMISSION

OF

SIEMENS,

wer d

LTD.

FIG. 9.—SIEMENS ELECTRODYNAMOMETER

oll J

f

edge a long and fairly even scale can be obtained. In order te damp the swinging of the disc, a permanent magnet is mounted on the other side of it, which retards its movements by the eddy currents induced.

The shaded pole type of instrument is next in simplicity of construction, but is best understood by first describing the double

pole form. If two laminated electromagnets A and B are fixed

a cylindrical spring S encircling the suspension being mounted close together and act on a single circular disc, the alternating between the torsion head and the top of the coil. The current magnetism of A induces currents in the disc part of which pass circulates round both coils in series and causes the swinging coil through the gap of magnet B, so that the disc behaves as 2 movto turn, whereupon the torsion head is turned until the torsion ing coil carrying current derived from A and traversing the magof the spring brings the coil back to its zero position as indicated netic field of B, and thus producing a torque. But, reciprocally. by a pointer I fixed to the top of the coil. The current then= the currents induced in the disc by magnet B traverse the field Ky D, where K is the constant of the instrument and D the angle of A, and it is fairly obvious from the symmetry of the arrangeturned by the torsion head. In order to increase the range of the ment that if the two magnetic fields vary the same phase, there instrument, the fixed coil is generally made of two portions with will be no resultant torque, as there is noin reason why it should different thicknesses and number of turns of wire, and either of move from À to B rather than from B to A. But if the magnetic E

INSTRUMENTS in B lags in phase behind that of A there is a resultant torque from A to B and this torque is proportional to Zi, sino where jj and i» are the currents in the two coils and ¢ the angle

se different between the fields. This difference in phase may be secured in several Ways, €g., by shunting one of the magnets or connecting It in series with a condenser, or by supplying the currents from different parts of the circuit, as will be described moder wattmeters and energy meters.

Hot wire instruments are of two types (a) expansion thermo-junction. In the former the linear expansion of caused by the heating is utilized; in the latter the heat municated to a thermo junction, which is connected to

44.1 and (5) the wire is coma milli-

voltmeter. Until the last few years hot wire instruments have all been on the expansion principle, the earliest form being the voltmeter,

devised by Maj. Cardew in 1883. In this instrument a long thin platinum-silver wire was strung over pulleys in a brass tube, and rent measuring instruments is by the ends of the wire were connected to the terminals; while the “shading” part of a single pole pointer was mounted on a spindle geared to a pulley which was turned by a thin strip. One end of this strip was attached to (ig. 10). If a single laminated the axle of a pulley at the centre of the wire and the other, electromagnet has a cleft in its pole and a thick copper ring C through a cylindrical spring, to a fixed support. When current passed through the wire, causing heating and expansion, it yielded enirdes one part of it, B as shown, the eddy currents induced to the tension of the spring and caused the pointer to turn; while in this ring by the magnet react when the current was broken, the wire contracted and pulled the pointer back to zero. on its feld and cause the magnetim of the part of the pole enThis form of voltmeter was very clumsy and inconvenient and wasteful of power, but its freedom from inductance was such a circled by the ring, or “shaded” portion, to lag behind that of the valuable feature as to stimulate improvements, and modern hot remainder or unshaded portion wire instruments have been constructed on the "sag" principle FIG. 10 A. Thus the single magnet beoriginally suggested by Ayrton and Perry, but first carried into haves like the two magnets above referred to, and a pivoted disc execution by Hartmann and Braun. In these instruments the arranged in the field of this magnet tends to turn from A to B. heated wire is straight and only a few inches long, and both ends By adding a spring and pointer and damping magnet, a useful are fixed; but the strip attached to the pointer and antagonistic form of ammeter can be produced, and the scale can be of any spring is attached near the centre of the wire, so that the tension length up to nearly 360°. The theory of induction instruments is tends to pull it to one side or cause it to sag. A very small invery complex, and they are liable to many errors, but by careful crease of the length of the wire will greatly increase this sag, and design they may be made very useful and accurate instruments. approximately as the square root of the extension, so that not Current and P.D. Transformers.—A great difficulty with al- only does this method give a large magnification, but it helps to temating current instruments is their lack of range, as since the compensate for the natural square law of the expansion, and forces in them are generally proportional to the square of the gives a more uniform scale. The magnification secured by a sincurrent, a reduction of the current to one-third reduces the force gle application of this principle was, however, hardly sufficient, to one-ninth of its maximum value, and many instruments there- so that in the Hartmann and Braun instrument (fig. rz) the fore only have about a fourfold useful range. On the other hand, transverse wire S was again treated as a sagging wire and the the range of currents and voltages to be measured is enormous, strip actuating the pointer was attached to its centre, making it from fractions to tens of thousands of amperes or volts. With what may be called a double-sag instrument. A thin aluminium nearly all such instruments shunts are useless owing to the in- sector passing between the poles of a permanent magnet served duction errors they introduce, and for many years past the prac- to damp the indication. An average instrument of this type takes tice of employing transformers has been adopted. If a trans- about o-2 ampere at its maximum reading and has a resistance of former is made with a good well-laminated magnetic circuit and about 17 ohms, implying a power consumption of 0-7 watt in the two coils wound close together, one of which is short circuited wire; but when. used as a voltmeter for 120 volts it consumes a through an ammeter, while the other has the alternating current total of 24 watts, as compared with only 4 or 5 watts for moving to be measured passed through it, the current induced in the iron voltmeters. To adapt this type of instrument as an amsecondary coil will be proportional to that in the primary coil meter, one method is to lead the current in and out of the wire and approximately in the ratio of the number of turns in the at several points by means of very thin and flexible strips Sı and coils. For example if an alternating current of 5,000 amperes is Ss. If the current is led in at the centre of the wire and out by to be measured, a transformer may be made with a single bar or its two ends the range is doubled, and so on. For still heavier tum carrying this current, and a secondary coil of 1,000 turns currents a large number of exactly similar wires can be, conwhich is connected to a 5 ampere ammeter. This device has the nected in parallel, and shunts can also be employed. futher important advantage of isolating the ammeter completely Expansion instruments have done valuable service for alterfrom the main circuit, which may be at a dangerously high potennating current measurements, estial on modern supply circuits. In like manner, if a transformer pecially at high frequencies, but iswound with two coils of fine wire, one having roo times as many they have never attained the ac$3 turns as the other, and an alternating P.D. of 10,000 volts is curacy of good electromagnetic applied to the coil having the larger number of turns, it will ininstruments, owing to the changes dke roo volts in the other coil which can be measured in an of zero due to expansion of the ordinary voltmeter, without connecting it to the high voltage cirsupports. Various methods of cut. By the use of the Mumetal for the iron of the transformers, compensation have been devised Col. Edgcumbe and Mr. Ockenden have recently made instruwith good results, but none have ment transformers of very high precision. been completely satisfactory Thermal or Hot Wire Instruments.— These instruments, FIG. 1T.—HARTMANN AND BRAUN'S under all conditions. Another obAMMETER as has been mentioned, depend upon the heating effect of a curjection to them is their very Tet passing through a conductor, and are equally suitable for small overload capacity, as the wire must be raised to a high direct or alternating current measurement. The power developed temperature to obtain sufficient expansion. Doubling the current ma circuit having a resistance r ohms and carrying a current i produces four times the heating effect. Fusing of the working wire The most simple application of this principle however to cur-

amperes is ri? watts, and produces a heating effect of 0-24 r# involves remounting and recalibration of the instrument.

es per second. Since the heating is proportional to the square af the current, it is the same for either direction of flow, and the average heating with alternating current is proportional to the

mean square of the current.

The thermo-junction instruments which were first put into commercial form by the Weston company are much more convenient than the expansion type, and are probably destined to

supersede it, as they only involve a simple attachment to a stand-

uH

442

INSTRUMENTS

ard type of moving coil millivoltmeter. For many years before their advent a very common laboratory device for measuring high frequency currents was the “crossed thermo-junction,” consisting of two fine wires, one of copper and the other of constantan (nickel-copper alloy) crossed at right angles and soldered together at their crossing point. Current was passed from one end of the copper wire through the junction to one end of the constantan wire, causing the junction to be heated; while the other two ends were connected to a moving coil galvanometer. As the thermo e.m.f. of such a junction is about 40 microvolts per degree, a rise of 300° C produces an e.m.f. of 12 millivolts, which will produce a reasonable deflection on a moving-coil pointer instrument. The Weston company therefore employed one of their standard forms of moving coil millivoltmeter with a recess in the base in which a strip carrying a short heating wire and thermo-junction was clamped. This can be easily replaced if burnt out. | Dr. Moll has recently greatly improved on this device by what he calls his “thermo-converter,” having a fairly long heating wire threaded through about 50 insulated thermo junctions. By this means he secures a thermo e.m.f. of 8-5 millivolts for 16 milliamperes in the heating wire and a rise of temperature of only 10° C, which allows a very ample margin for overload. OI POWER AND ENERGY MEASUREMENT

, power factors, were led to the conclusion that large and indeter| minate errors would appear at low power factors (i.e., large | of lag or lead of the current), and as this was apparently cop. |firmed by some tests with a defectively constructed wat of Swinburne’s, the dynamometer wattmeter fell into disr

It was not till 1901, when Drysdale gave a different treatment of

the errors, and showed that they could be made perfectly deter.

minate, and be reduced to inappreciable proportions bysui design, that confidence was restored. He showed that if the ratio of resistance to inductance of the shunt circuit was OVer 300

ohms per millihenry, and if the instrument was kept free from metal other than the carefully stranded coils, no readable error

could exist, and produced a wattmeter in which these require. ments were fulfilled. A little later Duddell and Mather produced an astatic wattmeter on very similar lines. Both of these instr.

ments were of the torsional or standard type, and their current ranges could be varied by combining the strands of the current coils in various series and parallel combinations, while the PD.

range could be extended to almost any extent by series resistances,

Defiectional direct reading dynamometer wattmeters have been devised by Kelvin, Heap, Hartmann and Braun, the Weston Im strument Company, and many others, and are similar to the corresponding forms of dynamometer voltmeters, but with the fixed coils wound with thick wire to carry the current. The Weston

Wattmeters are intended for the direct measurement of wattmeter has a circular formerless moving coil fixed on a pivoted electrical power, especially in alternating current circuits. As the spindle with two spiral springs serving as control and leading-in power expended in, or taken from, an electrical circuit, in watts, wires, and a light truss-form pointer at the upper end, and dampis equal to the product of the P.D. in volts and current in amperes, ing vanes at the lower end. Two fixed current coils are held in it can be measured on direct-current circuits by a voltmeter and a frame of high resistance metal alloy to reduce eddy currents, ammeter. But with alternating or pulsating currents this is not the and the moving coil swings inside them over an arc of about 90°. case, and a special instrument is needed in which the torque is proThe quadrant electrometer can also be used as a wattmeter portional to the product of the P.D. and current at each instant, since the deflection is proportional to the product of the P.D. and indicates the mean value. Such instruments are termed watt- between the quadrants and of that between the needle and the meters and are essential for all alternating current power measmean of the quadrants or to (V2— V1) (v- DS Where V, urements. They may be either electromagnetic, electrostatic, or Vi and V; are the potentials of the needles and of the two thermal, but practically all indiquadrants respectively. If a non-inductive resistance r is concating wattmeters are on the elecnected across the quadrants and the current 7 is passed through it tromagnetic principle, and most V2—Vi=r% or is proportional to the current, and if the PD. is are of the dynamometer type. It applied between the midpoint of this resistance and the needle, has been stated above that if two the deflection is proportional to the product of the current and current carrying coils are near P.D., ie., to the power. This electrostatic method was also detogether, the force or- deflecting vised by Ayrton and Perry, and was developed about 1900 by torque between them is proporAddenbrook and later by Paterson and Rayner at the National tional to the product of the Physical Laboratory, where it is used as the standard for checkstrengths of the two currents, so ing commercial'wattmeters. It is not, however, suitable for port-

that if one of the coils carries the

able or switchboard instruments owing to the small forces available. Thermal or hot wire wattmeters have also been devised by Field, Irwin, and others but have not come into general use. The induction type of instrument however lends itself excel-

current in the circuit by being connected in series with it, and the other is wound with fine wire and shunted -across the circuit

lently to switchboard wattmeters of moderate accuracy owing to

like’ a voltmeter, the current in

the simplicity and robustness of its constructión.

the second coil is proportional to the P.D. if its resistance is constant, and the force’ or torque between the coils is proportional to the product of the P.D. and current, z:e., to the power in the circuit, at each instant. If the shunt coil is suspended inside the series coil and provided with a pointer and deflection

control

torque on the disc is proportional to id sin? where i and & are the currents in the coils and ¢ the angle of phase difference between them. If one of the magnets is wound with thick wire

and connected in series with the circuit like an ammeter, and the

other is wound with fine wire and connected across the mains like a voltmeter, the current in the latter coil is proportional to the

spring the

is proportional

to the

In discussing

the double magnet induction ammeter (q.v.) it is stated that the

FIG. 12.—ELECTRIC

SUPPLY

METER

average power, as the inertia of the coil prevents it from following

the rapid variations of the alternating currents.

"The principle of the electrodynamometer put: forward by Ayrton and Perry in 188r, Kelvin in his Watt balance, and by Siemens coils of the Kelvin balance or Siemén’s

`

wattmeter was first and was adopted by in 1884, the moving dynamometer being

made of fine wire and in series with non-inductiveé resistances.

Unfortunately, Ayrton'and Perry, from a theoretical’ consideration of its behaviour on alternating current circuits at' various

P.D. across the mains but nearly in quadrature with it owing to its high inductance so that sinó —cos0] where @ is the phase difference between the circuit P.D. and current. The torque

is therefore proportional to V? cos ie., to the power. Certain

compensations are necessary, as the resistance of the shunt coil

destroys the perfect quadrature, but they can be effected with

sufficient accuracy, and if the disc is provided with a damping

magnet and control spring a long scale indicating wattmeter with proportional scale is produced. A large number of such watt-

meters have been devised and Edgcumbe and Ockenden, and Lip-

man have recently carried the design to gréat perfection. On the

other hand if the control spring is removed, the torque de ope by the damping magnet is proportional to the speed, and as 1t i5

INSTRUMENTS

443

rtional to the power, the disc will rotate at a uniform siphons over when full into a larger graduated tube. The whole proportional to the power. The amount of the rotation in apparatus is sealed and hinged in a case, so that when both tubes a given time will thus be proportional to the time integral of the are full it can be filled up and the mercury repeats its course.

er, or to the total energy supplied or absorbed. The instrument then becomes an energy supply meter, and the bulk of the y meters used on A.C. circuits to-day are on this principle. Polyphase Wattmeters——About 1896 Dobrowolski pointed out that the power either on a two

Motor Meters.—The majority of supply meters now in use

are on the motor principle in which the current or power supply

causes a moving element to rotate against some form of brake so that its speed is proportional to the current or power and the

total rotation in any time indicates the quantity in ampere hours or the energy in kilowatt hours (Board of Trade Units or B.T.U.). Fundamentally there are two types of such meters, those in which

supply or on a three phase three wire supply could be obtained by using two wattmeters and adding their readings together. F ollowing on this, Drysdale in 1901 produced a double wattmeter with two similar moving coils at right angles, one be-

torsion in the usual manner.’ Deflectional direct reading polyphase

the driving torque is proportional to the current or power and the braking torque to the speed, and those in which the driving torque is proportional to the square of the current and the braking torque to the square of the speed. The great majority of meters in present use, however, are of the former type, and the first practical suggestion of an energy meter on such lines was made by Ayrton and Perry in 1882. It may be briefly described as a rotating or integrating wattmeter in which the swinging moving coil is replaced by an armature, commutator and brushes, the former being wound with fine wire and connected in series with a high resistance across the mains; while the fixed current coil is connected like an ammeter in series with one main. When cürrent passes through both coils a torque is produced which is pro-

Instrument company, and many others. The induction wattmeter and energy meter can similarly be adapted for polyphase supplies,

portional to the product of the two currents or to the product of the P.D. and main current, z.e., the power. In the ordinary moving coil instrument the coil only deflects through a definite angle but

Electric Supply Meters.—These meters are used for indi-

into the field and tends to produce a continuous rotation which is secured by removing the control and üsing a copper disc with

low the other,

on

the

same

FROM

GLAZEBROOK,

“DICTIONARY

spindle, and with two similar sets »uvsics" cmacnintany eee of stranded fixed coils also at eee

right angles, so that the indica- 5. NOR e

OF APPLIED

A & B, COILS;

PER

x,

tions of the two systems were me-

chanically added together on the spindle and could be balanced by

wattmeters have since been made on this principle by the Weston

by using two sets of series and shunt magnets on opposite sides of the same disc.

cating the total energy supplied to a consumer or from a generat-

ing station and are, therefore, used in large numbers, and have assumed a great variety of forms. There are two chief classes,

“quantity” or “ampere-hour”’ meters, and “energy” meters, both of which are in vogue.

The power developed by or given

toa circuit in watts at any instant is W=VJ, or in kilowatts KW- — » and the energy in kilowatt-hours

or Board of

Trade Units (B.T.U.) is therefore ZZ "where i is the time

of supply in hours, if V and 7 are constant over the time, or nofVI = 1099

,Wdt if they vary. An energy meter may be

called an integrating wattmeter; but since most electrical supplies aeat an approximately constant voltage f‘VIdt=V f1di, and

itis sufficient to measure J.1di or the total “quantity” i ampere hours; hence the above’ names. Quantity meters are obviously the more simple, as they do not require to take the P.D. into account; and the most simple of all are those on the voltameter or electrolytic principle. The weight ef metal deposited or volume of gas liberated in an electrolytic cell is proportional to the quan-’ tity of electricity passing. The first supply meter invented by | n in 1879 was of this type and employed zinc plates in zinc

sulphate solution.

Bastian

in

1898 produced a meter on the waler voltameter principle, conusing of a glass vessel contain-

mg two electrodes through which

——————

FIG. 14.—MHOTOR METER

the commutator rotating between the brushes brings new coils

permanent magnet as a brake, and a counting train to register the revolutions or B.T.U. Prof. Elihu Thomson developed this into a successful supply meter which is still used for direct currents, and could also be used for alternating current supply, but has been almost superseded for the latter purpose by the induction energy meter based on the induction wattmeter already described. Many attempts have been made at improving the commutator motor meter, especially as regards diminishing the friction of the brushes, which tends to cause it to stick or under

register at low loads; the most successful being the “frictionless” motor meter of S. Evershed, in which the commutator strips are in the form of elastic springs rotating between “brushes” in the form of friction wheels. The greater part of the weight of the moving system is compensated by a permanent magnet attracting the top of the spindle, and the movements are communicated to

the counting train magnetically, instead of by direct coupling. Unfortunately the cost of this meter prevents its general use, but it stands as the highest achievement in the supply meter field. By substituting a permanent magnet for the fixed coils in the

motor energy meter and passing the main current, or a fixed fraction of it derived from a shunt, through the armature, a more simple and robust form of meter can be constructed, owing to the more intense field of the magnet; but the meter then becomes a quantity meter suitable for direct currents only. This type has been developed by the Bat Meter company and others and by the British Thomson Houston company for use on electric cars.

The chief difficulty as regards the satisfactory pérformance of the above motors is, as has been above said, the brush friction; and, therefore, several types of

FIG. 15.—WHEATSTONE

|

BRIDGE

quantity meter have been developed by Chamberlain and Hookham, Prof. Perry, and' Messrs. Ferranti, etc., in which the arma-

current passed causing the evolution of. hydrogen and oxygen aad the descent of the level of the ‘water, which was: indicat ed

it. These meters are practically always of the quantity type with

however, which has proved. satisfactory in.service is the mercury

a permanent magnet or electromagnet field, and the current flows through the mercury either from its centre to its circumference,

à Scale on the side of the vessel. The only electrolytic meter,

ture is reduced to a pool of mercury or to a metal disc floating in

Weterof Wright in which mercury is déposited from a solution _across its diameter or axially. Whenever it happens that the magmercurous nitrate (later a mixture of mercury, sodium and net is permanent, its feld is constant, and the torque is proporogen chlorates) and drops into'a ‘graduated tube! which tional to the current, in which case the braking is effected by the

INSTRUMENTS

444

eddy currents induced by the magnet; but when it is an electromagnet in series with the mercury the torque is approximately proportional to the square of the current, and the braking is effected by roughening the inside of the mercury container, in which case the braking torque at high speeds is proportional to the square of the speed. The meter may be used with alternating currents, but the inductance of its magnet is generally too high. Of alternating current motor meters by far the most generally

traction g. If, therefore, two clocks are mounted side bys with exactly similar pendulums, and one is attracted, this one

will gain on the other, and the difference of time indicate d by É

the two clocks will be proportional to Í gdi. If the pendulum

bob is a permanent magnet swinging over a coil traversed by the main current, 7, g is proportional to i and the differen ce of time t is proportional to f idi or to Q, so that we have a direct current 0

quantity meter. If a fine wire shunt coil is fixed on the pendulum

and swings over the current coil, g is proportional to V; so that i

|the gain of rate is proportional to f Vidi or to the energy, 3 and this is applicable either to direct or alternating currents .

By

coupling the two clocks together by differential gear, by arrang. ing one pendulum to be attracted and the other repelled, and

FROM

GLAZEBROOK,

“DICTIONARY

OF APPLIED

FIG. 16.—IMPROVED WHEATSTONE RESISTANCE OF A NUMBER OF PLUGS

PHYSICS"

BRIDGE

(MACMILLAN)

TO

ELIMINATE

CONTACT

useful at the présent time is the induction energy meter which has assumed a great variety of forms, most of which give a good performance. As above described, the induction wattmeter consisted simply of an aluminium disc between the poles of two adjacent laminated electromagnets, one of which was wound with thick wire which carried the main current, while the other was wound with fine wire and connected across the mains. The torque tending to rotate the disc is then proportional to the power in watts and if the control spring is removed, and a permanent magnet brake is employed, the speed of rotation of the disc is proportional to the power, and the total rotation in a given time is proportional to the total energy supplied during that time, which is registered by a counting train geared to the spindle of the disc. The first purely alternating current motor meter, however, was the quantity meter of Schallenberger, in which a light aluminium disc was pivoted on a spindle through its centre, and turned in the field of two main coils. Inside these coils, was a number of flat copper strips slotted in the centre to allow the disc to pass through, and set at an angle of about 45° with the main coils. These strips, therefore, acted as short

circuited coils through which a portion of the main field passed and induced lagging currents in them, so that the whole arrange-

ment acted as a crude two-phase or rotating field motor in which the disc was carried round by induction. As the driving torque was proportional to the square of the current, as in the dynamometer ammeter, the breaking torque had to be proportional to the square of the speed, which was effected by having four damping vanes revolving at high speed in the air. An even more simple A.C. motor meter was devised by Prof. George Forbes on the hot wire principle, the current passing through a horizontal spiral ring of resistance wire and causing hot air currents to rise from it and turn a light windmill, which provided its own braking torque. Clock meters, which were also originally devised by Ayrton and Perry in 1882, and which were developed to an extraordinary extent by Dr. Aron, have had a considerable amount of popularity owing to their great adaptability, but are now almost superseded. If an ordinary pendulum of length L is allowed ] ; ses St L to swing freely, its periodic time ¢ = 27 G where G is the con-

by other ingenious devices, Dr. Aron produced fairly accurate supply meters, and meters on this principle have also been devised by Féry and others. Lastly, we have had a very large variety of continuous and intermittent integrating meters with very ingenious mechanisms, of which the Frager meter was the pioneer; and also, in recent

times prepayment meters of both the electrolytic and motor types, in which the insertion of a coin switches on the current and

releases the mechanism until a certain amount of quantity or energy has passed when the latter first breaks a switch shunted by a resistance so that the lights are dimmed as a warning, and breaks entirely later, if the warning is disregarded. The growing practice of inducing consumers to keep their maximum call on the supply as little as possible. above their average demand, by charging according to the latter, has involved the introduction of a maximum demand indicator, usually as a separate adjunct to the

meter.

IV. RESISTANCE MEASURING INSTRUMENTS The majority of instruments for electrical resistance measurement are of the comparison type, and only a few give direct indications on a dial Taking the latter first, these are generally

known as ohmmeters from the original instrument of Ayrton and

Perry, but as they are used in great numbers for insulation testing, trade names such as “Megger,” "Ohmer," “Omega,” “Metrohm,” etc., are in vogue. Their fundamental principle is T

based on Ohm's law, which may be written in the form Ran, so that if we could produce an instrument the indications of which are proportional to the ratio of P.D. to current, it would indicate resistance directly. In dealing with the Wattmeter it was shown that if two coils are at right angles, one carrying the current and

the other connected as a shunt to the circuit, the torque between

them was proportional to the product Vi, but if both coils are fixed and a magnetic needle is pivoted at their centre it will set

itself along the resultant magnetic field of the two coils (neg-

lecting for the moment the earth’s magnetic field). If one coil is connected in series with the circuit it will carry the current i

and produce a magnetic field H; proportional to i, while if the other is wound with very fine wire and connected as a shunt to

the mains it will carry a current proportional to the P.D. V and producing a magnetic field H; proportional to V and at right angles te H;. The instrument therefore acts as a tangent galvanometer in which the field H, is substituted for the earth's

field, and tan

7 is proportional to L or to R. Itis readily

stant acceleration of gravity, and its frequency of oscillation is therefore n= = If G can be effectively increased by at-

seen that variation of the P.D. of the mains does not affect the

tracting the bob by a magnet or coil to some value (6--g), the

resultant maintains the same direction. .The effect of the earth's

L

|

eincreased to«nA /8t8 xf, 8V/6 freq s ue will be nc y os GOVT | 27 /

approximately, so that the increase of frequency or rate of the : (ul eu I ; x pendulum = (n’—2) mn Jig 0)£, oris propottional to the at :

i

1

deflection, as if it is doubled both H,'and H; are doubled and their

field can of course be eliminated by making the system astati with one needle outside the coils.

': -

The great use of this instrument has been the testing of insulation resistance, |in which R may amount to many millions o

ohms (megohms), so that in order to get a good testing current

the P.D. V must aniount to a few hundred volts. This is the more

INSTRUMENTS

445

‘able as a circuit may show a high insulation resistance with a large P.D.; and it is therea few volts, but break down with

anneal it, and after cooling its resistance is carefully measured on a Wheatstone bridge with knife edge clips which allow the fore important to make the test with at least twice the P.D. the wire to be pushed through until the exact resistance is obtained. circuit is intended for. As the chief object of the ohmmeter is Small copper washers are then silver-soldered to the ends of the ing in situ; and as high voltage batteries are heavy and wire, and the finished coils are then screwed into position on the dumsy, their place is taken by a hand magneto generator which box and the washers screwed up and soft-soldered on the screwed ° es the required P.D. of say 250 or 500 volts or more by lugs from the blocks. After this the whole box should if possible yuming an armature in the field of a permanent magnet by means be stored for several months to allow the coils to settle down in resistance, and exact adjustment is then effected by scraping the of a handle and gearing. : 7 In the more recent Evershed “Megger” and some other instru- wires near to the terminals. The hollow brass tubes have holes ments the moving needle system drilled near their attachment to the base so that they are open is replaced hy a permanent magtop and bottom, and allow of air circulating through them when net moving coil system with two the coil is heated by a current. Other forms of coil are in use for very high frequency work, but the great majority are now moving coils (current and P.D.) constructed much as above described. on the same spindle. The same t is sometimes employed For the measurement and adjustment of resistances, except of tp produce tbe field for the movvery low values, the Wheatstone bridge is the most convenient ing coils and for the generator, and commonly used device. It consists essentially of a resistance the whole of the apparatus being box of any one of the above types to which is added a set of “ratio coils” which enable its resistance to be balanced or comina single case with the handle ^ Fic. 17.—PorENTIOMETER and gearing with a slipping clutch for obtaining approximately pared with any unknown resistance.

constant speed and P.D. at one end, and the ohmmeter movement

ai the other. By shunting the series coil, a lower range is obiainable for low insulations, and the device may be made capable of measuring resistances of a fraction of an ohm. The CoxNalder “Ohmer” is on a somewhat similar electrostatic principle, but the double moving coil is the most common.

Resistance standards of o-y ohm or less are usually provided with four terminals, two for the passage of the current, and the other two for enabling the P.D. to be tapped off. For the measurement of such currents the Kelvin double bridge having two sets of ratio coils is used. Many special forms of bridge have been devised for the accurate comparison of standard resistances

Resistance Boxes and Wheatstone Bridges.—The most accurate method of measuring resistance is by comparison with a known resistance, and for this and other purposes, boxes of accurately adjusted resistances with convenient arrangements for

four terminal resistances to be compared to an accuracy of within one part in a million.

connecting any number of them in series are largely employed. Two types in use are the plug and sliding-contact types. In the former, the resistance coils are connected between brass blocks, and plugs with ebonite tops are provided which on insertion into the tapered holes between the blocks short circuit the respective coils, so that the total resistance between the terminals is the sum of the resistances of the coils unplugged, A common arrangement of the coils in this case is 0-1 -2 -3 -4; I, 2, 3, 4} I0, 20, 30, 40, etc,, ohms, so that any value up to the maximum can be obtained in steps of or ohm. An alternative and more convenient arrangement is a dial form, which has one central block with eleven others surrounding it, any one of which can be plugged eto contact with the central one. In this case ten coils of equal resistance are used connected between successive outer blocks as shown, and the resistance in each dial is then indicated by the figure on the block in which the plug stands. The sliding contact type is always of the dial form and is equivalent to that just described except that contact is made between the central and outer blocks by a well laminated copper brush which slides over the blocks. In the best types a spring “dick” is also provided which slips into notches in a steel plate as the brush passes the centre of each block, so as to avoid the necessity for observing whether it is in position. The sliding contact form is more convenient and rapid in use, but not so accutate as the plug form. The resistance of a goad. plug contact is

caly about 5o microhms, while that of brush contacts is from 160

io $00 microhms or more, though Messrs. Tinsley have recently

introduced a new form for which they claim a constancy of con-

tact resistance of about 20 microhms. The construction and adjustment of the resistance coils demands considerable care. The wire is now almost universally of Manganin (Cu 84, Mn 12, Ni 4 with a trace of iran) discovered

by Dr. Weston in 1889 and largely used by St. Lindeck. This combines high specific resistance (about so microhms per cm.

cube) with extremely low temperature variation, and low thermo emf. to copper. A length of silk covered wire of approximately € required resistance is first doubled on itself and wound on a skort, length of brass tube which has previously been wound over with silk tape and varnished with shellac varnish. After

and securing the coil in place with silk thread it is var-

of which the best known are those of Carey-Foster, Fleming, F. E. Smith and Drysdale. The two latter enable either two or

V. POTENTIAL

MEASURING

INSTRUMENTS

Direct Current Potentiometers.—The potentiometer is the most generally useful of all accurate electrical instruments. As its name implies its primary function is the measurement of potential differences, but it is equally applicable for the measurement of currents of any value, when a few suitable resistance standards are available. Its fundamental principle is derived from a method devised by Poggendorf for comparing the e.m.f’s. of two cells and consists in employing a long uniform wire through which a steady current is kept flowing and in which consequently there is a uniform falt of potential from one end to the other (fig. 20). If r is the resistance of the wire per unit length and z the current flowing through it, the fall of potential per unit length is ri, so that the P.D. between any two points on the wire is V =ril where l is the distance between them. If, then, a cell having a known e.m.f. E, is connected in series with a galvanometer to two contacts on the wire, and one of them is moved until the galvanometer is at zero, indicating that no current is flowing, then E1- V — ril. On substituting another cell of unknown e.m.f., E», and moving the contact until balance is again obtained, E;—ril, so that if the current in the wire has kept constant during the whole process E»

E

I.

= h

or

E=

le

4

The method is analogous to weighing by a steelyard with sliding weight. If the wire is made of a definite resistance, say 2 ohms for a length of a metre, and is traversed by a current of -o5 ampere, then the total P.D. for roo cm. is o-r volt or o-coor volt per millimetre. Further, if at one end of this wire any number of resistances each of 2 ohms are connected in series, each of them will have a P.D. of or volt, which can be added to that of any section of the wire, as additional weights to a steelyard. This is the basis of the first accurate form of potentiometer devised by Prof. J. A. Fleming in 1885, and practically developed by Crompton. It consists af a rectangular base carrying the slidewire in front, the dial of x4 extra coils on the left, coarse and fine rheostats R fer adjusting the current in the centre, and a selector switch, which enables the sliding contacts and galvanometer G to be con-

ushed and baked for some hours at a temperature of 140? C to nected to a number of different cells or circuits to be tested. The

446

INSTRUMENTS

main current is supplied from a 2 volt secondary cell, B. and it is nating current instruments is small.

A suggestion was made

adjusted by the aid of a standard cell C. If this cell is a Cadmium |Swinburne for balancing an alternating P.D. against a direct cell (g.v.), having an e.m.f. of 1-0183 volts, the potentiometer con- | derived from a potentiometer by means of a differential q

tacts are set to 10 on the dial (=1 volt) and 18-3 divisions on the | electrometer, but this was almost impracticable owing to thelow slide wire, and the rheostats adjusted till balance is obtained. The | sensitivity of such an instrument; and the first Sensitive and prac-

potentiometer is then ready for use, and will measure any P.D. | tical A.C. potentiometer was devised by Drysdale in 1910 on the up to 1-5 volts directly. Higher P.D.’s up to 600 volts or more are | principle of balancing two alternating P.D.'s, both

:

measured with the aid of a “volt

Alc

in magnit

and phase, and using a telephone or vibration galvanometer

E

box," which consists simply of a detector. The schematic diagram of this potentiometer is shows series of resistance coils having in fig. 19. It consists of an ordinary dial and slide wire potentiom. convenient relative values totaleter with a dynamometer milammeter in series with its main ling say 100, 500, I,000, 5,000, circuit, and provided with a change-over switch so that it can be 10,000 ohms etc., from the left fed either with direct current from an 8-volt battery, or with al. hand terminal. If the P.D. to be ternating current from a special "phase shifting" transformer measured is in the neighbourhood This consists of a ring shaped primary wound like a two-phase of ioo volts it is connected induction motor (g.v.) both circuits of which are connected across across the 10,000 ohm resistance, FiG. 18.—COMPTON POTENTIOMETER | the A.C. mains—one directly and the other through a variable and the P.D. across the 100 ohm coil is balanced on the poten- | condenser and resistance box, by adjusting which a constant uni. tiometer. The actual P.D. is then read on the potentiometer mul- | formly rotating magnetic field is secured. The secondary consists tiplied by the ratio of the resistance 10,000/100-- 100, so that the | of a slotted cylinder with a simple diametrical winding, and as this instrument is equally direct reading. For the measurement of cur- | is turned in the primary the induced e.m.f. remains constant for rent it is passed through a standard resistance S of 1 ohm, o-1 ohm, | all positions, but its phase alters by the same angle as that of the f ac Re : rotation. The potentiometer is first supplied with direct current or o-or ohm, etc., and since the P.D. V —S;, i=. For example, if

and balanced against a standard cell in the ordinary manner, and a current of the order of 100 amperes is to be measured, a resist- | the dynamometer then adjusted to a fiducial mark, by means of ance of o-or ohm is employed and if the P.D. across it measured | its zero adjustment; after which it is changed over to the trans-

by the potentiometer

is 1-263 5 volts, the current is 126-35 amperes.

former and its rheostats adjusted until the dynamometer indicates

The wide range of application and accuracy of the potentiom- | the same current, when the alternating P.D. for any position of its eter has led to the devising of a number of different forms. In | potential contacts will be the same as that for direct current. The

Germany and the United States, dial potentiometers based on the | P.D. across any part of a circuit supplied from the same A.C. original form of Feussner are most generally used, the device | mains can then be balanced by moving the potentiometer contacts being equivalent to two dial resistance boxes in series and mechan- | and turning the transformer, a vibration galvanometer being used

ically coupled so that any increase of the resistance in one box is | which is comparable in sensitiveness to the ordinary moving coal

accompanied by an equal decrease in the resistance in the other, | galvanometer. When balance has been obtained, the magnitude of

the P.D. is read off from the potentiometer in the ordinary way, and its phase angle or cosine or sine from a pointer and dial on the transformer. The P.D.’s and currents of any magnitude can be measured with the same volt-boxes and shunts, as for direct current, provided they are sufficiently non-inductive, and power by measuring the P.D. and current and applying the formula W= Vi cos ó. Inductances, capacities, and alternating magnetic fields can also equally easily be measured, if the frequency of the supply is known. For accurate measurements, the wave form of the supply must be fairly closely sinusoidal, and its frequency must be

PHASE SPLITTING DEVICE

constant.

Three other alternating current potentiometers on a somewhat different principle have since been evolved. An alternating P.D. may be represented as a vector, as it has magnitude and direction (phase angle), and such a vector may be defined either by this magnitude and angle (polar coordinates) or by its two rectangular components (Cartesian coordinates). The Drysdale potentiometer may therefore be called a polar potentiometer, and is the only one of this class, but the Cartesian principle may be em-

ployed, and the potentiometers of Larsen, Campbell, Gall, and Pedersen are on that principle. ^ In the Larsen instrument (1910) an ordinary potentiometer is connected in series with the primary of a variable standard of

mutual inductance M as in fig. 20. If ¢ is the curremt through the potentiometer, it produces a P.D. V;- Ri in phase with $ across its contacts if R is the resistance between them, and also an

FROM DRYSDALE, “JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS”

,

e.m.f.

FIG. 19.—DRYSDALE-TINSLEY A.C. OR D.C. POTENTIOMETER

Vo=Mw

across

the

secondary

of the mutual

inductance

and in quadrature with i, where w is the pulsatance (2 7 X fre-

and the total resistance and consequently the current’ remains con- | quency) so that if the secondary is joined in series with one of stant.

This is practically effected by making each dial with 20| the contacts of the potentiometer, any P.D. can be balanced by

coils and two contacts moved by the same handle. Special poten- | moving the contacts and turning the secondary of the mutual

tiometers for measuring very small P.D.’s such as thermo e.m.f.’s | inductance standard (recently improved by W. A. Campbell). have been devised by Hausrath and Diesselhorst, in which no slid-| In the Gall “Coordinate” potentiometer (1923), two potentioming contacts are encountered in the galvanometer circuit.

. ~

eters fed with two equal currents in quadrature supplied from à

Alternating Current Potentiometers—The great range, | special transformer are employed: while the Pedersen instrument

adaptability, and accuracy of the potentiometer for direct current | consists of two similar potentiometers in series with an inductance

measurements, led to a strong desire for a similar instrument for | and a condenser respectively, the.two circuits being connected i alternating current testing, especially as the range'of most alter- | parallel across the supply. teet : «oT

INSTRUMENTS VL CAPACITY AND INDUCTANCE INSTRUMENTS

MEASURING

Measurements of capacity and inductance are generally made comparison with fixed or variable standard condensers or in-

447

circular wooden or ebonite formers curved so as to be parts of

spheres and to enable one to fit as closely as possible inside the other.

The inner coil was mounted on a spindle passing through

the outer coil and having a pointer reading on a large dial at the

guctances. Condensers are of various forms, fixed condensers of top. The two coils were connected in series through flexible leads,

to many microfarads, variable vane and when they were parallel but the current passed round them in condensers of low capacity as are used in radio, standard air con- opposite directions their inductance was very low as the magnetic effects of the two coils almost neutralized densers, and high voltage glass condensers of the Leyden jar type. each other, while on turning the inner coil High capacity fixed conround, the magnetic field (and therefore densers are generally made of | the inductance) increased steadily to a rectangular sheets of tinfoil bemaximum when it was again parallel to the tween somewhat larger sheets of fixed coil. By careful construction a tenpaper impregnated with paraffin fold range of inductance was secured. wax. Each tinfoil sheet is pro- | Variable mutual inductance standards vided with a projection or lug at | PRON DRYSDALE, «JOURNAL OF SCIENTIFIC INFTEUNENTS" are, however, to be preferred, as they can one side, and alternate sheets RECTANFi6. 20.—LARSEN SIMPLE easily be made of very long range. The GULAR CO-ORDINATE A.C. POTEN- have their lugs projecting in dif-| best known is that of Campbell who emferent places so that they can be ploys three circular coils on marble formconnected together. Where a ers and with their planes parallel. The „icient number of tinfoil and paper sheets have been laid tocentre coil is mounted on a spindle at its r to give the required capacity the whole condenser is edge so that it can be swung like a vane between hot plates so as to form a solid block when cold, between the two fixed coils, and this the alternate lugs are soldered together and connected to the terspindle is provided with a handle and minals, and the whole block inserted in a wooden or metal case pointer travelling over a scale calibrated which is filled up solid with paraffin wax. . For highly accurate | in microhenries. The winding on the fixed standards thin sheets of the best ruby mica are substituted for the! coils is of ten insulated wires stranded topaper, and these sheets are frequently silvered on one side, the| gether so as to have equal magnetic effect. silvering being removed around the edges. A number of such paper or mica condensers are frequently included in a single case FIG. 21.—HENLEY'S ELEC- Tp addition there are a number of fixed bobbins with primary and secondary windand can be used singly or in parallel, and dial condensers resem- IROSEOPE bling resistance boxes, enabling the capacity to be adjusted from ings which can be thrown into the circuit when this is desired. Capacity and inductance measurements are now most comooor to 1-111 microfarads are now commonly used. Variable vane condensers consist of two sets of thin metal plates. monly made by bridge methods using alternating current and wually of semicircular form, but of different diameters. The telephones or vibration galvanometers, and such bridges allow of larger or fixed plates are built up on a frame so as to be accurately condensers, self, or mutual inductances to be compared in any parallel to one another and equally spaced, while the smaller are combination. The best known forms of such bridges are those of ibreaded on a spindle with distance pieces between them so as also de Sauty, Maxwell, Campbell, Drysdale and Schering. to be parallel and similarly spaced. The spindle is mounted in VIL ELECTROSTATIC INSTRUMENTS the frame so that the movable plates or vanes can turn between the fixed plates without touching them, and the two systems of Electroscopes and Electrometers.—As their names indicate, fred and moving plates are insulated from one another. An insu- these instruments are intended respectively for the detection and lating handle provided with a pointer or a rotating dial enables the measurement of electric charges or differences of potential. Elecspindle to be turned, and the capacity varies continuously, from a troscopes were the first electrical instruments to be devised, and lowminimum value when the moving vanes are outside the fixed take their origin from William Gilbert (1544-1603), who first pates, to a maximum when they are completely inside them. By developed the knowledge of electrical phenomena from the isolated inserting the whole system in a case filled with oil both the capacity fact known to the ancient Greeks, that amber could be electriax!maximum safe P.D. of the condenser may be considerably in- fied by friction. His electroscope consisted simply of a light treased, The vanes are sometimes made of various forms in order pivoted metallic needle, either end of which was attracted on the to obtain a “square law” variation of capacity with angle, or a approach of an electrified body. wiform frequency scale, etc. ; The next step was to utilize the Standard air condensers are only used for fundamental measurerepulsion of two similarly electriments and’ usually consist of a number of concentric accurately fied bodies. Benjamin Franklin, turned and measured cylinders on an insulating base so that their employing two linen threads capagity can be calculated from the dimensions. hanging close together, and du The most simple method of comparing the capacity of conFay, Canton, Henley and Cavello densers is by the direct deflection method using a ballistic galdouble straw or pith ball electrovanometer (g.v.). If a condenser of capacity C is connected to a scopes. Henley's electroscope battery of emf. E, it suddenly becomes charged with a quantity (fip. 21) was a crude form of Q5CE, so that if two condensers of capacities C, and Cz are conelectrometer, and consisted of a nected successively to the’same battery Qi=CiE, and Q2=C2E; pith ball suspended at the lower end of a light pivoted arm and C» D, Q^ G D. where D, and Dare the corresponding Fic, 22.—CAVALLO'S ELECTRO- normally just touching a metal 1 1 u à : SCOPE sleeve. When the latter was swings of the ballistic galvanometer. charged, it imparted part of its charge to the pith ball and repelled Inductance standards may be either fixed or variable, and of it, and the amount of the charge was roughly indicated by an or mutual inductance. Fixed self-indtictance standards are arc divided in degrees with its centre at the pivot. Cavallo's coils wound on rigid insulating bobbins, so as to have con- electroscope (c. 1770) was the prototype of the modern repulconformation. Marble is used for the most accurate, and ‘sion electroscopes, having a glass bell jar with a metal stem y seasoned .paraffined teak or boxwood for the ordinary sealed into its neck (fig. 22). At the top of this stem was a bellwards. The first accurate ‘variable inductance standard or ‘shaped metal cap A! which served as a charging knob and also highcapacity from o-oor

TIOMETER.

Yatiometer was that of Ayrton and Perry, and consisted of two protected the glass and insulation of the stem from rain if the Seach of about ten inches diameter wouhd in single layers on instrument was used in the opén air; while at the bottom of the

448

INSTRUMENTS

stem two pith balls were suspended by fine silver wires. Two metal | through about 45° and the final adjustment of sensitive

strips, B and C, were cemented on the inner surface of the bell made by varying the distance of the plate P by turning us jar and connected to earth. In 1782 Volta increased the sensitive- crometer head D. With 200 volts on the plate this electrose ness of this form of electroscope by adding a condenser, and Fara- gives a defection of three or four divisions on the scale in the day showed that for its indications to have a definite meaning the | observing microscope fcr only o-o1 volt on the leaf, interior of the glass vessel should as far as possible be covered The electroscope employed for radio-activity investi gations, as with metal, leaving only small spaces for the observations of the well as the early electroscope of movements of pith balls. In 1787 Abraham Bennet substituted Henley, are in reality crude gold leaves for the pith balls, the form of | forms of electrometers, as they electroscope shown in fig. 23, in which the are actually used for approximate stem carrying the gold leaves and charging measurements. But the term elecknob is supported on a rectangular glass trometer is generally restricted to frame inside the bell jar which is coated on instruments intended for accuthe inside by a number of strips T of tinrate measurements of potential foil, all connected to a terminal on the differences, and designed to have base, which can be connected to earth. The a more or less definite law. The BY PERMISSION OF CANBRIDCE INSTRUMENT interior of the instrument is kept perfectly first instruments of this kind co. F1G. 26.—WILSON AND KAYE ELEC. dry by means of a vessel containing calwere on the “attracted disc” princium chloride and sulphuric acid, and an ciple, which seems to have origi- TROSCOPE ebonite plug slides on the upper part of the nated in 1746 by Daniel Gralath of Danzig, and to have been stem. 'This plug normally closes the jar, termed by him an “electrometer”; but the earliest practical forms but when the instrument is in use, it is were those of A. Volta and Sir Wm. Snow-Harris, in which a flat slightly raised, leaving a small air space horizontal disc was suspended from the arm of a balance just over between the stem and the cap of the bell Fie. 23.—60LD LEAF a similar fixed insulated plate. jar. ELECTROSCOPE When the latter was electrified it Until about the commencement of the present century electro- attracted the suspended plate scopes were little used, except for teaching purposes in connection downwards, and balance could be with electrostatics, but the discovery of radio-active materials and restored by adding weights on a their power of discharging a charged body by ionization led M. scale pan at the opposite end of and Mme. P. Curie to employ the rate of discharge of an electro- the balance arm. Fig. 27 shows scope as the best means of detecting the intensity of radio-active one form of Snow-Harris electrobodies, and a large number of new forms of electroscope have been meter in which C is the suspendintroduced. That of M. and Mme. Curie is diagrammatically ed disc above the insulated disc shown in fig. 24. It consists of a which is shown connected to the small brass case having a block knob of a Leyden jar, while the of sulphur SS at its top, from outer coating of the jar is conwhich a metal strip B with a gold nected to the frame of the elec- FIG. 27.—SNOW-HARRIS'S DISK leaf L depends. The case is protrometer and thus to the sus- ELECTROMETER vided with two holes at its sides pended plate, so that the P.D. between the plates is the same as and a horizontal metal wire carthat between the coatings of the jar. Snow-Harris found that the ries a charging knob C projecting weight required to restore balance was proportional to the square through one of these holes and a of the charge or the P.D. of the jar. condenser plate P’ at its other In 1857 Lord Kelvin turned his great mathematical and inend. A second condenser plate FIG. 24.—CURIE’S ELECTROSCOPE ventive skill to the subject of electrometers, and produced two P, just below the first, is connected to the case. The instrument forms which have persisted with is first charged by the knob C until the gold leaf L diverges from only detailed improvements to the strip B by a convenient amount, after which a cap is fixed the present day. The first form over C and the leaf should maintain its position for some time if was derived from the attracted the insulation is satisfactory. On inserting a small amount of radio- disc electrometer, but had the active material between the plates P and P’, however, the ioniza- very important addition of a tion of the air between the plates causes the charge to leak away, “guard ring,” which made its inand the rate of fall of the leaf L, which can be observed in a dications of absolute value. In microscope through a window in the simple attracted disc electhe case, measures the amount of trometer the electrostatic field radio activity of the material. between the two plates is not uniSomewhat similar forms of form, as the lines of force curve electroscopes for radio-active round from the edges of the two measurements were made by discs. But if the fixed disc is Elster and Geitel, and by C. T. made much larger than the susR. Wilson (1901), but in 1903 pended one, and the latter is sura great improvement was made rounded by a plate which nearly by the latter in his tilted electrotouches it all round, then if the FIG. 25.—WILSON'S ELECTROSCOPE scope (fig. 25). In this instrumovable plate is exactly in the BY PERMISSION OF KELVIN, BOTTOMLEY AND

ment a single gold leaf L is employed which is attracted towards

a plate P by connecting a battery of about 200 volts between the plate and the case of the instrument. Any charge of the gold leaf L then causes it to be attracted more or less strongly towards P, and it is found that if the whole case is tilted as shown, a position can be formed at which the instrument is extremely sensitive, and the tip of the gold leaf moves several millimetres when its potential is raised by one volt, The latest improvement in this type of

same plane as the surrounding

plate when the measurement is made, the electrostatic field be-

BAIRD

FIG. 28.—KELVIN'S ELECTROMETER

PORTABLE

tween the suspended and fixed plates will be practically uniform, and it can be proved theoretically that the force in dynes be AV? tween them + will be given by the expression f = Sad

where

instrument has been made by Wilson and Kaye (fig. 26), and is V is the P.D. between the plates in electrostatic units of 300 similar to the above except that the case is permanently tilted volts, A the area of the suspended plate in square centimetres,

INSTRUMENTS

449

and d the distance. between the suspended and fixed plates in | scale for measuring the movements of the leaf. Lord Kelvin 8TgW greatly improved this type of instrument in his quadrant electromcntimetres, so that V -d/ —— ' d and A are known, there- eter, the essential features of which are shown in fig. 31. A flat circular metal box is cut into four equal sections or quadrants A, fore, the P.D., V can be determined directly from the force re- B, C, D, and each section is supported on an insulating pillar and quired to balance the attraction. | Provided with a terminal, the opposite quadrant A and D and B Lord Kelvin employed this principle in two forms of electrom| and C being connected together by wires. A light flat paddle eter, one of them being known as his portable electrometer, fig. shaped aluminium vane U, shown by the dotted lines, is suspended 38, the essential parts of which are shown diagrammatically in by a bifilar cocoon silk suspension exactly in the centre of the 29. HLH. is a plain disc of quadrants and normally symmetrically between them as showm. metal fixed inside the bottom of a From the centre of this needle glass jar, which is coated inside hangs a fine platinum wire, which form to and outside with tinfoil dips into sulphuric acid in the 1 small Leyden jar. In the middle bottom of the glass containing of this disc H.H. a square hole F vessel. This acid is conducting is cut, and a slightly smaller

square plate of aluminium foil provided with an arm at one side is mounted

on

a

horizontal

stretched wire so that it will just swing through the hole F like a trap door. The wire is given an

FIG. 29

intial twist so that the alumi-

nium plate normally rests a little below the upper surface of the dsc H.H., and the arm which is provided with a crutch and cross wire is therefore tilted upwards. A circular plate G is fixed on the end of a micrometer screw above the disc H and is connected through the metal cover to the outer coating of the jar. When there is a difference of potential between the two coatings of the

jar, and therefore between the two plates, the aluminium plate is

attracted upwards and by varying the distance between the plates

bythe micrometer screw it may be made to come into exact regis-

and it also serves the quadruple function of forming the inner coating of a Leyden jar, or keeping the interior of the apparatus dry, of establishing contact with the vane or needle, and of dampIng the movements of the latter. The outer surface of the glass FIG. 31 container is partially coated with | strips of tinfoil to form the outer coating of the jar. If this jar is charged, the needle can be maintained at a constant high potential by means of a small electrical machine or "replenisher" and a gauge, and if a small P.D. is then applied between the two pairs of quadrants the needle will turn so that a smaller portion of it is | between the quadrants of similar potential and a larger portion between those of opposite potential to that of the needle, and its deflection can be observed by attaching a light concave mirror to the stem of the needle, and employing a lamp and scale as in reflecting

ter with the plane of the disc H.H. when the indicating arm will be at zero. As the force required to attract the disc to this position is galvanometers (q.v.). If V is the potential of the needle and V; and always the same, the P.D. reV2 the potentials of the two pairs of quadrants respectively, theory quired to obtain balance is simply indicates that the deflection D=k(ve—v1) {V—4(v1-+v2)} where proportional to the distance d k is a constant of the instrument. Unfortunately, Hopkinson, in between the plates which is indi1885, and Ayrton Perry and Sumpner the following year, noticed ated by the reading on the head à —— that this law did not hold in the Kelvin electrometer, as instead of the micrometer screw. The abHE n of the deflection for a given P.D. across the quadrants rising salute electrometer (fig. 30) is | ae l j | proportionally with increase of potential of the needle, it increased similar in principle but, the guard ca I up to a certain potential, after which there was little further pate B and aluminium trap door | So Oe increase, and in some cases a diminution. The latter investigators H are near the top of the glass l || traced this action to openings in a guard tube which was employed case and the attracting plate A is | to screen the platinum wire from mounted just below them on the electrical disturbances, external micrometer screw. The trap door and devised an electrometer in $ suspended on springs so as which magnetic control was submrmally to be a little above the stituted for the bifilar silk susbwer surface of the guard plate, pension, and the quadrants were and the force necéssary to bring more exposed and more easily itinto exact register can be iniadjustable, thus enabling the thetially found by placing weights on oretical law to be fulfilled, and

E

thedisc and observing the posi-

hon of the latter through the lens L. When this force is known, any PD. can be measured by con- BY PERMISSION OF KELVIN, æcing it to the two plates and BAIRD tuning the micrometer screw till Fic. 30.—KELVIN’S ELECTROMETER he aluminium

BOTTOMLEY

AND

ABSOLUTE

plate is brought

lo register, the formula being V = d Weight A

gravity.

STEW

here W is the 4 ' where

R Ar TA

required to produce register and g is the attraction

The second type of electrometer was developed from the sym-

nétnical electrometer initially devised by T. G. Behrens in 1806 ad modified by J. G. von Bohnenberger. In this type a single

Eok leaf is suspended midway between two vertical metal plates ween Which a dry pile is connected. If then the leaf is charged ~“Move towards the plate of opposite polarity. Fechner and i made further improvements; the latter substituting a batty for the dry pile, and adding adjustments to the plates and a

with increase of sensitiveness. This improvement was of great importance, as it enabled the electrometer to be used as an accurate wattmeter (q.v.)

for use in

PIU

MN

OF

KELVIN,

BOTTOMLEY

AND

alternating current circuits, and FIG. 32.—KELVIN's QUADRANT this application was independ- ELECTROMETER ently suggested in 1881 by Professors Ayrton and G. F. Fitzgerald and by M. A. Patier. The invention of the quartz fibre by Prof. C. V. Boys has enabled quadrant electrometers to be made of much greater sensitiveness, owing to its extremely small and constant control. Among them that of Dr. F. Dolezalek (fig. 33) has been very successful, because of its high sensitiveness and low electrostatic capacity. The needle and quadrants are made of very small size; the latter being supported on short pillars of amber which give very high insulation, while the needle is of paper thinly coated with silver foil so as to have very small inertia and almost critical damping with the very small control of the quartz fibre. The latter

450

INSTRUMENTS

is rendered sufficiently conducting to charge the needle by dipping it in the first place into a solution of some hygroscopic salt, such as calcium chloride, so that its surface is always moist, or better by gilding it. The whole system is enclosed, like a galvanometer, in a brass case, which shields it from draughts and external electrostatic fields and the deflections are obtained by a small concave mirror on the needle, through a window in the case. A torsion

microscope for o-35 volts between the quadrant plates and 1volt on the needle. Electrostatic Voltmeters.—For the measurement of hi P.D.'s especially above a few hundred volts, electrostatic volt. meters are largely used as they have the great advantage of requiring an infinitesimal current and power consumption and of

being equally suitable for direct and alternating P.D.’s, in that they are entirely free from inductive errors. There are two maig types of such voltmeters derived from Lord Kelvin’s quadrant electrometer, and from Snow-Harris’ attracted disc electrometer respectively (g.v.), but the latter are only used for very high

P.D.’s of many thousands of volts. When the electrometer principle was first applied to voltmeters, P.D.'s of only roo or 200 volts were in use, and hi sensitivity was consequently essential. The first practical electro.

static voltmeter was the “multicellular” form devised by Lord

Kelvin in 1867 (fig. 34) and was equivalent to a number ofquad. rant electrometers arranged vertically above one another, their

vanes or "needles" being mounted on a common stem so as to add their torques. Two sets of quadrant plates only were employed in each set, and were opposite one another and connected to.

gether to one pole of the circuit, the vanes being suspended bya

fine wire and connected to the other pole. When the system was at zero, the vane system hung so that it was just about toenter

between the fixed quadrants at two opposite edges. When a P.D. was applied between the vanes and quadrants the former were drawn further and further in against the torsion of the sus-

pension as the P.D. was increased, and the P.D. could be ingi-

BY PERMISSION OF J J. GRIFFIN & SONS FIG. 33,—-DOLEZALEK’S

QUADRANT

ELECTROMETER

head on the top of the suspension can be employed to adjust the zero of the instrument. With a quartz fibre suspension 60 mm. long and o-oog mm. diameter and a potential of 110 volts on the needle, its periodic time was 18 sec. and a deflection of 130 mm. on a scale at 2 metres distance was obtained with a P.D. of o-1 volt between the quadrants. Even greater sensitiveness has recently been secured with this type of instrument by the Cambridge Instrument Co. The latest improvement in the quadrant electrometer has been made by Prof. A. Compton, who has found that by slightly inclining the plane of the needle and giving a vertical adjustment to one of the quadrants, the control can be varied down to zero or even to a negative value. An instrument of this type with a, gilded quartz suspension of 0-002 to o-oos mm. diameter has given from 15 to 140 mm. deflection at a metre with 50 volts on the meedle and only o-or volt between the quadrants, but

cated by a pointer attached to the vertical spindle on a scale as shown. This instrument was very similar to the variable vane condensers now so largely used for broadcasting sets and, in fact, its operation, like that of all electrometers, depends on this variable capacity. The energy stored.in a condenser of capacity C and with a P.D. V between its plates is E=4CV7%, so that the

force between them F= = =4 p? zc. where x is the distance between them; or the torque T= 2

iy? Sr, where @ is the

angle of rotation of the vanes. In the multicellular voltmeter, as

———

the time to’reach a-steady deflection at the higher sensitivity is

about go ged, . , . On the’ other hand the requirements of radio-activity research

has caused Zhe “string electrometer,” based on the original instruments of Bebrens and von Bonenberger, to be developed into instruments of high sensitivity, low capacity and rapid response by the aid of gilded quartz fibres. In a form of string electrometer made by the Cambridge Instrument company, a single quartz fibre of 0-002 or 9-003 mm. diameter suspended symmetrically between two plates with 25 volts between them, will give a deflection of -044 mm. or about 5-5 scale divisions on a microscope for 1 volt on the needle with a critically damped period of under

I second. Prof. Lindenmann has produced a deflectional “quadrant” electrometer having a o-oo4 vertical gilded quartz fibre under slight tension, and two gilded glass fibres 2 cm. long and o-52 mm. diameter cemented transversely and symmetrically upon

it to serve as a needle. The ends of this needle move between four

fixed plates serving as quadrants and the whole system is en-

BY PERMISSION OF KELVIN, BOTTOMLEY AND BAIRD FIG. 34.——KELVIN’S -MULTICELLULAR ‘ELECTROSTATIC

VOLTMETER

closed in'a small sealed metal box with windows above and below, | in the vane condenser, the capacity is nearly proportional to z so that it can be placed on the stage of an ordinary microscope. |area over which the moving ‘and fixed vanes overlap, 1.¢., to 8 Prof. Lindemann’s ' déflectional “quadrant” electrometer is an Beeews is nearly constant. Thus, the torque, and instrument which gives -4 mm. deflection or 136 divisions on the angle 0, so'that — 90

INSTRUMENTS—INSULIN

451

uently the deflection 6, is approximately proportional to | ments; Dictionary of Applied Physics, vol. ti.; Gray, Absolute Measthe square of the P.D. until the moving vanes are drawn nearly urements in Electricity and Electrical Magnetism; Fleming, Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory; Kempe, Handbook of Electrical Testcompletely in, after which the increase of the deflection dimin- ing; Papp, Electrical Engineering Testing ; Hague, A.C. Bridge Methods; shes. Such voltmeters therefore only commence to have a useful | Northrup, Methods of Measuring Electrical Resistance: B.A. Reports | reading at a moderately high fraction of their maximum voltage, | on Electrical Standards; Rayleigh, Electrical Measurements; Jaeger, bat then have a widening scale, closing up again as the maximum | Elecirische Mess-Technik; Oxlich, Kapazitát und Induktivitát; Àrmagjs approached. This is a very suitable scale for supply circuits, nat, Mésures Electriques; Lippmann, Unités Electriques Absolues; less suitable for general measurement.

The multicellular voltmeter came into fairly considerable use

Brückman, Magnetische en Electrische Metingen. Indicating Instruments: Drysdale and Jolley, Electrical Measuring Instruments; Laws (as above) : Edgcumbe, Industrial Electrical Measuring Instruments; Murdoch and Oschwald, Electrical Instruments; Bolton, Electrical Measuring Instruments; Jansky, Electrical Meters. Supply Meters: Gerhardi, Electricity Meters; Solomon, Electrical Meters; Laws (as above); Jansky (as above); Murdoch and Oschwald (as above) ; Kénigswerthe, Elektricitszahler. Laboratory Instruments: Laws (as above); Fleming (as above); Hague (as above) ; Irwin, Oscillographs. (C. V. D)

INSTRUMENTS, MATHEMATICAL: see ABACUS, CALCULATING MACHINES, MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENTS.

INSUBRES, a Celtic people of upper Italy, the most power-

ful in Gallia Transpadana. Livy states that Bellovesus and his Gauls, having crossed the Alps and defeated the Etruscans near the Ticinus, found themselves in the territory of the Insubres

(also the name of a pagus of the Aedui). Here they built a city

FROM GLAZEBROOK, “DICTIONARY OF APPLIED PHYSICS”

(MACMILLAN)

Fig. 35.—ELECTROSTATIC VOLTMETER (‘‘QUARTER CYLINDER” PRINCIPLE) for circuits up to a few hundred volts, but was very slow in indication owing to the large inertia of its vane system. It was damped

by a disc at the bottom of the spindle which turned in a vessel of oil. For higher voltages Lord Kelvin introduced another form having only two fixed vanes in a vertical plane, with a single vane moving system having a pivoted horizontal axis. Ayrton and Mather devised electrostatic voltmeters for both low and high P.D.’s on what they termed the “quarter cylinder” principle. It way perhaps best be described as a quadrant electrometer in which the moving vanes are bent over so as to form portions of cylinders parallel to the axis, and the quadrants are then also portions of cylinders which are arranged concentrically. This construction has the advantage of reducing the moment of inertia and increasing the rigidity of the system for a given capacity, and therefore of increasing the rapidity of reading. Suspended instruments of this type have been made for P.D.’s down to 80 volts and pivoted bwizontal axis switchboard instruments for 3,000 volts or more. These latter instruments are damped by piston air dampers, but Carpentier has adopted the same form, but mounted between the poles of a powerful horseshoe permanent magnet which produces the damping by the eddy currents induced in the moving system.

Extra high voltage voltmeters have been made by the Westingbouse company and others on the same lines, but with the system mmersed in oil which gives a greater dielectric strength against

and called it Mediolanum (Milan), after the name of a village in their home in Gallia Transalpina. The name Insubres thus ap-

pears applied to the inhabitants (1) of the Aeduan pagus, (2) of

the territory in Gallia Transpadana occupied by Bellovesus, (3) to the founders of Mediolanum. From 222 to 195 B.c. the Insubres were frequently at war with the Romans. In 222 B.C. they were defeated at Clastidium by M. Claudius Marcellus, who gained the spolia opima by slaying with his own hand their king Viridomarus, and in 194 B.c. they were finally subdued by L.

Valerius Flaccus. See H. Nissen, Italische Landeskunde, ii. 179 (1902); A. Holder, Altkeltischer Sprachschatz, ii. (1904).

INSULATOR, in electricity, is a non-conducting device, or material, used to separate two electrical conductors.

INSULIN.

Insulin belongs to the group of substances known

as hormones and is secreted into the blood by cells which are situated in or near the pancreas. In the mammalia, in which the pancreas is well defined, the insulin secreting cells lie in scattered groups, called the isles of Langerhans, distributed among the relatively much larger groups, or acini, of pancreatic cells. In certain fishes in which the pancreas does not occur as a definite gland, but is spread out diffusely in the mesentery, ¢.g., in Lophius and Myoxocephalus, the islet cells form compact encapsulated glands called the principal islets which are often of considerable size and

contain no pancreatic (acinar) cells.

Evidence that insulin is present in the pancreas of mammals was originally furnished in 1889 by Mehring and Minkowski. They found that complete extirpation of the gland in dogs immeacing, à greater torque owing to the increase of capacity, and diately caused severe diabetes, and it was not long before the damping by the viscosity of the oil. Compressed nitrogen has hypothesis was formulated that this must be due to the withalso been employed in electrostatic voltmeters for reducing lia- drawal from the body of a hormone having the function of regubility to spark, and the formation of ozone. For very high volt- lating the metabolism of the carbohydrates. The name insulin aes up to hundreds of thousands of volts, the instruments would was suggested (by Sir E. Sharpey Schafer) for this hormone in become very cumbrous owing to the large distances required to the belief that it comes from the islets, and many attempts were avoid flashing over, but the range of the above instruments may made to extract it from the pancreas, but with little success. In be almost indefinitely extended for A.C. measurement by con- 1921, however, Banting and Best, working under the direction of necting a condenser in series with the voltmeter as originally pro- J. J. R. Macleod, found that extracts of partially degenerated posed by Ayrton and Perry. If the capacity of this condenser is pancreas contained the hormone. This method was based on the equal to that of the voltmeter, twice the P.D. will be required for supposition that the powerful digestive ferments of the intact panihe same. deflection, or if it is one-ninth of the voltmeter capacity creas destroy the insulin during the process of extraction and on therequired P.D. will be multiplied tenfold, and so on, so that the knowledge that the cells which secrete these ferments undergo a iastrument normally reading to 5,000-volts can have its range degeneration more rapidly than those of the islets after the panextended to 50,000 yolts or more. This is generally effected by creatic ducts have been tied (Schultz and Ssobolew). This obser‘onnecting one terminal of the voltmeter to a plate or sphere on vation demonstrated that insulin does exist in the pancreas, and % insulating pillar with another plate at an adjustable distance the next step was to devise a method for extracting it in more purixar to i. On the other hand the Snow-Harris attracted disc fied form and in quantity from normal pancreas. Alcohol was dectrometer (q.v.) has been adapted as a high voltage voltmeter found to be a suitable: extractive, in that it dissolved the insulin byLord Kelvin in his Volt balance, and by Jona, Siemens and and at the same time inhibited the action of the digestive ferasce, Grau and others. E ments, and Collip succeeded, in 1922, in sufficiently purifying the “) GRAPERY -—Electrical Measurements: Laws. Electrical Measure- alcoholic extracts, by a process of fractional precipitation, so that

452

INSURANCE

they could be injected subcutaneously in man without causing |excess of insulin causes hypoglycaemia in the normal animal ;

local irritation. Very potent extracts were also prepared from principal islets of fishes. Further purification of the extracts effected by precipitating the insulin, either by adjustment of reaction (isoelectric precipitation) or by means of picric acid

the inot clearly understood. 3 was Since insulin can now be prepared in crystalline form (J J the |Abel and Geyling) and a readily dried, solid, compound canle fol- |formed with hydrochloric acid—insulin hydrochloride—ıt may he lowed by treatment with alcoholic hydrochloric acid (insulin weighed out for medicinal use, but it is more convenient to use t hydrochloride). Extracts capable of lowering the blood sugar in liquid form which keeps well in acid reaction. The strength i have also been prepared from other organs than the pancreas, or actual insulin of the liquid is determined by a biological method principal islets, but it is doubtful if their action is really due to which depends on the lowering of blood sugar in a normal rabbit insulin. Certain guanidin salts also depress the blood sugar. The strength is gauged in units, one unit of insulin being originally The function of insulin is to control those chemical processes of defined as that amount which on subcutaneous injection will lower the body which are concerned in the preparation of the food- the percentage of blood sugar to the convulsive level, 0-045% stuffs for oxidation in the tissues. The material which is immedi- for a period of 5 hours in a fasting rabbit of 2 kg. weight. This ately oxidized to produce this energy is carbohydrate, a supply of original unit was subsequently reduced to one-third. The assay is which is always present, as glycogen, in the muscles where it is now carried out by a comparative method in which the hypoformed out of the sugar of the blood. This sugar comes from the glycaemic effect of the solution to be tested is compared with that liver and is derived either from sugar absorbed from the intestine of a solution containing an accurately weighed amount of insulin and temporarily stored in this organ as glycogen, or when diges- hydrochloride. In order to ensure uniformity in the strength of tion is not going on, from glycogen which has been manufactured insulin manufactured in different countries the Health Committee out of protein and fats (gluconeogenesis). Insulin controls the of the League of Nations has set aside a sufficient quantity of rate of supply of sugar from the liver in proportion to the utiliza- dried insulin hydrochloride of which 1 mg. contains 8 units, Teg. tion of glycogen by the muscles. ing laboratories maintain their own standards, but they can have When insulin is absent from the blood, as after pancreatectomy them checked against the international standard from time to or when the islets are destroyed by disease (diabetes), sugar pro- time. By such international uniformity in strength of insulin the duction occurs in the liver more rapidly than glycogen formation diabetic patient is insured against variable dosage and the risk of so that glycogen disappears from this organ, the blood sugar be- hypoglycaemic symptoms. (J. J. R. MacL.) BrpriocraPHY.—F. Dickins and others, “The Purification and comes very high (hyperglycaemia) and sugar appears in the urine (glycosuria). At a later stage substances known as the ketone Properties of Insulin,” Biochem. Journ. (1927), xxi. s60; N, R. ck and others, “Studies on Insulin,” Journ. Biol. Chem. bodies also appear in the blood and urine (ketonuria), being de- Blatherwi (1927), lxxii., 57 (bibl) ; E. Aubertin, L'insuline (bibl.) (Paris, 1926): rived from the incomplete oxidation, chiefly of fatty acid but League of Nations Health Organization, The Biological Standardis ation partly also of certain of the amino acids. Death ultimately occurs, of Insulin (bibl.) (Geneva, 1926); J. J. R. Macleod, and W. R. either because of starvation caused by the excessive using up of Campbell, Insulin (bibl) (Baltimore, 1925); E. Frank, M. Nothmann A. Wagner, “Heber synthetisch-dargestellte Kérper mit insulinthe available foodstuffs of the body, or because of toxic effects and artiger Wirkung auf den normalen u. diabetischen Organismus," Kix for which the ketone bodies are believed to be largely responsible W och. (1926), V., 2,100. (diabetic coma). Insulin promptly removes all of these symptoms INSURANCE, ARTICLES ON. The following deal with when injected subcutaneously or intravenously, but is inactive insurance in its various branches: ACCIDENT INSURANCE, PERwhen given by mouth, because it is destroyed by the digestive fer- SONAL; AGRICULTURAL INSURANCE; CREDIT, INSOLVENCY or BaD ments (pepsin) of the stomach. The effect passes off in a few Dest INSURANCE; ENGINEERING INSURANCE; Fire INSURANCE: hours, so that the injections must be repeated twice daily. When INDUSTRIAL INSURANCE; INSURANCE: An Introduction; Inthis is done the symptoms of diabetes remain absent apparently SURANCE, MISCELLANEOUS: Burglary, Drivers’ Policies, Fidelity, indefinitely, at least two dogs that were depancreatized for over Guarantee, Plate Glass, Property Owners’ Indemnity, Third Party, four years were still living in Dec. 1927 and in excellent condi- €ic.; INSURANCE, PosT OrrrcE FACILITIES; LIFE INSURANCE: tion as a result of insulin treatment. In diabetes in man, although MARINE INSURANCE; MOTOR VEHICLES INSURANCE; SOLDIERS! the islets are more or less diseased they are never completely INSURANCE; UNEMPLOYMENT INSURANCE. destroyed, so that when treatment with insulin is continued for Separate articles appear under the headings NATIONAL Insursome time the damaged islets may possibly become regenerated. ANCE, HEALTH; NATIONAL INSURANCE, WIDOWS’ AND ORPHANS’. One of the most significant effects of insulin when given to diaA cognate matter of great importance is the subject of pensions, betic animals is that it immediately causes glycogen to be again which will be found under the following headings: INVALIDITY deposited in the liver and a change occurs in the respiratory PENSIONS; OLD AcE PENSIONS; PENSIONS, CIVIL SERVICE ANÐ metabolism. In a normal animal fed on carbohydrates the ratio MUNICIPAL; PENSIONS, NAVY, ARMY AND AIR FORCE; PENSIONS, between the oxygen absorbed and the carbon dioxide expired, the PERPETUAL; PENSIONS, POLITICAL; PENSIONS, IN THE UNITED so-called respiratory quotient, is near to unity, whereas in complete STATES; SUPERANNUATION; WAR PENSIONS. diabetes it never rises above o-7. When insulin is given the diaA special article on ANNUITY is very important as bearing not betic, the quotient behaves as in the normal animal Insulin only upon insurance schemes, but upon house purchase, hire therefore has three fundamental effects in diabetes, it restrains purchase, etc. Finally, ExPECTATION OF LIFE; GUARANTEE; LE the excessive gluconeogenesis, it stimulates glycogen formation and TABLES; RE-INSURANCE; TrruLE GUARANTEE COMPANIES and it raises the respiratory quotient. When insulin is injected into WoRKMEN's COMPENSATION are the subjects of special articles normal animals the blaod sugar, which usually stands at about under those headings. 0-105406, rapidly diminishes and when it reaches a level at between INSURANCE, INTRODUCTION TO. Insurance is the 0-040 and 0.050% curious symptoms supervene. In most labora- practical device by which civilized man protects himself against tory animals these hypoglycaemic symptoms consist at first of the contingencies of fe. He has for centuries the regunervous hyperexcitability leading to convulsions, and later of larity with which the law of average operates realized when great numcoma and fall of temperature. That the symptoms are related to bers are involved and has employed his knowledge to provide by the disappearance of free glucose from the blood is indicated by insurance against the hazards to which the products of his entetthe fact that they are promptly removed by restoring glucose to prise and his industry are at all times subject. The principle of the blood, either by giving sugar by mouth or by injecting solutions Insurance was admirably stated by a select committee of the of glucose subcutaneously or intravenously. Glucose is conspicu- House of Commons who, in reporting (in 1825) on the laws re ously more efficient as an antidote than any other sugar, even lating to friendly societies, said: “Whenever there is a cot than mannose and laevulose which are so closely related to it tmgency, the cheapest way of providing against it is by uniting chemically. The substitution of one hydrogen atom in the glucose with others, so that each man may subject himself to a smal

molecule by some other radicle such as a methyl (CH;) group,

deprivation, in order that no man may be subjected to a great robs it entirely of its antidoting powers. The mechanism by which | loss. He, upon whom the contingency does not fall, does not get

INSURANCE

453

hismoney back again, nor does he get for it any visible or tangi- ; tingencies. While this convenient distinction has found much ble benefit; but he obtains security against ruin and consequent favour, it has been challenged in other quarters and is not e of mind. He, upon whom the contingency does fall, gets universally adopted. In the United States the term “insurance” all that those, whom fortune has exempted from it, have lost in is generally used. hard money, and is thus enabled to sustain an event which would Historical References.— Marine risks were the subject of the ise overwhelm him.” It does not detract from the general earliest form of insurances. Setting aside the attractive but detruth of this pronouncement that a certain part of the premiums batable proposition that insurance was recognizable as an element ‘4 for insurance is absorbed in the expenses necessarily atten- in the maritime commerce of antiquity, there is ample evidence

|

dant on the conduct of the business, nor is it a demerit of the that insurance, since it produces nothing, adds nothing to

thewealth of the world. It may, indeed, be claimed to its credit, in this connection, that in practice, with the assessment

and

modification of premiums with reference to the risks incurred, the system tends, by encouraging the adoption of preventive measures

of its use in the middle ages. A “Chamber of Insurance” established in London under a patent granted by Queen Elizabeth in 1574, the object of which was to register all contracts of insurance negotiated and to record their terms for reference in case of dispute, was a comparatively late-comer, similar bodies having

been founded in Barcelona (probably in the 13th century) and in

of various kinds, to diminish that waste and loss the fear of Bruges (1310). The first English statute on “assurance” appeared which has called it into existence. Due weight being given to the in 1601 and dealt with marine risks. The earliest known life penefits of insurance, both direct and indirect, it must be con- policy, which followed strictly the form of marine insurance, was chided that its cost to the community, as represented by the effected in 1583.

maintenance of the great number of persons whose energies it Scope of Insurance.—Insurance was limited, until recent absorbs, and by the profits of those who risk their capital in pro- times, to life, marine and fire risks. Modern developments have viding it, is far outweighed by the value of the service which it added other subjects; e.g., the risk of personal accident, sickness, renders. This, indeed, is as true of insurance on human life, at employers' liability, buxglary, motoring, aviation and loss of liveany rate in its more substantial forms, as it is of insurance against stock. Insurance under some of these headings includes the wide the risk of loss of material things; e.g., by fire or marine disaster. range of risks involving liability to civil action in respect of loss So far as concerns the trading profits of insurance, which con- of life or damage to property. stitute a comparatively minor element in its cost, Great Britain While commercial insurance of every class expands continuis specially favoured in that the pioneering enterprise of the ously, in correspondence with the growth of population and with British insurance companies, and the high reputation which they the enlargement of human necessities and desires, the develophave long enjoyed, have attracted to’ them a substantial share in ments of life insurance recently are of special interest. So far the world’s insurance business. The profits on this business can- as Great Britain is concerned the growth of the business under pot readily be computed, but are generally accepted as making a "ordinary" policies, providing substantial sums for premiums useful contribution to the “invisible surplus” by which the balance payable annually, half-yearly or quarterly, has somewhat more of international trade is maintained. than kept pace with the increase of population and the change

The special position of marine insurance in regard to the com- in the value of money. In North America this class of insurance mercial prosperity of Great Britain is vividly indicated by Sir has advanced remarkably, while in various European States the Norman Hill in his contribution to War and Insurance, one of the business has exhibited considerable recuperative power in face series of works on the economic and social history of the World of the difficulties created by the depreciation or collapse of curWar published on behalf of the Carnegie Endowment for Interrencies. Industrial life assurance has made great progress on national Peace. Here he sets out shortly the mechanism of the both sides of the Atlantic; the number of policies of this type in method by which the nation is, in great measure, fed and clothed force in Great Britain and Ireland at the end of 1926 was about by supplies from overseas. “By far the greater proportion of the 72 millions, an average of nearly two policies for every member of cargoes at any time afloat belong not to the producers, the merchants, or the consumers but to the financial interests who have the industrial population. The number of such policies in the discounted bills of exchange representing the purchase price of the United States at the end of 1926 is also reported to have been goods, and who hold as their security the bills of lading and poli- 72 millions, while nearly four million policies were in force in des of marine insurance. . . . The security against all trading Canada. Industrial assurance is also practised widely in Australia. risks is ample because the advance is repaid out of the selling The latest development of life insurance for industrial workers pice of the goods on the completion of the voyage, or if the originated in the United States under the title of “Group insurgoods be lost, out of the insurance money. Moreover the bills of ance,” and has lately reached the British Isles. It is stated that exchange against which the advances are made afford the most some six millions of American work-people are interested in inconvenient means for the adjustment of international exchange surances under this plan, by which the employer effects a year-toand they therefore pass freely from hand to hand and from year insurance on the life of each person in his employment country to country in the process of these adjustments. In fact, through the medium of a single policy covering his whole staff. miemational finance is in very great measure based on the secur- In certain cases the benefits of the plan have been extended, with ty afforded by the bill of exchange drawn against goods in tran- the aid of contributions from the assenting employees, to cover st, and it is to that extent dependent on the security of not only sickness and accident and to provide pensions on retirement. thebill of lading for the goods, but also on adequate insurance There is, perhaps, less scope for such extensions in Great Britain, against the risks incident to the transit.” On a closely related where the ground is largely covered by friendly societies, by point it may be said that marine insurance has supplied the model‘ State insurance, and, in growing measure, by superannuation or for a system of foreign credit insurance which has recently been pension funds connected with particular establishments. established at the instance of the Overseas Trade department to Interesting developments in other directions exemplify the simulate the export trade of the United Kingdom. methods by which British insurance is adapted to the requireInsurance or Assyrance—The terms insurance and assur- ments of the ordinary citizen. For example, the occupier who owns ce are employed somewhat indiscriminately to indicate “the his dwelling, a rapidly increasing class in present conditions, is action of insuring or securing the value of property in the event able through his building society, or other medium by which his ofits being lost, or of securing the payment of a specified sum purchase has been financed, to couple with his mortgage a policy B the event of a person's death." This quotation is from the of a special type whereby the remaining burden of his debt is Orford English dictionary. Babbage proposed, so long ago as lifted from the shoulders of his family in the event of his death

1826, that the word assurance should be reserved for contracts 8to life, on the ground, in effect, that in this case the event

' Which the policy depends is a certainty, and that insurance

before his instalments have been completed. Worthy of mention also is the type of policy—under various names—by which the householder may, by a single contract, insure his personal belong-

weld more appropriately be applied tọ contracts relating to con- ings against such diverse misadventures as fire, gas or boiler explo-

454

INSURANCE

sion, burglary, etc., and may cover his risks as an employer in where voluntary agencies had failed, and brought under a meas. respect of his domestic staff. Generally, it may be said that while ure of protection, moreover, all who from advancing years the business of the majority of insurance companies is conducted inferior bealth were ineligible for membership of a fri " on fairly conventional lines there is practically no type of con- society Again, by the scheme for pensions at 65 the State Was tingency for which insurance protection cannot be obtained from able to enforce protective measures in regard to which Drivate effort, though exercised untiringly over many years, had failed... adventurous underwriters at Lloyd’s or elsewhere. State Insutance.—Insurance has taken a prominent place in and that conspicuously—to persuade. the modern conceptions of the functions of the State. The comUnemployment insurance as a possible subject of State action pulsory protection of the worker against the contingencies by presented similar features. Available to many of those engaged in which his livelihood was most obviously beset originated in Ger- the highly skilled and well organized trades, it made little more many where in the years 1884-86 compulsory schemes of insur- than an exceptional appearance in the constitution of the newer ance against sickness and accident (including medical treatment)

for substantially the whole of the wage-earning community were brought into operation. These were supplemented later by schemes relating to invalidity and old age. That these measures took deep root and met the requirements of the people is sufficiently indicated by the fact that they survived the shock of the loss of reserves on the collapse of the mark in 1923. Austria followed the German empire in the adoption of compulsory State insurance and in I91I it was introduced into Great Britain and Ireland by the National Insurance Act. Although a modest and experimental scheme of unemployment insurance was incorporated in this act, its principal subjects were sickness and disablement (including, with these, the provision of medical treatment and medicine), and over i5 million workers, of whom nearly one-third were women, were brought within its scope. An enlarged scheme of unemployment insurance, applying to about ir million wageearners was introduced in 1920, and in 1925 provision was made for pensions and allowances to widows and orphans and for pensions to the insured and their wives on the attainment of the age of 65. A corresponding Act was passed in the same year by the Parliament of Northern Ireland. The scope of this latest scheme is slightly wider than that of the health insurance measure, and

trades unions which cater largely for the unskilled classes. whi to the millions of unorganized workers it was wholly unattain. able.

When it is added that where it was practised its finance

rested generally on the basis of a single craft, with all the ey.

tremes of risk that this implies, it will be realized that the time was ripe for comprehensive action such as the State could certainly take and no other agency had offered to initiate. Widows’ Pensions.—But it is, perhaps, in respect of widows

pensions that compulsion has been of chief value. “Advere selection” is an element against which insurance on a voluntary basis has constantly to contend, and where the subject is such as pensions to widows and temporary

allowances to dependent

children this element would operate on a voluntary scheme, de-

pendent on its own resources, with quite paralysing effect. Few

with the exception of the married would insure; few, if any,

of the insured would keep their policies up when, with the lapse of years, the need of them seemed to disappear. In the re sult the cost of insurance would be altogether prohibitive. The State, by compulsion applied from early youth to the whole of the wage-earning population, could obviously secure (with or without a subsidy) what private effort dared not attempt. The need for such a scheme, no less than its usefulness in practice, is attested by the fact that in the earliest months of the scheme it relieved the boards of guardians in England and Wales of expenditure at the rate of nearly £2,000,000 a year. This indeed is the lesser relief; the greater is the removal from the ranks of pauperism of scores, if not hundreds, of thousands of fatherless children,

while the number of persons who are insured under the scheme in the United Kingdom approaches 17 millions, the number of persons who are interested as actual or potential beneficiaries is about 314 millions. Taking the whole of the schemes together, and bearing in mind the provision made by the Workmen’s Compensation Act, Personnel and Statistics.—The professional interests of the which is also, in general, safeguarded by insurance (in this case insurance official and the technical education of the junior grades at the cost of the employer alone), it may be said that the indus- are served by many organizations of which three British bodies trial workers of Great Britain and Northern Ireland are more fully may be singled out, both on the ground of seniority and as enjoyprotected by the action of the State in respect of the more serious ing the dignity of incorporation under Royal Charter. These are contingencies of life than those of any other country. Develop- the Institute of Actuaries, the Faculty of Actuaries in Scotland ments, however, still, proceed elsewhere. The General Confer- and the Chartered Insurance Institute. The number of those enence of the International Labour Organization of the League of gaged, in all grades, in the practice of insurance at the last census Nations (roth Session, 1927} has proposed that the member of Great Britain is given as 133,000, of whom one-third were States should be invited to subscribe to conventions relating to women. Those employees whose remuneration is not more than sickness insurance for workers in (1) industry and commerce and £250 a year are insurable under the Unemployment Insurance domestic service and (2) agriculture, and it is understood that the Acts, and in 1927 this class included 86,000 persons. consideration of other risks is to follow. Save, therefore, in The statutory returns of the British insurance companies and North America, where differences of economic conditions are re- societies (which do not include the underwriters at Lloyd's) show sponsible, at present, for differences of outlook, compulsory State that in the latest year of account (generally 1926) for which figinsurance, in relation to a comprehensive range of subjects, seems ures are available the total amount received in premiums for likely to spread to the whole of the civilized world. business of all kinds was £242,000,000. Of this total £134,000,000 Where State insurance invades a field of effort such as that of were attributable to insurance contracts other than life, and it is the British friendly societies, a measure of controversy is, of probable that a very substantial part represented business overcourse, inevitable. Certain distinctive merits must, however, be -seas. Claims reached a total of £137,000,000, and reserves of all conceded to compulsory national schemes, even by those who are kinds, of which the funds accumulated under life assurance conmost reluctant to concur in the new activities of the State. Look- tracts represented about four-fifths, exceeded the massive aggreing at the matter as it concerns this country it cannot be denied, gate of £1,000,000,000. (A. W. W.) on.the one hand, that the thousands of registered friendly sociINSURANCE: MISCELLANEOUS. Under this head are eties made, and continue to make, a substantial provision against considered various types of insurance which are not dealt with sickness and other contingencies in the case of perhaps four mil- under separate heads (see INSURANCE ARTICLES). lions of those who come within the national scheme; it has also to Burglary: Private Dwellings—Policies are issued to cover be recognized that apart from these bodies, whose operations are the risks of house-breaking and larceny, although larceny Is €ton a; permanent and fairly stable basis, sickness insurance, though cluded if plural tenancy exists or, in the case of a flat, if it on a lower grade of quality, was very widely practised through not self contained. Premiums are based on the full value ofthe unregistered bodies. But, on the other hand, there remained sev- total contents, an excess premium being charged if valuables, bln eral millions of wage-earners; women especially, whom existing gold and silver articles, jewellery and furs, exceed one-third agencies had failed, to reach, or at any rate to attract. National in- the whole. Damage to the building caused by burglars, for which surance, enforced by public authority, succeeded at the point the insured is responsible, is included in the normal policy.

INSURANCE Business Premises.—The cover is more restricted, the larceny risk always being excluded, whilst frequently only theft following «actual violent and forcible entry to the premises" is insured. The rates Vary with the nature of the stock to be insured and the

of protection employed. Insurances are generally effected

for the full value of the stock at risk and the condition of average

(similar to that used in fire business) is freely used. Cash Insurances.—Cash may be insured whilst in transit in

the custody of an employee of the insured (including the integrity risk) and thereafter whilst contained in an approved safe or strongroom until paid away. The premium is calculated on the estimated carryings, subject to adjustment at the end of the ‘ad of insurance. The limit of liability for any one occurrence is the maximum amount stated by the insured to be carried at

any one time. Cash is also insured whilst deposited in an approved securely locked safe, but loss following the use of the key, unless obtained by threat or violence, is excluded.

“All Risks" Insurances.—Such

cover is frequently sought

inrespect of jewellery, furs, works of art and other items of value, and insurances may include or exclude the fire risk. The cover ig usually comprehensive and excludes only losses due to deteriora-

tion, vermin, war and kindred risks. The sum set against each iem in the policy is generally agreed to- be its value as between

insurer and insured when the policy is effected and represents the insurers’ liability in the event of total loss. Fidelity Guarantee.—Commercial guarantees are sought for most responsible officials handling money and are provided by insurers after satisfactory enquiries have been made as regards the antecedents of the applicant. The employer’s statement to ihe insurers forms the basis of the contract and discloses the system of check used, which must not be altered without the consent of the insurers. Policies are issued either for individuals or a collective guarantee may be given for an entire staff. In the latter

event each employee is mentioned by name and the sum guaranteed on his behalf is stated.

455

Hail Insurance.—Hail Insurance is carried mostly to protect

growing crops, policies being written for the principal ones. The coverage is limited to a given maximum amount per acre for each type of crop, and the rates vary with the crop and the territory. In general the liability of the Insurance Company applies only after the crop is in a healthy growing condition.

Earthquake Insurance.—Policies for earthquake insurance

protect from all direct loss or damage from earthquake or volcanic eruptions and removal from premises endangered by them. A 10% exemption clause and a 70% coinsurance clause are customary. The policies do not assume liability for fire, wind or tidal waves or loss due to neglect of the insured to diligently protect his property. Tourist Baggage Insurance.—Personal effects can be insured

while in transit within defined geographical limits. Usually the protection covers fire, lightning, cyclone, flood, navigation and transportation risks and theft provided the insured promptly notify the local police authorities. Some policies omit theft or limit the liability to a stipulated per cent of the amount of the policy on furs, musical instruments, jewelry, plate, clothes and watches. The amount of premium is dependent on the size of the policy and the length of time it has to run. Explosion Insurance.—These policies are designed to cover loss or damage from all explosions except those originating within steam. boilers, pipes, flywheels, engines and machinery, as these are covered by Engineering Insurance policies (q.v.). Use and Occupancy Insurance.—Use and occupancy insurance is also known as business interruption indemnity insurance. It is needed particularly by manufacturers of advertised and popular goods, merchants, hotels, laundries, theatres, warehouse and public utilities. The policies protect against losses resulting from interruption or suspension of business that follow a fire or some other calamity. Partial payments are provided for partial interruption of business and it is considered advisable for full protection to be insured for an amount equal to one year's estimated net profit and fixed expenses. Shorter terms are available and are often used on similar policies to protect from loss of rent resulting from the same causes.

Plate Glass Insurance.—Essentially an insurance against breakage, the risk of fire is excluded from the plate glass policy. Only glass specified in the policy is insured, and wooden framework and lettering, the latter, unless specially insured, is not For Aviation Insurance: See AERIAL Law; Damage to Machincovered. Premiums are calculated according to the superficial ery Insurance: See ENGINEERING INSURANCE; Drivers’ Policies: area and type of the glass to be insured. Stained and other valu- See MOTOR VEHICLE INSURANCE; Lightning Insurance: See FIRE ableglass, lettering and painting are rated on a percentage of value. INSURANCE; Riot and Civil Commotion Insurance: See RIOT AND Thitd-party Insurance.—Indemnities in respect of the legal CIVIL COMMOTION INSURANCE; Soldiers’ Insurance: See PEnlability of individuals or corporations to pay compensation to SIONS IN THE UNITED STATES; Tornado Insurance: See TORNADO third parties for personal injuries or damage to their property INSURANCE. caused by negligence on the part of an employer or his employees, æ due to defects in the ways, works, machinery or plant used in the employer’s business, are almost universally sought. Policies are issued to cover the insured’s entire legal liability, excluding, bowever, liability to a member of his family or to a person in his service, or liability assumed under contract. Within the limits ef indemnity selected the insured is relieved of all monetary responsibility, including law costs incurred in defending claims,

frandulent or otherwise. All claims negotiations are conducted

INSURANCE: POST OFFICE FACILITIES. The grant

of Government life insurances in Great Britain through the agency of the Post Office was inaugurated by the Government Annuities

Act, 1864. The avowed object of the scheme was to provide facilities for members of the working classes to insure their lives for moderate sums with the advantages of Government security. The Act empowered the National Debt Commissioners to make ordinary life Insurance contracts with any person between the ages of 16 and 60, but not for a greater sum than £100 or for less than £20, and authorized the Postmaster General to direct his officers to

by the insurers who may if they wish relieve themselves of all futher liability at any time by paying to the insured the mazi- receive premiums and pay claims on behalf of the National Debt mum sum for which they are liable in respect of any one acci-

dnt. The limit of indemnity for any one accident mentioned

I the policy is defined as meaning “‘any one accident or series of accidents arising out of one event." Policies suitably modified are

issued to almost every trade and may be obtained to cover most contingencies likely to affect third parties.

Commissioners. The rates of premium were to be calculated on the basis of 3% interest, and In such a manner as to form a fund adequate to meet all claims without entailing any charge, whether for claims or expenses, on the Consolidated Fund. From the outset the amount of business transacted under the scheme was much smaller than had been anticipated, and in 1882

Property Owners’ Indemnity.—Such policies cover the lia- a Select Committee of the House of Commons was appointed to bility of the insured to pay compensation for personal injuries to enquire into its operation. An amended scheme on the lines of the anddamage to the property of third parties caused by defects in committee’s recommendations was prepared, and received statubuildings. Claims are commonly due to falling slates, tiles and tory sanction in the Government Annuities Act, 1882. Revised copings, whilst poorer class properties are subject to falling ceil- rates of premium were introduced and new forms of policies were ings, defective railings and staircases, and many other causes. made available, but the most important alteration was the linking insurances are similar in operation and conditions to third-

arty policies, and may be extended to include liability which

4

up of the insurance system with the Post Office Savings Bank. The scheme still failed to achieve the success that had been

may be incurred in connection with defective stop-cocks and hoped for, and in 1892 it became the subject of an investigation cctive sanitary arrangements.

» s

4

EO

h

`

(A. G. M. B.)

by a departmental committee. The principal result was the adop-

456

INTAGLIO—INTELLECTUAL

CO-OPERATION

tion of reduced rates of premiums. The new tables were introThe country in which Post Office insurance has attained its duced in 1896, and together with the regulations governing the highest development is Japan, where the undertaking is in effect conduct of the business, which were made at the same time, re- a national industrial insurance scheme. It is a government m main in force to-day (1928). The revised scheme was no more oly, but it is not compulsory. Postmen act as canvassers and colsuccessful than its predecessors, and another departmental com- lectors of premiums. The maximum sum assurable is 450 yen and mittee was set up in 1907. Their report, published in 1908, con- the minimum 20 yen. The premiums are payable monthly either tained a number of recommendations for increasing the usefulness to a post office collector, or at a post office, or by transfer from a and popularity of the system, but no action was taken until Jan. savings account. It was inaugurated in 1916, and within 11 years 1914, when the stamp premium system was instituted. the number of policies in force was over 10 millions and the sums Under this scheme the premiums are payable by means of ordi- assured amount to about £130 millions. Surpluses have accrued nary postage stamps to be affixed weekly by the insured person in which are being returned to the assured partly in the form of re. a premium book. At the end of each 13 weeks the stamped page funds to the policy-holders and partly in establishing and maincontaining the premiums for the quarter is withdrawn on presenta- taining health and welfare services. (P. G. B.) tion of the book at a post office. The scheme is available for perINTAGLIO, a term applied to any recessed carving, in which sons of either sex between the ages of 14 and 5o. no part projects beyond the original face of the material In The tables show the amounts which are insured at death by the some cases, as in gem cutting, the entire relief is reversed. In payment until age 60 of premiums varying from 2d. to 1s. per others, as in some Egyptian wall carvings, the outline is suff. week, and therefore invite comparison with those of industrial in- ciently incised so as to allow normal relief. This type is somesurance companies which show the sums assured by weekly prem- times known as cavo rilievo or sunk relief. iums of one penny or multiples thereof payable throughout life. INTEGER: see NUMBERS. Owing to the sborter period over which premiums are payable, INTEGRAL CALCULUS: see Catcutvs. the sums assured under the Post Office scheme, particularly for INTEGRATION, a physiological term, designating the the smallest premiums which are the most heavily loaded for ex- various processes by which the multifarious activities and func. penses, are generally less than those quoted by the companies, and tions of the organism are knit together to produce a unified it is not improbable that many prospective insurants obtain the individual. The nervous system (g.v.) is by far the most im. impression that the terms offered by the Post Office are less gener- portant integrative mechanism. By nerve impulses, organs or ous than they are in reality. tissues in one part of the organism are able to exert a co-operative Under the ordinary scheme of premiums payable by transfer influence on other distant bodily parts. The nerve impulses, in from the insurant's savings bank account the lives of persons of turn, are themselves integrated into harmoniously functioning either sex between 14 and 65 years of age may be insured for any patterns by action of their common synapses in the central amount from £5 up to £100, the lives of children between 8 and nervous system. Hormones (g.v. and see also ENDOCRINOLOGY) 14 years of age may be insured for £5, but children under 8 years are also very important in correlating bodily activities. For

of age are not insured. If the amount of the insurance purchased is less than £roo further insurance may be purchased from time to time until the total sum assured is £roo. Insurances not exceeding £25 can be effected with or without medical examination. Meagre Results.—The extent to which advantage has been taken of the Post Office facilities for insurance is indicated by the following table :— Year ending Dec. 31

No. of policies issued

Amount insured

£

IQII 1916 192I 1927

The total number of contracts in force at the end of 1927 was 10,171, representing sums assured amounting to £511,552. These meagre results were in marked contrast with the success

which since the inception of the scheme has attended the grant of immediate life annuities by the government, both through the National Debt office and through the savings banks. A substantial

portion of the total amount of the life annuity business of the United Kingdom

has invariably been transacted by the gov-

ernment.

In 1919 a departmental committee was appointed to enquire into the business carried on by Industrial Insurance Companies and Collecting Societies. The committee presented a unanimous report (1920) in which the Post Office system was criticized. Notwithstanding this criticism the scheme remained substantially unaltered.

I

The Select Committee on Estimates in a report presented to the House of Commons in July 1928, recommended that the Post Office life insurance business should be discontinued. Subsequently the National Debt Commissioners announced that after December 31 of that year, no further policies would be issued because the volume of business transacted was infinitesimal when compared with that of the big companies, also the energies of the Post Office officials could be more usefully employed in other services. This ruling was put into force in the beginning of 1929.

integration in mathematics see QUADRATURE.

INTEGUMENT,

the cell membrane enveloping the proto-

plasts of plants. It is composed of cellulose together with a nymber of other substances known as pectic compounds. In biology the term also implies the skin or external covering of an animal. See PLANTS.

INTELLECT, the general term for the mind in reference

to its capacity for understanding (Lat. intellectus, from intelligere, to understand). See INTELLIGENCE; INTELLECTUALISM. INTELLECTUAL CO-OPERATION, INTERNA-

TIONAL INSTITUTE OF, In Sept. 192: the League of Na-

tions, on the proposal of M. Léon Bourgeois, added to its existing technical committees an International Committee on Intellectual Co-operation, made up of distinguished scholars chosen first from 12, afterwards from r4 different countries. Its membership included, among others, Mme.. Curie, Prof. Einstein, Prof. Gilbert Murray, M. Jules Destrée and Dr. Millikan. M. Henri Bergson was elected its first chairman. Prof. Gilbert Murray became chairman in July 1928.

The task assigned the committee was that of studying the better

organization, through united international effort, of literary, artistic and scientific work. The committee soon became convinced that if it were fully to accomplish its task it must have a permanent administrative organ to prepare its programme and carry out

its plans. In 1924 the French Government offered to defray for the League the expenses of such an organ, asking only in retum

that Paris beits seat. The League accepted the offer; and inNov. 1925 the International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation opened its offices in Paris, at the Palais Royal.

The Institute is divided into specialized sections which are as follows: University Relations.—This section organizes annual meelings of the directors of national university offices and of repre-

sentatives of international students’ organizations. It acts as a0

international university information office and as a link between institutions of higher education in all parts of the world. It organizes vacation courses and other facilities for foreign students; provides for equivalence of degrees, exchange of university professors, national institutes abroad and institutes of foreign studies, and international co-ordination of courses in political science an

INTELLECTUALISM—INTELLIGENCE ional affairs. wine sections for Scientific Relations. —A. Science;

B.

Humanities. These sections deal with specific problems of interational scientific organization, such as the co-ordination of librapes, scientific bibliographies, reference books of scientific person-

alities, etc. Steps are being taken to organize an international

457

that is to say, it is applied to any of the numerous processes by |which knowledge is built up. Sometimes it is restricted to the |conceptual processes, as distinct from processes of senseperception. And sometimes it is used in the still more restricted sense of the process or function of apprehending relations, or even special kinds of relation. In view of the extensive use of

ial service for libraries attached to the institute. It keeps in so-called “intelligence tests’ (g.v.) for all sorts of practical

wach with the important scientific institutions and learned bodies,

and aids them to co-ordinate their efforts. It follows closely the activities of international scientific congresses, and publishes their

resolutions and other relevant information about their meetings.

Legal.—This service is chiefly engaged on problems concerning axellectual rights (copyright and scientific property} and, more-

wer, the legal status of international associations not formed for t, and in liaison with the International Labour Office the ecogomic position of intellectual workers is being examined.

purposes, it would seem to be a matter of some urgency to determine as precisely as possible what is meant by intelligence. But that is not the view of many of the investigators in this branch of applied psychology. Some of them frankly admit that they do not know and do not care what this “intelligence” may

be which they are measuring, so long as these measurements can be made use of. Others regard it as denoting the average mental ability of an individual in so far as this can be determined by a series of sample tests. Yet others identify it with some “general”

Literary Relations.—This section is specially interested in ability which the individual possesses, besides certain “special”

the question of translation and of authors’ rights, and is actively

engaged in preparations for establishing an international office

of translation. Artistic Relations.—This section studies the organization, from an international point of view, of the different aspects of artistic activity. It has established an International Museums’ Office which organized the successive exhibitions of engravings from national chalcographies, which was held in different European capitals in 1927, and prepared the first International Con-

gress of Popular Arts held in 1928, in Prague.

Information Section.—This section deals with problems concerning the circulation of books, gives communications

to the

press and to the public, collects intellectual statistics, publishes an annual list of notable books (since 1924) and, from Jan. 1929, s review L’ Information Intellectuelle. Year-Books.—A plan has been drawn up to edit a series of specialized year-books, beginning with an international Who's Who The Institute has extended hospitality in the Palais Royal to various important international associations which are working in dose co-operation in the same field of activity, and has offered its reception-rooms and assistance to several large international conThis organ of the League of Nations is strictly international in character. Its officials belong to about 20 different nations: the director is French, the deputy-director English, the head of the section for University Relations German, that of the Scientific Relations section Dutch, that of the Legal section French, that of the Literary Relations section Swiss and of the Artistic Relations Belgian, while an Italian is head of the Information section. The Institute does not take the initiative, but attempts to encourage, co-ordinate and assist the countless but diffuse intel-

ketual efforts in each country and to improve the conditions of intellectual work. It aspires to be the rallying-point for intellec-

tuals all over the world who can meet and discuss problems of

common interest. (J. L.) INTELLECTUALISM, a term applied, sometimes in a de-

wgatory sense, to the tendency to emphasize or over-emphasize

the importance of thought at the expense of feeling or volition, or even of sensation and intuition.

In moral philosophy intellec-

tualism tends to identify virtue with knowledge, evil with ignotance. In the theory of knowledge intellectualism or rationalism attaches more importance to thought than to sensation or intui-

hen. In ontology it conceives the ultimate nature of reality to

besome kind of intelligence, or at least regards the universe as mtelligible through and through.

In psychology it treats cogni-

üm as the primary mental function, as more fundamental than

feeling or volition. In aesthetics it stresses the importance of the

“as expressed in, or suggested by, the object of aesthetic appre“ation. In the sphere of religton intellectualism tends to attach “preme importance to theological doctrine or to religious

phy rather than to religious sentiment or intuition.

INTELLIGENCE or UNDERSTANDING

is a term

or “specific” abilities (see Apmis), and correlate the former with the general stock of “mental energy," and the latter with various “engines,” into which this mental energy may be directed alternatively—whatever these physical metaphors may mean. Others again identify intelligence with the apprehension of relations of all kinds, or only with the function of apprehending connections. Lastly, ordinary everyday usage perhaps tends, on the whole, to emphasize the practical character of intelligence as consisting in the ability to employ the right means in order to achieve the various ends pursued. The view put forward by the present writer is that the terms “intelligence” and “understanding” should be restricted to the mental function of apprehending connections. Such a conception, it is here maintained, is not only most in accord with ordinary usage, but also helps to explain most of the other uses of these terms. In order to make these points clear, it is necessary, first of all, to explain what is meant by connections. This term is used in the sense of causal and rational (or logical) relations, or relations of causal and rational (or logical) interdependence. All connections are relations, but not all relations are connections. Such simple relationships between things as, e.g., their similarity or difference are not connections, although they may afford some sort of evidence concerning their connections. Similarly, relations in space and in time are not connections, though these likewise may furnish evidence concerning their connections. The apprehension of these simpler relations seems to call for no other mental functions than those required for ordinary sense-perception. The same processes which render possible, say, the perception of two patches of colour, also render possible our apprehension of their similarity or difference, of their local contiguity or distance, and of their simultaneity or succession. On the other hand, connections cannot as a rule be perceived, but must be conceived. That will explain why most psychologists restrict "intelligence" and "understanding" to conceptual processes. An example or two of our use of these terms will help to elucidate the view here maintained, and will also show its agreement with ordinary usage. By looking at the several parts of a puzzle, or of a lock, one can see their similarities and differences, and their spatial relations, also certain time relations it may be. Everybody with normal sight can perceive that much. But not everybody can grasp, or grasp equally quickly or thoroughly, the connections between the various parts of the lock or the puzzle. And ordinary usage would associate the term “intelligence” or “understanding” with an insight into these connections, not with the mere perception of the parts as separate items, or even with the perceptions of relations of similarity or difference, of space and time. Similarly, one would not say that anyone understands a proposition in geometry when he has merely learned it by heart, or has just ascertained by measurement that certain properties co-exist in a geometrical figure of a certain kind, but does not apprehend the connection between them. Nor again would anybody be said to understand an historical period or a geographical area if he had merely committed to

is still used by psychologists with considerable latitude of memory a string of facts without any insight into the causes waning. Sometimes it is used as a synonym of “cognition,” which produced them. This conception of intelligence will explain +

458 also

INTELLIGENCE the common

association

of the term

with the practical

application of the right means to achieve one’s ends. For it is only when one has an idea of the connections between things, that one knows what methods will produce what results. Similarly with "learning from experience," which is frequently regarded as a test of intelligence. It is only when experience has taught one the connections between things that he has really learned from it; and it is only such learning through insight into connections that is the work of intelligence—the mere formation of habits, even the acquisition of skill through mere repetition need have nothing to do with intelligence. The apprehension of connections is a distinctive conceptual activity marked by greater spontaneity and originality than are other kinds of cognitive processes, such as sensibility, retention, and even imagination. But it depends upon all these functions for the supply of its raw materials. Similarly, though the apprehension of connections is different from, and superior to, the apprehension of other relations, yet it is usually out of the perception of these other relations (of similarity and difference, of space and time) that there emerges the apprehension of connections. The transition may be illustrated, at the lower level of intelligence, from one of W. Kóhler's experiments with a chimpanzee called Sultan (see The Mentality of Apes, Eng. trans. p. 8 seg.). A long string was tied to the handle of a small open basket containing bananas, and pulled through a ring in the wire roof of the animal’s playground so that the basket was suspended about 2 metres above the ground; the free end of the string, tied into a wide, open loop, was laid over a tree-branch about 3 metres distant from the basket, and about the same height from the ground. Sultan was then let into the playground. The animal first looked at the basket, then made for the tree, and climbed up to the loop. Watching the basket, he pulled the string till the basket bumped against the ring in the roof, and repeated the action until the basket turned over and a banana fell out. Thereupon he got down and took the banana. It looks as if the monkey, perceiving the spatial continuity between the rope and the bananas, had some dim apprehension of their connection, and acted accordingly. But even at the highest level of human intelligence, it is the perception of the other simpler relations that affords the clues to the apprehension of connections. The so-called methods of induction and the other methods of science are mainly based upon such clues. Intelligence varies enormously in two respects, namely, in degree and in range, or in intensity and in extensity., As regards degree or intensity there must be innumerable grades between the dawning intelligence of a chimpanzee and the ripe intelligence of a great thinker. In the former case the awareness of a connection between certain things is probably too dim and vague to be described as more than a feeling; in the latter case it is clear and explicit. Intimately connected with these differences, perhaps only another aspect of them, are differences in what may be called degrees of analysis or freedom, that is, differences analogous to those between "tied" and "free" images. At the lower levels of intelligence, the connections are not yet distinguished from the terms connected, but are fused with them in one concrete situation. At the higher levels of intelligence, the connections are distinguished from their terms, and different kinds of connection may be tentatively applied to certain objects or events in order to explain them—as happens in all cases of rival hy-

potheses.,..Then, again, there are differences in the range of facts which intelligence colligates. A chimpanzee may only be able to deal with a very few facts at a time, and with these only in so far as they constitute one concrete situation. The great thinkers bave Attempted to colligate the infinite variety of things in. one, system..or cosmos. And there are obviously innumerable inhermediate grades, possible. Differences in respect of range of intelligence are no doubt intimately connected with -differences in

degree or intensity, for a higher degree of intelligence stimulates an, interest in a wider range of, facts. es

The

discovery

of orderliness

in natural phenomena

has oftes

been regarded as evidence of the existence of some kind of

pervasive intelligence in Nature.

In one form or another, sad

a view was held by Anaxagoras, Heraclitus and the Stoics, a

ancient philosophers, and by Maimon and Schelling in modas

times.

The whole idealistic movement

in ancient and moder

philosophy has, no doubt, been influenced to some extent by the thought that cosmic order presumes cosmic intelligence, addition to these ontological speculations concerning the objectiveIp subsistence of intelligence in Nature, there are, of course, als

speculations affecting the theory of knowledge. It has ("o argued that since connections are not perceived, but only cop.

ceived by the intellect or our intelligence, therefore there is no

reason for assuming that there are any real connections natural phenomena. Science should, therefore, confine itself te mere description, and say nothing about alleged connections,

Connectedness or orderliness may be something which thehuman mind fancifully reads into the phenomena of Nature. Some indeed, have gone so far as to maintain that the alleged discovery of connection or orderliness among natural phenomena is m an artistic fancy, a veil of Maya, by means of which the human intellect at once decorates its environment and veils those brutal

features which would make life unbearable. Others, again, would

admit that the telligence, and in themselves, them in so far

orderliness of Nature is indeed the work that we consequently know nothing about though we may entertain certain beliefs as the moral life of man seems to presume

of jethings about them.

Perhaps the most reasonable philosophical conclusion one may draw from the development and survival of human intelligence is

that there really are connections in Nature, otherwise our intelligence could hardly be an instrument of life, such as even the agnostics and the sceptics maintain that it is. It seems more reasonable to suppose that human intelligence discovers useful connections than that it invents useful delusions—however limited its powers may be. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See articles INTELLIGENCE Trsrs; ABriLITIES, ÜgxERAL AND SPECIAL; PSYCHOLOGY; papers by H. W. Carr, A. Wolf, and C. Spearman on “The Nature of Intelligence,” in Philosophy and Metaphysics (Aristotelian Society, supplem. vol. v., 1925); C. Spear-

man, The Nature of Intelligence (1924).

(A. Wo.)

INTELLIGENCE, MILITARY. Under this designation may be considered the work of obtaining, collating, interpreting and distributing information, in peace and war, about foreign powers, the countering of foreign powers' efforts to obtain intelligence, and the organization which performs these duties. Information as to actual or potential enemies, allies and theatres of war, has always been required and obtained by governnients and commanders in the field; the employment: of spies, the questioning of prisoners, date from the earliest times in history, but never have the scope, and what might be termed the technique of military intelligence, reached such a high degree of development as in the World War. | I. INTELLIGENCE IN PEACE TIME

In time of peace, the relative military power of a nation with

regard to other foreign Powers, and in particular to its immediate neighbours, necessarily affects its foreign policy. Every gover-

ment therefore maintains an intelligence system, which generally

forms a section of the headquarters staff of its military forces

(known in most countries as the general staff), for the purpose of: (a) Providing its government with all necessary information re-

garding the military power of foreign nations; (b) Devising

means whereby, in case of war, all essential information concer?

ing the enemy, allies and theatre of war may be placed at the

disposal of the commander and troops, and the supply of further information continued throughout the campaign; (c) Preventing the acquisition of information by the enemy. '

Type of Information Required.—The fighting power’ of a nation can only be gauged when accurate and detailed imfer-

mation is available.on certain factors, the most important of

j1n.the History ef Philosophy, as distinguished from. psy- which are the. organization; ‘stiength and power of expansion, Chofogy,/quite a variety of speculations may be'said to have priginatetiin, reflections égnnected with the subject of intelligence.

armament, tactics and morale of its.armed forces, the charactet-

istics of its leaders, its defensivé works and fortresses, is co

INTELLIGENCE

459

samications, such as road, railway, waterway, aerodrome, cable, ' prospect of successful operations undertaken by its own troops and wireless telegraphy systems, its physical and po-

litical geography, climatic conditions and economic and industrial ces in relation to military requirements.

This information

|is the most | function, in i i t 1 t

important duty of an intelligence section. Its true fact, is to represent the “operations” section of the

enemy, for broadly speaking it provides all information concern-

sso enables the general staff to prepare, and keep up to date, | ing the enemy, the allies and the theatre of war, whilst the operafor offensive and defensive operations, together with esti- į tions section provides similar information of its own army.

mates of the forces required for their execution against any Power a combination of Powers, with which the particular Power, either alone or in co-operation with other Powers, might be brought isto conflict. . Sources and Value

of Information.—The

main sources

from which information is derived in peace time are statistics and

economic data obtained from foreign government publications, from the Press and technical works, foreign training manuals, military and geographical publications and from information

procured by the Secret Service. When war breaks out, this inieligence system provides the commander and troops about to take the field with maps and all available information regarding

the theatre of war, the armed forces and military resources of allied and hostile Powers, with their special characteristics; this

information forms the basis of the plan of campaign, but requires to be supplemented with information concerning the enemy’s mobilization, concentration and order of battle in general. For

iis purpose preparations must be made beforehand and an inelligence organization provided for the troops in the field; the intelligence section therefore lays down the foundation of the iieligence organization required in war and makes arrangements for expansion by training the personnel required. Il. INTELLIGENCE

IN WAR

TIME

In war, the greatly increased activities of the home or head-

quarters intelligence service are mainly directed to areas outside the theatre, or theatres, of operations. In the latter, the armies in the field are provided with intelligence services of their own, who form an additional source of information for the home intelligence service, which is responsible for the further collation and distribution of the information thus received. Field Organization.—In the field, the intelligence section of the general staff collects and collates all information regarding ihe enemy's forces and intentions and the theatre of war, supples to the commander, staffs and fighting troops all information which will assist them in preparing and carrying out plans for thedefeat of the enemy and endeavours to prevent the acquisition by the enemy of similar information. To be of practical value, the mformation supplied must be relevant, furnished in time to bof use and in such form as will admit of its immediate applitation by those concerned., These conditions require the closest œwperation and mutual understanding: betweén the intelligence and operations sections of the general staff. The developments,

technical and otherwise, of modern warfare have placed at the tisposal of the intelligence section many resources for collecting

iaformation which were not available prior to the 1914-18 campaign. Intelligence in the field has become a large and intricie organization, the varied and complex nature of whose duties necessitates the employment, as assistants ‘to the general staff peoper, of a large number of highly trained specialists. Knowledge of the enemy’s intentions is of supreme value to

àcommander, and the intelligence section should therefore posSSS throughout the campaign early, accurate and continuous intion ‘regarding the enemy’s

“order of battle,” his move-

ments of men and war material, his tactical method, armament and equipment, the organization of his defences and rear services,

thetopography of the theatre of war. The relative value of these diferent classes of information varies with circumstances; the character of the operations may change at ‘any moment from penwarfare to stabilized warfare, or the reverse; an intelligence

‘service must therefore be elastic both in method and organization,

ethod; acquracy and speed are essential for the collection, re-

ption, transmission and collation of information, but this work

5 0f no value unless timely deductions" can be, made fron? the

Tesi available. The making of deductions, appreciations and

Wecasts both as to the probable action of the enemy and the

4 Egi 3

f

pat ;

regarding the troops

Scope and Nature of Information.—Information regarding the enemy’s “order of battle” is of paramount importance. It includes the organization, composition and strength of hostile formations, the direction of their initial concentration and subsequent movements, their distribution, morale and fighting efficiency, the characters of their commanders, methods of recruiting and man-power available to replace wastage. The identification of units is the foundation of all *order of battle" intelligence. Movements of men, supplies and material on a large scale normally portend some important development or a change of the enemy’s plans, but as they must take place along organized lines of communication they are difficult to conceal. Detailed knowledge of the enemy’s communications system and means of transport is therefore essential; the capacity of railways, quality of roads, navigability of waterways at different seasons, system of aerodromes and auxiliary landing grounds must be carefully studied if reliable conclusions are to be arrived at regarding the size of any movement and the time required for its execution. Full information regarding the tactics and armament of the enemy at the outbreak of war is usually available by the study of his peace training and organization; but his methods of employing troops and their weapons in the field must be followed very closely in order to discover new developments as early as possible. In the World War full knowledge of each other’s prewar tactics and armament was possessed by the opposing armies, but almost from the beginning of hostilities modifications and new ideas were introduced, which frequently provoked countermeasures. Instances were the employment of poisonous gases, flame and gas projectors, “storm troops,” Stokes mortars and

tanks. All the economic resources of a State may be required to meet the strain of a prolonged campaign, and accurate knowledge regarding these resources is one of the means of gauging the enemy’s staying power. Sources and Means of Collecting Information.—The main sources of informatior are prisoners, deserters, local inhabitants, captured documents and material land reconnaissance and observation, hostile signalling communications, air reconnaissance and photography, the enemy and neutral Press and agents; the principal agencies for its collection are the fighting troops, the signal service, aircraft and secret service. The information, whether positive or negative, acquired by contact with the enemy is that on which every commander mainly relies in making his tactical plan. Hence, to keep the enemy under such close and continuous observation tbat he can make no movement without being detected is the primary object of all reconnaissance, whether on the ground or from the air. Ground reconnaissance may be purely topographical, e.g., the acquisition of unmapped information about the ground; it may be tactical, e.g., to discover the enemy's positions, the strength and distribution of his. defences, his tactics, movements and intentions; or for the purpose of obtaining “identifications”; z.e.,

information about the hostile troops in line, their morale, armament and equipment, by the capture of prisoners or documents. These objects are achieved by sending out mobile troops, patrols or raiding parties, or by observation from fixed points. The latter may be visual or instrumental. | . Visual observation for intelligence purposes is an organized system for the observation of all enemy activity within the range

of vision of its observation posts by trained observers provided with a special equipment of. maps, telescopes, periscopes, etc., its elements being generally so placed and co-ordinated that the exact location of the enemy activity recorded can be fixed by intersection, e.g., ^flash-spotting." Instrumental observation ‘is

mainly automatic, by instruments dispesed to receive, transform

and transmit impulses’ from outside; e.g., sound-ranging instal-

4.00

INTELLIGENCE

IN ANIMALS—INTELLIGENCE

TESTS

lations, electrical listening posts, wireless interception and direc- | equipment, but in practice, the most danger ous and efficient tion-finding apparatus. is the least sensational in his methods; when arrested he invar Air Reconnaissance. Information from the air is derived has all his papers in order, and is the most plausible person alive from balloon observation, aeroplane reconnaissance and air pho- An espionage system in war involves the employment tography. The development of air reconnaissance and photo- thousa nds of men, women and even children of all gradesof of sọmany graphy has to a great extent revolutionized the whole service of ciety and of all professions: post-boxes, smugglers, guides, trai military intelligence in the field; not only are aircraft capable watchers, pigeon men, couriers, runners, etc. All have their partto of assuming the duty of strategic reconnaissance, but the camera play, and that part, far from being ignoble, may be, if actuated has made it possible to obtain, particularly in position warfare, by patriotism, as noble, as dangerous and as heroic as any played a far more detailed and exact knowledge of the enemy’s system in the armies in the field. of defence, communication and supply than has ever been posContre-espionnage.— The duties of the defensive section sible before. The principal weakness of air reconnaissance and popula rly described as contre-espionnage, are also the Same ig photography lies in their necessary dependence on the weather. peace or war, but the machinery and methods vary when carried Balloon observation is used principally for the observation of out in home territory, in occupied enemy or allied territory, The movement by road, railways, and in back areas, of defence works, contre -espionnage section in home territory commands in peace the location of hostile batteries and the observation of hostile and war all the assistance of trained police, censorship, port cop. artillery activity. Aeroplane reconnaissance is used at the begin- trol, hotel registration, the erection of arbitrary barrier s such as ning of a campaign to locate the direction of the enemy's main prohibited areas and of all the preventive measures which are the concentration, to report on the movements and activities of the outcom e of years of experience in combating enemy espionage enemy's troops; and subsequently to supply information on the under all conditions. In occupied territory, intelligence in the latter's tactical dispositions, the construction or destruction of field equally enjoys these powers, and, in addition, the arbitra ry bridges, the construction of new defences, etc. powers of an occupying army, but the whole populat ion is Strategical reconnaissance involves long-distance flights ex- potent ially hostile. In allied territory the difficulties are greater, tending frequently to more than room.; they are usually carried as it is the ally who controls in his own home territory all the out by single aeroplanes flying at such an altitude as to minimize real preventive machinery. the chance of hostile interference; at this height, movements of The object of contre-espionnage is, first and foremost, pre. troops on the ground are unnoticeable, and the information gained vention. Information may be gained by the ehemy’s agents is largely confined to reports of railway movements, activity at equally from one’s own troops and from the civil population; the important junctions, formations of large camps, etc. It is often former may sell or convey information deliberately, but will more necessary to fly at medium altitudes and to employ formations of probably convey it to the enemy’s agents through indiscretion, aircraft capable of dealing with air opposition, to obtain more de- “Leakage” may occur in several ways; gossip about impending tailed strategical information. Tactical information can only be operations among the troops, especially when on leave and out obtained in sufficient detail by aircraft flying low (close recon- of the line; indiscre et conversations, messages and misuse of naissance) which can be expected to distinguish troops in the open code on field telephones and telegraph: marking of railway trucks, and artillery in action, and can dive near enough to the ground to transport and billets, with inscriptions giving identifications of clear up a definite point, such as the existence of a machine-gun units; indiscre tion in correspondence; careless handling of conemplacement or whether a trench system is occupied or not. fidential papers and books; taking orders, codes, books, papers Photography forms an essential part of all air reconnaissance. of any kind, even private letters into the front line; wearing of Even in the cases of reconnaissances at high altitudes photo- badges and numbers , which reveal identifications and in many graphs may be expected to show road movements, tracks, camps, other analogo ways. us new works, battery positions, dumps, hospitals, light railways, The contre-espionnage section is also responsible for the control telegraph lines and other signs of military activity, while in the of the civil population. This involves the control of circulation, case of close reconnaissance carried out at lesser altitudes, photo- of the use of telegraph, telephone and other methods of comgraphs taken in favourable weather enable experts to discover munication, which might be utilized by enemy agents. the smallest details of the enemy’s defences. (T. G. G. H.) INTELLIGENCE IN ANIMALS: see Anma Be III. THE SECRET SERVICE HAVIOUR; COMPARATIVE PSYCHOLOGY. The secret service supplies information regarding matters beINTELLIGENCE TESTS. An intelligence test or intellihind the enemy's front and in his home territory, including gence examination is an instrument to measure the amount of strength and location of reserves, rear defences and lines of com- intelligence shown by a human being or a lower animal The munication, internal’ conditions in the enemy’s country and the instrument consists of a series of questions to be answered, or state of his resources in man power and material. directions to be followed, or things to be learned, or intellectual Secret Service Methods.—The methods employed in this tasks of any sort to be performed. Intelligence or intellect may be branch of intelligence work can only be referred to in general defined as the ability to perform intellectual tasks; and an intelliterms. Broadly speaking, its duties are:—(1) Offensive, in the gence test is a specially instructive sampling of such tasks. acquisit

ion of information by me&ns other than those described

Sample Tests—The

tasks shown below are representative of

in Sections I. and II. above; (2) Defensive, in the prevention those used in standard intelligence tests. of the acquisition by foreign Powers of information regarding the “Show me your nose. Put your finger on your nose.” Same with forces of its own country. eyes, mouth and hair. Three responses out of four must be correct. The duties of the offensive section, to which alone the name of What is the difference between: (a) Laziness and idleness; (b) secret service is popularly applied, are similar in peace and War, Evolution and revolution; (c) Poverty and misery; (d) Character but war increases the importance, and with it the difficulties and and reputation. ] Repeating three digits. After some explanation dangers of the work of secret agents or spies. and practice, the to sy say 3-5-2, then asked to then say 6-4-1, to is tested person Agents work à poste fixe, on definite missions or on general 8-3-7. The test is passed if one series out of three is repeated without roving commissions; they penetrate into enemy territory through error, after a single hearing. Repeating six digits reversed. The series used are 4-7-1-9-5-2, the ports, in the guise of peaceful neutrals armed with all the necessary papers, or get there by other means, which in war in- 5-8-3-2-9-4 and 7-5-2-6-3-8. The. test is passed if one series out of is repeated without error. clude: penetrating the enemy lines, either in uniform or mufti, three : "m Tom runs faster than Jim. Jack runs slower than Jim. Which is during the progress of an action: landing behind them from an the slowest of the three? acroplane-or free balloon or crossing a frontier guarded by sentries After some explanation and practice, the person tested is asked and ‘electrified wire. False papers, disguises, secret ink and all to "Finish what I say." , At night you sleep in... Mary has a mng the other tricks’ beloved of the spy novel may form part of their on her . - . You wear gloves on your ... You wear a... on yout head.

INTENDANT

461

A person who has been tested in respect of an examination |in groups by means

of printed collections of tests.

The next

isting of from 50 to 200 such tasks may be given a score, and | step was the arrangement of such a collection in a standardized w be put in comparison with all others who have been tested :unitary examination, after the general plan of written examina-

with the same collection of tasks.

| tions in school subjects. One of the earliest and by far the most

Intelligence Quotient.—Subject to certain limitations, the | influential of such arrangements was

«ore may be expressed in terms of a mental age, that is, the age

the group examination

Alpha prepared In 1917 for measuring recruits in the U.S. Army.

at which the average child is able to attain it. Thus if John Doe, | This examination was taken by nearly 2,000,000 men, large 12-0, scores 118 in the National Intelligence Examination, | 8Toups (sometimes over 1,000) being sometimes examined at one

„ad if the average child of age 13-1 attains a score of 118 in this | ume and place.

:

"M

re

examination, John Doe has a mental age of 13-1 years. Jobn |. Modes of ,Use.—Since then, intelligence examinations have Dee's intelligence quotient, or I.Q. is his mental ageX/1oo divided | increased rapidly in number, have become diversified in nature,

| and have been much improved in respect of convenience in giving and scoring. They are widely used, especially in the United This form of statement is useful for individuals whose scores | States, as an aid in the proper grading and classifying and treatare not higher than those made by the average child of 14, and ment of school children; and in studies of special groups such as whose chronological ages are not over r8. For higher levels and defectives, delinquents and dependents. The methods used in conducting intelligence examinations are also being applied to later ages the method is of doubtful value. examinations in school subjects, producing the so-called "newThe score may also be expressed in terms of the percentage of some defined group who would attain lower scores than it. Thus, type” examinations and educational achievement tests. At least if 715; of persons aged 12-0 score lower than 118, and 2995 score 1,000,000 such examinations were made in the case of school higher, in the National Intelligence Examination, John Doe may children alone in the year 1923. Some of the leading American universities require an intelligence examination as a part of the be recorded as in the 71 percentile for his age. This method is general admission requirement. especially useful in the case of the higher levels of intelligence In spite of notable improvements during the last 20 years, and adult ages. A more refined measure of this type expresses existing instruments for measuring intelligence suffer from serious any individuals score as a plus or minus deviation from the | average for some defined group in terms of the variability of | deficiencies. An intelligence examination is still a more or less | undefined collection of tasks, its score is still a somewhat arbithat group as a unit. trary summation of credits, and the correspondence of the Systems in Use.—There are 30 or more such intelligence examscores to the abilities which they purport to measure is still far inations now in use. Some, like the Pintner-Cunningham Pri- from perfect. Psychologists are working to supply these defimary Tests, are adapted to measure very young children aged ciences, seeking to replace the undefined collections of tasks by two to five years. The National Intelligence Examination is tasks rigorously defined in nature and graded bya true scale of designed to fit the intellects of the level of ordinary children from intellectual difficulty, so that the score may mean the precise ọ to 15. The Terman Group Test is especially suited to height of intellectual difficulty which the person in question can measure young people from 14 to 20. Some, like the Thorndike master (see EXAMINATIONS). Examination for High-School Graduates, are adapted to measure BisBLr0cRAPHY.—A. Binet and T. Simon, *Méthodes nouvelles pour gifted adults. Some, like the Army Group Examination Alpha, le diagnostic du niveau intellectuel des anormaux,” Année Psyrequire an ability to read and write; some, like the Binet, are chologique, vol. 1i, pp. 191-244 (1905); G. M. Whipple, Manual given orally; some, like the Army Beta, are largely independent of Mental and Physical Tests (1910); L. M. Terman, The Measure-

XI is by his chronological age, that I

Or I09.

€——]À— ———]

|ment of Intelligence (1919) ; W. Stern, Die Intelligenz der Kinder und

of language. Some, like the Otis Group Intelligence Scale, meas- | Jugendlichen (1920) ; R. M. Yerkes and others, “Psychological

Examure chiefly intellect as it operates with words and numbers and| ining in the United States Army,” Memoirs of the National Academy

abstract relations; some are more concerned with information : and persons. In some, the speed of response counts about things

a great deal in determining the score made; in others, it counts

ef A n : s C. ou oe 1921); R. Pintner,a Zmtelligen re Testing C. ao T (1923) p ;nes Nature 2 "Tales

E $5 an, a Th d

Young, “The History of Mental Testing,” Pedagogical Seminary, vol.

very little, the time allowed being sufficient to permit almost ' 3r, pp. 1-48 (1024); E. L. Thorndike, and others, The Measurement

everybody to do almost everything of which he is capable.

Historical Development.—Existing instruments for measuring intelligence developed from three roots: the tests of sensory;

| of Intelligence (1926); see ABILITIES, and INTELLIGENCE, HUMAN.

INTENDANT,

(E. L. T.) in certain countries an official title having

acuity, memory, attention and the like devised in the early | the same general sense as “superintendent” (from Lat. intendere, history of psychology; the interview, as of physician with patient | to apply the mind to, watch over). Thus in Germany it is applied or employer with candidate for employment; and the school | to the head of public institutions, e.g., State theatres, and in both

examination.

Galton, Cattell and Binet were pioneers in this | France and Germany to certain military offices connected with

feld of psychology. Sir F. Galton’s Inquiries into Human Fac- | the intendance militaire and Intendantur respectively, i.e. the Miy (1883) presented the general problem of the measurement | equivalents of the British quartermaster-general's and financial

of individual differences; and he soon thereafter set up in the | departments of the War Office.

Kensington Museum in London a laboratory where any In France the name was used in early times to designate a person could be measured in a series of physical and mental | functionary invested by the king with an important and durable traits. Under the influence especially of Cattell, many short | commission. The most famous of these functionaries, however, examinations or “tests” of special mental powers were devised | the intendants of provinces (intendanis des provinces) date from

and rather widely used in the United States from 1890 on. Im- | the last thirty years of the 16th century. Originally used to re-

portant work was done by Kraepelin and Ebbinghaus in Ger- | store order after the civil wars, their functions were at first extramany, An eminent French psychologist, Alfred Binet, using the | ordinary and temporary; but a few were retained as permanent general form of an interview between physician and patient, | state officials, and in time they came to be fairly generally distribenriched by suggestions from psychological tests proper, pro- | uted over the kingdom. The existing territorial divisions were duced m 1905 what may be called a standardized interview, con- | kept, each intendant being placed over a généralité, save where ssting of 30 questions and tasks, many of which were chosen | slight modifications were necessary for administrative purposes.

from the tests of special powers now familiar to all psycholo- | In the 13th and 14th centuries the monarchy had organized a

gists, This "metric scale of intelligence" was further improved | species of inspection (chevauchée) over the provincial functionand divided into age levels in 1908, and finally revised in 1911. | aries, which was performed by the maîtres des requêtes. In the y variations of it have been used in different countries. 16th century this inspectorate was revived and passed to the _Whue Binet was developing a scientific interview and record | intendant, who became the resident supervisor of the other func-

aad score, various psychologists in America were testing children | tionaries in his district; its connection with the old chevauchée

4.62

INTENT—INTER-ALLIED

is plainly shown by the fact that the intendants were almost always selected from the maîtres des requétes. The early intendants had naturally been largely concerned with the troops; eventually special military intendants (the only ones that exist in modern French law) were created, but the intendants des provinces retained certain military duties.

The early intendants were called indifferently intendants de justice or intendants de finances. Their powers were fixed by the commission they received from the king, whose direct general representatives they became in each généralité, with authority over the other officials, whom they were empowered to censure, suspend, or sometimes even replace. They were in constant touch with the king’s council, with which they were connected by their original rights as maîtres des requêtes. In the first half of the 17th century they met with some opposition from the governors of provinces, who had formerly been the direct political representatives of the crown, and also from the parlements, which traditionally intervened in the administration, especially by means of arréts de réglement (decisions, from which there was no appeal, regulating questions of procedure, civil law, or custom). The intendants, however, were energetically supported, and so complete was their triumph that in the 18th century governors of provinces could not enter upon their duties without formal lettres de résidence. The intendants had wide powers in the drawing by lot of the militia and in the royal corvées for the making and repair of the high roads, and were largely concerned with the administration of the taille, in which they effected useful reforms. They were the sole administrators of the principal direct and indirect imposts created in the second half of the 17th century and in the r8th century, and had full powers to settle disputes arising out of these taxes. Owing to the vast size of the districts allotted to the intendants (there were no more than 32 intendants in 1788), they were allowed to delegate their powers to sub-délégués, who were, however, not royal officials, but merely mandatories of the intendant. Decisions of the intendant could be carried to the king’s council, and those of the sub-délégué to the intendant. See Gabriel Hanotaux, Origines de l'institution des intendamts des provinces (1884) ; D’Arbois de Jubainville, L’Administration des intendants d'après les archives de VAube (1880).

INTENT, in law, the purpose or object with which an. act is done. The question of intent is important with reference both to civil and criminal responsibility. Briefly, it may be said that in criminal law the constituent element of an offence is the mens rea or the guilty intent. The commission of an act without the intent is not, as a general rule, sufficient to constitute a crime, nor, on the other hand, does the existence of a guilty intent without commission of the act amount to the legal conception of a crime (see CRIMINAL Law). In the case of civil wrongs, in general,

the opposite holds good. A wrongful act done to the person or

property of another carries with it legal liability, irrespective of the motive with which the act was done (see Torr). | (W. De B. H.) INTER-ALLIED CONTROL IN WAR: see War ConTROL; ÁLLIED MARITIME TRANSPORT COUNCIL.

INTER-ALLIED DEBTS. An examination of the methods by which the Alliés financed the cost of the World War (that is to say, the difference between normal pre-war expenditure and actual expenditure for the period 1914—19 inclusive) can only give approximate results, but it is estimated that of the total war expenditure 676 was met by taxation, 77-296 by home borrowing, 14:5% by loans between the Allied Governments themselves and 2-396 by borrowing in other foreign countries. In general the funds placed by the Allies at each other's disposal were utilized, not for internal expenditure by the borrowing country, but for

purchase in the lending country of military stores and supplies and, in certain cases, for exchange stabilizatioh and interest payments on pre-war external loans. At one time or another during the. war all the Allies employed this means of obtaining funds

DEBTS

being comparatively unimportant. It is extremely difficult to ar rive at any accurate estimate of the total sum of these transar.

tions, as the statements published by the various Government

are computed on different bases. In the cases, however, of Grey Britain and the United States all the large debts haye been funded, with the exception of those due from Russia, so thet it is possible to attempt some survey of the Whole question It was only in 1927 that France began to collect the debts due

to her and in many cases the amount of these debts is still iy dispute. I STATEMENT

OF LOANS

AND

FUNDING

AGREEMENTS

Great Britain.—For Great Britain the figures in Table ILam

taken from the Financial Statement of the Chancellor of the Ex. chequer, House of Commons report No. 84 of 1925, but the

figures in most cases were altered on final adjustment and are only approximate. The Belgian pre-Armistice debt of £1 10,000,000 às

not given, as, under the Treaty of Versailles, this is a Charge on

German reparations. The figures do not include loans made to the Dominions for war purposes, but do include advances made to cer.

tain new and ex-enemy states as well as to Allies, in the period immediately following the war. Great Britain's only debt to another Allied Government was that of $4,277,000,000 to the United States. As will be seen from the

above, her advances to Allies greatly exceeded the amount bor-

rowed from the United States. United States.—The United States was a creditor only; and after her entry into the war in April 1917 incurred the main responsibility or financing the Allies, among whom Britain was the principal debtor. After the Armistice large sums were provided by the American Government for relief credits in Central Europe and for purchases of war stores. Table I. shows the total loans to the Allies and other Governments as given in the annual state. ment of the Secretary of the United States Treasury for 1927. The majority of these loans have since been the subject of funding agreements, as the following official statement shows:— TABLE I. Funding Agreements of Certain Countries with the United States Date of

Country

funding agreement

Armenia. Austria . Belgium. Cuba . . Czechoslovakia

Estonia. . Finland. . France . . Great Britain

Greece

Hungary Italy

.

: is I8 8 25 » I3 IO 25

Rumania

Yugoslavia

$

11,059,917.49 24,055,708.92 379,087,200.43 I0,000,000.00 91,879,671.03

ie.

15,000,000.00

25 4 24 1,685,835.01 I4 II 25 | 1,648,034,050.90

24

9 25 A. 22 9 24

Nicaragua

Russia

(principal)

. | 28 10 25 13,999,145.60 .| ri 5 23 8,281,926.17 . 29 4 26 | 3,404,818,945.01 I9 6 23 | 4,277,000,000.00 |

Latvia . Liberia . Lithuania

Poland.

Total original | otal debt as indebtedness

Se

.

.`

. | 14 15 24] .|

.'|

4 12 25

>

3 526

Total .

ee

5,132,287.14 26,000.00 4,981,628.03 431,949.14

funded

$

16,627,153* 34,159,1061 417,780,000 | Repai 115,000,000 13,830,000 9,000,000 | 4,025,000,000 4,600,000 000

19,659,830"

1,939,000 2,042,000,000

5,775,000 Repaid 6,030,000 299,128*

159,666,972:39

178,560,090

192,601,297.37

280,197,301

37,922,675.42

51,758,486.55

44,590,000

62,850,000

10,338,323,597:20 | 11,872,596,524

*Not funded:, debt as on Nov. 15, 1927.

TTime of payment of principal and interest extended to June r, 1943, by

authority of Joint Resolution of Congress approved on April 6, 1922.

Debt as on Nov. 15, 1927.

France.—The position of France, which, like Great Britain, wes

both a borrower and a lender, is more obscure. It was only im

July 1929 ‘that France’ ratified the’ funding agreements made

with either Great Britain, from whom she borrowed £446,226,000, or the United

from whom she received $3 ,404,000,000. On abroad, but only three of the Allied and Associated Powers acted the other hand,States, she advanced considerable sums to Russia and to any E any appreciable extent as lenders, namely Great Britain, the smaller’ Allies; here, tod, no, refunding arrangements have Bees =

*

United States of America and France, the advances made by Italy made, and in many cases the exact amount i$ in dispute.

INTER-ALLIED TABLE II. Great BRITAIN:

Country

463

DEBTS 1

War Debts

Debt as fundedt (including interest added to

Onginal Advances*

capital)

£

{£

446,266,000

483,321,000

369,824,000

22,383,000 16,401,000 15,611,000 16,391,000 90,084,000

i Portugal ; . Greece g. Belgium: Pre-Armistice do.

Post-Armistice

i

ee

600,000,000 783,000,000 570,000,000 25,591,000 18,448,000 20,134,000 21,441,000 99,133,000

| (Debt on March 31, 1927.)

(Pre-Armistice debt as on May L 1921, taken over by Germany."

(Post-Armistice

6,799,000

ee

|

debt repaid in

cash.)

| 2,137,747,000

1,467,040,000

2. Loans for Reconstruction and Relief

£

£

. Belgium

9,000,000

Austria

11,578,000

9,000,000 3,550,000 12,727,000

i Belgian Congo Rumania

; cues

3:550,000

.

. Poland f Czechoslovakia . Estonia

. Hungary

.

io. Ármenia

zi

Lithuan. 12. Latvia

1,892,000 1,884,000 3,682,000 461,000 241,000 109,000 88,000 17,000 20,000

2,200,000 2,069,000 4,779,000

32,522,000

35,275,000

(£2,250,000 repaid in 1923: balance postponed until 1943.)

474,000

251,000 109,000 125,000

(Repaid in cash.) do.

3. Loans for Stores and. Repatriation (Posi-War)

huc

a

£

15393 990

827,000

348,000

I74,000 108,000 36,000 747,000

.

36,000 1,001,000

|| | in most cases altered on 12,040,000

| 2,185,764,000

1,512,248,000

Total

(£5,976,000 repaid by 1927 ) (Interest waived,

108,000

12,686,000 *See Hansard (House of COE

|

017,000 827,000 150,000 174,000

917,000

Lithuania. Poland Greece Rumania Armenia OO Me. Ve conos wort

8,226,000

8,226,000 1,303,000

France Latvia Estonia Czechoslovakia.

Eni Li i Lue £

July 23, 1925, Cal 2445-6. (The figures were

final adjustment and must be

regarded as approximate.) {See published Funding Agreements: the amounts of the gold deposits (viz., France £53,500,000, Russia £60 ,000,000 and Italy (22,200,000) are deducted.

The Budget Project for 1928 set forth the debts owing to | Except in the case of the franc debt of Tsarist Russia the France by various foreign countries, as of Dec. 31, 1926, as | figures apparently exclude interest. No account is here taken of counter-claims which are of considerable importance in certain

follows :—

(r) Debts in French Currency

Russia (Tsarist Government) Russia (various local Governments)

ugoslavia Rumania Greece Poland

Francs . 7,008,928,000

416,233,000 1,946,042,000

1,050,000,000

812,457,000

1,047,120,000

474,124,000 . 1,145,737,000

Czechoslovakia

Italy

Portugal

Lithuania . Hungary Austria

Georgia Albania

}

(2) Debtsin Foreign Currencies

ussia, (various local Governments)

+. Czechoslovakia fh} RS

,,

M09.

i$

"Austria

"i, ^ "do.

.

9,050,000 8,800,000 319,000 379,000 200,000 1,800,000

Ícs. 13,921,189,000 .gold roubles dollars

10,533,145 1,149,000 lire 16,983,000 18,826 : Ug sterling dollars: ‘16,000,000 lire : 35,000,000

Cases.

Italy.—Italy was in the main a borrower, although to some extent she made advances to other Allies. After her entry into the war in May 1915 she borrowed from Britain £369,824,000 and from the United States $1,648,054,050. According to official figures. her loans to other Allies were as follows, but.certain of the items in the French account are in dispute. Foreign currencies are converted at the rates ruling on April 23, 1926:— In thousand lire Rumania France Russia

Yugoslavia Greece Austria

. £

.

$

63,000 56.000 3,000 . 1,730,000

e

t* .a,

189,936

‘5

292,380

2,336,316

Russia.—Russia; on the other hand, was entirely a borrower. Her loans from Allied Governments up to the time of the revolution in 1917 were as follows:— 4

4.64

INTER-ALLIED

Great Britain . United States . France ; Italy . p.e

. £483,321,000 $187,729,750 fr. 6,023,300,000 . lire 36,045,000

Otber Allies.—Belgium was also a borrower, and received considerable sums from the United States, Great Britain and France. As a recognition, however, of the damage done consequent on the violation of the treaty of 1839, Germany undertook in Article 232 of the Treaty of Versailles "to make reimbursement of all sums which Belgium has borrowed from the Allied and Associated Governments up to Nov. 11, 1918, together with interest at the rate of 5% per annum on such sums.” At the time of the Peace Conference the representatives of Great Britain, France and the United States agreed, subject to ratification by their Governments, to accept German bonds to the value of the Allied preArmistice loans to Belgium thus freeing Belgium from the responsibility of these debts. This was eventually carried out by Great Britain and France. The United States Congress, however, refused to ratify the agreement, and the pre-Armistice debt was the subject of a special arrangement in the subsequent Belgian Debt Funding agreement. For the sake of convenience, the following table gives the advances made by each of the Allies during both periods :— Great Britain . i United States of America France e Li Ae *Including interest at 5%.

Pre-Armistice

Post-Armistice

£110,000,000*

£18,500,000

. $171,780,000

fr. 3,219,474,742*

$207,307,200

fr. 241,472,300

Of the other Allies, Rumania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Portugal, Armenia, Nicaragua and Liberia were all borrowers, while after the Armistice the new states of Poland, Czechoslovakia, Finland, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia received advances for various purposes, and Austria and Hungary, of the ex-enemy states, received relief credits. The actual amounts lent can be seen from the preceding tables. II. HISTORY

OF THE LOANS

DEBTS

; over, considerable sums were placed at her disposal by the British Government.

The next country to find difficulty in financing its war require.

ments abroad was ble to arrange for ket. By May 1915 placed, and by the rowings had risen

France. In Oct. 1914 she had found it advisa. the issue of Treasury Bills on the London mar. some £10,000,000 worth of these bills had been end of that year the figure of open market borto £33,000,000 and to £80,000,000 in 1917. In

May 1915 it was agreed that the British Government should grant

France substantial credits against shipments of gold in the proportion of three to one. This system lasted until the end of 916 when the shipment of gold ceased. During the same period France

raised considerable sums on the American market, of which the most important was the joint Anglo-French loan for $500,000,000 in Oct. 1915, repaid in 1920. France, during this period, borrowed altogether nearly £200,000,000 from the British Government and dispatched to London some £53,500,000 in gold. To the other

Allies the French Government lent approximately 6,500,000,000 francs.

Great Britain during this period loaned to her Allies over £900,

000,000. In addition to the above-mentioned advances to France and Russia, £60,000,000 were advanced to Belgium and £27,000ooo to Rumania, Serbia, Greece and Portugal Up to Oct. 191;

Great Britain had not had occasion to borrow in the United States,

but it was found impossible to maintain the American exchange

unless funds were available to cover the greatly increased purchases there of war materials. The joint Anglo-French loan was raised on the market without other security than the credit of the two governments, but all moneys subsequently raised in America

during this period took the form of credits or secured notes, collateral being deposited in each case. For this purpose the British and French Governments encouraged their nationals either to sell or lend to the Government their holdings of American securities, which were either sold for dollars or employed as collateral. Italy did not enter the war until May 1915, and from then until the end of this period confined her borrowing to the United Kingdom (with the exception of a small amount raised in Canada). Credits to the extent of some £153,000,000 were granted to her bv the British Government, gold to the value of £22,200,000 being deposited in London as security. On the other hand, she herself advanced about 63,000,000 lire to Russia. Her advances to France during this period are in dispute.

Any attempt to trace in detail the development of Inter-Allied borrowings, of which the above official figures represent the present position, must be one of great difficulty. For a considerable part no authoritative information has been made available as to the dates at which these various obligations were incurred, and the figures given in the following survey must be taken as mere estiThe Second Period.—This dates from April 1917, when the mates. For the sake of convenience the history of these loans may United States entered the war, till the Armistice in Nov. 1918. be divided into three periods :— Towards the end of the previous period the Allies were beginning First Period: 1914—17.—Up to the end of 1914 the various Al- to grow anxious as to their ability to continue the purchase of lies were able in the main to finance their own foreign purchases. supplies in America on the then existing scale for an indefinite Russia, however, soon found herself in difficulties. Unlike Great period. Accordingly, one of the first acts of the United States Britain and France, her Government was unable to command large Government after the declaration of war was to obtain the confunds abroad, while her incapacity to manufacture munitions on a sent of Congress to a law (Liberty Loan Act) authorizing the exsufficiently large scale necessitated heavy purchases from her tension of credits to Allied Governments up to a total of $3,000Allies. In addition, considerable sums were required for the pay- 000,000. This limit was subsequently raised three times up toa ment of interest on the existing external debt. As early as Oct. total of ten thousand million dollars in July 1918. Such credits 1914 she had been forced to apply to the British Government for were granted without any collateral and they were to bear the assistance, and a credit of some £11,500,000 was opened on her same rate of interest and be subject to the same conditions as account at the Bank of England against a shipment of gold to the the corresponding bonds to be issued on the United States marvalue of £8,000,000. At the end of the year a further credit was ket in order to raise the sums required. From that time the Amergranted, and in Feb. 1915 at a meeting in Paris the British, French ican Government assumed the responsibility for Allied purchases and Russian Finance Ministers agreed to unite their financial re- in the United States. Market borrowings by the Allies ceased sources, to share the advances made to Allied Governments, to with the exception of certain small amounts required for the purissue a joint loan and to co-operate in the purchase of supplies pose of refunding existing market loans, some of which, however, abroad. Actually the second proposal was never carried out, but were also paid off with the funds obtained from the new credits. as a result of this and subsequent conferences large funds were The total advances by the United States Government to the raised for Russia in both France and England by the sale of Rus- governments of the Allies amounted during this period to some sian Treasury Bills on the open market and by the extension of $7,077,000,000, of which Great Britain received approximately governmental credits against a small proportion of gold from the $3,696,060,000, France $1,970,000,000, Italy $1,030,000,000 an Russian reserve. It is estimated that Russia, during the period Belgium $171,780,000. The Provisional Government of Russia I914—Sept. 1917, borrowed £483,000,000 from the British Govern- (successors to the Tsarist Government) received $188,000,000 ment, against a deposit of gold in London of £60,000,000, and between April and Nov. 1917. Smaller Allies account for 6,000,000,000 fr. from the French Government. She also obtained remainder. During the same period the British Government conadvances from the United States Government between the months tinued to finance the requirements of the Allies in the United of April and Sept. 1917. In the United States and Japan, more- Kingdom, and also assisted them by the employment, to a certain

INTER-ALLIED

DEBTS

465

extent, of the credits extended to her in America. These credits | the part of this country's share of indemnity from Germany. By

wereprincipally employed for the purchase there of raw materials ‘red for the manufacture in the United Kingdom of war sup-

1922 the different points of view of the various Allied and Associated Powers on this subject became clearly defined. On Feb. 9 of that year the American Foreign Debt Funding Bill was signed, authorizing the refunding of Allied debts to the extent of

plies for the Allies. For, as the needs of the United States army increased, her ability to meet all the Allied requirements decreased io some extent, and Great Britain endeavoured to take her place. $11,000.000,000 into securities with a maximum currency of 25 In Aug. 1918, however, 1t was arranged that each Ally should be years, carrying interest at a rate of not less than 44%, the negodebited by America with the cost of the necessary raw materials. In addition, during the early part of 1917 Great Britain advanced

funds from her American credits to the Russian Government for

interest payments due in America. Total loans by Great Britain to her Allies during these years amounted to over £550,000,000, of which France borrowed nearly £250,000,000, Italy £220,000,000 4nd Belgium £50,000,000. France, on the other hand, in addition to the advances made by Great Britain, borrowed nearly $2,000,000,ooo from the United States, and loaned to her other Allies nearly 7,000,000,000 francs. Italy, Russia, Belgium, Serbia and Rumania were all borrowing nations.

Third Period: Nov. 1918-Sept. 1920.—Although the Armistice was signed on Nov. r1, 1918, nearly two years elapsed before

it was possible for the lending Governments to cease making ad-

vances to the other Allies for the payment of goods already supplied or ordered. They were also required to enable the Allies to purchase war stores left by the lending Governments in their territories. In addition, the impoverished condition of Europe made it essential, if complete economic chaos were to be avoided, for relief credits for the purchase of foodstuffs and for reconstruction to be granted not only to the poorer Allies but also to certain of the new states created by the peace treaties, and even to some of the enemy countries.

tiations to be carried out by a commission of five members (subsequently increased to eight) under the chairmanship of the Secretary to the Treasury. It was, at the same time, made clear that the United States Government would not consider the remission of debts due to them from the Allies but would look for repayment,

though it was recognized that immediate payments

would not be possible in every case. This action had a determining effect on the attitude of the Powers concerned towards the whole problem of inter-Ally debts. The Balfour Note.—Great Britain, which had hitherto made no final pronouncement of policy, was now faced with the necessity of funding her debt to America, and consequently compelled to lay down a principle for dealing with her own debtors. Accordingly, on Aug. 1, 1922, a Note was dispatched to the Governments concerned which has since formed the basis of British policy. In this communication, commonly known as the “Balfour Note,” it was stated that, while Great Britain would have been willing to forego all claims for reparations and the repayment of inter-Ally debts if this had formed part of an universal settlement, she must now ask for some measure of repayment. She would, however, be content with a total sum from her Allies and Germany sufficient to cover her own payments to the United States, though this was equivalent to only one quarter of the amount due to her. The French reply in Sept. was inconclusive and unsatisfactory, and the policy of that country was definitely revealed in Oct. at a meeting of the Reparations Commission. At this meeting certain proposals were submitted by the British delegate for the settlement of the reparations problem, provided

In the United States there was some doubt after the Armistice as to the legality of granting further credits under the Liberty Loan Acts. These Acts limited credits to the period of the war, and Congress had refused to approve any prolongation. On the other hand, the presidential proclamation announcing the official termination of the war was not published until July 2, 1921, and that the question of inter-Ally debts was settled at the same time. the Administration felt themselves justified in continuing to make The French delegate rejected this scheme and put forward a advances during the intervening period. The balance of $2,500,- counter-proposal which definitely made the payment of inter-Ally 000,000 authorized under the Acts was, in this way, advanced to debts dependent on receipts from reparations. At the inter-Allied the Allies and utilized by them partly to meet existing contracts in Conference in London in Dec. 1922 Signor Mussolini, on behalf America and partly for the purchase of supplies for the relief of of Italy, proposed the cancellation of part of Germany’s reparaEurope. Moreover, special credits were granted with the approval tion liability if Great Britain would agree to the cancellation of the of Congress to the extent of $740,000,000, of which $600,000,000 debts due to her from her Allies. Poincaré elaborated this scheme were utilized for the sale of war stores to Allied Governments, and offered to hand over forthwith part of the French claim on and $140,000,000 for the sale of flour through the United States Germany in payment of her debt to Great Britain and to accept Grain Corporation. To this must be added a revolving credit of similar terms from her own Allied debtors. Both these proposals $100,000,000 opened in favour of the American Relief Administra- were rejected by Bonar Law. The discussion was continued at the tion, of which $84,000,000 was expended for relief supplies fur- Paris Conference on Reparations in Jan. 1923. At this conference the French Government reiterated the principle of the dependence nished on credit. Relief and reconstruction loans by the British Government of inter-Ally repayments on German reparations. The British proposal, which was contingent on the acceptance amounted during this period to £32,522,000, loans for the purchase of war stores to £12,205,200 and for the repatriation of prisoners of their plan for the solution of the reparations question, rested to £1,450,000. Similar advances by France amounted to some on the basis of the remission of all European Allied debts to the 1,500,000,000 fr. and by Italy to approximately 600,000,000 lire. United Kingdom except a small percentage which was to be paid in German obligations, while all German payments over a fixed Ill, THE DEBT SETTLEMENTS minimum were to be available for the repayment of European Before even the last inter-Ally loans had been made, it was clear debts to the United States. The failure of the Paris Conference, that the problem of repayment would assume an importance in which was followed by the French occupation of the Ruhr, marked international politics second only to the question of reparations. the last attempt to reach any common basis of agreement on this Soon after the Armistice it became known that the British Gov- question, although the question was dealt with in the British Note emment favoured a general cancellation of inter-Ally debts, but of Aug. rr, 1923 addressed to the French and Belgian Governthe United States was not prepared to agree to such a course. In ments regarding the occupation of the Ruhr. In this document the May 1920 the inter-Ally Conference on Reparations at Hythe British Government offered as part of a general settlement of the declared that it was "important to arrive at a settlement which Reparation question to accept in full payment of both reparation will embrace the whole body of the international liabilities which and Allied debts a sum equivalent to the amount necessary to cover

lave been left as a legacy of the war, and which will at the same

tme ensure a parallel liquidation of the inter-Ally war debts and

of the reparation debts of the Central Empires.” This was fol-

lowed, however, a few days later by a statement by the Chancellor af the Exchequer in the House of Commons to the effect that the question of the United Kingdom debt to the United States of ica was being dealt with independently of any question of

the funded British debt to the United States, which was estimated on a 5% basis at 14-2 milliards of gold marks. The proposals contained in this Note were.not accepted by the Allied Governments concerned. Anglo-American Funding Agreement.—Meanwhile, the

constitution of the United States Funding Commission in Feb. 1922 was immediately followed by preliminary discussions between

466

INTER-ALLIED

the British and American Governments regarding the debt due from the United Kingdom. It was finally arranged that a British delegation, under Sir Robert Horne (the then Chancellor of the Exchequer), should leave for Washington in Oct. with the object of negotiating a settlement. Owing to the change of Government in Great Britain, its departure was postponed, but a payment of $100,000,000 was made on account—the first Allied payment in respect of interest on war debts. The mission finally sailed early in Jan. 1923 under Mr. Baldwin (the new Chancellor of the Exchequer), and returned to England at the end of the month with a proposed settlement which was accepted by the Cabinet on Jan. 31. Under the terms of this agreement the whole principal sum, which after allowing for interest due to Dec. 15, 1922 at 44% per annum and for payments already made, was agreed upon at $4,600,000,000, is to be repaid over a period of 62 years in annual instalments increasing from $23,000,000 in the first year to $175,000,000 in the last. Interest is to be paid at the rate of 3% per annum on unpaid balances for the first 10 years and at 34% for the remainder of the period. The total annual payments on account of interest and principal vary between $160,000,000 and $187,000,000. Britain may rightfully defer half the interest accruing during the first five years, to anticipate payments and to make payments in U.S. Government bonds issued subsequent to April 1917. As these terms were not in accordance with those which the United States Debt Funding Commission was authorized to accept, it became necessary for Congress to approve the agreement, which was done on Feb. 28. On June 15 the first payment under the scheme was made by Great Britain. Other Funding Agreements.—While the British negotiations were in progress, the United States administration had made their wish to be repaid known to the other countries concerned. The first country to respond was France, which in July 1923 dispatched a mission under M. Parmentier to Washington. No basis of settlement, however, was reached, and negotiations with the Czechoslovak Government led to the same negative result. In Oct. the Administration, hearing that the Rumanian Government contemplated raising a foreign loan, protested against such action before the American Relief Debt was funded. A Rumanian mission sub-

sequently visited the United States, but failed to come to terms. In May 1923 an agreement was reached with Finland for the funding of its debt of $8,000,000 on the same terms as those accorded to Great Britain. No further settlements were reached until 1924, when an agreement was signed in April with Hungary for the refunding of the Relief credits to the extent of $1,939,000 on similar terms to those accorded to Great Britain and Finland.

This was followed by settlements with Lithuania and Poland. .In Dec. 1924 the authority of the Debt Funding Commission

was, extended for another two years and in the following May a démorcke was made by the United States Government to induce the governments whose debts were still unfunded to negotiate for

repayment on the basis of the capacity to pay of the debtor. Consequently, in the latter part of 1925 the majority of the remaining Ales either came to terms or initiated discussions. Thus

in Aug. a Belgian delegation arrived at Washington and an agreement was shortly reached by which the debt was divided into two parts, The pre-Armistice debt of $171,780,000 was treated specially, as by the Treaty of Versailles Germany must pay the Bel-

gian war debt as part of her reparations. Belgium undertakes to

repay this sum in full over a period of 62 years, but no interest is payable. ' ‘Fhe post-Armistice debt of $246,000,000 is also to be repaid in full over 62 years, and in addition interest is to be paid

at æ rate which rises from $ of 1% in the first year to 1% in the

teathyear and at the rate of 34% thereafter. ju vi tied: Oct. an agreement was reached with the Czechoslovak Gov-

‘esmment which. fixed the debt due at June 1925 as $115,000,000,

DEBTS

annum, 2 an 2r

time.

A

This was

of just under 1% per annum for the

followed in December by a se

;

on the British model. ú oe wah e French Debt.—Meanwhile, the French Taument which, since the failure of M. Parmentier’s mission H 2, had

made no move with regard to the refunding of its debt the United States Government, dispatched in Sept. 1925 @ to mission

under M. Caillaux (the then Minister of Finance), but the posals put forward at that time were unacceptable. Better fae attended the next attempt. On April 29, 1926, an agreement was

signed. France agreed to the total at $4,025,000,000 and under-

took to pay a total sum of $6,847,674,104 over a period of years, beginning at $30,000,000 for 1926 and rising to $12,000,00963 for the seventeenth and subsequent years. No interest ispayable until June 15, 1930, after which one per cent will be paid to June I5, 1940, 2% to June 15, 1950, 24% to June 15, 1958, 3% to 1965 and 34% thereafter. This agreement was not ratified by the French parliament until July 1929, but payments at the rate therein laid down had been regularly made in the interim. All the remaining debtors, including Yugoslavia, Greece, Estonia and Latvia, have since concluded agreements on similar terms, with the exception of Russia, Armenia, Greece and Austria. For the last special arrangements for postponement have been made, If the settlements which have already been made are consi

it will be seen that the terms of the Debt Funding bill with regard

to the repayment of capital in full have been carried out in each case, and that, where concessions have been made, they have taken the form of a reduction in the rate of interest. Thus, Great Britain is paying 76% of the 44% per annum laid down by the law, while Belgium pays 4896 and Italy 25195. These agreements were ratified by Congress early in 1926. ! Debts to Great Britain.—Up to the end of 1924 little or no progress had been made with regard to the repayment of debts due

to Great Britain from her Allies. In December of that year the

Chancellor of the Exchequer (Winston Churchill) made an official statement to the effect that Great Britain would expect any country making a funding agreement with the United States to come to terms, part passu, with his country. As a result, the French Government took advantage of Churchill’s presence in Paris in Jan. 1925, at a financial conference on the Ruhr and the Dawes scheme, to state their intention of opening negotiations and to ask for a definition of the British position. An official reply ia February adhered to the principle of the Balfour Note, while no longer supporting the proposals contained in Lord Curzon’s Note of Aug. 1923 on the ground that they were out of date. It further proposed that France should pay fixed annual amounts

from her own resources, together with a further annuity based oa

the French share of the Dawes annuities. Direct negotiations were resumed in London in July, when Churchill proposed the payment by France for 62 years of an annuity of £20,000,000, subsequently reduced to £16,000,000 and only a small proportion of which was based on payments to France under the Dawes scheme. Caillaux's counter-proposal of £10,000,000 led eventually to a compromise on a basis of an annual payment for 62 years of £12,500,000. This proposal, which reduced the French debt to Great Britain by

nearly two-thirds, was referred by Caillaux to the French Government, which, however, resigned before a final decision had been taken. French opinion was subsequently moved towards the hope

of obtaining better conditions by the terms of the Italian agree ment with Great Britain and in July 1926, M. Caillaux, who was again Minister of Finance, re-opened negotiations. An agreement was eventually reached by which France agreed to pay a sum of

£4,000,000 in r926—7| which would rise by annual increment,of £2,000,000 to £10,000,000 in 1929-30.

she must pay £12,500,000 annually and

From 1930-31 to 1956-7

from 1957-8 to 1978-9 ¥epayable on terms similar to those reached with Great Britain. £14,000,000 annually, She may also postpone half the annual payLatvia. hed.already signed an‘agreement in September, and was fol- ment forthe first three years and by, means of a separate etter; redowed-byEstonia in October. In November anItalian delegation served to herself the right to ask for a revision pf the terms: signed an agreement which fixed the principal sum due at $2,042 receipts from Germany did not amount to half the figure laid sxilliodi£orhe répaid.over a period of 62 years. Interest, however, down in the Dawes scheme. On the other hand, the gold, deposit WHE not be;paid.during the first 5 years, and thereafter. only.at a Great Britain, (the debt due:fram retaine was by £53,500,0 of 00 d Yate rising: By .ro-~wear. periods. from one-eighth of 1% to. 2% -per France being similarly reduced), until a separate; agreement egal

INTER-ALLY

COUNCIL

OF WAR

be reached. Although the debt agreement was only ratified in France in July 1929, the annual payments had been made. By an agreement signed on Jan. 27, 1926, the total amount of

the Italian debt at that date was calculated at £610,840,000, and i was agreed that Italy should pay 62 annual payments of {4,500,000 with a partial moratorium for the first seven years. ‘addition, the Italian gold to the extent of £22,200,000 which had been deposited in the Bank of England as part security for certain

PURCHASES

AND

FINANCE

467

striction was removed when the United States entered the war, and every spending department, naturally, and indeed, properly, imbued with the conviction that its own requirements were of primary importance for the successful prosecution of the war,

prepared an ambitious programme for the future.

The United

States Government had a double interest in restraining any un-

due ardour to spend; in the first place it provided on credit a large proportion of the funds required to finance purchases by kens is to be returned to her by instalments over the same period. Allied Governments abroad, and was concerned to be able to it will be seen that, while the total amount to be repaid is not satisfy American public opinion that the advances made were so great in proportion as that which the United States will receive, expended in the manner best calculated to promote victory; in the present value is about the same. Of other debtors Belgium the second place, it had itself become a large purchaser of war has repaid her post-Armistice debts, and Rumania has reached an material and equipment, and the first effect of its entrance into ent on the same basis as that of the offer to France in Aug. the war was to increase the demand more rapidly than the supply. 1925, while Yugoslavia, Greece and Portugal have also come to A newcomer had appeared on a restricted market, and it was terms. Russia alone has made no move. As far as relief credits highly desirable that competition should so far as possible be and credits for stores are concerned, Lithuania and Latvia repaid eliminated and replaced by carefully co-ordinated purchases. the amount due on Jan. 1, 1925, while funding agreements for the Such were the conditions which induced the Allied Governfull amount have been concluded with Poland, Czechoslovakia, ments in the late summer of 1917 to set up, at the instigation.of Estonia, Hungary, Rumania, oe and Greece. the United States-Government, the Inter-Ally (or Inter-Allied, Although it is the declared policy of both Great Britain and the as it was commonly called in British documents) Council on War United States to treat the problem of inter-Ally debts as entirely Purchases and Finance. In correspondence with the twofold inseparate from that of reparations, the doctrine of repayment terest of the United States Government described above, the according to capacity, enunciated by the United States, has led professed objects of the council were firstly to make recommento results which are not without interest. Great Britain has ad- dations as to the supplies and finance required by the various vanced to her Allies a total sum of £1,423,132,000, and, on the Allies in the United States itself, and secondly to deal, in an adbasis of the arrangements already concluded with her debtors, visory capacity, with the problems involved by Allied purchases wil receive a total sum on account of both principal and of all kinds in the world at large. interest of £1,147,000,000 in the form of annual payments over a The council set up two offices, the more important being housed period of 62 years of £18,500,000. On the other hand, she bor- in London in Sunderland House, and the other in Paris. The rowed from the United States approximately £960,000,000, on president was ex officio the delegate of the United States Governwhich she is now paying £30,000,000 and will later have to pay ment on the council, and throughout the period of its activity {38,000,000 per annum, so that, in effect, although she lent over this post was held by Mr. Oscar T. Crosby, who had vacated the $096, more than she borrowed, she will receive from her Allies less post of assistant secretary of the United States Treasury to asthan half the amount which she must in her turn. pay. Even if she sume that of special finance commissioner of the United States receives her full share of £20,000,000 per annum of German in Europe. Mr. Paul Cravath assisted him in the capacity of adreparation payments under the Dawes scheme (which is a very visory counsel; to his tact it was largely due that the serious optimistic estimate), her total receipts on account of inter-Ally friction which the council at times threatened to produce was debts and reparations combined would. only just cover her pay- avoided. The post of secretary-general in London was filled by ments to America. On the other hand, it is interesting to note that Mr. H. J. Cook, and that in Paris by Mr. Max Lazard. The the United States should eventually receive on account of loans British members of the council:were Mr. (later Sir) Austen Chamto her Allies an annual sum equivalent to 6595 of that payable berlain, General Smuts, and Lord Buckmaster. In general the annually on in a standard year under the Dawes scheme other Allied members were drawn from the representatives of inrespect of reparations. ; (R. J.S.) theirespective governments on the Commission Internationale du BreviocrapHy.—Great Britain: Finance Accounts of the United Ravitaillement (g.v.}. ` po à Kingdom (annually in June) ; Despatch to certain Allied Governments The Council at Work.—The first object of the council was, respecting War Debt (commonly known as the Balfour Note), Cmd. as described above, to satisfy public opinion in the United States. 1737 i1934) ; 2 of Ee Mi in remis n Y 1922 an anu 1923, LMd. ISI 1923); American Ve That this object was substantially attained may perhaps be Agreement, Cmd. I912 (1939). Correspondance ah Allied Govern- inferred from the following reference to the council in the “Anments respecting Reparation Payments (commonly known as. Curzon Note), Cmd. 1943 (1923) ; Italian Debt Agreement, Cmd. 2580 (1926) ; nual Report of the Secretary of the (U.S.) Treasury on the French Debt Agreement, Cmd. 2692 (1926). The United States: Annual State of the Finance for the Fiscal Year ended June 30, 1918”: Reports of the Secretary to the United States Treasury. France: “Valuable information as to the needs of the Governments of Annual Budget Statements. General: Annual Volumes of the Survey the Allies for war purposes, their urgency and the necessity of e AL published by pr Eon m o meeting them from advances by the U.S. has been furnished ; t4. E. Fisk, Interebts. ( Bankers st Co., New York, 1924); Inter-Ally Debts and the United States. of America from Europe by the Inter-Ally Council on War Purchases and (National Industrial Conference Board, New York, 1925) ; Moulton & Finance and by its president, Oscar T. Crosby.” It is proper to p in m Problems (1925); A. Rathbone, "Making War add that the required information was given more expeditiously

wy, WorldWarDebtSettlements, ThsInatitatsotEconomics, New York (1926) ; Berenger, France and her Capacity to Pay; Calmalte,

$i

Gon,

ee New

K1946) The Inter-Alliéd Debts, International

York

(1927).

INTER-ALLY COUNCIL OF WAR PURCHASES AND FINANCE. Before the United States entered the World Wer, natural, ifimperfect, checks on wasteful and unco-ordinated purchases of supplies both ‘in: North America and ‘néutral

by the special financial representatives appointed by the principal Allied Governments to be in direct touch with the United States Treasury authorities in Washington, and that the value of the council’s information was chiefly psychological. In relation to its second object, the control and co-ordination of the purchase of supplies, the council may have been said to

have succeeded by failing. The council’s task, as originally con-

uniries ‘were exercised by the limited amount of -foteign’pur-

ceived, was grandiose and quite unworkable; it represented a Treasury ideal unattainable in practice. Thé touncil-met every

chasing power and of shipping: available.“ ‘A’ certain degree of

few months and had laid before it imposing sheets, necessarily

government ‘control of commodities and of joint purchasing by prepared some time before, which should in principle have set dGovernments, destined; as will be mentioned later, to be

qusilérably

extended, reinforced these natural ‘checks.

out purchasing programmes of the principal governments for almost every conceivable supply required, not only by the war departments proper but also by civilian departments such as the

a n operated with particularly ruthless severity in the asof -purchases in America, "To d large extent the financial re- British ministry of food, which were gradually extending a strict

468

INTERAMNA

LIRENAS—INTERESSE

control over one class of commodity after anether. It was inevitable that in the circumstances the figures laid before the council were largely out of date before their preparation was complete. They could hardly be a picture of proposed orders, for the war had to be prosecuted, and needs which altered daily with the war’s changing circumstances called for daily control and immediate decision. In fact the figures represented orders in course of fulfilment, commitments long entered into, preposals

which might never be proceeded with, and projects, which, even if approved, would have to be abandoned for want of shipping. This last word reminds us of the real seat of control at this Stage of the war. The entry of the United States had relieved the Allies from their financial embarrassment, but it necessarily aggravated the problem of securing sufficient tonnage, which had now to transport not only Allied supplies but American supplies and troops. In consequence, the supply departments found that their freedom to purchase when and where they wished, was, in spite of greater financial ease, more and not less restricted. Shipping was more and more concentrated in the North Atlantic, partly as an economy in its use which to some extent offset the greater demand upon it, and partly the more effectively to combat the submarine menace. The very fact that the United States was a belligerent and that the financing of supplies bought in North America was no longer a major preoccupation permitted the concentration. It thus came about that shipping considerations exercised at this stage of the war a much more effective control over purchasing programmes than the question of finance. Such further control as was possible in reinforcement of Treasury control was provided by the various Allied programme committees which were gradually constituted to deal with government demands for certain commodities, and as the circle of government trading was constantly enlarged these commodities came to cover a very large part of the field of Allied expenditure abroad.

(A. McF.)

TERMINI

as the growth in length of an iris leaf, or of the interno de ofa INTERCOLUMNIATION, in architecture, the distance be. tween the columns of a colonnade; usually defined by the number of times in which the bottom diameter of the column is includeg grass-haulm.

in the distance between the two closest points on adjacent columns

Thus the distance between the centre lines of two columns is

diameter more than their intercolumniation. The intercolumnia. tion of classic columns was systematized at an early date and the following standard intercolumniations have been listed by Vitr. vius and others: (a) pycnostyle, equal to one and a half diam.

eters; (b) systyle, 2 diameters; (c) eustyle, 2 and a quarter diam. eters, so-called

‘“well-columned,”

as

the one

most

generally

satisfactory; (d) diastyle, 3 diameters; (e) areostyle, 4 diameters: and (f) areosystyle, a complex form in which the columns are arranged in pairs with the distance between the pairs greater than

the distance between the columns of each pair, as in the colonnade

of the Louvre, Paris (by Claude Perrault, 1665). No such absolute standardization of intercolumniation as Vitruvius’ list would suggest exists in classical work; frequently all the intercolumniations of a single colonnade differed, with the widest in the centre, The list must therefore be considered, like the so-called rules for the orders, merely as a summary of the averages.

INTERDICT, in its technical sense as an ecclesiastical term,

is a sentence by a competent ecclesiastical authority forbid. ding all celebration of public worship, the administration of some sacraments (baptism, confirmation and penance are permitted) and ecclesiastical burial. An interdict is a measure which seeks to punish a population or a religious body (e.g., a chapter) for the

fault of some only of its members, who cannot be reached Sepa-

rately. It is a penalty directed against society rather than against

individuals. In the Chronicle of Ademar of Limoges (ad ann. 094) it is stated that Bishop Alduin introduced there “a new plan for punishing the wickedness

of his people;

he ordered the

INTERAMNA LIRENAS, an ancient town of Italy in the churches and monasteries to cease from divine worship and the

Volscian territory near the modern Pignataro Interamna, 5 m. S.E. of Aquinum; the additional name distinguishes it from Interamna Praetuttianorum (mod. Teramo) and Interamna Nahartium (mod. Terni). It was founded by the Romans as a Latin colony in 312 &.C. as a military base in the war against Samnium, no fewer than 4,000 colonists being sent thither. The city lay on a hill on the northern bank of the Liris, between two of its tributaries, thus lacking natural defences on the north side alone. INTERBOROUGH RAPID TRANSIT COMPANY was incorporated in 1902 to operate rapid transit lines in the City of New York. Its capitalization consisted of $3 5,000,000, in common stock. It acquired by assignment the lease of the original so-called subway of the City of New York, which was opened on Oct. 27, 1904, for a distance of twelve miles. On Jan. I, 1903, it leased (effective April 1, 1903) the elevated railroad lines in the Boroughs of Manhattan and The Bronx, City of New York, from the Manhattan Railway Company, for a period of 999 years. The company in 1928 operated, under lease from the City of New York, 75-26 route miles of municipally owned rapid transit lines, designated as the Subway division, and 41-39 route miles of privately owned elevated railroad lines, designated as the Manhattan division. During the first full fiscal year of operation the company carried 137,919,632 passengers on the Subway division, and during the same year carried 257,796,754 passengers on the Manhattan division. During the year ended June 30, 1928, it carried 899,238,749 passengers on the Subway division and 349,698,134 passengers on the Manhattan division. Its present outstanding capital stock, bonds and other obligations aggregate approximately $247,600,000. (F. Hep.)

. INTERCALARY (Lat. intercalare, to proclaim), a term applied to a month, day or days inserted between other months

or days in order to adjust the reckoning of time, to the revolution of the earth round the sun, the solar year (see CALENDAR). From

people to abstain from divine praise, and this he called excommunication” (see Gieseler, Kirchengesch. iii. 342, where also the text is given of a proposal to a similar effect made by Odolric,

abbot of St. Martial, at the council of Limoges in 1031). It was not until the rrth century that the use of the interdict obtained a recognized place among the means of discipline at the disposal of the Roman hierarchy, which used it, without great success, to bring back the secular authorities to obedience. Important historical instances of the use of the interdict occur in the cases of Scotland under Pope Alexander III. in 1181, of France under Innocent HI. in 1200 and of England under the same pope in 1209. See A, Boudinhon, art. “Interdict” in the Catholic Encyclopaedia.

INTERDICTION, in Scots law, a process of restraint applied to prodigals and others who, “from weakness, facility or profusion, are liable to imposition.” Its only effect is to prevent the person interdicted from effectively alienating his heritable or real property without the consent of his interdictors. It leaves him competent to dispose of his moveables. Interdiction is either voluntary or judicial. Voluntary interdiction is effected by the prodigal

himself, who executes a bond obliging himself to do no deed

which may affect his estate without the assent of certain persons

called the “interdictors.” This may be removed by the court of session, or by the joint act of the interdictors and the interdicted,

or by the number of interdictors being reduced below the number constituting a quorum.

Judicial interdiction is imposed by order

of the court, either moved by an interested party or acting in the exercise of its mobile officium, and can only be removed by à similar order. That the interdiction may be effective in questions

with third parties it must be published in the appropriate registers.

INTERESSE TERMINI, in law, an executory interest, be-

ing the right of entry which the grant of lease confers upon @

lessee. Actual entry on the lands by the lessee converts the right into an estate. If the lease, however, has been created by 8 the meaning, “something placed between,” intercalary is used for bargain and sale, which still exist in some colonies, or by 82Y something which comes between two types. In botany, the term other conveyance under the English Statute of Uses, not requirIS used of growth between the apex and base of an organ, such ing an entry, tbe term vests in the lessee at once. This doctrine

INTERFERENCE—INTERFEROMETER wis abolished by the Law of Property Act, 1925, S. 149. INTERF ERENCE is the confusion of radio reception due to stray electrical disturbances, undesired signals or other causes. The name interference is also applied to that which produces the confusion.

INTERFERENCE

OF LIGHT:

469

enable the measurements to be made with greater ease a compensator is provided, consisting of two thin glass plates, one in each path, which can be independently tilted to make any desired angle with beam: the greater the inclination the greater the thickness of glass traversed by the beam, so that any desired retardation can be introduced. The instrument has been largely

see Licut and Inter

used to measure the refractive indices of gases, for which pur-

METER.

An instrument which makes use "INTERF EROMETER. of the interference of light waves (see LIGHT) to measure very

small differences in length or very small differences in wavelength. On the one hand, if very homogeneous light (ie., light which covers an extremely small range of wave-length, often referred to as light of one wave-length) is used, a difference of optical path can be measured by the help of the interference fringes formed: on the other hand, if the light contains two or

FIG. 2 more separate, but very near, wave-lengths, the component wave |pose glass-ended tubes are introduced into the path of the beams, lengths can be detected, and their separation measured, by the | one being evacuated, while the gas is slowly introduced into the

separation of the fringe systems.

(See Spectroscopy.)

The in-

terferometer has assumed great importance in modern physics,

1 i i

other, the passage of the fringes being counted. Since the instru-

ment was originally used for this purpose by Jamin it is often

firstly from its use in attempts to measure a difference of optical | known as an interference refractometer. Extensive measurements path due to motion through a hypothetical ether, in experiments | Of gaseous refractive indices have been made with it by C. of the type initiated by Michelson and Morley (see ETHER, RELA- Cuthbertson.

|

In the interferometer, also used for the accurate measurement rwy), secondly from its use in the determination of the ultimate standard of length, that is, in measuring the length of the of refractive indices of gases and weak solutions, devised by standard metre in terms of wave-lengths of a standard light (see i Lord Rayleigh (3rd Baron), light proceeding from a slit at A, Spectroscopy), and thirdly from its use in resolving very close fig. 2, perpendicular to the plane of the paper, falls upon a collimating lens B, which is blocked out by a screen except for two spectral lines, to which reference has just been made. Separation of Interfering Beams.—The interferometer of parallel slits at C and D. The parallel beams CE, DF transFabry and Perot, in which the interference is produced by re- mitted by these slits are brought to a focus at G by the lens peated reflection of the light between two accurately plane glass EF, and form interference bands in the focal plane. These bands. plates, is described in the article LicHT, where reference is also which are examined with a high power eye-piece, undergo dismade to another multiple reflection interferometer, the Lummer placement if any substance which causes relative retardation of

plate. In both these instruments the reflections lead to what is the light is introduced into one of the paths. Consider, for ex-

virtually a large number of sources, with a large path difference, amounting to some tens of thousands of wave lengths, between successive beams. In contrast to such instruments, where the interference is due to the combined effect of a large number of beams produced by the reflections, are instruments in which two beams only, between which interference takes place, are produced from the original beam, the two beams following widely separated paths, so that, for instance, obstacles can be placed in one beam and their retarding effects measured by the consequent displacement of the interference fringes. In the instrument of Jamin the separation is effected by the use of thick plates, the interference from which was first investigated by Brewster. Two similar thick glass plates, with accurately parallel surfaces, are arranged as in fig. 1. The one of the two interfering beams is that which is reflected at the first surface of the first reflector

ample, what happens at the point G itself, which is the image of A. If everything is symmetrical so that the paths ACEG, ABFG are exactly equal, there is brightness, but if, for example, CE be subjected to a relative retardation amounting to half a wave length, we have darkness at G, the band being shifted through half a band interval. The Michelson Interferometer.—The best known form of interferometer, and the one to which the designation was originally applied, is that devised by Michelson for the Michelson-

Morley experiment (see ETHER, RELATIVITY, MIcHELSON-MorLEY EXPERIMENT), on the effect of the motion of the luminiferous medium on the velocity of light. In this the interfering beams are not only widely separated but travel, as is required by the experiment, at right angles to one another for the greater part of their path. Light from the source S, which may be an extended luminous surface (a can-

dle, lamp or a lens with an arc light at the focus) falls at 45? on the surface of a plane-parallel glass plate (fig. 3), the surface of which is covered with a film of silver or platinum, of such thickness that the reflected and transmitted pencils are of approximately equal intensity. The transmitted beam falls normally FIG. 1 Fic. 3 on the mirror C, the reflected and at the second surface of the second reflector: the other under- beam on B, both returning to the separating surface A, whence goes reflection at the second surface of the first reflector and at they both proceed in the direction AE. Since the beam reflected the first surface of the second reflector. If the plates are exactly from C has had to pass three times through the plate A, whereas parallel and exactly equal in thickness the two paths are equal the beam from B only passes once through A, a compensating

and the two beams should leave the second plate exactly in phase; plate P’ similar to the plate A, is introduced, which is traversed if there is any lack of parallelism or in homogeneity of the glass twice by the beam which goes to B. The resulting interference interference fringes will be seen. If any substance with a refrac- fringes may be projected on a screen or observed by eye, with live index greater than that of air be introduced in the path of or without an observing telescope. one beam only the retardation produced will cause a shift of the The construction of the instrument is indicated in fig. 4. A muges, from which the refractive index can be calculated. To heavy casting serves to support the optical parts, and the car-

470

INTERFEROMETER

riage holding the movable mirror C moves on very accurately ground ways. 'The motion is communicated by means of a screw provided with a worm wheel and a divided circle so that the motion of the carriage may be accurately measured. The stationary mirror D is provided with screws for adjustments about vertical and horizontal axes. The compensating plate B is held by a vertical steel rod, twisting which produces any required small alteration in the path. All of the optical surfaces are very accurately plane, the errors being of the order of a twentieth of a light wave, or less. The adjustment of the instrument is effected as follows. The distances of the mirrors C and B from the half-silvered surface of A are made approximately equal (say, to within a millimeter), and an approximately homogeneous source of light (sodium

flame, or better, a Cooper-Hewitt mercury arc) is placed in front of A, as indicated by S. The two images of a needle point placed near S are then brought into co-

the fringes would be visible with any de

separation of the images, that is, with any difference d a

length between the two beams. If, however, the light is not per-

fectly monochromatic, then clearly with large ence the fringes formed by one component of those formed by a neighbouring component. with the most homogeneous source fringes never show with a path length greater than 70 cm. proves that the light consists of trains of about this length. Michelson has discussed the formation of the fringes in the following way. In fig. 5B let AB be the two equivalent mirrors shown in fig. 5A, the intersection of their planes being vertical, and consider the effect of the reflection of light from a source R to a point O. Let ¢ be the distance surfaces at the point of incidence, w be the

enough path differthe light will cance} The fact that even

FIG. 5B

between the mirror angle of incidence,

between them being supposed to be very small (of the order of a second of arc, or less). Further let p be the perpendicular distance from O to the mirrors, fo the distance between the mirrors at the foot of this perpendicular, and z the angle between the horizontal projection of the incident ray and the normal. Then the difference in path of the two interfering pencils is seen to he expressed

A= 2tcosw and

given any suitable width, and by

Fic. 4

diminishing the path difference by turning the screw S the fringes become more distinct. As the path difference approaches zero, the change of inclination of the fringes accompanying a change in position of the eye diminishes; and when this change vanishes, the (coloured) fringes in white light appear, or may be found in a few turns of the worm wheel which gives the slow motion to the screw S. The use of the instrument in the Michelson-Morley experiment is described under RELATIVITY, in measuring the standard metre in terms of lightwaves under SPECTROSCOPY. OF THE INTERFEROMETER

— he arrangement sketched in fig. sA the interferometer in its simplest form. of the mirror B in the mirror M, A and not quite coincident: it is evident that

homogeneous

which may be considered the same for both mirrors, the angle ¢

incidence by the adjusting screws of the mirror D, when the interference fringes should appear. They are usually narrow, curved, and not very distinct; but by slowly altering the adjustment of the mirror D they may be

THE THEORY

distance between the images increases a wave length a Whale fringe moves past a given fixed point. by If the light was pert

represents schematically B’ represents the image B’ being supposed to þe to the observer at E the

t= +f tani tand = h-+pid

since ¢ is very small and so is i, the incidence being very nearly normal. A=2(h+ pid) cosw

Hence

The corresponding phase difference is 23 S,which with an un-

limited aperture may clearly have so large a range of values that all traces of interference vanish. If, however, the cone of rays is limited, either by the pupil of the eye or, in the case of an observing telescope, by a diaphragm, then the range of angles may be small enough to show the phenomenon of interference. Let us now enquire as to the distance p at which the fringes will be most clearly visible. This must occur when there is no

change of A with w, the angle of incidence, that is, when

effect of the whole combination is the same as that which would

dw

"=

be produced by the surfaces A and B’. The light coming to E may then be considered as having come from two nearly coincident sources, which are the image of the source S in the two mirrors. These sources are therefore coherent, but not quite coin-

cident, and-the form and visibility of the

that fringes are always visible. When the

Q.

. ; di : T 2 sino (otip) +2 coswpo a o, or since w, $

and¢ are all small, which leads to ue dw

3 ; we have

w (+ pid) = 067

fringes clearly depend upon the degree of coincidence of the two sources. Exact coincidence would be equivalent to a single }’ source, and consequently there would be no fringes at all in such a case, but exact

coincidence is not attained in practice, so*

_ dA Now do

=

or FIG. 5A

{coiniderice is nearly attained the fringes will clearly be broad;

=

?

It follows that for an unlimited beam, when ; has various values, | the different parts of the interference paths are not simultaneously.in focus except, firstly, if /4j—0, when $-o and the

‘when, the images are further apart the fringes will be narrow, and fringes are localised at the surfaces of the mirrors AB, 4, siaty curved, as mentioned when the adjustment’ of the instru-

ment was being discussed. The visibility will depend largely upon

the’ aperture, since for good visibility the fringes forined by the

secondly, if =o or the mirrors are parallel, when p= the fringes are localised at infinity.

and

If we call A, the phase difference for normal incidence, «= | 2iy (I—cosw) — 2pipcosaw = n at or, e being small, > T HE s

‘two Images of one part of the source should be superposed as and if Aj-- A=nk, then "early as possible on those formed by the two images of another part of the source... a

A's the moving ‘mnirror is displaced backwards the two images

separate, atid the fringes move dcioss the field, Every time the

l9 —2pib e nA.

iu

INTERFEROMETER

471

Let @ be the angle between the normal and the projection of the | solving power both increase as this aperture is increased. With yay on the vertical plane containing the normal, and put a given aperture, however, the indistinctness of the image becomes more and more pronounced with increasing magnification, since bo P woe ==}, all the imperfections of the image are subject to the same enlarge-

iene

A

:

ment as the size itself, while the brightness diminishes. The in-

terference fringes of the diffrac-

o= = pt zhi. Then This represents a circle whose angular semidiameter is

tion pattern, however, are more accurately measurable if the pattern is magnified, since, generally speaking, setting a crosswire is possible to within a fixed fraction of the fringe width.

(2-2 D

Ig

and whose centre is displaced through an angle nak, and so

we see fringes which are circular arcs.

pum Be lead a aoe ——————d we may therefore block out the

If the separation t is

small, the equation reduces to

- —a2f$i- 25x where x— — $i is the horizontal separation |

FIG. 6

central portion of the lens alto-

Disregarding sign, | gether, leaving merely a circular annulus which will produce sharp between the fringes, which is constant. |rings, or, better still, we can merely isolate two small portions of . : mh 1-—, ‘The fringes are straight, and parallel to the intersec- | the lens at opposite ends of a diameter. We shall in this way 2p . : . ed obtain an exceedingly bad image of the luminous object, but we tion of the mirrors A, B’. The distance between consecutive | shall have interference fringes which can be increased in size up to practically any limit without ene fringes is clearly

pata n

z

2

Nb

terne atceu]i

The visibility V of the fringes is defined by Michelson as y=} ims where J, and J, are the maximum

great magnifying power with an and minimum

infnitely bright source. ‘This | device of isolating two small strips of lens at the opposite end of a diameter is, in fact, that adopted in Rayleigh’s interferom-

intensities

Michelson has shown that we can deduce the

formula V=

à CUT

a perfect microscope of infinitely

II

respectively.

affecting the amount of light. The

^ result is exactly the same, as far

sink po (t2e— 11)

where &— 27 [X

kb (1s —i1)

eter, already described. Regarding the lens as an optical instrument we sacrifice resolution and

and h, i are the limiting values of z for the incident beam.

This shows that if p=o, which, as we have already seen, in-

definition, with a gain of accuracy

volves =o if all parts of the interference patterns are to be

simultaneously in focus, then V — 1, which is independent of the

aperture; For moderate aperture the visibility is independent

I

FIG. 7

of measurement.

We may then

say that, since all optical phe-

of the aperture. This is also true if $ —o. nomena ultimately depend upon interference in its most general An idea of the order of magnitude of the angular aperture | conception, there is no fundamental difference between the interpermissible may be obtained in an elementary way as follows. ferometer and ordinary lens system. The analogies will now be

If the differences in phase between the central and marginal | considered in a little more detail. i rays be À the discordances will be considerable. In the case The Rayleigh interferometer has already been considered. The close analogy between the optiwhere ġ=0, and the mirrors are truly parallel, if 8 is the angular

cally perfect convex lens and an

aperture of the objective, then

difference in phase= 2/(—cos Bfa)

interferometer consisting of four mirrors is illustrated in fig. 6. Thus in fig. 6A the image of a source (a slit A, or a. fine line ruled by a diamond on a smooth

whence *—A /? as a first approximation. Thus if /—25A, then B=}, and the angular aperture of the lens should certainly be less than 1. l as an Optical In-

glass or metal surface) is formed

strument.—It had been pointed out by Michelson that the interferometer can be regarded as a modification of the ordinary instrument, telescope or microscope, consisting of lenses or mirrots, and that prisms and gratings as well have their analogies in

Comparative Place of Interferometer

at D (the result of the “combination” of all the rays which fall on the lens BC), where it may be observed, as in the telescope or

interferometers. We will consider first the case of a converging lens, of supposedly perfect optical construction, that is, for which

the microscope, by an eyepiece. In fig. 6B the source is re-

thé optical distance from point to point is,equal for all paths. Such a lens, considered as an optical instrument, may be employed fo form an accurate image of the object, as in an astronomical observing telescope, but it may also be used for accurate measure-

placed by the surface 4, whence two of the pencils (one transmitted and the other reflected) are bent by the prisms (or mir-

ment of a displacement, or angle, where a representation of. the rors) at B and C so that they Fic. 8. meet at the surface D, proceeding abject is not necessary, so long as there is some recognizable feature of the image on which a setting can be made. It is well | thence to the eye or the observing telescope. In fig. 7 the same known that the image of a luminous point formed by a lens is | analogy is illustrated when the lens is replaced by a mirror. /

a diffraction pattern consisting of a bright spot, surrounded by | Thus it appears that the essential difference between lenses

ogs, and that the resolving power of the instrument depends | or mizrors, on the one hand, and the interferometer, on the other,

upon the, extent of the overlapping of the diffraction rings due, to | is that in the former all the rays from the source which fall on twoclose object-points. (See LrczrT, section.on Resolving Power.) | the lens unite in the focal plane to form an image; whereas in The size of the diffraction pattern is inversely proportional to | the interferometer of the type in question there are only two the‘angular aperture of the lens, and the. definition, and the re- interfering pencils. The advantage of this has already been

472

INTERFEROMETER

pointed out. In the illustrations just given, the microscope or telescope, and the analogous forms of interferometers, may be applied to the measurement of distances or of angles But prisms and gratings are employed in what seems at first sight to involve different principles, and for a different purpose, namely, the analysis of light into its component constituents. The analogy still holds, however, as is shown in fig. 8A and B Thus in figure 8A, A represents the slit source of light and BC a grating which diffracts the light back to

differences of light paths enables us to measure a length of

centimetres in terms of the wave length of a specified light, and

so gives us a standard which can be easily reproduced at any time or place. The International Committee on Weights and Meas decided, in fact, in 1923 on the adoption of such a standard T

that the measurement of the standard metre in terms of awave

length is of the highest importance. If a wave length is to be a standard length it is, of cours

essential that the light should be very homogeneous; among the

hundreds of radiations examined none answered the requirements

so well as the red line of cadmium vapour. With this light inter. ference fringes are still measurable with a path difference of 2; cm., which distance contains about 350,000 waves, or, say, 700,-

A (part being thrown on one side by the plane-parallel plate P for ooo fringes. The optical error of measurement will depend some observation or for photography) what on the visibility of the fringes, but an estimate of one-tenth while in figures 8B and 8C, the of a fringe width is quite conservative, and thus indicates the interferometer shows a similar possibility of making such a measurement to an order of accuracy light-path, but only for the two E of one in ten million. The general principle of the method is simlimiting pencils of light, 8C being i ply to move the mirror of the interferometer through a distance produced from 8B by a slight rearrangement of the mirrors. given by the standard, and to count the number of fringes, but If in this arrangement one of the mirrors, say C, is movable, to make sure that the mirror has actually been moved through and the incident light monochromatic of wave-length and if n the standard distance, and to extend the measurements to a length is the number of maxima (or: of a metre a number of special devices are necessary. minima) corresponding to d, the Since fringes cannot be obtained with a path difference of one measured difference in path, then metre, and even distances of several centimetres are troublesome. the wave-length is given by as they involve the counting of some hundred thousand fringes, A =d/n; and, as is described una standard decimetre and a series of substandards were prepared, der Spectroscopy, this can be The standard decimetre was afterwards compared with the metre measured with far greater accuin a way which will be described. The intermediate standards, racy than is possible by the use by the help of which the number of prisms or gratings. of fringes was reduced to a Any arrangement of mirrors countable one, consisted of a 5 and lenses has its analogue in cm. one, a 2-5 cm. one, and so a possible interferometer. Fig. 9 on, each successive standard beshows three different disposiing half the length of the previous tions of optical apparatus and one, the ninth and last being -39 three corresponding interferomFIG. 9B mm., which contains only 600 eters. The diagrams are self-explanatory, A being a concave mir- red light waves, or 1,200 fringes ror with the source at the centre of curvature, and hence a single in the doubled distance between plane mirror in place of the two mirrors of fig. 7: C a double the parallel surfaces which consticonvex lens with equidistant obtute the standard. ‘This number ject and image, a variation on of fringes can readily be counted fig. 6; and B a concave mirror without fear of error. The FIG. 10 and two plane mirrors with the construction of those intermediate standards is made clear by the source at the focus of the mirror. | example shown in fig. ro. It consists of two plane-parallel The interferometer diagramglasses A, A shown on the front surfaces, and held in contact matically represented in Ciii. is a with three brass pins, which are filed and polished until the two slight variation on that of Cii. surfaces are as nearly parallel as required. The distance between obtained if the mirrors B and C the planes of the front surfaces are separated until AB and AC of these mirrors, one of which are at right angles. stands, as will be seen, higher Measurement of the Standthan the other, constitutes the ard Metre in Terms of Light standard length. Waves.—The standard metre is The first task is to determine defined as the distance between the exact number of wave lengths two fine lines on a particular in the smallest standard, which iridio-platinum bar kept at Paris. we will call standard I. Fig. rir It is, however, clearly desirable FIG. 9¢ represents the interferometer set to have some absolute standard of length, not depending upon a up for this purpose: d is the particular piece of material, since not only are secular changes moveable mirror, m m’ are the possible in the material which will produce minute changes in two mirrors of the standard (the length, but also, in the remote chance of an accident to the bar, distance between them being exprone it should be possible to replace it. Long ago two proposals were aggregated in the diagram) and n is a stationary auxiliary mirror made to fill this need, the first being to adopt as a standard the This mirror is used for the purpose of counting the fringes that length of a pendulum which swings once a second at Paris. It pass when dis displaced, that is, for measuring the displacement was found on trial that the error of measurement was considerably of d in wave lengths. To start, the front surface of m is made greater than expected. The second proposal was to use the earth’s to fall in line with the image of the reference plane d, making, circumference as a standard, and, in fact, the original metre was however, a very small horizontal angle with it, so that with white intended to be one forty-millionth of this length. As a result of light a series of vertical interference bands is formed, the central several of the very costly investigations of the measurement of a band being achromatic and therefore readily distinguishable. The given arc of the meridian it proved, however, that this measure- mirror d is now steadily moved back, and the succession of ctr ment was too inaccurate to serve. The interferometer with large cular fringes formed by the cadmium light on s is counted.

INTERGLACIAL

STAGES

473

motion is continued until d coincides with the rear surface m’, a close luminous point will likewise produce a pattern of fringes coincidence detected once more by the white light fringes, the overlapping the first pattern. If we consider the two points as achromatic band being brought to the same position on m’ as it originally coincident, and then gradually separate them, the suhad before on m. The motion of d is thus measured in terms of perposed pattern will give a certain pattern of fluctuating inwave lengths of cadmium light, and the limits of its motion, given tensities depending upon the separation, but ultimately a separaby the distance between m and m’, determined by the use of white tion will be reached such that the darkest parts of one pattern light fringes to establish coincidence. fall exactly upon the brightest parts of the other pattern, and The next step is to compare standard II. with the one already we shall have uniform illumination. The argument can be exmeasured. Now n represents the front mirror of standard IL. tended to an uniformly illuminated disc, for which it can be the rear mirror. The two mirrors m and n are brought into the proved that the fringes vanish when same plane with the help of white light fringes.

The mirror d

i now moved to coincide with m, and standard I. is moved until fringes reappear on mM, SO that m’ and n’ are now very nearly in the same plane. The small distance between m’ and 7’ in this position is determined in fractions of a fringe of cadmium light by moving d, so that the correction to be applied to standard II.

is determined. Standard III. is checked against IT. in the same way, and so on, until the decimetre is reached. The table gives the results of three independent measurements

of the number of light waves in the (doubled) length of standard IX, the decimetre. The fact that these measurements were made,

at diferent times, months apart, and by different individuals, and still give the same result to a few hundredths of a light wave, gives confidence in the accuracy of the result. Besides the red line of cadmium, the green and the blue line were used, as recorded. Green

310,678-48 310,678-65 310,678-68

393,307°92 393,308-10 393,308-09

I-22À a

S

where S is the separation of the two slits, A the wave length of the light used, and œ the angle subtended at the telescope by the diameter of the disc. This principle has been applied by Michelson to the measurement of stellar diameters. It is not feasible to make a lens of large enough diameter to hope for vanishing with the extremely small « provided by a star disc, but Michelson gets over the difficulty by receiving the light from the star on two mirrors set at 45°, from which it passes to two other 45° mirrors which throw the light in two pencils at opposite ends of a diameter of the lens or the mirror of the telescope. The general arrangement of the mirrors on the great reflecting

Blue

416,735:86 416,736°07 416,736-02

The final operation is the comparison of the decimetre with the standard metre. For this purpose an auxiliary metre X. was provided with two diamond scratches at a distance apart very nearly equal to a metre. An arm extending at right angles from the decimetre has a similar mark which is placed as nearly as possible in coincidence with one of the metre marks. The standard decimetre is then “stepped off” ten times by the help of the interferometer fringes. The resulting error is, however, multiplied by ten, instead of by two as in the comparison of the smaller standards. It is estimated that the error of separate determinations of the metre may be of the order of one-half of a light wave, but the mean of all measurements is doubtless much less. To this error must, however, be added the errors of the micrometric measurements of the “coincidences” at both ends of the metre bar, and finally the error of the comparison of the auxiliary metre with the standard. The final results are as follows:

mE

FIG.

12

_telescope

at Mount

Wilson

is

shown in fig. 12. The separation of the first two mirrors, which, with the second two, are mounted on an arm set normally across the telescope at the aperture and, is limited only by mechanical considerations, and, in Michelson’s first instrument, was variable and could be made as great as 20 ft. The method of mounting of the mirrors is indicated in fig. 13. With the red star Betelgeuse a vanishing of the fringes was obtained with a separation

of about ro feet (306 cm.), which, taking the effective A as 5-75X 10 5 cm., gives arc. Using a parallax miles for the linear few other stars have

the angular diametero to be -047 seconds of of -o18 we obtain an estimate of 240 million diameter of this star. The diameters of a been measured by this method. In 1928 an

LJ

Number of Light Waves of the Three Principal Cadmium Radiations in the Standard Metre

1,553,1603:5 1,966,249*7

2,083,372°1

The metre rod is in air at 15° C and 760 mm. of mercury pressure, It is estimated that these results are correct to about one part In two million. _ Measurement of Stellar Diameters.—Most of the applicatons of the interferometer have been mentioned at one part or another of this article. The chief of them are:—the measurement

of standard wave length, or, differently put, the measurement of the meter in terms of the light wave; the measurement of the Maximum distance over which interference can be produced, or

the coherence of a wave train: the measurement of refractive indices of gases and weak solutions: and the resolution of close

Spectral lines. Reference must also be made to the recent appliction of interferometric methods for the measurement of stellar

FIG. 13

interferometer of the pattern in question is under construction at Mount Wilson which will allow a 50 foot separation of the mirrors. (See STAR.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The principles of interferometers are described in the standard text-books on Optics, cited in the bibliography to Light, to which may be added Lummer’s volume on Light in Miiller-Pouillet’s Handbuch der Physik. A general account of Michelson’s work is given in Michelson’s Light Waves and their Uses and Studies in Optics. The analogy between interferometers and other optical instruments was first pointed out by Michelson in the American Journal of Science 39, 115, x89o. (A. A. M.; E. N. DAC. A)

INTERGLACIAL

STAGES,

a series of comparatively

warm and mild intervals, each lasting several thousand years, between the equally prolonged times of extreme cold in the Pleistocene glacial period (g.v.). For the stages of extreme

eters. Suppose we consider the whole of the lens of a tele- cold the geologist Albrecht Penck chose names from repre“ope stopped out, except for two slits at opposite ends of a sentative districts in the Alps: Giimz, Mindel, Riss and Wiirm; meter, as in the Rayleigh interferometer. A single luminous of these, the Günz stage is the earliest, the Wiirm stage is the Pont will produce a patterh of interference fringes.

A second

most recent.

Penck chose these names because their order in

474

INTERIM—INTERIOR

the alphabet corresponds to the chronological order of the four stages, while space is left between them for additional names, should additional stages of cold be defined. The same names are conveniently used to indicate the intervening warmer stages. Thus the first mild interglacial stage is called the Giinz-Mindel stage; the second, the Mindel-Riss stage; the third, the Riss-Wiirm. This cyclic alternation of climate through the Pleistocene period is accompanied by alternating Arctic and temperate fauna and flora, while there is a further change, particularly of the fauna, due to the steady evolution of forms throughout the Pleistocene period. Thus in Europe during

DECORATION

[EUROPEAN

pre-Pleistocene and part of Pleistocene tímes. Among these Were such important trees as the black walnut, butternut, hickory magnolia, bald cypress and sassafras (gq.v.). '

In North America the back-and-forth movement of plant life

was not impeded, as in Europe, by high mountains and inland

seas. The presence of the larch (Larix laricina) in Georgia, of the black spruce (Picea mariana) in Kansas and of the white

spruce (Picea glauca) in Iowa, all far south of their present

range, has been demonstrated. Likewise, the presence duri a mild interglacial stage of a fig in fruit in British Columbia, ang of the redbud (Cercis), the Osage orange (M. aclura), the papaw

the colder stages the woolly mammoth and reindeer reached the (Asimina triloba) and other warm temperate types as far north south of France, while one of the interglacial stages was so warm as Toronto, Ont., has been proved. that the lion and hippopotamus flourished in England. INTERIM (Lat. interim, in the meantime), a word specially In North America there was a similar cyclic alternation of applied to’ certain edicts passed by imperial diets during the climatic conditions throughout the Pleistocene glacial period, but reformation in Germany with the object of temporarily settling there are difficulties in the way of drawing definite parallels be- controversial points of doctrine and ecclesiastical practice wii tween the Old World and the American stages. It is likely, how- they could be decided finally by a general council. The interim ever, that the earliest glacial stage in North America, which of Regensburg (Ratisbon) was promulgated in 1541; but the most includes the pre-Kansan, Nebraskan and Albertan drifts, and famous example.of such a modus vivendi was the interim of which is called sub-Aftonian by American geologists, coincided Augsburg (1548). This, drawn up at the bidding of Charles V. with the Giinz of Penck. The earliest, or Aftonian, interglacial by Michael Helding, Julius von Pflug and Johannes Agricola, whe stage of North America would thus correspond with Penck’s represented orthodox catholic, Erasmian, and moderate Lutheras

Giinz-Mindel interval.

In North America, the Aftonian inter-

glacial stage was marked by the presence of mastodons, three species of elephants, six species of horses, and the sabre-toothed tiger.

The second, or Kansan glacial stage in North America, cor-

opinions respectively, was an ambiguous compromise, accepting on the one hand transubstantiation, the seven sacraments, adortion of the Virgin and saints, and papal headship, but admitting

on the other justification by faith, marriage of priests, and lay

communion in both kinds. The variation permitted to Maurice of Saxony within his dominions was called the Leipzig interim, and was signed on Dec. 22, 1548.

responding to the Mindel of Europe, saw the extinction of some American camels and horses. It was followed by the Yarmouth interglacial stage, parallel to Penck’s Mindel-Riss, when the fauna INTERIOR DECORATION, the art of furnishing and included mastodons, mammoths, horses, tapirs, bison, deer and decorating the interior of a building, generally a residence. Furnisabre-toothed tigers. ture; rugs, lamps, wall-coverings, curtains, wall paper, as well as The third, or Illinoian, glacial stage in North America, cor- fixtures, bric-a-brac, etc. are the principal materials involved in responds to Penck's Riss. It was followed by the Sangamon the art of interior decoration. This article will treat historically interglacial stage; this was in its turn fourth, or Iowan, glacial the various styles of furniture, etc., under the following heads: stage, the record of which is not well defined. The fourth, or EunRoPEAN; EaRLY ENGLISH; EARLY AMERICAN; CHINESE; Peorian, interglacial stage followed; it presents similar difficulties. JAPANESE; Moern Woop FinisHes, PAINTs AND VARNISHES. The fifth, or Wisconsin, glacial stage appears to correspond |. EUROPEAN to the European Wiirm. It was followed by the post-glacial stage, which gradually merges into the present time. Elephants, Early Middle Ages.—In the earliest middle ages domestic fife, mastodons, horses and the great sloths disappeared, the exact such as we understand it, can hardly be said to have existed at all. cause of their disappearance being unknown. Furniture and equipments had to be of a kind convenient for trans‘In the earlier or pre-glacial stage, Pleistocene vegetation was port from one place to another. They were solid and strong, and in characterized by: a commingling of warm temperate and cool number they were kept down to the indispensable minimum, Miftemperate, forms. During the alternating interglacial periods the tary equipment formed a large part of the travelling baggage. record of.plant life in the more northern regions indicates a suc- There was no question of a separate furnishing of each temporary cession of forest, barren ground, steppe, tundra and arctic types abode. Above all, it was necessary for the owner to be able to

with each increase:of glaciation. Upon the retreat of the glaciers hold what he had. His habitation was rather a stronghold than D succession of plant! types recurred but in reversed order. In a dwelling-house. The principal living apartment was a large

some interglacial periods the climate was milder for the same hall with bare walls, open-beamed roof, narrow windows latitudes than at the present time, so that numerous trees, for unglazed) and floor paved with stone slabs or tiles. It (probably contained example, extended some hundreds of miles north of their present very few pieces of furniture, and mostly such as could be brought range. In the post-glacial or late Pleistocene stage, which blends by the occupants and carried away again when they went else, into the Recent, plant life assumed substantially the present where. Window curtains, if used, were strung on hinged rods , Status and distribution. Many arguments may be advanced ‘sup- swung away from the window in day-time. The doorway inight porting the view that the post-glacial and recent constitute a part have some ‘similar contrivance. A large hooded chimmey mainof an ‘interglacial stage, as the time that has elapsed since the tained a log fire. Metal braziers on wheels, for local heating, wert disappearance of the last great ice-sheets from Europe and north- added during the later middle ages. Warming-pans were probably eastern North America is less than the duration of some of the a still later innovation. A massive table would be fixed to the floor former interglacial stages. at one ‘end of the hall. Upon it entertainers would mount, to The effect of glaciation upon the vegetation of Europe and divert the company between or after the courses. Long North America, especially the former, was profound, not only tables, easily movable for dancing or displays, were in genefal use.

with reference to the present distribution of the flora, but also

as‘vegards the extinction of old and the evélution of new types.

In: Europe the high mountain chains, which extend in an eastarid-west direction, together with the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian séas, prevented the migration of the flora southward. In consequence an’ immense number of plants formerly components

of the" European! flora, particularly that north of the Alps; was obliterated -by"gldéiation.. Numerous types of trees ‘iow found only in North America and ‘Asia were abundant in Europe in

The seats were mostly plain benches or stools without backs. If

a fixed bench ran along one of the walls, there might’ be’pantlling at the back against ‘the coldness of the stone behind, and’a ‘cushion

or two. There were a'few folding chairs, generally of metal, Hgb and easily portable,'and perhaps a ‘chair of state. ‘Sitting updn the floof, on'cushions or'rugs, was long customary. The coffér with hinged ‘lid was the: chief provision for storage.’ It served as3

packing case during transit, and afterwards as a genétal repositoty. It also formed a'supólementary bench or table. ‘Thete was 3

INTERIOR DECORATION

Prare I

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BY COURTESY OF (3) THE DIRECTOR OF THE VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, (4) THE SPANISH ART GALLERY, LONDON, (6, 7) THE DIRECTOR OF THE HISTORICAL MUSEUM, BASLE, (8) THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART, NEW YORK, (9, 10) DR. FORRER, “SPATGOTISCHE WANDMALEREIEN UND WOHNRAUME"; PHOTOGRAPHS, (1) BROGI, (2) GIRAUDON, (5) KUNSTAN-

STALT STENGEL

AND COMPANY

G.M

B.H.

EUROPEAN

FURNITURE

AND

INTERIORS

l. Room in the Royal Palace, Palermo, Sicily, known as the apartment of King Roger ||.; an interior of the Norman period (12th century) showing the influence of the earlier Saracen rulers of the island. The room, though small, has an effect of great splendour. The walls are lined with marble, with animals, birds and trees above in gold and coloured mosaics 2. "King René seated at table," from an illuminated manuscript at Chantilly, showing a French interior of the first half of the 15th

century.

The wall

is decorated

with

tapestry,

and

covers the floor. A screen of rushes is placed between and the fireplace behind it

3. Meer oak cupboard century

rush

matting

the king’s seat

with Gothic tracery, iron locks and hinges, 15th

4. Spanish sideboard carved with Gothic tracery, 15th century

5. Bedroom with walls and ceiling of wood, from the Landesfirstliche Burg

OF THE

MIDDLE

AGES

at Meran, South Tirol.

AND

RENAISSANCE

A Tirolese interior of the 15th century

6. Room from the Speisshof, Switzerland, Historical Museum at Basle

about

1580,

re-erected

in the

7. Room from the **House of the Cardinal, 1540, re-erected in the Historical Museum at Basle. A chandelier hangs from the rafters and on the left is a table with the hinged top open, revealing the space used for storing writing implements or toilet articles

8. Room with wood floor and carved and panelled walls and ceiling, from a house in Flims, Switzerland, 17th century

9. Courtyard entrance of the castle of Issogne, Val d'Aosta, north Italy; wall bench, linen-fold panelling, and frescoes below the vaulting, 15th century 10. Kitchen of the Castle of Issogne, Val d’Aosta; stone, and the ceiling is vaulted

the floor is paved with

Prate I

INTERIOR

DECORATION

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BY COURTESY OF (2, 9) THE GERMAN (8) LEVY AND NEURDEIN

RAILROADS INFORMATION OFFICE,

EUROPEAN 1. "St.

Ursula's

dream,"

by Vittore

Carpacolo

(7) THE METROPOLITAN

INTERIOR (1455—1526).

DECORATION In the

Academy, Venice, showing an Italian interior of the late 15th century. The bed is uncurtained; the windows have leaded glass lunettes

2. Fireplace in the large hall of Weikersheim Castle, Germany. century

3. The Hall of Exchange in the Collegio del Cambio Perugia, panelled

century.

and frescoed after the Italian

In the right foreground

Early 18th

(Bankers' Guild), manner

of the 15th

is a desk of carved and inlaid

walnut, The frescoes are by Perugino (1446-1523)

4. A room in the Borgia apartments of the Vatican, known as “Sala del Credo.” In the lunettes are paintings of the Apostles, with clauses of the creed. 2 The walls are painted, and benches of coloured mar-

ble fill the window embrasures. 15th century

MUSEUM

OF ART,

NEW

OF THE

YORK; PHOTOGRAPHS, (1, 4, 5) ANDERSON,

(3, 6) ALINARI,

RENAISSANCE

5. Fireplace by Benedetto da Rovezzano

(1474—1552),

the National Museum, Florence 6. A room in the Davanzati Palace, Florence. walls is painted in imitation of hangings. the 15th and 16th centuries

Italian.

Now in

The lower section of the The furniture dates from

7. Bedroom from the Palazzo Sagredo, Venice, c. 1718. Now in the Metropolitan

gilded.

Museum

of Art, New

York.

The

bedstead

The ceiling is attributed to Gasparo Diziani

B. Mantel-piece

in the castle of Fontainebleau.

Period

is carved and

of Francis T.

(1494-1547) 9. The “Golden Hall’? in the Town Hall of Augsburg, built 1616-20 by Elias Holl. It is 113 feet long, 59 feet broad and 53 feet high. It

is decorated with paintings and is profusely gilded

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13th century England, when, walls were bare

hangings Wet

the--usual means of. decoration resorted to by nobles onm burghers. , "a Ro ox pote ete Flanders tapestries, known by the generic name of “arras,. WER the: most favoured material. Solidly woven, they’ resisted the

wear and tear of the: mevings. of great mem who;had vanem

estates but little gear. Tapestries were hung curtain-wise, frem wood-quartering set, with tenterhooks, and, such have recently

been renovated at Tattershall castle, where, except. for suchhang:

as 1s seem à » Theinfivenge of the: well known cabinet-makers.of: England in | ings, the brick, structure of the.walls was visible,

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Prate VI

INTERIOR DECORATION

BY COURTESY

OF COUNTRY

LIFE,

LONDON,

FROM

TIPPING,

“ENGLISH

HOMES”

ELIZABETHAN

AND

l. The hall at Plas Mawr, Conway, Carnarvonshire, an admirable example of an Elizabethan interior. The patterned ceiling is a product of

the school of plasterwork that flourished during the last quarter of the

16th century; the upper part of the chimney piece is also plaster 2. Ceiling in the about 1615.

of floral

great chamber at Herringston, Dorchester, dating from It is barrel-shaped and worked with an elaborate pattern

scrolls,

heraldry,

feature of the period

beasts and

birds.

The pendentals are a

JACOBEAN 3. Stone

INTERIORS hall

screen

at

Wollaton

Hall,

Nottinghamshire,

erected in 1580 by Sir Francis Willoughby.

a

residence

Elizabethan

4. The large or north drawing room at Levens Hall, Westmorland, showing 3 decker chimney piece, plaster work ceiling, and north window with roundels of painted glass. The family heraldry is carved In the compartment above the fire arch; Queen Elizabeth's arms in the

centre panel of the top compartment, and the date 1595 in that to

the right.

The family heraldry also provides the motifs of the six

painted window ovals

INTERIOR

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BY COURTESY

OF COUNTRY

LIFE, LONDON,

FROM

TIPPING,

“ENGLISH

ENGLISH

HOMES”

INTERIORS—SYON

l. View of the great dining room at Syon House, Middlese x, east, showing the niche system (introduced to add to the senselooking of width), the columned

apse and the enriched ceiling.

The chimney

piece

of white marble, and the room is painted yellow with gilded enrich-is ments. Designed about 1762 by Robert Adam

HOUSE

AND

CHATSWORTH

2. The great chamber at Chatsworth, Derbyshire. wainscoted from floor to ceiling, and the decorated with carvings in Grinling Gibbon's and Watson in 1692—3. The ceiling was famous contemporary Italian artist

Late Stuart style. 1t is more important panels manner by Lobb, Davis painted by Verrio, the

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PLATE VIII

DECORATION

EARLY ENGLISH]

INTERIOR

DECORATION

479

in a picture from an illuminated manuscript produced in Flanders | hill. One example, however, there is of the previous reign; a for Edward IV. (c. 1475) of Richard IL feasting (PI. V., fig. x). |noble chimney-piece in the Gallery at Cobham, wrought in 1599 There is no arras, but the king sits under a rich textile canopy, | by Giles de Whitt (PL V., fig. 2). similar material also hanging in front of the musicia ns’ stand. It Plaster Ceilings.—Although wainscotings became was not as yet customary to have walls lined with oak, but it the normal | wall treatment under Elizabeth and her immediate success ors, yet was used, and used richly, by the highly expert carpenters of the | there was still Scope for tapestry, and also for enriched plaster day for such structural purposes as hall screens and room parti- ceilings consisting of narrow interlaced ribs forming geometrical tions. They had not, however, taken in hand the chimney-piece, | patterns. There are interesting examples at Plas Mawr which remained in the domain of the mason who in in Conthe 15th | way, where the same material forms the century bestowed pains upon its adornment, as we upper part of chimneysee in the pieces, the royal arms indicating a date in Elizabeth's reign (Pl. great heraldically carved chimney-pieces at Tattershall, dating VL, fig. 1). Such treatment of ceilings was often very elaborate in from about 1438. those distinctive Elizabethan rooms, the long gallery and the The Development of Panels.—It was not, however great , until the chamber, which were often upstair s; and greater height was days of Elizabeth that this feature became monumental, often | obtained by using the roof space and forming a barrel-shaped reaching from floor to ceiling by the use of superpo sed classic | ceiling. They exhibited not only the narrow ribbing columns. By that time framed wood linings had become usual, |time, but also the broad bands with enriched soffits of Elizabeth’s that came in and to them gradually became applied the word “Wwainsc ote,”

| under James IL, one of the finest examples which had originally merely meant foreign oak. Such panelling, | ringston, near Dorchester, dating from about of whicfh is at Her1615 although only common under Elizabeth, occurred under Henry | The Staircase also reached its final development(Pi. VL, fig. 2). VIIL, the finest iin this reign.

and amplest surviving example being probably | In mediaeval times, the winding newel form, sometimes that in the Gallery of the Vyne, in Hampshire, where of wood linen- | but more often of stone and never very wide fold carving is enriched by various heraldic badges that the enable us | had prevailed. But under Elizabeth it had or easy: in gradient, begun to be placed ‘to date it from between 1515, when Wolsey was made a cardinal, | round an ampler open space, and its decorative and 1530, when Catherine of Aragon fell into disfavour possibilities being (Pl. V., recognized, enriched newel posts, balusters and fig. 4). strings were given to it. The idea was developed under her successor, The same treatment, extending also to ceiling beams and one of we may still see in such Essex houses as Paycocke’s, and panels, | the finest, both in planning and execution, is the great stair at in Cogges- Hatfield, dating from 1610. The newel posts jare richly carved hall, the Granby inn at Colchester or the manor house at | and surmounted with figures so skilfully i Bere, in wood that Tolleshunt Darcy. they may well be the work of Colt himself. Frescoing walls still continued, but most of it ere, and at Audley has perished. | End, the halls, which still rise to the roof, Some late 15th century representations of Bible are fitted with great scenes have | screens embodying all that is best and finest lof the native design recently been found under whitewash at Cothay, in Somerset, | and workmanship of the time. while of Elizabeth's reign a very good example has í come Jones and Webb.—A feeling for classi¢ reserve at the White Swan inn at Stratford-on-Avon, depicti to light was now ng scenes | spreading and the Late Renaissance from the story of Tobit. period might well have begun under Charles I. but for the politi Hangings, however, still held the premier place as wall difficulties that cover- | checked the zest for fine building. Returning ings. In the early part of the r6th century, the ftom Italy in 1615, number of sets | Inigo Jones introduced the new style in the Whitehall banqueting belonging to kings and great men was almost countles s, and a | house and the Queen's house at. Greenwi Vyne inventory of r 541 gives sets in almost every ch, and, despite English room of the | conservatism at first and the Civil War and thé Commonwealth house, including the chambers of dependents. A somewhat simi- afterwards, we find his hand and that of his kinsman and associlar effect was reached by cheaper means, and there was a great | ate, John Webb, at Wilton, Forde abbey and Thorpe, all houses output of zempera—painted or “stained” cloths, using the same | altered or built by men on the winning, or Parliamentary, side. subjects as tapestry—histories from biblical or classic Sources, |Also built under the Commonwealth verdure of woods and fields with beasts and birds is Coleshill, }the earliest and and decorative | one of

subjects passing from Gothic

the best of English country seats where

to Renaissance motifs. this “counterfeit arras” has perished, but a set display Nearly all | Italian tendencies prevail. ing the Acts | Wood was less used than stone of the Apostles survives at Hardwick hall and stucco by in Derbyshire. wall linings, and Inigo

dlassic form and

he Italians for Jones favoured their matej lals as well as Webb, however, and other Englishnyen were Continent, but such woven fabrics as more velvets and northern in taste and native in training, damasks for the wealthy, and “sayes and bayes so that twood held its " for modest folk, | own in England till the end of the century. But it had to conform found a place on the walls as well as for bed and window hangings. | to the new taste. Wains cotings must no longer be frigmed sheets The Elizabethan joiner, when his emplo yer’s purse per- | of small panels in the natur e of movable linings, but Moust simumitted, enriched his wainscotings with carvings and inlay and late wall structure. They beco completed the circuit of the room with elaborate ture! oak door-cases | Vast panels thrust forward from me architecture, not Xurni and chimney-pieces, using for them class their stiles by bolectioth. mouldic orders and Renaissance ings are made up of motifs. For the most part their work shows an two or more boards skilfully chosen and uncultured vivac- worked to hide the joint, even ity rather than a trained head and where they are left unpairhted 7 , as hand, a knowledge of the by Grinling Gibbo ns, the amazing delicacy of whose carw ing in anatomy of the human form being very rarel y displayed. Typical | lime is obscured by paint but stands out excellently against of the English craftsmen of the day is an the Levens in Westmorland. The chimney-piece,great drawing-room at oak background. x) dated 1 595 (Pl. VI, The Age of Wren is characterized by an architectural treathg. 4), is of three-storeys, Doric, Ionic and Corinthian orders ment as of stone but with the natural surface showing, as ‘exing piled one upon the other. Elaborately framed wainscotings, emplifed by the admirably fariched door-cases, plaster-work ceiling and designed and executed joinery not roundels of painted only in churches and public buildi In the windows complete the ngs, but in houses, such as re. Belton and Chatsworth (PI. VIL, fig. 2). Screens continued to be used inpictu The passage from the halls even when they were early to the late Renaissance of single-storey height, as at Cuckfield period is a change not only of style in Sussex, dated 158r (fig, but of spirit. During the former, the craftsmen retained much of 5). The vast majority were of oak, stone was sometimes used, as at Woll but in important houses, the independence of action of mediaeval times, and the work was aston (PL VI, fig. 3) and free and forcef ul but not fine. But perfec Montacute, Ston

Leather, embossed, painted and gilt, was less used in England | their manner. than on the

e and even marble were used for chim “pecially in James I.’s reign when Max Colt, “carver ney-pieces, in wood and stone of all his majesty's |

works," provided three marble chim neyfor Hatfield; and we find similar ones at Knole and Brams-

tion, reached through discipline, is the essence of the classic spirit. The design becomes more learned and includes detail which it was the business of

the executant to follow obediently but skilful ly. The field of individuality was closing for the craftsman, but that of dex-

480

INTERIOR DECORATION

terity was opening wide.

Thus mastery of technique is a dis-

tinguishing feature of men like Gibbons and Hopson, Strong and

Tijou,—natives and foreigners who combined to give finish to

the decorative output of the later Stuarts. i The Georges.—Even during the last years of that dynasty, and still

more under the Georges, the wood-workers found their domain contracting. Italy exerted more and more influe nce, stone and stucco became more used. Vanbrugh began and the

Burlingtonian school continued the stucco, stone or marble halls

of the new Whig palaces, such as Castle Howard and Blenh eim under Anne, Houghton and Holkham under George IT., Syon and Heveningham under George III. Stone treads and iron balust rad-

ing, Moreover, were introduced for staircases, although in this

feature the joiner long retained the lead. Under Charles IT. the work is solid with massive balusters or open panels elabor ately carved under a broad hand-rail, as at Wolseley or Sudbury. But with the 18th century it becomes lighter and more delica te, although equally finished and rich, as at Beningbrough in VorkShire where, in 1716, we find the joiner still supreme, and are enchanted with the quality and quantity of the wood-work as it appears there and in so many doorways and chimney-pi eces, shutterings and framings in George II. houses, like Godmersh am in Kent (Pl. VIIL., fig. 2).

Elsewhere, however, it is the Italian stuccoist who holds sway

and riots in the exuberant ornament that was so wonderfully reached by experts in id stuc, and of which we find outstanding examples at Mere'worth and Houghton (PL VILI., fig. 1), Moor

Park and Clandon.,

Textiles.—But üt was not only stone and: plaster that was

driving the joiner from walls of rooms. Textiles became increasingly popular. ; For them as for wood the late Renaissance demanded a more architectural handling and they were no longer

hung but stretched’ on frames fixed above a dado. Not only tapestry but cut welvets and damasks were favoured, and a single order for these given by the duchess of Marlborough in 1707 was for over 3,000 yards. Indian calicos and other lighter and less expensive textiles were also fashionable, but the most serious, because fstill cheaper, competitor to wainscoting was paper, which, from being a 17th century rarity became a prevalent feature as thie 18th century progressed. During George III.s reign we notice}an increasing lapse from classic restraint and Palladian purity{ French rococo joined Italian baroque and was sprinkled with ivagaries that passed for Chinese and Gothic. Ceilings, chimngy-pieces, door-cases were apt to be so treated, the most astonishing being perhaps those at Clayden in Buckinghamshire. Adam.—Regerve rather than excess, however, was the English characteristic, so that baroque and rococo gave way to the choice delicacy and glean lines that were the basis of the style of Robert Adam, who {commenced his London practice in 1759. With him the despotism of the architect over the craftsman was complete. No detail/of decoration or furnishing escaped him: his rapid and precise dÉaughtsmanship covered the whole ground. The executant must noft depart one hairbreadth from the drawing supplied, but he musjt have reached exquisiteness of technique. This spirit, joined

#o that of severity and restraint in design, makes the per-

fectiong reached during the last decade of the 18th century alittle chilling and inanimate, implying a ceremonious rather than a domestic life. (dam's clients, however, were for the most part the Italy-

[EARLY ENGL;

integral part of the wall structure. “Gothic.”—-So

much

logical completeness,

such Wholly m.

emotional perfection, was bound to stir up Opposition, especi at a time when a new romantic school was forming and the cul of the picturesque was gathering strength. Although architecture

and decoration—indeed, life itseli—were treated much as play-

things by Horace Walpole, and Strawberry Hill was a mere copfectioner’s romance, yet his influence was large and helped ig

turn James Wyatt from the classic manner, which he had practised as successfully as Adam, to pseudo-Gothic. For decorating it was a singularly unfortunate introduction. What in the mediaeval interior was not movable was truly structural, and not imitative of it; so that not only did flimsy wood, plaster and paper decor. tions entirely miss the Gothic spirit, but they were Introduced as the trappings of houses designed to meet entirely different habits of life. Thus, when the 19th century was reached, a plas

that, in the disposition of parts, the shape of rooms, the height

of ceilings, suited the habits and views of the day, might be decked out by the architect in what he was pleased to think was

Gothic or Tudor, Roman or Greek, French or Italian, Egyptian or Indian. The last half-century has been largely a struggle to get free

from this welter of confused aims and misunderstood styles, hu with all this there is too great a reliance on the past, on the

halcyon days of the Renaissance styles, early and late. The best craftsmen are employed on mere copying, on the production of “Period rooms,” so that among decorative Styles we cannot iw clude one of to-day. See ARCHITECTURE; FURNITURE; Lamps; Licutinc; Mem WorK; Rucs; TAPESTRY; TEXTILES. BIstiocraPHy.—Sir R. Blomfield, History of Renaissance Architeture in England, 1500-1800 (1897); J. A. Gotch, Early Renaissance Architecture in England (1914) ; H. A, Tipping, Grinling Gibbons amd the Woodwork of his Age, 1648-1720 (1914), and English Homes, 1066-1820 (1920-28); A. Bolton, The Architecture of Robert and James Adam, 1758-1794 (1922) ; M. J ourdain, English Decoration and Furniture, 1760-1820 (1922), and English Decoration and Furniture, 1500-1650 (1926); L. Turner, Decorative Plasterwork in Great Britain (1927). (A. Tr)

ENGLISH FURNITURE

English furniture has developed in the course of many yeals from a few primitive types to highly specialized varieties; it has evolved gradually with the progress of civilization. So little survives from mediaeval times that information must be sought in contemporary references, supplemented by representations ig illuminated manuscripts. Most of these miniatures are of foreign origin; but they are reliable evidence, for the governing classes

were Continental in their habits and the equipment of their homes The furniture made for them was strongly influenced in form and

detail by Gothic architecture, and was freely embellished with

colour and gilding. English oak was the chief material, but softer woods were also used.

The furniture usually found in important houses consisted of

beds, chests, cupboards, tables and stools. These objects are the basic types from which the whole evolution can be traced. Wik and inventories prove that draped bedsteads were treasured possessions of mediaeval householders, prized not for the rough frame work but for their magnificent woven and embroidered hangings.

These draperies consisted of a celure (back), tester (canopy), curtains and valances, and on them were worked scenes from thé chase and many fanciful devices. Such beds were placed inthe

loyfing leaders of an aristocratic and artificial age, who affected “ palatial and ultra-architectural treatment of interiors, as shown principal living rooms, and served as couches in the daytime. “by the painted wall surfaces broken by pedimented door-cases, Chests were almost the only receptacles for valuables. They sur the columned apses and the scooped-out niches that we find in vive in large numbers, many 13th century examples being pre the hall at Kedleston, the dining-room at Syon (PI. VII., fig. 1) served in churches. The fronts, formed of stout planks, are and the saloon at Heveningham. In smaller and more domestic into wide uprights, plain, or carved with grotesque monsters. rooms, if the materials differed, the same practice obtained. Even Later specimens are sometimes carved with arcades of Gothic carpets were made to reflect the ceiling design. Wood was never

left unpainted, and although the joinery is still admirable, the enrichment is often in composition or in pewter. We find specially designed temple-fronted book-cases, and specially painted pictures set In specially designed frames fixed and painted to form an

tracery, scriptural incidents or mythological subjects. Larg travelling chests, called "standards," were bound with iron and

covered with leather. At the ends were iron handles through wli

ropes could be passed to facilitate transport. The guild of cofferes

already existed in Edward III.’s reign, but could not prevent the

INTERIOR DECORATION

Pans IX

DEP

PME

iia

TOT

ene

PN

TN isse

ctrca bi ba FS: [SPA toni

BY COURTESY

OF

(1, 3, 5, 6, 7) THE

^

DIRECTOR

ENGLISH

OF THE

VICTORIA

AND

FURNITURE

l. Armchair of carved walnut; about 1680.

ALBERT

MUSEUM,

OF THE

2. Gate-leg table of turned

oak, the legs having wooden hinges, 2 ft. 41% in. in height; about 1660. From Capt. N. R. Colville. 3. Armchair of oak inlaid with various woods; about 1600, 4.

Carved

oak chest of the late 14th century;

(from Sir

"-

(2,

4) COUNTRY

LIFE,

LONDON

14TH, 16TH, AND Edward Barry).

FROM

17TH

"DICTIONARY

OF ENGLISH

FURNITURE"

CENTURIES

5. Draw-table of oak, with inlaid frieze and carved

legs: about 1600. 6. Court cupboard of carved and inlaid oak; dated 1610. 7, Bedstead of carved walnut with inlaid frieze; 1593

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INTERIOR

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PLATE X

DECORATION

INTERIOR

DECORATION

PLATE XI

RR

Ww Wr

ee Ll P « Mw.

Prya

hn

BY COURTESY

oF

(1) THE

AND ALBERT MUSEUM,

-

TRUSTEES

OF

MS

THE

(4) P. D. GRIFFITHS

E

4 >

LADY

w

à

c£

LEVER

COLLECTION

ENGLISH 1l. Commode

veneered

About 1770

2. Ens

of carved

elham

with

satin

mahogany.

wood

About

and

decorated

1745.

3. Commode chest of drawers. Carved mahogany. 4. Bureau

From

AND "COUNTRY

FURNITURE with

About 1755

marquetry.

Mr. J. Thursby

About 1760

bookcase veneered with burr walnut , gilt carved. 3. Mirror in frame of wood, carved and gilt by Chippendale.

LIFE,"

About 1730

in the rococo style.

Probably

LONDON

(2,

OF THE

7,

9)

“COUNTRY

18TH

LIFE,”

LONDON

(3,

5, 6,

8)

THE

DIRECTOR

OF

THE

VICTORIA

CENTURY

6. Cabinet on stand; walnut decorated with floral marquetry. About 1685 7. Side table with marble top, carved and gilt. In centre is figure of a child seated on a shell.

Designed by William Kent. About 1730. Houghton Hall 8g. Armchair of carved walnut, upholstered in red velvet. About 1720 9. Side table with classic decoration; carved and gilt. Designed by Robert Adam about 1770. From 20, St. James's Square, London

EARLY ENGLISH]

INTERIOR

DECORATION

importation of Danzig chests and others of overseas work. On a dresser in the hall flagons and cups were displayed. It was an open framework of shelves with a projecting lower portion, sometimes

481

works of art from the East had begun in Tudor times, but was

of small account until after the Restoration. Then the taste became widespread, Evelyn and other observers reporting their enclosed by doors. Side-tables, used for serving meals, were in the friends’ houses to be furnished with Indian screens or panelled form of a chest mounted on legs, the panels pierced with Gothic in the finest Japan—descriptions implying oriental lacquer. Such tracery. What are now termed cupboards were known as ambries. things came from China and were soon imitated in England, the Existing specimens are of massive construction with cross divisions art of covering furniture with successive coats of coloured varnish and foliated iron hinges. Until the close of the middle ages chairs being known as “Japanning.” New forms of decoration coincided were lofty, throne-like structures, few in number and regarded as with a multiplication of types. Day-beds, a form of couch with symbols of authority. The ordinary seats were chests and stools an adjustable end, with benches sometimes fixed to the walls. Mediaeval dining tables little later, sofas and winged arm-chairs served for repose. A with back and arms carried comfort a stage were of trestle construction, boards of oak or elm resting on a further, patterned velvets mainly of Venetian origin and damasks series of central supports. They had removable tops and could woven at Spitalfields being the usual coverings. Bureaux with an be stored away after meals. Two examples still remain at Pens- enclosed desk were produced towards the end of the century, hurst Place, the tops, nearly 3oft. long, being supported on carved and chests of drawers came into general use. Mirrors were no trestles with cruciform feet. Towards the end of the 1 5th century longer rarities after the duke of Buckingham had established his panelled framing, or joinery with mortice and tenon, replaced famous the primitive method of construction in which planks split or quered glass-works at Vauxhall, the frames being carved, lacor inlaid. Charles, says Evelyn, “brought in a politer way sawn from the log were roughly put together with pegs. At this of living which passed to luxury and intolerable expense.”” An period panels were often carved with the linen-fold pattern, so example of this extravagance is afforded by the tables, mirrors called from its resemblance to linen arranged in upright folds. and stands covered with embossed silver with which the king’s Tudor.—In the Tudor period the character of domestic furmistresses furnished their apartments. Fashions succeeded each niture was gradually transformed by Renaissance influence, carved other with great rapidity. Chairs show these changes most clearly, profile heads, dolphins and foliated scrolls appearing on struc- developing in a brief period from mere seats into movable decoratures which at first remained Gothic in design. Henry VIII. emtion. They had floridly carved crestings and stretchers, while for ployed Italian craftsmen for the equipment of his new palaces, the structural members many varieties of turning were employed. and their works were imitated by native craftsmen with less Scrolled legs were general under Charles IL, being succeeded by delicacy and finish. Walnut, more readily carved than oak, was taper and baluster forms a few years after his death. In beds of extensively used, and, though much of this furniture was imported, this period, the tester, back and posts are covered with material there are undoubted English examples. Under Elizabeth inlay pasted on to the wood and matching the hangings. They were of consisting of arabesque or chequer patterns in coloured woods enormous height with elaborately moulded cornices, and had came into vogue as decoration. There was a notable increase in ostrich plumes or vase-shaped finials at the corners of the tester. domestic comfort. Harrison about 1587 reported that costly furni- The ornate stands and side tables of this age demand special ture had descended “even unto the inferior artificers and manie notice, for, profusely carved and often gilt, they are among its farmers.” By this time the style had emerged from foreign tutemost striking productions. lage and assumed a character distinctively English. It is coarse The 18th Century.—At the beginning of the 18th century a and vigorous, prodigal of material and floridly enriched. The new style arose. It was simple and digni&ed, based upon curved round arch figures prominently with corbels and grotesque term- lines and entirely admirable in its insistence upon form. The inals; foliated strap-work fills the decorative areas, while nothing cabriole-shaped support with claw-and-ball or paw feet was a is more characteristic of Elizabethan furniture than vase and salient feature, and early in the development stretchers were melon-shaped supports of prodigious girth profusely carved. In eliminated. This style depended largely upon finely figured walthe matter of new types there was little innovation, but capacious nut veneers, and made but a sparing use of carved ornament. presses were provided for clothes and mirrors of glass in highly Chairs changed their character completely. They had hooped decorated frames were becoming known at court. Chairs were uprights and vase or fiddle-shaped splats curved to support the more abundant. They had panelled backs and joined frames and back, beauty and comfort being combined in the design. Tallcould be readily moved; in some the woodwork was hidden by boys, or double chests of drawers, cabinets fitted with shelves, rich fabrics. Beds were now constructed of wood throughout, a and bureaux in two stages met the demand for greater convenience, panelled back and posts supporting a ponderous tester. Joined while the types already known were much improved. About 1720 tables with “draw,” or extending, tops ousted the trestle variety; mahogany began to supersede walnut as the fashionable material, while court cupboards and buffets laden with plate adorned every its consumpt ion increasing with the repeal of the heavy import well-appointed hall. duties. The furniture which had prevailed during Anne’s reign . The Stuart Period.— This increase in domestic comfort conno longer satisfied the governing class, whose taste inclined to tinued until the outbreak of the Civil War. From James I.’s ostentatious magnificence. They demanded something grandiose reign padded and upholstered seats survive, and at Knole may be and cumbrous, suited to the great Palladian houses for which it seen chairs of X pattern covered with silks and embroidered was destined. Inspired by the contents of French and Italian Velvets. A very remarkable specimen, in which Charles I. is said palaces, such furniture was largely the production of architects, to have sat during his trial, has lately been acquired by the William Kent, the most celebrated, having travelled in Italy Victoria and Albert museum. Such chairs show Continental in- before starting practice. The basis of design was classical, the fluence, but the main output was insular and traditional. The manner baroque. Columns, architraves and entablatures are style gradually lost its rude vigour. Structural members dwindle prominent with terminal figures and heavy scrolled supports, in scale, and fanciful carving degenerates into stock patterns, masks and acanthus scrolls being favourite ornaments. The caryeked out with applied bosses and spindles. The furnitur e of the ing was bold and often masterly, gilding, freely used, enhancing Protectorate is, for the most part, severe and angular. the effect. At Houghton, Holkham, Rousham and elsewhere, After the Restoration there was a striking change. The exiled Kent’s furniture may be seen in its proper environment, gilt court on its return introduced French fashions, and austerity mirrors and side tables with sets of chairs and settees covered gave place to lavish display. Furniture became lighter, more with patterned velvets recalling the vanished splendours of that highly finished, and_ better adapted to varying needs. Walnut opulent age. was the favourite material. Joinery developed into accomplished About the middle of the century a fresh wave of French craftsmanship and new processes appeared, notably veneering wide fashions produced an Anglicized version of the rococo style. It Surfaces with thin sheets of wood into which floral pattern s in was romantic in conception, fantastic and capricious in the manmarquetry could be inserted. The passion for colour found an ner of its working out. It banished the straight line and made even better outlet in lacquer decoration. The importation of asymmetry a cult, while it sought its ornament in conventionalized

482

INTERIOR

DECORATION

renderings of natural forms—shells, foliage and flowers. With it flourished the Gothic and Chinese "tastes," the one a travesty of

a forgotten art, the other an attempt to exploit the furniture of an unknown land. Architects with a hold upon tradition were now challenged by cabinet-makers who produced their own designs. Chippendale, Ince and Mayhew, Johnson, Manwaring and many others published illustrated trade catalogues to advertise their wares. Of these works Thomas Chippendale’s Director is the most important. It affords an apt summary of contemporary tendencies, and is at once eclectic and original. Chippendale borrowed his rococo from Meissonier, but depended much on his own fancy for what he deemed Gothic or Chinese. It was an age of specialization, and many varieties of furniture are represented, ranging from extravagant side-tables for saloons to ingeniously contrived little objects for bedrooms. In the explanatory notes mahogany is generally recommended, but many of the designs are to be japanned or finished in burnished gold. The contents of such houses as Nostell and Harewood (where the original bills are preserved) show Chippendale to have been a craftsman of genius; though he had many rivals scarcely less gifted. His name affords a convenient label for furniture of the middle of the 18th century—mostly the work of other hands. The classical reaction, which set in shortly after 1760, swept away tortuous forms and terminated licence in design. Robert Adam, whose name is inseparably associated with this movement, had, like earlier architects, studied in Italy. His fastidious taste rejected the art of the later Renaissance, and sought inspiration in the remains of antiquity. When he was given a free hand, furniture and decoration were included in his architectural schemes. What he could achieve when “the subject was great and the expense unlimited” Syon and Nostell remain to show. They are brilliant essays in the “antique style” with the contents carefully theught out in relation to their surroundings, This furniture makes a learned use of classical ornament, but paterae, husks, rams’ heads and urns are less eloquent of the change than the symmetrical structural lines. At this time commodes and other objects intended for display were often of satinwood with marquetry or painted decoration, the latter copied from designs by leading artists. The style as Adam conceived it was too severe and scholarly to be widely appreciated. It was modified by contemporary cabinetmakers, and may be seen translated into popular terms in Hepplewhite’s Guide (1788). In the process the furniture has lost its ceremonial character, and become simple, homely and graceful. It retains, for the most part, symmetry of form and excellence of proportion. Heart and shield-shaped backs on chairs and settees with tapered and fluted supports are noticeable features, while feathers, wheat ears and shells are prominent in the painted or inlaid decoration. The movement was towards lightness and elegance, and furniture of a distinctly feminine kind is found represented in Sheraton’s Drawing Book (1791). This period saw the highest technical accomplishments, and a degree of specialization hitherto unapproached. Sheraton's designs for fitted washingstands, dressing- and work-tables are triumphs of ingenuity and eminently practical. At the end of the century a strange archaeological revival, based upon a closer study of Greek, Roman and Egyptian remains produced the Empire style and that modified version of it which became current in England. The chief English exponent was Thomas Hope, an amateur designer with some antiquarian knowledge; but when the fashion was taken up by cabinetmakers the results were often woefully incongruous. They essayed the production of Roman bookcases and sideboards undeterred by the lack of classical precedents, and to what depths of incongruity they descended may be seen in Sheraton’s later publications and in George Smith’s Household Furniture. Rosewood was used with bronzed or gilt ornament and metal inlay, sphinxes and animal terminals being favoured as supports. With the last phase of this style, prolonged into the reign of George IV. and growing ever more grotesque, the making of furniture ceased to be an art. The introduction of machinery ended the craftsman’s direct responsibility and robbed him of pride in his work. The old tradition of sound craftsmanship lingered, and may be detected even in the

[EARLY AMERICAN

cumbrous productions of the Victorian age, devoid though be of any aesthetic interest. It may confidently be said that the

domestic arts were never at lower ebb than during this period The Pre-Raphaelites and Modern Movements.—Early jp

the ’60s the complacent acceptance of mass embellished with tm. gainly ornament was challenged by the movement

inaugurated

by William Morris and a group of pre-Raphaelite artists, sought to rehabilitate craftsmanship, and with this end in view their sympathies were naturally drawn to the middle ages when craftsmanship was in its prime. Their work is distinguished from the earlier Gothic revival by greater understanding and a regard for modern needs. That it can wholly escape the charge of being “sham mediaeval” cannot be maintained, but it was sincere ip intention and provocative of thought. Morris realized part of his ambition, for he trained a company of enthusiastic and highly skilled craftsmen. The propaganda spread in spite of the prevailing Philistinism, and a marked improvement in taste was the result. For an appreciative few Morris furniture continued to be

made, and, among the inheritors of his traditions, Ernest Gimson deserves honourable mention.

The movement was, however, too

typical of a time when the arts had become disastrously divorced from life. It found its chief supporters among a cultured minority

with exclusive standards and a somewhat superior attitude; in consequence there was more than a hint of the “precious” and artificial about the furniture made for them. A notable result of

pre-Raphaelite activities was to direct attention to the striking merits of furniture which had been banished by the Victorians, It was rescued from obscurity and the collecting habit spread, rapidly producing a huge crop of “fakes” and reproductions. This

habit has undoubtedly determined the character of English furniture for nearly 50 years. It has stifled originality and degenerated too often into an unintelligent craze, while it must be held responsible for the cheap and horrible travesties of historic styles, which under the label “period” have done so much to degrade

public taste. In the last decade there have been unmistakable signs of a renaissance, and something of the Continental enthusiasm for modern furniture has spread to England. In the preductions of this new school fitness for purpose is again considered and great attention is bestowed on the material, many beautiful, exotic woods being used with striking effect. Ornament is unobtrusive (excepting in the more fantastic examples), and even mouldings are kept in subordination. The forms are often eccentric, reflecting the latest aberrations of fashion; attempts te produce jazz or cubist furniture are not unknown. At the present day the opportunities are quite severely limited by the inevitably high cost and also by lack of patronage. The outlook is promising, both on account of the genuine originality sometimes displayed by

designers with a firm hold upon tradition, and because fine craftsmanship is again highly prized. The 2oth century will possess a distinctive style when a. few gifted designers emerge to consolidate the gains already won. (See ENGLISH FURNITURE; LACQUER; TUDOR PERIOD; STUART PERIOD.) BrsrroGRAPHY.—D.

Marot, Oeuvres

scription ... de PEmpire

(1712); J. B. Du Halde, De-

de la Chine (1735, Eng. trans. 1741);

B. Langley, Treasury of Designs (1740-50); W. and J. Halfpenny, New Designs for Chinese Temples (1752) ; T. Chippendale, The Gentleman and Cabinet-Maker Director (1754; 1762) ; W. Chambers, Designs

of Chinese Buildings (1757); T. Johnson, One Hundred and Fifty

New Designs (1761); Ince and Mayhew, The Universal System Household Furniture (1762-63) ; M. Lock and H. Copeland, A New

Book

of Ornaments

(1768) and A New Book of Pier Frames, ett.

(1769) ; R. and J. Adam, The Works in Architecture (1773) ; Heppe-

white, Cabinet Maker and Upholsterers Guide (1788);

The Cabinet-Maker

and Ubholsterer’s Drawing Book

T. Sheraton,

(1791); G-

Smith, Designs for Household Furniture (1808) ; H. Havard, Dictionnaire de PAmeublement (1887-90); P. Macquoid, A History of

English Furniture (1904); C. Simon, English Furniture Designers ol the Eighteenth Century (1905); F. Lenygon, Furniture in Eng (1914, rev. ed., 1924) ; A. T. Bolton, The Architecture of Robert and James Adam (1922); P. Macquoid and R. Edwards, The Dictronary

(R. En.)

of English Furniture (1924-27). EARLY

AMERICAN

PERIOD

|

.

im The heritage of the American colonists on their first arrival the New World was the household art of the countries from W

they came: English in Virginia and New England, Dutch

INTERIOR DECORATION

Prate XI

aay apie Dos Agr e

^

um

NE

BY COURTESY

OF

(1, 4) THE

METROPOLITAN

MUSEUM

OF ART

EARLY

NEW

YORK,

(2, 5) THE

AMERICAN

PENNSYLVANIA

INTERIORS

l. Reproduction of the Capen house kitchen, Topsfield, Mass., 1683, an ex-

ample of the earliest type of American architecture. The fireplace opening, With a round brick oven at one end, extends over half the length of one wall. The clock near the chest is of the 17th century type and is run with Weights. The chair seats are covered with coloured linen. 2. Kitchen from

MUSEUM,

AND

Millbach

(3)

THE

PILGRIM

TCMITES

WIRE PEL

SOCIETY

FURNISHINGS

house,

Lebanon

county,

Pennsylvania.

1752.

3. Armchair

of

Governor John Carver, and early spinning wheel. Plymouth. 4. A "Connecticut chest" with carved tulip decoration. The drawers are of oak,

and the top, bottom and back of pine. 1675-1700. with incised carving. Upper Connecticut valley

5. “Hadley chest"

Prate XIN

INTERIOR DECORATION

BY COURTESY

NETII

OF

(1) THE

METROPOLITAN

MUSEUM

OF ART,

AMERICAN 1. Mahogany

NEW

YORK,

(2, 3) THE

FURNITURE

block front secretary desk with carved shell ornament

and bracket feet, an example of the style developed by John Goddard, Newport. About 1763

PENNSYLVANIA

OF THE

MUSEUM

COLONIAL

PERIOD

2. Carved mahogany highboy with cabriole pediment, Philadelphia, about 1770

3. Sample chairs in the Chippendale

legs

style, made

Randolph, Philadelphia, about 1770

and

scrolled

by Benjamin

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INTERIOR PLATE XIV

PLATE XV

INTERIOR

DECORATION

LLL

a `

UE Cr

f, ` nioae

&

t

-S

s

o4

4 EN

E

- “itt

S.

BY

COURTESY

OF

(1)

MISS

N.

D.

TUPPER,

(2,

3)

THE

METROPOLITAN

AMERICAN 1. Mantel from the Gore House, Waltham.

MUSEUM

OF

ART,

FURNISHINGS

NEW

EARLY

About 1799 to 1804

2. Mantel by Robert Wellford, with the Battle of Lake Erie as the decorative motif.

Adam style, about 1815

YORK;

MALE IARM

M

d

PHOTOGRAPH,

IN THE

e

(4)

CHARLES

19TH

WHITENECK

CENTURY

3. Mahogany sofa with lyre ends by Duncan Phyfe. New York, about 18 00 : : 4. The oval drawing room at Lemon Hill, Philadelphia, 1798. An Interioior

+ in the Adam style

EARLY AMERICAN]

INTERIOR DECORATION

Swedish at first on

the Hudson and the Delaware and Germ an as well as British in Pennsylvania, Even among the leaders few Iepresented courtly fashion. Hence, the earliest household decoration and furnishing, after the period of rather the character of the common primitive makeshifts, reflected houses of the small towns and rural

483

| constitute “highboys”), its high curv ed chair-backs; and that of ' Queen Anne, with its cabriole legs, succeeded one another some | score of years after the advent of these monarchs in England. To | this time we may refer

the first creation of the American types ' of Windsor chairs many of districts abroad. In these the fundamen them so different from the Engl ta] elem ent deep ish into the 17th century, in Germany | W i even

into the

18th, was a survival of the art of the middle ages, with its structural emphasis, its simp le forms derived from materials, tools and use. Thus in New England in the 17th century we find the clayfilled walls, the timber houses rough ly plastered and whitewashed,

or perhaps wainscoted with wide mould ed boards, which, standing

before the advent of this Wood. Certain types were also created in America, most notably the "blo ck front? secretaries and dressexposed, supported on heavy ing tables made by John Goddard moulded summer-beams; the of Newport about 1763, with great alternate projections fireplace was likewise spanned with and recesses crowned by carved a huge beam, and was devoid shells. The heyday of the colonial style at first of any moulded frame. The came in effect Was one of homely the Revo lution and coincided broadly with the fifteen years before solidity, achieved by the frank revela tion and elaboration of ence. the Chippendale influChiefly with the publications of every element of the construction. Abraham Swan the forms of the French rocaille, with its chara Into such houses in New England of Jacobean oak, a few pieces doubtand Virginia went furniture reached America and were used cteristic pierced shell work, in the adornment of the great less brought over by the leaders, but the vast majority made in America after remembered models, from the abundant suppl y of native woods, chiefly American oak and pine. vertically, served as the partitions.

The joists of the ceiling were

They included chests, court and press cupboards, trestled tables and forms and, at first, but a few chairs of the turned or wainscot types. One variety of armchair with turned spindles has acquired in Amer ica the name of Carver chair from the familiar

example belonging to John Carver, still Other characteristically American types are two forms of chests found in the Connecticut valley: the “Connecticut chest” of the lower and the panels carved with a valley, with Jacobean spindles tulip decoration; the “Hadley preserved at Plymouth.

chest” further up the valley, of which the frame likewise has incised carving. In the English colonies the furniture, as well as the woodwork, was generally left without Paint or other finish. Inventories of the better 17th-century houses reveal that they contained much in the way of hangings, including tapestries and

silversmiths of the time, and pewter by local pewterers. Similar in their generally mediaeva of the Pennsylvania-German hous l character were the interiors es, where, however, there was à rich colour, in the painted deco ration of the chests With motives of birds, tulips and other traditio nal elements, the illuminated texts, birth and Marriage certific ates which hung upon the walls . it was the German colonists also velopment of pottery, as in the who first made any high dePennsylvania slip ware, with similar decorations, and in glas s-making, as in the wares of Stiegel and Wistar. The familiar hand-woven coverlets, chiefly

baroque scrolls, with seats and backs upholstered in needlework or with panels of cane. The ches t with a drawer or drawers then made its appearance.

The founding

of fine Georgian models. On the eve of the Revolutionary War the influence of the Adam style began to be seen, as in the garlanded ceilings at Kenmor e and those executed for Washi gton after the outbreak of hostilities. The war postponed any widespread effect until after the resumption of relations in 1783. In the following year John Penn , of London, in building his littl e box, Solitude, on the banks of the Schuylkill, gave the first complete example, and others were furnished in the great Philadel phia mansion of the Binghams and the country seat of William Hamilton, the Woodlands, nearby. The style was introduced in finch who found an apt follower New England by Charles BulMcIntire. Mantels and doorways in the Salem carver, Samuel were adorned with delicate composition ornaments, at first imported from London, late r made also by American craftsme n like Robert Wellford of Phil adelphia. Ingenious adaptations of the Adam motives, made with gouge and auger, were widely employed about 1800. Owing to war but little characteristic Adam fumiture was made in America, but the developments of Hepp elwhite and Sheraton were earl y and eagerly adopted. The later Georgian models also gave in-

Penn in 1682 brought to America for of Philadelphia by William the first time the decoration with France of the period of Wren, which had not a little fine F tench furnitur e of the Louis XVI. great fire and had been developed appeared in London after the Style was imported to America, as, for inst by ance Wre , by Washington n and Dani el Maro and t by such residents in Paris as Jeff inthe reign of William and Mary . Its influence only became wide

Cassic frames, and the wall migh t even be

divided, in the finest houses, by pilasters. In the staircase the open string, with carved ts at the end of the steps, was adop ted; the balusters and newels, more slend

ister, and James Swan of Bost on.

erson, when American minBoth Sheraton and Directoire

Jefferson, destroyed by the Brit ish the White House under Monroe, in 1814. In the refurnishing of é t 1817, it was furniture of the French empire and Restorat abou

ion which was imported. The er, were richly turned, often in vari ed spira ls. the high : , chaste : interiors ; of the American alut became the favourite wood in es Ses of the Greek seded by mahogany in the middle of the furniture, until super- | revival and persisted until the advent of Victhous orianism. century. The style v 4m

and Mary, with

of | See TEXTILES; Rucs

; METAL Work; Lamps; LIGHTING its trumpet turnings in legs of chair s, |TAPESTRY. : dressing tables and chests of draw ers (now elevated on frames (F. Kı.) to BisrrocRAPEY.—For the interior architecture of houses see R. T

4.84

INTERIOR

DECORATION

Halsey and E. Tower, The Homes of our Ancestors (New York, 1925). W.R. Ware, The Georgian Period (Boston, 3 vols., 1898-1902, sth ed., New York, 1923); D. Millar, Measured Drawings of Some Colonial and Georgian Houses (New York, 2 vols, 1916 ff.); F. Kimball, Domestic Architecture of the American Colonies (New York, 1922); L. French, Colonial Interiors (New York, 1923). For furniture and crafts see I. W. Lyon, Colonial Furniture in New England (Boston, 1891, 2d ed., 1924); L. V. Lockwood, Colonial Furniture in America (New York, 2 vols., 1902, 3d ed., 1927); E. Singleton, The Furniture of our Forefethers (New York, 2 vols., 1901); F. C. Morse, Furniture of the Olden Time (New York, 1902, 2d ed., 1917); W. Nutting, Furniture of the Pilgrim Century, (Boston, 1921); C. O. Cornelius, Furniture Masterpieces of Duncan Phyfe (New York, 1922), and Early American Furniture (New York, 1926).

CHINESE The Chinese mode of living is quite different from that of the Japanese, though in art and culture the two peoples have many points in common. The difference in the diet and the difference in the style of their dress, manifest themselves in their houses and in their mode of living. Unlike the Japanese, the Chinese house interior is profusely decorated and furnished with chairs, tables, beds, stands, cabinets, screens, etc. In an ordinary Chinese house the guest room, which opens to the courtyard, has a bare tiled floor, and is furnished with tables and usually 8 chairs. The place of honour in the room is marked by the long table, kew £a; (bridge table) placed at the middle against the back wall where hangs a painting or a pair of hanging scrolls bearing quotations from the Classics or both. Upon the long table are placed vases of flowers and objects of art. Directly in front of it one invariably finds a square table named, for good luck, Pa Hsien Tai (table for the eight Taoist immortals). On either side of it is placed a square stool or an arm chair for the honoured guests. The back wall is often formed of a screen partition, bing mun, behind which there generally is another room with a sacred shelf, sun low, where deities and the spirit of the ancestors are enshrined high up near the ceiling; and below on the floor a place is provided for the god of the earth, te chu sun. In homes of the common people, the sacred shelf constitutes the main feature of decoration in the house, usually occupying the most prominent place above the bridge table in the guest room. In the houses of the upper class, there is more than one guest room or parlour. There is an entrance room, through which the guests pass into the courtyard and into the che tai, a small room where the visitors may change their street attire into a proper dress before appearing in one of the guest halls, ka dong. By removing the chang chou (the long windows), the latticed panels between the pillars, the guest hall is thrown open to the courtyard for the entire length. Some homes are provided with another guest hall, kwa ia; (flower parlour), which may be used

[CHINESE

shelves and contains, not only the bed of ample size, but a table chairs and a cupboard. The usual furniture is in the dark. heavy. precious hardwood, izu-£an.

The chairs with seats of the same

material, and backs with an inset of tai-lee-sek, marble from

Yunnang province which has natural pictorial marking like the paintings after the “southern school,” have their simple dignity, Little square stands used for serving tea are often topped with wan-sek, the ordinary marble. Both tables and chairs are often inlaid with mother-of-pear in floral and bird designs, but the best wood is preferred to he

admired in its natural state. Some pieces are lacquered in various

colours, while others are lacquered and carved or incised, many of them presenting impelling dignity by their shape, size and tasteful decoration; some of the best examples may be seen at the Victoria and Albert museum. With the massive furniture, heavy carved beams on the wooden ceiling, and panels of latticework that shut off the glare of the courtyard, the room is restful. Superb workmanship in decorative art, with inlay of ivory, coloured horns, mother-of-pearl, etc., on a lacquered ground is shown on the tall folding screens used as partitions in the room. A singlepanelled screen, ping-mun, also called a devil screen, is placed at the entrance to the house to act as a buffer. While it prevents a view of the interior from outside, it serves to deflect, or ward off, according to the Chinese superstition, the evil spirit. BiBLI0GRAPHY.—Herbert Cescinsky, Chinese Furniture; S. W. Bushell, C. M. G., Chinese Art; Dr. C. Ito, The Decoration of the Palace Build. ings in Peking.

JAPANESE The refinement of simplicity, which finds its aesthetic ideal in

the natural beauty of materials and is compatible with the austerity of architectural form, is a keynote of a Japanese houseinterior. The Walls.—Rooms of various sizes are made by the use of

walls and fusuma (sliding partitions of wood covered with patterned or painted paper or silk), running in grooves, which usually measure some 6 ft. in height and 24 to 45 ft. in width. Shoji, the equivalent of windows, consist of light lattice-work to which is pasted white translucent paper, .and also slide in grooves. The grooves run between squared wooden posts, and allow the screens to pass one another, rendering hinged doors unnecessary, and permit of the screens being lifted out altogether, thus throwing a series of rooms into one great apartment. The “filling” (varying in height from 2 to 44 ft.) between the beam over the screens and the ceiling, is generally, in good class houses, of latticed wood or bamboo or of pierced woodwork called ramma. The

carving of the ramma, often elaborate in palaces and mansions, should be in harmony with the character of the room. Those in (not sliding screens like the Japanese ones) are employed so that certain palaces and temples in Kyoto are exquisitely carved, some two or more rooms may be used as one big room when a large having intricate designs in pierced work carved from a single party is entertained. The main wall, as well as the side ones, are piece of wood, showing flowers and birds on one side and trees generally covered with many paintings or scrolls mounted as the and animals on the other, and, in one instance, a flight of wild Japanese kakemono, which are changed periodically so as to keep geese over swaying pampas grass so carved that a painting of them in harmony with the season. In some houses tapestries take the silver moon on the upper wall of the next room may be seen their places. The parlour generally has a tiled floor and the bed- through the openings in the carved ramma, beyond the dark room a wooden floor, rugs or carpets being very seldom in evi- silhouette of the carved flying birds. The Floors.—The floor boards are completely overlaid by dence even in the wealthy homes, though the country has long tatami, straw mats some 2 in. thick and measuring about 3 by 6 been famous for the production of splendid rugs. The cabinet, tall and dignified, with shelves and chest of ft., each one covered by finely woven grass matting. The size of drawers inside the swinging doors, occupies an important position the room is computed in mats, according to whether it needs in the living rooms of the Chinese house. No less significant is 44, 6, 8, 10, 12 or 124 mats to cover the floor. In ordinary the bedstead, which is often a work of art in its design and dwelling houses a room is seldom larger than 15 mats. The spotembellishment with carvings and paintings. The bedstead usually less matting of closely-woven fresh reeds, bound on the long sides combines a small compartment to contain a chair and a table. of each mat with a narrow strip of dark linen, together with their Sometimes the bed is enclosed in a large portable structure with pale green colour neutralized by light filtering through the paper a ceiling, the wooden parts being decorated ‘with beautiful carv- screens, and their fresh fragrance, appeal strongly to natives of ings, generally lacquered over. The curtains for the bed, during Japan, and those who can afford it continue to preserve this freshwinter, are of double satin, and in summer either of white taffeta ness by reversing and changing the top matting from time to or of very fine gauze, both of which are open enough to permit time. The Ceiling.—The ceiling is equally simple. In an ordinary the air to pass through and close enough to keep out mosquitoes

for the banquet as well. Whenever possible, the screen partitions

and other insects. The structure is a room in itself, being provided with a door and generally so large that it is fitted with

dwelling house it is about 9 ft. from the floor and formed of thin,

slightly overlapping panels of unpainted wood about 12 to 18

INTERIOR DECORATION

Prate XVI MEER

ee

T E EPI

Pan HH E

T

(Wedus cee a

Å

s V

ER ere ERR

MH HUN LLEN NW

V

BY COURTESY

OF JIRO

HARADA

JAPANESE

HOUSE

1. The Prince's room in the shinden of the Ninnaji, near Kyoto 2. Suite of rooms in the shinden of the Ninnaji 3. A guest room in Mr. Tomita’s home in Nagoya

INTERIORS 4. A room in the home of Mr. Miyazaki, tea-master in Nagoya

S. A guest room in Mr. Hirai’s home in Kyoto 6. A room in Mr. Ichida’s home in Kyoto

Prate XVII

INTERIOR DECORATION

SOGN &Sa

4

m

BY

COURTESY

OF JIRO

HARADA

JAPANESE

INTERIORS

AND

FURNISHINGS

1. Interior of the Keiun-tei in the garden of Mr. Tomita at Nagoya 2. A room in the house of Mr. Nishimura, Kyoto, showing tokonoma (raised alcove) and adjoining recess with shelves

6. Small bamboo cabinet of the Sth century.

3. Shelves and cupboards in a room in the Katsura detached palace

7. Tokonoma in the home of Mr. Hatton, Nagoya.

:

se

Household

Museum

In the Imperial

Household

Museum

painting)

4. Guest rooms in the Temple Hokyoji

5. Pierced screen of paulownia wood, carved by Kobayashi Jodei.

Imperial

of Fujiyama

is complemented

The kakemono

ee

by a few sprays of red-

berried nandin in a bronze basin, and by bon seki (a miniature landIn the

Scape made with stones and sand)

JAPANESE}

INTERIOR

DECORATION

wide, whose monotony is broken by parallel strips some 18 in. apart running across the ceiling, and invisibly nailed from above. Since the grain of the wood forms part of the decorative scheme in the interior, the boards are cut from a single tree to insure uniformity. The panels, 6 ft. in length, must be so laid as to suggest continuity of the grain across the room, and must be carefully planed by the carpenter, for they are to be admired in their natural state and no flaw in human handicraft must be

from which the light comes, lacquered boxes for paper and placed, further decorating the where they are to be arranged general scheme

485 in front of the tokonoma, where other writing paraphernalia can be room. What articles, and how and in these places to conform to the

and to afford the maximum of decorative value | and aesthetic pleasure, has been an aesthetic study for centuries. I In the time of the Shógun Yoshimasa (1444-73) a set of systematic rules of decoration had already been formulated, and is allowed to spoil their intrinsic beauty. All the woodwork of the still followed by some of the "tea-men." There may also be interior must in the same way be left virgin, unspoiled by colour- placed by the low writing-tab le in the master's room, a portable stain or paint, with occasional

exception of the narrow framework of the fusuma, and the tokobuchi—a piece of wood several inches

in width and thickness running along in front of the tokonoma (see below) to its full extent—both of which may be lacquered in

harmony with tatami borders or the tokonoma post. This is often made from a tree having some special tint or texture, or else made to conform to its natural curve of growth. A portion of its

1

i

lacquered set of shelves or a cabinet carrying a few objects of

art for his delectation in moments of leisure. Thus simplicity of display is fully compatible with wealth of possessions. The same object is rarely seen twice in a dozen

visits. Hundreds of beautiful things may be stored in the treas-

ure-house. Guided by his knowledge of the character and temperament of his guest, his recollection of the impression made by the bark or the worm-eaten marks beneath it, or the stump of a things on view on former occasions, a Japanese host will select branch or some other witness of nature, is preserved, thus focus- from his store, always aiming at giving pleasure and a delightful sing on the Zokonoma—the most important feature of a Japanese surprise to his guest. interior—the significance of the design of the room. Sometimes a skirting of strong white or grey paper about a The Tokonoma.—This slightly raised recess or alcove, usually foot high as a protection against the broom is seen on a Japanese built into tbe wall at right angles to the verandah, is commonly wall, but it is never papered or covered up by paintings, although from 2 to 3 ft. deep and 41, 6 or 9 ft. wide proportionately to a gaku, consisting of a painting or a few written characters the size of the room. In it are displayed the only independent expressing or suggesting a poetical sentiment or a truth may be decorations in the room. A painting or a set of two or three framed above the fusuma. Plastered earth and sand, variously kakemono (hanging-paintings mounted on rollers) occupy the back coloured, and mixed with boiled funorz (Gliopeltis furcata) to give wall of the alcove, and a vase holding the ike-bana or flower ar- solidity, is used for the interior surfaces of the lath and plaster rangement (g.v.), an incense burner or a wood-carving, or some walls, and the pounded shell of little fresh-water bivalves or iron other art object, is placed on its floor. They must each be in filings is sometimes mixed with the sand for their decorative value. harmony with the season or with any special occasion which may Plaster in tint of smoke, mist or cloud, often has a hard and befall, and are chosen with a view to give pleasure to an expected resistant surface. guest. There may be many kakemono put away, especially in Furniture.—In the Japanese house the furniture is conspicuold families, but only one is shown in the tokonoma, selected to do ous by its absence. There is neither table nor chairs such as are honour to the guest. If he is likely to enter other rooms having used in China or in the West. Everybody removes his or her a fokonoma, a, distinctive atmosphere must be created in each, shoes, sandals or clogs upon entering the house, and even slippers while emphasizing some central harmonizing idea, The flower or house sandals are left outside in the wooden corridor. People arrangement and other decorative art objects must be complemen- sit, or rather kneel and sit back on their heels, on the tatami tary to the painting. Thus a kakemono of the moon may be on flat square cushions . Each person is provided with a tabako-bon accompanied by a few sprays of autumn flowers, artistically (smoking set) in summer and a hibachi (charcoal brazier) in arranged in a bamboo basket, and a small bronze censor in the winter. In some houses to-day gas or electric stoves are fitted, shape of a cottage, thus suggesting a fishing hamlet on a tranquil but the brazier is the characteristic means of warming a Japanese evening of autumn. Or a painting of a waterfall may hang in interior It may be of bronze, porcelain or wood decorated with the tokonoma, while on its floor is placed a rectangular bronze lacquer, and is furnishe d with a pair of small tastefully designed vessel well filled with water and with a few water-lilies appro- and ornamented fire-iron s like chopsticks. Braziers are usually priately arranged in it. In a small‘room the same atmosphere small and portable. may be achieved by showing a narrow kakemono of a waterfall Beds may be arranged on the floor in any room at night by in a roughly-executed black monochromatic style and placing on piling up wadded quilts, which are folded and packed away in the floor a single white blossom of Hibiscus mutabilis, half-con- the closet, after airing in the sun, in the morning, leaving the cealed among its freshly moistened leaves, displayed in a slender room clear for other uses during the day. A tansu, a chest-ofbronze vase with very cold water so that the moisture collects drawers in plain paulownia wood, may betray the sleeping apartoutside and trails down over the beautiful patina, creating the ment, but this, too, is often placed in the closet, shut off by fusuma, suggestion of a miniature pool on the round flat lacquered board So às not to be seen. A clothes-horse is as a rule also placed out of liquid black upon which the vase stands. of sight behind a screen. Byobu, ornamental folding screens of Thus the guest is brought to feel the very spray from the 2, 4 or 6 panels decorated with writing or painting, or carried out waterfall, transforming the confined room into a fitting place in in plain gold, serve many a convenient purpose, warding off which to entertain visitors on the hottest of summer days. An draughts or hiding an undesired view. A single-panelled screen alternative to the painting is a couple of lines of poetry on which called tsuitate is usually placed in the entrance-room, to allow of the guest may meditate on his entrance into the room. His atten- the front skéjz being pushed open without exhibiting the interior lion may next be led to a bon-seki (g.v.), a tiny landscape con- of the house to a caller. Even the dining-room is without any trived with natural stones and sand, on a black lacquere d tray at sign of its use, a collapsible low table being brought in for family the foot of the kakemono. It may call to mind some familiar use at mealtime, or food being carried in and served to each scene—a rocky promontory with an island near by, and beyond individual on small low lacquer tables called 0-zen, kept in the e moonlit sea the dim contours of undulating hills. The poem kitchen cupboard when not in use. on the kakemono (for calligraphy is also treated as a pictoria l In the summer heat the ordinary fusuma and shoji are freart) thus quickens with new meaning for him and he can share quently removed and replaced by others specially made of rushes e poet’s inspiration. or split bamboo to permit the passage of any breath of wind that Other Decorations.—In a companion recess adjoining the may happen to stray into the house. The floor, too, may be lokonoma are chigai-dana—shelves arranged stepwise—for tonal art objects and there is usually a small cupboa addi- covered over with rattan matting, to impart coolness: and misu rd with or blinds made of split bamboo or rushes, may be suspended from appropriately decorated sliding doors either above Shelves. There may also be a low writing-place builtor below the the eaves to give shade and privacy. at the side Simplicity the Keynote.—Japanese rooms are thus extremely

486

INTERIOR

DECORATION

[MODERN

simple, though neither barren nor cheerless, since every detail of | have accustomed the great, ever uncritical majority to buy the form and colour is studied and harmoniously combined, even the | most hideous objects with indifference, and to lose all sense of joinery being so perfect that not a trace of a nail can be seen natural beauty and of individual form. This process has been anywhere, with the result that, at least for beauty, the empty room carried so far that business men have made serious good work is sufficient in itself. There is a sense of relief in this absence impossible through their so-called "cheap goods." People with of furniture. These neat and airy rooms, so restful and so spacious, taste draw back from all this and collect antiques and generally may be opened at will for their entire width onto a tiny landscape end by forgetting that it is their duty as it was formerly the duty over which the eyes delight to wander. Or they may be closed up of the court, the nobles, the Church, and later, of the educated completely, leaving the occupant alone with an iron kettle (an classes, to foster a high standard of art and craftsmanship. The object of art in itself) gently boiling on the charcoal fire, over- modern movement has begun by realizing this and by searching looked from no window, but companioned by the silhouettes of for à way out. Ruskin and Morris both sought to awaken hubamboo or pine branch in the garden forming countless attractive manity to the beauty of good craftsmanship and genuine material patterns on the creamy paper of the shéjz. In such a room may be and gradually introduced old techniques and methods of work. admired an ancient tree of stately form, growing in a pot placed As a result of their teaching wonderful works in metal, leather, in the tokonoma, and still retaining its dignity in its miniature ceramics and textiles were produced, but were often created in byform. Freed from the distraction of furniture, the men and women gone styles, although freely adapted. Ashbie, in 1885, went farther, in the room recapture their dignity and significance. In the sim- and produced in the Guild of Handcraft excellent modern silver ple form in which the exigencies of construction determine the work—although again in antique form; the development of the art refined and reserved quality of the decoration, and the furnishings of the Scot Mackintosh into a wholly new, original style is amazare reduced to the essentials, while the subtly blended colouring ing. His rooms in pale grey wood and violet strutts and emand the constant variety of the view on which it can be made to broidery adorned with rose-red flowers, his original lighting and open build up a composition of delicate lines and graceful forms, glass, his heating apparatus, indeed every detail, were remarkable —

the Japanese interior well fulfils its main and consciously recog-

nized functions: it supplies an appropriate setting for clean and simple living. (See JAPANESE ARCHITECTURE; JAPANESE SCULPTURE; Woop Carvinc: Far Eastern; BON-SEKI; BON-SAI.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—E. S. Morse, Japanese Homes and Their Surroundings; R. A. Cram, Impressions of Japanese Architecture and the Applied Arts. (J. Han.)

MODERN Any consideration of the principles of interior decoration as determined by modern needs should contain a comparison between the work of past periods and that of our own. Sound development does not lie in à mere production of novelties; the whole circumstances of the age must lead in a natural line to the new form. We know that the mentality of our ancestors up to the beginning of the roth century was unblushingly feudal and that comfort itself was sacrificed to the ideal of magnificence. Anybody with any pretensions had to be magnificently dressed, and his personal status was indicated by a suitable uniform, with abundance of gold, long tassels and richly-chased arms. Obviously the rooms in which these men lived had to be equally magnificent. Tradition, assured culture and discipline, combined with great naivety, made this possible. We can still imagine to-day that the craftsman found salvation only in producing work of the best possible quality; but unfortunately we have no conception left of how it was possible to make him so happy that he produced one new form after another, with amazing power, and how he was able, without any serious friction, to carry all his contemporaries with him and, lacking all the enormous modern facilities, yet to spread his ideas throughout the whole civilized world. The age which followed gave the bourgeois its chance, and simplified everything; the form aimed at was more severe, but despite this limitation there was an increase of refinement, and a great and sometimes fantastic, but suggestive multiplicity of design appeared. This phase ended in Europe about the middle of the 19th century, and was succeeded by a dreary, generally mistaken imitation of earlier styles, intolerant of all else, and fatal to all genuine tradition; corrupting work and making it superficial, and leading at the best to falsification. Although the modern man is changing completely in externals, concentrating increasingly on practical matters, and would

certainly not dream of appearing in the street dressed up as a knight, in the decoration of his home he thinks it necessary to copy some form of decoration belonging to the past: In this way he loses all feeling for real development and, through his art studies which are generally superficial, loses all touch with living art. Work is mostly performed by machinery. The engineer is preoccupied with his constructive, calculating methods; nothing is sacred to him; he can make anything to order; and the products inflicted on us, the cast-iron stoves, benches and furniture, the frst motor-cars, the pots and pans and small artistic products with a superfluity of decoration in every style, the Gothic not excepted,

and full of promise. Innumerable forces bestirred themselves. seeking to evoke, in England first, then in Holland, Germany, Austria, France and the Scandinavian countries, a great, genuine

and creative artistic movement, to help the world to reach again a unity of culture.

At first there was no radical transformation.

The business interests were alarmed, disconcerted, and, without

established precedents to guide them, were quite bewildered. The public also was wholly bewildered, in part enthusiastic, in part misunderstanding and prone to severe criticism. Yet the movement, which ended with the beginning of the war in 1914, succeeded in making itself felt everywhere. To-day we are confronted by a movement which is even stronger and obviously more radical than before, which has learnt in the hard school of war and poverty which followed it many a lesson which the great public needed and was bound to receive. In modern interior decoration, now that it is recognized that decoration alone, even new forms of decoration, admittedly does not create style, the great need is to have a complete apprehension of the task in all its essentials. We no longer think in terms of pillars, window-frames and decorations of one type or another; we create the room to be the environment of some particular human occupation, adapted for that purpose, simple and concise in form, and constructed in the best and most suitable materials. Manifold needs give birth to equally manifold expressions and we are beginning to construct with comparative certainty, without the risk of committing blunders. A city of to-day looks quite different from the city of a hundred years ago. With the help of new technical contrivances we can achieve quite unprecedented effects, because our first care is to apply all the methods of sanitation, to preserve correct proportions in design and to consider the needs of every class of society. In a modern house bacilli lead a sorry existence; light and air flow through every corner and cranny. Glass, manufactured in every possible way, set in metal, to economize space on the frames, is replacing white walls. We attach the chief importance not to the lighting apparatus but to the light, and similarly we care more for the heat than for the heating apparatus.

First consider the living rooms, The size and height must partly

depend on circumstances; the height must not be less than 7 ft. 6 in. to 8 ft. 6 in. One wall—facing east, south or west should be glass from ceiling to floor; many rooms, such as the breakfastroom, winter garden, living rooms and day nurseries may have two or even three sides of glass. Double glass, reaching to the

floor and lined with water-tight material, may provide a space for

flowers, plants and perhaps statuary. Besides having a door in the

inner glass wall there could be a second door in the outer glass

leading on to a balcony or a terrace. There should be no pernickity curtains, blinds, etc., but some suitable means of protection against excessive sun. In first class work the actual wall surfaces

are sometimes left without further treatment with fine effect. In rooms already built and wall surfaces already treated, it 5

MODERN]

INTERIOR

DECORATION

487

necessary to treat the wall aright, making it either washable or which conforms with our feeling for space, is to put slashes of the porous, according to how the room is to be used. As room space colour of wall and ceiling on to the window wall. If we put in any is usually scanty, we cannot have walls which will be too easily exceptional piece of furnitu damaged or stained during occupancy. re, part of the wall, against which it The whole wall treatment, ; Stands, can be coloured to suit. It will sometimes be admirable up to the ceiling, should be uniform. Above to all, there should be no cover walls and ceiling altogether with stuff, giving an effect of wainscots. Wood panelling is highly effect ive—choice woods, warmth. It is prefera ble to do this first with stuffs in a single beautifully grained, the doors not unnece ssarily large, and un- colour. framed, and simply cut out of the wood. In small rooms the ceilDisposition of Furniture.—We shall, ing also may be executed simply in wood, a then, need less and treatment which gives less furnit ure in our living-rooms, since everything put there a good, severe, solid effect. Parquet floors, covered with self- merel y for show, or, worse still, for symmetry, must coloured linoleum or with loose carpets are often vanish. The carpets are needed where the occupants are likely to desirable; fireplace, burning wood or coal, should be retained on account of spend long the ventilation which it affords, of the hours comfortably seated at ease. The carpet beauty of the open flames, s might be self- and of its warmt h in autumn and spring. The inmates of the house coloured and of good material; if they have broad or narrow will love to gather round it of an evening, or stripes of dark colour marking the border, in chilly weather, they look well and will and this is the chief place in which seating accommodat certainly never be thought tasteless. Whatever ion, of cupboards are re- varying size and shapes, is to be placed. A low occasional table, quired in such a room should be built into the wall, and writin galways placed beside a chair, never in front of it, tables, etc., should be made to tilt up and disapp and electric lamp, ear into the wall. and perhaps a small Collectors will perhaps add glass cases, reachi moveable stand for books, newspapers, and ng to the ceiling, to possibly light refreshments, will meet all needs. As most, if these walls, and may even keep pictures in possithis way; for to use ble, all article s of furniture should be fitted into the walls, valuable pictures or statues as wall decorations is we danger ous to hardly need any more furniture in the living-rooms beyon occupants and the safety of the pictures or objects. d chairs and Heating and Lighting. The approved method of heating door tables, except perhaps a flower-pot for a beautiful, large inplant. The latter should preferably be a lime to-day is by hot-water pipes, which give a or an oak, fairly certain regular warmth. As they require large radiating surfaces, and rather than a palm or anything else alien to native flora. Cut on flowers in

a beautiful glass or a good piece of pottery, account of the not excessive warmth they impar set in the be built into the lower parts of the wall— t, they might also right place, give great pleasure. The first law of the decorative suitably isolated, of artist is to make life cheerful and full of joy by the simplest poscourse. Light is best admitted through the windo w, hence this sible means. The time is gone when human beings were supposed should be well lit up in the evenings also—perha ps by ceiling lights to find pleasure in dark, cellar-like rooms with heavy carpets and between the double glazing. This form of illumination will usual ly festal plush curtains, innumerable ugly suffice, but a number of contact points at carefu knick-knacks such as lly chosen places, balustrades, candelabra withou including some in the floor for standing lamps t lights, flowers with artificial dust , etc., of the most to imitate the genuine, wardrobes and chests varied types, will prove serviceable. The age of pompous lamps Bedrooms and Bathrooms.—The bedr of drawers. and chandeliers, etc., hung from the ceiling, oom must be light, is up the space and blind the eye. It is impor past; they break again with one wall all windows, the beds on simple steads of tant to note that wood or metal, not unnec essarily large. The light must be behind candle-light burns upwards, and does not dazzle if the brilliance is the head, so that one can read easily, lying on either side. A roomy not excessive. It was natural and necessary, in an cence, to assemble countless candles in a cluste age of magnifi- easy chair with a small table beside it, a footstool, small, light r; the flickering tables on either side of the light, surrounded with polished crystals of glass, bed was capable of cines or a glass of water, will on which to place books, mediproducing great effects. The form of illuminati be sufficient furniture, if we have on produced by made arrangements for every imitation candles of frosted glass and electric thing else in the bathroom and lamps in the shape dressing-room. of fames—a lifeless copy—is one of the most incredible blunders The bathroom has become increasingly in taste. Gaslight, as an open flame, or better important. It is impos, with mantle, also sible to do without it, and for various reasons it is desirable burns upward. Its characteristic mark is the suppl to y of the fuel allow it ample space. It is used, by means of pipes. The pipes must therefore not only for washing and bathing, be given specia l but for gymna stics and massage and all sorts of exerci prominence. Electric light is used in incandesce ses. It must nt wires; its char- allow of quick and thoro acteristic note is that it hangs downward, and ugh cleansing: both walls, floor and on a cable. This is ceiling should therefore be tiled. Furniture, if any, should be of the proper position of an incandescent lamp, and it is an abuse to enamelled metal glazes , as in the operation room of a hospit place it sticking upward, for the sake of some al. favourite lamp. The The walls and ceiling may, of course, also consist of enamelled modern age of incandescent lamps offers the most varied and origi- metal glazes, and the colour, besides white, a very pale grey, or, nal combinations and will prove particularly serviceable in public for a lady, even a pale pink shade. The dressing-room may have localities and large apartments. The candle contin ues and will cupboards for all purposes aroun continue to be employed as a table illuminati d three walls, with one wall on at meal-times, on wholly mirror, in front account of its comfortable, and at the same of which should be a small table for toilet time decorative effect. articles and the like (See LIGHTING AND ARTIFICIAL ILLUM and a low, wide chair, painted in dull oil INATION.) or varnished. The lighting should be built Colour Treatment of Walls, etc. into the mirror wall on —In deciding on the wall either side, the floor covered with heavy mats or carpets, as treatment of a room the governing facto it r is always its purpose will often be trodden by bare feet. It should be possible to see or use, which should determine its form. In many rooms which that the floor of the bathr oom is warm, not ice-cold, without emare only meant to be occupied for short periods, and are made of ploying bath-mats. In small houses, however poor, at least Masonry, the colour of the paint, in parti a cular, can work wonders. sheltered table-nook must A beautiful bright cinnabar red, pale yello be arranged. w or green have a cheerAttic s, Kitchen and Pantry.—The attics, kitch ful effect, A deep red will certainly have en and pantry, a solemnizing, pale blue the latter next to the dining-room, should also be clean, easy and grey a tranquillizing, effect. Very light to brown , pink or pale wash, and in every way practical in their arrangemen Violet are generally suitable for ladies ts. No ma? . Blue is a very good chines or imple colour for resting rooms and bedroomsrooms ments whose shapes are in any way decor ative or . A white wall, as such, ornate should be used. ma beautiful, natural material, will The stands for kitchen utensils should be always remain in favour, open, the light ing from the ceiling, which, like the walls, and will invariably prove a good convenient should be background for furni- covered with simpl ture and stuffs. In considering any other colour, the chief point is paved with plain e white, undecorated tiles. The floor should be whether 2 warm tone (yellow, brown, red) preferably in pale grey or black. Pans, or a cold one is re- jam pots, etc., are slabs, QUred. This is where most mistakes are made better put away in a separate niche than in a ; a very strong sense refrigerator. Colour is necessary if the whole effect is not to be spoiled by Assis tants must be train Woods and stuffs which do not harmonize in colour. A new idea, but as colleagues. They ed to look on themselves not as servants must be lodged in a-nice, cheerful room

488

INTERIOR

DECORATION

and have their own recreation and dining rooms, to avoid any feeling of inferiority. It is advantageous, if only on practical grounds, to have each of these rooms in a different colour. Obviously there

must be ample facilities for bathing and washing.

To turn to the nursery, it is well to separate the day from the night nursery. Where there are many children, a sickroom with all modern comforts would be very desirable. In the day nursery everything which might cause injury, such as sharp curves and angles, must be avoided. Special regard must be paid to the childish habit of crawling about. Tables should be round and the edges of the surface and the feet rounded off. Toys may be kept in cupboards which can be opened easily and without danger. Walls and ceiling must be in bright colours, perhaps each with a different colour, red, yellow, green, white, the ceiling light blue and the whole decorated with small stars. A convenient low chair for the mother or governess is an absolute necessity: the cover should be bright stripes, of washable material; the lighting again from the window wall and with convenient contact points for a portable lamp. Contacts for a wireless and cinematograph also must not be forgotten. A small darkroom for photographic purposes is desirable. In large houses a small workshop might be fitted out for the boys, to arouse their instinct to use their hands at an early age, and have a place where small repairs can be carried out. Furniture and Craftsmanship.—The furniture in the livingrooms should be chiefly of walnut and oak, and in countries with colonies, also of foreign woods such as mahogany, etc. Dyeing and staining is out of date, but inlay work, carefully prepared and used in dry rooms, has proved its value. Deal is very suitable for bent wood furniture, which is made in the following way: the wood is cut into strips, which are put into metal frames, through which steam is forced at very high pressure. In this state the wood grows so soft that it can be bent into any desired shape. This kind of furniture is often employed in offices, cafés and similar establishments for which its extraordinary cheapness,

which can yet be combined with excellence of shape, fits it.

[MODERN

conception of the mysterious torces of the old workshops, which yet produced work that was always good—sometimes outstandingly good. What was the social position of those men in com-

parison with the organised world of to-day? Our chief interest lies in the men who lived and worked in the period between the great migrations and the mid 18th century. How could that extraor. dinary unity arise between palaces, castles, churches, city halls,

even whole cities and whole villages—a unity complete down to the smallest detail, and crystallising into clearly defined styles? Art follows no law. It can only spring from deep spiritual movements, and the greatness of it is the mirror of the greatness of an

Naturally, wherever possible, any other kind of wood may be employed if obtainable and suitable for this purpose. Nowadays metal is also often used, both bare and enamelled or painted. Abstinence from the use of machinery in making furniture, as required by Ford Madox Browne in 1881, is no longer practicable. The machine should be used simply as a tool; and under no circumstances must it imitate handwork; it should be used only on work of the type which demands no artistic impulse; e.g. the pressing and filing for inlay work under steam pressure, the trimming and preparation of the material, etc., operations which will not distort the craftsman’s work; the machine is there to save time and labour. Any unintelligent work can be replaced by the proper appliances. The shape produced by machine work must be quite distinctive, to allow a proper appreciation of its peculiarities. It is certainly wrong to make use of machinery to produce large quantities of ugly objects, with its accompanying waste of material. It is not absolutely necessary for us to produce everything by handwork, nor is that the sole criterion of value, but it is absolutely necessary that machine productions should be well thought out—high-minded, in fact, but not deformed and obscured by unsuitable decoration. An inventive brain and good planning and design will always re-discover beautiful form. Detection of servile imitations will always allow real talent to accomplish work of value. This point is of the greatest value even from the economic point of view, when we consider that even to-day in many countries, valuable material is rendered valueless by bad workmanship, whereas right treatment could only enhance its value and so make life more precious and sanctified. Only beauty, beauty everywhere, can further exalt our modern life and make us happy. There ought to be a movement, similar to that of the Church, to follow these ends and declare war on all bad methods of work. The great talents many of which live and perish to-day unnoticed would suddenly awake to life and create works of undreamedof grandeur, as of yore. It is this spirit, together with a universality of understanding and co-operation, that is the great lesson of the past; not bad imitation, which inhibits and destroys fresh ideas. The fact is that to-day we in Europe no longer have any

age. It penetrates into the smallest mountain hut, whose simple, unsophisticated shapes are equally a reflection of the spirit of the

age. To-day we are learning to appreciate increasingly the unsophisticated work of these simple men; it is a revelation to us. as is the work of the modern child. The essential in old times lay in the wonderful work fashioned by master craftsmen in excellent workshops. It may have been the year long community in work and creation. The blossoming of childhood in good sur-

roundings. The complete mastery of the handicraft and the joy of producing something ever new, ever more fully perfect. The only external impulse in those days came from strange pieces of booty brought home by knights from the wars, and through the

co-operation of masters who had been carried off in captivity. These masterpieces blend in natural wise with the native works, and new, mysterious creations issue. In those days there were no

workmen, only masters and apprentices. The work, design and execution, sprang from one force and was therefore created with a love unknown to-day. Based on a great tradition swayed and inspired by universal sympathy, men were ever inventing something new, either in form or in better work, striving towards the highest perfection. The clumsy apprentice was mocked and cast out, the skilful admired and encouraged. To watch the life of his fellows from childhood in the workshop was for the layman the best. education, to train him to become a true and appreciative connoisseur. There may still be workshops of this sort to-day; the tailor’s workroom, perhaps, comes nearest to it. Let us consider a moment where their true value lies. Something is sewn, for example, with a machine invented on the grand scale, superior to handwork chiefly in accuracy and regularity. Superior except in one point, the feeling for material. Once set in motion, the machine can only work on mechanically, and so must fail wherever attentive hand-work, inspired by mind and feeling, takes account of every , difference, however small, and thus gives even greater steadiness

being therefore better in quality and so also creating greater value. ance Complete recognition of the task and unshrinking perform the is y necessit first the While style. of it must lead to a new simple, unadorned form, we need have no fear of genuine talented instinct, enrichment. Talent will always find the right way by itbe and need not shun the most complicated shape. Finally let the d preferre is shape richer a reason any for where that said old of ion Repetit natural. and new be forms created must always forms, old styles that have already had their day, is simply and ruinous. It is equivalent to a confession of poverty of ideas destroys all natural understanding and enjoyment. At the Conpresigress of modern bridge building in Vienna, Sept. 1928, the at question dent, Dr. Otto Linton, of Stockholm, treated this

length, declaring that the architect was now a back number, and had been replaced by the engineer. He sees in the architect, the decorator who sticks pointless rosettes into purposeful building—

in a misrepresentation of the artist’s real rôle, which consists purthe to order and an, ment-pl require giving expression to the pose-form. He will always find aim and purpose for his work in satisfying fully the needs put forward by the builder, think in good proportions and rightly chosen

material

and express himself

random. through these, and not through ornaments stuck on at of the brain the by d dictate be says, Style cannot, as Linton mathematician or the blue pencil; it springs from the characte1r character of a nation. The determining factor is whether that natural or corrupt, crude or refined, and whether it has advanc It will never to the stage of seeing and preferring the better.

INTERIOR DECORATION

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MODERN l. Withdrawing room Vienna, 1927

by Josef Hoffmann

STORE;

HOME

PHOTOGRAPH,

AND

shown at the Art Exhibition,

2. Interior in the Paris home of Robert Mallet-Stevens, modernist architect. The walls are white

stucco and the floor Is tiled in a geometri in black, brown and grey. Aluminium is used in finishing thec pattern bases of the easy chairs, and in the

railing.

end tables, radiator covers and staircase

The balcony on the right forms the upper

landing of the

(2)

BONNEY

EXHIBITION

INTERIORS

staircase. The furniture is upholstered in Hélène Henry fabric 3. Exhibition room for Decorative Accessories at the Exposition of Modern

French Decorative Art, February 1928. Designed by Eli Jacques Kahn 4. Modernist interior arranged by Eugene Schoen. The living Orated in mauve and silver and the bedroom, seen throughroom is decin tan and rose. [Illumination is by means of table lamps the arch, and wall and ceiling light both direct and concealed

INTERIOR DECORATION

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MODERN 1. Bedroom

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JACQUES

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INTERIORS

OF

Designed by Josef Hoffmann.

Wall paintings by Frau Likarz Strauss 2. Breakfast room in the country house of B. E. Ast, Velden-on-Worthersen.

Designed by Josef Hoffmann 3. Interior

showing

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LORD

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tapestry.

Above the mantel is a decorative panel by Jean Dupas 5. Room in white stucco with sand colour curtains and a velvet carpet

in grey and black. The block oak furniture is upholstered in tomato red leather.

The ceiling

signed by Josef Hoffmann

4. A French interior designed by Jacques Ruhlmann at the time of the International Exposition of Decorative Arts, Paris, 1925. The furniture is of ebony

(6)

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6. Living room. The sofa is by Jacques Ruhlmann, the commode and chair covered in a Rodier fabric are by Lelan

MODERN}

INTERIOR DECORATION

489

be possible to make exact calcul à ations regarding colour, and yet | the material itself. We should never think of decorating a pearl; colour is one of the most important factors in modern build-

ing and decoration. It would be equally foolish to say that artistic

painting is a back number to-day, varnishing and distemper alone required. The only true measure 1s to appreciate the value of

similarly we should consider carefully to what purpose we should

apply materials.

Under no circumstances whatever is imitation

permissible. The use of linoleum, for example, is an admira ble thing when it can be obtained in self-colour or in a pattern which

modern painting, feel its quality and estimate that alone. The | suits the material. As soon as it begins to imitate veining, it beessential is not even the individual species within modern paintin g | comes unusable. When linoleum is used it is best to —although this, too, certainly needs to be considered, but employ a solely light, the significant side and special quality within a capability. We see the grey, even tint. Everything is an appliance for the use of modern man, and must consequently, logically, be made to fit this best in photography, which can be splendid or absolutely | modern clothes. uninteresting, according to the amateur who handles the camera In 1843 Rossetti founded the pre-Raphaelite Societ The main point is therefore to re-educate ourselves so far that . we don; in 1881 Monos and Co. was founded. New stuffs,y in Loncan choose the right forces in every field and allow only carpets, great books, book-bindings and furniture were related . In 1881 the capacities to influence us. The more true forces assert themsel ves, workshops were removed to Morton Abbey in the South of the higher will be the cultural level of a people. The work of the | London. engineer is

much less cramped than that of the archite hence! his untiring development, particularly in all creativct, e fields.

Tp 1883 the Art Workers’ Guild was formed, which began to Respect for the achievement is still intact, and the success is hold the Arts and Crafts Exhibitions in 1388. In 188 5 Ashbey | in England founded the Guild of Handicrafts with Baillin consequently greater

. Scott in Essex House. On the contine Business Premises.—In fixing our business localiti es, consid- | in a new style of building was Berlag nt the chief experimenter e in Holland. His Bourse is eration must be paid both to absolutely economic and purpos eful | a milestone on this road. He was principally interes arrangement and also to advertising effect. The princip ted in buildal problem ing with raw brick, with concrete facings is again that of material, colour and lighting; but . I. B. van Loghem, the wares on | I. P. Oud and Jan Wils, architects chiefly concerned with utility sale must also be good. buildings, were the leaders in this feld. Van de Velde As for the cinematograp in 1914

h, the first requisites are good, com-/ built the tripartite theatre at the Cologne Theatrical Exhibit fortable seating accommodation and easy entry and exit. ion. Tip-up | Sweden produced, among other buildings, the fine concert hall seats covered with good leather, a good carpet on the floor (if| of Tengborn. In 1898 Olbrich built the "Seces sion" in Vienna, in possible of the same colour as the leather); the walls preferably | 1904 Otto Wagner constructed the Post Office Savings Bank. In hung with stuff, and similarly all curtains, partiti ons, etc. made 1903 the Wiener Werkstätte were founded, and in 1905 the Stocof the same material, will give a good effect. An efficien t system | let Palace in Brussels built. In the Germa n countries the “Werkof ventilation and perfect lighting (q.v.) (preferably by means of | bund" movement arose, and schools were founded everywhere in softs), for the intervals, is required. Particular attenti on must | the many large towns which spread like the new intentions. Peter be paid to the vestibule, as this is very much used. Marble or | Behrens erected the offices to the Allgem aine Elektrizitatsgesellinlaid wood are both suitable materials. If the til] and the buffets | schaft in Neubabelsberg, near Berlin, in 1917, and a turbine are made automatic, great simplification in running will result. | factory for the same company. Still earlier, in 1910, Hans Polzig If the rooms are given convenient shapes, the staff can be re- | had built a factory in Luban, near Posen. duced. In cinematographs and the like special attention must The intention is to do justice to the construction also be paid to securing the electric cables. They are and accommobest laid in dation, to avoid all statistic forms and simply let the construction the walls; but it is advantageous for the purpose of repairs, to | speak for itself, the chief stress being laid on well-chosen proporhave them easily accessible. The cables must therefo re either be | tions. Fahrenham in Diisseldorf, Pfeffer and Mendelssohn in laid in grooves in the walls, or stretched free, absolut ely taut; for | Berlin go further, and prefer a richer style for internal accommothe frequent, untidy crooked laying and fastening is dangerous as | dation. Bremo Paul and Arnold Nechan sky have also created rich well as ugly. Absolutely perfect fixing is the first duty. The last | and original interiors in Charlottenbu rg. After the war, the whole word on this point has not yet been said. It is best if the cables | trend was towards greater simplicity. Walter Grupius in Dresden can be fastened without visible Screws, for screws are always a| built solely in concrete and glass. He constructed the Stodttheater makeshift. Otto Wagner declares permanence to be the first law | in Jena in 1922, the Baerhaus in Dessau of all architectural expression. This calls for good in 192 5. W. M. Dubok, material and | of Hilvershum, Holland, built the school at Boschrift on three excellent work well planned and designed. To achieve this, re- | lines in 1922. To the same school belong also the designs and quires constant practice and the possession of a natural of identifying oneself with one’s task. For example, in capacity buildings of Corbrisier and Pierro Jeanneret in Paris, Miles van decorating | der Roho, Bruno and Max Taut ïn Berlin, and the works of and fitting a butcher’s shop. Our immediate though t is to cover Freysinnet, Mallet-Stevens and Chaneau in Paris. The arrangewalls, ceiling and floor with a material which will keep cool and can | ments of the Stuttgart settlement in I927 give a good indication be washed, therefore tiles are used. In old days we:should have | of the new projects. The chief authors here, besides Gropius, are wanted to adapt it to Roman precedents; to-day we invent good | Corbusica and the Vienne se Josef Frank. The most grandiose fittings, avoid all ornamentation, but put the signs in the right place, and in perfect lettering. The lettering, which is usually | achievement is the Stuttgart railway station, together with the a| festiva

l buildings in Salzburg by disturbing element, has assumed particular importance s and Holzmeister. The to-day. | buildings and decorations of the Behren exhibit There have always been certain objects which ion on the “Pressa” in accurately

reflect Cologne in 1920 and the Düsseldorf our age, and a later age will find it easy to recogni Art Exhibition give a true ze orms in which we express ourselves. This is especia in these the | picture of the whole development. In America the leader is lly relevant | Frank Lloyd Wright, who has been following the same path for 20 to the coach-work of motors and modern carriag aeroplanes, etc., and many machines, if designe es, rolling-stock, | years. Many utility buildings, such as the imposing granaries in d solely to express | Montreal, and others in South America, are completely satisfying. t er purpose and not marred by antique decorat ion. The arm- | The sky-scrapers are unlucki Chait, too, has been altered and adapted to suit ly marred by unharmonious archimodern require- | tecture; on the other hand, a granary of the Washburn-Crosby ments, solely on practical grounds. The interio

r fitments fatres, hotels, restaurants, cafés, cabarets and bars of many Company, built in Minneapolis in 1920, is an absolute model. must be| The collections of stuffs and wall-papers in the Wiener WerkThe equipment of ocean | státte and the Deutsche Werkstütte show patterns which liners, especially in the working parts, is also modern are , even though | original and usually successful. Good and successful work in lace, fe, aS with the American sky-scrapers, an absolut ely modern embroidery, carpets and tapestries ‘onstruction is often spoiled by incomprehensible, antiquated | The treatment of metal has also can also be found everywhere. €corations, made extraordinary advances, Angela Stodthen’s room, of pure beaten Materials and Ornaments.—We must emphas copper, in the Austrian ize the value of | pavilion at the International Arts and Crafts Exhibition of 1925

described as quite new and successful.

490

INTERIOR

DECORATION

[WALL-PAPER

in Paris, is an example of this type of work. Similarly, ceramics |press. The design was then coloured by hand, by means of stenhas developed greatly, and plays an important part in fireplaces, cils, using distemper colours mixed with glue. The French name wall-decoration and above all in frescoes. The free painting of of papier peint for wall-paper is a descriptive relic of this early walls, particularly in restaurants, cafés and similar localities is process. No attempt was made in these earliest wall-papers to also much in use, but fresco-painting is also often successfully arrange designs in such a fashion that they would match when the employed. (See also Rucs AND Carpets; LIGHTING IN PRAC- small sheets were put together on the wall. It was not until the master dominotier, Jean Papillon (1661-1723), invented conTICE.) (J. Ho.) BrpriocraPHy.—America: R. T. Townsend, Country Life Book of tinuous matching designs about 1688, that people were relieved Building and Decorating (1922). Austria: J. Folnesics, Imnenraüme of the casual effects created up to that time whenever wall-paper und Hausrat des Empire und der Biedermeierzeii (1920). England: was used. “Country Life,” Modern English Interiors (1928) ; Technical Institute, Jacques Chauvau, who was a pupil of Papillon, improved on his Ltd., Garden City Houses and Domestic Interior Details (1913); master’s ideas by printing all the colours from successively applied James and Yerbury, Modern Houses and Interiors (1925). France: R. Prou, Intérieurs au salon des artistes décorateurs (1928). Colour Interiors: H. W. Frohne and Jackson, Colour Schemes for the Home (1919) ; Anonymous, Colour Schemes for Modern Interiors (Hoffmann, Stuttgart, 1923); L. Deshairs, Intérieurs en couleurs (1925).

wood-blocks instead of stencilling them by hand. He had great

success from his initiative; his method was quickly taken up by Boulard in Paris; and papers of the same sort were soon printed in Chartres and in Orléans. During Papillon’s time the popularity WALL-PAPER of wall-paper increased. Savage opened a factory in Reims; Le Paper wall-hangings were first invented as inexpensive substi- Tourmy and Rabier-Boulard had wall-paper factories in Orleans: tutes for the costly and sumptuous hangings of brocade, broca- Isnard of Strasbourg, Descouteaux of Chaumont, Vautrain of telle, tapestry, stamped leather and Genoese velvet, used in the Nancy, and Roche of Lyons became well-known for their work palaces and the great houses of Europe in the 16th and 17th in engraving and printing paper-hangings. The new technique of printing in colour was not universally substituted for the old. centuries. The earliest beginnings of this art are still in some obscurity. Until the end of the 18th century, there were still small ateliers It is evident, however, that printed wall-papers were not made that remained faithful to “illuminated” papers. Nevertheless the until after the discovery that type could be cut on wood-blocks process was widely used. Both paper-printers and paper-hangers had been greatly handiand printed. Apparently some of the earliest paper wall-coverings were produced by the letter-press printers themselves. This fact capped up to this time by the fact that they were obliged to work is substantiated by a discovery made in 1911, during restorations with small-sized sheets of paper. In 1760 Fournier, a merchant to the entrance hall of Christ’s college, Cambridge. On the orig- on the rue Carré St. Martin, Paris, made the first attempt to inal beams of the ceiling, in the entrance hall and dining room, produce paper in long strips by pasting the small sheets together was found the oldest block-printed wall-paper known to be in before printing, thus forming a roll. An edict of Louis XVI. in existence. The design is in black and white, done on the reverse 1778 decreed that each such “roll” should contain 24 sheets of of the proclamation of the accession of Henry VIII. Scarcity of paper, pasted end to end, making the length about 34 feet. The good stock evidently led to this economic use of both sides of the name and address of the maker was obligatory on the two end paper. The pattern is that of a contemporary velvet or brocade. sheets. This was the standard size for a roll of wall-paper until It is signed with “a great H and a goose,” the mark or rebus of the metric system was adopted. Flock Papers.—The discovery was made in 1620 that chopped the master-printer, Hugo Goes, who was living and working in wool could be used to produce wall-paper which resembled veivet Steengate, York, In 1509. Domino Papers.—But the real development of the wall-paper and tapestry so closely as to deceive both the eye and the fingers. idea is due to the dominotiers of France, a group of men working This new invention, especially suited to contemporary fashions in the 16th century in Rouen and other cities of the provinces in house-decoration, was launched by Le Francois of Rouen. His process was very simple. Instead of the ink or distemper to make domino papers and marcolours used by the dominotiers for printing their wood-blocks, bled papers, which were eagerly NS

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